J TEANSACTiONS NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1910 luu LIBRARYU, v: VOL. XFjIII (Nkw Tssuki KDITUP AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF OOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE IssiTEi> Is'i' .7ni,Y. 1911 WELLINGTON, N.Z JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OKFICK William Wf.slki and Son. -.iS k.sskx Strf.kt, Steanu. London W. C C ( ) N T E N 1^ R . TRANSACTIONS. 1. .VIlSrEI.I.AXK'U-S. Art. XLl. The Eli'eeis of the Disappearance of (he New Zealand Bu.sli. By -t3<)-447 Archdeacon Walsh . . . . . . . . LIIl. Maori Rock-engravings in the Kaipara District. By K. Budflle. . o9f>-597 LIV. Reminiscences of Maori Life Fifty Year* ago. Bv R. H. Matthews 598-605 LV. The Verse- unit. By Johannes C. Andersen . . . . . . ti06-655 LVI. New Zealand Bird-song. By Johannes C. Andersen . . . . 656-669 LYIi. On Centroidal Triangles. By Evelyn G. Hogg, M.A., F.R.A.«... 669-677 I J. ZOOLdUV. X. Notes and Descriptions ■ of Ne>\ Zealand Li'fjiddidfiii. Bv Iv Meyrick, B.A.. F.R.S., F.Z.S. . . . . . . . . .-)- H. Carse . . 194-224 XXVI II. Lilt of Phanerogamic Plants Indigenous in the Wfliingtcn Pro- vince. By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.8. . . . . . . 22.5-247 XXIX. Notes on the Botany of Lake Hanrokc District. Bv J. Croshv Smith, F.L.S. .. ".. .". 248-253 XXX. Descriptions of New Native Phaneroaams. Bv D. Petrie. M.A., Ph.D. .. .." .. ... 2.54-257 XXXVII. The Mount Arrowsmith District : a Study in Physiography an«l Plant Ecology. By R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. ; L. Cockayne, P'h.D., F.L.S. ; and R. M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc. . . 315-378 IV.— Gfologv. XXXI. The Igneous Rocks of tilt- Waihi Golddeld. By P. G. Morgan, M.A. 258-275 XXXII. A Note on the Structure of the Southern Al|)s. Bv P. G. Morgan, ■ M.A. .. .. .. .. ■ .. ' .. 275-278 XXXIII. Rotoraahana and District rcvisiti'd Twentv-three Years after the Eruption. By H. Hill. B. A.. F.G.S. " .. .. .. 278-287 XXXIV. Napier to Runanea and the Taupo Plateau. Bv H. Hill, B.A.. F.G.S. .. .. .. .. ' .. .. 288-29C XXXV. The Coalfields of West Nelson ; with Notes on the Formation of the Coal. By J. Henderson, D.Sc., A.O.S.M. . . . . 297-30G XXXVI. On the Genesis of the Surface Forms and Present Drainage-systems of West Nelson. By J. Henderson, D.Sc, A.O.S.M. " . . .306-315 XXXVII. The Mount Arrowsmith District : a Study in Physiograpliy and Plant Ecology. Bv R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S."; L. Cockayne. Ph.D., F.L.S. ; and R. .M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc .. 31.5 378 XXXVIll. The Younger Rock-series of New Zealand. Bv P. Marshall, D.Sc, FG.S. ; R. Speight. M.Sc, F.G.S. : and'C. A. Cotton M.Sc 378-407 XXXIX. The Post-glacial Climate of Cantciburv. Bv R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S. .. .. ..■ '.. ^ .. 408-420 XL. A Preliminary Account of the Geological Featiu-es of the Christ- church Artesian Area. By R. Si)eight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.. . 420-13H XLIl. The Platinum Gravels of OreiMiki. By P. A. Farciuharson, M.Sc. 448-482 .\LI11. IVtrological Notes on Rock Sf.ecimens collected in South Victoria l^and. By Richard Hansford Worth, .VssocM.Inst.C.E.. F.G.S. ■ . . . . . . . . . . . . 482-405 XLIV. The Post- tertiary Geological History of the Ohau Hiver and of the Adjacent Coastal Plain, Horowhenua Comity, Nortji Island. By George Leslie Atlkin . . ' . . 40()-520 XL^^ Some Notes on thi- Marlborough Coastal Moraines and \\';iiau Glacial Valley. By Professor .lames Park, F.G.S. . . 520-524 XLVl. The (Geology of the Kennodc.' Islands. By \\-. ReginaUl B. Oliver . . . . 524-535 Lll. Two Now Fossil Mollv.^ca. Bv Henry Suter . . 595-596 Conlentx. V. — Chemistry and Physigs. Art. 1. The Chemical Composition o1 Meat-extract. Bv A. M. Wright. F.C.S. l[. On certain Changes in the Composition of the Nitrogenous Con- stituents of Meat-extracts. By A. M. Wright, F.C.S. [II. The First-noted Occurrence of Pcntathionic Acid in Natural Waters. By J. 8. Maclaurin, D.Sc. IV. The Conductivity of Aqueous (Solutions of Carbon -dioxide prepared under Pressure at various Temperal ures ; with Special Refer- ence to the Formation of a Hj'drate at Low Temperatures. By C. M. Stubbe. M.A. V. On the Velocitj' of Evolution of Oxygen from Bieaching-powder Solutions in Presence of Cobalt-nitrate, and the Modifications produced bv the Addition of vario\is Compounds. By N. M. Bell, M.A. ■ . . VI. Depression of the Freezing-point of Water by Carbon-dioxide in Solution. By F. D. Farrow, M.Sc. VII. On the Rate of Oxidation of .Acetaldehvde to Acetic Acid. By D. B. Macleod, M.A. . . . . " VIII. Studies on the Chemistry of the New Zealand Flora. Part IV : The Chemistry of the PodocarpL By T. H. Easterfield IX. Furthei- Exjeriments on the Influence of Artesian Water on the Hatching of Trout. By C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc, and D. B. Macleod, M.A. PAGES 1-b 7-8 9-11 1 1-26 26-28 29-33 33-52 53-55 56-57 Index. Authors of Paperis (J79-680 PROCEEDINGS. [Following p. ()80.] Pakt 1. — Issued lUth September, 1910. U. — Issued ISth January, 1911. III.— Issued 12th May, 1911. Gov tent- LIST OF PLATES. Plate. 1. New Zealand Lepidopferri. — Howks U. Mvehlenheckia Astoni. — Pktbie III-VII. Mount AiTowsmith District. — Speight, Cock AYNE, and Lang VIII. Younger Pvock - series of New Zealand. — XXXVIII Marshall, Speight, and Cottok . . IX-XIV. Christchurch Artesian Area. — Speight XV-XIX. Geology of Ohau River.— Adkin XX-XXIl. Marlborough Coastal Moraines. — Park XXIII-XXVI. (Teology of Kermadec islands. — Oliver XXVII. Kermadec Islands Sponges. — Kirk XXVIII -XXIX. Anatomy of Siphonann nhUqvata. — Cottrell XXX -XXXI. Fossil MoUusca. ~^VTKR XXXIl. Maori Rock-engravings in Kaipara District. — BUDRLK .. .. .. LIII To illustrate Follow Article Page X\ 128 XXX 2oe. K- . . XXXVII 320 - XXXVIII 384 XL J 26 XLIV 49»i XLV 524 XLVI 528 L 576 LI 594 LII 594 r,m T E A N B A C T I O N R NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 1910. Art. I. — The Chemical Composition of Meat-extract. By A. M. Wright, F.C.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd November, 1910.] In spite of the fact that meat-extract has been in use as an article of diet since the time of Hippocrates, comparatively little has been known until recently of the chemical composition of this material. A review of the earlier literature on meat-extract shows that the methods of analysis used have been so varied, and in some cases so unreliable, that it is not possible to satisfactorily compare many of the results obtained. The greatest obstacle ill the way of a thorough and careful study of meat-extracts has been the unsatisfactory condition of the analytical methods for determining the nitrogenous constituents upon which much of the value of a meat-extract depends. Recently, however, more exact and uniform analytical procedure has been adopted, and serves as a basis for obtaining data of the composi- tion of this complex material, and for determining the comparative values of this product. The object of this investigation was to determine as far as possible the complete chemical composition of meat-extract, and to ascertain which constituents increased and which decreased the commercial value of this material, it having been found that the earlier methods of analysis used in this laboratory did not satisfactorily reveal the differences in composi- tion which could account for the varied value placed upon the extract in the London market, where a consideration of its colour, odour, and taste largely determines the price offered. The fact that the complete analyses of New Zealand meat-preparations are not available makes the publication of the results obtained in this in- vestigation desirable. In an earlier paper* the author described the methods of analysis used in the study of the composition of a number of extracts, and in the course of this investigation the methods therein described for the determination of moisture, organic matter, mineral salts, chlorine, fat, and total nitrogen were used. The separation of the nitrogen and substances precipitated by 50, 60, and 80 per cent, alcohol has been discarded, as it is now found * Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1907, p. 1229. 1— Trans. 2 Transartionfi. that the results so obtained give no indication of the commercial value of the extract. The following additional methods were used in this investigation : — Acidity. — Titrate a solution of 0-5 gram in 800 c.c. of water with deci- normal potassium-hydrate, using phenolphthalein as indicator ; the result is then calculated and expressed in terms of acidity as lactic acid. Insoluble and Coaijuable Proteids. — For these determinations the provi- sional methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists for meat- fibre and coaguable proteids were used.* Proteoses were determined by the zinc-sulphate method. f Peptone-like bodies and jjohjpeptides were precipitated together with the proteoses by the tannin-salt reagent, the amount of peptone-like bodies and polypeptides being found by difference. { Total Meat Bases. — From the nitrogen found in the tannin-salt filtrate deduct the nitrogen found as ammonia, the difference being the nitrogen as meat bases. Ammonia was determined by the magnesium-oxide method. § Purin bases were determined by Schittenhelm's method.!; Kreatin and kreatinin were determined by FoUin's colorimetric method.^ Phosphoric acid and potash were estimated in the residue from the ash- determination.** The following table sh ows the composition of the extract examined : — 1 2 3 4 5 6 per Cent. per Cent. per Cent. per Cent. per Cent. per Cent. Moisture 16-95 14-49 15-34 17-39 15-71 17-54 Organic matter 66-48 66-50 65-15 61-31 62-76 62-43 Mineral salts . . 16-57 19-01 19-51 21-30 21-53 20-03 Acidity, as lactic acid . . 11-20 12-60 11-10 10-90 11-60 11-00 Fat .\ 0-33 0-40 0-42 0-41 0-35 0-45 Total nitrogen 8-47 8-87 8-12 7-88 8-05 8-31 Insoluble proteids 1-17 1-23 1-23 1-02 0-98 1-12 Coaguable proteids 0-38 0-68 0-64 0-42 0-47 0-46 Proteoses 11-41 15-49 14-39 11-81 11-49 10-21 Peptone-like bodies and 9-80 5-40 6-27 10-69 10-99 10-45 polypeptides Total meat bases 12-98 14-00 12-40 11-17 11-21 13-48 Kreatin and kreatinin . . 5-52 6-60 3-90 4-16 3-97 5-40 Purin bases 0-86 1-24 0-46 1-26 1-84 1-03 Other meat bases 7-60 6-16 8-04 5-75 5-40 7-05 Ammonia 0-82 0-90 0-66 0-64 0-75 0-52 Chlorine 1-87 2-52 3-07 2-68 3-05 2-71 Phosphoric acid 5-54 6-24 5-29 5-24 5-58 4-60 Potash 6-76 7-60 7-80 8-14 7-92 8-32 * U.S. Dept. of Agric.. Bureau of Chem., Bull. 107, p. 115. t Ibid. X Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., 190(), vol. 28, }). 148."). i? U.S. Dept. of Asric, Bureau of Chem., Bull. 107, II U.S. Dept. of Agrie., Bureau of Chem., Bull. 110. p. 120. il Zeit. Physiol. Chem., 1004, vol. 41, p. 223. ** U.S. Dept. of Agric., Bureau of Chem., Bull. 107, })p. 3, 4, 0. md 11. Wright. — Chemical ConipoRifinn of Meat-extract. The following tahle shows the composition of the mineral salts of the extract examined : — 1 2 3 4 5 6 per Cent. per Cent. per Cent. per Cent. l)er Cent. ]Ji'r Cent. Insoluble matter 1-32 1-02 0-88 1-12 0-24 0-82 Iron-oxide 0-24 0-30 0-28 0-41 0-22 0-19 Calcium-oxide . . 1-24 0-28 1-12 1-37 0-94 0-82 Magnesia 0-27 1-34 0-76 0-88 1-04 1-13 Potash 40-81 39-98 39-98 38-21 36-74 41-53 Soda 6-52 7-24 8-10 12-12 9-25 10-32 Sulphur-trioxide 2-24 2-76 1-92 3-04 2-08 2-40 Phosphoric acid 33-48 32-82 27-11 24-60 25-91 22-96 Chlorine 11-27 13-25 15-73 12-54 14-16 13-52 The moisture-content as laid down by Liebig should not exceed 21 per cent. The total mineral salts, according to the same authority, should vary from 15 to 25 per cent. The mineral salts found in true meat-extracts are potassium-dihydrogen-phosphate, potassium-monohydrogen-phosphate, and the sulphates of calcium, potassium, and sodium, and the chlorides of sodium and potassiu.m. Chloride of sodium is a minor constituent of meat-extract, the chlorine being present almost entirely as the potassium-salt. Salt is sometimes added to extract of meat in order, it is stated, to preserve the product, but the fact that it increases the profit is probably the greater incentive to its use. In the extracts examined under the chemical control of this laboratory no added salt is found, and experience shows that non-salted extracts keep quite as well as those to which large amounts have been added. Since added salt is not necessary to keep extracts from decomposition, the addi- tion of such can only be regarded as an adulteration. Konig* states that the mineral salts, especially the potassium-salts, present in the meat-extract are valuable on account of their action on the nervous system. Chittendenf finds that the content of potash-salts causes a quicker and stronger heart-beat. The acidity 'of meat-extract, determined by using phenolphthalein as indicator, is calculated to lactic acid as a matter of convenience, and for the sake of comparison with other investigators. It is recognized that the acidity of meat-extract is due to various con- stituents, but sarcolactic acid is the predominating acid. It has been suggested that a part of the acidity is due to the phosphates present, but it is probable that the principal salt of phosphoric acid is the secondary potassium compound, which is neutral to phenolphthalein. J Fat is a detrimental ingredient in a meat-extract, and if present in large amounts indicates an imperfect method of manufacture, and affects the keeping-quality of the extract. * " Chemische Zusammensetzung Nahrurgs-und Genussraittel," p. 236. t Med. News, 1891, vol. 58, p. 716. X Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1908, vol. 30, p. 1563. 4 Transactions. The total nitrogen in meat-extract varies from 6 to 9 per cent. How- ever, in judging the value of an extract it is of importance to consider the forms in which the nitrogen exists rather than its total amount : it has been found by Chittenden* that while the nitrogen-content is high it is not available for the body's use as a food. Insoluble proteids should not be present in large amounts : their pre- sence in quantity indicates either the addition of meat-fibre or imperfect methods of manufacture. To add meat-fibre or other pretein to a meat- extract only reduces the proportion of meat bases to which the extract owes much of its true value, and merely adds small amounts of nutriment at an unreasonable price. Coaguable proteids are also found i2i small amounts in all meat- extracts. It is impracticable to prepare a meat-extract containing more than a very small amount of coaguable proteids, for the reason that in the process of evaporation the temperature necessary coagulates the proteid. Proteoses include the albumoses and certain gelatinoids. Most of the nitrogen attributed to proteoses in meat-extract is due to gelatin or gela- toses, and, as these bodies have a very low nutritive value, f it is apparent that the claim of a high nutritive value for meat-extract rests upon very unconvincing evidence. It is certainly incorrect to suppose that because proteoses are present there must be considerable nutrient property in meat- extract. Peptone-like bodies and polypeptides so described in this paper corre- spond with the nitrogen usually determined as and attributed to peptones, but, as the filtrate from the zinc-sulphate precipitate furnished nega- tive results when submitted to the biuret test, it is apparent that no natural peptones are present in the meat-extracts examined. Other investigators have reported a similar experience, and for that reason the absence of peptones in meat-extracts has met with a more or less general acceptance. While natural peptones are excluded, it is probable that the nitrogen found in this determination is largely due to the non-biuret-reacting poly- peptides of Fischer,! these substances being intermediate between the peptones and amido acids. Fischer has pointed out that the commercial product is very closely related to the natural peptones,, and that peptones are essentially a mixture of polypeptides, and he has further pointed out§ that many of the poly- peptides fail to give the biuret reaction. As no true peptones are found in most meat-extracts, it is seen that the claims made concerning the nutrient value of meat-extracts on account of the presence of peptones cannot be substantiated. It is to the mineral salts and meat bases that a meat-extract owes its true value. The mineral salts have already been discussed, but it is the meat bases that give meat-extracts their chief value. Their chemistry is most complex ; physiologically the most important are kreatin and kreatinin, and the purin bases. The purin bases usually found are xanthin, hypoxanthin, adenin, and guaiiin. A considerable number of other meat * Med. News, 1891, vol. 58, p. 716. t Araer. Joiirn. Physiol., 1907, vol. 19, p. 287. X " Untersuchungeii iiber Amiiiosauren Polypeptides und Proteinc," p. 23. § Ibid., p. 50. Wright. — Clionical Composition of Meat -extract. 5 bases have been isolated from meat-extract in recent years — namely, ignotin, oblitin. methylguanidin, carnomuscarin, neosin, novain, alanin, leucin, and glycocoll ;* these are present in extremely small quantities, and it is im- possible with our present knowledge to determine all of the meat bases in meat-extracts. The meat bases are the products of the breaking-down of proteins in the vital processes of the body, and are excreted for the most part unchanged, and have little use as tissue-builders ; neither do they produce heat or energy ; they are therefore not foods. Recent experimentsf show that meat bases furnish relief to fatigued muscle, and are powerful exciters of gastric secretion. They are thus most valuable, in that they create an appetite and prepare the system for food and aid its digestion. The custom of preceding a meal with soup which contains these bases has therefore a strong physiological warranty. Ammonia when in (|UHntity indicates some degree of putrefaction. Probably some of the ammonia present is in combination with acids of the fatty series. Recently preparations made from yeast have been placed on the market as substitutes for and adulterants of meat-extracts. While as far as the taste and appearance are concerned they resemble meat-extracts, they show marked chemical differences, and are in no sense true substitutes, since they lack the valuable constituents and stimulating properties of meat- extracts, and their salts and bases. Yeast on hydrolysis yields extractives somewhat similar to those obtained from meat, and when evaporated by the open-pan process darkens and looks like extract of meat. Caramel is sometimes added to darken the colour. The following is the analysis of a sample of this class of product sold in this country : — Per Cent Moisture . 27-80 Organic matter . 50-56 Mineral salts . 21-64 Acidity, as lactic acid . . . 7-60 Fat . 0-20 Total nitrogen . 4-98 Insoluble and coaguable proteid . 1-18 Proteoses . 1-75 Peptone-like bodies and polypeptides . 10-00 Total nitrogenous bases . 3-11 Kreatin and kreatinin . 0-32 Purin bases . . . 2-51 Other nitrogenous bases . 5-28 Ammonia . 0-26 Chlorine . 4-25 As in the case of the meat-extracts examined, no natural peptones were found. * Zts. Nahr. Genusam., 1902, p. 193 ; 1905, p. 528. Zts. Physiol. Chem., 1906, p. 412. t Joiirn. Physiol., 1907, p. 163; Medicin-chir. Centrbl., 1893. p. 653: ''The Work ol the Digestive Glands," Pawlow, trans, by W. H. Thompson, 1902. Q Trariftacfio/is. The low content of kreatin and kreatinin and the presence of the piirin bases are characteristic of yeast-extracts. Another characteristic is that the filtrate from the zinc-sulphate precipi- tate is cloudy in the presence of yeast-extract, whereas with true meat- extract the filtrate is clear. "^ According to Mickof the distribution of the purin bases is different in meat and in yeast extracts : in meat-extracts xanthin and hypoxanthin predominate, while in yeast-extracts adenin and guanin predominate. Formerly it was supposed that meat-extracts represented the whole nutritive value of the meat from which they were prepared, but from a consideration of their chemical composition as shown by more exact analytical procedure it is difficult to see whence their food-value could come. Liebig's views are clearly stated by himself, as followsj : " Neither tea nor extract of meat is nutriment in the ordinary sense ; they possess a far higher importance by certain medicinal properties of a peculiar kind. . . . It is surely a grave offence against all the laws of physiology to compare tea, coffee, and extract of meat with the more common articles of food, and, because they are not that, to draw the inference that they are nothing at all." It is thus clear that extract of meat was never intended by Liebig to be regarded as a concentrated food, having but comparatively little nutritive value. It is only fair to state, however, that many manufacturers make no claim as to its food-value. There is little doubt that extract of meat is most valuable as a dietary adjunct, in that it arouses appetite and aids the digestion of any food with which it is taken, by acting as an excitant of gastric secretion ; it further acts as a rapid and powerful restorative, in condition of muscular fatigue. These are its true functions both in health and in disease. For permission to publish these results the author desires to express his thanks to the Christchurch Meat Company (Limited), in whose chemical laboratory most of the work in connection with this investigation was carried out. * Arab. Pharm., 1904, vol. 242, p. 537. t Ber. dent. Chem. Ges., 1894, vol. 27, p. 499. t The Times, 1st October, 1872. Wright. — Nitrogenous Constituents of Meat-extracts. Art, II. — On certain Changes in the Composition of the Nitrogenous Con- stituents oj Meat-extracts. By A. M. Wright, F.C.S. [Read bcjore the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd November, 1910.] During the processes of manufacture of meat-extract considerable changes in the composition of the nitrogenous constituents take place. In the first place, the meat from which the extract is prepared is in contact with hot water for some time, and this, in conjunction with the sarcolactic and other flesh acids, and with the salts present in muscular tissue, causes a certain amount of hydrolysis to take place. The collagen of the muscle-fibre on hydrolysis yields gelatine, and by further hydrolysis soluble gelatin and other gelatinoids ; similar action on the albumin yields small amounts of albumoses. Secondly, during the concentration of the extract-liquor by evaporation further changes in composition take place. A liquor showing the following analysis was concentrated : — Pel Cent. Moisture Organic matter Mineral salts Acidity, as lactic acid Total nitrogen Insoluble and coaguable proteids Proteoses Peptone-like bodies and polypeptides Total meat bases Ammonia . . . . Calculating these results to correspond with 20 per cent, of watei-, the following composition is shown : — Moisture . . . . . . . . . . 20-00 Organic matter . . . . . . . . 65-60 Mineral salts . . . . . . . . 14-40 Acidity, as lactic acid . . . . . . . . 8-00 Total nitrogen . . . . . . . . 7-82 Insoluble and coaguable proteids . . . . 2-65 Proteoses .. .. .. .. .. 13-34 Peptone-like bodies and polypeptides . . . . Nil Total meat bases . . . . . . .. 14-19 Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . 0-85 After concentrating the liquor in the usual way by open-pan evapora- tion for forty-eight hours at 212° Fahr. the composition of the resulting extract calculated on a 20-per-cent. -moisture basis is as follows : — Moisture . . . . . . . . . . 20-00 95-02 4-07 0-91 0-50 0-488 0-165 0-838 Nil 0-886 0-054 extract containing Organic matter . 60-48 Mineral salts . 19-52 Acidity, as lactic acid . . . 10-30 Total nitrogen . 7-92 Insoluble and coaguable proteids . 1-16 Proteoses . 12-37 Peptone-like bodies and polypeptides . 8-69 Total meat bases . 12-53 ' Ammonia . . . . , . . 080 3 Transactions. It is thus apparent that some considerable change had taken place in the composition of the material. A portion of the same original liquor was concentrated under a partial vacuum of 15 in. at 180° Fahr. for three hours and a half, and the com- position of the resulting extract calculated to a 20-per-cent.-moisture con- tent shows : — Per Cent. Moisture .. .. •• •• .. 2(>0() Organic matter . . . . . . . . 63-04 Mineral salts . . . . . . . . 16-96 Acidity, as lactic acid . . . . . . . . 8-20 Total nitrogen . . . . . . . . 7-86 Insoluble and coaguable proteids . . . . 2-63 Proteoses . . . . . . . . . . 13-08 Peptone-like bodies and polypeptides . . . . 0-31 Total meat bases . . . . . . . . 13-76 Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . 1-08 It is seen that when the liquor is evaporated under vacuum there is some change in the composition of the resulting extract — the proportion of the organic matter decreases, while the mineral salts increase ; other- wise the composition of the vacuum-evaporated extract is very nearly that of the original liquor calculated to a 20-per-cent. -moisture content, the acidity, insoluble and coaguable proteids, proteoses, and total meat bases being present in about the same amounts in each case. In the original liquor there were no peptone-like bodies, whereas in the vacuum-con- centrated extract there were found 0-31 per cent, of these substances. The extract concentrated in the open pan is very different in composi- tion from either the original liquor or the vacuum extract : the proportion of the organic matter has decreased, and the mineral salts increased con- siderably ; the total nitrogen remains about the same, but the forms in which the nitrogen is present have undergone considerable change ; about three-fifths of the insoluble and coaguable proteids have been rendered soluble and converted to other nitrogenous substances ; there is a decrease in the amounts of proteoses and meat bases ; while against these decreases there is found 8-69 per cent, of peptone-like bodies which are absent in the original liquor, and present in the vacuum extract to only 0-31 per cent. The acidity has increased by over 2 per cent. The peptone-like bodies and polypeptides are bitter in taste, and it is found that extracts containing relatively large amounts of these bodies have a decidedly bitter taste. Samples containing 16-58 per cent., 12-02 per cent., 14-65 per cent., and 13-43 per cent, of peptone-like bodies were found to be bitter, while in samples containing 8-44 per cent., 8-60 per cent., 8-69 per cent., and 5-09 per cent, of these bodies no bitter taste could be noticed. As but very small amounts of peptone-like bodies are present in vacuum- concentrated extract, and but little change in the composition of nitrogenous bodies is found, it is probable that the prolonged action of heat on the nitro- genous material in the presence of the normal flesh acids and salts, the amount of which increase as the evaporation proceeds, is the cause of the marked change in composition found in the open-pan-concentrated extract. The so-called "burned" flavour sometimes found in meat-extracts is doubtless due to the same cause, for in vacuum-concentrated extract no such undesirable flavour is noted. For permission to publish these results the author desires to express his thanks to the Christchurch Meat Company (Limited), in whose chemical labora- tory most of the work in connection with this investigation was carried out. Maclauiun. — Pentdfltioiuc Acid i/i Xafurnl Wafers. Art. III. — The First-noted Occurrence of Pentathionic Acid in Natural Waters. By J. 8. Maclaurin, D.Sc. [Bead hefore the Wellington Philosophical Societi/, ■')th October, 1910.] Pentathionic acid is readily formed by passing hydrogen-sulphide into a solution of sulphur-dioxide, hut, though well known to the chemist, it has not previously been found in natural waters. This may be due to the fact that in ordinary analyses of mineral waters no special search is made for such compounds. Some account of the circumstances that led to the dis- covery of the acid should therefore be of interest. The water in which it was found was obtained from a lake on White Island. This island, which is the summit of a volcano, lies in the Bay of Plenty, about thirty miles from the mainland. The lake covers an area of approximately 15 acres, and has a mean temperature of about 110° Fahr. The water is of a very unusual character, containing a great variety of salts and an enormous amount of free hydrochloric acid. In examining it for iodine by the well-known potassium-nitrite test, the author noticed the formation of a brown colour, which suggested the presence of a ferrous salt, but on titrating with potassium-permanganate more permanganate solution was used than the iron (previously determined gravimetrically) could re- quire, even if all in the ferrous state, and, judging by the colour of the water, much of the iron was in the ferric state. There was no organic matter to ■cause this excessive reduction, and on adding decinormal iodine solution no appreciable action took place, showing that the reduction could not be <-aused by sulphur-dioxide or hydrogen-sulphide. On precipitating with excess of barium-chloride to free from sulphate, filtering off the BaS04, and heating with bromine water, a further precipitate of BaSO^ was formed, showing that some sulphur compound was present. It seemed probable that this was one or more of the polythionic acids — most probably penta- thionic acid, because of its greater stability. In order to prove the truth or otherwise of this surmise the water was boiled with mercuric cyanide (Debus, Jour. Chem. Soc, 1888, p. 288). The reaction between mercuric cyanide and pentathionic acid is as follows : Hg(CN)2 + 1^2850^ = HgS + 83 + 2SO3 + 2HCN. If the Hg in the precipitate (HgS -l- 83) be determined^ the equivalent amount of H in the H^SgOg can be calculated, and by precipi- tating the SO3 in the filtrate as BaSO^ the oxygen and part of the sulphur <-an be estimated. The remainder of the sulphur can be determined in the HgS -f- 82 precipitate. The results so obtained for H, 8, and 0 ap- proximated roughly to the formula HgSgOg. The oxygen was, however, too high, and it was thought probable that this was due to the oxidizing action of the ferric chloride and hydrogen -chloride present in considerable quantities in the water. Attempts to remove these substances were at first unsuccessful. The iron could not be precipitated by an alkali, since pentathionic acid is at once decomposed in alkaline solution ; nor could the hydrogen-chloride be neutralized with a soluble alkali (soda, &c.), since momentary local supersaturation of the acid, with consequent decomposi- tion of pentathionic acid, cannot be avoided. Precipitatioii of the iron as basic acetate was also tried, but this was not satisfactory. Finally the 10 Tranmction!>^. difficulties were met by shaking up witli slightly less magnesium-oxide than was necessary to neutralize the free acid and then precipitating the iron with potassium-ferrocyanide. Although the hydrochloric acid could be nearly neutralized by this means, the chlorides so formed reacted with the mercuric cyanide, so that, instead of a precipitate of HgS + S2, one containing a large proportion of HgClo was obtained. This rendered the determination of the hydrogen in the pentathionic acid more difficult and less reliable than in the absence of HgCl,. It was therefore decided to be satisfied with the approximate values for hydrogen already found, but to redetermine the sulphur and oxygen. For this purpose 2,000 c.c. of the water was precipitated in the cold with slightly less barium-chloride solution than was necessary to throw down all the SO3. After standing for twenty-four hours, the barium-sulphate was filtered off. The filtrate was divided into three portions, A, B, and C. In A the small amount of SO3 still remaining was estimated by adding excess of barium-chloride and allowing to stand for twenty-four hours. This determination was made in the cold, because boiling causes slight decom- position of pentathionic acid. In B, the total sulphur was determined by oxidizing with bromine water and precipitating with barium-chloride. C was boiled with mercuric cyanide, filtered, and the SO3 in the filtrate determined by boiling with solution of barium-chloride. By subtracting the amount of barium-sulphate obtained in A from the amounts found in B and C respectively, the S and 0 of the HaSgOg were readily calculated. The results so obtained gave S5O5. go- As the water is a very unusual one, the complete analysis will no doubt be of interest. It is as follows : — Per Cent. Silica (SiOs) . 0-0080 Titanium-dioxide (TiOo) . 0-0030 Sulphur-trioxide (SO3) . 2-6534 Carbon-dioxide (COg) . 0-0130 Phosphorus-pentoxide (P0O5) . Nil Boron-trioxide (B2O3) . 0-0310 Arsenious oxide (As^Og) . 0-00056 Chlorine (CI) " . . 4-8210 Bromine (Br) . 00034 Iodine (I) . . . Trace Oxygen (basic) (0) . . . 0-5306 Iron(Fe) .. . 0-1456 Manganese (Mn) . 0-0014 Aluminium (Al) . 0-3330 Calcium (Ca) . 0-1497 Magnesium (Mg) . 0-0790 Potassium (K) . 0-0884 Sodium (Na) . 0-2154 Molybdenum (Mo) . . . Trace Copper (Cu) . Trace Ammonium (NTIj) . . . 0-0091 Hydrogei\ in hydrochloric acid (H in HCl) . 0-1328 Pentathionic acid (HoSgOg) . . 0-0240 9-24236 Maclaukin. — PrntdtJiioiiic Acid in XatnraJ Wafers. 11 These results may be restated as follows :- Aiiimoiiiuin-chloride (NH^Cl) Potassium-chloride (KCl) Sodium-chloride (NaCl) Potassium-bromide (KBr) Potassium-iodide Sodium-sulphate (Na2S04) Magnesium-sulphate ( MgSO^) Calciimi-sulphate (CaSO^) Alumhiium-sulphate (Al^SO^) Ferric sulphate (Fe2(S04)3) . Ferrous sulphate (F'eSOj Manganous sulphate (MnSO^) Copper-sulphate Molvbdic acid Silica (SiO,) Titanium-dioxide (TiOj) Boron-trioxide (BoOg) Arsenious oxide (AsoOg) Carbon-dioxide (CO.") Hydrochloric acid (HCl) Pentathionic acid (HoSgO^) Per Cent. 00273 0-1654 0-0379 0-0051 Trace 0-6191 0-3948 0-5090 2-1090 0-2600 0-1976 O0038 Trace Trace 0-0080 00030 0-0310 0-00056 0-0130 4-8338 0-0240 9-24236 The water is remarkable for its complex character, and particularly ior the very large amomit of free hydrochloric acid which it contains. The presence of boron is interesting, more especially as it occurs in larger amounts than are found in some of the Tuscan waters used for the commercial pro- duction of boric acid. Art. 1\. — The Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of Carbon-dioxide prepared under Pressure at various Temperatures ; with Special Reference to the Formation of a Hydrate at Low Temperatures. By C. M. Stubbs, M.A. 1851 Exhibition Research Scholar, Canterbury College. Communicated by Dr. Evans. [Brad before the Philosophical Institute of Cantejburi/, 2nd Xovember, 1910.] IXTRODUCTORY. It is well known that at ordinary temperatures carbon-dioxide is soluble in about its own volume of water, whatever be the pressure under which it passes into solution, the volume of the gas being measured at this pressure. Such an aqueous solution shows weak acid properties, giving, for example an acid reaction M'ith phenolphthalein, and turning blue litmus purple. It is assumed in text-books that a compound Ii.j,CO^ is formed which ionizes as a weak acid into H+ and HCO.,~. 12 Transacfioiis. In order to ascertain what work had been done in connection with the acid properties of CO2 solutions, a thorough search was made in all the available journals — viz., the "Journal of London Chemical Society," the " Philosophical Magazine," the " American Journal of Physical Chemistry," and " Zeitschrift fiir Physikalische Chemie." Nearly all the references were found in the first of these. It is very improbable that any valuable work done would escape notice in its abstracts ; and, indeed. Walker and Cormack, reviewing in a preface to one of their theses the work known to them as having been done, mention none which is not referred to in this journal. In searching the journals special attention was paid to the records of conductivity experiments, it being felt that the electrical conductivity method was much the best of approaching the subject of degree of ioniza- tion, if not the only practicable one. At the same time attention was paid to every detail concerning CO, solutions which could possibly bear on the subject, especially to solubility at different pressures and tempera- tures, and the formation of hydrates. Bibliography. The Combination of Carbon-dioxide and Water, U'roblewski, 1882 (Journ. Chem. Soc, vol. 42, p. 692). — The author (who first discovered the existence of a hydrate of CO,) infers that a definite but readily dissociable hydrate exists " capable of existing only under certain pressures, increasing with the temperature, and equal to 12-3 atmospheres at 0° C." The Composition of Hydrated Carbonic Acid, Wroblewski. 1882 (Journ. Chem. Soc, 42, 1026). — The author concludes that at a temperature of 0°, and imder the pressure of about 16 atmospheres, CO, unites with water to form a hydrate CO28H2O. Law of Solubility of Carbon-dioxide in Water at High Pressures, Wrob- lewski, 1882 (Journ. Chem. Soc, 42, 1021). — From this abstract it seems {inter alia) that the author had been able to form the hydrate only in small quantity, at the free surface of the solution, and the exj^eriment seems to have been complicated by the freezing of the water. The Electric Conductivity of Solutions of Carbon-dioxide, Pfeif^'er, 1885 (Journ. Chem. Soc, 48, 212 ; original paper in Ann. Phys. Chem. (2), 23. 625-50, to which there was no access). — Pfeiffer was the first to definitely investigate the conductivity of CO, solutions under varying pressures. He worked with pressures of from 1 to 25 atmospheres, and apparently at ordinary temperatures. His results, in effect, were — (1.) Conductivity is in every case very small ; under normal conditions it equals ^\f of that of spring water. (2.) If all the dissolved CO, were converted into ionized H2CO3 its conductivity should be more than 1,000 times as great as observed value. (3.) Change of pressure produces no alteration in the conduc- tivity. (4.) Conductivity increases rapidly with increase of temperature : cf. with acetic and oxalic acids (this statement is not made at all clear in the abstract : temperature seems to be confused with dilution). Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of Carbon-dioxide, Knox. 1895 (Jouni. Chem. Soc, 68, ii, 100). — Conductivity was determined by KohlrausclTs method, experiments being made at varying pressures, results being re- corded for both rising and falling pressures, and at temperatures of 12-5' and 18°. All of his work appears to have been done with comparatively weak solutions, the most concentrated solution mentioned in the table of Stubr!>. — CoiKhictiritji of Aqueous. Solufioiift of Carbon-dioxu/e. IS recorded results (Journ. Chem. Soc, 77, 9) having a dilution 12-6, corre- sponding to less than 2 atmospheres pressure. He worked down to very great dilutions, and obtained a fairly satisfactory dissociation constant under these conditions. The Dissociation Constant of Carbon-dioxide in Solution, Walker and Cormack, 1900 (Journ. Chem. Soc, 77, 5). — These investigators worked along the same lines as Knox, with apparently more elaborate pre- cautions to insure accuracy. They measured the conductivity of solu- tions of various concentrations, all at a temperature of 18°, the pressure of COo in contact with the solutions never rising above atmo- spheric. The ordinary Kohlrausch method of determining conductivity was used, measurements being made with induction coil and telephone. The apparatus was of glass, and great care was taken to insure abso- lute insulation of electrodes, &c. Water for the experiments with a con- ductivity of 0-7 X 10" in Siemens units at 18° was used, being obtained bv successive distillations (1) with alkali, (2) with phosphoric acid, and (3) alone, the last being conducted in chemically pure air. Reference is made to Pfeiffer's and Knox's experiments. The solutions in Pfeiffer's experiments were prepared rmder pressure, and hence were too concentrated to be of service in fixing the dissociation constant of COa- (The same objection applies to the experiments described in this thesis, and consequently no attempt has been made to determine the dis- sociation constant.) Knox's dissociation constant is calculated as 0-380 x 10~", the authors' as 0-304 X 10^'', corresponding to a difference in actual conductivity of about 10 per cent. This result is considered as being due to the authors having used better conductivity-water and to their more accurate method of deter- mining the concentration of CO^ in the solution — viz., by titration with bariums-hydroxide, as against Knox's measurement by means of the pressure of CO2 in the solution. (The above-mentioned discrepancy between the results of good workers would seem to show the experimental difficulty in obtaining accurate results when working with very small conductivities.) The conductivity imparted to pure water by exposure to atmospheric CO2 is calculated to be 0-65 x 10" Siemens uiiits. At this very small concentration 14-4 per cent, of the dissolved COo exists in the ionized state. The remainder of the paper and an addendum (Journ. Chem. Soc, 83, 182) discusses the relative proportions of dissolved COo and un-ionized H2CO3 existing in the solution, but without coming to any very definite conclusion. A Hydrate of Carbon-dioxide, Villard, 1895 (Journ. Chem. Soc, 68, ii, 44). — The author's experiments lead him to take CO26H2O as the composition of the hydrate. It does not decompose below 0° (c/. with Hempel and Seidel, below). The Absorption Coefficient of Carbon- dioxide in Water at 0°, Prytz and Hoist, 1895 (Journ. Chem. Soc, 68, ii, 104). — The freezing-point of a satu- rated CO2 solution at atmospheric pressure was determined, giving a depres- sion of 0-156°. The calculated depression, assuming all the COj to dissolve as such or as H2CO3, was 0-158°. Absorption coefficient at 0° = 1-7308. Compounds of Carbon-dioxide with Water, Hempel and Seidel (Journ. Chem. Soc. 76, ii, 151). — By sealing solid CO2 and water in a glass tube, allowing temperature to rise to ordinary temperature and then cooling, a CO2 hydrate was crystallized out ; at 8° it melted under the vapour-pressure 14 Traiimciioiin. » of liquid CO2 in the tube, and at -2° under atmospheric pressui'e. Com- position given as CO^SHoO or COoSHaO. Other references which were looked up, but from which no further assistance was gained, were : — On the Physical Peculinrities of Solutions of Gases in Licpxids, AA'anklvn (Phil. Mag., 1902, 3, 346). On the Influence of Pressure on the Electrical Conchictiviti/ of Solutions (Journ. Phys. Chem., 1899, 3, 186). Determination of Electrical Conductivity of Solutions ivith Direct-current Instruments (Journ. Phys. Chem., 1901, 5, 536). The Lowering of the Freezing -foint of Water produced by Concentrated Solutions of Electrolytes, and the Conductivity/ of such Solutions (Journ. Phys. Chem., 1903, 7, 311). Variation of Electric Conductivity at Low Temperatures (Journ. Phys. Chem., 1903, 7, 407). Summary. From these abstracts the following summary may be made : — (1.) Solutions of COo in water, at least mider certain conditions of tem- perature and concentration, contain a certain (comparatively small) number of ions, presumably, by analogy with other weak acids, and from the evi- dence of their chemical behaviour, consisting of H+ and HCO3 , from a molecule of H2CO3. (2.) The degree of ionization has been measured by means of the elec- trical conductivity at ordinary temperature and under pressures varying from 1 to 25 atmospheres (Pfeiffer) ; also at temperatures of 12-5° and 18°, and concentrations below J^j normal, due to atmospheric pressure (Knox, Walker, and Cormack). (3.) A fairly satisfactory dissociation constant, agreeing with Ostwald's dilution law, has been calculated for small concentrations. The degree of ionization under ordinary conditions is very slight, so that HoCO^ is a very weak acid. (4.) At 0° and under high pressures a hydrate of COg has been crystal- lized out, stable apparently only under certain corresponding conditions of temperature and pressure. The composition is doubtful — possibly CO^SHoO. Grounds of Research. It will thus be seen that conductivity-determinations had been made only at the temperatures of 12-5° and 18°, and that high pressures had been employed by only one investigator, Pfeiffer, using from 1 to 25 atmospheres. One statement of Pfeiffer's seemed to call for investigation — namely, that at high pressures the conductivity was constant, being unaffected by change of pressure. This seemed so opposed to the ordinary behaviour of fairly concentrated solutions (a solution of CO2 at ordinary temperatures and under 25 atmospheres pressure being roughly normal) that it was thought worth making a series of conductivity -determinations at 18°. both to settle this point and to check with previous work. The conductivity of CO, solutions saturated under various pressures at 0° seemed to call for investigation, especially in view of the fact that at this temperature and high pressures a hydrate of CO, had been shown to <>xist, the properties of which, including its composition, had been only vaguely determined (e.g., the discoverer, Wroblewski. stated in one abstract that at 0° the hydrate was formed at 12-3 atmospheres pressure, while in Stubbs. — Coiid iirtivit ij of Ar/ueniis Soliitwns of Carbon -dioxide 15 another the pressure was given as 16 atmospheres ; even the composition was in doubt, being given as having 6, 8, or 9 molecules of water of hydration). It was anticipated that the formation of a hydrate should cause a very notice- able variation in the conductivity, and this anticipation was fully realized. The work to be attempted consisted in — (1.) Investigating the conductivities, at 18° C, of saturated solutions of CO, in water, under pressures ranging from 1 to 30 atmospheres. (2.) The same, if possible, at 0° — i.e., if formation of a solid hydrate did not interfere with the obtaining of a complete result. (3.) Investigating, by means of the conductivity, the formation and proper- ties of a CO2 hydrate at various low temperatures and at various pressures. (4.) Determining the variation in conductivity of COg solutions due to a variation in temperature. (This could only be done to a limited extent in the available time.) (5.) One or two other points of interest in connection with CO, solutions came up during the course of work, and will be referred to. Apparatus and Method. The ordinary Kohlrausch method of determining the electrical con- ductivity of solutions was adopted, using induction coil and telephone. Bridge-wire and known resistances were calibrated. Conductivity-vessel. A special form of closed conductivity-vessel had to be used in order to stand the high pressures of the experiment. It was made of gun-metal, as it was not considered that glass would stand the pressure used. The only disadvantage attending this was that in the later stages of the experi- ment the interesting changes taking place within the vessel were not visible to the eye. The diagram on next page shows the details of construction. The casting consisted of two parts — the vessel B, and the head A, which screwed on to B by the thread C. At D, fitting on to B was a broad lead washer, by screwing the head tight down jon to which the apparatus was rendered absolutely gastight, even at the highest pressure. The head was bored with two slightly coned holes E to receive the electrodes F, G, H, L, the tops of which were coned at the same angle. Over the coned tops F of the electrodes pieces of the best rubber tubing were tightly stretched, the electrodes being then pulled home into their sockets ; this both made the electrodes perfectly steady and gastight, and also effectively insulated them. The electrodes, which were stout brass rods, tapered off from the shoulders J, and terminated in the platinum electrodes L. The exposed brass parts were encased in hard Jena-glass tubes which fitted tightly on to the shoulder at J. Into the ends H were soldered with silver-solder stout platinum wires, shielded by Jena-glass tubes sealed at K, and terminating in the electrodes L. The latter were made of heavy platinum sheet, measured each 20 mm. by 22 mm., and were placed from 8 mm. to 10 mm. apart, being closer at the bottom than at the top. They could be adjusted to a suitable distance by bending the platinum wires K, L. The ends of the electrodes protruding from the head were threaded to receive the nuts N and P. M was a thick fibre washer, acting as an insulator ; N a nut which was screwed down tight, thus pulling the electrodes fast into their sockets. P was another nut, which with N formed a binding screw for the lead from the electrode. The whole arrangement of electrodes was found to be quite steady and satisfactory from a conductivity point of view. 16 Transactions^. The aperture Q in B received the pipe R, through which COo under pressure was forced into the cell. This pipe terminated in the flange S, which could by means of the nut W be forced home on a lead washer at T. The gas passed through a small hole in the washer, then through the passage U into the conductivity-vessel. j-lalj-.secdon Cell riiift of conne^oMi:. The details described made the vessel in practice perfectly gastight. The inside of the vessel was gold-plated, and an inner vessel of special Jena glass, manufactured for conductivity purposes, was placed within the outer plated one, which it fitted closely. As a further precaution, the part of the head near the shoulder J which was exposed above the solution was coated with insoluble enamel. (As a matter of fact, this was needless, as it was found in working that no water condensed on the head and upper part of the electrodes.) Thus only the best Jena glass (beside the platinum electrodes) was in contact with the solution, and this glass was found to impart a definite but very small conductivity, which could be, and was, allowed for through- out the work. Regulation of Temperature. During the experiments conducted at 18° the electrolytic cell was im- mersed in a thermostat, fitted with a large toluol-mercury thermo-regu- lator and a centrifugal stirrer worked by a hot-air engine. This gave very satisfactory results, the temperature never varying by 0-05° on either side of 18°. For experiments at 0° the conductivity-vessel was immersed in crushed ice, which was fiecjuently r<'iiewed. Probably the temperatui'c of Stubbs. — Couflricii tnty of Aqueous Soliifions of ('(trhon-dioxide . 17 the vessel rose to 0-5° at times even when immersed in the ice ; but before taking a final reading in any experiment the temperature was always kept' (by constant stirring) exactly at 0° till the reading assumed a constant value. The difference in solubility of CO, at the temperature slightly above 0° would be small, and would make (especially at higher pressures) a negligible difference in conductivity ; so that by the above precautions it may be assumed that an accurate value of the conductivity was obtained. For the experiments at low temperatures other than 0°, ranging from — 1^ to 9°, the observer's continual presence was required to keep the tempera- ture of the bath constant. The thermometer used w^as graduated to tenths of a degree, and the temperature was kept at the required point by the use below 0° of a salt solution and ice, and above 0° by adding small pieces of ice to the water, with constant stirring and w^atching the thermometer. In every case a final reading was taken only after keeping the temperature constant for a considerable time (at least thirty minutes), and making sure that readings were no longer varying. • Stirring, etc. Owing to the form of the conductivity-vessel, the position of the elec- trodes, and the high pressure employed, it w^as deemed inadvisable to attempt to employ a stirrer in the solution ; nor could a thermometer be introduced. The large mass of metal in the apparatus, however, insured that the temperature inside was the same as that of the thermostat. The absence of a stirrer was a drawback from a time point of view, as is was found that saturation at any pressure of CO2, though aided by slight shaking of the apparatus and by convection currents, took twenty-four hours to accomplish. Carbon-dioxide was obtained chemically pure from a bomb of liquid CO,. Pressure-gauges. Two pressure-gauges used to determine the pressure of CO 9. The dial gauge was used for higher pressures ; it was a new one of 8 in. diameter, and previous to use in the experiments was checked by a standard gauge. For pressures less than 5 atmospheres an open mercury gauge was used. It could be connected at pleasure with the apparatus by means of a needle valve, and by it pressures could be read off in millimetres of mercury with great accuracy. By means of a screw below the needle valve the pressure in the apparatus could at any time be relieved to the desired extent. Conductivity- WATER. As the electrical conductivity even of fairly concentrated solutions of CO2 is very small — according to Pfeiffer, " about one-twentieth of that of spring w^ater under normal conditions"^ — it was necessary to obtain by dis- tillation water of special purity. Walker and Cormack, whose work has been referred to, obtained by three distillations a supply of water with a conductivity at 18° of 0-7 x lO"'^ Siemens units, or about 0-75 x 10^" reciprocal ohms. This appears to have been the best water used by any of the workers who have been referred to. Walker and Cormack worked with very dilute solutions where the conductivity was very small, and the relative effect of impurity in the water consequently great ; it was there- fore considered satisfactory for the purposes of the present experiments w^hen a supply of water was obtained giving a conductivity of less than 1 X 10~^ ohms at 18° C. The supply was got by distilling in the open air with a modification of the Bousfield still. The distillate condensed on hard 18 Transactions. Jena glass and dropped straight into the special collecting-flask. The water so obtained kept very well, showing a slight improvement after storage: in an atmosphere free from carbon-dioxide. Preparation of Electrodes, etc. After the electrodes were in place they were cleansed thoroughly with chromic acid. They were then platinized in a solution of platinum-chloride and lead-acetate, a four-volt current being passed for twelve minutes, reversing every half-minute. To clean from the platinizing solution, they were then used as cathode for twenty minutes in dilute sulphuric acicl, and afterwards thoroughly washed with distilled water. A good miiform coating of black was thus given, making the bridge-readings satisfactorily clear and definite. The cell constant was determined in the ordinary way, using ^-^ potassium-chloride solution as standard. (Here, as in the case of all solutions, the glass conductivity-vessel was filled up to a fixed height, sufficient to cover the electrodes half an inch or more.) .Several determina- tions gave a mean value for the cell constant of 0-0833. Experimental. Altogether some six hundred readings were made, but of these only the final ones will be noted in this paper, unless for some special reason others leading up to them seem necessary. In making readings care was taken to note time, temperature, and gauge-pressure, as well as the bridge-reading. Conductivities are expressed throughout in reciprocal ohms. In most cases it was thought sufficient to determine the conductivity corresponding to every half-atmosphere pressure from 1 to 2i atmospheres, and to every five atmospheres from 5 to 30 inclusive. Pressures are given as absolute values. Dial-gauge readings were obtainable to well within a tenth of an atmo- sphere ; mercury-gauge readings to one five-hundredth of an atmosphere. Series I. Temperature constant = 18° C. (+ 0-05°) in thermostat ; stirrer work- ing continuously ; cell immersed. As fluctuations about the mean temperature were very small, produc- ing only negligible variations in conductivity, the temperature throughout taken as 18° C. Allowance made for half the conductivity of the water in calculating the conductivity of the solution ; this done throughout. Calculations made as follows : If R denote the fixed resistance used, W the resistance of the solutions, c the conductance (= r), C the specific conductance or conduc- tivity, K the cell constant, x the bridge-reading : — therefore R : R' = ic : 100 — x R ^iOU - X) Kx and C = Jt (100 - X) Work done with descending pressures. Air withdrawn through mercury- gauge valve by a Fleuss pump. Valve then closed, and CO2" allowed to fill the apparatus. This in turn withdrawn, and process repeated several times till all air thus swept out. Pressure put up to 30 atmospheres. Stubbs. — Conduclivitij of Aqueous Sohifioits of Carhon-dioxide . 19 The following is a table of results (temperature 18° C.) : — Pressure : At iiios])heres. Final Bridwe-roadinji. Resistance. ( 'ond uctivity. 30 40-6 300 188-6 X 10-« 25 40-2 300 185-4 X 10-« 20 38-32 300 171-2 X 10 « 15 35-67 300 152-6 X ]()'■■ 10 32-1 300 129-9 X 10 " 5 37-75 500 99-75 X 10->' n 31-85 500 76-59 X 10^' 2 30-35 500 71-35 X 10-'' n 28-55 500 65-33 X 10-'> 1 27-2 500 60-98 X 10-« The values obtained for the conductivity at different pressures disprove Pfeiffer's statement that conductivity does not vary with increase of pressure. These values lie on a regular curve which ascends very sharply from 0 to 1 atmosphere, and thereafter much more gradually. The influence of concentration on conductivity decreases fairly rapidly as the concen- tration increases, but does not vanish even at the highest pressure. Series II. Temperature = 0° C. Work was begun with ascending pressure, and a complete range of values obtained. Subsequent work was under very varying conditions of temperature and pressure, such being called for by the observed phenomena. The following table gives the first results (temperature 0° C.) : — Pressure : Atmospheres. Final Bridge-reading. Resistance. Conductivity. 1 28-4 1000 32-35 H 31-6 1000 37-78 2 35-0 1000 44-15 n 37-4 1000 49-06 5 29-15 500 67-82 10 34-85 500 88-38 15 38-0 500 101-4 20 39-35 500 107-4 25 41-0 500 1151 30 41-8 500 118-9 So far the behaviour corresponded exactly to that at 18°, the conduc- tivity being, of course, considerably lower. Wroblewski was said to have discovered a hydrate formed at 0'^' under pressures given as 12-3 or 16 atmo- spheres of CO,, and it was anticipated that if such a hydrate existed there should be abnormal behaviour of the conductivity at these pressures ; but such was not the case. The pressure was now let down, the intention being to work with de- ,scending pressures over the same ground. For all future work the resistance used in the box was 500 ohms. 20 Transaction f^. The following was the result :- Date. Time. Pressure : Atmospheres. Bridge- reading. Conductivity. Sept. 2 11 a.m. 25 41-35 116-7 „ 3 6.15 p.m. 20 33-0 „ 4 12 noon. 20 32-65 80-04 „ 4 10 p.m. 18 32-85* „ 6 4 p.m. 18 31-85 77-14 •„ 7 12.45 p.m. 16 30-8 73-45 „ 8 9.30 p.m. 14 30-9 73-8 „ 9 12.10 p.m. 12 30-9 73-8 „ 9 10.40 p.m. 10 32-1 „ 10 9.30 a.m. 10 31-9 „ 10 6.30 p.m. 10 32-4 „ 12 1 p.m. 8 33-65 83-8 „ 13 10.35 p.m. 5 30-2 71-4 * Temperature, 0-05°. It is evident that somewhere between 25 and 20 atmospheres pressure of CO2 a sudden change occurred in the nature of the solution, the con- ductivity undergoing a remarkable drop. As other experimenters had ob- tained evidences of a hydrate of CO2 existing at low temperatures and high pressures, it was assumed that the change in conductivity was due to the formation of the hydrate. The values of conductivity obtained at 25, 8, and 5 atmospheres pressure show that, apart from the influence of the hydrate, the conductivity of the solution under descending pressures follows closely that mider ascending pressures, being in each case somewhat higher. The remainder of the experiments consisted in an attempt to determine, by varying both pressure and temperature, such properties of the hydrates as capacity for super-cooling, temperature of transition under various pres- sures, degree of variation with temperature of conductivity of hydrate or of solution, &c. Though consecutive with Series II, they will for con- venience be designated Series III, and in most cases details will be omitted. Series III. A. An attempt to determine the pressure under which formation of the hydrate would take place. Temperature, 0°. Pressure very gradually raised to 30 atmospheres, with the following results : — Time. Pressure : Atmospheres. 10 Bridge -reading. 34-13 Conductivity 85-6 11 35-25 90-0 12 35-9 92-6 13 36-45 94-8 14 36-95 96-9 15 37-35 98-6 16 37-9 100-9 17 38-2 102-3 11 a.m. 18 39 (about) Stubbs. — Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of darhon-dioxifie. 21 Hydrate not yet formed. Between 11 a.m. and 12.25 p.m. temperature kept at 0°. At 12.25 p.m. the following reading was obtained : — Time. Pressure : Atmospheres. Bridge-reading. Conductivity. 12.25 p.m. 18 34-8 12-35 p.m. 34-7 12-45 p.m. 34-6 12-55 p.m. 34-55 1 p.m. 34-4 4.15 p.m. 34-25 10.45 p.m. 34-2 1 85-9 During the formation of the hydrate the pressure remained constant. Time. Pressure : Atmospheres. Bridge-reading. Conductivity. 19 34-2 85-9 20 33-9 84-8 21 33-8 84-4 23 33-9 84-8 25 33-2 82-1 30 32-95 81-2 B. Pressure released from 30 to 25 atmospheres, temperature being kept low. A series of determinations of the conductivity with varying tem- peratures, at the constant pressure of 25 atmospheres. The hydrate decom- posed between 4° and 10°, and was not re-formed when the temperature was lowered. C. Temperature having been kept some hours at 0°, and hydrate ap- parently re-formed, the following series of readings was made (pressure = 25 atmospheres) : — ■ Temperature. Bridge -reading. Conductivity. 0° 33-2 82-8 4° 40-15 111-8 5° 42-1 121-2 6° 43-7 129-3 7° 45-5 139-1 8° 47-55 151-0 9° 48-55 157-1 13°* 50-9 172-7 18° 185-3 Previously determined. 22 Transactions. Each degree makes an average increase of 8-5 x 10"" in the conductivity, till at about 8-2° a sudden break in the conductivity curve takes place, presumably due to all the hydrate having been decomposed. Thereafter the effect of raising the temperature is much less, on an average about 4 X I0~" ohms per degree. D. Pressure = 25 atmospheres. Readings with descending tempera- tures : — Temperature. Bridge-reading. Conductivity. 9° 46-7 146-0 4° 42-7 124-2 2-1° 41-05 116-0 2° 37-35 99-3 1° 35-75 92-7 0° 34-0 85-8 r 32-0 78-4 The hvdrate formed suddenly at about 2-1° C. E. Pressure released from 25 to 20 atmospheres, and a complete and consecutive series of determinations similar to the last made, using both ascending and descending temperatures. The hydrate which had been formed at 25 atmospheres was kept in existence by keeping the tempera- ture low. The following results were obtained (pressure = 20 atmo- spheres) : — Temperature. Bridge-reading. Conductivity. 0° 31-2 75-5 1° 32-35 79-7 2° 33-75 84-8 4° 36-5 95-7 5° 37-95 101-9 (a.) .. 38-8 105-6 6° 42-7 124-2 7° 44-2 131-9 8° 46-5 144-7 9° 47-2 148-9 11° 48-8 158-8 8° 46-4 144-2 5° 43-6 128-8 3° 41-75 119-3 2° 40-8 114-8 r 39-8 lio-l (h.) .. 38-75 105-4 0° 33-95 85-7 Stubb!;^. — Coud iictivit ij of A>/i/P()iis Sohif/niis of Ciirhoii-dioxidc . 23 (c.) The temperature was now raised again. Temperature. Bridge-reading. Conductivity. 4° 5° 6° 8° 40-3 112-4 41-8 119-6 43-2 126-7 46-5 i 144-7 1 The conductivity increased regularly with the temperature up to about 5|°, when a remarkable variation made itself manifest. The conductivity first went down, and then suddenly rose, to the extent of over 2 cm. in the bridge-reading. This was repeated several times, the fluctuations gradu- ally diminishing, the conductivity eventually assuming a constant value, much higher than would have been assumed if following the same law of variation as from 0° to 5°. This is shown in a graph by a vertical line at 5|°. (During the fluctuations referred to the somid in the telephone was most interesting ; the decrease in bridge-reading was fairly slow and uniform, but the increase was mstantaneous, the telephone suddenly sound- ing a very loud note, and requiring the sliding contact to be moved a good deal higher before again being quiet.) During the decomposition of the hydrate the indicated gauge-pressure rose by half an atmosphere. This is explained by the fact that the hydrate was formed at a higher pressure (25 atmospheres), and when it decomposed would yield an excess of COg. From 5J° to 8° the conductivity continued to increase much in the same way as before, but then a break occurred, the conductivity thereafter in- creasing considerably more slowly with the temperature. In lowering the temperature from 11° to 0° the conductivity obeyed the latter law of variation. It was therefore assumed that the solution remained as such, no change to hydrate form, with the corresponding pheno- mena, having taken place. At (6), about 0°, the conductivity suddenly began to fall at an abnormal rate, eventually assuming the value given for 0°. This was taken to indi- cate that the formation of the hydrate had taken place. The remaining part of the experiment (from c) was conducted several hours later. The pressure was in the meantime 20| atmospheres, not having been relieved after the evolution of the excess of CO2. This will doubtless explain why the conductivity from 5|° to 8° was in this case slightly greater than in the former part of the experiment. It was found here that there was no definite and sudden rise of con- ductivity, as there had been before. The graph of the conductivity is a continuous curve, almost a straight line, merging at 8° into the ordinary solution conductivity graph. Thus it seems that the abrupt change is characteristic only of those conditions under which a kind of stress exists in the hydrate, owing to its having been formed at a higher pressure than exists when it is about to decompose. F. Temperature lowered to 0° ; and, after bridge-reading had indi- cated formation of hydrate, pressure lowered to 15 atmospheres. Thus there would be in existence at 15 atmospheres a hydrate formed at *24 Tranxdctioiix. 20 atmospheres, and the conditions would be similar to those of the last experiment. The values of the conductivity are given below, further explanation being unnecessary, the behaviour being quite similar to that under experiment E. Temperature. Bridge-reading. Conductivity. 0° 33-2 82-8 2° 35-9 93-3 3° 37-2 ! 98-7 4° * 39-9 110-6 6° 43-9 1 130-3 8° 45-3 137-9 * In this case the decomposition of the hydrate took place at 3°, being accompanied by the same jjhenomena of fluctation, &c., as in the last experiment, but on a smaller scale. There \\'as also a second break at about 6°, the conductivity thereafter varying much less with temperature. Conclusions. 1. At both 0° and 18^^ solutions of COg in water are feebly ionized (about ^i|^ in the case of a A solution at 18°) ; the conductivity increases with the pressure or concentration of CO2 from 1 to 30 atmospheres, the propor- tional increase, however, becoming less the greater the concentration. Thus at 0° the conductivity at 4^ atmospheres is about double, at 14 atmo- spheres about treble, and at 30 atmospheres less than quadruple its value at 1 atmosphere pressure. This behaviour disproves the statement ascribed to Pfeiffer, that " change of pressure produces no alteration in the conductivity." 2. Temperature has a large effect on the conductivity, which at 8° to 9° is increased per degree by about 2-9 per cent, of itself. 3. After a CO2 solution under high pressure has been kept for a few •days there is a tendency for the solution to acquire a kind of chemical fixity ■or supersaturation, as shown by an increased value of the conductivity. Probably the COg enters slowly into combination with water, the compound in its turn being only slowly decomposed. 4. A compound of CO, with water is formed under very varying con- ditions at low temperatures and high pressures. {a.) The conductivity of the hydrate-bearing solution is considerably less than that of the free solution under similar conditions. (6.) It crystallizes out with difficulty, there being a great tendency to .a state in the solution resembling supersaturation with respect to the hydrate. On one occasion the pressure was raised to 30 atmospheres and reduced again to between 25 and 20 atmospheres before the hydrate would form ; on another it was formed in an apparently arbitrary way after the pressure had been for some time at 18 atmospheres ; it was also formed at 15 atmo- .spheres, and on another occasion could not be induced to form at all. This tendency to supersaturation, and the element of chance consequent upon it, probably explains W'roblewski's varying observations, giving 12-3 atmospheres in one place and 16 atmospheres in another as the pressure luider which the hydrate formed at 0°. Stubbs. — Condiictivitii of Aqueous Sohifioiix of Cdrhou-fJioxidr . 25 (c.) The conductivity of the hydrate-bearing solution, as has been stated, is less than that of the corresponding free solution, but it increases more rapidly than that solution in conductivity as the temperature is increased, eventually becoming ec][ual to it in conductivity at some definite temperature (varying in the experiments performed from about 6^ at 15 atmospheres to 8° at 25 atmospheres pressure). Henceforward the conductivity follows, the conductivity-temperature law of the ordinary solution. The similarity between the curve which expresses this behaviour and the vapour-pressure curves of ice and water intersecting at the transition- point is suggestive. Just as water can be supercooled, and its vapour- pressure curve produced below 0°, so the COj solution seems capable of supercooling and the solution temperature-conductivity curve can be pro- duced below the true transition-point. {d.) As far as such evidence as was obtained can be relied on, in con- formity with the statements in (6) above, the crystallization-point seems to ocf ur at a lower temperature the lower the pressure : thus, at 25 atmo- spheres the formation of the hydrate took place at 2°, at 20 atmospheres pressure at 0°. (e.) A hydrate formed at one pressure can be preserved at a lower pres- sure if the temperature be kept low ; but when it melts, which it does at a definite temperature, it does so completely and rapidly, causing a sudden rise in the conductivity and increase in the pressure, due to evolution of the extra CO2 held. The melting-point rises in such cases with increase of concentration : thus, the hydrate formed at 20 atmospheres and decom- posed at 15 atmospheres melted at 3°, while that formed at 25 atmospheres and decomposed at 20 atmosj)heres melted at 5|°. This behaviour agrees fairly well with the observations of Hempel and Seidel, who found that the hydrate formed by them at a very high pressure — i.e., the vapour-pressure of liquid COo — melted under this pressure at 8° and under atmospheric pres- sure at — 2°. (/.) At 0° C. the hydrate is decomposed at between 8 and 10 atmospheres pressure. {g.) Wroblewski's statement that the hydrate is " capable of existing only under certain pressures, increasing with the temperature," is inaccurate, as the hydrate has been formed or kept in existence at 0° under pressures varying from 9 or 10 to 30 atmospheres. There is apparently a lower pressure-limit, but not a higher. (h.) It seems certain from the facts mentioned in (e) that the composi- tion of what has been styled " the hydrate " varies. There was no means of determining, however, whether more than one hydrate M-as formed. 26 T rftnsarfionf Art. V. — On the Velocity of Evolution of Oxygen from Bleaching-powder' Solutions in Presence of Cobalt-nitrate, and the Modifications produced by the Addition of various Compounds. By N. M. Bell, M.A., Canterbury College. [Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd November, 1910.] In each experiment measurements of two kinds were made : — 1. The evolved oxygen was collected in a burette and the volume read at definite intervals. 2. The evolved oxygen was calculated by titrating the bleaching-powder with ^ arsenious acid before and after the experiment. The results of the two methods agreed well. The concentrations obtained from the two titrations inserted in the equation for a mono-molecular reaction gave the velocity. The reactions were carried out in a 100 c.c. glass flask, the rubber stopper of which carried a short wide tube, conical at its lower part, and closed near the bottom by a glass-rod stopper ground in. This rod stopper passed through and was connected by a rubber-tube joint with a short glass guide- tube carried by a cork at upper end of the outer glass tube. The accom- panying diagram shows the complete apparatus. Lfivel Thermostat. The evolved gas was carried oil" by a narrow glass tube over a metre long, arranged to condense and carry back into the flask any water-vapour formed. The flask was charged with 25 c.c. of bleaching-powder solution, ]{ei.[,. — Oxinicii from JiJe'irJit II 1/ ponder Sohitimis. 27 unfiltered, and containing 16 grammes per litre. The stoppered tube carried 5 c.c. cobalt-nitrate sohition, 0-005 N to 0-00125 N, and in the first series of experiments 5 c.c. of water, in the second series 5 c.c. of the compound imder examination. The flask and wide, tube were immersed in a large thermostat with regulator and centrifugal stirrer. When the temperature became uniform the rod stopper was raised and the catalytic agent run in. Each experiment in the first series lasted about forty minutes. Somewhat over 400 experiments were carried out, apart from all preliminary work. Part I. Specimen Experiment : Measurement of Gaseous Oxygen evolved. Taken, 25 c.c. bleaching-powder solution, turbid, 32 grammes per litre 5 c.c. cobalt-nitrate, 0-00125 N ; 5 c.c. water. Time in Cubic- Volume Temperature. Centimetres Barometer. Minutes. of Oxygen. Time Burette. Thermostat. 4 3-1 0-73 10- r- 78-3° 761 8 5-9 0-67 10-1° 78-3-^ 761 12 8-0 0-49 lo-r 78-3° 761 16 9-4 0-33 10-0- 78-3' 761 20 10-8 0-33 10-0^ 78-3° 761 24 12-0 0-28 9-r 78-3° 761 28 12-9 0-21 9-9= 78-3° 761 32 13-8 0-21 9-9^ 78-3° 761 36 14-4 0-14 9-9° 78-3° 761 40 15-2 0-19 9-9° 78-3° 761 Summarif of Results with Bleaching -fowder and Cobalt-nitrote. 1. The velocity is proportional to the concentration of the cobalt solution. 2. The measurable velocity proceeds as for a unimolecular reaction. 3. Increase of temperature increases the velocity. A rise of 10° C. almost triples the initial velocity. 4. Reversing the order of addition of the components alters the reaction- velocity. 5. Shaking alters the reaction-velocity. The velocity varied slightly with different batches of solution. For a solution containing, 25 c.c. bleaching-powder solution, 16 grammes per litre ; 5 c.c. cobalt - nitrate solution, 0-0025 N ; and 5 c.c. water, K - 0-01993 (c.c. 0 per minute). Part il. In this part various additions were made to the cobalt-nitrate solution, and their ei!ect on the reaction-velocity determined. A bleaching-powder solution refiltered after twenty-four hours, of which 10 c.c. = 17-5 c.c. ^-^^ arsenious acid was used, and was found to keep for weeks without change in titration-value, although the reaction-velocity diminished very slightly. 28 Travsactions. 10 c.c. bleacliing-poM'der solution ; 5 c.c. cobalt-nitrate, 0-000156 N ; and 5 c.c. aqueous solution of the compound investigated. The experiments in most cases lasted twenty minutes. Twenty-seven compoimds, including acids, alkalies, oxidizing and reducing agents, and salts, were tried. Summary of Eesults. 1. Acids accelerate the evolution of oxygen, and this effect is proportional to the concentration of the hydrogen ion. Example : 5 c.c. of 0-02 N hydrochloric acid added to the cobalt-nitrate solution doubled the velocity (from K = 0-0063 to K = 0-0141). In case of oxalic acid, 5 c.c. of 0-01 N acid had a slight retarding effect, whereas 5 c.c. of 0-02 N acid doubled the velocity as with other acids. This sug- gests some changes in the oxalic acid at great dilution. 2. Alkahes retard. The action is proportional to the concentration of the hydroxyl ions, and is forty times as great as that of the acids. 5 c.c. of 0-0005 N alkali halves the velocity. 3. Salts of the alkalies were practically without effect, even in relatively strong solutions — e.g., 5 c.c. of N potassium-chloride had no very appreci- able effect. 4. Salts of the heavy metals either accelerate or retard. 5. Copper-sulphate accelerates greatly. 5 c.c. of N copper-sulphate evolves chlorine plentifully. 5 c.c. of 0-001 N solution doubles the velocity. 5. Reagents such as sodium-sulphide, which, like the alkalies, preci- pitate the cobalt, retard the evolution of oxygen. 6. Oxidizing agents, such as ferric chloride and potassium-dichromate, gave no uniformity of action ; their effects, also, were not proportional to their concentrations. 7. Nickel and iron salts are similar in their action on bleaching-powder to cobalt-salts, the effect of nickel being about equal to that of cobalt, while iron has only about 1 J per cent, of the effect of cobalt. 8. It is impossible to judge from the chemical analogues of a particular metal whether it will accelerate or retard the cobalt reaction. No record of previous quantitative work bearing on this subject could be found in the " Journal of the Chemical Society," " Comptes Rendus," " Zeitschrift fiir Physikalische Chemie," and " Journal of Physical Chemistry." Farhow. — Depression of F reezing-poiui of Water. 29 Art. VI. — Depression of the Freezing-point of Water by Carbon - dioxide in Solution. By F. D. Farrow, M.Sc, Canterbury College. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd Novetnber, 1910.] This paper contains a brief account of the results of two series of experi- ments on the freezing-point of water containing carbon-dioxide in solution. The only work done in the same direction previously appears to be that of Garelli and Falciola.* In the experiments now described the freezing was carried out in the thick glass tube A of the diagram, 28 mm. external diameter, widened slightly at the top, and sealed into the brass head B by means of a 1 i n e n - 1 a p e collar and marine glue. B was con- nected by a copper tube D with the brass chamber E, and so with the pres- sure-gauge P, the carbon - dioxide bomb, the atmo- sphere through H, and an open mercury mano- meter M through the needle valve N [not shown in figure]. The water in A was stirred by a silver-wire stirrer soldered to a short cylinder of sheet iron 22 X 20 mm., which, after silver-plating, was covered with cycle- enamel and baked. This stirrer - ring enclosed the thermometer, and was raised and dropped by an intermittent cur- rent flowing in a coil of No. 18 copper wire, in 15 layers of 41 turns each, fitting loosely round the top of the glass freezing- I tube. The current, 2-3 amperes, was adjusted by a rheostat, and made and broken (flowing about one-third of the time) by a wire dipping into a mercury-cup, and attached to a pendulum making 32 swings per minute. 73 needle va.2ve, h02°C., and known to be without appre- ciable error throughout the range employed, was treated similarly, and the two carefully compared up to about 5° C. in a continuously stirred water- bath of rising temperature. The pressure-effect on the thermometer was considerable, and for the first thermometer used was not satisfactorily found, owing to its accidental destruction. Hence the first series of twenty experiments, otherwise per- haps the best, are not given here. For the second thermometer the pressure- effect was determined by filling the experimental tube with mercury, raising the pressure to the maximum, and taking simultaneous readings on thermo- meter and manometer as the pressure was progressively reduced. The curve plotted from the results is nearly a straight line. It is assumed that this line can be continued backwards to a point of no pressure. On setting up the apparatus all air was driven out of the connecting tubes by a stream of carbon-dioxide, and out of the freezing-tube by satu- rating the contained water at 80 lb. pressure and removing the pressure. The gas evolved from the water in four or five such operations completely expelled the last traces of air. In each experiment, to insure saturation,, the freezing-tube A was surrounded by ice-water, and the contained water stirred continuously some 15 to 30 minutes at a pressure about 10 lb. above that at which readings were to be taken. The gas was then allowed to escape until bubbles were evolved from the water. When, under continuous stirring, the manometer no longer rose, owing to gas evolved from solution, the temperature was reduced by a freezing-bath some 5° to 7° below final freezing-point. The formation of ice (in flakes throughout the solution) was followed by a sudden change in the click of the stirrer and by a rapid rise in the Beckmann thermometer. With the first thermometer used the temperature usually came to a final steady value, while the pressure slowly rose after freezing had progressed a little, owing to the gas frozen out of solution. In the experiments taken as trustworthy the rise of pressure during freezing never amounts to more than 1 cm. of mercury. The pressure used in calculation is that shown during the steady period of thermometer, or an average of the pressures recorded if they varied for that period. Skrh<:s a, wnii Oiucixal Thermometer (20 Experiments). Results are of (jualitative value onlv, as, owing to an explosion, tlie pressure-eft'ect on thermometer was not accurately determined. Details of one complete experiment are given to show the method en\- ployed throughout the work. In Series B and Series C tables of corrected results only are given. Fareow. — Depression of Ficeziiif/-po/Nf of Wafer 31 Freezing-point No. 2, Series A. The freezing-tube surrounded with ice, and stirred under a slight excess of pressure for 15 minutes. Pressure then released by opening H. Gas given oft" from the water showing solution to be saturated. Stirring con- tinued for 10 minutes, when rise of manometer no longer evident, and then cooling-bath brought under. Thermometer-readings every 15 seconds. Stirrer in motion throughout. Thermo- Manometer. Pressure : b-a 1 Thermo- meter. Manometer. Pressure meter. a. ' b. a. b. b — a 0-665 214 621 407 0-632 0-540 0-634 0-459 0-637 0-421* 215 621 406 0-638 212 623 411 0-460 0-639 0-530 0-639 0-565 0-639 212 623 411 0-590 213 622 409 0-639 0-609 . . 0-639 0-617 0-639 0-621 0-639 212 623 411t 0-C29 213 623 4io * Freezing began at this point by formation of ice in flakes. t After 3 minutes' stirring the temperature was again read. Two successive readings ■of 0-639 were obtained. Atmospheric pressure . . COg pressure . . Total Atmospheric temperature Pressure corrected for room-temperature Freezing-point Correction of thermometer for pressure Corrected freezing-point Thermometer zero Depression in degrees Beckmann Depression in degrees Cent. Depression calculated . . 763 mm. 411 mm. 1174 mm. 10° C. 1172 mm. 0-639 0-222 0-417 0-586 0-169 0-156 0-142 Series B, with New Thermometer (19 Experiments). This thermometer being rather short, the top of bulb came within 5 mm. ■of the lower plane of the stirrer-solenoid, while the water of the freezing- tube came up to this plane and was subject to some heating from the coil. The freezing-points were, in consequence, less definite than in Series A, the heating due to the stirrer-coil keeping the upper part of water always free from ice, and the temperature always showing a tendency to creep up. Nineteen experiments were made, with total pressure raiigin^from 3277 mm. to 1432 mm. of mercury. , - '' ' "■ f'^\ 32 Transactions. Table of Results, Series B, with Stirring. Total Pressure of Carbon - dioxide in Millimetres Observed Depression of Mercury, corrected foi Room-tem))erature. 1432 1563 1622 1681 1688 1822 1897 2185 2189 2198 2218 2290 2342 2423 2670 2792 2794 2831 3271 Calculated Depression 0-88 0-70 0-70 0-84 0-87 0-85 0-88 0-76 0-79 0-87 0-76 0-76 0-92 M4 0-90 M3 l-Ol 1-16 ession of the freezing- The results, on the whole, show that the depr( point for a stirred solution is about that which would be expected were all the dissolved gas present as carbon-dioxide molecules, and that at the higher concentrations a measurable amount of dissociation takes place. Series C, To avoid heating by the coil, now recognized as a disturbing factor, the latter was removed after saturation and the experiment was con- tinued without further stirring. In all the experiments of this series (13) little gas was given off during freezing, even when this was complete. When the freezing-bath was removed gas was given off copiously from the solid ice, which appeared either to hold the gas in a solid solution or to be asso- ciated with a solid hydrate which decomposes on melting. Table of Results, Series C, ivithout Stirring. Total Pressure of Carbon- dioxide in Millimetres Observed Depression of Mercur3% corrected for Room-temperature. 752 762 1853 1979 2017 2195 2300 2320 2337 2412 2545 2696 2965 Calciilated Depression M9 1-05 1-05 1-32 1-29 1-21 1-25 1-07 1-25 110 1-09 1-29 1-32 Farhow. — DepreKxioii of Frec-iiuj-jmint of Water. 33 COXCLUSIONS. The results seem to indicate — (1.) That for a solution which is stirred while freezing the coefficient (i) is less than 1 for the lower pressures, and, increasing with rise of pressure, becomes greater than 1 at the higher pressures. (2.) That for solutions not stirred the coefRcient is always greater than 1. and increases with increasing pressure. The only quantitative result found amongst earlier work is given by Garelli. He found that 0-35 grammes carbon-dioxide per 100 grammes water gave a depression of 0-165° C. The author's value for the depression at this concentration is 0-169° C, which agrees fairly well with that of Garelli. Art. VII. — On the Bate of Oxidation of Acetaldehyde to Acetic Acid. By D. B. MACLEOD, M.A., Canterbury College. [Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterhury, 2nd November, 1910.} Introduction. In the 1894 number of the " Philosophical Magazine " an account is given of some experiments made by Dr. T. Ewan on the rate of oxidation of acetaldehyde to acetic acid, and the conclusion he comes to from his experi- ments is that aldehyde is oxidized to acetic acid in the vaporous state at a rate proportional to the concentration or pressure of the aldehyde and to the square root of the oxygen-pressure This, however, did not seem to apply when the pressure of oxygen was above 450 mm. of mercury with the temperature at 20° C. In fact, he was unable to obtain any evidence of action with an oxygen - pressure of 599 mm. even when the temperature was 21-4° C. The peculiarity of this sudden cessation of action, and the small number of the experiments of Dr. Ewan which are described, seemed to me to call for more experiments, as he himself says, to clear up this interesting be- haviour. No record of the work having been continued either by himself or others could be found in the " Journal of the Chemical Society," the " Philosophical Magazine," the " Transactions of the Royal Society," the '' Journal of Physical Chemistry," or the " American Journal of Science." Description of Apparatus. The apparatus used was in principle the same as that of Dr. Ewan, though with a few modifications, and is shown in the figure on the next page. In Dr. Ewan's form of apparatus the mixture of aldehyde and oxygen was left in contact with the mercury, thus necessitating the use of brom- naphthalene to protect it, and also resulting in the volume of the reaction- vessel changing as the pressure decreased, the mercury altering its position 2— Trans. 34 Transactions. unless constantly rectified. Both of these difficulties were overcome by using a tap K, by means of which the mercury was shut off from contact with the aldehyde and oxygen, except for a few seconds while a reading was being taken. The tap K was a three-way tap the other limb con- necting with the air. The volume of the reaction-vessel thus remained constant, and the reaction could be allowed to proceed an indefinite time without further attention. The readings were always taken with the mercury just up to the tap. The tap used was of the Geissler form, this form being the best able to prevent leakage. A^second modification was made by putting an ordinary three-way tap at D. This was useful for several reasons. At the end of each experiment the whole of the hydrate solution was allowed to run in through the tap B. The three-way tap D could be so turned as to prevent the hydrate running along to the tap K, and so on to the mercury. The aldehyde was contained in a vessel C, with a tap C. B is a single tap through which the oxygen was introduced. H is a mercury seal covering the junction of the pipette J with the mercury manometer. G is a trap to prevent air reaching the apparatus, if any should happen to leak through the indiarubber tubing. E is a barometer-tube, the lower constricted part of which dips under the mercury in L. The vessel L and the barometer-tube E could be moved up and down. The pressure in the vessel was thus obtained by reading the difference in height between K and E. .NFaci-kod. — lUiiv of Oxidation of ArffaldcJiydc to Acetic Acid. 35 Method op Procedure. In each experiment the mercury was first brought up to the tap K, the limb opening to the air being free. The tap wae then closed, and the barometer and vessel lowered until the mercury in the barometer-tube was below the level of the tap K. The liquid aldehyde was then intro- duced into the vessel C, and the tap closed from the apparatus. The tube M was then connected with a vacuum pump, and with the tap D turned to connect all the ways with B the whole was evacuated. The tap B was then closed, and K turned to connect the mercury with , the apparatus. Aldehyde was then allowed to distil into the reaction-vessel, which it did very readily, the mercury all the time being kept as near to K as possible. The vessel was then evacuated again, and this repeated three or four times, so as to completely replace the air by aldehyde. The final pressure of the aldehyde was taken, and the tap D turned so as to disconnect the right- hand part of the vessel, the reaction-vessel being only connected with the capillary tubing DLK The tap K was also closed. The capillary tubing DBM was then evacuated by means of the pump, and the tap B closed. M was then connected with a tube delivering pure oxygen dried over calcium-chloride. If the total pressure in the reaction-vessel was not re- quired to be more than atmospheric pressure, the tap D was opened so as to connect all three ways, and, as soon as the oxygen had entered, the tap D was again turned, so as only to connect the tube DNK with the reaction- vessel, and the pressure read off. The tubing DB thus did not form part of the reaction-vessel. If the pressure in the reaction- vessel was required to be greater than atmospheric pressure, the tap D was first turned so as to connect the tube DNK with the tube DB and disconnect the vessel A containing aldehyde. The mercury L was then lowered and the tap K turned. Oxygen was thus drawn over into the pipette J without aldehyde. The tap D was then turned to connect the vessel A with the pipette J, and the mercury head raised, driving the oxygen back into the reaction-vessel A. In this way any pressure obtainable on the gauge could be obtained in the reaction- vessel. The volume, also, not at the temperature of the bath was only that of the capillary tubing DNK. At the end of each experiment the capillary tubing BD was first evacuated, and the tap B closed. Sodium-hydrate solution of known specific gravity was then allowed to fill the capillary tube. The vessel containing the hydrate was then weighed and again placed under B, the taps B and D being turned so as to let the hydrate into the reaction-vessel. The beaker containing the hydrate was again weighed, and the loss was that due to the hydrate drawn in. In this way the capillary tubing BD was filled with hydrate before both the first and second weighing, and hence introduced no error. In the case where the final pressure in the reaction-vessel was greater than atmospheric pressure, the pressure was diminished by lowering the mercury head, and drawing some of the gas over into the pipette J, and finally driving it back when the hydrate had been introduced. The hydrate in a few minutes polymerized the whole of the aldehyde remaining, as the pressure soon became constant. Allowance had to be made for the vapour- pressure of the hydrate let in in determining the final pressure of oxygen. When the whole of the aldehyde had been polymerized, the tap D was turned to disconnect DB, and a portion of the remaining oxygen and 2* 36 T ranaaciionii. nitrogen was drawn over into the pipette J by lowering the head and trans- ferred into burette, and analyzed with alkaline pyro-solution in a Hempel pipette, to obtain the percentage of nitrogen present. From the weight of hydrate drawn in, and the change of pressure after the hydrate had been let in, the quantities of aldehyde and oxygen at the end of the experiment could be calculated. The volumes of the reaction-vessels used were between 90 and 100 cubic centimetres. Importance of cleaning the Reaction-vessel. Mention is made by Dr. Ewan of the fact that it seems to be of some importance to keep the apparatus as clean as possible. This was found to be of the utmost importance. The chief diflficulty experienced with these experiments was that the aldehyde tended to decrease faster than it should, according to the equation 2C2H,0 + 0 = 2C,H,02, this being due, no doubt, to polymerization taking place. Aldehyde poly- merizes readily in the presence of mineral acids, bases, and many salts, especially sodium-acetate, so that it is of the utmost importance that these should be absent. No reliable correction can be made for polymerization, and any experiment in which it was marked had to be rejected as practically worthless. At the same time, the presence of the polymeric form seemed to have a distinct retarding effect on the action, as will be shown later. For this reason, and to make the conditions strictly comparable, the reaction- vessel and the whole of the capillary tubing and vessel containing the aldehyde were invariably left to stand at least twelve hours, filled with a solution of potassium-permanganate and hydrochloric acid. The manganese- dioxide was removed by oxalic acid, and everything washed out with dis- tilled water with the utmost care, and dried in a current of hot air. Correction for Aldehyde dissolved in the Acid formed. By means of a factor ¥, calculated from the excessive decrease of aldehyde as determined at the end of the experiment, on the assumption that this decrease is due to the aldehyde being dissolved in acetic acid according to Henry's law. Dr. Ewan has attempted to make correction for this error. The value of this correction seems to me to be doubtful. In the first place, the value of l' for any one temperature should be constant, whereas the value of ¥ varies from 0-00103 to 0-002873 — that is, it is in one case almost three times as great as in another — while the temperature has only varied from 20-2° C. to 20-6° C. Further, this value of ¥ at 20-8° C. is 0-001767, or almost twice as great as at 20-6° C. This in itself is sufficient to show that Dr. Ewan's constant is a very uncertain factor. There can be little doubt that where the value of ¥ is at all great some of the decrease in the aldehyde has been due to polymerization. Further, it is extremely unlikely that when such a vapour as that of aldehyde, so near its condensing-point, had once dissolved in the acetic acid under the fairly large pressures at the beginning of the experiment it would vaporize again as the pressure decreased. In any case, in most of the experiments, the error due to the dissolving of aldehyde by acetic acid is small, because the quantity of acid formed is small, and the surface exposed is also small, as the acetic acid runs down into the drawn -off part of the pipette. In those cases in which Macleod.- — Rate of Oxiddlton of An'fahlcJi ijde to Acetic Acid. 37 the aldehyde showed a decided decrease in excess of the oxygen it was assumed that polymerization had taken place, probably on accomit of traces of impurity in the vessel, and the experiment repeated The terra h' was therefore neglected, thus greatly simplifying the equation, and introduc- ing no great error. The work of calculating the results when ¥ is in- cluded is extremely laborious, and little is illustrated when once the principle of the action has been determined. The greatest error due to this will probably be noticed most in the final values of the constant, because there the pressure of the aldehyde is small, and an error of 4 or 5 mm. will be most felt. General Discussion of the Equation used. The equation for the direct oxidation of the aldehyde to acetic acid can be written either as 2C2H,0 +02 = 2C2H4O2, or CsH.O + 0 = CoH.Oa, in the second case the assumption being that the action goes on between the oxygen atoms and the aldehyde molecules. If the first equation were the correct representation, the action should proceed at a rate proportional to the square of the concentration of the aldehyde and to the pressure of the oxygen. The second equation suggests that the action proceeds at a rate proportional to the concentration of the aldehyde and to the oxygen atoms. Everything points to the second equation being the correct one. The values of K' worked out by this equation give, on the whole, good results, and although there seems to be disquieting differences between some experi- ments carried out under apparently the same conditions, yet this is probably due to there being some catalytic agent present affecting the action. For each experiment the value of K' obtained is fairly consistent, and the ex- periments as a whole show a general consistency. The equation used was practically the same as that of Dr. Ewan, except that h', the factor allowing for the aldehyde dissolved in the acetic acid formed, was not taken into account. Let the partial pressure of aldehyde at the commencement of the experi- ment be A millimetres, that of oxygen B millimetres, and that of nitrogen N millimetres. P is the total pressure of the gas at any instant. Suppose that after T minutes x millimetres of oxygen have combined with 2x milli- metres of aldehyde to form acetic acid. The pressure of oxygen will then be (& — x) and that of aldehyde (a — 2x). Also, there will be a certain pressure of acetic-acid vapour, which will be equivalent to the vapour- pressure of acetic acid at that temperature after the acetic acid formed has commenced to condense to liquid. If, then, the action proceeds with a velocity proportional to the concen- tration or pressure of aldehyde and of the oxygen atoms, then where j)' — partial pressure of oxygen, ^2 = partial pressure of aldehyde, -jr = rate of change of pressure of oxygen. 38 T ronxactwns. As Dr. Ewan has shown, the pressure of oxygen atoms should be pro^ portional to the square root of the pressure of oxygen if the law of mass action holds strictly, and a state of equilibrium is assumed, for there is equilibrium between the oxygen atoms formed and the oxygen molecule. The equation therefore becomes K'C(„,) = C(,.) X C(„) = C(,,)^ where C(„2) and C(„) represent the concentrations of oxygen molecules and atoms respectively. From this, then. C(„) = K'CM,,.), or the pressure of the oxygen atoms varies as the square root of the pressure of the oxygen molecules. The actual value of K' will undoubtedly be very small, as the nimiber of oxygen atoms present can hardly be great even under the most favourable conditions. In integrating the equation we put }/ = h — X ; fo = ^^ — ^a-. This gives — '^-^^^^ = K (& — x)^ [a — 2x), or ~j = Is. {h — x)'^ {a — 2x), and integrating it gives K^ - - , (6-1)* ^°- (,_,)* + (,_!)! + ^«^^«^^"*' or, writing the logarithm to the base 10, we get Kt 1 , ib-x)^ ~(b-'^^- •2.30= - y (6-^)4 ^°S>°^^ a^/, :y. + constant. The constant is obtained from the condition that x = o v/hen / = o, and the equation is therefore 1 (6_,.)i _(?,_£;)* 1 6*-(6-|)^ ^'^ - - ,(,_!)* log. ^,::^^x^^ + .(._|)^ log. ^^-^-^ where K' = ^ -30" The values of K' given in the tables are calculated by means of this equation, and in each case are multiplied by 10^. Experimental Work. There seems to be nothing more clear from my experiments than that the action is extremely susceptible to the influence of accelerating and retarding influences. Much time was lost in the early part of the work through the sample of aldehyde, prepared by repeatedly redistilling a stock sample, containing paraldehyde. The result of using this sample was that the action would not go on at a rate at all comparable with that which Dr. Ewan observed, though otherwise the conditions were the same. When compared with the results obtained later on with a pure samjile the difference is at once apparent. ]\lAci.KOi). — l^afe of Oxidation of Acet aldehyde to Acetic Acid . 39 The following are some results obtained by using this sample. There can be no doubt that there was the pressure of aldehyde in the pure form there, as the para form, boiling at 124° C, could not give a very great pressure at 21 G., but the presence of the para form is small quantities hindered the action. The value of h' is not calculated, as it is obviously worthless. These experiments show that there has been little action going on. At first the aldehyde was not suspected ; but when the oxygen had been used undried, and dried over calcium-chloride and sulphuric acid, and when the temperature had been raised to 25° C, and still the action did not proceed at a satisfactory speed, it was thought that the fault was due to the alde- hyde. A second sample of aldehyde was prepared from the original sample by distilling it with dilute sulphuric acid, so as to break down the para form present. Three distilling-flasks were used. The first contained the mixture of dilute sulphuric acid and aldehyde, the second contained calcium-chloride in fairly large quantities, and the third was empty. All the flasks and connecting tubes were carefully washed and steamed out before being used, so as to remove any trace of acid or base which might polymerize the alde- hyde. The flasks were arranged in series. The second and third flasks were immersed in ice, while the bath con- taining the first flask was gradually warmed until the water boiled. The distillation was then stopped. The aldehyde distilled over very readily, being so volatile that some of it passed the second flask, and only condensed on reaching the third flask. Any water-vapour was condensed in the second flask and absorbed by the calcium-chloride. When the water round the first flask had boiled it was detached, and the aldehyde which had con- densed in the second flask distilled into the third flask. The temperature was kept down to 25° C, and the latter half of the liquid in the second flask rejected. The purified aldehyde was then transferred into a well-stoppered bottle protected from light, which had been carefully steamed out. This sample held good throughout the series of experiments. 40 T ran.^actiouH. Experiments made to determine whether such a Maximum Pressure AS that indicated by Dr. Ewan's Experiments did exist. In this connection the chief points to be cleared up were : (1) Whether a maximum reaction pressure did exist ; (2) whether the pressure of alde- hyde had any effect on it ; (3) the effect of temperature on this maximum pressure, if it was found to exist. At the outset it may be said that although the rate of reaction, as. indicated by the value of K', seemed to diminish with higher pressures of oxygen, the pressure of aldehyde remaining constant, yet there was nothing to show that the action came suddenly to an end, as is indicated by Dr. Ewan's experiments. Further, as will be shown later, on raising the percent- age pressure of aldehyde the value of K' again rose, even though the oxygen- pressure remained high. Some explanation from theoretical considerations, as will be shown later, can also be given of the fact that the value of K' is small when there is a big pressure of oxygen and a small one of aldehyde. It will be as well at this stage to quote some experiments to illustrate this point. Except where otherwise stated, the oxygen, prepared from j)otassium- chlorate and manganese - dioxide, was . dried over calcium - chloride. No' attempt was made to absorb the acetic acid formed. Time in Minutes. P-2- v'- P. Temperature. K'. 0 349 414 783 20-85° C. 154 256 368 656 21° C. 2-2 203 219 350 601 21° C. 2-5 262 193 338 563 21-1° C. 2-4 318 171 327 530 20-8° C. 2-5 371 155 319 506 20-9° C. 2-4 444 135 309 476 20-9° C. 2-4 509 124 304 460 20-9° C. 2-3 Partial pressure of nitrogen Partial pressure of acetic acid 20 mm. 12 mm. Time in Minutes. p.. v'- P. Temperature. K'. 0 198 242 284 232 176 169 162 534 ! 793 20-8° C. 506 721 20-8-^ C. 503 i 711 20-8° C. 499 700 20-8° C. 1-3 1-2 1-2 Partial pressure of nitrogen Partial pressure of acetic acid 27 mm. 12 mm. inMilTutes. ?'2- v'- ^- Temperature. K'. 0 229 159 173 826 69 598 850 20-8° C. 1 570 776 20-8° C. 1-4 518 j 622 20-9° C. | 1-2 Partial pressure of nitrogen = 23 mm. Partial pressure of acetic acid = 12 mm. .Maci/kod. — JirA( i.KOi). — Hate of O.ri(]atioii of ArrldhJclnide to Acetic Acid. 45 Time in Minutes. P2- v'- P. Temperature. K'. 0 267 496 789 48-2° C. 71 138 437 653 48-2° C. 8-9 85 118 427 622 48-3° C. 9-3 100 108 421 606 48-3° C. 8-8 115 101 418 596 48-3° C. 8-3 175 87 411 575 48-3° C. 61 205 80 408 565 48-3° C. 5-7 Partial pressure of nitrogen = 26 mm. Partial pressure of acetic acid = 51 mm. The next pair of experiments was made at 21° C. Time in Minutes. P2- v- P. Temperature. K'. 0 254 846 1120 21° C. 200 219-3 828-7 1080 21° C. 0-55 222 212-6 825-4 1070 21° C. 0-63 254 207-3 822-7 1062 21° C. 0-63 285 200-6 819-4 1052 21° C. 0-63 315 195-3 816-7 1044 21° C. 0-67 486 173 802 1006 21° C. 0-68 Partial pressure of nitrogen = 20 mm. Time in Minutes. P2- v- P. Temperature. K'. 0 250 851 1125 21° C. 165 199 826 1061 21° C. 193 191 821 1048 21° C. 221 182 817 1035 21° C. 249 172 813 1021 21° C. 449 125 790 952 21° C. Partial pressure of nitrogen = 24 mm. The fact of these three sets of experiments showing a consistent differ- ence in the rate of the reaction is very strong evidence that the difference was due to the vessel. The conditions otherwise were exactly the same, and the vessels were cleaned in exactly the same manner — namely, by leaving them in a solution of potassium-permanganate and hydrochloric acid for twelve hours at least, and then washing out with oxalic acid and distilled water. 4. Water-vapour. — It is extremely probable that, as water-vapour has the effect of increasing the dissociation of oxygen molecules, its presence would accelerate this reaction. It had been hoped that an experiment might be made in which both the aldehyde and oxygen were dried abso^ 46 T raiisactioiii lutely, but, while little difficulty was experienced in drying the vessel and oxygen by leaving them in contact with phosphorous pentoxide for a con- siderable time, the same could not be done with the aldehyde. The most effective drying agents are strongly basic or acidic oxides, or metals, such as sodium and potassium, which show a strong affinity for water. Now, aldehyde is polymerized rapidly by mineral acids, bases, and many salts. In fact, the utmost precautions must be taken to prevent polymeri- zation, and the presence of the polymeric form, as has been shown, affects the reaction. On this account attempts to obtain a perfectly dried sample of aldehyde have so far failed. Could such an experiment be made, the result would probably show a great retardation, if not a total cessation of the action. In view of the number of experiments quoted showing the influencing effects of many substances on the speed of the reaction, little further support is needed to affirm that the action is very sensitive to catalytic agents of all kinds. The experiments of Dr. Ewan can, however, be further quoted to support this. Four experiments, having their constants worked out, are recorded in the " Philosophical Magazine." In the first experiment, with the tempera- ture at 20° C, the value of K varies from 0-76 as a minimum to 1-27 as a maximum. This is a very low value, for which he gives no explanation. In the next experiment the value of K varies from 2-81 to 3-57 ; in the next from 0-96 to 3-18 ; and in another experiment, in which the initial pressure of oxygen was only 373 mm., well below his maximum, at which the reaction goes on constantly, and the initial aldehyde pressure 178-5, the constant begins at a maximum of 2-82, and falls rapidly to 2-59, and then to 2-34 — in fact, in this experiment the reaction between the two last readings was extremely slow, as will be shown by quoting the experiment : — Time in Minutes. P2- p'- P. Temperature. K'. 0 178-5 373-0 559-3 353 122-8 346-8 488-8 20-8° C. 2-82 421 118-2 344-6 481-8 2-59 501 114-2 342-7 476-1 2-34 It will be noticed that in the last eighty minutes the total pressure fell only 5-7 mm., whereas in the latter part of a previous experiment, with the oxygen-pressure at 409-1 mm. and the aldehyde pressure 119-1 mm., the pressure fell 95 mm. in 700 minutes, although this latter case includes pressures which should give a much slower rate on the average. For these variations Dr. Ewan gives no explanation. He mentions that it seems of some importance to keep the apparatus as clean as possible, but he does not say why. If we accept the idea that the action goes on between the aldeh}-de molecules and the oxygen atoms, there are two separate actions the speed of which catalytic agents could affect : there is, first, the breaking-up of the oxygen molecule ; and, secondly, the combination of the aldehyde with the oxygen atom. It seems to me most probable that in most cases the first of these two actions is the one most aftected. Under the most favourable conditions there could hardly be many atoms of oxygen present, M.U'm;oi). — lidte of ().viconverted to the lactone if boiled with water or by the -action of cokl dilute niinci-al acids. EASTERFiKt.D. — (' licinist r [I of the Set'' Zedhmd Flnra. 55 Matai-resinol is isomeric with pino-resinol, the crystalline constituent of the exudation resins of Pinus laricin and Picea vulgaris isolated by Max Bamberger (Monatslu^fte, 1894, vol. 15. p. 505). Pino-resinol also contains two methoxy and two hydroxy groups, but experiments do not appear to have been made in order to ascertain if the substance is lactonic in cha- racter. Pino-resinol differs from matai-resinol in having a higher melting- point and in yielding a very sparingly soluble potassium-salt. (4.) The Totara (Podocarpus totara). No heart-resin can be observed in totara logs, but a crystalline " bloom " can often be detected on totara boards a few hours after leaving the planing- machine. To investigate this substance, 1 cwt. of totara sawdust was ex- tracted with alcohol and the spirit removed by distillation. The residue was an amorphous mass easily soluble in organic solvents, but crystallizing with great difficulty from most menstrua. By spontaneous evaporation of the solution in light petroleum the substance is easily obtained in large crystals. The compound is neutral in reaction, and is not hydrolized by alcoholic potash ; it distils under diminished pressure without decomposi- tion. Analysis supports the formula CigHagO. In the investigation of this substance I have received much help from Mr. George Bagley. Art. IX. — Further Experiments on the Influence of Artesian Water on the Hatching of Trout. By C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc, and D. B. Macleod, M.A. [Eead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 19th October, 1910.] The experiments here described were carried out in conjunction with the authorities of the Canterbury Acclimatization Society at their hatchery in Christchurch, and our thanks are due to the Acclimatization Society for the facilities they have offered us, and to Mr. Charles Rides especially for the interest he has taken in arranging the eggs, &c., for us. The work conducted last year (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1909) showed conclusively that the artesian water of Christchurch was fatal to a large number of fish confined in close proximity to the outflow of the well, and of those fish which survived only a very small proportion escaped pop-eye. Both these effects disappear on aeration of the water, which was shown to contain an excess of nitrogen, a defect of oxygen, some carbon-dioxide, and radium-emanation in solution. It seemed likely from the experiments carried on last year that the mortality amongst the eggs and also the development of " blue swelling " were troubles which were minimized by aeration, and to clear up these points, and, if possible, to throw some light on the particular factor producing these effects, the experiments here described were made. The Acclimatization Society very kindly placed at our disposal for the experiments two sets of hatching-boxes, one containing five trays, with a fall from tray to tray, and the other eight trays, with a similar fall. In each of these thirteen boxes 2,000 " wild " brown-trout ova were placed under the conditions known from experience in the hatchery to give the best 56 T ranxactioiis. hatching results. Reference to the paper akeady referred to will show that these conditions were entirely different from those adopted last year, when 7,500 eggs were placed in each of the five boxes of one of these sets, and the eggs were simply laid on the bottom of the box. On this occasion the 2,000 eggs w^ere placed on a gauze tray at least an inch from the bottom, .and the water circulated through the tray, flowing from the bottom upwards. It is no doubt entirely due to these better conditions that the death-rates to be given are so low compared with last year's, when the conditions were previously known to be such as would produce great mortality, both in the ■egg and yolk-sac stage. An examination of the radio-activity of the water of the top boxes in each set revealed the fact that whereas the activity of one set was 126, the same as last year, and expressed in the same units, the activity of the top box of the other set was only 78. As this difference existed between the radio-activity of the two boxes, a very careful examination of the gas- content of the two boxes was made. The results appended are a mean of five determinations of each box, and in no single case did the result differ appreciably from the mean. Box No. Kmaaation. (jias-cotiti'iit. 2,000 B rovvn Trout. 2,500 Rainbow. Eggs. Blue Swelling. Blue Swelling. Boxes on Rig hi of Door. 1 126 N . 16-35 252 70 102 0 . 4-30 (254) (72) CO. . . 2-60 2 111 302 (224) 68 (72) 88 (87) 3 95 167 41 ^ 73 4 83 214 33 71 5 69 N . 15-35 184 29 58 0 5-45 (28) (57) CO, . . 2-53 Boxes in Fro nt of Dor /-. 1 78 N 0 CO2 . . 16-31 . 4-76 . 2-37 156 34 97 2 75 N 0 CO, . . 16-00 . 515 . 2-45 163 38 142 3 73 184 35 80 4 185 36 87 5 198 33 70 6 154 38 57 7 36 N 0 CO., . . 15-20 . 6-35 . 2-43 195 31 52 8 172 30 1 37 Farr and Macleod. Artesian Wafer and Ilatc/iiw/ of Trout. 57 A glance at these figures will show that, while the two top boxes are practically identical in nitrogen-content, that supplying the set of five trays has a little less oxygen (046 c.c. per liti'e), but has an emanation content 1-6 times that of the other. Under the headings " Eggs" and '" Blue Swelling" are given the numbers of deaths as eggs, or in the yolk-sac stage due to blue swelling, as the case may be. The figures in brackets indicate the same quantities in check boxes occupying parallel positions to those in the same square. Only a few such parallel boxes were used in the one set of trays. The last columns in each set are not strictly comparable. They refer to the same class of fry which were hatched from " pond " and not " wild " ova, and in the longer set of trays we had only a few eggs at the end of the hatching season to experiment with, and the results were raised to the 2,500 basis for comparison. The discussion of these figures in conjunction with last year's results show, we think, that both the death of eggs and also blue swelling decrease as the water becomes more aerated, and this seems to be more the case in the set of five boxes than in the set of eight. It may not be considered to be very marked as regards eggs in either set of the brown-trout ova, but it was very evident in the same set of boxes last year, when 7,500 eggs were hatched in each box. Taking the figures as they are, while it cannot be said there is any falling-off in the number of deaths in the eggs in the set of eight boxes, there is a slight falling-ofi" in the set of five boxes, and a distinctly greater mortality on the whole, especially in the boxes nearest the well. As regards blue swelling, whereas in both sets of rainbow fry. and in the set of five trays with the 2,000 brown trout, there is a marked falling-oft' from box to box, yet in the set of eight boxes it seems that the mortality, as with the eggs, is practically constant. It would appear that, taken as a whole, the figures obtained last year and these indicate that both these troubles are due to want of aeration, though it cannot, of course, be denied that some eggs would die even though river- water perfectly aerated were used. The hatching season is short, and the whole of the hatchery cannot, of course, be handed over to experiments of this kind, and hence the results are meagre, and conclusions as to the particular constituent in defect or excess which is the cause of the mortality must be drawn with caution. If it be admitted that the mortality depends to some extent on the aeration, then we think it can only be due to defect of oxygen or excess of radium-emanation. Besides the improbability of so inert a gas as nitrogen affecting the fish, the very small percentage differences between the nitrogen- contents of the two top boxes would further reduce the probable effect of nitrogen. At present it is practically impossible to decide between a defect of oxygen and an excess of radium-emanation. Both these tend to disappear as the water is aerated, so that the two cannot be well separated. We hope we may be able to perform crucial experiments by confining goldfish in a limited sup2)ly of water containing sufficient radium-salts to produce the emanation in quantities comparable with that in the wells. By such means one of the two factors could be eliminated. 58 Transactiona. Art. X. — Notes and Descrijitions of Neiv Zealand Lepidoptera. By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Commimicated by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. PART I. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, Wednesday, 6th July, 1910.] These notes are again principally based on material received from Mr. G. Y. Hudson and Mr. A. Philpott, for whose, kind assistance I am very grateful. Caradrixidae. Leucania epiastra n. sp. ^ 9. 40- U ram. Head and thorax light greyish-ochreous, thorax with two pairs of fine oblique black lines or series of specks, prothorax with strong triangular crest. Antennae in r? moderately fasciculate-ciliated. Abdomen pale greyish-ochreous with fine black specks, densely hairy towards base. Anterior tarsi with two apical joints black. Forewings light - brownish, wdth scattered black specks, towards base and costa suffused with light greyish-ochreous ; first line represented by two or three black dots, second line by a series on veins ; two white dots longitudinally placed about lower angle of cell, connected by grey sufl'usion ; a terminal series of black dots between veins : cilia light brownish-ochreous. Hindwings fuscous, paler and tinged with pale greyish-ochreous towards base ; cilia whitish-ochreous, tips whitish. Makara ; bred in October from larvae feeding in flowering-stems of Ariindo conspicua (R. M. Sunley) ; two specimens received, through Mr. Hudson. Hydriomexidae. Chloroclystis melochlora n. sp. S ?. 20-27 mm. Head green. Palpi 2^, green. Antennae in ^ with two series of filaments bearing long fascicles. Thorax green, patagia spotted with black. Abdomen green, more or less dotted with black. Forewings triangular, costa somewhat sinuate in middle, apex obtuse, termen bowed, oblique ; green ; striae represented by series of irregular black marks on veins and margins, partially edged with white posteriorly, but on anterior edge of median band anteriorly ; median band broad, considerably narrowed towards dorsum, margins curved, posterior with a sinuation above middle more conspicuously marked with black and edged with w^hite ; a transverse- linear black discal mark ; subterminal line fine, waved, white, anterior edge strongly marked with black above middle : cilia green, barred with black. Hindwings with termen rounded ; ochreous-whitish niore or less tinged with greenish ; sometimes some blackish dots on veins on dorsal half ; a waved subterminal line sometimes indicnted by pale-greenish anterior margin : cilia whitish-greenish. Otira River (Hudson) ; in December : three specimens. A handsome species, only comparabh; with muscosata, but with termen of forewings more Meyiuck. — Xofrs (///(/ Di-sciiiifioiis (if X.Z. lA'|>i(l(i|)t(."ra. 59 ol)li({U(', niiMlian hand much narro\V(M' doi'sally. tcrnicn of liindwiims not cronato, all wings without i>rey suft'usiou. Notoreas leucobathra n. sp.* 9. 21-25 mm. Head and palpi yellowish mixed with l)lackish hairs. Thorax blaekish, patagia light-yellowish with some black hairs. Abdomen black, sides suffused with yellow, segmental margins slenderly white. Fore- wings triangular, costa faintly sinuate, apex obtuse, termen rounded, rather oblique ; grey, sufEusedly irrorated with blackish, and much mixed with bronzy-yellowish, especially on veins ; lines moderately thick, white, sub- basal and first more slender, curved, median straight or somewhat anguiated in middle, second slightly curved outwards on upper |, sometimes rounded- angiUated in middle, subterminal formed of a waved series of marks or reduced to a short mark from costa : cilia white, barred with grey mixed with blackish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; colour and markings as in forewings, but lines sometimes pale ochreous-yellowish, subbasal and first absent, second more curved, subterminal forming a series of cloudy marks : cilia as in forewings. Otira River (Hudson), in December ; two specimens. This species, allied to the mcchanitis and 'paradclpha group, is at once easily distinguished fi'om the other species of that group by the cilia, which are barred with white and dark bars to the base, whilst in others the basal half is wholly dark ; the markings are also different in detail. Notoreas isoleuca Meyr. After considerable study of this and allied forms I am disposed to re- instate it as a good species, distinct from mechanitis. It is a smaller and shorter-winged insect (20-22 mm.) ; blackish, with little or no yellowish admixture ; the lines white, first curved, second anguiated in middle, others slender and sometimes partially obsolete ; cilia with basal half dark fuscous, outer half whitish obscurelv barred with grev. Arthur's Pass (-1,000 ft.), Castle Hill (over 4,000 ft.), in January. Notoreas mechanitis Meyr. This species is somewhat larger than the preceding (22-25 mm.), largely suffused with golden-yellow, which extends both over ground-colour and markings, especially on median area and subterminal line ; cilia with basal half grey or dark grey, outer half whitish without bars. Arthur's Pass (3,100 ft.), in January. In my original description I wrongly included examples from the higher levels at Arthur's Pass which were really referable to the preceding ; this error was the cause of the subsequent confusion, which I think is now cleared up. Notoreas atmogramma n. sp. 9. 25-27 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax black, mixed with whitish- ochreous-yellowish hairs and scales. Abdomen black, mixed on sides with whitish -yellow, segmental margins slenderly whitish. Forewings triangular, costa straight, apex obtuse, termen rounded, rather oblique ; dark fuscous, with a few scattered pale - yellowish scales ; lines cloudy, light - yellowish, subbasal, first (and second partially) whitish, first curved, median very in- definite, second anguiated in middle, subterminal irregular : cilia white, * Dasyuris leucobathra. See Addendum, p. 08. 60 Transactio}).^. basal half fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; colour and markings as in forewings, but basal area irrorated with pale yellowish, subbasal and first lines obsolete, second somewhat bent in middle : cilia as in forewings. Under-surface of all wings light ochreous-yellow ; first and second lines indistinctly indicated by whitish suffusion ; forewings with some incomplete cloudy blackish lines ; hindwings with a blackish discal mark. Mount Holdsworth, Tararua Range, north of Wellington, 4,000 ft. (Hudson) ; three specimens. Referred to by me previously (Trans. Ent. 8oc. Lond., 1905, p. 221) as a geographical form of mechamtis ; but I am now satisfied that it is specifically distinct. It is larger, more obscure, without the strong golden-yellow suffusion, and the hindwings are wholly yellow beneath except the black discal mark, whereas in mechmitis they are marked with strong black lines. MONOCTENIADA E. Dichromodes cynica n. sp. o. 17 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen blackish-gre}^ slightly whitish-sprinkled, palpi 34. Antennal pectinations 6. Forewings tri- angular, costa faintly sinuate, apex rounded - obtuse, termen obliquely rounded ; dark grey sprinkled with black and grey-whitish, veins partially suffused with yellow-ochreous irroration ; lines obscurely indicated by whitish irroration, irregular, first somewhat sinuate, indented below middle, edged posteriorly with black irroration becoming broad towards costa, second slightly prominent near costa and dorsum, and Avith a moderate bidentate prominence in middle, edged anteriorly with black irroration also becoming broad towards costa, subterminal hardly traceable ; a small blackish trans- verse discal mark before second line : cilia dark grey, slightly sprinkled with black and whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded ; dark fuscous ; a fine indistinct grey-whitish curved post-median line, sinuate inwards in middle : cilia dark fuscous. Lyttelton (Hudson), in November ; one specimen. I have compared it with the type of nujer Butl., but the lines are differently formed. The New Zealand species of Lnchroniodes appear to be scarce ; they are probably very inconspicuous, and escape notice. Chamjjidae. Crambus schedias n. sp. S- 28 mm. Head white, sides of crown and centre of face pale brownish-ochreous. Palpi 4. light brownish-ochreous, white above and to- wards base beneath. Antennal ciliations \. Thorax brownish-ochreous, with broad white central stripe. Abdomen pale whitish-ochreous. Forewings elongate, narrow, somewhat dilated posteriorly, apex obtuse, termen at first straight, little oblique, then rounded off ; bronzy-ochreous, deeper in disc ; a fine white line beneath costa on anterior half ; a rather narrow straight white median streak from base to termen ; a white line along dorsum from base to \, where it becomes broader and subdorsal, becoming obsolete about ;! ; four cloudy white lines towards costa posteriorly between veins : cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings ochreous-grey-whitish ; cilia whitish. Wellington (Hudson), in March ; one specimen. Nearest to callirrhous, but lighter-coloured, and without the more numerous, prolonged, and well- defined white iiiterneural streaks of that species. Meykick. — Notes and Dexrri pfions of X.Z. Lepifloptera. (il Crambus thrincodes n. sp. o. 29 mill. Ilead white. Palpi 4, dark fuscous, white above and towards base. Antennal filiations l- Thorax white, patagia suffusedly mixed with l)rownish. Abdomen pale yellowish - oohreous. Forewings narrow, rather dilated posteriorly, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, rather oblique ; light ochreous-fuscous ; a broad suffused white costal streak, containing three elongate blackish costal marks, first reaching from base to |, second from middle to near |, third from | to near apex ; first line indicated on white streak by posterior margin of fuscous irroration, sharply angulated beneath costa, in disc white, incurved, edged with irregularly triangular blackish patches, beneath this obsolete ; a cir- cular white discal spot edged with iDlackish and centred with a fuscous dot, placed in a white longitudinal streak which does not reach tirst or second lines ; second line between costal streak and dorsum white, slender, dentate, preceded in disc by some dark-fuscous irroration : cilia light greyish-ochreous, base suffused with white. Hind wings whitish-ochreous-yellowish ; a spot of grey suffusion on costa before apex ; cilia whitish-ochreous. Kaitoke. Wellington (Hudson) ; one specimen. A singularl}^ distinct species, related to fexuoseJIus and tuhiialis. Pykaustidae. Scoparia dryphactis n. sp. o . 30-31 mm. Head and thorax pale ochreous, shoulders suffused with dark fuscous. Palpi 2|, pale ochreous sprinkled with dark fuscous, whitish towards base beneath. Antennae pale ochreous, ciliations \. Abdomen w^hitish-ochreous. Forewings very elongate-triangular, narrow at base, costa posteriorly gently arched, apex obtuse, termen sHghtly rounded, rather ob- lique ; pale ochreous, tinged with brownish or mixed with light fuscous, especially towards termen, somewhat sprinkled with dark fuscous on veins ; a moderately broad streak of dark -fuscous suft'usion along costa throughout ; a short ferruginous streak from base on fold, surrounded with dark-fuscous suffusion ; lines cloudy, pale, edged with fuscous suffusion, first oblique, second somewhat curved, indented beneath costa ; spots indicated by longitudinal patches of ferruginous suffusion, indistinctly outlined with dark fuscous : cilia whitish-ochreous mixed with light fuscous. Hind- AA'ings If, with long hairs in cell ; whitish-ochreous tinged with grey : cilia pale whitish-ochreous, with greyish subbasal line. Wellington (Philpott), in February ; two specimens. A very distinct species, allied to the group of cyameuta. Carposinidae. Carposina amalodes n. sp. ?. 15-16 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi 2^, white, dark fuscous beneath and towards base. Abdomen grey-whitish. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, posteriorly gradually dilated, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, rather strongly oblique ; white ; a small blackish mark on base of costa ; a transverse ochreous-yellow line near base, marked with black at extremities ; a light-grey blotch irrorated with dark grey extending along dorsum from beyond this to f, and reaching more than half across wing, containing a yellow-ochreous ridge of scales much marked with black at \, and a yellow-ochreous spot in a white ring 62 T raiisactiom. at i ; a small blackish spot on costa beyond \, preceded by a black sub- costal dot sometimes marked with yellow-ochreous ; five small spots o£ blackish irroration on costa posteriorly, and some suffused grey irroration beneath these ; two indistinct ochreous-yellowish dots above middle of disc, and an undefined transverse yellowish streak in disc at f , surrounded with white ; a curved-angulated subterminal streak of blackish irroration, and some grey irroration towards termen : cilia white, indistinctly barred with grey irroration. Hindwings pale whitish-grey ; cilia white. Otira River (Hudson), in December ; two specimens. Very similar to contactella, and at present I have only females of each ; distinct, how- ever, by the rather broader forewings, with termen less straight and some- what less oblique, the black costal spot beyond ^ and preceding subcostal dot (both of which are absent in contactella), and the less-grey hindwings. TORTRICIDAE. Pyrgotis eudorana Meyr. J. 18 mm. Head and thorax reddish-ochreous-fuscous, thoracic crest ferruginous-ochreous. Antennal ciliations 1. Abdomen whitish-grey, anal tuft ochreous-whitish. Forewings rather elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, with moderate costal fold reaching ;|, apex obtuse, termen slightly sinuate, somewhat oblique ; fuscous-purplish indistinctly strigulated with dark grey ; costal fold brownish-ochreous strigulated with grey ; a tri- angular apical ochreous-orange patch, marked with some dark-fuscous strigulae between veins and on costa, its anterior edge straight, running from ? of costa to tornus ; central fascia indicated as an evenly broad band of darker suffusion preceding this : cilia reddish-ochreous-fuscous. Hind- wings pale grey, apical half ochreous-whitish ; cilia ochreous-whitish, on lower half of termen basally spotted with light grey. Kaitoke, Wellington (Hudson), in December ; one specimen. This species was described from a female only ; I feel little hesitation in referring the above to it as the other sex. Cnephasia microbathra n. sp. (J. 18 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax dark fuscous. Antennal ciliations 3, Abdomen rather dark grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa gently arched, slightly sinuate in middle, without fold, apex obtuse, termen hardly sinuate, somewhat oblique ; brown, closely strewn throughout with whitish- grey dots arranged in series ; a very small dark reddish-fuscous basal patch suffused with blackish, outer edge slightly curved ; extreme costal edge whitish-ochreous with a few dark-fuscous scales ; central fascia faintly darker, posteriorly rounded - prominent above and below middle, and anteriorly with an indefinite projection below middle, on costa forming a semioval reddish-ochreous-brown spot with its costal edge blackish : a fuscous spot beneath costa towards apex : cilia light bi'ownish-ochreous. Hindwings and cilia rather dark grey. West Plains, Invercargill (Philpott), in September ; one specimen. Though not conspicuous, this is a very distinct species. EucosisriDAE. Bactra xystrota n. sp. J. 15-16 mm. Head and thorax whitish-ochreous. Palpi nearly -l, pale greyish-ochreous, whitish towards base beneath. Antennal ciliations L Metrick. — yofes and Dcxrit plioiiH of X.Z. lA'])i(l()])t<'rii. 63 Abdomen grey, anal tuft whitish. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, posteriorly slightly dilated, costa gently arched, without fold, apex round- pointed, termen slightly sinuate, rather strongly oblique ; pale ochreous slightly tinged with brownish, sometimes partially suffused with whitish on costal third, veins sometimes marked with fine fuscous lines, sometimes with a few scattered black scales ; some dots of dark-fuscous scales on dor- sum ; an undefined median streak from base to apex more or less indicated by darker suffusion or fuscous irroration ; a dark-fuscous discal dot on lower angle of cell : cilia pale ochreous. Hindwings grey ; cilia whitish, with grey subbasal line. Invercargill, on coast sandhills (Philpott), in January : two specimens. Gelechiadae. Gelechia glaucoterma n. sp. o . 9-10 mm. Head ochreous-whitish, back and sides of crown suffused with grey. Palpi ochreous-whitish, terminal joint shorter than second. Antennae dark fuscous. Thorax dark grey mixed with blackish. Abdomen light grey, segments 4-6 somewhat blackish-mixed, segmental margins whitish. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa slightly arched, apex acute, termen extremely obliquely rovmded ; dark grey ; an oblique bar of white suffusion from costa at ^, reaching half across wing, accompanied with some whitish-ochreous scales, sometimes tending to extend along costa to base ; an undefined patch of blackish suffusion in disc beyond this, repre- senting first discal and plical stigmata, and a rather large roundish black spot • representing second discal, with more or less whitish irroration between these and on margins of second discal ; a white patch occupying apical fourth, mixed with dark grey or dark fuscous towards apex, anterior edge irregularly indented in middle : cilia whitish, with an interrupted fuscous subbasaLline. Hindwings 1, grey-whitish, apex greyer ; cilia whitish. Invercargill, on coast sandhills (Philpott), in January ; two specimens. Oecophoridae. Borkhausenia paratrimnia n. sp. c^. 14-15 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-fulvous. Palpi and antennae ■dark grey, antennal ciliations 1. Abdomen grey. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded ; ochreous-fulvous, somewhat sprinkled Avith grey, to- wards all margins suffused with grey irroration ; two oblique fasciae of grey irroration crossing plical and second discal stigmata, which are marked on them as indistinct cloudy darker dots : cilia ochreous-fulvous irrorated with grey. Hindwings and cilia grey. Invercargill (Philpott) ; two specimens. A distinct though incon- spicuous species, which may be regarded as an early form of the siderodeta group. Borkhausenia nycteris Meyr. 9. 17 mm. Head and thorax dark bronzy-fuscous, somewhat mixed with light ochreous. Palpi dark fuscous mixed with pale ochreous, second joint with erect projecting scales beneath. Abdomen dark brown, sides and margin of segments dark grey. Forewings bronzy-brown, base of scales dark fuscous, towards base of costa and in middle of disc mixed with jellow-ochreous ; a yellow-ochreous blotch extending along basal | of (34 T rauH(iriroi!!< . dorsum, its extremities grey ; stigmata black, plical obliquely "before first discal, connected by a black mark with extremity of preceding dorsal blotch. and edged beneath by a white dot ; an indistinct spot of whitish sufi'usion beneath costa towards base, and a larger and more defined one on eosta before middle ; a white streak connecting second discal stigma with dorsum before tornus, preceded on dorsum by a black mark ; apical third suffused with yellow-ochreous, including a subterminal shade of dark brown and blackish irroration sharply indented beneath costa, partially edged with whitish suffusion, especially towards costa : cilia light yellow-ochreous. towards apex and tornus suffused with dark grey, beneath tornus with a white mark. Hindwings grey ; cilia grey, with darker subbasal line. This handsomely variegated female was taken by Mr. Hudson in cop. with a normal dark-fuscous male, to which it is superficially very dissimilar ; both sexes, however, agree in the peculiar erect projecting scales of the second joint of palpi (not noticed in my original description), and could be separated from all others known to me by this character alone. My original description is stated as including the female, but I think this must be an error ; at any rate, all the specimens in my series are males. Taken at the Otira River by Mr. Hudson ; previously from Wellington and Invercargill. Borkhausenia plagiatella A\ alk. Tinea plagiatella Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 485 ; Gelechia contextella. ih., vol. 29, p. 656. cJ $. 15-17 mm. Head ochreous-whitish, face sometimes yellower. Palpi white, second joint dark fuscous except towards apex, terminal joint some- times sprinkled with dark fuscous in middle. Antennal ciliations almost 1. Thorax whitish-ochreous sometimes yellowish-tinged, shoulders dark fuscous, sometimes dorsally suffused with fuscous or marked with dark fuscous. Abdomen grey. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen very obliquely rounded ; white ; markings brownish-ochreous irrorated with blackish or dark fuscous ; a fascia from base of costa above fold to plical stigma ; costal blotches at \, middle, and f , last sending a curved dark-fuscous line to tornus ; discal stigmata black, second crescentic, filled with ochreous-yellowish beneath, plical represented by an oblique black mark above which is some ochreous-yellowish suffusion ; a dorsal blotch of ochreous-yellowish sufi'usion towards base ; a triangular patch of ochreous suffusion occupying middle of dorsal area, irrorated with blackish posteriorly ; a fascia of ochreous - yellowish suffusion variably sprinkled with dark fuscous running from middle costal blotch to tornus ; an irregular apical spot more or less produced along termen : cilia whitish- yellowish, with apical and tornal blotches of dark-fuscous irroration. Hind- wings and cilia grey. Wellington, Otira River (Hudson), Nelson, in December and January : eight specimens. Distinguished from its nearest allies, contexteUa Meyr. and heminiochh, by the well-marked partial yellowish suffusion of fore- wings and grey liindwings. Borkhausenia contextella Meyr. Oecophora conlcxteUa Mevr. {nee Walk.). Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1883.. p. 37 (J$. 14 17 mm. Hindwings and cilia should be described as grey- whitish. This species is, so far as I can determine from an examination MEYniCK.- — yofex ;iuzed that this insect, which I formerly recorded as identical with linearis, is a good and distinct species, easily separated by the grey hindwings, and also differing in several other re- spects. It is interesting to note that the food-plant Coriaria is highly poisonous. Gracilaria linearis Butl. (J $. 13-15 mm. Head and thorax brownish, sometimes with lilac reflections, face whitish-ochreous. Palpi rather stout, ochreous- whitish, terminal joint suffused externally with dark fuscous. Antennae whitish ringed with dark fuscous. Abdomen pale whitish-ochreous. Forewings very narrow, elongate - lanceolate ; ochreous - brownish, sometimes with purple reflections, more or less strewn irregularly with small scattered dark purplish-fuscous dots or strigulae ; costal area sometimes tinged with brassy- yellowish anteriorly ; a triangular ante-median costal patch slightly paler, edged with several variable dark purplish-fuscous dots or marks ; some dark-fuscous irroration towards apex : cilia whitish-ochreous, round apex more or less brownish-tinged and irrorated with blackish. Hindwings and cilia ochreous-whitish. Wellington, Otira River, in January ; four specimens. Immediately known by the ochreous-whitish hindwings, and always perceptible triangular costal patch. Butler's types include one example of each species, but his description mentions the '" white " hindwings, which fixes the identifi- cation. As recorded above, the larva which I described as belonging to this species was really elaeas ; the actual larva is unknown. Plutellidae. Simaethis colpota u. sp. $. 13 mm. Head and thorax dark bronzy-fuscous sprinkled with whitish. Palpi with whorls of dark-fuscous scales tipped with white, second joint with rough projecting scales, whitish towards base beneath. Antennae black ringed with white. Abdomen blackish-fuscous, segmental margins brownish. Forewings elongate, rather dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen bowed, rather oblique ; dark bronzy-fuscous, basal and terminal areas finely sprinkled with whitish ; two parallel rather curved irregular transverse lines of whitish irroration about | ; a transverse line of whitish irroration from a white mark on costa at '^-, its upper § forming a strong irregular curve outwards, thence right-angled to dorsum at | ; a transverse linear mark of whitish irroration terminated beneath by a white dot lying within this curve and almost touching it at both ends ; a thick subterminal shade of whitish irroration, somewhat interrupted above middle : cilia dark fuscous with some whitish points, beneath apex and above tornus with white apical patches. Hindwings dark grey, terminal half blackish ; two parallel lines of wdiitish irroration towards termen on lower half, posterior less marked : cilia dark fuscous with blackish subbasal shade, beyond this suffused with whitish on lower half of termen. West Plains, Invercargill (Philpott), in March ; one specimen. Allied to comhiyiatana, but very distinct by the discal mark and form of second line. Glyphipteryx bactrias n. sp. S. l-i-15 mm. Head and thorax light ochreous-bronzy. Palpi whitish- ochreous, second joint with appressed scales, with two blackish rings towards 68 Transactions. apex, terminal joint with blackish anterior line. Antennae dark fuscous. Abdomen blackisb-grey, apex whitish. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex produced into a long slender acute projection, termen beneath this sinuate-indented, thence very obliquely rounded ; ochreous-bronzy ; a moderate white median longitudinal streak from base to termen beneath apex, terminated by a shining leaden-metallic mark extending along median portion of termen : cilia greyish, base ochreous- bronzy, on costa mixed with dark fuscous, with three whitish wedge-shaped marks, round apical projection dark fuscous, with two silvery- whitish dots on its lower edge near base. Hindwings and cilia blackish-grey. Invercargill, on coast sandhills (Philpott), in January ; two specimens. Very distinct. The form of forewings is unique in the genus. TlXEIDAE. Tinea astraea n. sp. $. 12 mm. Head dark fuscous mixed with white hairs. Palpi white, bristles dark fuscous, terminal joint dark fuscous except apex. Antennae blackish lined with white. Thorax blackish, margins of patagia marked with fine white lines. Abdomen bronzy-fuscous, segmental margins white on sides. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen extremely obliquely rounded ; all veins separate ; blackish ; apical 4 bronzy-fuscous ; five fine white longitudinal lines from base in disc, second and third reaching to near middle, others shorter ; two very short white marks on costa near base ; pairs of oblique white streaks from costa at J and middle, reaching half across wing ; pairs of short broken ochreous- whitish streaks from dorsum at \ and ^ ; posterior area with four or five less-oblique diminishing white streaks from costa, and three iridescent silvery- whitish from tornus and termen, nearly meeting in disc : cilia whitish- bronzy, with a black basal line interrupted by silvery dots beneath apex and in middle of termen, and posterior half suffused with dark fuscous. Hindwings grey, with purplish reflections ; cilia grey, with dark -grey basal line. West Plains, Invercargill (Philpott), in December ; one specimen. A very remarkable insect, superficially quite unlike any other of the genus. The general type of marking suggests a Ghjphipteryx (to which, of course, there is structurally no relationship), and I was disposed to suspect mimicry, but there is no close similarity to any New Zealand species known to me, nor is it a likely explanation in this instance ; it is an interesting case, de- serving of special investigation. Addendum. Mr. Hudson has since informed me that the male of the species described above as Notoreas leucobathra has not pectinated antennae ; it should therefore be referred to the genus Dasyuris. The following three species, forwarded to me by Mr. Hudson, and cap- tured in the first instance by Mr R. M. Sunley, can only be regarded as accidental introductions. In no case are the circumstances sufficiently known to make their occurrence comprehensible, and further investigations should be made to explain this. All three are alike unexpected, but where so much is unknown all things are possible. Methick. — Notes and Descri ptions of N.Z. Lepidopteru. 69 Gelech'Adae. Symmoca quadrifuncta Haw. : Meyr., Hanclb. Brit. Lep., p. 611. Nelson, in February (Sunley). A British species, widely distributed in the European region ; not known from Australia. Oecophoridae. Phloeopoki confusella Walk. : Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1883, p. 354. Nelson, a series (Sunley) ; Wellington, one specimen (Hudson). Common in New South Wales and Victoria, on trunks of Eucalyptus. I suspect the larva feeds in the bark. If this is so, the species might have been introduced with trees, but I should not expect to find it on saplings such as would be transplanted. TiNEIDAE. Opogona comptella Walk. : Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1897, p. 416. Nelson, in February (Sunley). Common in south-east Australia. Its larval habits are unknown, but the larvae of other species of the genus feed in dead woody fibre, in such varied situations as the stems of plants .and the nests of Termites (white ants). PART II. [Read before the Wellington Philoscphical Society, 5th October, 1910.] For the specimens here described I am principally indebted to my valued correspondents Messrs. G. V. Hudson, A. Philpott, and R. M. Sunley, but have also discovered one or two overlooked species from my own collec- tion. Caradrinidae. Dasygaster Gn. This genus, allied to Leucania, is recognisable by the abdomen, which appears unusually thick from being expanded at the sides with fringes of dense hair, longer in <^ ; it has a dorsal crest on basal segment. The genus is characteristic of Australia, and includes half a dozen species, of which one has now been found in New Zealand. Dasygaster hollandiae Gn. Dasygaster hollandiae Gn., Noct., vol. 1, p. 201 ; [[Hamps. Cat., vol. 5, p. 476. D. leucanioides, ib., p. 202. Graphiph.ora jacilis Walk., Cat., vol. 11, p. 745. One specimen received from Mr. A. Philpott, taken at Waipori in January, 1889. The species is common in south-east Australia and Tas- mania, and is doubtless a recent immigrant to New Zealand, very possibly accidentally introduced by man. I should add that the specimen has lost its abdomen, but I showed it to Sir George Hampson, and we are agreed as to its identity. 70 T ran fraction ^. Leucania Ussoxyla n. sp. ci". 38 mm. Head light brown. Antciinal shaft grey, becoming whitish towards base, pectinations a 4, h?>, terminating bristles minute. Thorax clothed with hairs, pale ochreous, more brownish anteriorly. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Forewings elongate-triangular, apex rounded-obtuse, ter- men rounded, rather oblique ; light brown ; vein \h, upper and lower mar- gins of cell, and veins 2-4, 6-8, and apical third of vein 5 marked with lines of mixed blackish and whitish scales ; faint streaks of pale-ochreous suffu- sion beneath cell and between veins 5 and 6 : cilia pale ochreous, tinged with brownish towards base, tips whitish. Hind wings grey ; cilia whitish- ochreous, tips whitish. Mount Arthur tableland, 4,000 ft., in February (Hudson) : one speci- men, but Mr. Hudson has a second (2) from same locality. Closely allied to unica and ioroneura, but these three species are undoubtedly distinct, the structure of antennae in (^ being different in each — viz., nnicn, pecti- nations a 2, & 1|, terminating cilia long, shaft ochreous-whitish ; tnronenra, pectinations a 3, i 2, terminating cilia moderate, shaft wholly white : Us- soxyla, as described above. Hyssia Gn. T think this genus may be adopted as defined in Hampson's Catalogue, vol. 5, p. 278. Hyssia inconstans Butl. One female specimen received from Mr. A. Philpott, taken at Welling- ton in November. I have carefully compared it with the original type, and it is undoubtedly identical, and a good species. The second example ((J), however, referred to by Sir G. Hampson is in my judgment certainly only a male of moderata, and therefore the male characters assigned by him must be disregarded, and the true male remains to be discovered. The species appears to be scarce, but the group is so difficult, owing to the similarity of the species, that it may be overlooked. Hyssia falsidica n. sp. $. 43 mm. Head whitish mixed with grey and blackish. Thorax grev mixed with whitish. Abdomen ochreous-grey-whitish. Forewings rather elongate-triangular, apex obtuse, termen slightly waved, obliquely rounded ; fuscous-grey, mostly overlaid with white suffusion ; subbasal line cloudy, dark fuscous, not reaching dorsum ; first and second lines indistinctly margined with dark-fuscous irroration, first slightly curved, second waved, strongly curved outwards on upper | ; median shade of dark-fuscous irro- ration, bent near costa ; orbicular-suboval, whitish, edged laterally with dark fuscous ; reniform whitish, lower third fuscous-grey edged with whitish : anterior edge of subtermiiuil line formed by a waved shade of dark-fuscous irroration. Hindwings fuscous. Mount Arthur tableland, in February (Hudson) ; one specimen, in rather poor condition. Mr. Hudson possesses others, also poor, but the species seems sufficiently distinct. HYDRIO:\rENIDAE. Tatosoma Butl. I am indebted to Mr. A. Philpott for calling my attention to the fact that two (or, as I find on examination, three) species have been confused Meyrick. — Nnfex and Deacripfioiii^ of iV.Z. Lcpidoptera. 71 by mo under the name of agrionata. These are now characterized below as follows ; besides these, lestevata Walk., fimora Meyr., and topia Philp. are good species, making six altogether. Tatosoma agrionata Walk. Cidaria agrionata Walk., Cat., p. 1417. C. indinataria, ih., p. 1418. Sauris mistata Feld,, Reis. Nov., pi. 131, p. 12. This and the next species are extremely similar in colour and markings, but in agrionata, the black markings on the striae of forewings are more strongly developed, especially on the subterminal line, where they form strong dashes, and above dorsum towards base ; the forewings are also somewhat less elongate ; an immediate distinction is furnished by the lobe of the hindwings in ,^, which is nearly twice as large as in tipulata, reaching from the base to nearly the middle of the wing in length. I have this species from Christchurch, and Mr. Philpott sends it from Wallacetown. Tatosoma tipulata Walk. Cidaria tipulata Walk., Cat., p. 1417. C. collectaria, ih., p. 1419. Tatosoma agrionata. Huds., N.Z. Moths, 40, pi. 6, pp. 26, 27. Forewings more elongate than in agrionata, less marked with black ; hindwings in cj with lobe not exceeding ^ of hindwings in length ; abdo- men of cJ more elongate than in agrionata, but less so than in timora. I have examples from Wellington and Nelson, and Mr. Philpott sends it also from Wallacetown. Tatosoma transitaria Walk. Cidaria transitaria Walk., Cat., p. 1419. This is a distinct species, of which both sexes are represented in the British Museum collection, but otherwise not known to me ; somewhat smaller than the two preceding, forewings duller, more grey-green, striae more obscure, with a characteristic distinct cloudy small whitish spot at lower extremity of transverse vein, hindwings smaller, rather dark grey, lobe in 5* hardly larger than in tipulata. Hydriomena lithurga n. sp. cJ. 25 mm. Head and thorax pale greyish-ochreous mixed with whitish, transversely barred with blackish-grey suffusion. Palpi 1^, blackish-grey, lower longitudinal half whitish. Antennae somewhat stout, shortly ciliated {\). Abdomen pale greyish-ochreous, mixed on sides with dark grey and whitish, segmental margins white preceded by a black mark on each side of back. Forewings triangular, costa rather strongly arched towards apex, apex obtuse, termen rather obliquely rounded, crenate ; pale greyish- ochreous, marked with indistinct waved striae of grey irroration becoming blackish on costa ; margin of a small basal patch indicated on lower half by a blackish stria edged with white posteriorly ; median band formed by two fasciae of several rather irregular suffused grey striae each, well marked except beneath costa, margins marked with black edged exteriorly with white except near costa, anterior margin twice sinuate, posterior with median third forming a rather strong subtriangular obliquely bilobate prominence ; a transverse-linear black slightly whitish-edged diseal dot on anterior of these fasciae ; subterminal line of ground-colour, slender, strongly waved, 72 Traii.'idrtioiK. preceded by some grey suft'usioii towards dorsum and above middle, and cut by an oblique dark-grey streak from apex marked with blackish ; a fine black terminal line : cilia whitish with two grey shades, with undefined dark-grey bars. Hindwings with termen rounded, crenate ; grey- whitish, median band and subtei-minal line indicated by faint grey striae obsolete towards costa ; a blackish-grey linear discal dot ; cilia as in forewings, but dark markings nearly obsolete round apex. One specimen received from Mr. R. M. Sunley, reared from pupa in loose cocoon beaten from JJuehlenbeckia, Makara Beach, in November. Xanthorhoe cedrinodes n. sp. J $. 40 mm. Head and thorax dark grey mixed with brown-reddish. Antennal pectinations in ^ a 2, 6 1|. Abdomen grey. Forewings tri- angular, costa moderately arched towards apex, apex obtuse, termen waved, slightly rounded, rather oblique ; reddish-fuscous, more or less sprinkled with black, tending to form curved waved transverse striae ; costa marked irregularly with black ; a curved band of several pale whitish-ochreous striae separating basal patch and median band, former edged with blackish and both slightly with white ; median band broad, variably marked with black on edges and veins, middle third of posterior edge forming a moderate obtuse double prominence, partially finely edged with white posteriorly ; beyond this a band of two or three cloudy pale whitish-ochreous striae, veins on this marked with black ; subterminal line slender, waved, indis- tinct, pale whitish-ochreous ; a black terminal liiie marked with ochreous- whitish dots on veins : cilia dark fuscous mixed with brown-reddish and whitish. Hindwings with termen somewhat rounded, crenate ; pale rosy- greyish-ochreous, with traces of faint grey striae ; posterior edge of median band more marked, angulated in middle, blackish-sprinkled towards dorsum ; some reddish-fuscous suffusion along termen ; a black terminal line : cilia reddish-fuscous mixed with ochreous-whitish and dark grey. Mount Arthur tableland, 4,200 ft., on Veronica blossoms at night, in Februaiy (Hudson) ; two specimens. Xanthorhoe practica n. sp. cJ. 24 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous-whitish mixed with black and brown-reddish. Antennal pectinations a 7, b 6. Forewings triangular, costa moderately arched posteriorly, apex obtuse, termen slightly waved, somewhat bowed, oblique ; light ochreous-grey sprinkled with dark fuscous ; basal patch mixed with brown-reddish and white, with several blackish striae, outer edge slightly curved, separated from median band by a narrow whitish fascia ; median band moderately broad, grey edged with two fasciae of three black striae each with their interspaces suffused with brown -reddish, first hardly curved, second somewhat irregular, nearly straight ; a minute black discal dot ; a fascia of two or three whitish striae following median band ; subterminal line slender, waved, Avhitish, anteriorly dark-edged, and a similar stria near before termen ; a blackish terminal line : cilia grey- whitish mixed with brown-reddish and obscurely barred with dark fuscous (imperfect). Hi)idwings with termen hardly waved, rounded ; j)ale grey mixed with whitish, with -waved grey striae, towards dorsum more distinctly striated with blackish and tinged with brown-reddish, with two distinct white striae beyond middle ; a blackisli terminal line : cilia whitish sprinkled with dark fuscous (imperfect). Motueka, in January (Huclson) ; one specimen. Metkick. — Xotes aiul Dcscri iifions of X.Z. I.eindoptera. 73 Xanthorhoe prymiiaea n. sp, J ?. 32-35 mm. Ifead and thorax yellow-oclireous, shoulders mixed Avith ferruginous and dark fuscous. Antennal pectinations in (^ a 6, b i. Ahdomen ochreous - yellowisli. Forewings triangular, costa posteriorly moderately arched, apex obtuse, termeu waved, rounded, oblique ; ochreous- yellow : a small basal patch formed by three or four more or less marked strongly curved red-brown striae, marked with black on costa ; median band enclosed by fasciae formed of one inner and two confluent outer rather waved dark red-brown striae marked with black on costa and on edges of band, sometimes connected below middle, anterior fascia narrow, somewhat irregularly curved, posterior moderately broad, dark and strongly marked posteriorly and somewhat edged with whitish suffusion, median third forming a broad obtuse double prominence, these fasciae in $ little marked except on edges of band ; a black discal dot between these fasciae, space round it somewhat whitish-tinged ; terminal area more or less tinged or striated with red-brown, including a slender waved white subterminal line edged anteriorly with fuscous suffusion, with an obliqu^e subapical patch of dark -suffusion : cilia crimson -fuscous, outer half barred with dark fuscous alter- nating with paler suffusion. Hiiidwings with termen rounded ; ochreous- yellow : a small lin.ear dark-grey discal dot ; traces of two or three short grey strigae on dorsum ; a fine dark-fuscous terminal line : cilia crimson- grey, indistinctly darker-barred. Mount Arthur tableland, common in limestone valleys, 3,600—1,200 ft., in February (Hudson) ; five specimens. Pterophoridae. Platyptilia epotis Meyr. Mr. Hudson sends a o and $, taken in a swamp on the Mount Arthur tableland in February. Tliese are more ochreous and less white than the type, with apical oblique streak less marked and in one specimen nearly obsolescent, but are certainly this species. At first sight they much resemble lithoxesta, but may be easily distinguished by the patch of white on costal <-ilia towards apex, and the black mark at base of terminal cilia on lower angle of first segment, and also in same position on first segment of hind- wings. It hardly seems natural to separate the two species generically, but epolis shows slight traces of black scales in dorsal cilia of hindwings, whilst lithoxesta certainly has none. TORTRICIDAE. Epichorista emphanes Meyr. o- 13 mm. Antennal ciliations 1^. Forewings without costal fold ; deep ferruginous, crossed by numerous oblique irregular series of very small subconfluent purplish-leaden-grc)^ spots, without defined markings, but central fascia and costal patch sometimes indicated on costa. Hindwings blackish. Mount Arthur tableland, 4,200 ft., in February ; two S, one V, sent by Mr. Hudson as probably sexes of same species, which is doubtless correct ; the o differs considerably in appearance from the $, and has not been pre- viously d':'scribed. 74 Transactions. Harmologa achrosta Meyr. (^, 12-16 mm. Antenual ciliations 1. Forewings with costal fold mode- rate, extending from base to about iniddle, termen slightly rounded ; dark fuscous, variably strewn with scattered ferruginous-yellowish hair-scales ; basal patch, moderate central fascia, a narrow fascia from | of costa to tornus, and some streaks posteriorly formed by darker strigulation, space between these somewhat leaden-tinged, but all very indistinct and some- times obsolete even in fine specimens. Hindwings dark fuscous or blackish. I describe four fresh specimens from Mount Arthur tableland, 4,200 ft., in February (Hudson) ; also, the insect lately described by me under the name of epicura from Castle Plill, 3,000 ft., in January, is now seen to be the same species, a lighter-coloured example. Harmologa pontifica n. sp. (J. 21 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax dark grey, forehead with a whitish transverse line. Antennal ciliations 1|. Abdomen dark grey, anal tuft pale greyish-ochreous. Forewings suboblong, costa moderately arched, with moderate fold extending from base to beyond ^, apex obtuse, termen slightly romided, little oblique ; greyish, with ashy-purj^lish reflections, irregularly sprinkled with dark fuscous and a few whitish scales ; costal fold dark fuscous ; outer edge of basal patch indicated on lower half by an erect fasciaform blackish mark from dorsum before middle ; central fascia narrow, from before middle of costa to beyond middle of dorsum^ blackish, mixed with ferruginous-reddish in disc ; a blackish discal dot at | ; a small blackish spot on costa beyond central fascia ; costal patch narrow, formed of three confluent blackish spots ; a transverse irregular blackish streak from near this to tornus ; some irregular blackish markings before lower half of termen : cilia grey mixed with blackish. Hindwings grey, becoming" darker posteriorly ; cilia grey-whitish, with grey subbasal line. Mount Arthur tableland, 4,200 ft., in February (Hudson) ; one specimen. Tortrix indigestana Meyr. Two specimens reared from larvae feeding on Pmielea laevigata, Makara Beach, in October and November (Sunley). I had previously only one specimen from New Zealand, but the species is common in Au^stralia, where it has been bred from Hibbertia linearis. The genus Pimelea is, however, common and characteristic in both regions. Cnephasia holorphna n. sp. ^. 18 mm. Head fuscous mixed with whitish-ochreous. Paipi 2|, clothed with very long rough projecting scales, whitish-ochreous sprinkled with fuscous. Antennal ciliations bifasciculate, 2 J. Thorax fuscous, sprinkled and edged with whitish-ochreous. Abdomen fuscous, segmental margins and anal tuft whitish - ochreous. Forewings suboblong, costa gently arched, with moderate fold extending from base to j, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, somewhat oblique ; fuscous, with irregularly scattered whitish scales, especially on margins, and with scattered strigiilae of dark fuscous and blackish scales, but no defined markings : cilia fuscous, towards tips whitish. Hindwings fuscous, darker towards termen : cilia whitish-fuscous, with a fuscous subbasal line, towards tips whitish. Under- surface of hindwings grey (in laiomxma whitish). Moimt Enys, 5,600 ft., in January (Hudson) ; one specimen. Allied to latomana Meykick. — Xofcft (ind Dcxrn ptioits of X.Z. Lepido])tcra. 75 Okcophoridae. Cremnogenes monodonta ii. sp. o ?. 17 nun. Head, palpi, antennae, thorax, and abdomen dark fuscous ; antennal ciliations 4, whorled. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen very obliquely rounded ; dark bronzy-purplish -fuscous ; a small whitish-ochreous elongate mark on fold before middle of wing, and a few ochreous-whitish scales towards dorsum before tornus, in one specimen these markings confluent so as to form an obscure semioval dorsal patch : cilia bronzy-fuscous, mixed with darker towards base, beneath tornus with an ochreous-whitish spot. Hindwiiigs dark bronzy-fuscous ; cilia bronzy- fuscous, with darker subbasal shado. Mount Holdsworth, 3,000-4,000 ft., in November (.Sunley) ; three speci- mens. Cryptolechia Zell. As explained elsewhere, I have merged in this genus Phaeosaces Meyr. and Leptosaces Meyr. Cryptolechia semnodes n. sp. o. 16 mm. Head, antennae, and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi dark fuscGUS, second joint sprinkled with pale ochreous. Abdomen dark purplish- fuscous, beneath with last four segments suffused with brassy-yellow. Fore- wings elongate, somewhat dilated posteriorly, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, somewhat oblique ; 7 to termen ; dark fuscous, with slight bronzy-purplish tinge ; second discal stigma very ob- scurely darker ; two or three whitish-fuscous scales towards costa about middle and ;] : cilia dark fuscous. Hindwings blackish ; cilia fuscous, basal third blackish. Mount Arthur tableland, 4,200 ft., in Februaiy (Hudson) ; one speci- men. COSMOPTERYGIDAE. Stathmopoda plumbifiua n. sp. (3 2. 14-15 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax pale whitish- ochreous, shoulders and subdorsal stripes of thorax leaden-grey. Abdo- men pale grey, anal tuft pale whitish-ochreous. Forewings very narrow, elongate-lanceolate ; pale whitish-ochreous ; extreme costal edge leaden- grey ; a leaden-metallic subcostal streak from near base to beyond J ; a similar streak running near above fold, confluent with subcostal towards base, continued very near above termen to apex ; space between these two streaks more or less sprinkled with dark fuscous ; a more or less marked leaden-metallic patch above dorsum towards base, edged posteriorly with some dark-fuscous scales ; a slender leaden-metallic streak along posterior half of fold, terminated anteriorly with some dark-fuscous scales : cilia pale whitish-ochreous. Hindwings grey ; cilia ochreous-grey-whitish. West Plains, Invercargill, in November and January (Philpott) ; two sjDecimens. Glyphiptp:rygidae. Glyphipteryx leptosema Meyr. One specimen, larger than type, 11 mm., with dorsal curved wedge- shaped whitish mark sharply defined (as also in a second example obtained 76 T/rnifiarfwns. by myself from Auckland) ; bred from larvae in flower-stems of Gahnia sctijolia (Cyperaceoe) at Kaitoke, emerging in November (Hudson). Glyphipteryx erastis n. sp. (J 2. 8-10 mm. Head and thorax iuscous-bronze. Palpi with appressed scales, white, with four black bands. Antennae dark fuscous. Abdom.en dark fuscous, segmental margins somewhat whitish-sufTused. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen somewhat sinuate, rather strongly oblique; rather dak bronzy-fuscous, median third suffused with bronzy-ochreous ; an oblique whitish fascia near base, more or less indis- tinct towards costa, dilated into a triangular spot on lower half ; a wedge- shaped rather oblique whitish mark from costa at ^, reaching more than half across wing ; two narrow straight prismatic-silvery fasciae in and beyond middle, becoming whitish towards extremities, first more broadly ; three short wedge-shaped whitish marks on costa posteriorly ; an elongate black blotch along lower half of termen containing three violet-golden -metallic spots ; space between this and costal marks traversed by six longitudinal sufTused whitish streaks, separated by blackish scales ; prismatic-silvery dots beneath costa near apex, at apex, and on termen beneath apex : cilia whitish, basal third bronzy-ochreous limited by a dark-fuscous line indented with whitish beneath apex. Hindwings and cilia dark fuscous. Christchurch, Castle Hill (2,500 ft.), and Lake Wakatipu, from December to March ; six specimens. Glyphipteryx dichorda n. sp. (J 9. 10-11 mm. Head and thorax rather dark bronzy-fuscous. Palpi loosely scaled, white, with four black bands, and anterior edge of terminal joint black towards aj)ex. Antennae and abdomen dark fuscous. Fore- wings elongate, somewhat dilated posteriorly, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen faintly sinuate, oblique ; dark shining fuscous-bronze ; curved wedge-shaped white spots from dorsum at J and beyond middle, reaching fold, second broader ; light-fuscous rather oblique streaks, edged with dark-fuscous suffusion, from costa at J and before middle, reaching | across wing ; a violet-golden-metallic daik-edged line from a whitish dot on costa at e, rather abruptly bent round in disc, terminating in apex of second dorsal spot ; a violet-golden-metallic dark-edged line from f of costa to tornus, curved or obtusely angulated in middle ; three short whitish strigulae, dark-edged anteriorly, from costa towards apex ; a violet-golden- metallic streak along lower part of termen, and a dot below apex : cilia whitish, basal third bronzy limited by a dark-fuscous line indented with white on subapical dot. Hindwings and cilia dark fuscous. Whangarei and Wellington, in December ; two specimens. Simaethis antigrapha n. sp. cJ ^. 10-11 mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous irroratcd witli white. Palpi with whorls of dark-fuscous white-tipped scales. Antenna(> dark fuscous dotted with white. Abdomen dark fuscous, with series of white scales on segmental margins. Forewings suboblong, moderate, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen nearly straight, oblique ; dark fuscous ; basal patch and two irregular rather curved shades of purplish-white irroration almost wholly occupying anterior half of wing, last running from a small white spot before middle of costa to middle of dorsum : a small transverse- linear pale golden-nu>tallic mark on end of cell ; a line of purplish-white- Metrick. — Notes and Descnpfioiis of N.Z. Lcpidoptcra. 77 irroration from j? of costa to | of dorsum, median third irregularly curved outwards so as to touch following fascia ; a straight fascia of purplish- white irroration from I of costa to tornus, this and preceding line both forming small white spots on costa ; a series of scattered white scales before termen : cilia dark fuscous, with basal fourth blackish-fuscous, tips mixed with white, with a broad white patch extending from near apex to middle of termen except on basal fourth. Hindwings ovate-triangular, termen slightly rounded ; dark fuscous ; in ? an irregular white subterminal line on lower half of wing, in cj represented by a few scattered scales : cilia fuscous, more or less whitish -suffused towards middle of termen, with dark- fuscous subbasal shade, tips whitish. Kaitoke and Karori, in December and March|^(Hudson) ; three speci- mens. Simaethis iochondra n. sp, (S. 16-17 mm. Head and thorax dark brown, with a few whitish specks. Palpi clothed with whorls of dark-fuscous whitish-tipped scales. Antennae dark fuscous dotted with white. Abdomen dark fuscous. Forewings sub- oblong, moderate, costa moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded, oblique ; dark bronzy-brown ; basal area sprinkled with violet-whitish specks ; a very undefined irregularly dentate shade of violet-whitish specks from -| of costa to middle of dorsum ; an irregular fascia of violet-whitish specks at I, constricted above middle, dilated on dorsum so as to coalesce with preceding shade ; a light brownish-ochreous patch in disc between these ; a terminal streak of ochreous-brown suffusion : cilia ochreous-brownish, mixed with darker at apex and tornus, tips whitish. Hindwings ovate- triangular, termen slightly rounded, hardly perceptibly sinuate ; dark fuscous ; cilia grey, with dark-fuscous subbasal shade, tips whitish. Mount Holdsworth, Tararua Range, 3,000 ft., in February (Hudson); two specimens. TiNEIDAE. Decadarchis hemiclistra n. sp. c? 15-17 mm., $ 22 mm. Head and thorax ochreous- whitish, sometimes brownish-tinged, hairs of forehead sometimes mixed with dark fuscous. Palpi whitish, second joint suffused externally with dark fuscous, beneath with whitish projecting scales increasing to apex, terminal joint mode- rate, slender, with appressed scales. Antennae fuscous-whitish. Abdomen whitish-fuscous. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly sinuate, extremely oblique ; ochreous- white, on dorsal half and towards apex in ^ tinged with brownish, in § more strongly infuscated, with variable scattered dark -fuscous and black scales, especially in $ ; a dark-fuscous streak along costa from base to middle, posteriorly dilated and truncate ; an elongate suffused dark-fuscous mark beneath costa about § ; a blackish-fuscous streak from | of disc to apex, interrupted before apex, edged above with an ochreous-whitish line : cilia ochreous-whitish, with more or less marked dark-fuscous post median line, at apex with a blackish bar, round apex wath a blackish-fuscous subbasal shade. Hindwings in 6* whitish - grey, in $ light grey ; cilia ochreous- whitish. Wellington, in December (Hudson) ; reared from larvae and pupae in flower-stems of toetoe {Arundo conspicua), at Makara, emerging in November 78 Transactions. and February (Sunley). The larval habit is very interesting. The natural food of species of this group of genera appears to be dead woody fibre. Tinea dicharacta Meyr. Tinea dicharacta Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.8.W., 1892, p. 536. ^. 10 mm. (Australian cj 6 mm.). Head pale ochreous. Thorax dark iuscous. Forewings dark fuscous, with four fasciae represented principally by groups of two or three white strigulae each, indistinctly connected by glossy purplish-leaden striation, last supapical. Hind wings dark purplish- fuscous. Wellington, in November (Hudson) ; one specimen. Described origin- ally from one specimen, taken at Sydney, New South Wales, in November,- which has hitherto remained unique. The species is a very distinct one, and its identity is undoubted. Mr. Hudson has another specimen, but regards the species as very rare ; it is probably semi-domestic in habits. Art. XI. — A Revision of the Classification of Neic Zealand Tortricina. By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Communicated by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. [Read hejore the Wellington Philosophical Society, Wednesday, (ith July, liJlO.] I HAVE lately been preparing a paper on the Australian species of Tortricina, and it seemed desirable to take the opportunity to revise the New Zealand species also. Considerable progress has been made in the study of the group since my paper in the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " for 1884 ; my views have been modified as to the relative value of some structural characters ; the limits of the species, which are often very vari- able, are now better understood, and many additional forms have been discovered meanwhile. I have also corrected some unfortunate errors of identification. It should be understood that many of Walker's New Zea- land types are in the most deplorable condition, sometimes reduced to one or two broken fragments. I therefore lately took up my whole collection of the group to the British Museum, in order to have the advantage of com- paring all my material with the types, and I think I have now identified the whole of Walker's species of this group from Australia and New Zealand with approximate certainty. In regard to structural characters, 1 have come to the conclusion that the costal fold of the male is not of value as a generic; character, and have tlierefore abandoned its use. More stress, on the other hand, has been laid on certain difl^'erences in the neuration of the hindwings and on the struc- ture of the palpi. Meyrick. — Class/' ficdf /on of Xe/r ZeaJ(i//(1 Tortriciiia. 79 After careful study 1 have concluded that the curious genus Isono- meutis is not correctly referable to this group, and it is removed to the Plutellidac. I have been assisted in this determination by obtaining an apparently allied genus from Queensland which possesses distinct maxil- lary palpi. The genus may be distinguished from all New Zealand I'or- tricina by having 6 and 7 of hindwings parallel. Carposinidae. Ocelli absent. Forewings with tufts of scales on surface ; 2 from pos- terior fifth of cell, 7 to termen, separate. Hindwings with or without basal pecten on lower margin of cell ; 5 absent, 6 usually absent or rudimentary, parallel to 7 when present, 7 to apex. Easily known by the peculiar neuration of hindwijigs. There are six Australian genera, but only one occurs in New Zealand. 1. Carposina H. S. Carfosina H. S., Schm. Eur., vol. 5, p. 38 (1855) ; type, berberidella. Heterocrossa Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1882, p. 178 ; type, adreptella. Antennae in (^ with moderate or long ciliations (1-4). Palpi long or very long, porrected, second joint with projecting scales above and beneath, terminal more or less concealed. Forewings : 8 separate. Hindwings with basal pecten on cell ; in c? sometimes not developed ; 3 and 4 stalked, 6 absent. Principally characteristic of the Hawaiian Islands and Australia, with stragglers in North America and Europe. 1. C. contactella Walk., Cat., vol. 35, p. 1813 : Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1905, p. 235. Wellington. 2. C. thalamota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1908, p. 12. Invercargill. 3. C. adreptella Walk., Cat., vol. 29, p. 654 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.8.W., 1881, p. 698 ; ib., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1882.^ p. 66. Hamilton, Christchurch, Lake AVakatipu, Invercargill. Larva in shoots of Rubus. 4. C. iophaea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, p. 118. Invercargill. 5. C. cryodana, Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 148. Dunedin, Invercargill. 6. C. exochana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1887, p. 76. Masterton. Wellington, Nelson. 7. C. charaxias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1890, p. 98. Wellington. 8. C. eriphylla Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1887, p. 76. Wellington. 9. C. gonosemana Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1882, p. 179 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst.. 1882, p. 67 : epomiana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 149. Wellington, Nelson, Otira River, Dunedin. 80 Transactions. TORTRICIDAE. Ocelli present. Forewings with 2 from before f of lower maroiu ^^i cell. Hindwings without basal pecten on lower margin of cell (except Epalxiphora and Ctenopseustis), 5 present. This is the principal family in New Zealand and Australia, but not generally elsewhere. It is distinguished from the Eucosmidae by the absence of the basal pecten of cell in hindwings ; but three genera which possess this pecten {Ctenopseustis and Epalxiphora in New Zealand, and Sparganothis in America and subsequently Europe) must notwithstanding be included in the family on a consideration of the sum of their characters, the occur- rence of the structure being perhaps due to reversion. In no genus of Eucos- midae is the pecten absent, 2. Proselena Meyr. Proselena Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 421 ; type, anjio- sana. Prothelymna Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Iirst., 1882, p. 57 ; type, antiquama. Antennae in ^ rather strongly ciliated. Palpi moderate, porrected, second joint dilated with rough scales above and beneath, terminal short. Thorax smooth. Forewings with 7 to termen, 8 separate. Hindwings with 3 from much before angle, remote and nearly equidistant from 2 -and 4, 4 from angle, 5 rather approximated to 4 at base, transverse vein extremely oblique, 6 and 7 long-stalked. I now restrict this genus in its original sense, removing from it those forms in which veins 3 and 4 ot hindwings are approximated at base, which have no near relationship with the origiiial type. The genus now includes only one Australian species and two from New Zealand. 10. P. niphostrota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, p. 117. Wellington, Invercargill. 11. P. antiquana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 307 ; inaoriana, ib., p. 308 ; jusi- jerana, ib., p. 355 ; spoliatana, ib., p. 356 ; vctustana, ib., p. 358 ; morosana, ib.. p. 382 ; accensana, ib., vol. 30, p. 983 ; nephelotana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 57. Christchurch. 3. Pyrgotis Meyr. Pyryotis Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 439 ; type, />(- signana. Antennae in c? moderately stronglyjciliated. Palpi moderate, sub- ascending, second joint with rough projecting scales beneath and towards apex above, terminal moderate. Thorax with posterior crest. Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to termen. Hindwings with 3-5 sepaiate, equi- distant, rather approximated towards base, 6 and 7 short-stalked. Now restricted to one Australian and two New Zealand species. 12. P. pi/ramidias Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1901, p. 571. Invercargill. 13. P. eudor ana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 143. Taranaki, Metrick. — Clasfifiefifion of Tcvr ZtaJdHd Tortriciiia. 81 4. Catamacla n.g. Antennae in ,^ moderately ciliated. Palpi rathei- long, porrected, second joint with projecting scales above and beneath, terminal moderate. Thorax Avithout crest. Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to termen. Hindwings with 3 and 4 approximated at base, 5 more or less approximated to 4, 6 and 7 stalked. Type, gavisana Walk. Contains only the following species, some of which I formerly wrongly referred to Adoxophyes, which is characterized by the peculiar position of vein 3 of forewings, which rises from lower margin of cell considerably before angle ; this latter genus does not occur in New Zea- land. 14. C. trichroa Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Loud., 1901, p. 578. Whangarei. 15. ('. rureana Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 137, p. 47 : camelina Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1890, p. 97. Wellington. 16. C. htinana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 40. Christchurch. Larva on Arundo conspicua. 17. C. gavisana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 312 ; ? mnotatana, ib., p. 333 ; ritar- ginana, ih., p. 371 ; porphyreana Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 443 ; aoristana, ib., p. 446 ; conditana Meyr. (nee Walk.), Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 40. Auckland, Napier, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin, Invercargill. Larva on Genista in gardens, but must also feed on a native plant. 5. Capua 8teph. Capua Steph., 111. Brit. Ent., vol. 4, p. 171 (1834) ; type, javillaceana. Epatpge Hb., Verz., p. 389 (1826) ; ? type, grotiana. Dichelia Guen., Micr. Ind., p. 7 (1845) ; type, grotiana. Teratodes Guen., Micr. Ind., p. 34 (1845) ; type, favillaceana. Antennae in o ciliated. Palpi moderate, porrected, second joint with more or less projecting scales above and beneath, terminal short. Thorax usually with slight crest. Forewings wdth 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to termen. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate or seldom stalked, 5 approximated to 4 at base, 6 and 7 stalked. I do not adopt the name Epagogc, because (1) the application of it is dubious, as I do not admit the principle of accidental fixation by Stephens's use ; and (2) I hold that the name Capua, which has over seventy years' use in a sense undoubtedly correct, is not to be overridden by an obsolete name now revived. Widely distributed, but much more numerous in Aus- tralia than elsewhere. 18. C. cyclobathra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, p. 114. Invercargill. 19. C. zygiana Meyi-., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 39. Christchurch. 20. C. tornota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, p. 115. Invercaroill. 82 . Transactions. 21. C. plagiatana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 370 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.. 1881, p. Ml ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 38 : recusana Walk., Cat.^ vol. 28, p. 371 : luciplagana, ih., p. 381 ; Mevr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 470 ; Trans. N.Z. List., 1882, jp. 36 : funana Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 137, p. 43 : xylinana, ih., p. 44. Taranaki, Wellington, Blenheim, Christckurch, Otira River, Dunedin, Auckland Island. Larva on oak {Querais). but must also feed on a native plant. 22. C. pUnthoghjpta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1891, p. 218. W>,llington. 23. C. semijerana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 306 : Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W\, 1881, p. 453 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 37 : detritana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 356 : admotella, ih., p. 485 : ahnegatana, ih., vol. 30, p. 991 : constrictana, ih., vol. 35, p. 1785. Wliangarei, Hamilton, Taranaki, Napier, W^ellington, Nelson, Castle Hill, Christchurch, Dunedin, Invercargill. Walker's type of constrictana is said to be from Australia, but this is doubtless an error of record. 6. Eurythecta Meyr. Eurythecta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 56 ; type, rohusta. Antennae in cj ciliated. Palpi moderate, porrected, second joint with projecting scales above and beneath, terminal short. Thorax without crest. Fore wings with 4 absent, 7 separate, to termen, or absent. Hindwings 6 and 7 approximated at base. Confined to New Zealand, being a local development of the following genus. The first two species have vein 7 of the forewings absent, in the others it is present ; the alliance being close in all other respects, and the genus being sufficiently defined as a whole, I think it needless to separate the two forms. 24. E. rohusta Butl, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1877, p. 403, fig. 17 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 56 : negligens Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1877, p. 404, fig. 18. Christchurch. 25. E. zelaea Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1905, p. 233. Dunedin. 26. E. potamias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1908, p. 11. Invercargill. 27. E. paraloxa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, p. 117. Invercargill. 28. E. loxias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1887, p. 74. Mount Arthur (4,000 ft.). 29. E. eremana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 144. Castle Hill (2,500 ft.), Invercargill. 7. Epichorista n.g. Antennae in o ciliated. Pal])i moderate, porrected, second joint witli rough projecting scales above and beneath, termiiial short. Thorax with- out crest. Forewings with 7 separate, to termen. Hindwings with 3 and 4 Metrick. — Chi^.^ifiration of Scir Ztuhnul Toi'tricina. 83 separate, approximated at base, 5 rather approximated to 4 at base, 6 and 7 closely approximated towards base or seldom stalked. Type, E. hemionnna. Veins 6 and 7 of hindwings are normally stalked in siriana only, but it does not appear necessary to separate the species. The genus is a development of Tortrix ; besides the seven New Zealand species there are seven Australian, and I have recently obtained three from South Africa. 30. E. siriana Mevr., Proc. Linn. 8oc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 521 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, "p. 43. Hamilton. _ _, 31. E. hemionana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 43. ,■"'■"•'. ' ' Lake Guyon, Arthur's Pass, Dunedin. 32. E. ekphantina Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 143. Arthur's Pass (4,700 ft.). :' 33. E. aspistana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 42. Porter's Pass. 34. E. emphanes Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1901, p. 571 Mount Peel. 35. E. zatrophana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 46 ; ih., 1884, p. 144. Mount Arthur (2,600 ft.), Arthur's Pass (2,600-3,000 ft.), Christ- church. 36. E. eribola Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1888, p. 156. Otira River. 8. Ascerodes Meyr. Ascerodes Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1905, p. 234 ; type, pro- chlora. Antennae in o biciliated with long fascicles. Palpi moderate, porrected, triangularly scaled with long rough projecting hairs diminishing to apex. Thorax without crest, hairy beneath. Forewings with 7 separate, to ter- men. Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate, approximated at base, 5 parallel, 6 and 7 closely approximated towards base. At present contains only the one species. 37. A. prochlora Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1905, p. 234. Humboldt Range (4.000 ft.). 9. Tortrix L. Tortrix L., Syst. Nat. (ed. 10), vol. 1, p. 496 (1758) ; type, viridana. Antennae in o ciliated. Palpi moderate or long, porrected, second joint with rough projecting scales above and beneath, terminal short or moderate. Thorax without crest. Forewings with 7 separate, to termen. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate, 5 approximated towards base, 6 and 7 closely ap- proximated towards base. This extensive genus is largely represented in all regions. The generic synonymy is considerable, but is not given here, as not affecting the New^ Zealand species. 38. T. pictoriana Feld.. Reis. Nov., pi. 137. p. 55 : Mevr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 51. Christchurch, Mount Hutt, Lake Guyon, Lake A\'akatipu. 84 Transactions. 39. T. philopoann Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 515; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 52. Hamilton. 40. T. leucaniana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 370 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 517 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 53 : intactella Walk., Cat., vol. 29, p. 652 : paucnlana, ib., vol. 35, p. 1781. Whangarei, Auckland, Hamilton, Taranaki, Napier, Wellington, Nelson, Ckristchurcli, Invercargill. 41. T. demiana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 51. Rakaia. 42. T. indigestana Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 520. Whangarei ; common in Australia, whence it may have been artificially introduced. Larva in Australia on Hihhertia linearis, but very likely also on other plants. 43. T. avrodana Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 520 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 53. Whangarei, Hamilton, Napier. 44. T. charactana Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 492 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 50. Auckland, Nelson. Christchurch. 45. T. orthropis Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1901, p. 573. Wellington, Nelson, Dunedin. 46. T. postvittana Walk,, Cat., vol. 28, p. 297 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 502 : retractana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 288 : scitulana, ib., p. 298 : hasialbana, ib., p. 299 : secretana, ib., p. 300 : consociana, ib., p. 311 : reversana, ib., p. 321 : foedana, ib., p. 321 : vicariana Walk., Char. Het., p. 82. Wellington, Christchurch ; undoubtedly introduced from Aus- tralia, where is is plentiful. Larva polyphagous, on Grevillea, Boronia, &c. ; has been bred from apples. 47. T. torogmmma Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond,, 1897, p. 388. Wellington. 48. T. conditana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 306 ; enoplana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 49 ; astrologana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1888, p. 156. Wellington. This is a very variable species, hitherto not under- stood ; on the other hand, I think the Tasmanian specimen whicli I associated with astrologana is really not identical. 49. T. syntuna Meyr., Subantarctic Islands of N.Z., vol. 1, p. 73. Auckland Island. 50. T. alopecana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 147. Bealey River. Larva in spun shoots of Phyllocladus alpinus. 51. T. excessana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 303 ; Mevr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 491 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p". 48 : biguttana Walk.. Cat., vol. 28, p. 305 : ? abjectana, ib., vol. 35, p. 1781. Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin. Larva between joined leaves of Panax arboreum, and probably other shi'ubs. 52. T. acrocausta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, p. 116. Christchurch, Invercargill. 53. T. fervida Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1901, p. 572. Kaitoke. Meykick. — CIaS)iific(i(ioii of New Zcolaiid Tortricina. 85 5i. T. molyhditis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, p. 116. Wellington. Larva case-bearing, on moss. 55. T. crijpsidora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1908, p. 11. Tararua Range (3,500 ft.), Invercargill. 10. Epalxiphora Meyr. Epalxiphora Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 647 ; type^ axenana. Antennae in o ciliated. Palpi moderate, subascending, second joint with dense tolerably appressed scales somewhat expanded towards apex, terminal moderate. Thorax with large erect crest on each side of back, and small double posterior crest. Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to termen. Hindwings with basal pecten on lower margin of cell, 3 and 4 separate, 3, 4, and 5 more or less closely approximated towards base, 6 and 7 stalked. The single peculiar species which constitutes this genus is very variable,, but can be recognized from all others by the triple thoracic crest. 56. E. axenana Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 648 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 58 ; ib., 1884, p. 147. Auckland, Taranaki, Palmerston, Wellington. 11. Ctenopseustis Meyr. Ctenopseustis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 146 ; type, obliquana.. Antennae in (^ shortly ciliated. Palpi moderate, porrected, second joint with projecting scales above and beneath, terminal short. Thorax without crest. Forewings with 7 separate, to termen. Hindwings with basal pecten on lower margin of cell, 3 and 4 connate, 5 approximated to 4 at base, 6 and 7 closely approximated towards base. Also including only one very variable species. 57. C. obliquana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 302 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 60 ; ib.. 1884, p. 146 : spurcatana W^alk., Cat., vol. 28^ p. .305 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 487 : servana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 306 : priscana, ib., p. 307 : congestana, ib., p. 308 : transtrigana, ib., p. 354 : turbulentana, ib., p. 355 : cunei- ferana, ib., vol. 35, p. 1780 : contractana, ib., p. 1782 : ropeana Feld.,. Reis. Nov., pi. 137, p. 45 : taipana, ib., p. 46 : herana, ib., p. 52 : inana Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1877, p. 403, fig. 13. Whangarei, Auckland, Hamilton, Taranaki, Napier, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, Dmiedin. Larva amongst spun leaves of Veronica, Lonicera, &c. 12. Harmologa Meyr. Harmologa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 44 ; type, oblongana.. Trachybathra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, 114; type, sec- liastis. Antennae in o ciliated. Palpi moderate or long, porrected, second joint with rough projecting scales above and beneath, terminal moderate. Thorax with crest. Forewings with 7 separate, to termen. Hindwings. with 3, 4, 5 approximated towards base, 6 and 7 stalked. .86 Tranmctioiis. Besides the following species there are two Australian. The example described as the type of Trachybathra appears to be a singular instance of abnormal neuration ; it has 7 and 8 of forewings stalked and 4 of hindwings absent, but a second example subsequently obtained has the normal struc- ture of Harmologa. These two examples unquestionably represent the same species, and the only possible conclusion seems that the first is a struc- tural aberration or monstrosity. 58. H. amplexana ZelL, Zool. Bot. Ver., 1875, p. 222 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 494 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 47 : vilis Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1877, p. 402, fig. 15. Wellington, Greymouth, Christchurch, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu. .59. H. aenea Butl. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1877, p. 402 ; Mcyr., Trans. N.Z. List., 1882, p. 46. Porter's Pass, Mount Hutt. 60. H. simea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. List., 1884, p. 145. Arthur's Pass (4,500 ft.), Mount Arthur (4,000-4,500 ft.). •61. H. e pleura n. sp. ,5'. 16 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous mixed with ferruginous- brownish. Antennal ciliations |. Abdomen bronzy - grey. Forewings elonoate, posteriorly dilated, costa gently arched, somewhat bent in middle, with fold reaching to middle, apex obtuse, termen almost straight, rather oblique ; fuscous, somewhat tinged with ferruginous-brownish ; markings indefinite, formed by brownish suffusion mixed with ferruginous and pale- ochreous scales ; a moderate basal patch, outer edge somewhat curved ; central fascia moderately broad, oblique, rather narrowed towards costa ; apical area beyond a line from f of costa to tornus irregularly striated : cilia pale greyish-ochreous somewhat mixed with ferruginous-ochreous, wdth a purplish-grey subbasal shade. Hindwings dark grey ; cilia whitish-grey, with grey subbasal shade. Castle Hill (3.000 ft.), in January ; one specimen. 62. H. achfosta Meyr., Trans.' Ent. Soc. Lond., 1901, p. 572. Mount Arthur. 6.3. //. scolinstis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906. p. 114. Lake Wakatipu. 64. H. (Mom/ana \¥alk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 303 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 489 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 45 : inaptana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 304 : cuneigern Butl, Cist. Ent., vol. 2, p. 559. Blenheim, Christchurch, Castle Hill, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu. Larva in dense web on Discaria tournatou, and probably othov plants. 65. //. sisyrana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 44. Wellington , Christchurch . 66. //. hniiidista Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1905, p. 233. Wellington. 1-3. Cnephasia Vuv^. ('iicphdsid Curt., Brit. Ent., vol. 3, p. 100 (1826); type, jxisciudki. Sciaphila Treits., Schmett. Eur., vol. 7. p. 233 (1829) ; type, loahlbomiana. Dipterina Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.\\'., 1881, p. 523 ; type, imhrijerana. Antennae in o ciliated. Palpi moderate or long, porrected. second joint with projecting scales above and beneath, terminal moderate. Thorax Meyrick. — Clasnif ration of New Zealand Tortriciiia. 87 sometimes with small crest. Forewings with 7 separate, to termen. Hiud- wings with 3 and 4 connate, 5 approximated to 4, 6 and 7 stalked. A rather extensive genus, but principally in temperate regions. 67. C. incessana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 304 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.8.\V., 1881, p. 529 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 55. Auckland, Taranaki, Christchurch. 68. C. jactatana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 317 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 54 : flexivittana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 353 : privatana, ib., p. 382 : voluta Feld., Reis. Nov., pi. 137, p. 39. Whangarei, Auckland, Taranaki, Palmerston, Makotuku, Welling- ton, Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin. 69. C. sphenias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1908, p. 11. Invercargill. 70. C. latomana Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 145. Mount Arthur (4,400-4,600 ft.), Arthur's Pass (4,700 ft.). 71. C. petrias Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1901, p. 572. Invercargill. 72. C. imhriferana Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 527 ; Trans. N.Z. inst., 1882, p. 55. Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin. EUCOSMIDAE. Ocelli present. Forewings with 2 from before | of lower margin of cell. Hindwings with basal pecten on lower margin of cell, 5 present. This family is very scantily represented in New Zealand, though very numerous throughout the Northern Hemisphere. The total absence of the very large genus Argyroploce. is particularly noticeable. 14. Hendecasticha Meyr. Hendecasticha Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 691 ; type,^ aethaliana. Antennae in (^ ciliated, with an excavated notch in stalk towards base. Palpi moderate, porrected, second joint with dense rough projecting hairs above and beneath, terminal short. Thorax without crest. Forewings with 7 absent, 8 to costa. Hindwings with 4 absent, 5 somewhat approxi- mated towards 3 at base, 6 and 7 stalked. Contains only the single species ; a local modification of Spilonota. 73. H. aethaliana Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 692 • Trans N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 64. Hamilton. 15. Spilonota Steph. Spilonota Steph., Cat. Brit. Ins., p. 173 (1829) ; type, ocellana^ Tmetocera Led., Wien. Ent. Mon., 1859, p. 367 ; type, ocellana. Monilia Walk., Cat., vol. 35, p. 1741 (1866) ; type, semicanella. Strepsiceros Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 678 (praeocc.) : type, ejectana. Strepsicrates Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1886, p. 73 ■ type, ejectana. Antennae in cT ciliated, wdth an excavated notch in stalk towards base. Palpi moderate, porrected, second joint with dense rough projecting scales 88 T idiisactions. above and beneath, sometimes tufted beneath, terminal short. Thorax without crest. Forewings 7 separate, to termen. Hindwings with 3 and 4 long-stalked or coincident, 5 closely approximated to 4 at base, 6 and 7 approximated towards base. A genus of moderate extent and wide distribution, but principally Australian ; two of the New Zealand species occur also in Australia. 74. 8. charopa Me^'r., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1887, p. 73. Whangarei, Auckland. 75. ^S'. dolopaea Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1905, p. 232. Wellington. 76. ;S'. parthenia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1887, p. 73. Auckland. 77. ;S'. zopherana Meyr., Proc Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 688 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 64. Hamilton, Wellington, C'hristchurch, Dunedin. Also in Aus- tralia. 78. S. emplasta Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 190L p. 571. Invercargill. 79. S. chaophila Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1908. p. 10. Wellington. -80. >S'. ejectana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 350 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, p. 681 ; Trans. N.Z. List., 1882"^ p. 63 : servilisana Walk., Cat., vol. 28, p. 356 : saxana, ib., p. 357 : ligniferana, ib., p. 363. Hamilton, Palmerston, Wellington, Christchurch, Lake Waka- tipu. Also common and widely distributed in Australia. Larva amongst spun leaves and shoots of Kunzca capitata and Darwinia fasciculata. 16. Eucosma Hb. Eucosma Hb., Zutr. Exot. Schm., p. 28 (1823) ; type, circulana. Epihhma Hb., Verz., p. 365 (1826) ; type, foenella. Protithona Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 62 ; type, fugitivana. Exoria Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 65 ; type, mochlophorana. Parienia Berg., Com. Mus. Buen. Air., vol. 1, p. 78 (1899) ; type, inocJilophorana. Antennae in ^ ciliated. Palpi moderate, porrected, second joint with "dense rough projecting scales above and beneath, terminal short. Thorax without crest. Forewings with 7 separate, to termen. Hindwings with 3 and 4 usually stalked, sometimes connate or coincident, 5 approximated to 4 at base, 6 and 7 approximated towards base. A very extensive genus, but principally characteristic of the Northern Hemisphere. The full generic synonymy includes a large )iuniber of addi- tional names. 81. E. viochlopliorand Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882. p. 65. Rakaia, Lumsden. 82. E. aphrias Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1901. j). 578. Invercargill. .;83. E. jiKjitivana Meyr., Tran^-. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. (52. Lake Coleridtic. Mkyiuck. — CUtssijicdt toil of jVeir '/jialund Tortriciua. 89 17. Bactra Stepli. Bactra Stepli., 111., p. 124 (1834) ; type, lanceolnnd. .Ipht'liti Steph., Cat. Brit. Ins., p. 180 (1829) {praeocc.) ; type, lanceolana. Cki- loides Butl., Ann. Mag. N.H. (5), vol. 7, 'p. 392 (1881); type, straminea. Noteraula Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1891, p. 217 ; type, noteraidn. Antemiae in o ciliated. Palpi moderate or long, porrected, second joint with projecting scales above and beneath, terminal short. Thorax without crest. Forewings with 7 separate, to termen. Hindwings with 3, 4, 5 closely approximated at base, 6 and 7 stalked. A rather considerable genus of wide distribution, of which the species are very similar and puzzling, and have been involved in much confusion. Some of the species, and very possibly all, are attached to various species of Juncus. There is often much variability, but the length of palpi, form of forewings, and colour of hindwings are important and reliable characters. 84. B. noteraula Wals., Faun. Haw., vol. 1, p. 689 ; straminea Mevr. (nee Butl.), Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1884, p. 142. Taranaki, Wanganui, Otaki, Mangatarera River, Nelson. 85. B. optanias n. sp. $. 17-18 mm. Head and thorax light brownish-ochreous, sometimes suffused with light brown-reddish, thorax sometimes mixed with grey. Palpi 2 J, whitish-ochreous sometimes partially suffused with light brown-reddish, two oblique bands and scales of second joint beneath suffused with grey, base whitish. Abdomen pale grey or whitish-grey. Forewings elongate, narrow, posteriorly slightly dilated, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen straight, oblique ; pale brownish-ochreous, sometimes much suffused with ferruginous, variably sprinkled or sometimes largely irrorated with fuscous, veins posteriorly sometimes marked with fuscous lines ; costa with short oblique strigulae of dark-fuscous irroration, between which on posterior half are longer oblique leadeii-metallic marks, some of which are sometimes continued as indistinct irregular striae across wing ; some- times a broad suffused median streak of blackish irroration from base to apex, or in its place a longitudinal series of several irregular black spots or marks : cilia pale ochreous or grey, more or less sprinkled with black. Hindwings grey- whitish, apex somewhat suffused with grey ; cilia grey- whitish, round apex greyer, with grey subbasal line. Hamilton, in January ; three specimens. Also widely distributed in Australia, but the above description is taken solely from my New Zealand examples. 86. B. sideritis Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.. 1905, p, 232, Wellington (?). 18. Laspeyresia HI), Laspeyresia Hb,, Verz., p. 381 (1826) ; type, corollana. Carpocapsa Tr., Schmett. Eur., vol. 7, p. 231 ; type, pomonella. Antennae in o ciliated. Palpi moderate, more or less ascending, second joint arched, with short projecting scales beneath, terminal joint short. Thorax without crest. Forewings with 7 separate, to termen. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate or stalked, 5 nearly parallel to 4, 6 and 7 approximated towards base. 90 Trammctiom A considerable genus, generally distributed, but only represented in New Zealand by a single introduced species. 87. L. pomonella Linn., Syst. Nat., vol. 10, p. 538 ; Mevr., Proc. Linn. See. N.S.W., 1881, p. 657 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p.^61. Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch. Larva in apples ; a well-known pest, now nearly cosmopolitan. Index of Specific Names. The references are to the specific numbers in the preceding list. in italics are synonyms. Names abjectana Walk. ..51 1 elephantina Meyr. . 32 ahnegatana Walk. . . 23 emphanes Meyr. . 34 accensana Walk. .. 11 emplasta Meyr. . 78 achrosta Meyr. . . 62 enoplana Meyr. . 48 acrocausta Meyr. .. 52 epicura Meyr. . 61 admotella Walk. .. 23 e/pomiana Meyr. . 9 adreptella Walk. .. 3 eremana Meyr. . 29 aenea Bull. . . .. 59 eribola Meyr. . 36 aerodana Meyr. .. 43 eriphylla Meyr. . 8 aethaliana Meyr. .. 73 eudorana Meyr. . 13 alopecana Meyr. .. 50 excessana Walk. . 51 amplexana Zell. .. 58 exochana Meyr. . 6 antiquana Wall: .. 11 fervida Meyr. . 53 aoristana Meyr. .. 17 flexivittana Walk. . 68 aphrias Meyr. .. 82 foedana Walk. . 46 aspistana Meyr. .. 33 fugitivana Meijr. . 83 astroloyana Meyr. .. 48 fusiferana Walk. . 11 axenana Meyr. .. 56 gavisana Walk. . 17 basialbana Walk. .. 46 gonosemana Meyr. . 9 biguttana Walk. .. 51 hemiclista Meyr. . 66 camelina Meyr. .. 15 hemionana Meyr. . 31 chaophila Meyr. .. 79 herana Feld. . . . 57 charactana Meyr. .. 44 irabriferana Meyr. . 72 charaxias Meyr. 7 inana Butl. . . . 57 charopa Meyr. .. 74 inaptana Walk. . 64 conditana Meyr. .. 17 incessana Walk. . 67 conditana Walk. .. 48 indigestana Meyr. . 42 congestana Walk. .. 57 innotatana Walk. . 17 consociana Walk. .. 46 intactella Walk. . 40 constrictana Walk. .. 23 iophaea Meyr. 4 contactella Walk. 1 jactatana Walk. . 68 contractana Walk. .. 57 latomana Meyr. . 70 cryodana Meyr. .. 5 leucaniana Walk. . 40 crypsidora Meyr. .. 55 ligniferana Walk. . 80 cuneijerana Walk. .. 57 lotinana Meyr. . 16 cureigera Butl. .. 64 loxias Meyr. . . . 28 cyclobathra Meyr. .. 18 hiciplagana AV^alk. . 21 demiana Meyr. .. 41 maoriana Walk. . 11 detritana Walk. .. 23 marginana Walk. . 17 dolopaea Meyr. . . 75 mochlophorana Meyr. . . 81 ejectana Walk. .. 80 molybditis Meyr. . 54 MeyuU'K. — Classi/lrafioii of Setr ZcaJdiid 'i'ortricina 91 morosana A\'alk. . 11 saxana Walk. . 80 ncglujens But). . 24 scitulana Walk. . 46 nephclotano Meyr. . 11 scoliastis Meip\ . 63 niphostrota Meyr. . 10 secretana Walk. . 46 noteraula WaJs. . 84 semiferana Walk. . 23 obliquana Walk. . 57 servana Walk. . 57 oblongana Walk. . 64 servilisana Walk. . 80 optanias Meyr. . 85 sideritis Meyr. . 86 orthropis Meyr. . 45 siraea Meyr. . . . 60 paraloxa Meyr. . 27 sii'iaiia Meyr. . 30 partheiiia Meyr. . 76 sisyrana, Meyr. . 65 pauculana Walk. . 40 sphenias Meyr. . 69 petrias Meyr. . 71 spoliatana Walk. . 11 philopoaiia Meyr. . 39 spurcatana Walk. . 57 pictoriana Feld. . 38 straminea Meyr. . 84 plagiatana Walk. . 21 syntona Meyr. . 49 pliiithoglypta Meyr. 22 taipana Feld. . 57 pomonella Linn. . 87 thalamota Meip-. 2 fovphyreana Meyr. . 17 tornota Meyr. '. 20 postvittana Walk. . 46 torogramma Meyr. . 47 potamias Meyr. . 26 transtriqana Walk. . 57 priscana Walk. . 57 trichroa Meyr. . 14 privatana V.'alk. . 68 turhulentana Walk. . 57 prochlora Meyr. . 37 vetustana Walk. . 11 punana Feld. . 21 vicar iana Walk. . 46 pyramidias Meyr. . 12 vilis Butl. . 58 recusana Walk. . 21 valuta Feld. . . . 68 retractana Walk. . 46 xylinana Feld. . 21 r ever Sana Walk. . 46 zatrophana Meip-. . 35 robusta Butl. . 24 zelaea Meyr. . 25 ropeana Feld. . 57 zopherana Meyr. . 77 rureana Feld. . 15 Adde.} zygiana Meyr. idum. . 19 The following names are not included in the above list, in the absence of certain identification : — Sciaphila inflmana Walk., Cat., vol. 30, p. 986. Greatly damaged, but appears to be a species otherwise unknown to me, allied to Spilonota. * Teras punctilineana Walk., Cat., vol. 35, p. 1780. Type lost. I cannot recognize the description. Paedisca mahiana Feld., Reis. Nov.. pi. 137, p. 40. Apparently a distinct insect, but it is highly probable that the alleged New Zealand origin is a mistake. Teras flavescens Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Loncl., 1877, p. 402. This is apparently a Tortrix allied to excessana and acrocausta ; perhaps a good species otherwise unknown, but might be an abnormal variety. 92 Transactions. Art. XII. — Additions to the Coleopterous Fauna of the Chatham Islands. By Major T. Broun, F.E.S. [Bead before the AncMand Institute, 22nd November, 1910.] In my last paper (Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1909, vol. 42, p. 306) it was shown that, excluding introduced beetles, forty-five species of Coleoptera had been found within the group. The number, as will be seen on referring to the following list, has now been increased to 106. This considerable augmentation, by far the largest ever made, is the result of about twenty months' collecting on Pitt Island, between June, 1906, and January, 1908. The insects were sent to me for examination in June last by Mr. E. R. Waite, Curator of the Canterbury Museum, who whilst on a visit to Pitt Island induced Mr. T. Hall, now residing at Methven, to devote all his spare time to searching for insects. This work was carried on through- out winter as well as summer, and often during the night, and Mr. Hall generously acknowledges the vrilling assistance rendered by his friend Mr. R. E. Paynter. The beetles thus secured belong to thirty different groups. Some live on the sea-shore, others in solid timber, under loose bark and old logs, and many frequent flowering-shrubs. As many of the older species were included in this collection, it may be regarded as fairly representative of the coleopterous fauna of Pitt Island — probably of the whole group. Twenty-seven species proved to be new, two being the exponents of new genera ; the remaining thirty-four are common to New Zealand as well as the Chatham Islands, but none indicate any close relationship to sub- antarctic genera. The species are numbered consecutively in continuation of the system inaugurated in my first paper, published in volume 41 of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute." This m.ethod will be found very useful iu labelling specimens when named, and will save time when several species are alluded to in correspondence. As the formation of other collections in course of time may be confi- dently anticipated, it has been deemed expedient to add a few suggestions which, if attended to, will make the work of moimting specimens for micro- scopical inspection very much easier, and far more satisfactory to all con- cerned. Insects should never be immersed in alcohol : it makes them very tough, and, if dried afterwards, very brittle. Before insects can be pro- perly named and described, more especially the smaller kinds, they must be mounted on cardboard with the legs and antennae fully displayed in something like their natural positions. Any attempt to effect this in the case of alcoholic specimens is almost sure to result in mutilation, the slightest pressure of a setting-needle being sufficient to break a slender limb or joint. Generally the most important parts snap oft", or will not bend at all, and in the case of many weevils the rostrum cannot be got out of the pectoral canal without detaching the whole thorax from the hind body. Naturalists are not likely to look at such damaged specimens a second time. liuouN.—Coh'opferons Faidia of the ('halJuiw Islands. 93 Beetles should be killed in a wide-mouthed bottle containing cyanide of potassium or freshly bruised laurel-leaves. When dead they should be transmitted from time to time by the first opportunity, amongst chopped- up laurel-leaves, or, if these cannot be obtained, some other green leaves olf shrubs. They should never be packed amongst cotton or wool, as their claws become entangled with the fine fibres. Group Cnemacanthidae. 46. Mecodema oUernans Castelnau, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 10. Group Anchomenidae. 47. Anckomenus lawsoni Bates, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 23. •48. Cyclothorax insularis Motschulsky, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 29. Group Feronidae. 49. Trichosternus antarcticiis Chaudoir, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 31. Group Anisodactylidae. 50. Euthenarus puncticollis Bates, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 53. 51. Allocinopus latitarsis Broun, sp. nov. Group Staphylinidae. 52. Quedius antipodus Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1028. Group Omalidae. 53. Omalium fossigerum Eppelsheim. 54. ,, robustum Broun, sp. nov. Group Silphidae. 55. Choleva brunneipes Broun, sp. nov. Group NiTIDULIDAE. 56. Epurnca antarctica White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 169. Group COLYDIIDAE. 57. Enarsus hahewellii Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 199. 58. Tarphiotnimus acuminatus Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 183. •59. Ulonotus asper Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 189. 60. ,, plagiatus Broun, sp. nov. 61. Coxelus mucronatus Broun, sp. nov. 62. Pycnomerus mediocris Broun, sp. nov. Group BOTHRIDERIDAE. •63. Bothrideres paynteri Bromi, sp. nov. Group CucuJiDAE. 64. Chaetosoma scaritides Westwood, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 767. Group Dermestidae. 65. Trogoderma signatum Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 240. -66. ,, pictulum Broun, sp. nov. 94: T ranscictioiis. Group Aphodiidae. i 67. Aphodius sulcatissvmus Broun, sp. nov. Group Elateridae. 68. Amychus candezei Pascoe, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 9, p. 416. ' Group Dascyllidae. 69. Cyphon acerbus Broiui, Man. N.Z. Coleoj^t., p. 778. Group Melyridae. 7(). Dasytes pittensis Broun, sp. nov. Cissidae. 71. Cis undulatus Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 347. Group Trachyscelidae. 72. Phycosecis atomaria Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 359. Group Melandryidae. j 73. Ctenoplectron vittatum Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 844. Group Lagriidae. , 74. Lagrioda hrounii Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 408. I j Group Otiorhynchidae. \ 75. Thotmus halli Broun, gen. & sp. nov. *! 76. Platyomida versicolor Broun, sp. no\'. Group Rhyparosomidae. j 77. Phrynixus asper Broun, sp. nov. j Group Cylindrorhinidae. 78. Hadram/phus spinipennis Broun, gen. & sp. nov. Group Erirhinidae. ' 79. Praolepra squamosa Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 454. j 80. Stephanorhynchus curvipes White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 462. Group Cryptorhynchidae. i 81. Aphocoelus versicolor Broun, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, vol. 4, p. 138. | 82. Psepholax harhijrons White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 480. j 83. Kentraulax flavisetosus Broun, sp. nov. 84. Mesoreda setigera Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 488. | 85. Ectopsis jerrugalis Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 719. ! 86. Tychanus costatus Broun, sp. nov.* 87. Acalles lineirostris Broun, sp. nov. 88. ,, subcarinatus Broun, sp. nov. 89. Xenacalles squamiv0ntris Broun, gen. & sp. nov. ' 90. Paranomocerus spiculus Redtenbacher, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 505. i 91. Rhyncodes ursus White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 502. I * This species will be described in a subsequent paper. Broun. — Coleopterous Fauna of the Chatham hUuids. 95 Group COSSONIDAE. D2. Penlarlhrum zealandicum Wollaston, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 508. 93. ,, dissimilum Broun, sp. nov. 94. „ auripilum Broun, sp. nov. 95. ToTOStoma apicale Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 509. 96. Agastegnus ornatus Broun, sp. nov. 97. Phloeophagosoma corvinum Wollaston, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 530. 98. „' dilutum Wollaston, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 531. 99. Arecophaga varia Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 534. Group Anthribidae. 100. Anihrihus cristatellus Broun, sp. nov. 101. „ propinquus Broun, sp. nov. 102. „ pilicornis Broun, sp. nov. Group Lamiidae. 103. Somatidia waitei Broun, sp. nov. 104. „ vicina Broun, sp. nov. Group Galerucidae. 105. Phijllotreta nitida Broim, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 636. Group Coccinellidae. 106. Scymnus macrostictus Broun, sp. nov. IXTRODUCED. Ptinus fur. European. Group Anisodactylidae. Allocinopus Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. 2, p. 607. 51. Allocinopus latitarsis sp. nov. Subdepressed, nitid, dark fuscous, sides of thorax narrowly, of the elytra more broadly, fusco-rufous ; femora and upper half of tibiae light yellowish-brown, the latter piceous towards the extremity ; antennae and tarsi somewhat variegate, generally fusco-rufous. Head smooth, with elongate frontal impressions, a single setigerous puncture at each front angle of the epistome and also near the middle of each eye ; including the large and prominent eyes, it is about as broad as the thorax ; labrum large, sex-setose. Thorax quite a third broader than long, widest before the middle, gradually narrowed towards the obtuse posterior angles ; its sides moderately rounded, with Avell-developed and somewhat reflexed margins, base subtruncate, apex slightly incurved ; the dorsal groove does not attain the apex, basal fossae large, situated nearer to the sides than the middle, there is no other definite sculpture, the seta at each side is placed before the middle. Elytra oblong, broader than thorax, nearly thrice its length, with oblique not at all prominent apices ; their striae are well marked and simple, and there is a short scutellar groove on each, interstices impunctate and nearly plane, the marginal pimctures are distinct near the base and apex but absent near the middle. 96 Traiis.actioit-<. Tibiae finely setose inwardly, with spiniforni setae externally, the inter- mediate pair particularly ; the front pair incrassate. Male. — Tarsi with dense grey squamiform vestiture and elongate lateral setae underneath ; basal joint of the anterior subtriangular, joints 2-4 strongly and equally dilated, about twice as broad as they are long, 2nd and 3rd cordate, 4th entire below, deeply excavate in front, 5th nearlv as long as the preceding two combined ; the intermediate pair of similar structure, not quite as much expanded, their 5th joint equals the preceding three in length ; the posterior with elongate-triangular articulations, 1st and 2nd equal, 4th shorter than 3rd. Female. — Anterior tarsi not dilated, joints 2-4 somewhat cordiform ; joints 1-3 of the middle pair triangular, 4th cordiform. Antennae sometimes testaceous and more or less maculate with browu, they extend backwards to the base of the elytra, their 1st and 2nd joints and the base of the 3rd are glabrous. The dilated joints of the intermediate tarsi of the male, and their vesti- ture, in conjunction with the rounded posterior angles of the thorax, will enable this species to be separated from its New Zealand congeners. Length, 8-9 mm. ; breadth, nearly 4 mm. Pitt Island. Found by Mr. T. Hall. Group Omalidae. Omalium Gravenhorst. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 115. 54. Omalium robustum sp. nov. Robust, elongate, subdepressed : hind-body with distinct slender greyish setae, thorax and elytra glabrous ; nigrescent, subopaque, the front of the head and parts of thorax shining, legs and antennae variable, generally pale castaneous, the terminal half of these latter darker. Head evidently smaller than thorax, longitudinally bi-impressed, nearly smooth and shining along the middle, but dull with dense minute sculpture behind, its punctation fine and irregular ; the ocelli situated in small foveae in line with the back part of the eyes, these are large and mode- rately prominent. Thorax rather broader than long, its sides finely mar- gined, nearly straight, just a little curvedly narrowed in front, apex sub- trmicate, with obtuse angles, the base straight, with almost rectangular angles ; disc with a pair of large impressions which are somewhat expanded behind, their outer borders and the narrow space between them shining but not perfectly smooth ; nearly all the rest of the surface is rendered dull by the dense minute sculpture ; the pmictures are irregularly distri- buted, distant on the glossy parts and apparently nearly absent at the sides. Scutellum triangular. Elytra oblong, double the length of thorax ; shoulders slightly prominent and clasping the thoracic angles ; apices truncate, but oblique near the sides ; with fine subseriate punctures visible along the dull dense sculpture of the surface. Hind -body gradually narrowed posteriorly, closely and finely punctured, the basal 3 segments about equal and broadly marginated, 4th slightly longer. 5th subconical, the basal with a pair of rotundate pale specks. Antennae as long as the head and thorax ; their basal johit long and stout ; 2nd short ; 3rd elongate, nearly as long as the 4th and 5th combined ; joints 6-11 loosely articulated, finely pubescent, broader than the preceding Buovii FaiDia of the Cluifhain I.^hmds. 97 ones ; 9th and 10th transverse. Tibiae with numerous slender yellow spines along the outer edge. Tarsi, the anterior particularly, with very elongate pale hairs underneath, their 5th joint longer than all the others taken together. Underside subopaque, nigro-fuscous, trochanters reddish ; finely punctate, the intervals minutely sculptured, with distinct greyish-yellow pubescence. Var. — -Body castaneous, head nigrescent, antennae and legs testaceous. Evidently rare. The abnormal bulk and peculiar sculpture are its distinctive features. Length, -4-4^ mm. ; breadth, 1| mm. Pitt'lsland. "" Found by Mr. T. Hall. Probably common. Group SiLPHIDAE. Choleva Latreille. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 151. 55. Choleva brunneipes sp. nov. Oval, rather elongate, gradually attenuate posteriorly, moderately convex, densely covered with very fine cinereous pubescence, subopaque; fusco-niger ; the hind angles of thorax, the legs, and antennae rufo-fuscous ; palpi and labrum lighter. Head angularly dilated laterally at the middle, with large and prominent eyes there ; distinctly and rather closely punctured, the intervals with minute sculpture. Thorax nearly twice as broad as long, widest near the base, curvedly narrowed anteriorly, apex incurved, with obtuse angles ; base slightly bisinuate, with almost rectangular angles ; its sculpture nearly similar to that of the head. Elytra scarcely as wide as thorax at the base, with broadly rounded apices ; finely and closely transversely strigose ; the sutural striae are well marked and somewhat flexuous near the middle, and there are several shallow, indistinct striae on each. Legs stout ; front and middle tibiae curvate, minutely bispinose at outer extremity and with longer ones at the inner, the former pair of tibiae with a notch at the inner face near the base ; joints 1-3 of the anterior tarsi and the basal two of the intermediate strongly dilated. Antennae as long as head and thorax ; 2nd joint rather shorter than adjoining ones ; 3-6 stout, yet elongate ; 6th rather shorter than 5th ; 7th broader than 6th ; 8th small; 9-11 densely pubescent, hardly broader than 7th. Anterior coxae prominent and almost contiguous ; sternum not cari- nate ; 6th ventral segment obconical, as long as the 5th, and more rufescent than it is. Near C. lugubris, 1911, but in it there is no sign of elytral striation beyond the suture, there is no notch in the front tibiae, and the limbs are much darker. Male. — Length, ih mm. : breadth, 2 mm. Pitt Island. Mr. T. Hall. Group COLYDIIDAE. Uionotus Erickson. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 186. 60. Utonotus plagiatus sp. nov. Oblong, subdepressed, somewhat uneven, opaque ; varying from fusco- rufous to light brown ; elytra paler, the sides, and on each elytron a large 4— Trans. 98 Transactions. median angular spot extending inwards, as well as some posterior smaller spots, fuscous ; legs and antennae more or less rufescent ; clothed irre- gularly with short suberect pale squamiform setae. Head much smaller than thorax, with moderate antennal prominences, its sculpture granular. Thorax uneven, with a large central angular im- pression prolonged as a broad groove to the apex, a j^air of more rounded ones near the base, and an angular fovea in front of the scutellum, with granular sculpture ; it is slightly broader than long, the sides are explanate, somewhat curvate, and there is a slight sinuosity near the rectangular posterior angles, between each of these and the shoulder an evident gap occurs, the anterior angles protrude as far as the front of the eyes, there are no obvious lateral indentations. Elytra oblong, apparently punctate- striate, with several small nodosities near the top of the apical declivity, and a pair at the base ; the space between each of the latter and the slightly raised shoulder appears broadly depressed. Underside subopaque, fuscous, granulate, with a few short pale setae. Eyes prominent, with coarse facets. Tibiae thickly setose, unarmed, straight inwardly. Antennae sparsely pubescent; their basal joint thick, cylindric ; 2nd shorter and not as stout as the 1st, slender at its base ; 3rd elongate ; 4th rather longer than broad ; 5-8 about equal : club oblong- oval, large, triarticulate. The members of this genus are divisible into sections. The first is com- posed of species having the sides of the thorax lobate or indented ; the second contains such as have the flattened sides of the thorax entire, or nearly so. This species belongs to the second section, and is distinguish- able from the others by the oblong form, sculpture, and dark lateral mark on each elytron. Length, 3^-4^ mm. ; breadth, l|-2 mm. Pitt Island. Another of Mr. Hall's discoveries, Coxelus Latreille. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 195. fil. Coxelus mucronatus sp. no v. Opaque, elongate, irregularly clothed with suberect squamiform brassy setae, and some obscure infuscate ones ; variegate, piceous, antennae and tarsi rufescent. Head subquadrate, smaller than thorax, longitudinally impressed near each side, moderately closely covered with small graniiles ; each of these has a minute pmicture. Eyes prominent, setigerous behind. Thorax a little uneven, of equal length and breadth, base strongly bisinuate, apex medially subtruncate, with slightly prominent obtuse angles, posterior angles rectangular but not touching the shoulders ; its sides setose, gently narrowed backwards, their channels well marked near the fi'ont ; disc punctate-granulose, with a central longitudinal impression in front, and a pair of shorter ones near the base, where there is an angulate fovea, and in some cases a transverse linear depression. Elytra elongate-oblong, singly rounded at the base, nowhere broader than the thorax ; they are closely seriate-granulate, broadly bi-impressed just before the middle, so that the suture at that part seems somewhat elevated ; on the summit of the declivity, at the suture, there is a contiguous pair of small dark crests ; ou each there is a basal, a post-median, and an outer spot on the declivity, usually covered with yellowish setae ; sometimes the deini is rufescent there. Broun. — ColeojJtcroii^ Fainut of the CJuithdw hlanda. 99 Antennae with some very slender hairs, basal joint concealed above, 3rd about as long as 2nd but much more slender, joints 4-6 rather longer than broad, 9th obconical, broader than 7th or 8th ; club abruptly en- larged, its basal joint evidently broader than the apical, which is rotundate. Legs with more slender greyish setae than the body ; tibiae flexuous ; the intermediate especially, and strongly produced inwardly at the ex- tremity, the anterior less so, posterior not distinctly mucronate. Underside opaque, piceo-rufous, more or less closely granulate, with numerous slender elongate flavescent setae ; 3rd ventral segment as long as the 2nd and more distinctly impressed in the middle ; prosternum bisul- cate between the coxae. The strongly mucronate middle tibiae clearly distinguish this species. An immature specimen is almost wholly ferruginous. Length, 4-4-|- mm. ; breadth, nearly IJ mm. Pitt Island. " Mr. T. Hall. Pycnomerus Erickson. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 208. 62. Pycnomerus mediocris sp. nov. Elongate, moderately shining, piceous, elytra sometimes more rufescent, antennae and tarsi pitchy-red. Head distinctly punctate, bi-impressed in front. Antennae pubescent, joints 4-9 transverse, terminal joint evidently narrower than the 10th. Thorax slightly longer than broad, widest near the front, gradually narrowed backwards, anterior angles somewhat prominent, the posterior rectangular but not sharply defined ; disc broadly longitudinally impressed, the middle of the impression nearly smooth towards the base ; its punctation moderately close and coarse. Scutellum small. Elytra wider than thorax at the base, twice its length, with obtusely prominent shoulders ; they are deeply punctate-striate ; the punctures are distinctly separated ; only the sutural striae reach the apical margin, which is a little incrassate, elevated, and bent outwards ; the inner three interstices on each elytron are rather thicker than the others ; the suture is bent outwards at the base and is miited to the 3rd interstice. Underside piceous, rather coarsely piuictate, each puncture with a minute yellow seta. Metasternum longitudinally impressed behind. Apical ventral segment broadly bifoveate, its basal margin and the middle nearly smooth. This belongs to the section comprising species with moderately large eyes and a distinctly divided biarticulate club. It differs from P. longulns in having slightly projecting front angles and different elytra I interstices, &c. Length, 3^-4 mm. ; breadth, 1-lJ mm. Pitt Island. We are indebted to Mr. Hall for specimens. Group BOTHRIDERIDAE. Bothrideres Erickson. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 207. 63. Bothrideres paynteri sp. nov. Elongate, subdepressed, slightly nitid, with a few slender inconspicuous greyish setae ; nigrescent, legs piceous, tarsi and antennae piceo-rufous. 4* 100 Transactions. Head much narrower than thorax, with prominent eyes ; it is moderately coarsely punctured, more finely and closely on the forehead. Thorax of equal length and breadth, widest near the front, very gradually narrowed backwards, posterior angles acutely rectangular, the anterior rather obtusely prominent ; disc nearly plane, sparingly and irregularly punctate, so as to appear almost smooth on some parts, without any well-marked fovea, its sides more closely but not as coarsely punctured. Scutellum triangular, subdepressed. Elytra with obtusely prominent shoulders, broader than the thorax, quite twice its length, widest just before the middle ; on each elytron there are 2 slender minutely punctate striae near the suture, the inner is curved outwards and bordered inwardly by a carina at the base, the broad interstice between these is nearly smooth but has a short basal stria ; including the suture, there are 4 costae behind, the outer pair are very slender and are prolonged to the base, the inner of these is indistinctly duplicated ; between each pair of these carinae there are 2 series of fine pimctures, the 3rd interstice is finely and irregularly punctured throughout. Underside subopaque ; prosternum without any tubercle, moderately coarsely and closely punctured, its flanks with a few fine punctures only ; metasternum with a median groove behind, its punctation similar to that of the prosternum ; basal ventral segment nearly as long as the following three combined, not closely punctured. Antennae finety pubescent ; 2nd joint bent and inserted in the notch at the hind part of the subglobular 1st ; joints 3-8 quite as long as broad ; 9th rather broader and obconical ; 10th double the breadth of the 9th, rounded towards its base ; 11th rather smaller. Larger than its New Zealand allies, and readily distinguishable there- from by the different sculpture and more triangular scutellum. Length, 6-6;|- mm. ; breadth, quite 2 mm. Pitt'lsland. Mr. Hall's coadjutor in forming this collection was Mr. R. E. Paynter, whose name therefore has been attached to this species. Group Dermestidae. Trogoderma Latreille. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 240. 66. Trogoderma pictulum sp. uov. Nitid, elongate-oblong, slightly convex ; unevenly clothed with distinct decumbent yellowish pubescence above, but along the sides the hairs are more infuscate and erect ; derm variegate, for the most part rufo-castaneous, the middle of the base and sides of thorax of a brighter red, as are also the base, the shoulders, and other large but not sharply limited spots on the elytra. Head dull, small, rather coarsely and closely punctured. Eyes pro- minent. Antennae short; 1st joint thick, reddish; joints 2-4 testaceous, 2nd stout, 3rd slender and elongate, 4th subtriangular, as long as its pre- decessor but broader ; joints 5-11 fuscous, each in succession more prolonged inwardly, the 10th quite as long inwardly as the much thicker terminal joint. Thorax at the base twice as broad as it is long, curvedly narrowed anteriorly, the base oblique towards the sides, and at the middle somewhat prominent, so as to partly overlap the scutellum ; it is not definitely granu- late, but the distinct though rather fine punctures are more or less encircled with slightly raised margins. Elytra of about the same width as the thorax, thrice its length, each with a shallow oblique or curvate impression extending Buovy .—Col CO pf CI oil. >< F(U(iin of tlic Llialham hlatuh. 101 inwards from the shoulder ; the space in front of this slightly and obtusely elevated ; there are some obsolete striae on the disc ; the punctation is like that of the thorax. According to its description, T. serrigerum, 426 in tlie New Zealand list, must be somewhat similar, but the clothing and sculpture must be very different. I have not seen the insect itself. Length, 5-5J mm. ; breadth, 2J mm. Pitt Island. " Another of Mr. Hall's discoveries. Group Aphodiidae. Aphodius Illiger. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 257. 67. Aphodius sulcatissimus sp. nov. Parallel, oblong, moderately convex, nitid, glabrous, nigrescent, margins of head and thorax and the legs rufous, elytra sometimes slightly rufescent, tarsi and antennae fulvescent. Head unarmed, forehead deeply medially incurved ; the broad margms end abruptly just before the flat hardly discernible eyes ; it is not quite as broad as the thorax ; its punctation minute and distant in front, becoming closer and coarser behind. Thorax transversely quadrate, only slightly broader than long, lateral margins well developed in front, sides nearly straight, posterior angles rounded ; the whole surface finely and distantly punctured, the basal half of the disc, however, has numerous coarse scattered punctures. Scutellum narrow. Elytra oblong, with acutely prom.inent spiniform shoulders ; apices broadly rounded ; each elytron with 6 deep dorsal striae, the distinct punctures at the bottom of these are evidently separated from one another, the 3 external ones are not so deep ; interstices minutely punctate, those near the suture are moderately broad, the others are narrow and almost cariniform. Anterior tibiae tridentate externally ; the terminal spur of the inter- mediate and posterior equals in length the basal two joints together of the tarsi ; the second, or inner, spur is shorter. Pygidium vertical, subconical, with a median punctiform fovea at its base. Underside nitid, blackish ; prosternum closely, the metasternum and abdomen rather finely and distantly, punctured ; the base of segments 2-5 with a transverse series of very coarse punctures, so as to appear crenulate ; the basal segment is subcarinate in the middle. The mimistakably spiniform humeral angles, profound elytral striae, and subcarinate outer interstices separate this from all the New Zealand species except A. fortipcs, 1721 ; in it the sculpture of the head is different, the shoulders are less prominent, and the elytral interstices are rather broader. Length, 3| mm. ; breadth, IJ ram. Pitt Island. Five examples in Mr. Hall's collection. Group Melyridae. Dasytes PaykuU. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 329. 70. Dasytes pittensis sp. nov. Narrow, elongate, dilated posteriorly, subopaque ; pubescence scant}^, minute, and greyish ; dark blue, legs and antennae piceous, 2nd joint of these latter somewhat rufescent. 102 T raH>r(iI Collect inr/ Tonr.^. 117 During our stay at Macetown, from the 7th to the 21st December, we obtained an incredible number of moths at the treacle alone. Even on rainy and cold windy nights there used to be hundreds of the commoner moths round the treacle. The following is the list of the moths that were extremely common : Orthosia comma, Leucania atristriga, L. modercta, L. unica, Mdanchra cucullina (?), M. disjungens, M. ewingi, M. mu'ans, M. 'plena, M. ustistriga, Bityla defigurata, and Agrotis ypsilon. The less-common varieties included Physetica caerulea, Leucania griseipennis, L. nuUifera, L. semivittata, L. imica, Ichneutica ceraunias, Melanchra maya, M. para- causta, M. pictula, and AI. ruhescens. During those fourteen days we pro- bably forwarded over sixteen hundred moths and butterflies to Wellington. On Saturday the 12th December we made our first excursion into the localities known to be the habitat of Erebia pluto var. micans. Strange to say, a 'ocality at an altitude of about 3,000 ft. on the Arrow Kiver which at about the same time of the year in 1907 yielded many specimes of Erebia micans failed to give us any specimens. We took only one battered tnicans and sav/ one other, but were rewarded for our long tramp by getting a fine series of about eighty Metacrias huttoni on a tussocky island on the Arrow River. We did not see any females, but judged them to be present by the way the huttoni continually hovered over bunches of tussock, apparently on the look-out for something. A few Argyrophenga antipodum and several species of Notoreas were also taken that day. Another locality was visited next day, and the results were better, although the sun was continually being obscured by clouds. Erebia pluto can only be located when the sun is shining strongly and continuouslv. This beautiful black butterfly is then to be seen hovering over the shingle- slips, and apparently following well-defined air-tracks. It was noticed that the best way to capture them was to sit close by a place they had been seen to pass, and keep perfectly still. Presently one would come sailing along, and apparently not notice the collector. A very quick movement with the net was necessary to catch the insect, and if you missed the first stroke the chances were all on the butterfly escaping. On being disturbed they make rapid jerky upward movements, and soon get out of the danger-zone, flying away to some other slope. As soon as the sun is obscured by a clouci all the butterflies alight and remain motionless till the sun shines again. As sunshine is the exception rather than the rule on these mountain-tops, £'re6i'a-hunting is very trying to the patience. Notwithstanding the unfavourable weather, we managed to get about twenty-five Erebia micans in good condition during this, our first, visit to Macetown. Ichneutica ceraunias and Leucania griseipennis were fairly common, but in bad condition. Hoping that the weather would clear up for good, we started back to Queenstown on the 22nd December, on the way to Glenorchy. Glenorchy was reached on the 29th December, and our hopes were for a spell of fine weather, in order to work the tempting mountains that lie on the west side of Lake Wakatipu. We were especially anxious to get specimens of that rare butterfly Erebia or Erebiola butleri from a locality on the Humboldt Mountains discovered by Mr. G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., 'in 1894. A fall of snow and cold and boisterous weather gave the mountains a mantle right down to the bush-line (.3,600 ft.), and all we could do for ten days was to sit in the hotel at Glenorchy and wait. We waited and waited until v\-e almost despaired of seeing fine v\-eather again, and eventually left Glenorchy in the rain) for the south in search of finer weather. 118 Transactions. We went right doM'ii to Invercaigill, tinally stopping at Wallaceville, about nine miles out of town. Mr. Philpott, who lives near there, was exceedingly kind to us, and gave us the benefit of his Mn.de experience of collecting in those parts. When out with him one evening we had the good fortune to take two specimens of that rare moth Melanchra exquisita, of which previously there were only four specimens known. We also got seventy-odd fine specimens of a dark variety of Argijrophenga antipodum from the rushes in a paddock. Our next instructions from headquarters were to go back to Macetown, as we seemed to have been most successful there Stopping at Lumsden, we laid down the treacle on fence-posts round the town, and were rewarded by getting a number of moths in excellent condition. A dark variety of Orthosia. cormnn was plentiful, and the following comprised the rest of the catch : Leucania atristriga, L. moderata, L. propria, Melanchra disjungens, M. ewingi, M. mufnns M. prionistis, M. plena, M. rubescens, and Bitijla defigurata. The following day, in Queenstown, we took Vanessa cardui, Chrijso- phanus enysii, C. salustius, C. boldenarum, and Li/caena phoebe during a walk round the track to Glenorchy. We arrived back at Macetown on the 22nd January, and for the first few days the weather was execrable from an entomologist's point of vieAv, although the mining-men seemed to be perfectly satisfied. During the first three days at Macetown we kept a tabulated record ■of the moths taken at night. The following is the list : — Orthosia comma Leucania atristriga ,, griseipennis ,, moderata ,, nullifera ,, propia „ semivittata Melanchra disjungens ,, ewingi ., may a ,, mutatis „ pelistis , prionistis „ rubescens „ ustistriga Bitijla defigurata „ sericea A(irolis i/psilon It must be understood that there were countless numbers on the treacle, and the ones listed are only those in perfect condition, and which were posted to Wellington. On the 27th January, as the weather showed signs of clearing, we packed up for a stay in a hut up Advance Peak. This shepherd's hut is situated on the site of an old mine called the Sunrise. Advance Peak itself is 5,650 ft. above the sea-level, and the hut is considerably over 5,000 ft. A good trtick leads right to the door, and wt; wore fortunate in having our 22n(l. 23r(l. 24tl 24 15 2 78 71 71 1 1 1 4 12 4 1 2 52 48 40 2 4 1 1 3 2 4 1 3 5 4 12 18 13 1 1 6 12 1 1 1 4 8 3 6 30 11 Hamilton. — Notes on Entomological Collectiiuj Tours. 119 goods packed up by horse. The only vegetation is the stunted heath and tussock (snow-grass). On the following day, a beautifully fine one, we had a most enjoyable collecting. Among the species that we took were Erebia fluto, Vanessa gonerilla, Argyrophenga antipodum, Leucania griseipennis, Dasyuris hectori, D. anceps, Notoreas insignis, N. orphnaea, N. mechanitis, N. peronata, N. trephosata, N. zopyra, and N. vulcanica. We came to the conclusion that the time for Erebia micans was over, as this butterfly was known to be plentiful in that locality earlier in the season. During a ten days' stay up the mountain a large number of species was captured, and especially notable was a Melanchra pictula, on the treacle, at 5,000 ft. Treacling at Macetown proved remarkably successful. There were so many moths round each patch of sugar that we did not know how to pick out the rarities. The best were ten beautiful examples of Melanchra pictula and fourteen of Melanchra may a. It is a curious fact that we failed to notice a single si^ecimen of Leucania unica during our second visit to Macetown. They seemed to have dis- appeared entirely, which is remarkable, considering what an enormous number there were only a month before. During our two visits to Macetown we estimated to have sent between five and six thousand specimens of various species to Wellington for selection. Our next instructions were to proceed to Glenorchy, at the head of Lake Wakatipu, and make special endeavours to get speciments of Erebia butleri. Accordingly we left Macetown, and arrived at Glenorchv on the 10th February, 1909. The following day being beautifully fine, a start was made for Bold Peak, on the Humboldt Range. Half an hour's easy rowing across the lake and a steep climb of about 2,500 ft. over burnt-forest area brings you to the sharply defined bush-line Almost as soon as we got into the snow-grass and tussock Erebia butleri was seen flying lazily about in the sunshine. Proceeding a few hundred feet higher, we were soon busy taking it. Argyrophenga antipodum' were extremely abundant, but we confined our- selves chiefly to the capture of the rarer butterfly. On that day and another which we spent in that locality we succeeded in getting nearly a hundred specimens of E. butleri, the proportion of females (all in poor con- dition) being 1 in 10. The alpine flora to be seen on that range is wonderful, and at a higher altitude we seemed to be in one of nature's most beautiful rock-gardens. It would need more than the description of even an ardent botanist to fully appreciate the beautiful sights to be seen there. Higher up still, at an altitude of about 6,000 ft., we came upon small colonies of the true Erebia pluto. Twenty-three specimens, of unusually large size, and in the best possible condition, were taken Jrom the shingle slopes on Bold Peak. It was again noticed that these Erebias had a habit of flying over well-defined air-tracks, and they were also extremely hard to kill, as they frequently revived after being in the cyanide killing-bottle for half an hour or more. Our next journey was to the Routeburn Hut, at the foot of Lake Harris Saddle. We spent five days there, and encountered very mixed weather. One fine day spent on Lake Harris Saddle was very disappointing to us, and we took only two Erebia butleri, a few Argyrophenga antipodum, and several species of Notoreas. The flowering -plants seemed to be over, and there was ] :20 Trdiisdcfions. very little iuseet-life to be noted. We Avere disappointed at this, as we were looking forward to some interesting collecting on this saddle. The bad weather-conditions (cold, sharp nights) made the night collect- ing poor round the hut. The ribbonwood (Plagianthus Li/nlli) was in full bloom, and we got most of the moths round that, with lights. Declana floccosa and Melanchra rubescens were very common, with an occasional M. mutans. One very battered specimen of that beautiful and rare moth Lrucnnia furdei was taken round the ribbonwood-blossom. Treacling failed to produce anything, the blossom being too strong a counter- attraction. We left Routeburn feeling that we had not heeii sufficiently rewarded for our efforts. We left the Cold Lake District finally on the 20th February, and returned to Invercargill district, with the hopes of getting good collecting round the ragwort and Canadian thistle that infest the locality. Wallacetown, Orepuki, Moeraki. and Rangitata were visited without much result. Castle Hill, on the old ^\'est Coast Road, was next visited, in the hopes that we might be able to find forms recorded by Enys many years ago. Erehia pluto is said to occur on the ranges in the vicinity of Mount Torlesse ; but, whether the weather Avas too bad or the butterflies Avere over for the season, Ave Avere unsuccessful. Finally aa'c were ordered to Nelson, Avith instructions to work the Dun Mountain thoroughly. The Aveather and the lateness of the season com- bined to make our trip unprofitable. Apart from a feAv of the special form of Argi/ropkencjn from the Dun Mountain, one Dodonidia hchnsi and a feAV Xoctuac obtained round Nelson, we did not get anything Avorth recording. This is unfortiuiate, as Nelson is a good locality for collecting, as is evi- denced by the good local collections of Lepidoptcnt that are to be seen. We left Nelson on the 29th March, and concluded operations for the season 1908-9. It is a Avell-established fact that this season Avas an unusually bad one, regarded from an entomologist's point of vicAv. Not only in the South Island did Ave have the bad AA'eather, continuous reports from collectors in the North told of equally bad AA^eather in their districts, and Ave must be thankful that Ave did so well while the fine weather lasted. Without a doubt MacetoAvn was the most productive numerically, but I doubt if the .series of Physetica caerulea obtained from Waipori was not more interesting. The AA'onderful A-ariation in the same species, and the gradation from one marking to another, makes this series especially valuable. The practice of taking all moths in good condition from every locality tends to show that some forms are most variable, and in others it is impossible to detect any variation. It is hoped that our modest endeaA'ours to record entomological facts will be appreciated, and AA-e are deeply thankfid to the Dominion Museum Department for the opportunity of doing so. Our knoAvledge of the Ncav Zealand Lepidoplera must necessarily be incomplete until a large amount of collecting and recording is done. B. Season 1909-10. The foUoAving notes and observations Avere made by the Avriter during the season 1909 -10— from the 26th November. 1909, to the 25th March. 1910— he being emploved I)y the Dominion Mnscnm as collector during this period. Hamiltox. — Xofe< oil KiiiomoJuriicdl Colh'Cti iifi I'onrx. 121 As ill the previous season four months of collecting had been done in the Soutli Island, it was intended that operations were to be confined chiefly to the North Island of New Zealand, bvit eventually a considerable time was spent in Southland and Westland. This was due to the fact that the North Island seems to be poorer in Noctuae than the South. Active operations were commenced on the 29th Noveml)er in the neigh- bourhood of Morere, Hawke's Bay, a small settlement with notable hot springs. The native bush in the vicinity of Morere has been nearly oblite- rated by the advent of the settler, but there is one splendid patch round the hot springs conserved by the Government for scenic purposes. Sugaring and attracting by light were the chief methods employed to get collections of the moths. During my fortnight's stay here the weather was not good, and collecting suffered to a certain extent. Amongst the commoner Noctnae taken at treacle were Orthosia comma, Leucama otristriga Melanchra eivinrji, M. insignis, M. lignana. M. mutans, M. pelistis, Bityla defigurata, Ipana leptomera, Declana floccosa, and D. junctilinea. I also had the good fortune to take a perfect specimen of Cosmodes elegans at treacle, and also that rare moth Orthosia margarita. Two good specimens of Hepialus virescens were taken at light in the bush, and later on in the season they M-ould do doubt be common, as nearly every makomako (A ristotelia race^nosa) showed evidences of extensive borings by the caterpillar of that moth. In the same locality four years previously I caught a beautiful orange-yellow variety of the male Hepialus hanging on to one of the incandescent lamps (fed bv natural gas) that light the bush -track to the hot springs. Collecting along this track in the dense bush was fair, and the follow- ing is a list of the species taken : Tatosofna sp., Chloroclystis bilineolata, Hydriomena similata, XanthorJioe cineraria, Leptomeris ruhraria, Selidosenia aristarcha, S. dejectaria, S. panagrata, S. suavis, Sestra flexata, Gonophylla ophiopa, and a few Cramhi and micros. On hot sunny days Chrysophanus salustius was fairly common on the watercress-flower, and the darker form, C. enysii, was also taken from the same places. Lycaena pkoebe was also to be found, chiefly on the roadside, and an occasional hibernated specimen of Vanessa gonerilla was noted. On the 17th December I left Morere, and proceeded by steamer from Gisborne to Auckland, with instructions to collect in the vicinity of the Waitakarei Kanges, about twenty miles south-west of Auckland. The bush on the Waitakarei Range is fairly heavy, and is not much interfered with by agricultural and pastoral operations. Altogether I spent three days in the bush, and collected the following species : Orthosia comma, Heliothis armigera, Plusia transfixa, Rhapsa scotosialis, Hydriomena deltoidata, H. gohiata, Venusia verriculata, Selidosema aristarcha, S. dejectalia, S. panagrata, Chalastra pelurgata, Sestra flezaria, Gonophylla nelsonaria. G. ophiopa, Drepanodes murijerata, and Ipana leptomera. The Plusia transfixa mentioned is rather rare, and previously has been recorded onh' from the Thames district ;* it is probably an intro- duced species, now naturalized ; and the finding of Gonophylla ophiopa is a considerable extension of its northward range. My next move took me to Kamo, about four miles out of Whangarei. and there I spent the New Year. Collecting there was very poor, and the only things of any note taken were Heliothis armigera and Orthosia * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, p. 5. 122 Transactions. immunis. Among the commoner varieties were Plusia chalcites, Leucania mode ata, L. unipuncta, Melanchra ewingi, Rhapsa scolosialis, Hydriomena deltoidata, H. gobiata, Euchocca ruhropunctaria, Venusia verriculata, Xan- thorhoe stinaria, Selidosema dejectaria, S. panagrata, Sestra flexata, and Drepanodes muriferata. Four specimens of a small micro were taken Avhile beating for beetles, which proved on examination by Mr. A. Philpott to be Coriscium miniellutn. On leaving Kamo on the 8th January, 1910, I proceeded north as far as Russell, Bay of Islands At Russell I saw a single specimen of Vanessa ilea on the summit of the historical Flagstaff Hill. The only moths taken at night were Ipana leptomera and Orthosia comma. The manuka scrub seemed to be alive with large singing locustei, Melampsatta cingulata, and several fine specimens were taken. Apart from these cicadas there seemed to be a marked dearth of insect-life at this time. The same fact has been noted by Mr. A. Hamilton, the Director of the Dominion Museum, during his recent tour north of Auckland. The gum lands and manuka-scrub plains seem to be very poor in insects. The collecting in the North being poor, I Avas recalled to Wellington, with the idea of trying the South Island fields again. Mount Arthur table- land was to have been visited, but eventually it was decided that I should go to the Humboldt Range, near Queenstown district. Lake Wakatipu. Collectors who had been in Queenstown district at Christmas brought very bad reports about the scarcity of Lepidoptera at that time, and I went expecting to be disappointed The previous season, collecting for the Dominion Museum in company with Mr. F. S. Oliver, of Christchureh, we had a very successful time on Bold Peak, prominent on the Humboldt Mountains, and directly above Kinloch. Then we took that rare butterfly Erebia butleri and some large Erebia pluto on the higher slopes of the mountain, but Ave AA^ere unable to do any night work at these higher altitudes. Bold Peak is easily accessible from Glenorchy or Kinloch, and good collecting can be obtained above the bush-line, 3,600 ft. The flora on the slopes of Bold Peak is specially rich in Veronicas, and knoAving what an attractive blossom Veronica is for Noctuae I Avas anxious to get some night Avork at these plants. On the 31st January, 1910, I arrived at Kinloch, and by the evening of the same day had a camp pitched just above the bush-line on the way to Bold Peak. I treacled the birch bush in many places, but failed to attract a single moth, for reasons that were apparent later on. During the two folloAving beautifully fine daj^s I made excursions up to the altitude of about 6,500 ft., and had splendid catches of Erebia butleri and E. pluto. The butleri seemed to be in poor condition, and, although the proportion of females to males Avas greater than that of the previous season, about fifteen males Avere taken to every female. This may be due to two facts — (1) a female Erebia butleri on the Aving is easily mistaken for a dark male Argyrophenga antipodum, especially if you cannot see the underside ; (2) as a rule, the habits of the E. butleri are sluggish, and it does not make long flights ; it frecjuents some particular tussock-clump and flutters about there. Their position is generally indicated by Avatching the movements of the males, and noticing Avhere they hoA'^er for a longer time than usual. During the bright sunshine the male butleri is seldom ever at rest, and appears to fly backAvards and forAvards along A\-ell-defined routes AA'ithin certain natural boundaries. This "trade-route" habit is specially charac- teristic of the movements of E. pluto also. HAiiii.TOX. — Xofcs oii luttonioloijicaj CoHectiiui Tuiir-<. 123 Erehia plulo occurs on the slopes of Bold Peak from 3,6()() ft. to where the snow-grass and tussock thins out. at al)out 6, (MM) ft. At the latter height you come on to the shingle-slips and rocky slopes where K. pluto reigns. I was fortunate in the two fine days 1 had on the mountain to get over thirty specimens of that butterfly, nearly all of which were in the best possible condition. The plutos from this locality are much larger than any other recorded specimens, having on the average an expansion of 55 mm. There seems to be great variation in the number of white spots on the upper wing, and in one case spots were found on the lower wing. On the night of the 2nd Februarv I had a wonderful time collecting from clumps of Verotiica growing at about 3,700 ft. on steep rugged slopes. Just at dusk the moths started to collect, and I had a busy time netting. I found it was much easier and better to let the moths settle on the Veronica flower and then bottle them. Melanchra peUstis was exceedingly common, and the same can be said of Orthosia comma. A large number of Leucania griseipennis were taken, all in splendid condition and of unusual size. No less than eight Melanchra maya were taken on that same night, and also three of a new species, not unlike Melanchra disjungens.* The following also occurred : Melanchra ruhescens, M. prionistis, M. pelistis, M. levis, Selidosema dejectaria, S. monacha (a very rare and little- known species, of which male and female were taken), Epirranthis alec- toraria, Xanthorhoe clarata, X. cataphracta, X. adonis, Hydromena deltoidata, No'.oreas sp., and a new species of Selidosema. Dasyuris hectori was also taken on the higher slopes of Bold Peak. It will be seen that the locality is a very rich one, and taking three new or little-known species in a single night is very encouraging. It may be mentioned here that the season was much earlier this vear owing to the exceptionally mild winter in that locahty during 1909. Plants that were flowering at the same date in 1909 were entirely over, and no doubt this had some effect on the insect-life. Two new species of Coleopfera were found at high altitudes, and will be described by Major Broun. After this successful time on Bold Peak I went down to the lowlands in the vicinity of Invercargill, collecting chiefly at Wallacetown and Sea- ward Moss. On the 10th February, in company with Mr. A. Philpott, of Invercargill, I made a trip to Seaward Moss, about twelve miles south-east of Invercargill, in search of a small species of Notoreas called synclinalis. Although the day was exceedingly windy, we managed to get about thirty picked specimens of that beautiful moth. On a fine day we should have taken any quantity. In the vicinitv of Wallacetown the following were taken of! the rag- wort, then in full bloom : Orthosia immunis, Leucania semivittata, L. toro- neura, Melanchra mutans, Tatosoma topea and sp., Elvia glaucata, Hydrio- mena deltoidata, H. gohiata, H. rixata, Venusia undosata, Xanthorhoe clarata, Selidosema dejectaria, and S. panagrata. On the 14th January I proceeded, by instructions, to Waipori, situated twelve miles west of Lawrence, at an altitude of 2,000 ft. In the season of 1909-10, in company with Mr. Oliver, a wonderful series of Physetica caerulea was taken on the 26th November, 1909, at this locality, and I was anxious to get some more specimens. On treacling round the same locality, and under perfect conditions, not a single one was seen, however, and, in- stead of having dozens of moths on each patch of treacle, the total catch * To be described a.s M. oliveri. 124 Tj-a/is(/rfioiis. for the night consisted only of Orthosia comma and two Melanchra ewingi (?). The following night was not so successful, as I failed to get even a single specimen. This can only be put down to the lateness of the season, although there were plenty of Argyrophenga antipodum, Notoreas brephos, and Vanessa gonerilla flying in the daytime. Chrysophanus holdenarum was very scarce in places where there were any quantity the year before. On the way back to Wellington I stopped at Moeraki, and in company with Mr. G. Howes, of Dunedin, spent the night of the 23rd February treacling in the bush at the back of Port Moeraki. On that and the follow- ing night I took the following species : Orthosia comma, Leucania sulcana, Melanchra decorata (four specimens), M. mntans, M. plena (very common), M. stipata. Rhapsa scotosialis, Venusia undosata, Xanthorhoe rosearia, Epir- ranthis alectoraria, SeUdoscma dejectaria, S. melinata, S. panagrata, Declana floccosa, and D. niveata. No more collecting was done until the 12tli March, when I camped on Mount Greenland, near Ross, Westland. Mount Greenland rises to a height of 2,968 ft. above sea-level, and the top is fairly open country. I stopped at a hut in the subalpine vegetation, elevated about 2,500 ft., intending to see what moths came to a flowering bush of Veronica which grew at the door of the hut. I stayed there four nights, and got good results, especially on the warm misty nights when there was little cold wind blowing from the main range. Strange to relate, the commonest moth there was Leucania alopa, which is considered rather a rarity at other places. Every evening I treacled the stunted trees, and even treacled Veronica blossoms, but got nothing by that method ; everything had to be netted. It is a peculiar fact that the smoke or heat from the hut- chimney seemed to attract many moths : perhaps they were only trying to get to the source of light. By far the most important capture was that of a single specimen of Junonia velleda, a butterfly that in 1886 was common in Wellington, and has been recorded from New Plymouth in 1893 and Motueka in 1898. Since 1898 no other specimens have been seen in the South Island until I got this damaged specimen at Mount Greenland on tlie 14th March, sheltering under a flax-bush during the pouring rain. Not expecting to find a rarity like that in such a locality, I mistook it for Vanessa cardui, and only by chance sent it up for examination. The season was undoubtedly nearly over for collecting on the AVest Coast, but I made a trip to the Styx Saddle, near Browning's Pass, on the main Southern Alps. I did not expect to get much, but w^anted to see if the locality was a suitable one for collecting earlier in the season. Nevertheless I took a large male Porina* darker and less spotted than usual. Specimens of Leucania alopa, L. atristriga, and Bitijla defigurata were also taken, but nothing else of any importance. Several golden-ringed black hairy caterpillars were taken feeding on a wayside plant, E echtites (jlabrescens. These are considered to be a species of Metacrias, but so far have not been reared to maturity. The Styx Saddle contains about 30 acres of fine subalpine meadow land, and about New Year time should prove an excellent field for collectors. On my Avay back to Wellington I walked over Arthur's Pass, in company with Dr. Cockayne, of Christchurch. The day was a fine one. but the only butterfly seen was one specimen of Vanessa gonerilla. After this, collecting Avas abandoned for the season, and I returned to AVellington on the 30th March. * Porina dinodes. Mir-r.KR. — New Species of Syi'pliidac. 125 Art. XIV. — New Species of Syrphidae. By David Miller. [Head before the OtcKjo Institute, 1st November, 1910.] The two following species form a portion of a series of new species the remainder of whicli will he published in the near future. Fam. SYRPHIDAE. Genus Helophilus Meigen (1822). Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 36. Species. Legs black ; the hairs of frons divided from those of the vertex bj^ a bare transverse band . . . . . . . . . . H. purehuensis. Legs yellow ; hairs of frons not divided from those of vertex by a bare transverse band . . . . . . . . H. cargilli. K. purehuensis sp. nov. Vertex black ; frons yellowish-white, with dark hairs and a little dark tomentum ; the hairs of frons divided from those of the vertex by a bare transverse band ; the hairs of frons curved forward, becoming shorter toward the frontal lunule, which is bare, dark brown, and shiny, while those of the vertex are arranged with the longer posterior hairs anteriorly curved and the shorter anterior ones posteriorly directed ; the row of hairs posterior to the vertical triangle are yellow. Eyes bare, dichoptic ; ocelli vermilion. Face light yellow, bare, projecting outwards and downwards, but not so much in the latter direction as in the former ; the central ridge of the face is shiny and of a deeper yellow, w^hich colour, extending for about three- quarters the distance from the epistome to the base of the antenna, tapers suddenly to a point and disappears ; epistome bare, shiny, dark brown, almost black ; this colour extends to the margin of the eye ; genae or cheeks, same colour as the face, bear delicate yellow hairs ; delicate yellow hairs beneath the lower margin of the eye (jowls), becoming very short on the occiput. Proboscis of moderate length, posteriorly directed, black, except at the tip, Avhere it is inclined to be reddish-brown. Antennae black ; 1st and 2nd joints bristly, the latter joint bearing longer bristles on the an- terior margin ; 3rd joint ovoid, arista bare. Thorax : Dorsum with 2 median and 2 lateral broad dark-brown longi- tudinal stripes ; the intervening stripes are greyish-brown anteriorly, but from the transverse suture to the scutellar suture these stripes merge into black ; the surface of the dorsum is covered with yellow hairs of medium length. Scutellum shiny, bronzy, clothed with long similarly pigmented hairs. Pleurae greyish, hairy ; meso- and anterior ptero-pleurae bearing long golden hairs ; halteres yellowish-brown. Wings tinged with brown, subcostal cell with brown spot about the junction of the auxiliary with the costa ; veins brown, lighter in colour toward the base. Yellow hairs covering the 'surface of the legs, which are shiny black, except for the anterior and middle knees and the proximal half of the tibiae, which are dark yellow, and for the proximal portion of the swollen posterior femora, Avhich is dark bronzy ; posterior tibiae slightly curved ; close-set short hairs 126 Transactions. oil inner surface of tarsi : unpues yellow, except for the shiny black tips : piilvilli yellow. Abdomen shiny, covered on the dorsal surface with orange pile, and on the ventral surface with long yellow hairs ; 1st segment — i.e., the segment partially overlapped by the scutellum — bronzy ; 2nd segment bronzy- black, except for 2 triangular orange spots, one on each side, the bases forming the lateral margins of the segment ; the apices of these spots do not meet at the centre, but are separated by the stalk of a black T-shaped median patch, the cross of which forms the anterior margin of this segment : 3rd segment bronzy, except for a dome-shaped black spot having its base on the anterior margin and apex at the centre of the segment ; the 4th segment as the 3rd, but inclined to be of a darker colour. The posterior margin of each segment is coloured by a black transverse band, broader at the centre than at the lateral extremities. Length, 12 mm. ; of wing, 9 mm. Hah. — Captured above a stream, during very warm weather, near Pure- hurehu, January, 1909. Not common. H. cargilli sp. nov. Vertex and vertical triangle dark brown, the former covered with long black hairs ; frons tawny brown with yellow reflections, and bearing hairs similar to the vertex ; no dividing band between the hairs of vertex and frons ; the hairs covering these latter portions arranged as in preceding species ; frontal lunule bare, shiny brown ; a slight median longitudinal groove running from apex of ocellar triangle to frontal lunule, reappearing at the base of the antennae, where it is prolonged down the face to the epistome. Eyes bare, dichoptic ; ocelli vermilion. Face as in preceding ; genae yellow, with long yellow hairs ; epistome bare, shiny, dark brown, with a little yellowish-white tomentum at the connection with the jowls, which are themselves yellowish-white, and clothed with long silvery hairs, becoming shorter on the occiput. Proboscis and antennae as in preceding, except that the arista of the latter is slightly margined at the base by reddish-brown. Thorax : Dorsum grey, covered with short dark hairs ; has 2 median and 2 lateral longitudinal broad dark-brown stripes ; the two former are divided by a narrow grey stripe, which tapers gradually anteriorly and suddenly posteriorly so that these two stripes are united at the scutellar suture ; the tM'o latter stripes slightly converge anteriorly, but do not reach the anterior margin of the thorax. On the dorsum, around the scutellar suture, is a patch of brownish-yellow reflections, which in certain lights connects the posterior extremities of the dorsal stripes. Scutellum orange, shiny, bearing long orange hairs. Pleurae yellowish-grey, with golden hairs surrounding the dorso-pleural suture. Halteres yellow; squamae translucent orange-fringed with long orange hairs. Wings clear, transparent ; base of costal cell tinged with brown, subcostal darker brown for about three-quarters of the length, where the pigment ends abruptly ; bases of the auxiliary 1st and 5th longitudinal veins shiny brown. Legs hairy, yellow, except the grey coxae, the trochanters, the proximal end of the femora, the first 4 tarsal joints, especially the posterior ones, and the posterior knees, which are black ; the 5th tarsal joint of each leg is inclined to yellow ; posterior femora swollen ; short weak black spines on the distal extremities of the tibiae, the slightly curved posterior ones being excepted; rows of short black bristles on the middle and posterior tarsi. Miller. —.Ve?/' S])ecie!^ of Syvphidae. 127 Abdomen covered by golden pile, longer laterally ; 1st segment orange laterally, greyisli centrally — beneath the scutellum — with a black spot on each side of this grey portion ; 2nd segment orange except for a T-shaped black patch — placed as described in preceding species — and for a dark- orange band, running along the posterior margin, and also for 2 spots of greyish reflections, one on each side of the stem of T-shaped patch ; 3rd segment much the same as preceding, excepting darker and larger reflections on the orange, leaving only 2 bright-orange veins ; ith segment dark orange, with a black central anterior patch and lateral greyish spots of tomentnm ; 5th segment grey, the black having almost disappeared. Length, 13 mm. ; of wing, 10 mm. Hab. — Captured upon manuka-bush on Mount Cargill during very warm Aveather, February, 1909. Not uncommon. Art. XV. — New Species of Lepidoptera, By G. Howes, F.E.S. PART I. \Bead before the Otago Institute, 2nd August, 1910. "l Selidosema ochrea sp. nov. Three males, 29 lines. Head ochreous-grey. Thorax fuscous. Abdo- men ochreous, darker dorsally. ForeAvings : A small dark-fuscous mark from base below centre of wing ; an irregular light-ochreous patch from base to \ an almost uniformly fuscous transverse band from \ to f , bend- ing towards termen between veins 5 and 3 ; then a transverse ochreous area, followed by a band of uniform fuscous from | to termen. Cilia fuscous, a faint ochreous line at base. Hindwings : Brighter ochreous than fore- wings, with a few faint irregular marks, mostly near termen. Cilia greyish- ochre. The brightness of the ochreous markings easily distinguishes this from the allied Selidoseniae. Nearest meUnata, but is smaller and more distinctly marked. Two females taken at the same time may be of this species, but are so different in appearance that I am waiting further captures before deciding. Taken at '" treacle," Woodhaugh Gardens, Dunedin ; February and April. Eucymatoge arenosus sp. nov. Male and female, 26 Hnes. Head and thorax whitish-ochre, slightly touched with grey. Abdomen whitish-ochre with black bar interrupted in centre on apex of all segments. All wings whitish-ochreous, crossed by waved darker striae. A slight darker suffusion from apex towards centre of forewing. Cilia greyish-white, with a darker-grey line at base. A series of minute black marks along veins and around termen. 128 T raiixacl ions. All the specimens that I have examined show a surprising uniformity. and no difference is noticeable between the male and female in size and colour. Smaller and more compact than Hydriomena (,nhiata, it super- ficially has a strong resemblance to Venusia verriculata. Taken at Mr. O'Connor's residence, at Titahi Bay, Porirua. Wellington,, where it came in fair numbers to " treacle," light, and blossom ; November to March. PART II. [Read before the ()tuti Ifii' Dispersal // Means of Shi/ps. By CuAKi.E.s Chilton. M.A.. M.B., D.8e.. F.L.8.. Professor of Biology. Canterbury College. University of New Zealand. [Read before the Philosophicdl histiliite of Cdiiti rhurii, 7th Deretiiber, 1910.\ It has several times been suggested that some of the marine Crustacea may be unconsciously dispersed by man, owing to their becoming attached oi' temporarily adhering to the hulls of ships. So far as I am aware, however, few definite facts of this means of dispersal have been recorded. Mr. Stebbing (1888. p. 1135), in recording a specimen of Podocerus jalcatus (Montagu) from Kerguelen Island, remarked, '" There is the possi- bility, as I have elsewhere suggested, that these creatures may have travelled out from our own waters along with the vessel to the southern latitude at which thej'^ were captured."' This species, however, which Stebbing gives in his "Das Tierreich Amphipoda" (1906, p. 654) imder the name " Jassa pulchella Leach," proves to be very widely distributed both in northern and in southern seas, and may have been dispersed, as I have pointed out (1909, p. 647), owing to its habit of attaching itself temporarily to the carapace of Jasus edwardsii and other large Crustacea ; and, though it is possible it may also be distributed by attaching itself to ships in the same way, this explanation seems hardly necessary for the particular case Mr. Stebbing was then considering. In his " History of Crustacea " Mr. Stebbing gives a. more certain example of this means of dispersal. He says (1893, p. 98), " In the winter of 1873 an iron vessel entered the port of Marseilles. It had come from Pondichery by way of the Cape of Good Hope, having had a long and stormy voyage in the most rigorous season of the year. To the iron plates of this ship had become attached a little forest of algae and barnacles, and living among these were a numbe]- of higher Crustacea of exotic origin. Two of the specimens were found by Professor Catta to belong to a new species, which in 1876 he named Pachygrapsus advena : one was a Nautilograpsus (or Planes) minutus, a species scarcely ever found in the Mediterranean ; the remainder belong to two species, which M. Catta speaks of as Plagusia squamosa and Plagusia tonientosa." Mr. Stebbing points out that the latter species should be called Plagusia chabrus (Linn.), and the foi-mer Plagusia depressa (Fabricius). The last-mentioned species was the most abundant, being present in hundreds, though, as Mr. Stebbing points out. being an Atlantic species it might not have had to come far. There seems no doubt that the species mentioned had been brought from other places into the Mediterranean by their becoming attached to the hull of this ship. Dr. Alcock (1900. p. 437) has since pointed out that the Plagusiae resemble Varuna in being able to make themselves at home on drift timber in the open sea, and that the wide range of some of the species can be thus accounted for. He states, however, that the two species found in the Mediterranean may very probably have been carried there by ships, and adds that on the " Investigator " Plagusiae could always be seen adhering to the ship's sides near the water-line. We have another example of this methftd of dispersal in the case of the common Eurdpea)i shore-crab Careinns nfomas. Dr. Alcock says (1899, 132 Transactions. p. 14) that this crab is found at various places on the Atlantic coast of the northern United States and ofE the coast of Pernambuco (Brazil) ; that in Europe it extends in the North Sea almost up to Arctic limits, and is common in all parts of the Mediterranean, being also found in the Black Sea and the Red Sea ; and that it is also an Indian species, though evidently very rare. He adds that it " has been reported from the Hawaiian Islands, from the Bay of Panama, and — though there is doubt about this locahty — from Australia." He proceeds to point out that the distribution is not altogether without parallel among other marine forms, and is therefore nol so singular as has been supposed. In 1901 Messrs. Fulton and Grant (1901. p. 56) pointed out that this crab does undoubtedly occur in Australia in the waters of Port Phillip, where it is now exceedingly abundant, and the}- state that there seems little doubt that it has been introduced there by the shipping. In their paper they quote Consul Gunnerson as suggesting that it may have found its way from Europe to Australia through the medium of the old lumber-ships attracted thither in the early " fifties " on the discovery of the goldfields, many of these vessels having been far from seaworthy. and been patched up with false bottoms which had become riddled with Teredo navalis and fouled with marine growths, affording ample sheltei' for the fry and young crabs on their long voyage. Messrs. Fulton and Grant suggest that this explanation may also account for the scattered distribution of the species as indicated by Dr. Alcock. I am now able to add another example of the same method of dispersal. When the British Antarctic ship " Terra Nova " arrived in Lyttelton in October, 1910, it was stated in the newspapers that the sides of her hull were covered with a plentiful growth of seaweed, barnacles, &c.. and that after she was tied up to the wharf numerous fish were seen feeding on these. As soon as possible after she had been taken into dock I visited the vessel. but, unfortunately, before I could get down the water had been pumped out of dock, and her sides had been already scraped. From the floor of the dock, however, I secured the following cirripedes : Lepas hilli Leach, Le-pas australis Darwin, Conchodenna aiirita Linn., Conchoderma virgata Spengler. and Balanus tintinnabulum Linn. These are all species which are known to attach themselves to floating logs, and they are also commonly found on ships, and they therefore present nothing new of interest. However, in one of the planks which had been partially split, and therefore removed by the workmen, there were fomid four specimens of a large sphaeromid. Cymodoce tuberculata Haswell.* both male nnd female specimens, two of these being still aUve when I secured them. This species is quite unknown in New Zealand waters, but is an Aus- tralian one, and there seems little doubt that it had attached itself to the ship while she was staying in Port PhiUip, and had travelled Avith the ship all the way to New Zealand — i.e., about twelve hundred miles. The hull of the ship is not covered over with copper, but is all wood. The * My specimens do not quite agree with Haswell's description and tiginvs in the amount of tuberculation of the body and in the details of the processes on the i)leon. and they may prove to be a distinct but allied species. The two specimc;ns which 1 consider to be the females of the species differ jxreatly in general ajipearance from the males, as is generally the cas(^ in this genus, and I have not yet been able to identify them with any form already described. These (jiiestions must be discussed elsewhere, and they do not affect the present argument, which depends on the fact that the species in question is certainly not known from New Zealand, and is either identical with an Australian species already described or very closely allied thereto. Chilton. — Dispersal of Marine Crustacea by Means of Ships. 133 " Terra Nova " had sailed from England down the Atlantic,''|calling at South Trinidad, ofE the coast of South America ; then at Cape Colony, where she stayed some short time ; and then to Hobart and on to Melbourne. From Melbourne she came direct to New Zealand, coming round the south through Foveaux Strait. It is worth while drawing attention to the fact that in this case both male and female specimens were carried together, so that the establishment of the species in any favourable locality to which they might be taken would be quite possible. Naturally the Crustacea that are suitable for dispersal by means of ships can also be dispersed by floating logs ; in that case, however, they would follow the tracks of the prevailing currents, while the dispersal caused by ships would be erratic, and could not be understood without some knowledge of the prevailing routes taken by the ships. Addendum. Since this paper was read before the Philosophical Institute of Canter- bury Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, of the Auckland Museum, has kindly communi- cated to me the following occurrence, which appears to be an example of a somewhat similar nature. About two years ago, happening to hear of a curious crustacean in a fishmonger's shop in Auckland, he went to see it, and was surprised to find a freshly caught specimen of Limulus. He was able to secure the specimen for the Museum, and, as the result of inquiries, found that two fishermen had observed the Limulus adhering to the stone facing of the Calliope Dock and had pulled it up with a boat-hook. No vessel had been in the dock, however, for some considerable time. It is uncertain, therefore, whether this specimen found its way to Auck- land by adhering to the hull of a vessel or in some other way ; but the occurrence of a live Limulus in New Zealand is certainly noteworthy. Mr. Cheeseman has kindly compared his specimen with the characters given b}' Pocock in his recent revision of the group, and identified it as Carcino- scorpius rotundicauda (Latr.), a species known from the Gulf of Siam, the Moluccas, and the Philippines.* References. Alcock, A. 1899. " Materials for a Carcinological Fauna of India, No. 4." Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, vol. 68. 1900, "Materials for a Carcinological Fauna of India, No. 6.'" L.c, vol. 69. Chilton, C. 1909. " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand," Crustacea. pp. 601-71. Fulton, S. W., and Grant, F. E. 1901. " Some Little-known Victorian Decapod Crustacea." Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. 14 (n.s.). Pocock, R. J. 1902. " Taxonomy of Recent Species of Limulus.'' Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol 9, p. 260. Stebbing, T. R. R. 1888. " Report Voyage " Challenger,' " Zool., vol. 29 (Amphipoda). 1893. " A History of Crustacea." 1906. " Das Tierreich Amphipoda," 1 : Gammadidea. * A single specimen of Limulus polyphemus was found in the harbour of Copen- hagen in the eighteenth century, having presumably been carried over from Nortli America by a ship to which it clung. (Ray Lankester, Q.J.M.S., vol. 48, p. 229, 1905.) 134 Trai/sarfioNs. Art. XVIII. — Revision of the New Zealand Stomatopoda. By Charles Chilton. M.A., M.B., D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, University of New Zealand. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterhury, 7th December, 1910.] In the year 1891 I published a paper on the New Zealand Squillidae, stating what was known of the group at that time. Only two species were then known with certainty to occur in New Zealand — viz., Squilla armata. Milne- Edwards and Lysiosquilla spinosa (Wood-Mason) ; but two other species — Squilla nepa Latreille and ProtosquiUa trispinosa (White) — had been re- corded from New Zealand, though they were not represented in any of the local collections. A few years later an important paper was published by R. P. Bigelow on the Stomatopoda collected by the " Albatross " between 1885 and 1891, and this paper incidentally contains a considerable amount of additional information on the New Zealand forms. Further references to some of them have also been made by A. Milne-Edwards in the " Mission du Cap Horn" and by Stebbing in his report on the South African Cnistacea. Owing to the habits of these Crustacea they are not very frequently met with, but during the years since the publication of my paper some additional specimens have been collected, and in working out some from the '" Nora Niven " collection I have been led to revise the few species that are known to occur in New Zealand and to present the resiilts in this paper. "In it I record one species, Lysiosquilla hrazieri, which had not been previously laiown from New Zealand seas. I have also a specimen which is un- doubtedly the same as those referred to Squilla nepa by Heller, but now known under the name of Squilla affinis Berthold. so that this species, which was previously considered doubtful, does occur in New Zealand : further, I am able to give some additional information on Squilla armata. As regards their distribution, it may be noted that the four species that are certainly known to occur in New Zealand are all widely distributed, none of them being confined to the New Zealand region. Squilla armata extends around the globe in southern seas, S. affinis reaches to Hong Kong and Japan, Lysiosquilla spinosa is found in the Indian Ocean, and L. hrazieri occurs in Australia, and is probably identical with L. latifrons from Japan. For their kindness in supplying me with specimens I have to thank Mr. A. Hamilton, of the Dominion Museum ; Mr. F. W. Hesse, of the Wanganui Public Museum ; Mr. Edgar R. Waite, of the Canterbury Museum : and Professor W. B. Benham. of the Otago Museum. I have given only those references which appeared necessary for New Zealand students, and I have added brief diagnoses of the genera and species where this seemed desirable. ProtosquiUa trispinosa (White). Gondaclylus trispinosus White, List Crust. Brit. Mus., p. 87, 18-17 : Mieis. Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 90, 1876. ProtosquiUa trispinosa Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23. p. 61. This species has been recorded by Heller from Auckland. It is widely distributed in Austi'alian and Indo-Pacific seas, but, so far as I am aware. Chu.ton. — Jieviffion of the ynr Ztahnid Stoinatopoda. 135 is not yet represented in any local collection. It is quite possible that it may occur in the northern part of New Zealand, and the recent rediscovery of some of the species assigned to New Zealand by Heller which were thought at one time to be errors makes it desirable to keep this species still on the list as a possible occasional visitant to New Zealand seas. Genus Squilla Fabricius. Diagnosis. — " Stomatopoda having the telson attached to the 6th ab- doniinal segment by a movable joint ; the hind-body depressed and wide ; the dactylus of the raptorial claw with usually not more than 6 teeth ; as a rule, more than 4 intermediate denticles on the telson, which is usually longer than Made : and the inner basal spine of the uropod the longer of the two." (Bigelow.) Squilla armata Milne-Edwards. Squilla armata Milne-Edwards. Hist. Nat. Crust., vol. 11. p. 521, 1837; Gay, Hist, de Chile, Zool.. vol. 3, Crust., p. 223. 1849 ; Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 5, p. 25, 1880 ; A. Milne-Edwards. Mission du Cap Horn, p. F53, 1891; Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 60, 1891 ; Whitelegge, Memoir Aust. Mus., vol. 4, pt. 2, p. 199, 1900 ; Stebbing, South African Crustacea, pt. 2, p. 45, 1902 : Bigelow, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 17, p. 515, figs. 9 and 10, 1895. CMoridella. armata, M. J. Rathbun. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.. vol. 38. p. 609, 1910. Specific Diagnosis. — " Eyes large, triangular, dactylus of the raptorial linil) with 7 to 9 teeth ; rostrum narrowed in front \vith a slight median ^.j . . _ elevation; carapace with ir-. ii .Mt ,; 1 median carina obsolete or entirely absent, intermedi- ate and lateral carinae present only on the pos- terior lateral lobes, anterior lateral angles produced into acute spines ; lateral spines of the 5th thoracic segment narrow, straight, and acute, the lateral pro- cesses of the next two segments broadly rounded and produced into spines that point backward ; 8 carinae on the abdominal segments ; telson with a crest and a keel and a series of curved lines of pits on each side. 6 marginal spines, the submedian pair with movable tips. no submedian denticles. 10 to 11 small intermediate ones, and 1 lateral one." (Bigelow.) Length of largest specimen examined, 135 mm. ; usual length, 60-80 mm. This species is probably common in New Zealand seas, though it is only occasionally met ^vith, most of the specimens- in local museums having Fig. I. — Squilln nniintu : Telson and uropod. i36 Transactions. been obtained from the stomachs of fish. I have seen specimens that were dredged in Wellington Harbour (T. W. Kirk) ; two fine specimens from Petone Beach, now in the collection of the Dominion Museum ; others ob- tained during the " Nora Niven " expedition, in the stomach of a Dasyhatus (Waite) ; two specimens from Kaikoura, in the stomach of an Alepisaurus ierox (A. D. Goodall). It has also been recorded from the Auckland Islands by Miers. Distribution. — Widely distributed in southern seas, having been recorded from South America, South Africa, and Australia. Remarks. — The specimens examined agree closely with the brief diagnosis given by Bigelow as quoted above. The median elevation on the rostrum is hardly appreciable, and the carinae on the carapace are only very slightly marked, especially in the smaller specimens. The submedian spines on the telson have movable tips, as described by Bigelow, in the smaller specimens, iiut in larger specimens the tips have become obsolete or been worn off. The curved lines on the sides of the median carina of the telson are fairly distinguishable, though the surface itself is quite smooth. My specimens agree also with the more detailed description given by Bigelow, except that in smaller specimens the intermediate and lateral carinae do not end in spines in the four or five anterior abdominal seg- ments ; ■' the 1 to 4 small spines half- way between the median and inter- mediate carinae " on the posterior margin of the 5th segment of the ab- domen appear to be constantly present. In the characters of the telson and in some other points this species ap- pears to approach pretty closely to Squilla lata Brooks from the Arafura Sea (see fig. 1). Milne-Edwards, in the " Mission du Cap Horn," considers S. gracilipes as probably a variety of S. arniata, and certainly, as he points out, the num- ber of spines on the dactyls of the raptorial limbs is subject to variation. so that the possession of 10 in S. gra- cilipes is not sufficient in itself to dis- tinguish it from S. artnata ; but Miers describes S. gracilipes as having 26 denticles {i.e., 13 on each side) between the submedian marginal spines, and about 18 on each side between the submedian and the first lateral spines. In none of the adult specimens of S. armata that I have been able to examine are there any denticles between the median fissure and the submedian spine except in one instance where there are one or two small traces of a denticle, and Bigelow has drawn attention to the same fact, so that in this point there is a pretty considerable difference between S. gracilipes and S. armata; and there are other points drawn attention to by Miers which iiiivke it difficult to consider these two forms as specific- ally identical. I have one small specimen, collected at Sumner, that is only 20 mm. in length ; but since it has the submedian and lateral carinae faintly marked on the posterior abdominal segments, and ending in spines on the 6th Fig -Squilla armata : Endopod of first pleopod of male. Chilton. — lierision of the New Zealand Stoinatopoda. 137 segment, it must, I think, belong to S. armata. In it the terminal segment shows little or no median fissure, and there are 12 small sharp teeth on each side between the median line and the submedian spine, and 16 between the submedian and lateral teeth, all these teeth being sharply pointed and occasionally irregular, with a small one in between two of the ordinary size. The raptorial limbs on each side bear 7 teeth on the dactyl. In the character of the terminal segment and also of the uropods this small specimen appears to agree closely with Miers's description and figure of S. gracilipes ; that species, however, is much larger — viz., 85 mm. long (" 3J in.") — and presumably adult, and the dactyls of the raptorial limbs bear 10 teeth. As Bigelow has pointed out, there are no secondary sexual difEerences in S. armata. The endopodite in the first abdominal appendage in the male is specially modified in the usual manner, and, as this appendage has not been described in this species, I represent it in fig. 2. It will be seen that it conforms closely to the type found in other species of Squilla, and a detailed description of it appears to be unnecessary. Squilla affinis Berthold. Squilla affinis Berthold, Abhandl. k. Gesellsch. Wiss. Gottingen, vol. 3. p. 26, 1845 ; Bigelow, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 17, p. 538, fig. 22^ 1895 (with synonymy). S. oratoria De Haan, Siebold's Fauna Japon. Crust., p. 223, 1850 ; Stebbing, South African Crustacea, pt. 4. p. 44, 1908. S. nepa Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 89, 1876, and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), vol. 5. p. 25, 1880 (in part) : Chilton. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 60, 1891. Bigelow has pointed out that under the name Squilla nepa two species have been confused. These species differ mainly in the eyes, one form having them small and with the corneal axis about three-fourths the length of the per- pendicular one and at right angles to it, while in the other the eyes are large, tri- angular, with the corneal axis oblique and as long as or longer than the perpendicular one. The form with the smaller eyes he considers to be the true S. nepa Latreille, while the other form he assigns to S. affinis Berthold. Mr. Stebbing upholds S. oratoria De Haan as prior to S. affinis Berthold, and therefore the correct name for the species. Squilla nepa was recorded from Auckland by Heller, but there has been nothing to indicate which of these two species was intended, and up till the present time no further specimen has been obtained by local collectors, and consequently the oc- currence of this species in New Zealand has been considered doubtful. Among the SquiUidae in the Dominion Museum kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. Hamilton there is a single dried specimen which, though imperfect, evidently belongs to S. affi.nis Berthold as described by Bigelow. The eyes are imperfect, but there is sufficient of them left to show that thev Fio. 3. — HijuiUa (iffiitiK : TeKson. 138 Tia/isactioiii were large, triangular, and with the corneal axis oblique, while the carinae on the carapace agree precisely with the description and figure given by Bigelow, and in themselves are sufficient to show that the specimen belongs to S. affinis and not to S. nepa. The specimen also agrees with his descrip- tion in all the other characters that can be still seen. Unfortunately, the exact locality of this specimen is not known. The species S. affinis is known from various localities in Japan and also from Hong Kong, and its occurrence in New Zealand indicates a distribu- tion similar to that of numerous other marine Crustacea. The species is described by Bigelow as follows : "A Squilla with large triangular eyes, the corneal axis being oblique and as long as or usually longer than the peduncular one and 0-05 times the length of the body ; the outer margin of the dactylus of the raptorial claw not sinuate or only slightly so ; 6 teeth on the dactylus ; the rostrum slightly truncated, and supplied with marginal carinae and a median tubercle ; 5 carinae on the carapace, the median one not bifurcated for more than one-fourth its length, and the lateral ones continued into the anterior lateral spines, which do not reach as far forward as the suture between the rostrum and carapace, the posterior lateral angles evenly rounded ; no ventral spine on the first exposed thoracic segment, its lateral processes and those of the next two segments bilobed as in S. nepa ; submedian carinae present on all except the first segments of the hind-body ; crest, keel, and symmetrical Unes of pits on the telson and 6 marginal spines, 8 basal carinae, and between the former 4 to 5 submedian, 7 to 9 intermediate, and 1 lateral denticle."' I give a figure representing the telson. (See fig. 3.) Genus Lysiosquilla Dana. ** Stomatopoda having the 6th abdominal segment separated from the telson by a movable joint ; the hind-body depressed, loosely articulated. I'^IG. 4. — Lf/.yiof<'/uiII(i ■sjiiiw.'ia : 'I'elson and uropod.- and wide ; the dactylus of the raptorial claw without a basal enlargement, but with not less than 5 niarjiinal teeth ; no more than 4 denticles, and often I Cmt/roN. — Uevision of Hi*' Neu' Zealand Stomatopoda. 139 ■only 1 . between the inteiniediate and submedian marginal spines of the telson. which is usually wider than long ; and the outer spines of the basal prolongation of the uropod usually longer than the inner one." (Bigelow.) Lysiosquilla spinosa (Wood -Mason). Coionis spinosa Wood-Mason, Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1875, p. 232. Lysiosquilla spinosa Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 61, 1891 (with synonymy). This species is fully described in my previous paper quoted above. Since then I have seen specimens in the Otago Museum from Resolution Island, -dug in the sand'" (R. Henry, 1900). and Stewart Island (T. J. Parker) ; one imperfect specimen was obtained during the cruise of the trawler " Nora Niven "" (Waite), and quite recently Miss S. D. Shand has sent me a speci- nieu from the Chatham Islands. I give a figure of the telson and uropod for comparison with those of the other species. Lysiosquilla brazieri Miers. Li/siosquilla brazieri Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5). vol. 5, p. 11, pi. 1, ' figs 3-6, 1880 ; Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 206, 1882. Two dried specimens in the Wanganui Public Museum, which have kindly been placed at my disposal by the Curator, Mr. H. W. Hesse, seem certainly to belong to this species, agreeing well with the figures and de- scription given by Miers, except that there are only 10 spinules on each side on the posterior margin of the terminal segment instead of 14 ; there is also a slight median sinus. As Miers pointed out, this species is evidently closely allied to L. lati- irons De Haan, and the two specimens that I have been able to examine seem to connect these two species still more, for they bear only 10 minute spinules. as in L. latifrons. and there is a slight indication of a sinus on the posterior margin of the terminal segment ; they agree, however, with L. brazieri in having the appendages of the last pair of thoracic limbs almost linear, while these are described as being ovate in L. latifrons. I think there is probably little doubt that these two species should be combined, but as I have only two imperfect dried specimens, and am unable to consult any description of L. latifrons beyond that given by Miers. I leave the decision of this question open for the present. A specimen of this species was sent to me in 1894 by the late Mr. S. H. Drew, then Curator of the Wanganui Public Museum, who informed me that in 1885 thousands were washed ashore at Otaki, the beach being strewn for miles after a heavy south-west gale, the animal never having been seen before or since. The specimen I then examined was a very imperfect one. and I was unable to identify it and merely recorded in my note-book that it differed considerably from L. spinosa in the arrangement of the spines on the terminal segments. The two specimens now examined are evidently from the same lot. having been obtained at Otaki in 1885 by Mr. Lee, and they have enabled me to identify the species as above. I have seen no other specimens. . L. brazieri is recorded from Port Jackson, New South Wales : L. latifrons from Japan. J 40 Transaction-^. Art. XIX. — Stellerids and Echinids from the Kermadcc Islands. By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.8. [Read before the Otaijo Institutp, tft Novemhrr, ]910.] Me. Oliver was good enougli to place his collection of echinoderms in my hands for identification. In this communication I deal only with the Asterids, Ophiurids, and Echinids, and must leave the Holothurians for a later article. He also sent me useful notes on the colour and habitats of most of those collected. A good number of species have already been recorded from these islands — some littoral forms by Farquhar (1898 and l£Ofl), and others from the deep sea between the islands in the " Challenger " Eeports. The present collection contains twenty-one species, and includes all those recorded by Farquhar except Pectinvra {Ojihiofeza) danhyi, together with several species not hitherto met with at the islands. List of Littoral Echinoderms. (The new records are preceded by the sign X.) Asteroidea. X Astropecten polyacanthus M. & T. Aster opsis imperialis Farq. X Gymnasteria lissotcrgum sp. nov. Asterina ( liveri sp. nov. Ophidiaster (?) kermadecensis sp.no v. Asterias rodolphi Perr. X Asterias edmondi sp. nov. Ophionereis schayeri M. & T. X Amphiura squamata D. Ch. X Ophiocoma hrevipes Pet. X Centrostephanus rodgersii Ag. Toxocidaris tnberculatus Lam. Tripneusles gratilla Ag. Phyllacanthu'i dubia Brndt. Echinometra mathaei Blnv). Ophiuroidea. X Ophiothrix cliveri sp. nov. X OpJiiura kermadecensis sp. nov. Pectinura (Ophiopeza) danhyi Farq. Echinoidea. X Plesianthus testudinnnus Gray. X Echinoneus cyclostomus Leske. X Fihularia australis Desmlns. X Brissus carinaius Lam. Of the Asterids, only Aslropecten polyacanthus has been recorded from New Zealand waters, and there is some doubt as to this identification. All the six genera are widely distributed, and the species are closely related to Pacific and Australian forms. Aster opsis contains but two species— this one from the Kermadecs, and the other {A. vernicina) from Australia. Of the six species and genera of Ophiurids, only two have been foimd on our shores — Amphiura squamata and Ophionereis schayeri— both of which are very widely distributed in the Pacific. The other genera arc also common in this ocean. Of the ten species of Echinids, belonging to as many genera, only two have been found on our shores, and this but rarely — viz., Crntrostephanus rodgersii and Toxocidaris tuberculatus. The whole series is Indo-Pacific. and for the most part is common on the east coast of Australia. In order to make this list as complete as possible, I here add those obtained by the "Challenger" at Stations 170 and 170a, at a depth of Benham. — Stellerids and Echinids from the Kermadecs. lil 520 fathoms, between Macauley Island and Sunday (Raoul) Island ; and at Station 171, from a depth of 600 fathoms, north of the latter island. Th*' species peculiar to these stations are marked with the sign x. Asteroidea. X Solaster torulatus Sladen. 1 x Grihella sufflata Sladen. Ophiuroidea. X Astroschema horrida Lym. salix Lym. X Ophiomusium scalar e Lym. Ophiophyllum petilum Lym. X Amphiura argentea Lym. X ,, canescens Lym. X Ophiochiton lentus Lym. X Ophioceramis (?) clausa Lym. ,, obstricta Lym. X Ophiactis cuspidata Lym. ,, flexuosa. ,, nama Lym. X Ophiacantha cornuta Lym. X ,, vepratica Lym. Ophiomitra plicata Lym. Echinoidea. Salenia hastigera Ag. ! x Trigonocidaris monolini Ag. Aspidodiadema tonsum Ag. ' Echinus acutus Lam. It will be seen that a very considerable proportion of these deep-water species are endemic ; the others are Indo-Pacific. As Mr. Farquhar has already pointed out, the littoral fauna is not at all related to that of New Zealand, but is distinctly Indo-Pacific, with much affinity to the east Aus- tralian coastal fauna. I have not thought it necessary to repeat the synonymy or the references to the earlier literatu e ; both of these matters may be found treated at length in Farquhar's paper (1898). Asteroidea. Astropecten polyacanthus Miiller and Troschel. One specimen dredged in 12 fathoms, on gravel bottom, west of Meyer Island (20/4/1908), and a second smaller one dredged in 20 fathoms in Denham Bay, Sunday Island (4/4/08). The larger individual has the following dimensions : R 87 mm., r 15 mm. : so that R : r = 5t. One ray is quite short and stumpy, being in the course of regeneration ; of the original arm only 23 mm. remains, while the new tip is 12 mm. in length. A small specimen, in which R 10, r 4, appears to be the young of this. It is, however, almost too small to be worth describing in detail. There is a single spine on each of the supra-marginals, but the infra-marginals carry only 2 spines in place of the 4 or 5 of the adult. This is a widely distributed species, not hitherto recorded from the Kermadecs. It is said by Hutton (1872, p. 6) to occur on the New Zealand coast, but I have not seen a specimen. Distribution. — Red Sea, Indian Ocean (Mauritius, Ceylon, India, Andamans), Pacific (Australia, China, Japan, Fiji, &c.). Asteropsis imperialis Farquhar. Figs. 1-3. Farquhar, Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool., vol. 26, p. 193, pi. 13. I have before me, including the type, three stages in the growth of this species, which in some respects seems partly to bridge over the gap between 14'2 T 1(11 traction > Asteropsis of Mi'illei' and Ti-oschel and Dennasterias of Perrier (1875). Unfortunately, I have not access to Perrier's original paper, but I rely on 81aden's diagnosis of the two genera (" Challenger " Report, p. 355). One difference (I gather both from 8hiden and from Bronn's " Thierreichs ") lies in the presence of a distinct " composite reticulated meshwork " formed by the abactinal plates in Derniastcrias, while the skeleton of Asteropsis consists of " irregular substellate plates not forming such a network." From the account of the largest specimens given below it will be seen that in the adult of this species such a " composite reticulated meshwork " does exist, but in other features the genera are quite distinct. The material at ni}' disposal consists of — (a) Large specimens, both dried and in alcohol : (6) Farquhar's type, which is of intermediate size : (c) small ones, dried. (a.) The dried specimens are somewhat compressed and distorted, but the plates are pretty distinctly seen. Avhile in those preserved in alcohol the skeleton is entirely con- cealed l)y the tough skin, which is wrinkled on the abactinal surface, and especially near the tips of the rays, but is smooth on the actinal surface. This skin encloses and connects the adambu- lacral spines so as to form 2 thick membranes on each side of the groove, one lying in the furrow, the other along its margin. Dimensions. — The dried specimens measure R 75. r 34 ; R 70, r 31. The alcoholic specimen gives R 56. r 24. Thus ;• : R = 1 : 2-20 to 2-33. The form is stellate. w i t h r o u n d e d i n t e r- h r a c h i a 1 angles . The rays are broad at the base (3 mm.), tapering gradually to a rounded apex. At about midway along the ray is 15 mm. across. The figure given by Farquhar represents well the general appearance of a pi'eserved specimen. The madreporite is prominent and round, situated rather nearer to centre than to the margin (as 12 is to 20). The anus is surrounded by a circle of short cylindrical spines, about 10 in number, which close over it. The abactinal skeleton forms an open meshwork, with large papular areas, separated by short rows of nai-roA\- flattened ossicles about half as wide as they ai'e long, which radiate from a series of 5- or 6-lobed plates at the nodes of the network. Ther(> is a r)-lobed central plate with the anus close to one side ; from it radiate outwards short rods, forming a series of wide meshes around it. At the intcuvradial margin of this circle are 5 irregularly stellate plates, one of which bears the madreporite. Fig. 1. — A'Sterop«i-'< hn/x'n'ali.s. The central portion of the ilise (x 2). ce., central ; <■ centro-radial : /.;■.. interradial ; rl. primary radial Benham. — Sttilertds (iiid Kchiii,nh from flu' hi'rtnaders. 143 These are the primary iiiterradials. Each presents 5 lobes proximally and a h\rge single or feebly notched lobe distally. From the latter a series of paired plates lying side by side pass outwards to the interbrachial margin. At intervals along this double row there are semi-stellate plates with radiat- ing rods on either side (fig. 2). Outside the interradials is a series of 5 primary radials at the base of the rays. Each is a more or less rosette-shaped plate with 5 to 7 lobes. Along the middle of the ray is a series of similar plates connected together by short rods, which in the distal region of the arm become shorter and shorter, so that the median rosettes come to lie closer together (fig. 2). Along each side of the radials or median row is a lateral series of similar rosette plates, but of less size ; these, however, cease about half-way along the arm. They are connected to the median rosettes by short narrow rods, and when the intermediates cease the rods become broader and shorter, and connect the medians with the supra-marginals. Still further out the radials themselves touch the marginals. The supra-marginals are large, irregularly oval or pyriform, or even subtriangular. with rounded angles ; they are very convex outwards, and are obliquely placed and loosely articulated. I find 11 or 12 along each side. The infra-marginals have the same general form, but are rather smaller, with the longer axis longitudinal ; and, though usually immediately below the supra-marginals, the number is lather greater — 12 or 13 (fig. 3). On the upper surface there are the characteristic " valvate pedicel- lariae " at the base of each. arm ; they are of large size, measuring 4-5 mm. in length. As Farquhar has noted, these are not quite regularly arranged — not alM^ays paired — as will be seen from the following table (A and B are large, C and D are young forms) : — tSpeeimen. Ray. Pedicellariae. 1 Paired. 1 2 Paired, though unsymmetrical. A 3 > Two on one side, none on the other. j ■i i Paired.- ' 5 i One on one side, none on the other. I 1 One only. 1 2 None. B ..; 3 Paired. 4 None. 5 One small one, on one side only. 1 Paired, with a 3rd smaller on the disc, plates. near median c 2 3 4 5 Paired. One. ! 1 9 Paired. 1 i 3 4 __ \ 5 One. 144 Transactions. Fig. 2. Asteropais imperialis. Fig. 2. Abactinal surface of half a va,y (x 2) denuded of its skin, showing the arrangement of the skeleton. The dotted areas are diagrammatic only, for the purpose of showing up the plates more distinctly, c, connective ; ce., central ; c.r., centro-radial ; d.l., dorso-lateral : t'.r., intei'radial ; rl, l)rimary radial ; s.m., supra-marginal. Fig. :?. .\ctinal surface of half a ray (x 2). In the proximal region the paired actinal ambulacral spines are inserted ; in the middle, both the furrow - spines and the smgle actinals which are present here ; toward the distal extremity the actinal spines are removed, and only the furrow-spines are shown. ad., adambulacral ; a.s., actinal ambulacral spine ; /.«., furrow- spine ; i.m., infra-marginal ; s.m., supra-marginal ; v.l., ventro-lateral. Bknhaim. — Stellerids and Echinids from tlw Kermadecs. ]4;'» The papular areas are occupied by numerous papulae. The actinal skeleton in the interbrachial area consists of more or less oval imbricating plates, with the longer axis radially directed. There are no pedicellariae on this surface. The adambulacral armature is formed by 2 rows of spines : the furrow- series of 2 spines to each ossicle, cylindrical, blunt-pointed, and closi' together ; the actinal spines (or outer series) are broader, more conical, and also bluntly pointed. In the proximal half of the arm there are 2 actinal spines to each ossicle, but further out 1 only. (6.) By the kindness of Mr. Edgar Waite, the Curator of the Canter- bury Museum, I have been allowed to examine the type of the species. It is in much better condition than mine, as it has evidently been carefully dried, and the skeletal plates are not disturbed. It has faded to a dirty- yellow colour. The disc-plates are quite distinctly seen through the skin ; the chief ones are lobed as in the above specimens, and are connected by short ossicles so as to form a network ; but the width of the meshes is smaller, the length and number of rods being less than in the above. The distinctly lobed or rosette plates on the arm, both median and lateral, have the same arrangement, and there are the same interbrachial lines of plates. Mr. Farquhar's figure was drawn, I suspect, from the wet specimen, so that the plates are not clearly shown. I may note that on one side of one arm, which bears a normal pair of pedicellariae, there is a trivalved pedicellaria as shown in Farquhar's figure, situated just in front of one of the normal bivalved pedicellariae, and symmetrical with a small bivalve on the opposite side of this arm. (c.) In the small individuals the short rods connecting the rosette plates are still fewer, or absent, so that the plates are in contact. The supra- raarginals touch the radials for about half the length of the arms, then there is a single row of intermediates. On the disc the plates are im- bricated. The dried specimens measure R 45, ;• 20 ; and E, 40, r 19. Colour. — The colour in life is described by Mr. Oliver as " bright red." The dried ones are still carmine-red ; those in alcohol are bright orange. Locality. — Oliver states that they are " not common." They occur on rocks near and below low-water mark. Meyer Island (29/2/1908) ; Boat Cove, Sunday Island (1/5/1908). Farquhar's specimen also came from here. Distribution. — The genus is represented by A. vernicina on the Aus- iralian coast. For the opportunity of comparing the Kermadec species vvith this I am indebted to Mr. Etheridge, Curator of the Australian Museum, who was good enough to send me specimens of the Australian species. Gymnasteria lissotergum sp. nov. Figs. 4 and 5. Three small starfishes seem to require the formation of a new species. Dimensions. — R 11, r 6-5. The smaller has R 6, r 4. The ratio r:R is 1 : 1-84 and 1 : 1-5. Flat, star-shaped, with broad arms (7 mm. at the base), rounded at the tip. The abactinal surface is covered with flat roundish hexagonal plates of relatively large size, pavement-like in their arrangement, and covered by a rough finely granulated skin. Papulae occur in lines between the plates. 146 'rransactiotu The median radial plates are somewhat larger than the laterals, which extend to the tip of the ray. The madreporite is single, small, about half the diameter of any of the other plates of the disc, and situated close to the centre. Marginals well developed. The supra-marginals are large, flat, squarish, lying on the upper surface. There are 7 on each side, excluding the ter- minal. In one specimen some few of the supra-marginals bear 1 to 3 quite small blunt spines on the outer edge. In the other specimen they are little evident. In each interradius a couple of plates, with adjacent sides straight^ extend from the primary interradial to the marginals. At each side of the base of the arm is a small valvate pediceliaria,. though not quite regularly disposed, as it may be absent from one side. They are usually carried on one of the small supplementary plates, between the supra-marginal and laterals. In one case there is a pedicellaria on a special plate close to the median row. On the actinal face the interbrachial areas are formed of small plates similar to those of the upper surface. There are no pedicellariae or papulae on this surface. The infra-marginals are similar in form and number to the supra- marginals. Each bears a horizontal row of 3 or 4 short conical spines. ( om- pressed from above down- wards, closely set along the outer edge of the plate. In each group the 2 middle spines are rather longer than the 2 outer ones. There is a gap between the groups, so that the saw- like fringe is interrupted. The adambulacral arma- ture : The series of furrow- spines and the series of actinal spines are united together to form a sort of membrane, so that the groove is margined by 2 membranes on each side. The furrow-spines are 2 to each plate, cylin- drical ; the actinal spines are solitary over the greater length of the groove, but duplicated on the plates near the mouth, flattened and broad, with very blunt points. There are no special teeth at the oral angles. Colour. — Mr. Oliver gives the colour as " bright red." When dried they are pale bufi^, with indications of a richer brown near the apex. Locality. — Meyer Island : Under stones in rock-pools (10/5/1908) ; and one was dredged " on coral, 3 fathoms " (1/3/1908). Dist.rihiifum. — The genus is Pacific and Indian. Remarks. — Tlie juvenile form of fi. carinijera v. Martens, figured by Sladen (" Challenger " Report, pi. 52, figs. 5-8), differs from the present species in the relatively greater size of the plates, in the presence of large spines on the infra-marginals, and none, or very smull ones, on the supra-marginals ; W Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Gytnnasteria lissotergu in. Fig. 4. The abactinal surface of the disc and of one ray (x 3). Fig. 5. The actinal surface of one ray (x 3). Details are inserted on one side onlv. I>KMIA\I. Stt'lliiiils (did h'l/iiiiif/s from llir Ki' rinadtc- U7 also, in that species there are 2 rows of hiteral intermediate plates sepa- rating the radials from the marginals, while the proportion r : R is different. The arms are bhmtei'. and the adanibiilacral armature different. Asterina oliveri s]). iiov. Fig. 6. f>f this starfish. Avhich is very common in rock-pools, I have nine speci- mens, all dried They have, unfortunately, been a good deal flattened, and the spines rubbed off in places, but the general characters are readily seen by comparison of one Avith another. Dimensions. — The largest is R 27, r 23, and from a series of measure- ments it is found that /• : R is about 5:7. The outline varies from stellate to m-arly pentagonal, with only slight incurvatures lietweeu the rays. Probably in life the centre of the disc is elevated, but it is now depressed. The arms are, naturally, broad, and end bluntly. The madreporite is single, not prominent, much nearer to the centre than to the margin, its mesial edge being a little more than half its own diameter from the centre. The abactinal plates are cres- centic, those along the middle of the ray longer than elsewhere, so that they are distinctly conspicuous. On either side of this row the plates are shorter, and this decrease continues towards the middle of the inter- brachial area. The spines are in 2 rows on each plate, closely set, cylindrical, fine, and sufficiently long to reach nearly to the neigh- bouring plate when pressed down. There are about 14 spines in each roAv on the mesial (radial) plates ; about 10 on the curved interradials of the interbrachial area, but towards the margin they get fewer, there being only some 5 or 6 on these smaller plates. On the actinal surface each plate carries only 1 spine, shorter than those of the abactinal plates, and a good deal stouter ; but on the 5 or 6 rows of plates near the margin, Avhere they are reduced in size, each plate bears 2 spines. The colour of these actinal spines is greenish-blue, with white tip and white base. The adambulacral armature : The furrow-spines are 2, cylindro-conical, standing side by side in a row. Externally on the actinal face each plate carries 1 spine, longer and stouter, blunt-pointed, and somewhat flattened. The oral armature : Each interradial couple bears 10 spines {i.e., 5 on each side), arranged horizontally close together. Of these, i are long, stout, flattened, and truncated, with 3 on either side rathe;- stouter. Each of the oral plates, at the angle, bears a single spine on its actinal surface. Colour. — In life they are black, but in the dried state they are a uniform dark bluish-grey. The lower surface is bluish-green, the spines here being greenish, with white tips. Fig. (). — Aderinu olimri. A few of the radial.s and latero-tloivsals, on some of whicli the double vows of spines ai'e shown : one radial is wholly exposed, but of the others only the narrow spiniferous margin is visible {a). 148 Ti-ansactions. Locality.— On the east coast of Sunday Island ; common ; rarely noticed elsewhere. Remarks. — This species differs from our New Zealand A. regularis in several points : the spines on the upper surface are finer and more nume- rous, while in that species also the radials are not prominent. I may state that a good account of our native species is a desideratum, for it exhibits some variations. No one has recognized again Perrier's A. novae-zealandiae , which appears to be a variation only. All the Kermadec individuals have 5 arms, whereas A. regularis is well known to present 5, 6, or even 7 arms. This new species is allied, I think, to A. gimnii Gray, from the coasts of Australia, Tasmania, and the Cape of Good Hope, which, however, is appa- rently invariably 6-rayed, and the actinal surface of the adambulacral plates bears 2 spines. Owing to lack of necessary literature I give it a new name, though I am quite prepared to find that this species has already been described. Ophidiaster (?) kermadecensis sp. nov. Figs. 7-11. The material consist of several dried individuals, as well as three in alcohol. Dimensions. — E, 82, r 12 ; so that r : R is nearly 1 : 7. The diameter of the arm about half-way along is 12 mm. The rays are long, subcylindrical, tapering to a point. The abactinal skeleton is composed of romided and round-topped plates, covered with Fig. Fig. 8. Ophidiaster (?) kermadecensis. Fig. 7. A portion of a ray, abactinal surface (x 4). No attempt is made to siiow tl.e granulation of the skin, nor the fact that the papiilar areas are depressed below the level of the upper surface of the plates, which have their outlines too sharply marked in the figui-e. Fig. 8. A portion of a ray, actinal surface (x 4). See remarks under previous figure. a tough skin presenting small, unequal-sized, closely set, low, rounded granulations, so that the skin looks shagreened. There are 7 rows of plates, all practically alike in form and size — that is, a median (radial), a lateral (adradial) on each side, and the two marginals. The papular areas are large, and are continuous with one another in a longitudinal direction. Numerous pores, as many as 15 to 20. are Bbnham. — Stellerids and Echiui(h from the Kerrnadecs. 149 scattered over each area. The granulations of the skin of these areas is finer than on the plates. Characteristic pedicellariae (those termed by Perrier " pedicellaires en saliere " and by Sladen " entrenched "), in the form of shuttle-shaped pits, are likewise scattered over the whole of these areas in considerable numbers ; I comited as many as 15 to 20 in some areas. They are, however, not confined to these places, but encroach upon the edges of the plates. They are set close together, almost touching, with their long axes in all direc- tions (fig. 11). The plates on the disc have the same arrangement as in Ophidiaster ophidianns, as described and figured by Ludwig (1897). The circular madreporite is larger than the interradials, and a little nearer the margin than to the centre. The actinal surface is covered by the same skin as the upper surface. The adambulacral plates are separated from the infra-marginals by a single row of small plates (the ventro-laterals), every alternate plate being connected with a marginal by an upwardly directed process, while the other plates are horizontally arranged. Papular areas mth pedicellariae Fig. 9. oU/ cbs. ^v.L Fig. 10. Fig. 11. Ophidiaster (?) kermadecensis. Pig. 9. A portion of the side of the ainbulacral groove, seen from mesial aspect after the removal of the opposite wall (x 4). ad., adambulacral; f.s., furrow- spine ; 5., the granulations of the skin pushmg between the fuiTow- spines. Fig. 10. The skeleton of one side of portion of a ray (x 4) after treatment with potash and somewhat Hattened out. ad., adambulacral; a.s., pit for actinal ambulacval spine ; c, connective ; d.l., dorso lateral ; ('./«., infra- marginal ; r, radial ; s.m., supi'a-marginal ; v.l., ventro-lateral. Fig. 11. An "entrenched pediecllaria " (much enlarged). occur outside the latter. The adambulacral armature presents 2 furrow- spines on each plate, closely pressed against the side of the furrow, with the tips outwardly directed. The granular skin pushes furrowwards be- tween them. The actinal spines are much thicker, shorter, and stouter, and somewhat clavate in form. There is one to each plate. As Sladen mentions " super-ambulacral plates " in his diagnosis of Ophidiaster, as opposed to some other genera of the family, I examined into their occurrence here : they exist as short rods passing from the upper surface of the ambulacrals to the ventro-laterals. 150 Transaftioiis. Colour. — In life this species is deep orange. Mr. Oliver remarks. " Its colour renders it very conspicuous, and it does not trj^ to conceal itself. This seems to be a good case of ' warning coloration.' the starfish evidently being distastefiil to fish." &c. I do not know whether he made any experi- ments to support this suggestion, which on the usual view of coloration iseems plausible. When dried the colour turns to a dirty pale orange- brown : in alcoh()l to cliocolate-brown. Locality. — Meyer Island (20/5/1908). It has already been recorded and sufficiently described from Kaoul (Sunday) Island by Farcjuhar (1897). who did not give it a specific name. Remarks. — I have doubts as to whether this is really an Ophidiaster, for according to Ludwig's analysis of the skeleton (1897) of the Mediterranean species, 0. ophidianus, there should be 2 rows of ventro-lateral plates. I ■do not know whether a similar careful analysis has been made for other species, but Ludwig lays stress on this point, for he separates, under Gray's name Hacelia, H. attenuata on account of the presence here of 3 ventro- laterals. Possibly, therefore, the Kermadec species deserves a new generic title. The arrangement of the arm-plates in 7 regular longitudinal rows is a characteristic of Ophidaster which is shared by Hacelia, whereas in Linckia the dorsal arm-plates are not regularly disposed, though in a recent paper Koehler (1910) describes L. duhiosa, in which the dorsal surface has the appearance of Ophidiaster, while the arrangement of the adambulacral spines in contiguous rows is held to be a feature of Linckia. I have been rather puzzled by the " entrenched pedicellariae," for in Bronn's "' Thierreichs," as also in Delage's " Zoologie Concrete," the diag- nosis of Ophidiaster includes the " absence of pedicellariae." Nevertheless. Sladen describes two species (0. tuberifer and 0. heliostichus) in which these are present, and Ludwig adds several others with " pedicellaires en saliere."" This diagnosis is thus misleading, for it is one of the apparent distinctions between this genus and Linckia. I am not sufficioitly familiar with the literature to do more than express my doubts as to the validity of referring this Kermadec species to the genus Ophidiaster. 1 am informed that a specimen was sent to Professor Bell. of the British Museum, for identification, and it was stated by him that he did not know the species, and that it was probably new to science : hence the detailed account above given. At the same time, I have not seen Perrier's account of 0. (/ermani. from Lord Howe Island and New Caledonia, and it may turn out to belong to this species, or to one of Lutk(Mi"s from Tonga. Asterias rodolphi Perrier. Perrier. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), vol. 17, p. 34 (187(i). Farquhar (1897) has already given a full description of this species, which was collected at Raoul (Sunday) Island, where the type was found so far back as 1854. The present collection was made at Sunday Island " under stones at low-water mark." It consists of seven specimens in nlcohol. They all have 7 arms. Measurements were made on three individuals, with the following result : R 95. r 18 : R 80. r 14 : R 48. r 8 : hence the ratio R : r is between 5 and G : 1. Benham. — Stelhriih a /id /'Jr/miu/s fr> llie l\f niittth I- 151 Colour. — In life the starfish is darlc pui|)l(' with the interbrachial areas dark brow)i. in alcohol it is pale red, Asterias (Stolasterias) edmondi sp. no v. Figs. 12 and 13. Two dried specimens and one in alcohol appear to rec}uire the formation of a new species, and I give it the above name in commemoration of the great work of Edmond Perrier on the echinoderms. Dimensions. — R 33, r 7 ; and R 2fi, r 5-.5. The larger has 8 rays, the smaller 7. The remarkable feature about this species is the naked central area, provided with only a few scattered small plates. It recalls S. alexandri Perrier (1905) ; but in that species the naked area is traversed by 5 radial rows of small plates, even when young. The arms are long and narrow, being in the larger individual 5 mnu across the base ; so that L : B equals 28 : 5 — >'.<'., its length is more than five times its breadth. The whole starfish is much more delicate in build than A. rodolpki. The central abactinal region is almost bare, appearing as a thin membrane^ TTVcip. Fig. 12. /•7. A sterius (dinondi. cLd. ^im. Jjn. a ctL Fk;. 13. •ontro-lateral ; /./■., inter- Fig. 12. The central area of the tli.sc (X 4). re., central : c radial ; mdp., madreporite ; rl, primary radial. Fig. 13. The skeleton of a ray, half only (x 4). ad., adambulacral ; c. connective;. (/./., dorso-Iateral ; i.m.. in[ra-niar angle-piece and side mouth-plates) exposed. There are 4 small quadrate buccal papillae on each angle-piece ; a median and a pair of lateral angular papillae ; no teeth and no dental papillae. The arm is cylindrical, tapering, nearly circular in section, inserted in the margin of the disc, with a comb of short spines on each side of the base. This comb consists of 7 spines, of which the lowest is the smallest ; they are conical and sharply pointed. The inner series consists of 5 spines. 158 T ra ii>iitcf loiix. Put generally, the under arm-plates are- snicill, suL pentagonal, with the proximal margin produced into an angle, intervening between the two lateral arm-plates. The 1st under arm-plate is diamond-shaped ; the breadth is greater than its length ; the sides are slightly excavated for the pedal pore. The 2nd and 3rd are pentagonal, broader than long. The 4th, 5th, and 6th are somewhat pentagonal, but tend towards a triangle, owing to the rounding- off of the sides and angles. The folloAving plates are transversely oval or pentagonal, with a pronounced angle or peak proximally. The plates get smaller and smaller, but do not disappear, at any rate, before the 2()th joint, at which the longest arm is broken. The side arm-plates meet ventrally after the 5th under arm-plate, where they just touch ; but beyond this point the line of union increases in extent, so that soon it coincides with the length of the side arm-plate. Fu;. 22. Fjg. 21. ()ph ill I'd /:rrniti.dccen.si,y. Fig. 2(1. All iiittihrachial area, seen from the side (x S). /./>., the large interbrachial plate : or, the oral ; 7v, marginal. Fig. 21. Portion of the upper surface of an arm (x 10). Fig. 22. Portion of the lower surface of an arm (x Id). Fig. 2.3. Portion of an arm, seen from the side (x S). arm -plate. d, upper arm-platt The upper arm-plates are roughly triangular, with rounded convex distal borders and with the apex directed proximally. They decrease in size till about the 10th, when they disappear, or are so closely and inti- mately united with the laterals that the suture is" indistinguishable. The side arm-plates carry 3 spines, which spring from the distal border ; they are short, cylindro-conical, adpressed to the sides, and with a length about one-third that of the lateral plate. Of these spines, the two lower are rather closer together than the third, which is smaller than they. There is 1 tentacle-scale throughout the greater portion of the aim ; but 2 scales to the first two pairs of pores. Colour. — In life Mr. Oliver describes the colour thus : " Upper surface of the arms red ; the basal portion white, with a red central line ; disc pink above ; 2 plates [adradials] near the arms are white edged with red ; under-surface yellowish." In the dried state they are buff, with pinkish tint on some of the disc-plates. Locality. — Dredged in 12 fathoms, on gravel bottom, off Meyer Island, and in about 20 fathoms off Denham Bay (5/3/1908). He adds that they are not common. RemarJcs. — In the small size and the fewness of the interbrachial plates, with 3 arm-spines, this new species bears some resemblance to Ophioqlyplia minula Lyman, but in details it differs sufficiently to entitle it to be specially named. 0. minuta was obtained off the south of Australia. Bknham.— .S7n, and others have trodden. 160 Tranmctions. Toxocidaris tuberculatus Lamarck. Strongylocentrotus tuberculatus, Farquhar, Ramsay, &c. Three individuals were collected. The largest has the following dimen- sions : — Diameter, 83 mm. : height, 39 mm. : spines, 45 mm. : poriferous zone — above, 6 mm. ; below, 8 mm. : coronal plates, 20 mm. There are 10 or 11 pairs of pores in an arc; but below the ambitus, where the zone widens out, the pores are pressed together into a nearly horizontal line of 7 pairs in the widest, decreasing towards the peristome. Colour. — When alive the " colour of the spines is greenish-brown." WTien dried they are dark olive-brown, greenish towards the base, with a rosy tinge near the tip. The rosy tip is much more distinct in the spines below the ambitus and around the peristome, perhaps because they have been less bleached. They are here more distinctly green, more truly olive, than above the ambitus ; those immediately round the peristome being decidedly green. The test when dried is pale brown. ioca%.— Sunday Island (9/11/1908). Mr. Oliver writes, " This is the most abundant sea-urchin on the Kermadec Islands. Occurs everywhere among the rocks, from low-water mark down, in rock-pools. It was also seen at Macauley Island and French Rock. Continued westerly winds during the winter months shifted the sand from the low flat beach on ihe north of h'unday Island towards a boulder coast, burying the rocks for a considerable distance along the shore to above the level of low tide. This had the effect of driving thousands of these sea-urchins inshore, where a large proportion perished." This species has already been recorded from these islands by Farquhar (1906), who received specimens from Mr. Haylock. There is a specimen in the Dominion Museum said to have been collected at Wellington ; and I am informed that at one time there was a specimen in the possession of Mr. Suter which had been collected at Mokohinou, Auckland. Distribution. — -New Zealand, New South Wales, Lord Howe Island, Japan, China. Remarks. — I have followed Hamann (in Bronn's " Thierreichs ") in placing this species in the genus Toxocidaris, which Agassiz erected for those species of Strongylocentrotus in which the poriferous zone assumes a " petaloid " form below the ambitus. It appears that the colour of the spines is very variable. Agassiz (1872, p. 150) says, " The colour of the spines varies from dark violet to black." Ramsay (1885, p. 16) gives them as " uniform olive to olive-brown," and refers for the first time to the flattening of the spines below the ambitus. Agassiz and Clark (1907, p. 122) write that the Japanese specimens " are all (with one exception) large and of a very deep reddish-purple colour." As Agassiz' account of the spines of S. erythrogrammus agrees better with that presented by my specimens — viz., " olive brown, tipped with violet " — I hesitated as to the correctness of my identification, especially as he remarks that the test of S. tuberculatus " when dry and denuded is usually greenish, the lower surface whitish." He makes no reference, however, to the colour of the other species ; but from the petaloid widening of the poriferous zone, and the character of the spines and their proportions. I believe that I am correct in placing these specimens under this species. Hkmiam. — Sfc/Icrir/x Art. XX. — Description of an Undescribed Barnacle of the Genus Scalpelluin from New Zealand. By N. Annandale, D.Sc, F.A.S.B., Superintendent of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Communicated by Professor W. B. Benham. [Bead before the Otago histitrtte. -'Uh July, 1910.] In a collection of barnacles from New Zealand recently sent me by Professoi' W, B. Benham there is a large Scalpellum, labelled " Scalpelluni spinosus,'' without further data. As this specimen represents a species hitherto undescribed, and as the name has not already been used in the ffenus. the species may be described as — Scalpellum (Smilium) spinosum sp. nov. Capitulum broad, compressed as a whole, but somewhat swollen at the base ; the occludent margin vertical, slightly sinuous ; the carinal margin feebly curved. Fifteen smooth pinkish valves present, covered with a minutely hairy translucent brownish membrane. Terga large, lozenge- shaped, slightly retroverted in the upper third, extending far beyond the carina. Scuta broadly triangular, with the bases rounded and tangential to the base of the capitulum ; the tips not overlapping the terga. Carina short, nearly straight, ridged dorsally but not laterally : the sides of its upper half concave ; the base bluntly pointed between the carinal latera. WMm> ^WW" Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 1. Fig. 4. Fig. 1. Scalpellum sphiosum ; half natural aize. Fig. 2. Portion of the peduncle; X 4. (The baad.s of blunt cak-areous spines alternate with bare areas, which are here sha(le lateral angle of the scuta. Rostrutn, latera of the basal whorl, and subcarinn prominent, pointed, spinelike. Peduncle stout, barely longer than tJic capitulum, surrounded by numerous sinuous or angulate furrows that separate ridges in which the very numerous peduncular plates are imbedded ; these in the form of minute blunted calcareous spines. Annandai,k. — Undescrihed Barnacle of the Genus Scalpellum. 165 Limbs, (Gc. — Cirri colourless, rather short and by no means strongly curved, with a luxuriant fringe on the anterior and well-developed bunches of hairs on the posterior margin. The two rami of the first cirrus sub- equal, slender, pointed ; the first ciiru? not widely separated from the second. Anal appendages with one joint, which bears a tuft of short hairs at the tip and does not reach the end of the first joint of the protopoditc of the sixth cirri. Penis rather short, stout at the base, contorted. Mouth Parts. — Labrum slightly bullate, not much produced. Mandible with six main teeth in addition to the inner angle ; the outermost tooth slightly larger than the second, which is much smaller than the others ; the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth subequal ; small subsidiary teeth also present between the first and the second and at the outer base of the sixth ; the inner angle blunt (perhaps sometimes bifid), bearing several short bristles. Maxilla with the free edge straight, bearing a row of bristles of different sizes that decrease gradually from without inwards ; inner angle rounded. Second maxilla broad, with the free edge slightly sinuous, bearing a fringe of long hairs. Length of capitulum, 40 mm. ; breadth of capitulum at base, 25 mm. Scalpellum spinosum closely resembles my S. kampeni, which occurs off the east coast of Sumatra, at Singapore, and in the Gulf of Siam. From this species it differs not only in its greater bulk, but also as regards the structure of its mouth parts and in the much greater profusion, more regular arrangement, and smaller size of its peduncular plates. The scutum is also broader, and the tergum differs in being retroverted. In the only specimen examined there is no dwarf male. [Locality. — Note by Professor Benham. — The specimen forwarded to Dr. A. Annandale was one of a number received by me in 1899 from Mr. Cox, who was then light-keeper at Farewell Spit, Nelson. The same species was obtained off Stewart Island during the cruise of the " Nora Niven."] Art. XXI. — Notes on the Saddleback of New Zealand (Creadion carun- culatus). By W. W. Smith, F.E.S. [Read before the Manawatu Fhiloxopliical Society, 17th 31 arch, 1910.] A YEAR ago Mr. S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S., ex-Surveyor-General of New Zealand and distinguished Maori scholar and historian, informed me that when surveying in parts of the North Island many years ago he occasion- ally observed flights of the popokatea, or whiteheads {Clitonyx albicapilla), being followed by saddlebacks in their gregarious migrations through the native forests. This peculiar habit of the saddleback, or native starling, in following flights of, and associating with, other species of birds in the forests was first observed and reported by the gold-diggers during the gold- rush in the great forests of the west coast of the South Island, nearly fifty 166 Traiisactionn. years ago. The saddlebacks were first observed following flights of yellow- heads, or native canaries {Clitonyx ocrocephala) — the South Island congener of the whitehead — when feeding through the forest. The younger generation of Maoris having never seen flights of popo- kateas and tataekos followed by saddlebacks passing in succession through the forests, I have since Mr. Percy Smith informed me endeavoured to elicit from the older Maoris any information respecting their comparative numbers, whether of more frequent occurrence in certain seasons, and the class or nature of the forest where the associated troops of birds were gene- rally met with. The New Zealand forests vary much in the association of species of plants according to the chemical constitution of the soils, situations, and altitudes on which they occur. My chief object, therefore, in endeavouring to obtain information from the older Maoris has been to ascertain, if possible, whether particular areas of forest were more frequented by the popokateas and saddlebacks (tieke of the Maori), and, if so, to endeavour also to ascertain the cause. The prehistoric Maori was an accurate observer of natural causes, particularly those affecting his own food-supplies. Replying to my inquiries. Tutu Hihi, a Native of Parihaka, informed me that he had heard his old father speak of the difficulty of procuring kakas, tuis, and kukus (pigeons) in some seasons eighty to ninety years ago, owing to the partial or total failure of their natural foods extending over large areas of forest, and that in such seasons they- — the people of his tribe — had to make long excursions to certain more fruitful areas of forest to procure these birds for preserving for winter use. Excepting in the Urewera country, where the old Native methods of bird snaring and trapping are still practised, the old experienced Native bird snarers and trappers of other tribes now living near or within the areas of European or pakeha settlements have all passed away, which, indeed, makes it almost impossible to obtain reliable information on the habits of a species of bird that has become so rapidly extinct since their time and day. Whilst engaged compiling these notes I wrote to Mr. Percy Smith, in- quiring if there were any localities or particular class of forest where the associated birds frequented more than others in the North Island. Having had exceptional opportunities of observing the native birds in the bush in almost every part of the North Island for nearly sixty years, Mr. Smith's reply, here given, shoiild prove of much interest and value : " In the early days here in Taranaki^ — that is, from fifty to sixty years ago — when I was constantly in the untouched forests then lying behind New Plymouth, often for months at a time, the bird-life was a very prominent feature, and the popokatea one of the commonest birds of all. They used to frequent all the patches of forest in the gullies about the town, also of which at that time there were many. The birds were never seen singly, but always in flocks of aliout thirty to forty, hopping about from branch to branch, with their little musical twitter. They were invariably accompanied by a pair of saddlebacks, or tieki (or tiaki), who seemed to act as guardians of the flock, giving the alarm, when any one approached, with their sharp notes. The word ticiH in Maori means "a guardian," and this, no doubt, was the origin of the name. I spent several years at Kaipara. north of Auckland, in 1859-64, and in the forests there the popokatea was noticed quite as numerous as in Taranaki, always with the accompanying tieki. The last I saw of the popokatea was two years ago, when a flock of about half a Smith. — On the Saddlehacl- of New Zealand. 167 dozen, accompanied by two fantails, passed through the native bush in my garden. I was surprised and pleased to see them, for I had not noticed them for many yeifrs previously. I have seen them all over the North Island, but never of late years. Alas ! I fear we may quote the old Maori proverb in reference to them : Kua ngaro i te ngaro o te moa (They are lost, like the disappearance of the moa)." It will be noted that Mr. Percy Smith explains the presence of the saddleback with the whiteheads as guardians to the flock. When closely observing the saddlebacks following the large troop of yellowheads in the Westland forest twenty-two years ago I noted that the former fed eagerly in the trail of the latter in passing slowly on their course. When after- wards describing their associated movements* I raised the theory that the chief object of the tieke in following the yellowheads through the bush was to feed on the larger insects which the latter disturbed and rejected. Apart from the economic importance or otherwise of the remarkable asso- ciation of these two species, it was to me a magnificent and charming pageant of birds. The last large flight of tataekos, or yellowheads, I observed occurred in March, 1905, in the native beech forest at Sylvan Lake, on the Dart River, flowing into Lake Wakatipu, in Central Otago. Though beautiful their plumage and musical their concerted ringing notes, their charming associates of former days — the tiekes — were absent. The disappearance or migratory movements from certain districts of some species of native birds, and their return to those districts after years of absence, is due to the fluctuations of supply of their natural and neces- sary food. The three last mild and fruitful seasons of the native flora have been and are highly favourable to the well-being of the native birds. Many species have bred successfully and multiplied in the larger forest- areas in Taranaki. A continuance of such seasons, which are almost in- variably followed by others less fruitful or impoverished, is, no doubt, the cause of the migratory changes of the native birds from districts far apart from each other. But apart from these phases of the saddleback's history, it is of great interest to note that, notwithstanding the long lapse of time since the separation of the North and South Islands, during the Pliocene period, the method or habit of the saddleback in following the yellowheads in the South Island forests should likewise continue with its white-headed con- gener in those of the North Island. Though these two forms are now given specific rank, it is probable that the yellowhead has evolved its slightly larger form and yellow coloration in a greater degree in the South Island than the whitehead has developed its typical white coloration in the North Island. That both species have been evolved from the same form or stock having much plainer colours there c6uld be no doubt. But, whilst these two beautiful species of native birds have evolved their divergent typical coloration, the saddleback has apparently undergone no material change in its form and typical colours in either Island during their long separation. In the supplementary edition of the " History of the Birds of New Zealand " Sir Walter Buller states that the saddleback is now extinct in the North Island. For several years the like was also said of the white- head. When traveUing over nearly the whole of the North Island a few years ago I made numerous inquiries from the Natives wherever I went " Birds of Lake Brunner District " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 205, 1889). 168 Transactions. respecting the native birds, and ascertained that the whitehead was numerous on the forest-clad ranges whence rise the tributaries of the Motu River, flowing into the Bay of Plenty. During the last two years I have also learned of its occurrence in several other localities, Avhich should remain tapued against avaricious and merciless collectors. In former years the Maoris were great lovers of tamed and caged birds, but only once, after numerous inquiries, have I been able to learn of a caged saddleback having been kept in a Native kainga or village. The older Maoris of the present time also assert that the tieke, or saddleback, was a very difficult bird to snare. The rapid extinction of this beautiful species of native starling is to me more remarkable than those extinct and expiring species belonging to the New Zealand avifauna. Being strictly a forest-dwelling bird, subsisting on a variety of larvae and insects occurring only in the forest, it was apparentlv naturally unfitted to change its habits to search for and subsist on other varieties of larvae and insects procurable in the open country. Since improved methods of tillage were introduced by the Taranaki settlers, as in other provinces, several species of native cockchafer beetles {Odontria) have increased, as elsewhere in New Zealand, at an unprecedented rate. As the larvae increase in size, and the grass they attack withers, they attract flights of the introduced English starling and the Indian or Eastern minah (Acridothercs tristis). With the abundance of larval food on the rich grass lands in the extensive dairying country of Taranaki the starling has increased in such vast numbers as to materially affect the numbers and well-being of the minah. The starlings repair every evening, in flights of several thousands in each, to Moturoa Island, a rugged precipitous rock in the sea nearly a mile from the shore, situated about two miles south of New Plymouth. In the South Island the starlings roost during the night on Eucalyptus, or Australian gum-trees, and in fissures of limestone rocks in many districts. I observe that the minahs prefer to remain closer to the great forest belt or national forest reserve, an area of native forest six miles broad extending all around the base of the extinct volcanic cone of Mount Egmont, in Taranaki. Thus we note that, whilst these introduced species flourish on the abundant and excellent food procurable in the open country, the native tieke, or saddleback, seems to be naturally unfitted to do so, with the inevitable result that the beautiful species has become or is rapidly becoming extinct. As with other vanished and vanishing species of New Zealand's unique native birds, so with the tieke. All we can possibly do is to faithfully record all facts relating to their habits which have been and are procurable in our tie. Cockayne. — Som^ Hitherto-unrecorded Plant -hSouth Island : Westland — Mount Greenland, in boggy ground near the summit. L. C. Drosera spathulata Labill. .South Island : Westland — Mount Greenland, in bog near the summit. L. G Elaeocarpus Hookerianus Raoul. South Island : Westland — From lowland to subalpine belts, where it is common on Mount Greenland. L. C. Evidently not a common tree in Westland. as it is not mentioiied in Koberts's paper. Exocarpus Bidwillii Hook. f. South Island : Canterburv — Puketeraki Mountains, at about 600 m. L. C. Freycinetia Banksii A. Gunn. South Island : Westland — Common as liane of the lowland forest, and as creeping plant on rocks near high water. L. C. Gahnia procera Forst. South Island : Westland — Mount Greenland, in upper forest and sub- alpine scrub. L. C. Gaimardia ciliata Hook. f. South Island : Westland — Mount Greenland, in bog near summit- L. C. Gaultheria perplexa T. Kirk. South Island : (1) Nelson — Reefton ; L. C. (2) Otago — Dunedin. open ground on Signal Hill ; L. C. Griselinia lucida Forst. f. South Island : Westland — Epijjhytic on various trees in the low forest ■close to sea between Greymouth and Kumara. L. C. Hoheria sexstylosa Colenso. South Island : Nelson — Vicinity of Westport. L. C. This is probably Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. var. amjustifolia Hook. f. of Townson's list of Westport plants (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 406. 1907). It extends southwards to Greymouth, but I have not noted it ^outh of the Teremakau Valley in Westland. 172 Transactions. Lycopodium varium R. Br. South Island : Nelson — Charleston, near sea. L. C. Mariscus ustulatus (A. Rich.) C. B. Clarke. South Island : Westland — Gravelly beach between Greymouth and Kumara. L. C. Melicytus lanceolatus Hook. f. South Island : Canterbury — Mount Peel, in forest. L. C. Metrosideros Colensoi Hook. f. South Island : Nelson — Between Westport and Charleston. L. C. Metrosideros florida (Forst. f.) Sm. South Island : Westland — Lowland forest ; common as far south as the Waiho River, and perhaps further. L. C. Myosotis Goyeni Petrie. South Island : Otago — Queenstown, on rocks near the cemetery. W. Willcox ! Nothofagus apiculata (Colenso) Cockayne comb. nov. = Fagus apiculata Col. in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 16, p. 335, 188-1. South Island : Marlborough — Mount Fyffe, Seaward Kaikoura Momi- tains, 150 m. altitude, growing in company with N. fusca. W. M. Goodall ! The specimens were not in flower, but they correspond to the descrip- tion in Cheeseman's Flora, except that the leaves generally are less than I in., and the pubescence on the branchlets is very scanty. Nothofagus Blairii (T. Kirk) Cockavne comb. nov. = Fagus Blairii T. Kirk in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 17, p. 297, 1885. South Island : Marlborough— Mount Fyffe, Seaward Kaikoura Moun- tains, about 150 m. altitude. W. M. Goodall ! The specimens bore a few damaged male flowers. As far as I could make out, they are in pairs upon a short common ped^uicle, the perianth is 4-toothed, and the stamens vary from 8 to 14 ; but the material was insuffi- cient for an accurate description. Nothofagus cliffortioides (Hook, f.) Oerst. South Island : Nelson — Charleston, close to sea, where exposed to full force of wind. L. C. Nothofagus Menziesii (Hook, f.) Oerst. South Island : Westland — Near River Paringa. W. Wilson I Nothopanax anomalum (Hook.) Seem. South Island : Nelson — Buller Gorge and neighbourhood. L. C. Olearia Colensoi Hook. f. South Island : Westland — Mount Greenland, in subalpinc scrub. L. C. Olearia ilicifolia Hook. f. South Island : Westland — Lowland river-beds ; common. L. C. Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Fhtnt-hjsii. Scliulz, in his monograph of Cardamine (Engl. Jahr., 32) excludes all three from the genus, but does not make any other disposition of them, lie also removes C. stijlosa, in this instance CheESEMAN. — ContribilfioNs to K iioirh'di/r of Floni of X.Z. 179 referring it to Nasturtium. Whether the above-incutioned throe species should also be transferred to Nasturtium is not easy to decide, as there are differences in habit and in the shape and structure of the pod whicli appear to be of considerable importance. Possibly they should form a separate genus, in which case the Australian C. rndicata should be associated with them. A step of that kind, however, involves an examination of the characters of most of the genera constituting the tribe Arabidae, and is preferably left in the hands of some systeniatist who is able to consult the great herbaria and libraries of Europe. In the meantime it appears best to place the species with C. stj/los(( in Nasturtium. They will then stand as under :— 1. Nasturtium stylusum O. E. Schulz in Engl. Jahr.. 32 (1903), p. 596; Cardamine stylosa D. C. 2. Nasturtium fastigiatum Cheesem. ; Cardamine jastiqiata Hook. f.. Handb. N.Z. FL, p. is! 3. Nasturtium latesiliqua Cheesem. ; Cardamine latesiliqua Cheesem. in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 15 (1883), p. 298. 4. Nasturtium En//sii Cheesem. ; Cardamine Enysii Cheesem. ex T. Kirk. Students' Fl., p. 28. ' Lepidium tenuicaule T. Kirk. A dwarf form of this plant, which I have elsewhere described under the name of variet}'^ minor, has been collected by Mr. B. C. Astun at Titahi Bay, near Wellington. This is the first record for the species in the North Island. IV. ViOLACEAK. Melicytus micranthus Hook. f. In the Manual I have given the Bay of Islands as the northern limit of this species ; but both Mr. Carse and Mr. R. H. Mattheivs inform me that it occurs in several localities near Kaitaia, in Mangonui County. \. PiTTOSPORACRAE. Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Soland. Variegated forms of this species and of P. em/enioides A. Cunn. are now frequently seen in cultivation. VII. PORTULACEAE. Hectorella caespitosa Hook. f. Mount Ollivier, Mount Wakefield, Mount Kinsey, and other peaks in the Mount Cook district, ascending to 6,500 ft. ; T. F. C. X. Malvaceae. Hoheria populnea A. Cunn, var. angustifolia Hook. f. Not uncommon on river-flats in the Turakina Valley ; F. IL Field ! XXII. Legumixosae. Corallospartium crassicaule Armstr. Mr. A. W. Roberts, of Ranfurly, Otago, sends me a yellow-flowered variety. The ordinary colour, to which I have never previously seen any exception, is a pale cream. Both Mr. Roberts, and 3Ir. Mclntyrc, of 180 Transactions. Dunedin, assure me that the pod is always iudehiscent, the face of the valves slowly decaying after the fall of the pod. I find that it is occa- sionally 2-seeded. XXIV. 8AXIPRAGACEAE. Donatia novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Donatio, has been transferred to the Stylidiaceae by Milbraed in his recently published monograph of the family (Engler's " Pflanzenreich,"' heft 35). In this he has followed the late Baron Mueller, who suggested the change as far back as 1879. No doubt the genus agrees with the Stylidiaceae in the stamens being placed in the centre of an epigynous disc, in the extrorse anthers, and in the placentation ; and the habit is very similar to that of Phyllachne. But it differs markedly in the free petals, and in the stamens not being united with the style into a '' colimin." We may expect that systematists will not readily agree as to the position of the genus. XXVII. Haloragaceae. Myriophyllum pedunculatum Hook. f. In great abmidance by the margins of shallow ponds among the sand- dmies on the west coast near Helensville, Kaipara. I suppose that it is referable to the form which Schindler has distinguished as a separate species under the name of M. Votschii {" Pflanzenreich," heft 2.3, p. 85). but the differences appear to me to be very trivial. XXVIIT. Myrtaceae. Metrosideros robusta A. Cunn. Not uncommon at West Wanganui. to the south of Cape Farewell ; // J. Matthews/ Metrosideros scandens Soland. Dry ridges in lowland forests near Greymouth, Westland ; not un- common : P. G. Morgan / The most southern locality from whence I have seen specimens. XXXIII. Umbelliferae. Aciphylla Dieffenbachii T. Kirk. I have to thank Mr. F. A. D. Cox, the veteran botanical explorer of the Chatham Islands, for excellent specimens in fruit and a few in flower of this remarkable plant. It is now exceedingly rare, having been destroyed l>y sheep in most localities to which they have access, but it still lingers on the faces of a few rocky cliffs near Te Tuku, on Mr. Bligh's sheep-station. In this locality it was also seen by Captain Dorrien-Smith during his recent visit to the Chatham Islands. In the " Students' Flora " Mr. T. Kirk hinted at the probability of the plant constituting a separate genus, and I expressed the same opinion in the Manual. Not only does it dift'er from Aciphylla in the flaccid habit and large oblong much-compressed fruit, but a section of the fruit shows that the vittae are of enormous size, quite unlike anything to be seen in Li(/usiicum, Aciphylla, or Angelica. In the forthcoming " Illustra- tions of the New Zealand Flora " it will accordingly be figured as the type of a new genus, to which the name Coxella will be applied. I have much Cheeseman. — Confribiitions to Knowledge of Flora of N .Z . 181 pleasure in asso(;iatiiig the plant with the name of Mr. Cox, who for very many years has supplied New Zealand botanists with copious suites of the endemic plants of the Chatham Islands, often at considerable trouble to himself. Angelica Gingidium Hook. f. Limestone rocks by the Rakanui River, Kawhia ; E. Phillips Turner I Not previously recoi-ded from any station to the north of the Taupo countrj'. XXXVII. RUBIACEAE. Nertera Cunninghamii Hook. f. Wangapeka Valley, Nelson ; F. G. Gibbs ! XXXVIII. COMPOSITAE. Brachycome Thomsoni T. Kirk var. membranifolia. Cobb Valley, north-west Nelson ; F. G. Gibbs ! A slight northwards extension of the range of this variable plant. Olearia virgata Hook. f. Attains its northern limit in the Ohinemuri Valley, Thames, between Karangahake and Waitekauri ; T. F. C. Cotula pectinata Hook. f. Mount Ollivier and other mountains in the Mount Cook district, 5,000-6,500 ft. ; T. F. C. t XLI. Campanulaceae. Pratia perpusilla Hook. f. Outlet of the Waikato River, Lake Taupo ; T. F. C. Low grounds in the Thames Valley, near Te Aroha ; P. H. Allen ! XLV. Myrsinaceae. Myrsine divaricata A. Cunn. Mr. F. G. Gibbs forwards specimens of this species, from some locality in the Nelson Provincial District, in which the leaves are coarsely and irregularly toothed or almost lobed. XLVI. Sapotaceae. Sideroxylon costatum F. Muell. This appears to be a very local plant on the west coast of the North Island. So far as my own observations go, it is found in only two localities — the first in the vicinity of Maunganui Bluff (between Hokianga and Kaipara) ; the .second on the coast-line north of the Manukau Harbour, when it occurs in scattered localities along a stretch of eight or ten miles of coastal cliffs. On the eastern side of the Island it is much more generally distributed, although nowhere abundant. The late Baron Mueller separated the New Zealand plant from that found in Norfolk Island, giving it the name of Achras novo-zealandica (Fragm. Phyt. Austral, vol. 9, p. 72). In this he was probably right, as has been pointed out by Mr. Hemsley (" Kew Bulletin," 1908, p. 459). Under 182 Traitsaciions. this view the name to be adopted for our phiiit will be Sideroxt/hm novo- zelandicum Henisl. XLVII. Oleaceae. Olea montana Hook. f. Maungatauiwha Ranges and vicinity of Fairburn (Mangonui County) ; H. Carse : the most northern locality yet recorded. Vicinity of Cape Brett Lighthouse ; 7?. H. Skakespear / LI. BORAGINACEAE. Myosotis angustata Cheesem. Mount Lockett. north-west Nelson ; F. G. Gibbs ! Moraines in the Hooker Valley. Mount Cook district ; altitude, 4,()()() ft. : T. F. C. LIV. SCROPHULARIACEAE. Calceolaria repens Hook. f. Makatote Gorge and other ravines on the volcanic plateau of the North Island, along the course of the Main Trunk Railway ; T. F. C. Veronica gracillima Cheesem. Sea-clitt's a little to the north of Clisborne ; W. Townson I This is the first record of the occurrence of this species in the North Island. Veronica rupicola Cheesem. HelFs Gates, near Kaikoura ; //. J. Matthews ! Most of the specimens have simple racemes, thus departing from the typical state of the species, in which the racemes are nearly always trichotomous. Ourisia sessilifolia Hook. f. An abundant plant on most of the mountains in the Mount Cook district, forming large patches on the sides of moist sheltered hollows, 4,500-6,500 ft. altitude ; T. F. C. LVIII. Verbenaceae. Teucridium parvifolium Hook. f. On the outskirts of patches of swampy forest by the Thames River, Te Aroha ; T. F. C. I mention this locality because drainage operations and the destruction of the forest is fast destroying the plant. LXXII. LORANTHACEAE, Korthalsella salicornioides Van Tiegh. Although this stretches through almost the whole length of both the North and South Islands, it is everywhere local and rarely occurs in any great quantity. The following are the habitats known to me : — I. North Island : Vichiity of Kaitaia (Mangonui County) ; R. II. Matthews/ Kerikeri Falls, Bay of Islands (the locality where it was first discovered); R. Cunningham. W. Colenso I Hooker, and many others. Open Leplospernium country between the Kerikeri River and Waitangi ; T. F. C. Whangarei ; T. Kirk. Little Barrier Island ; Miss Shakespear ! T.F.C. Judge's Bay, near Auckland ; and by the Manukau Harbour, in the vicinity CHEESEitAN. — Contribiifio/i.s fo Knoirledyf of Flora of N .Z . 18S of the South Whau Blockhouse ; now almost extinct in both localities : T. F. C. Near Tararu, Thames ; W. Hammond ! Near Tairua, J. Adams ! Rotorua ; T. Kirk ! T. F. C. Taupo Plains ; T. Kirk. Humangaroa River, near Martinborough ; Rev. F. R. Spencer ! Waikanae ; Dr. Cockayne. II. South Island : Vicinity of Collingwood ; J . Ball ! Banks Peninsula ; ./. B. Armstrong. Vicinity of Dunedin, at Anderson's Bay and Pelichct Bay ; D. Petrie ! LXXIV. Balanophoraceae. Dactylanthus Taylori Hook. f. Pipiriki, on the Upper Wanganui River ; E. Phillips Turner, wha informs me that he noticed several specimens growing on Geniostoma, for which as a host I am not aware of any previous record. Kaitoke, near Wellington ; J. S. Tennant and B. C. Aston /, parasitic on Pittosporum eugenioides. LXXVI. Urticaceae. Urtica ferox Forst. Abundant on rich alluvial soils by the Marikopa River, Kawhia County, and attaining a large size ; E. Phillips Turner. The most northerly station yet recorded on the west side of the North Island. LXXVII. CUPULIFERAE. Fagus fusca Hook. f. This is the only species of the genus that occurs to the north of the Auckland isthmus, and its distribution therein is so local that it appears advisable to quote the known habitats, more especially as it is in danger of extinction in several of them. Near Kaitaia, Mangonui County ; W. Colenso, R. H. Matthews, H. Carse. I am informed that only a few trees now remain in this locality. Whangarei ; once abundant in several stations, but fast being reduced in numbers ; W. Colenso, R. Mair, T. F. C. Little Omaha ; T. Kirk, T. F. C. Little Barrier Island ; abundant ; T. F. C. Kawau Island ; J. Buchanan, T. Kirk. Waiheke Island ; T. Kirk, T. F. C. ; once comparatively plentiful, now very scarce. Near Chelsea (Auckland Harbour) ; a few trees only ; T. F. G. LXXVIII. COXIFERAE. Podocarpus dacrydioides A. Rich. Mr.E. Phillips Turner, Inspector of Scenic Reserves, informs me that he has recently measured a kahikatea at Kakahi (a little to the south of Taumarunui) that proved to be 195 ft. in height. So far as I am aware, this is the tallest tree yet measured in the Dominion. A series of accurate measurements of the chief New Zealand timber-trees, giving both height and girth, is much to be desired. LXXIX. Orchidaceae. Spiranthes australis Lendl. Near Kaitaia ; R. H. Matthews ! Waipapakauri and Rangaunu Heads •, H. Carse. Sphagnum swamps at Waihi, Ohinemuri County ; H. B. Devereux / 184 Transactions. Thelymitra ixioides Swz. This has been gathered by Mr. J . H. Harvey at Taumarere, Bay of Islands. Thelymitra decora Cheesem. Taumarere, Bay of Islands ; J . H. Harvei/ ! Tirau, Upper Thames Valley : T. F. C. Corysanthes Matthewsii Cheesem. Mossy slopes in shaded localities near Fairburn, Mangonui County ; H. Carse ! Aponga, Whangarei County; A. Thompson. LXXXII. LiLIACEAE. Cordyline australis Hook. f. A sptecimen measured by Mr. E. Phillips Turner at Turangaarere was 15 ft. in circumference at a height of 4 ft. above the ground. LXXXIV. Palmaceae. Rhopalostylis sapida Wendl. & Drude. Another remarkable instance of a branched nikau-palm has been brought under my notice by Mr. J. R. Lambert, of Towai, Bay of Islands. It was disooyered by Mr. A. Ingster in the Ramarama Valley, near Towai, and has no less than seven well-developed branches. Mr. P. G. Morgan, of the Geological Survey, has supplied me with some interesting information respecting the present southern limit of the nikau in Westland. From particulars obtained from some of the oldest settlers it appears that the 7nost southerly station was near the New River, about eight miles south of Greymouth. In this locality it has been destroyed by the spread of settlement, but it still exists, although in small quantity, at Nelson Creek, about four miles south of Greymouth. North of the Grey River, Mr. Morgan states from his own observations that it is still fairly plentiful on both the eastern and western slopes of the Rapahoi or Twelve Apostles Range, which runs northwards from Greymouth to Point Elizabeth. In this locality it ascends to an elevation of from 700 ft. to 800 ft. North- wards of Point Elizabeth it is comparatively abundant along and near the ■coast, and is in no immediate danger of disappearance through the spread of settlement and cultivation. XCI. Cyperaoeae. Mariscus ustulatus C. B. Clarke. Miss Chase informs me that this occurs in small quantity in Half-moon Bay, Stewart Island. It is not mentioned in Dr. Cockayne's list of the flora of the island. Uncinia caespitosa Boott. Hilly forests near Kaitaia. Mangonui County; H. Carse .^ The most northern locality yet recorded. XCII. (Jramineae. Paspalum Digitaria Poir. Mr. Carse informs me that this is spi'eading rapidly in the Fairburn- Kaitaia district. No doubt it is a comparatively recent immigrant. CHKKSEjfAN. — Coiifrihutions to Knowledge of Flora of A'./f. 185 XCIll. FlLICES. Hymenophyllum subtilissimum Kunze. Stretches as far north as the Maiuitiataniwha and Kaitaia Ranges, Mangonui County ; H. Carse ! Trichomanes strictum Menz. On the margins of holes dug in extracting kauri-gum in open tea-tree country near Mangatete, Mangonui County ; //. Carse! A very remarkablt; locality, as the species is almost invariably a denizen of the deep forest. Shaded mossy places near the summit of the Little Barrier Island. 2,200-2,400 ft' altitude ; T. F. C. Davallia novae-zealandiae Col. Vicinity of Kaitaia, Mangonui County ; //. Carse. Not pi'eviously known to the northwards of the Bay of Islands. Lomaria nigra Col. Dark ravines near Fairburn, Mangonui County, and from thence to Hokianga ; H. Carse. A marked northwards extension of the range of this species. Asplenium Trichomanes Linn. Limestone rocks by the Marikopa River, Kawhia County ; E. Phillips Turner ! Not previously recorded to the northwards of Mount Egmont. Asplenium umbrosum J. Smith. Alluvial flats between Fairburn and Kaitaia, Mangonui Comity : R. Carse. The most northern locality yet recorded. Polypodium dictyopteris Mett. (P. Cunninghamii Hook.). Mr. Phillips Turner has forwarded specimens of a curious crested form obtained at Wilton's Bush, near Wellington. Psilotum triquetrum Swartz. Karangahake Cliffs, Western Bay, Lake Taupo ; H. Hill ! A some- what unexpected locality, all the stations previously recorded to the south of the Waikato River being on soil heated by hot springs. Naturalized Plants. Geranium Robertianum Linn. Roadsides at Ruatangata, Whangarei ; T . F . C. Slopes of Mount Eden, Auckland ; F. Neve .' Soliva sessilis Ruiz and Pavon. This has increased considerably of late years in light warm soils in the Auckland District, and has become a troublesome weed in some localities, particularly in certain market-gardens at Onehunga. Tolpis umbellata Bertol. Sandy soil on the west coast near Helensville, Kaipara ; apparently increasing ; T. F. C. 186 Transactions. Lactuca muralis E. Mey. Wangapeka Valley, Nelson ; F. G. Gibhs ! The first record lor the species in the Nelson Provincial District. Linaria Cymbalaria Mill. This has become extensively naturalized on the lava-fields surrounding the base of Mount Wellington,* Auckland ; T. F. C. Verbena bonariensis Linn. I am indebted to Mr. T. S. Crompton for specimens of this collected in the vicinity of New Plymouth. Mr. Crompton informs me that he has seen it in several localities within a radius of six to eight miles from the town. Ottelia ovalifolia L. Rich. Since I first recorded the existence of this species in New Zealand (Trans. N.Z. "Inst., vol. 31 (1898), p. 350) it has appeared in many of the streams and lakes of the Auckland Provincial District, stretching from the Auckland isthmus southwards to the Upper Waikato and Waipa. It has become specially abundant in Lakes Waikare and Whangape, and in most of the slow-running tributaries of the Waikato from Huntly to the mouth of the river. It is difficult to account for its rapid spread, except on the assumption that seeds or young plants have been conveyed by aquatic birds, for although its spread along the Waikato River may be due to floods transferring plants or seeds, that explanation will not suffice to account for the appearance of the plant in such isolated localities as Lake Takapuna, Chelsea, Hunua, Waitakarei River, &c. Apera spica-venti Beauv. Mr. Petrie has shown me specimens of this collected by him in the immediate vicinity of Auckland, and informs me that he has observed it in the Provincial District of Otago. So far as I am aware, it has not been previously recorded from the Southern Hemisphere. Ap.t. XXV. — Preliminanj Note on the Fungi of the Neiv Zealand Epiphytic Orchids. By T. L. Lancaster, Sir George Grey Scholar, Victoria College. Wellington. Communicated by Professor Kirk. [Bead before the Wetlinyton Philosophical Society, 7th September, 1910.] The epiphytic orchids found in New Zealand comprise six species, all of which are endemic. The four genera to which they belong are typically Tropical, two (Sarcochilus R. Br. and Bulbophyllum Thouars) being widely- distributed in tropical regions. Dendrohium Swartz has its headquarters in the Malay Archipelago, while Earina Liiidl. extends to the islands of the Lancaster. — The Fung/ of Neir Zenhnul K i>i i\h\ii'ic Ordiids. 187 tropical Pacific. The species specially referred to in this paper are Denclro- hiiun Cunninqhamii Lindl,, Earina mucronata Lindl.. and Earina suavenJens Lindl. If transveise sections of the roots of Earina or Dendrobium be examined with the microscope it will generally be found that some of the cortical cells contain each a yellowish-brown mass. Sometimes these masses are few in number and small in size, but often they are present in abundance and are conspicuous objects in the section. They are most plentiful in the outer layers of cortical cells, and are seldom found in close proximity to the stele. Close examination of these masses shows that they vary greatly in size, in shape, and in the materials composing them. In colour and dense- ness, too, they show variation, so that no two are alike, even in the same cross-section. It will be of assistance in description to refer all these masses to one or another of three chief classes, into which they may be divided, the first class containing masses which consist almost wholly of a more or less dense coil of well-defined fungal hyphae ; the second comprising those which are dense and yellowish in colour, and in which no traces of hyphae are observable ; and a third class consisting of masses which are intermediate in structure between those of the first two classes. The bodies belonging to the last class are usually composed partly of numerous granular bodies and partly of what are evidently degenerating fungal hyphae. In the bodies of the first type the hyphae are thin-walled, almost colour- less, often swollen slightly in places, and are usually coiled up in a more or less dense mass. They are septate, the division walls being sometimes very numerous, and they often branch freely. A vacuolated appearance is nearly always observable, and sometimes the hyphae are seen to have collapsed in places. The masses of the second class, although varying greatly in shape, gene- rally have their edges well defined. They are usually of a yellowish colour, and the substance of the mass appears homogeneous, no signs of fungal hyphae being observable. Each of these masses is usually connected with the walls of the cell in which it occurs by one or more narrow strands, Avhich often appear to consist of protoplasm, but which are sometimes fungal hyphae in a state of degeneracy. Sometimes the strands belonging to the masses in adjacent cells appear to be continuous through the dividing cell- walls, so that the strands would seem to connect the yellowish bodies with one another. The masses of the third class contain numerous degenerating hyphae, the outlines of which are often difficult to distinguish, and mingled with these are often large numbers of tiny granular bodies. Sometimes small starch-grains are present among these, but they are never abundant. Often the central portion of these masses is of a yellowish colour, and more dense than the outer portions, which consist largely of degenerate hyphae ; in fact, if it were not for the presence of this outer liyphal layer the mass could be correctly referred to class 2. It should have been stated at the outset that it is not possible absolutely to delimit these classes from one another, as they are connected by masses of intermediate structure. In the cortical cells containing the bodies just described the nucleus is^ frequently much sw^ollen, and it is generally observed to be in close contact with the mass in the cell to which it belongs — sometimes, indeed, it appears to be partly included in the mass. Usually bodies belonging to all three of the above types will be seen in any one section, but one class of niasa 188 Transactions. invariably predominates. In most cases the bodies coming under the second head will be found to be most numerous. An examination of the velamen tissue of these orchid-roots shows that it almost invariably contains many colourless or brownish hyphae, which l)ranch freely and wander through its cells, forming a loose network of mycelial threads. The hyphae are septate, and it would sometimes appear fTom their great variation in thickness that more than one species of fungus was present. This is undoubtedly often the case. At maturity the velamen is a dead tissue, and no coils of hyphae or yellowish masses such are seen in the cortical cells are present in it. Where the hyphae are present in abund- ance in the velamen that tissue is sometimes observed to be in a state of decay ; indeed, in the older portions of some roots it has entirely dis- appeared, and the exodermis is then the outermost layer. The passage-cells of the exodermis are often occupied by a scanty coil of hyphae formed by threads which have entered from the velamen. Some- times a mass of granular bodies occupies each of these cells, which, unlike those of the velamen, contain living contents. Where extensive thickening has taken place in the exodermal cells it is not always easy to demonstrate the connection existing between the hyphae of the transfusion-cells and those of the velamen, owing to the presence of a felty mass which often Qfuards these cells on their outer sides. The transfusion-cells of the exo- dermis are the ones which admit the fungal hyphae to the cortical tissues. Having entered one of these passage-cells, a hypha usually forms a loose coil, and then extends out into the cortex, where it may branch, and each branch is generally seen to end in one of the yellowish masses above described. Sometimes after forming a coil in one cell a "hypha enters an adjacent cell, where it forms another coil, and it may do this in several cells in succession. The hyphae which are found in the cortex are seldom normal, and they generally present an unhealthy and impoverished appear- ance. This ill-nourished condition is indicated by the presence of vacuoles, and often by the collapse of the hyphal walls. The hyphae of the velamen never have this unhealthy appearance. Where the roots of these orchids come into contact with hmnus, as they usually do in the crevices of the bark of the supporting tree, or in the black- material formed by the decay of lichens, mosses, &c., it is noticed that jmmbers of hairs, much resembling the root-hairs of ordinary terrestrial plants, are frequently developed. Sometimes among the other normal hairs some will be seen which have become flattened, and then twisted in a regular spiral fashion. The cavity of each hair usually contains one or more fungal hyphae, which are continuous with those in the velamen. The foregoing description applies in all essential respects to both species of Earina and to Dendrobium Gunninghamii, in which the velamen is usually a well-marked tissue, and the roots of which are structurally very similar. In the New Zealand species of BulhophyUmn and in Sarcochilus adversus the velamen is poorly developed, being seldom more than two cells deep. In Sarcochilus the hyphae of the velamen are very scanty, but 'the yellowish masses in the cortical cells are often large and abundant. It is by no means easy to discover the exact physiological significance of structures such as those briefly described, although such problems are of supreme interest. It is well known that the roots of many plants growing in soils rich in humus often live in intimate connection with the mycelia of fungi inhabiting the soil. These associations are believed to be beneficial to both organisms, and to such an alliance between the roots of one of the Lancaster. — The Fungi of New Zeahntd Epiphi/fir Orehufs. 189 higher plants and a fungal mycelium the name " mycorhiza " is given. Mycorhizae are of two kinds — those in which the fungal elements do not penetrate the root, but merely form a dense mat round it, and those in which the hyphac enter the root and form coils within its cells. There can be no doubt that the relationship existing between the roots of our epiphytic orchids and the fungal filaments comes under the head of mycorhizic asso- ciations. It is evident, moreover, that the mycorhizae in their case arc endotropliic. Orchids seem to be particularly prone to the formation of such alliances, and it is therefore not surprising to find that some New Zea- land orchids possess mycorhizae. Among mycorhizae hitherto described is that of a British saprophytic orchid, Corallorhiza innata, which was dealt with by Messrs. Hanna and Jennings in a paper published in the •■' Proceedings of the Koyal Dublin Society " (1898). There is little fixity of opinion as to the exact nature of the benefits accruing" to the partners in these mycorhizic associations. The view of Hanna and Jennings with regard to Corallorhiza is that the hairs found on the rhizome of the plant are produced with the object of attracting thi' fungal hyphae into the rhizome, so that the orchid can use them to augment its supply of food-materials. According to these authorities, the coils of hyphae in the orchid's cells are gradually absorbed as food by the proto- plasm, starch-grains appearing in abundance as the hyphae disappear. A view held by Groom and Janse with regard to endotrophic mycorhizae in general is that the fungus is digested by the root, thereby supplying com- bined nitrogen. Other investigators — c/., Hiltner and Magnus — hold .similar views. In the case of the New Zealand orchids it is not j)robable that the hairs on their roots are produced as fungus-trapping organs. In some cases it is certain from the manner in which the hyphae branch that they are leaving, and not entering, the root. In many instances spores have been seen in the hairs, and in more than one case the cavity of a hair at its extremity was observed to be densely packed with spores. \Vliat seems more probable is that the hairs perform, for a time at least, the functions which root-hairs perform in ordinary terrestrial plants — viz., absorption of water and mineral food. As above mentioned, the velamen at maturity is a dead tissue : its cells after having thickened their walls in a curiously intricate fashion lose their living contents, so that the hairs springing from them must also die, and presumably become functionless. It seems probable that no special significance is to be attached to the presence of the hyphae in the hairs. That the fungi sometimes use them as a means of entering the root cannot be doubted, but it is very likely that the hyphae are capable of penetrating the velamen at almost any point, and that their chief mode of entrance is by direct penetration of the outer cells of that tissue. It is well known that humus is invariably penetrated in all directions by the hyphae of many species of fungi, and these are believed to assist in l)reaking down the complex organic compounds of the humus, thereby bringing a large amount of plant-food into an available condition. The humus, from which these epiphytic orchids must obtain practically all their food-materials except carbon, is formed, as before stated, largely by the decay of lower plants, chiefly lichens and mosses. It is unlikely that the carbon of the humus is utilized by the orchids, as they are all well supplied with chlorophyll, and it would therefore seem that their supply of carbon from atmospheric sources would be adequate to their needs. It cannot be said that their supply of available nitrogen is by any means 190 Tra/isacfio/!.<. 1. Portion of a transverse section of tlie root of Earina murro7uita. showing the hyphae in the velamen and the masses in the cortical cells. The thickenings of the walls of the velamen cells have been omitted to secure clearness. •2. Cells from the cortex, showing th(> liyphae in various stages of absor])tion— r/. first stage ; c, intermediate stage ; b, third stage. 3. Portion of a hypha from the cortex, showing vacuolated ai)pearance (much enlarged). Lancaster. — The Fungi of New Zeahnid E jii phjitic Orrhu/s. 191 sufficient. The nitrogen compounds of humus arc in general far too complex for ordinary green plants to assimilate. In view of this fact the idea that the fungus of the mycorhiza in some way assists in increasing the nitrogen- supply does not seem unreasonable, and the experimental work of British and Continental investigators tends to show that there are good grounds for this supposition, at least in the case of the particular plants investigated by them. With regard to the New Zealand epiphytic orchids, it is impossible in the absence of experimental investigation to make any positive statements as to the uses of the mycorhiza. In view of the evidence in hand, how- ever, the following may be held to represent in a general way what occurs, and to be a brief statement of the working hypothesis : — Fungal hyphae living in the humus in which the orchid-roots are usually imbedded penetrate the spongy velamen tissue and wander about in its cells, and probably derive some slight advantages therefrom. It has been remarked above that this tissue is sometimes found to be in a state of decay. That the hyphae may have something to do with this is not impossible. In this dead velamen tissue they meet with no active resistance. Finding points of weakness in the exodermal cylinder — e.g., the transfusion-cells — they enter. Here, however, they are for the first time face to face with vigorous living cells, and after forming a scanty coil they branch out into the cortex. The orchid now becomes the aggressor, and its protoplasm absorbs what it can from the hyphae, producing in them the vacuolated appearance previously mentioned. After forming several coils in the cortical cells the hyphae are exhausted, and the protoplasm of the orchid still continuing to absorb, eventually kills them. It soon changes a dense coil of filaments into a yellowish unorganized mass, which probably repre- sents the parts of the fungus which the protoplasm is slow to assimilate, or which it is unable to assimilate. The nuclei of the cortical cells show the result of the vigorous nutrition in their greatly increased size. The three types of masses above described represent the coils of hyphae in dii?erent stages of absorption. The observation of a very large number of sections of the roots shows that something like this is actually what occurs. The appearance of a mycorhiza is held by some to indicate incipient saprophytism. If this view is correct, the New Zealand epiphytic orchids may be just beginning a career as saprophytes. The position of the fungi of these mycorhizae in the classificatory scheme has not yet been determined. Culture experiments have been made, but I do not regard their results as absolutely convincing. I am hopeful, how- ever, that a few more experiments of this kind will enable the systematic positions of the fungi to be accurately determined. It is worthy of note that spores are often observable in the velamen tissue, especially in the older portions of the roots, and most commonly when the roots are freely exposed to the air. In several cases the whole of the hyphae in the velamen had broken up into chains of spores. 192 Transactions. Art. XXVI. — The Rediscovery of Ranunculus crithmifolius Hook f. By Robert M. Laing, B.Sc. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 7th December, 1910.] In the " Handbook of the New Zealand Flora " (1864), by Sir J. D. Hooker, there is described as a new species Ranunculus crithmifolius. It was col- lected by Mr. W. T. L. Travers at the Wairau Gorge, at an altitude of 6.000 ft. Hooker adds to his description the note that it is " a very singular plant, easily recognized by its glaucous, fleshy habit, finely divided leaves, and single-flowered short scapes." Mr. T. Kirk, in his " Students' Flora of New Zealand" (1899), quotes Hooker's description, and adds — I know not on what authority — the remark that only one specimen of the plant was found by Travers. In Cheeseman's " Manual of the New Zealand Flora " (1906), under the description appears the note, " A curious little plant, which has not been collected since its original discovery nearly forty years ago. There are no specimens in any of the New Zealand herbaria, and I have consequently reproduced Hooker's description.'" In the " Plants of New Zealand," 1906, p. 170, alluding to this plant. I wrote thus : "In spite, however, of all the perseverance and research of modern workers, a few of the forms apparently known to the earliest explorers have not been rediscovered in recent times. In some cases it is probable that the plant has been redescribed mider a fresh name ; in a very few cases it may be that by some lucky chance the first collectors fomid a plant that on account of its extreme rarity has never been seen again. In Ranunculus crithmifolitis we have a plant that has not been reidentified since first found by Travers on the shingle-slips of the Wairau Gorge. Even then only a single plant was seen. It seems more than likely, therefore, that the plant was a casual variant of some other form than really a distinct species. If, however, the original description is to be trusted, Ranunculus crithmifolius is one of the most remarkable species of the genus. Like all other shingle-slip plants, it is highly specialized ; otherwise it would not have been able to live in the place whence it was reported. ... It has leaves which, on a smaller scale, closely resemble those of the rock-samphire, a plant of an altogether dift'erent order. They are thick, succulent, bluish- green, and highly polished, thus differing widely from the normal leaf-form of the genus. Diels compares them to the leaves of Ligusticum carnosulum, which is one of the most singular species of the flora, and also [along with Ranunculus Haastii] grows on the same shingle-slips in the Wairau Gorge." From these extracts it will be seen that Ranunculus crithmifolius was what sailors call a " vigia " — something once reported but not again seen. In January, 1910, I visited the Mount Arrowsmith district, and followed up the course of a little stream flowing into the Cameron River on the westward side of the Cameron Hut. The source of the stream was in a shingle- covered ridge, some 5,000 ft. high. On the western side of this ridge I was delighted to find a plant with all the characteristics of the shingle-slip species, but one which was new to me. Specimens of it were scattered, a few yards apart, over an area of several acres. It was by no means <'ommon, and a close search was necessary to find it, as the leaves were of the same colour as the shingle. Near at hand was growing Ligusticum Laing. — Rediscover II of Ranunculus critliuiifolius. 193 carnosulum, and although Ranunculus Haastii was not seen on the same shiiigle-slip it is to be found in the district. A careful search revealed scapes that had done flowering and showed the plant to be a Ranunculus, and on taking it back to camp it was found to agree in every detail with Hooker's description of Ranunculus crithmifoUus. It is strange that a plant which had been lost for nearly fifty years should be obtained about a hundred and fifty miles away from its first-discovered habitat, but still in association with the same species originally found in its vicinity. A long search failed to reveal any flowers, and only a few achene-bearing plants were found. A little needs to be added to the original description. Some living specimens were obtained, and one or two of these were given to Mr. J. R. Wilkinson, of Bushside, Mount Somers. He has been able to grow them, a '$1. a, b. Leaves ; half natural size. c. Plant ; half natural size. d. Flower, from front ; half natural size. e. Flower, from back ; half natural size. One sepal has become leaflike. /. Fruit ; magnified twice. and forwarded me, on the 20th September of this year, a fully expanded flower. I am thus able to give a more complete description of the plant than has hitherto been possible, for Travers's specimen was in fruit only. The horizontal rootstock, which is about 1 cm. in diameter, sends out at intervals loose rosettes of 6-8 leaves, which die down in the autumn. When mature the leaves are 6-10 cm. high, and of the usual grey-green of the plants of the shingle-slip. The petioles are 5-7 cm. long, channelled, and end in a somewhat membranous yellow-brov/n leaf-sheath, about 2 cm. in length. The leaf is usually ternately divided, the petiolule about equalling the blade in length. The latter is more or less triangular in outline, and 7— Trans. 194 Transactions. 3-4 cm. broad at the base. The secondary segments are pinnately rather than ternately subdivided, and are also more or less triangular in outline. The ultimate divisions are linear, obtuse, 2-3 mm. long, and about 1 mm. broad. At Mount Somers the plant flowered in September, while the leaves were still unfolded and closely appressed to the shingle.* The scape is short, 1-2 cm. long ; flowers 2-3 cm. in diameter. Sepals (5) oblong, inbricate in the bud, pale cream, truncate, 8-10 mm. long, tinged on the under-surface with pale brown. Petals (5) cuneate, slightly emarginate, yellow above, streaked with brown below, with a single large glandular pit at the base of each. When the flower is fully expanded the petals are remote, and admit the full breadth of the sepals between them. Stamens numerous, filaments short, about half the length of the petals. The turgid achenes, about 12-20 in number, form a rounded head 8-10 mm. in diameter. All parts of the flower are quite glabrous. Though no original specimens have been seen, the identity of the plant with that of Travers can scarcely be doubted. I have deposited a specimen in Canterbury Museum. Art. XXVII.— On the Flora of the Mangonui County. By H. Carse. [Bead before the Auckland Institute, 22nd November, 1910.] The County of Mangonui is situated in the extreme north of the Auckland Provincial District. It lies between 34° 20' and 35° 20' south latitude, and consists of a long narrow peninsula stretching north-west known as the North Cape Peninsula, and a southern portion more or less oblong in shape. The peninsula is about fifty miles in length, and from five to ten miles across. The lower portion is about forty miles from east to west, and averages about sixteen miles from north to south. " The first person to explore the district from a natural-history point of view was the veteran botanist Mr. Colenso, who in 1839 travelled from Kaitaia northwards to Cape Maria van Diemen, and from thence to the Keinga, Spirits Bay, and the North Cape. During this journey he collected several of the plants peculiar to the district, notably Hibiscus diversifolius and Lycopodium Drumm.ondii, the last of which has not been refound.f In 1840-41 Dr. Dieflenbach, the naturalist to the New Zealand Company, made an exploration of the country to the north of the Bay of Islands. He * Since writing the above I have seen specimens of the flower in Dr. CockajTie's garden in Christchurch. On my return to Christchurch last January I gave him one or two living plants of B. crifhmifolius. These have grown quite readily in ordinary soil at the low altitude of Christchurch. The leaves are less appressed to the surface of the ground and the scapes are much longer than in the specimen grown by Mr. Wilkinson. t Since refound b}' Mr. H. B. Matthews. Carse. — Flora of the Mangonui County. 195 spent a considerable time in the North Cape Peninsula, judging from the account given in his ' Travels in New Zealand,' where Chapters 12 and 13 are devoted to the physical features and geology of the district. I cannot learn that he made any botanical collections therein, but the chapters quoted contain several interesting remarks upon the vegetation. In the summer of 1865-66 the district was visited by Sir James Hector. . . . He was accompanied by Mr. John Buchanan, who made a considerable collec- tion of plants, which I believe was forwarded to Kew. He was the first to detect Hymenanthera latifolia, and observed several other species not previously recorded from that part of New Zealand. In April, 1867, Mr. Kirk and the late Mr. Justice Gillies made a brief visit to the district be- tween Parengarenga Harbour and Spirits Bay. Notwithstanding the late- ness of the season, a few novelties were collected and much additional information obtained. Some notes on this journey will be found in the ' Transactions of the New Zealand Institute ' (vol. 1, p. 143). A hst of the plants observed by Mr. Buchanan and Mr. Kirk is given in vol. 2 of the same publication (pp. 239-46). So far as I am aware, these three papers comprise all that has been pubHshed on the botany of the North Cape Pen- insula."* In the Transactions for 1896 appears a paper " On the Flora of the North Cape District " by Mr. Cheeseman, from which I have taken the foregoing paragraph. Mr. Cheeseman in his paper mentions his earhest visit to the district, in 1874, when he explored Doubtless Bay, Oruru Valley, Maunga- taniwha, and a portion of the east coast. In 1889 Mr. Cheeseman again paid a short visit to the district, followed in 1896 by a longer one. His itinerary shows that on this occasion he passed from Mangonui to Awanui, thence to Kaitaia and Ahipara, and thence coastwise northwards as far as the North Cape. Considering the short time available, Mr. Cheeseman was able to take note of a considerable number of plants. Since the time of Mr. Cheeseman's visits a fair number of botanical discoveries have been made ; indeed, it would be surprising if during the fourteen years that have elapsed a considerable amount of additional in- formation as to the plant covering of the district had not been gained. As a resident in the district, and a not unsuccessful observer of nature, I am in a position to supply additional botanical information, partly from my own observations and partly from those of my friends Messrs. R. H, and H. B. Matthews and Mr. H. Bedggood. As a rule, however, these new discoveries were made in parts which were not included in Mr. Cheeseman's trip. It is not my intention to deal with the northern portion of the county, but only with the lower part which lies south of a line through Mount Camel and Cape Karakara.f This includes the southern portion of the North Cape Peninsula. The lower section of Mangonui County has a broken coast-line on the east and north, Doubtless Bay and Rangaunu Bay being the chief openings. The west coast for many miles is unbroken until Ahipara Bay is reached. Here the coast suddenly trends towards the west to Reef Point, more generally known by the Native name of Tauroa. Here it turns south, then south-east to the Herekino River, the south-western boundary of the county. * Cheeseman : " On the Flora of the North Cape District," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 29, p. 333. t This is really Cape Whakapouaka ; there is a stream called Karikari a few miles away. 7* 196 Tranmctions. North-west from Ahipara the coast-line consists of a range of sand- dunes, consolidated and recent, on the landward side of which are smaller sand-dunes, among which are numerous small lakes and lagoons. Inland from these are extensive peat-swamps, and farther inland firmer flat land, subject to inundation during the heavy rains. From Ahipara southward the coast-line is more rocky. The Tauroa Peninsula, which terminates in Reef Point, is chiefly a series of elevated sand-dunes, rising to a height of about 700 ft. From the Tauroa Plateau radiates a fanlike series of hills towards the north and east. The first line of hills runs parallel with the coast, at an average distance of five miles, from the Tauroa towards Awanui and Mangatete. There are two breaks in this line— the Herekino Gorge, through which run a small river and the road to Herekino ; and the Kaitaia Valley, which extends towards the east, and branches into the Victoria, Takahue, and Fairburn Sketch-map of Part of Mangonui County. f (Scale, twelve miles to an inch.) Valleys. The highest point in this range is Taumata Mahoe (1,881 ft.). Between Kaitaia and Mangatete this high land spreads out, forming a table- land at an elevation of about 600 ft. From this plateau ranges of hills run through Fairburn towards Oruru and Mangonui, the highest point being Kopu Okai, commonly known as Trig. 27 (1,063 ft.), a few miles from Fair- burn. Eastward the county is broken but less elevated until M^e come to Raetea (2,436 ft.), the highest point in the county ; from thence nms a range to Carse. — Flora of iJw Maugonui County. 197 Kotepu (1,762 ft.), overlooking Victoria Valley. Behind this range are the Maungataniwha Ranges, branching out from the hill of that name (1,912 ft.). It will thus be seen that the central and southern portion of the district is very broken. High hills and deep valleys, heights almost mountainous, separated by profomid gorges or deep gullies, form the chief features from a bird's-eye view. This is the forest country of the district, and here, in spite of the axes of the settler and bushman, many miles of bush-clad ranges are still to be seen. It has been pointed out how the plants of any locality are not arranged by chance, but are found in definite combinations, called technically " plant formations," which have come into existence in consequence of the geo- logical history of the region, the climate, the nature of the soil, and other causes, some physical, others biological.* If we take a bird's-eye view of this or of almost any district we find that the plant covering may be arranged into six more or less clearly de- fined plant formations. These are the forest, the moorland, the swamp, the lake and river, sea cliffs and beaches, and sand-dunes. In many cases, no doubt, these forms, or some of them, are more or less merged into others, but generally speaking their differences are clearly marked and the species belonging to one formation keep to their own places, though vagrant forms do at times intrude upon their neighbour's domain. The Forest Formation. Less than a century ago the greater part of southern Mangonui was covered with dense forest. The axes of the settler, clearing the land for purposes of grazing and cultivation, and of the bushman, felUng the trees for timber, are rapidly making the forest primeval a thing of the past, but there is still left standing sufficient of the old forest to give us a good idea of what it consists. For p rposes of botanical study the forest formation may be divided into three classes — the general bush, the kauri bush, and the kahikatea bush. The general bush varies more or less in its constituents according to soil, elevation, slope, &c. By far the most common tree in this section is the taraire, so much so that the name " taraire bush " is almost as applicable to it as the names " kauri " and " kahikatea " to the sections in which these trees predominate. In the taraire bush — as, in fact, in all bush — the covering consists of tall trees, many of which bear, or are more or less covered by, epiphytic plants and interlacing lianes, of smaller trees, shrubs, and tree-ferns, with a carpet of creeping and other herbs, grasses, sedges, ferns, mosses, &c. In addi- tion to the taraire, the more prominent trees are totara, rimu, miro, matai, tawa, hinau, rewarewa, towai, kohekohe, &c. Of the smaller trees and shrubs, mahoe, Hedycorya, Fusanus, various species of Coprosma, and in damp places Fuchsia and pate (Schefflera), are the most common. The surface covering, besides ferns, mosses, and allied plants, is made up of sedges, grasses, orchids of various species ; and in many places Nertera dichondrae folia, creeping and rooting as it goes, forms a characteristic feature. Of sedges, the most prominent are Gahnia xanthocarpa and G. setifolia. The principal native grasses to be seen are Microlaena avenacea and Oplis- menus undulatif alius. Of the orchids I shall speak later. * " Report on a Botanical Survey of the Tongariro National Park," L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., &c. : Department of Lands, Wellingtoji, 1908. 198 Trcnisacfions. Of the lianes, the most noticeable are the bush-lawyer {Ruhus) and supplejack {Rhipogonum) . These are frequently found stretching to the tops of the tallest forest-trees, in such a position that we can only conclude that they have attached themselves to the branches when the tree was young and have grown up with the growth of the tree. Sometimes, however, in place of ascending, these plants form an almost impenetrable network through which neither man nor beast can pass. Other lianes are various forms of rata-vines {Metrosideros), Parsonsia, Clematis, kiekie, &c. In damp places on creek-banks and on wet slopes great masses of Elatostenwia rugosum, a succulent-stemmed prostrate herb with large vari- coloured leaves, is a characteristic covering. Of epiphytes growing on the forest - trees the commonest and most noticeable are forms of wharawhara {Astelia), among which various ferns and lycopods are frequently found. On trunks and upper branches, too, occur a few orchids — Earina (two species), Dendrohimn, Bulbophjllum, and Sarcochilus. A prominent epiphyte is the rata-tree in its earlier life. As a seedling it is often found in the clefts of branches of tall trees. As it grows it sends branches upward and root - stems downward ; these, reaching the ground, into which they penetrate and branch off, absorb nutriment, causing their upper parts to swell out into trunks, coalescing one with another until they crush out the life of the tree which for years gave them support. The rata {Metrosideros rohusta) will, and often does, grow as a terrestrial plant, but when growing directly from the soil never forms a large tree — rarely, indeed, exceeding 25 ft. or 30 ft. in height. On Rangitoto Island, near Auckland, the rata growing among blocks of lava forms shrubs only. Other epiphytes which grow in a more or less similar manner are Griselinia lucida, whose large glossy leaves are often prominent objects in the upper branches of tall trees ; Panax arboreum, usually on tree-ferns ;* and a few others. It may not be out of place here to draw attention to the mistake often made by many people of confusing the words " epiphyte " and " parasite." Epiphytes, as the name denotes, merely live upon other plants, but derive nothing in the way of nourishment from the substance of th§ supporting plants, nor do their roots penetrate that substance. Parasites, on the other hand, derive their food in part or entirely from the sap of the plant on which they grow, and into whose substance their roots penetrate, or to whose surface they apply their sucking-discs. We have not many parasite plants in this district. Loranthus micranthtis and Korthalsella salicornioides are not infrequent, and the curious leafless Cassytha paniculata occurs plentifully on Leptospennum near the coast, attaching itself to its victim by means of small suckers. The Kauri Forest. In the kauri forest that tree towers high above all others. There are, as a rule, few other large trees, the most frequent being the towai {Wein- mannia sylvicola), a few taraires, kawakas (Libocedrus Doniana), miro, and tanekaha {Phyllocladtis trichomanoides). Of smaller trees and shrubs the most conspicuous is the neinei {Dracophyllum. latifolium) ; others are species of Coprosma, maire, Myrtus pedunculata, Panax anomalum, &c. Perhaps the most conspicuous feature of the kauri bush is the great quantity of kauri -grass {Astelia trinervia), among which occur Astelia * Carse : "On the Occurrence of Panax arborevin on the Stems of Tree-ferns," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 34, p. 359. Carse. — Flora of the Mangonui County. 199 nervosa, and the large sedges Gahnia xanthocorpa and G. setifoUa, which, owing to the sharply serrated edges of their leaves, form a somewhat for- midable barrier. The ferns Dicksonia lanata, Gleichenia Cunninghaniii^ Lomaria minor, and the curious Schizaea dichotoma also occur. A very con- spicuous plant in the kauri forest is Metrosideros albiflora, whose large glossy leaves and racemes of pure-white flowers make it a plant well worthy of a place in our wild gardens. The Kahihatea Bush. The kahikatea, or white-pine, is usually found in colonies in damp, often swampy, land. It occurs in the higher lands, but never in large quanti- ties. In the kahikatea bush the undergrowth is very dense, the greater part being formed of numerous species of Coprosma. Other common plants are mahoe, Hoheria, Plagianthus, Pennantia, kowhai, &c. The native passion- vine {Passiflora tetrandra), Parsonsia heterophylla, and P. capsularis also occur. Of the surface-plants, the most common are various forms of sedges {Carex chiefly), Hydrocotyle of various species, and numerous ferns, mosses, and grasses. The Moorland. The moorland consists of open country, usually of a stiff clay formation, destitute of trees. Much of this land ages ago was covered with kauri forest. Of this we have the evidence of old kauri stumps and roots, and the gum which has for many years given employment to a great number of men. Much of this land is covered with tea-tree, usually small, owing partly to frequent fires sweeping over the surface and partly to the poverty of the soil. Among the tea-tree scrub are found several forms of Lycopodium, orchids, and sedges. Larger sedges also cover large areas. Conspicuous on many of these moorlands are Pomaderris elliptica (kumarahou), with its beautiful cymes of creamy-yellow flowers ; P. phylicae- folia, a heath-like plant ; Dracophyllum Urvilleanum, ; and of smaller plants, forms of Haloragis. In damp and swampy parts of the moorlands are found the dainty bladderworts Utricularia delicatula and JJ. novae-zealandiae, the sundews Drosera binata and D. spathulata, and very rarely the orchid Spiranthes austraUs. The Swamp. The most noticeable plant of the swamps is undoubtedly the raupo [Typha angustifolia), whose densely clustered pale-green leaves form masses visible for miles. Here, too, on the firmer parts, occurs the useful Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, the conversion of which gives employment to so many of our people. Several species of Hydrocotyle are frequent creeping on the surface, as also does Ranunculus rivularis (the whauriki), a small buttercup containing an acrid poison, often fatal to stock. Another con- spicuous swamp-plant is the large willow-herb, Epilobium pallidiflorum. Eound the margin, and often through the swamp, occur large masses of the pink-flowering Polygonum serrulatum, and Sparganiuni antipodum. The coast swamps vary somewhat from the inland ones. These are usually formed by the blocking-up of a small creek by the inroads of the sand from the beach. In the maritime swamps of this district are to be found, in addition to most if not all of the inland-swamp plants, Plagianthus divaricatus, Epilobium chionanthum, Hibiscus diver si jolius, Lemna minor, Triglochin striatum, &c., and the ferns Nephrodium unitum and N. Thelypteris. 200 Transactions. Lake and Kiver. Of tlie plants occurring in or about lakes and rivers we may make two classes — viz., those that grow on muddy banks, M^hich as a rule fall naturally under the head of swamp-plants ; and, secondly, those which germinate in the mud at the bottom, and rise up to produce flowers and fruit on the surface. And yet it is not at all possible to lay down hard-and-fast rules on this point, for the plants of the mud-banks not infrequently grow entirely submerged, and those of more aquatic habits are often found in drier situa- tions, usually, however, in a more or less depauperated condition. On the margins of lakes and rivers where the soil is muddy most of the swamp-plants — raupo, flax, sedges, &c. — are found. In addition are Glosso- stigma elatinoides (often forming dense matted patches), Elative americana, CalUtriche verna, and vadous forms of Epilohium. In the beds and at the sides of inland creeks the rocks which rise above the water form the habitat of Epilohium 'peduncular e, in dense dark -green masses, among which not infrequently occur the dainty orchid Corysanihes rotundifolia, with its one leaf and helmet-shaped purple flower, and the little daisy Lagenophora petiolata var. mininin. Here and there occurs the some- what rare Nerfera Cumiinghamdi. Conspicuous on many of these creeks, among the rocks, occur the graceful plumes of the tall grass Arundo fulvida, closely allied to the beautiful and larger Arundo conspicua, so characteristic of the coast. Of the more or less submerged plants the most common are forms of Myriophyllum and Potamogeton. Entirely submerged are the various forms of the order Characeae, chiefly species of Nitella. Along the banks of tidal creeks the tall Scirpus niaritimus is a prominent object, and at their mouths, among mud-banks, are found mangroves. Sea Cliff and Beaches.' Among the more prominent plants on or near the sea cliffs and beaches may be mentioned the pohutukawa {Metrosideros tomentosa), whose brilliant crimson flowers make the coast-line beautiful in early summer, giving to this plant the name of Christmas-tree ; the karaka, whose fruit formed a great addition to the food of the old-time Maori ; the tawapou {Sideroxylon costatum), sometimes called the New Zealand olive, from the resemblance of its fruit to that of the olive (the true New Zealand olive is the maire — Olea). Here and there along the coast is found Fuchsia procumbens, a graceful little plant, differing from all its congeners in the flowers being- upright instead of drooping. In a few places are found the rare Coprosma Kirhii, which will probably become extinct within the present generation. Among smaller plants, very conspicuous are Cladium Sinclairii, a sedge with broad ensiform leaves and large drooping brown panicles ; Cassinia retorta, Pimelia arenaria, Olearia jurfuracea, and more rarely Olearia angulota, all bearing white flowers. Among the herbs may be mentioned the wild celery {Apiuni prostration), Saniolus repens, Sonchus asper var. littoralis, and Ipomaea pahnata, with its lovely convolvulus-like flowers. Among the distinctly arenarian plants are Gunnera arenaria, Tetragonia (New Zealand spinach), Crantzia lineata, TiUaea Sieheriana, &c. Atriplex patula and Salsola Kali are increasing, especially the latter. There is, I think, little doubt as to these species being introduced, though they have become so widely distributed that it is difficult to distinguish these and a few others from aboriginals. Carsk. — Flora of the Mnngotiui County. 201 Sand-dunes. The most striking plant of the sand-dunes is undoubtedly the tall plume- grass Arundo conspicuo. Other plants peculiar to this situation are Co- prosnid acerosa var. arenaria, Scirpus frondosus, Euphorbia glauca, and Spinifex hirsutus, all of which are more or less useful in repelling the in- roads of the sands. In sandy places at no great distance from the sea is found the tiny sundew Drosera pygmaea. This " charming little gem "* has been reported from various localities from Cape Maria van Dieraen to Ahipara, inland from Kaitaia to Ahipara, and also from Bluflt Hill in Southland. So far no botanist has seen it between these widely severed habitats. In many places where the forest has been cleared, and the land has not been sown in grass, or has been neglected, dense masses of fern [Pteris) cover the soil. Low- lying grass lands will, if neglected, be smothered in wiwi {Jmicus effusus) in a few years. Topographical Botany. It may be interesting now to take a few localities more particularly — localities in which plants of special interest have been found. The first I will refer to is the Tauroa. This is a tableland built up of consolidated and drifting sands, rising from Reef Point to a height of about 700 ft. At one time there were many kauri-trees growing on this plateau, the stumps of which still remain. In sheltered gullies running down from the upper level are remains of the original forest covering, consisting now of small woods, rapidly, alas ! becoming buried in the ever-advancing sands. This locality has been very thoroughly explored by Messrs. R. H. and H. B. Matthews and Mr. H. Bedggood, and has yielded up many interesting botanical finds. Among these are Myrtus Ralphii and M. obcordata, of which the previous known northern limit was Whaugarei Heads ; Pseudo- panax ferox, a rather rare plant ; Corokia sp., which is, I believe, similar to one found by Mr. Cheeseman in the North Cape district, which may prove a new species ; t Lagenophora pinnatifida, not before known north of Helens- ville, Auckland ; Earina mucronata, variety with broader leaves, denser panicle, and larger flowers ; Microlaena polynoda, extending its habitat north from Whangarei Heads. " Lake Tangonge is the largest of a chain of lakes situated on the western side of the Awanui River, almost fringing the coast-line of sandhills. It is about three miles in length by perhaps half that Avidth, but is surrounded by a much larger area of raupo swamps, most of which are filled with water during the greater part of the year."{ In or near this lake have been found several very interesting plants, thanks to the investigations of Messrs. R. H. and H. B. Matthews. Of these perhaps the most interesting is Lycopodium Drummondii. "' This plant, which was referred to L. carolinianum. in the Handbook, was gathered within the district by Mr. Colenso in 1839, but unfortunately the exact locality has been forgotten. "§ Another interesting plant of this locality is Lepyrodia Traversii, pre- viously reported only from the Middle Waikato district and the Chatham Islands ; and another rare plant is Pterostylis micromega, found in swamps * " Students' Flora/' Kirk, p. 146. t " Manual of the New Zealand Flora," T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., p. 238. J ^' On the Flora of the North Cape District," T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S. : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 29, p. 343. § Loc. cit., p. 382. 202 Tramactions. on the margin of the lake. In a few places in the lake itself are found plants of Utricularia protrusa. This is only the third locality known in the Dominion. The somewhat rare sedge Scirpus lenticularis is also fomid here ; and on the margin of the marshy land Mr. R. H. Matthews discovered Carex Brownii, a small sedge, not previously known as a native of New Zealand. Where the waters of the lake flow out into the Kaitaia-Awanui River Mr. Matthews made one of the most interesting finds that botanic science has known for many years : this was the rediscovery of Pittosporum, oh- cordatum. But for the fact that I had climbed up a cabbage-tree a few minutes earlier for the purpose of getting a view over the high raupo, &c., I might have scored this point ; but the main point is that this long-lost species was rediscovered. It was originally reported by Raoul from Akaroa, but has not been seen since in that locality. Within a short distance of this spot are found several specimens of Plagianthus cymosus, a rather rare plant. For some time only one tree was known in this locality, but later several others were found. Scattered throughout the district are other plants of considerable interest to botanists for their rarity or from their being found in habitats much farther north of any previously reported. On the sandy margin of Lake Ngatu, a small lake situated behind the coastal sand-dunes a few miles from Awanui, I had the good fortune to discover a tiny annual herb belonging to the order Centrole'pideae. It was provisionally described in the Manual as Trithuria inconspicua. Later, in a paper read before the Auckland Institute, 3rd October, 1906, Mr. Cheese- man placed this plant in the genus Hydatella, a genus of three species, two found in Western Australia, the third endemic in New Zealand.* The koru (Colensoa phjsaloides), the leaves of which were used by the Natives in the early days in place of cabbage, occurs sparingly in several places. It is usually found among damp shady rocks, never as a rule at any great distance from the sea. It has been reported from Mount Camel, Merita Bay, Ahipara, the Toatoa, a deep ravine inland from Doubtless Bay, and near Herekino. In addition to the submerged bladderwort {Utricularia protrusa) found in Lake Tangonge, two smaller ones { U. novae-zealandiae and U. delicatula) occur in peaty swamps in several localities. The former is reported by Mr. Cheeseman from near Lake Ohia ; I have also found it on a peaty slope near Kaitaia. The latter, a dainty little plant, is more plentiful, occurring in peaty swamps near Kaitaia, on both sides of Rangaunu Harbour, and on the Peria gum-hills. In Flat Bush, a low-lying piece of land between Kaitaia and Fairburn, I discovered the sedge Carex dipsacea. This is plentiful in Manukau County, but has not been reported from any locality farther north until I found it. Probably it does occur between these distant points, but has been over- looked. The Westland pine {Dacrydiuni Colensoi), which is not uncommon along the west coast of the South Island, is found in the North Island at a few widely separated spots only from Ruapehu to the far north. One mature tree and a sprinkling of young ones occur in a kauri bush a few miles from Fairburn. I am told that another tree is known near A'ictoria Valley, but I have not seen it. * " Notice of the Occurrence of Hydatella, a Genus new to the New Zealand Flora," by T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 433. Carse. — Flora of the MaiKjomd County. 203 Up to the present the Peria gum-hills, a tract of barren country tra- versed by the road from Mangonui to Kaitaia, is the only known New Zea- land habitat of the sedge Lcpidosperma filiforme. Another plant of only one known habitat in the Dominion is the grass Imperata arundinacea, one of Mr. R. H. Mattliews's finds. Viola Lyallii, a dainty little violet, occurs sparingly in the district. It is usually found in damp shady situations. It has been reported from Kaitaia, Flat Bush, and not far from the Double Crossing Bridge between those localities. It pro- bably occurs elsewhere in suitable situations, but may easily be overlooked. Galium umbrosum, a small usually prostrate plant, often forming large green matted masses in woods, is peculiar here for its rarity. In manv places it is one of the most common species, but so far it has only been noticed in Victoria Valley, Flat Bush, and the Tauroa, and only a few plants have been seen. Myosotis spathulata, a small forget-me-not, has up to the present been found only in Kaitaia. The leaves of this plant, one of Mr. E. H. Matthews's finds, is more rounded and less spathulate than is usually the case, but this species is very variable. In referring to the ferns, I omitted to mention Trickomanes strictum. So far as is at present known, this is one of the rarest ferns in the district. The only place where I have seen this species in the Mangonui County is on the moorland lying north from Kaitaia. The few plants I saw were growing on the edges of " potholes " — i.e., small pits from which gum has been dug — a rather unusual situation. I believe one plant was found in a small wood in the same neighbourhood. Orchids. There are twenty-one • genera of orchids in New Zealand, divided into fifty-seven species. Of these, four species are epiphytic, as are most of the orchids of the tropics, and the rest are terrestrial. Our orchids do not by any means equal their tropical congeners in gorgeousness of colouring or eccentricity of form, though many of them are beautiful, but, as a rule, small. Of the twenty-one genera, we have eighteen in this district ; of the fifty- seven species, we have thirty-five. Botanists are greatly indebted to Mr. R. H. Matthews, of Kaitaia, for the careful and useful work he has done in this section of botany. To Mr. Matthews is due the discovery in the Mangonui district of Bulbophyllum tuberculatum, Thelymitra ixioides, T. intermedia, Pterostylis micromega, P. barhata, Caleana minor, Calochilus paludosus, Caladenia minor var. exigua, Chiloglottis formicifera, Corysanthes Cheesemanii, C. Matihewsii, and Gas- trodia sesamoides. The epiphytic orchids which are, as a rule, found on the branches of tall forest-trees are Dendrobium Cunninghamii, a diffusely branching plant, with stems like miniature bamboos, narrow leaves, and white* or pinkish flowers ; Earina, two species, with rather heavily scented flowers ; Bulbo- phyllum, two species, both tiny plants, with leaves issuing from pseudo- bulbs, from the base of which grow the flowers. Of these, B. tuberculatum is much more rare than the other. Sarcochilus, a rather thick-leaved plant, is plentiful on the upper branches of trees, and not infrequently on the trunks. The terrestrial species are found in various situations. Spiranthes occurs in swamps in several localities. Thelymitra, of which there are eight or 204 Transactions. nine species in New Zealand, is represented in tliis district by five or six species (I understand a new species was discovered by Mr. Matthews this year). -Most of these are moorland-plants. The flowers of this genus are less like the generally accepted idea of orchids than any other. The genus " is remarkable from the lip being quite free from the column and resembl- ing the petals and sepals, so that the perianth has little of the irregular appearance of an orchid, but rather resembles that of an Ixia or a Sisy- rinchium.'"* Of the Thelymitrae the most showy and one of the most common is T. pulcheUa, easily distinguished by the large blue-purple flowers. T. ixioides and T. sp. nov. are the rarest of the genus. What I take to be Berggren's T. intermedia is not uncommon on old clay landslips and hill- sides. Orthoceras, which is not uncommon on dry banks, is rather a curious- looking plant. The flowers, which grow in the form of a spike, bear a general resemblance to a number of grasshoppers climbing up a stick. Microtis porrifolia, a common orchid in almost all situations, bears a close resemblance to the next genus, PrasophyUum, of Avhich there are two species in the district. Both are moorland-plants, and not uncommon. I think the one now in- cluded under P. CoJensoi, will prove to be a different species. Mr. Cheese- man, referring to it in a letter, says, " Your plant is not quite identical with the southern plant, but until a very careful comparison can be made of the structure of the flowers . . . they are best kept together." Caleana minor, a rare plant, is found on barren-looking moorland near Kaitaia. " A most remarkable little plant. The column is horizontally placed, forming a broad pouch ; the lamina of the lip, when at rest, is elevated by the slender elastic claw, and swings directly above it. When an insect alights on the lamina it overbalances, shutting up the insect within the concavity of the column. "f The flowers of Pterostylis, of which we have five out of the eleven species found in the Dominion, are also insect-traps ; they are in form like boat- shaped hoods. P. Banksii and P. graminea are common in forests, and P. trullifolia. plentiful on moorlands and dry open ridges in the bush. P. micromega is a rare swamp-orchid ; P. harhata, another rare plant. So far the latter two are only known in this district near Kaitaia. Acianthus, a very small plant, is one of the commonest orchids we have ; it is usually found in humus in the bush. Cyrtostylis, a small delicate orchid, is not uncommon ; usually on dry ridges. Calochilus paludosus is another rather rare orchid ; Kaitaia is one of the six places in the Dominion from which it has been reported. On clay hills from Kaitaia to Fairburn occurs a slender form of Caladenia minor, which Mr. Cheeseman has distinguished as var. exigua. Another of Mr. Matthews's discoveries was Chiloglottis formicifera, previously only known from eastern Austraha. C. cornuta also occurs, but is not common. Of Corysanthes, six of the seven species occur. The flower resembles a helmet iii shape, and is, as a rule, of a deep-purple colour. They are all shade-loving plants. In the Manual C. Cheesemanii is reported from " Kaitaia ; vicinity of Auckland ; Westport." This is a small plant, easily overlooked, and probably not uncommon in open bush and scrub throughout. I found a few specimens at Mau,ku, in Manukau County ; it occurs also in Fairburn, but is rare. Of C. Matthewsii, originally found at Kaitaia, I * " Manual of New Zealand Flora," p. (UiS. ^Ih'd., p. 077. Carse. — VJora of the Mangonui County. 205 have specimens gathered by Mr. A. Thompson at Aponga ; it is not un- common on mossy slopes near Fairburn. C. ohlonga is not uncommon on clay banks and slopes. C. rivularis, in my opinion the handsomest of the genus, is very local; so far I have only seen it in one spot in Mangonui County, between Fairburn and Peria. C. rotundifolia is plentiful, though rather local ; its favourite habitat is on banks of bush-creeks, or on rocks in the bed of the creek. C. triloba, which in many places in common, is rare in this district ; Mr. Matthews found two or three specimens, young plants only, near Kaitaia. Gastrodia sesamoides was found by Mr. Matthews near Kaitaia and Tauroa, the only places in Mangonui County from which it has been re- ported. Ferns and Allies. Of ferns and allied plants there are in New Zealand about 156, of which ninety-nine are in Mangonui County. The majority of these are more or less common from the North Cape to the Bluff, but a few are worthy of a word or two, for one reason or another. Loxsoma Cunninghamii, as a rule rather a rare fern, is fairly plentiful in several localities, though there are often considerable areas from which it is absent. Lomaria Banksii, a very local plant, occurs sparingly on the west coast. In dark ravines from near Fairburn towards Hokianga I have found L: nigra, not previously reported from north of Whangarei. As- plenium japonicum occurs in considerable quantity on alluvial banks of streams in Fairburn, and less plentifully near Kaitaia. Ncphrodium unitum, at one time supposed to occur only in the thermal regions (in New Zealand), is not uncommon in swamps, generally near the sea, but inland at Lake Tangonge along with AL Thelypteris. The rarer N. molle was also discovered by Mr. Matthews near Mangatete. In sandy gulHes and other suitable places, never far from the sea, Todea barbara is plentiful. This is a very local plant in New Zealand, occurring only from Whangaroa northward. It is a very different-looking plant from Todea hymenophylloides and Todea superba,- the fronds of which are filmy. These belong to the section Leptopteris. Todea barbara reminds one of the royal fern, Osmunda regalis, of the Northern Hemisphere. The para {Marattia jraxine'a) is not uncommon in gullies in the Maungataniwha Ranges. Lycopodiurn Drummondii, already referred to, so far as is known has only one habitat in New Zealand, near Kaitaia, where Mr. H. B. Matthews rediscovered it, probably at the same spot where Mr. Colenso originally collected it in 1839. The rare and curious lycopod Psilotum triquetrum was collected by Mr. R. H. Matthews near Rangaunu Harbour and at Merita Bay, the only places north of Rangitito Island, Auckland, from which it is recorded. Plants suitable for Cultivation. I regret that I have not yet been able to explore the two highest points in the county — -viz., Raetea and Maungataniwha. I have seen something of the spurs leading from them, and I hardly think that the height of Raetea (2,436 ft.) justifies our expecting any very marked change in the plant covering ; but, still, it would be of some interest to be sure on this point. There are certain plants in the district which from their beauty of fohage or flower, or for the sweetness of their perfume, are worthy of a place in our gardens. Several of the species of Pittosporum are already well known in cultivation. P. virgatuni would be a very interesting plant owing to the 206 Transactions. remarkable changes through which tlie leaves pass from the young to the mature state. Hibiscus trionum and H. diversifolius are both well worthy a place in the flower-garden, more especially so that they are becoming rarer each year, cattle destroying them to such an extent that where at one time they were plentiful now they are unknown. Entelea arhorescens, with its large leaves and handsome flowers, is a fine addition to the shrubbery. On the clay hills in many parts the large corymbose panicles of bright yellow or cream-coloured flowers of Pomaderris elliptica lend colour to the landscape in September, The flower-buds of this plant form in December and take till September before they open. The fruit is ripe about November. For the wild garden, any almost of the difEerent species of Metrosideros (rata-vines) would be suitable, particularly M. albiflora, with its large green leaves and wide-spreading panicles of white flowers ; or M. diffusa, mth bright-crimson flowers ; or M. florida, with its orange-red (sometimes yellow) flowers. Place certainly should be given to the various forms of Alseuosmia, the true honeysuckle of New Zealand. In my opinion, the scent of this flower is more delicious than that of any other indigenous plant. Nor is scent the only recommendation, for the shining leaves and the flowers themselves are attractive to the eye. There are four species : A. macwphylla, with leaves 3-7 in. long, and crimson (sometimes white) flowers 1-2 in. long ; A. querci- folia, similar, but smaller ; A. Banhsii and A. linariifolia, smaller and smaller still. There are certain forms of Alseuosmia which a mere beginner can place at a glance as typical, but there are so many forms intermediate between the various species that hardly two botanists in a dozen will agree as to which species predominates in the particular specimen. Another remarkable feature of this plant is the curious imitative faculty it possesses in its leaves. I have specimens whose leaves in shape, though not in size, have a striking resemblance to those of a great many other plants, among which may be mentioned the oak, hawthorn, Myrtus hullata (the " bubbled " leaves being exactly imitated), Hedycarya, PiUosporum pimeleoides (type, and var. reflexum), tawa, taraire, Coposma of various species, &c. Colensoa physaloides, with its large light-green leaves and racemes of large pale-blue or purple-blue flowers, is suitable for shaded rockeries. It grows readily from seed in damp sheltered situations. Iponioea palmata, with its graceful twining stems and white or purple convolvulus-like flowers, is, I think, already included in the lists of flower- seeds. Veronica macrocarpa and F. diosniaefolia form handsome shrubs. Either of the species of Muehlenheckia would be useful in covering an unsightly corner, owing to rapidity of growth and abundance of foliage. One of our handsome conifers, especially in the young state, is the kawaka {Libocedrus Doniana). It will do well in the open, if not exposed too much to the wind. Floristic Details. In the subjoined catalogue of the indigenous plants of the southern portion of Mangonui County, flowering-plants and ferns (including lycopods), will be found the names of 538 species. Compared with the number of species in the Dominion as shown in the introductory part of the Manual, this seems rather a poor showing. The number there given for New Zealand, including the Kermadec and Chatham Islands, is 1,571 species, so that the plants Cahsk. — -Flora of the Mangonui Covnty. 207 of this district represent one-third of the total number for the Dominion. I think, when we consider how rich and varied is the phmt covering of the South Island when compared with that of the North Island, we may conclude that 538 species is " not so bad." Of the 97 natural orders of plants known in New Zealand 86 are found in this district, divided into 251 genera. Of the 86 orders, the largest are Filices, with 99 species ; Cyperaceae, 51 ; Orchidaceae, 35 ; Gramineae, 31 ; Compositae, 30 ; Rubiaceae, 21 ; Myrtaceae and Liliaceae, 14 each. Of the genera, the largest are Coprosma, with 16 species ; Carex, 14 ; Pittosporum and Hymenophyllum, 10 each ; Lomaria and Polypodium, 9 each ; Epilohium, Asplenium, and Juncus, 8 each ; Metrosideros, Scirpus, and Cladimn'7 each. Catalogue of the Flowering-plants and Ferns observed in the Southern Mangonui District. [N.B. — The initials " T. F. C." indicate that the plant appears in the Manual, but that I have not found it in the locality named.] Ranunculaceae. Clematis indivisa Willd. Common throughout. ,, foetida Raoul. Ahipara ; Broadwood ; Fairburn. ,, parviflora A. Cunn. Common in hilly country. Ranunculus hirtus Banks & Sol. Abundant. ,, ,, var. elongatus Cheesm. Common in wet places. ,, rivularis Banks & Sol. Common in wet places. Ranunculus acaulis Banks & Sol. Brackish-water marshes and moist sandy shores ; plentiful. Magnoliaceae. Drimys axillaris Forst. In forests, Fairburn ; Victoria Valley. Drimys axillaris var. (pps. intermediate between above and D. colorata Raoul). Kaitaia ; rare. Cruciferae. Nasturtium palustre D. C. Not uncommon in wet places. Cardatnine hirsuta L. Plentiful in damp land. ,, stylosa D. C. Kaitaia ; Fairburn ; rare. Violaceae. Viola Lyallii Hook f. Flat Bush, Kaitaia ; not common. Melicytus ramiflorus Forst. Abundant throughout. ,, macrophyllus A. Cunn. Common in hilly bush. ,, micranthus Hook. f. Common in lowland forests. Hymenanthera latifolia Endl. Mount Camel. T. F. C. Pittosporaceae. Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. Abundant. Pittosporum Buchanani Hook. f. Kaitaia and Mangonui. (This has not been seen in the district since Buchanan's visit.) Pittosporum obcordatum Raoul. Near Kaitaia ; rare. Pittosporum virgatum T. Kirk. High country near Kaitaia ; coast south of Mangonui. T. F. C. 208 Transactions. Pittosporum crassifolium A. Cunn. On coast and small islands : rare. Pittosporum timbellatum Banks & Sol. Mangonui Harbour and coast. T. F. C. Pittosporum Kirkii Hook. f. Maiingataniwha Range. ,, cornifolium A. Cunn. Abundant in forests. ,, pimeleoides R. Cunn. In hilly forests, chiefly among kauri. „ eugenioides A. Cunn. Oruru ; not common. Caryophyllaceae. SteUaria parviflora Banks & Sol. Not uncommon. Colohanthus Billardieri Fenz. West coast (R. H. Matthews). Reported from Houhora by Mr. Buchanan. T. F. C. Elatinaceae. Elatine americana Arn. var. australiensis Benth. Muddy places on margins of swamps and rivers ; not uncommon. Malvaceae. Plagianthus divaricatus Forst. Abundant in salt-water marshes. ,, cymosus T. Kirk. Near Kaitaia ; rare, ,, hetulinus A. Cunn. In damp lowlands ; common. Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. Abundant in lowlands. Hibiscus trionum L. Sheltered places near the sea. Rapidly disappearing. „ diver sifolius Jacq. Moist sandy places near sea ; rare. Tiliaceae. Entelea arhorescens R. Br. Not uncommon. Aristotelia racemosa Hook. f. Abundant. Elaeocarpus dentatus Vahl. Plentiful throughout. ,, Hookerianus Raoul. Kaitaia ; rare. Linaceae. Linum monogynum Forst. Along the coast ; not common. Geraniaceae. Geranium dissectmn L. var. australe Benth. Abundant. ,, microphyllum Hook. f. On dry open land ; not inicommon. ,, molle L. Common throughout. Pelargonium australe Jacq. Common throughout. Oxalis corniculata L. Abundant. „ magellanica Forst. Mangonui and Kaitaia. T. F. C. Rutaceae. Phebalium nudum Hook. Throughout the district, but rare. ■ Melicope ternata Forst. Plentiful. ,, ,, var. Manlellii Kirk. Kaitaia and Victoria Valley. „ simplex A. Cunn. Plentiful in places. Meliaceae. Dysoxylum spectabile Hook. f. Abundant throughout. Cahsk. — Flora of ihc MdiK/onui County. 209 ' Olacinaceae. ■ ' Pennantia cori/mbosa Forst. Common in lowlands. ; Bhamnaceae. Pomaderris elliptica Lab. Common on clay hills. ,, phylicacfoJIa Lodd. Plentiful on moorlands. Sapindaceae. Dodonea viscosa Jacq. Plentiful. : Alectryon excels wn Gaertn. Common throughout. | Anacardiaceae. Corynocarpus laevigata Forst. Abundant near sea ; less common inland. I Coriariaceae. 1 Coriaria rusci folia L. Common throughout. j Leguminosae. ; Carmichaelia austraUs R. Br. Common. ; Sophora tetraptera Mull. Not uncommon in damp woods. j Rosaceae. 'I Buhus australis Forst. Abundant. ,, cissoides A. Cunn. Not common. ,, sckmidelioides A. Cunn. Plentiful. i Acaena novae-zealandiae T. Kirk. Not uncommon. j ,, Sanguisorbae Vahl. Abundant. i Saxijra^aceae. j Qxiintinia serrata A. Cunn. Kaitaia ; Mangonui. • Ixerba brexioides A. Cunn. Ahipara and Maungataniwha. T. F. C. Carpodetus serratus Forst. Margins of swamps and lowland bush. Ackama rosaefolia A. Cunn. Plentiful. i M einmannia sylvicola Sol. Abundant. s Crassulaceae. Tillaea Sieberiana Schultz. Sandy places on coast ; common. i Droseraceae. \ Drosera pygmaea D. C. In sandy peat near the sea, scattered ; and inland j from Kaitaia to Tauroa. ^] Drosera spathulata Labill. Wet moorlands ; common. 1 ,, btnata Labill. Moorland swamps ; common. i ,, auriculata Backh. Open hillsides ; abundant. -j i Halora{jidaceae. Haloragis alata Jacq. Generally distributed. Haloragis tetragyna Hook. The typical form and var. diffusa common on moorlands. i 210 Transactions. Haloragis depressa Walp. Throughout the. district. ,, micrantha R. Br. Common on moorlands. Myriophyllum intermedium D. C. Abundant in rivers, lakes, and wet land. Myriophyllum robustum. Hook. f. Kaitaia. 'R. H. Matthews. I have not seen it. Myriophyllum pedunculatum Hook. f. Moist sandy places near sea ; not uncommon. Gunnera m,onoica Raoul. Fairburn and Peria ; rare. ,, arenaria Cheesem. Wet sand-dunes along west coast. Callitriche verna L. Streams and lakes ; not uncommon. ,, Muelleri Sond. Moist shady places ; abundant. Myrtaceae. Leptospermum scoparium Forst. Abundant. ,, ericoides A. Rich. Common throughout. Metrosideros florida Sm. Common in forests. albiflora Sol. Common in hilly bush. diffusa Sm. Not uncommon. hypericifolia A. Cunn. Abundant. robusta A. Cunn. Common in forests. ' tomentosa A. Rich. Plentiful along the coast. scandens Sol. Abundant. Myrtus bullata Sol. Common. ,, Ralphii Hook. f. Tauroa ; rare. ,, obcordata Hook. f. Tauroa ; common. ,, pedunculata Hook. f. Fairburn and Kaitaia. Eugenia maire A. Cunn. Swampy forests ; common. Onagraceae. Epilobium paMidiflorum Sol. In swamps ; plentiful. chionanthum Haussk. Ahipara ; Waihi. Billardierianum Ser. Not uncommon ; usually near coast. junceum Sol. Abundant. pubens A. Rich. Plentiful. alsinoides A. Cunn. Plentiful in places. rotundifolium Forst. Damp places ; abundant. nummular ijolium R. Cunn. Plentiful. Epilobium nummularifolium var. pedunculare Hook. f. Common on creek- banks. Epilobium nummularifolium var. nerteroides Hook. f. On hillsides ; com- mon. Fuchsia excorticata Linn. f. Abundant throughout. ,, procumhens. Sandy and rocky places near sea ; rare. Passifloraceae. Passiflora tetrandra Banks & Sol. In lowland woods ; not uncommon. Ficaceae. Mesembryanthemuni australe Sol. Abundant on rocky coasts. Tetragonia expansa Murr. Not uncommon on the coast. „ trigyna Banks & Sol. Tauroa ; not common. Carse. — Flora of the Maiir/oinii County. 211 UmheUiferac. Hydrocotyle clongata A. Cuiin. Mangonui ; Fairburn ; Kaitaia. americana L. Not uncommon. pterocnrpa ¥. Muell. Common in wet land. norae-zealandiae D. C. Abundant. moschata Forst. Common on hillsides. asiatica L. Abundant throughout. Apium prostratiim Lab. Common on shores. Apium, prostratum var. filiforme Cheesm. Occasionally inland ; common on shore. Crantzia lineata Nutt. Abundant in wet sand on coast. Daucus brachiatus Sieber. Throughout the district : not common. Aralia-ceae. Panax Edgerleyi Hook. f. Hilly forests ; not uncommon. ,, anomalum Hook. Not uncommon ; usually in hilly forests. ,, arhoreum Forst. Not uncommon. Schefffera digitata Forst. Abundant in damp gullies. Pseudopanax Lessonii C. Koch. On coast ; not uncommon. Pseudopanax crassifoliuni C. Koch var. unifoUatuni T. Kirk. Abundant in forests. Pseudopanax crassifoUum. var. trifoUolatum T. Kirk. A few scattered trees only. Pseudopanax ferox T. Kirk. Tauroa ; rare. Cornaceae. Corokia huddleoides A. Cunn. Not uncommon ; usually in kauri forests. „ Cotoneaster Raoul. Tauroa ; in woods. ,, pps. n. sp. Tauroa ; in woods ; rare. Caprifoliaceae. Alseuosmia macrophylla A. Cunn. Abundant in hilly bush. ,, quercifolia A. Cunn. Abundant in hilly bush. ,, Banhsii A. Cunn. Abundant in hilly bush. ,, linariifolia, A. Cunn. Not uncommon in hilly bush. Ruhiaceae. Coprosma grandifolia Hook. f. Abundant. lucida Forst. Plentiful. Baueri Endl. Common on sea-cliffs. robusta Raoul. Abundant throughout. Cunninghamii Hook. f. Common in damp lowlands. arhorea T. Kirk. In high woods ; common. spathulata A. Cunn. In hilly bush ; common. rotundifolia A. Cunn. In lowland woods ; common. areolata Cheesem. Plentiful. tenuicaulis Hook. f. Not uncommon. rhamnoides A. Cunn. Abundant. parviflora Hook. f. Abundant in lowlands. rigida Cheesem. Abundant in lowlands. acerosa A. Cunn. A-bundant on sand-dunes. 212 Trajisactions. Coprosma 'propinqua A. Cunn. Common in damp places. „ Kirkii Clieesm. West coast ; rare. Nertera Cunninghamii Hook. f. Creek-banks and M^et rocks ; rare. ,, dichondrae folia Hook. f. Abundant in woods. „ setulosa Hook. f. Kaitaia and Ahipara ; rare. Galium tenuicaule A. Cunn. Damp woods and swamps ; common. Galium umhrosum Sol. Tauroa ; Victoria Valley ; Flat Bush ; not com- mon. Compositae. Lagenophom Forsteri D. C. Abundant throughout. Lagenophora petiolata Hook. f. var. minima Cheesem. Mangonui and Fair- burn. Lagenophora pinnatifida Hook. f. Tauroa ; rare. ,, lanata A. Cunn. Moorlands, Fairburn and Kaitaia. Olearia furfuracea Hook. f. Common along coast. ,, Cunninghamii Hook. f. Abundant in woods. ,, angulata T. Kirk. Near the coast, Ahipara, Tauroa. ,, Solandri Hook. f. Plentiful near coast, rare inland. Gnaphalmm Keriense A. Cunn. Sides of streams ; not uncommon. „ luteo-alhum L. Abundant throughout. ,, japonicum Thunb. Abundant throughout. ,, collinum Lab. Common. Helichrysum glomeratum Benth. & Hook. Tauroa ; in woods. Cassinia retorta A. Cunn. Abundant on coast. „ ,, var. approaching C. leptophijlla. In woods at Tauroa. Siegesheckia orientalis L. Common. Bidens pilosa L. On coast, Mangonui, Tauroa. Cohda coronopifolia L. Plentiful in wet places. ,, australis Hook. f. Fairburn ; Mangonui ; not common. ,, minor Hook. f. Dripping cliffs at Waihi. T. F. C. Centipeda orbicularis Lour. Common in wet land. Erechtites prenanthoides D. C. Common throughout. ,, arguta D. C. Common throughout. ,, scaherula Hook. Generally distributed. ,, quadridentata D. C. Generally distributed. Brachyglottis re panda Forst. Common throughout. Senecio lautus Sol. On the coast ; common. ,, Kirkii Hook. f. Common in forests. Picris Meracioides L. Common in open dry lands. Sonchus asper Hill. Common throughout. ,, oleraceus L. Common throughout. Goodeniaceae. Selliera radicans Cav. Abundant in salt marshes. Campanulaceae. Colensoa phijsaloidcs Hook. f. Mount Camel ; Merita Bay ; guUies near Ahipara ; Toatoa Gully ; Herekino ; Maungataniwha Ranges. Pratia angulata Hook. f. Banks of streams ; rather local. Lobelia anceps Linn. f. Common throughout. Wahlenbergia gracilis A. D. C. Generally distributed ; most plentiful near the sea. Carse. — Flora of the 'Mangoniii Countij. 213 Ericaceae. Gaultheria antipoda Forst. Common. Epacridaccae. Cyathodes acerosa R.- Br. Plentiful throughout. Leucopogon jasciculatus A. Rich. Abundant in open land. ,, Fraseri A. Cunn. Common in open country. Epacris pauciflora A. Rich. Common in open countiy. DracophyUum latifolium A. Cunn. Plentiful in hilly forests. . ,, Urvilleanum A. Rich. Plentiful in open country. Primidaceae. Samolus repens Pers. Common along the coast. Myrsina^^eae. Myrsine salicina Reward. Common in forests. „ Urvillei A. D. C. Common in forests. ,, divaricata A. Cunn. On muddy alluvial banks of Lower Awanui. Sapotaceae. Sideroxylon costatum F. Muell. Mount Camel, abundant ; several places on coast. Oleaceae. Olea Cunninghamii Hook. f. Not uncommon throughout. „ lanceolata Hook. f. Plentiful in forests. „ Montana Hook. f. Maungataniwha Range ; Fairburn ; rare. Apocynaceae. Parsonsia heterophylla A. Cunn. Common throughout. ,, capsularis R. Br. Not uncommon. Loganiaceae. Geniostoma ligustrifolium A. Cunn. Abundant. Boraginnceae. Myosotis spathulata Forst. Kaitaia ; rare. Convolvulaceae. Tpomoea palmata Forst. Along coast ; common. Calystegia sepium R. Br. Abundant throughout. ,, iuguriorum R. Br. Plentiful in damp lowland woods. ,, Soldanella R. Br. Plentiful on sandy shores. Calystegia marginata R. Br. Fairburn, not uncommon ; Kaitaia, rare ; coast near Mangonui. Dichondra repens Forst. Common. Solanaceae. Solanum nigrum L. Abundant throughout. ,, nviculare Forst. Abundant throughout. 214 Tra/isactions. Scrophuhiriaceae. Mi))iuh(S repens E. Br. Brackisli-water swamp at Waimimiha ; rare. Maziis pionilio'R. Br. Wet places. Ahipara ; Kaitaia ; Wailii ; near Awanui. Gratiola pentviano L. Wet places ; not uncommon. Glossostigma elatinoides Benth. Common in wet places. LimoseUa temiifolia Nutt. Salt marshes ; common. Veronica salici folia Forst. Common throughout. ., macrocarpa Vahl. Mangonui. T. F. C. ,, dios)»at'foJia R. Cunn. Not uncommon ; usually near the sea. „ ph'beia R. Br. Open situations throughout ; common. Lcntibularidcvac. Vtricularia protrusa Hook. f. Lake Tangonge ; near Kaitaia. ,, novae-zeaJandiae Hook. f. Swamps on Lake Ohia ; at Kaitaia. Utricularia delicatula Cheesem. Moorland swamps, Kaitaia ; Peria ; Manga- tete ; Rangaunu Harbour. Gesneraceae. Bhahdothamnus Sohnidri A. Cunn. Alnuidant. Myoporaccae. Mi/oporu))i lactum Forst. Plentiful, especially on coast. \'crbenaceac. Vifex htcens T. Kirk. Plentiful throughout. Avicennia ofjicinalis L. Mangonui Harbour : Rangaunu Fiarhour : Ho- houra Harbour. Lahiatac. Mentha Cunninghaniii D. C. Con\nuni in damji places, especially near the coast. PJantatjinaccae. Plantago BaouJii Decne. Connnon in moist places, especially near the sea. lUecebraceae. Scleranthus hiflorus Hook. f. Not uncommon in dry places near the sea. Ainarantaceae. AUernanthera sessilis R. Br. Oruru ; near Awanui ; Tauroa. Chenopodiaceae. Chenopodium gJaucum L. Brackish-water marshes ; common. „ anihrosioides L. Maori cultivation at Parapara. „ carinotinn R. Br. Near Mangonui. T. F. C. Atriplex patiila L. Li wet sand. Tauroa. Probably an immigrant. Bhagodia nutans R. Br. Houhora. T. F. C. Salicornia austral is Sol. Abundant along shores. Suaeda maritima L. Salt marshes in Mangonui Harbour. T. F. C. Salsola Kali L. Spreading rapidly along coast. Almost certainly an immi- grant. Carse. — Flora of the Mangonui County. 215 Poli/(/o7iaceae. Polygonum aviculare L. Abundant in moist places. Most probal)ly an immigrant. Polygonum serrulatum Lag. Abundant on muddy banks of creeks and in swamps. Pumex flexuosus Sol. Not uncommon in open country. Mtiehlenheckia australis Meissn. Al)undant. ,, comflexa Meissn. Abundant on shores, less so inland. Piferaceae. Piper excelsum Forst. Common throughout. Peperomia Endlicheri Miq. Generally distributed. Monimiciceae. Hedycarya arborea Forst. Abundant in forest. Laurelia novae-zealandiae A. Cunn. Common in wet land. Lauraceae. Beilschmiedia tarairi Benth. & Hook. Abundant. „ tawa Hook. f. Common in forests, j. Litsaea calicaris Benth. & Hook. Common in forests. Cassyiha paniculata R. Br. Abundant in tea-tree ; always near the sea. Proteaceae. Persoonia torn A. Cunn. Throughout the district, but never plentiful. Knightia excelsa R. Br. In forests ; common. Thymeleaceae. Pimelea virgata Vahl. Not uncommon ; usually near the sea. ,, arenaria A. Cunn. Abundant on sandhills. „ laevigata Gaertn. Common on moorlands. Loranthaceae. Loranthus micranihus Hook. f. Near Kaitaia. Korihalsella salicornioides Van Tiegh. Near Kaitaia. Santalaceae. Fusanus Cunninghamii Benth. & Hook. Common throughout. Euphorhiaceae. Euphorbia glauca Forst. Common on sandy shores. Urticaceae. Paratrophis heterophylla Blume. Abundant. Urtica incisa Poir. In damp shady places ; common. Elatostemma rugosum A. Cunn. In damp shady places ; abundant. Parietaria debilis Forst. Not uncommon on coast. Fagaceae. Fagus fusca Hook. f. Between Kaitaia and Mangatete. One tree reported. I have not seen it. 216 Transactions. Conijerac. Agathis australis Salisb. Formerly abundant, becoming less so eacli season. Libocedrus Doniana Endl. Scattered throughout the forests ; never plenti- ful. Podocarpus totara D. Don. Plentiful in hilly forests. ,, Hallii T. Kirk. Not common in hilly forests. ,, ferrugineus D. Don. Common in forests. ,, spicatus R. Br. Not uncommon. Podocarpus dacrydioides A. Rich. Abundant in lowlands ; not uncommon in hilly bush. Dacrydium cupressinum Soland. Abundant. Daerydium Colensoi Hook. = D. westlcmdicum Kirk. Near Fairburn, one tree (full grown) and a few young ones ; Victoria Valley, one tree ? Phyllocladus trichomanoides D. Don. In hilly forests ; not uncommon. Orchidaceae. Dendrobium Cunninghamii Lindl. On upper branches of trees ; common. BulhophyUuni tuberculatum Col. On upper branches of trees, Kaitaia and Fairburn ; probably not uncommon throughout. Bulbophyllum pygmaeum Lindl. On branches and stems of trees ; common. Earina mucronata Lindl. A common epiphyte. ,, suaveolens Lindl. Less common than above. Sarchochilus adversus Hook. f. On trunks and branches of trees ; common. Spiranthes australis Lindl. In swamps, Kaitaia ; Waipapakauri ; Ranga- unu Heads. Tkelymitra ixioides Swz. Kaitaia, common ; near Victoria Valley, rare. ,, longifolia Forst. Moorlands ; common. ,, intermedia Bergg. Kaitaia ; Fairburn ; not uncommon. ,, pulcheUa Hook. f. Moorlands ; common. ,, imberbis Hook. f. Moorlands ; not uncommon. Orthoceras strictum R. Br. Not uncommon throughout. Microtis porrifolia R. Br. Plentiful. Prasophyllum Colensoi Hook. f. On clay hills ; not uncommon. ,, pumilum Hook. f. On clay hills ; not uncommon. Calecina minor R. Br. On clay hill, Kaitaia ; rare. Pterostylis Banhsii R. Br. Abundant in forests. Pterostylis graminea Hook. f. Fairburn ; Adcinity of Kaitaia ; not un- common. Pterostylis micromega Hook. f. Kaitaia ; rare. Pterostylis trullifoUa Hook. f. Dry ridges in forest, and on moorland ; common. Pterostylis barbata Lindl. Li damp soil among Leptospermurn, near Kaitaia; rare. Acianthus Sinclairii Hook. f. Abundant in forests. Cyrtostylis oblonga Hook. f. Scattered throughout the district. Calochilus paludosus R. Br. Kaitaia ; rare. Caladenia minor Hook. f. Moorlands and open scrub ; common. „ ,, var. exigua Cheesem. Kaitaia ; Fairburn. Chiloglottis cornuta Hook. f. Kaitaia ; Fairburn ; not common. ,, formdcifera Fitzg. Kaitaia ; rare. ■Corysanthes Cheesemanii Hook. f. Kaitaia ; Fairburn. ,, Matthewsii Cheesem. Kaitaia ; Fairburn. Carse. — Flora (if the Maiujuinn Coiiiitii. 217 Corysanthcs oblonga Hook. f. On damp clay banks tliroughout. Corysanthcs rivularis Hook. f. Faiiburn, in wet part of open I'orest ; not common, Corysanthcs rotundifoHa Hook. f. On rocks and creek-banks ; not un- common. Corysanthcs triloba Hook. f. Kaitaia ; rare. Gostrodia sesamoides R. Br. In shaded gully near Kaitaia, rare ; edge of swamp, Tauroa. Iridaccae. Libertia ixioides Spreng. Ahipara. T. F. C. ,, grandiflora Sweet. Throughout the district, biit local. ,, jmlcheUa Spreng. In hilly forests ; not common, Liliaceae. Rhi^wgonum scandens Forst. Plentiful throughout. Cordyline terminalis Kunth. Represented by two plants in Mrs. Reed's garden at Ahipara, originally growing on the cHf?s behind the house. Cordyline Banhsii Hook. f. In places plentiful, but absent from large areas'. Cordyline australis Hook. f. Abundant in lowlands, ,, pumilio Hook. f. Ridges in forests and on moorlands ; common. Astelia Cunninghamii Hook. f. Usually epiphytic ; abundant. ,, Banhsii A. Cunn. Cliffs, Hohoura and Rangaunu ; not common. ,, trinervia T. Kirk. Chiefly in kauri forests ; abundant. ,, Solandri A. Cunn. Abundant in forests. Astelia nervosa Banks & Sol. = A. grandis Hook. f. Not uncommon ; usually in kauri forests. Astelia sp. ined. A very small plant, not yet identified, ripe fruit not having been seen. On trunks and branches ; not uncommon. Dianella intermedia Endl. Common on dry banks. Phormiurn tenax Forst. Lowland swamps, abundant ; hilly bush, occa- sional plants seen. Arthropodium cirrhatum R. Br. High ranges and sea-clif?s ; common. Juncaceae. Juncus pallidus R. Br. Fairburn ; Broadwood ; rare. „ pauciflorus R. Br. Ahipara ; Kaitaia ; probably not uncommon. ,, effusus Linn. Abundant, especially in low-lying country. Juncus maritimus Lam. var. australiensis Buchan. Brackish-water marshes, common ; inland swamp near Kaitaia. Juncus hufonius Linn. Abundant in wet places, Juncus tenuis Willd. A troublesome weed ; has spread greatly. Probably an immigrant. Juncus planifolius R. Br. Plentiful in wet places. Juncus lampocarpus Ehr. Has spread rapidly during the last thre^jaX-foiir years. A doubtful native. /^-\C«\C Luzula campestr is D.C. Scattered; nowhere common. /\y os i Palmae. Rhopalostylis sapida Wendl. & Drude. Abundant. 218 Transactions. Pandanaceae. Freycinetia Banhsii A. Cunn. In woods ; abundant. Tijphaceae. Typha angustijolia L. Abundant in marshy places. Sparganium antipodum Graebner. In swamps ; abundant. Lemnaceae. Lemna minor Linn. Still waters in maritime marshes ; common. Naiadaceae. TriglocJiin striatum Ruiz & Pav. var. filifolium Buch. Maritime marshes ; common, Potamogeton polygonifolius Pourr. In muddy places ; not common. Potamogeton Cheesemanii A. Bennett. Abundant in streams, lakes, and swamps. Potamogeton ochreatus Raoul. Kaitaia River ; common. Ruppia maritima Linn. Brackish-water lagoon. Waimimiha. Zoster a nana Roth. Houhora Harbour. Zoster a tasmanica Martens. Common in harbours and on mud-covered rocks ; Reef Point. Centrolepidaceae. Hydatella inconspicua Cheesem. Sandy margin of Lake Ngatu. Ecstiaceae. Lepyrodia Traversii F. Muell. Swamp near Lake Tangonge ; Kaitaia ; rare. Leptocarptis simplex A. Rich. Salt-water marshes and sandy shores ; abundant. Hypolaena lateriflora Benth. In swampy land, Kaitaia ; Houhora ; Lake Ohia. Cyperaceae. Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Abundant in damp lowlands. Has spread rapidly. Cyperus tenellus Linn. f. Abundant throughout. „ vegetus Willd. In damp lowlands ; abundant. Mariscus ustulatus C. B. Clarke. Abundant in lowlands. Eleocharis sphacelata R. Br. Swamp ; common. Eleocharis neo-zealandica C. B. Clarke. Damp sandy places near the sea ; not uncommon. Eleocharis acuta R. Br. In wet places ; abundant. ,, Cunninghamii Boeck. In wet places ; abundant. Scirpus lenticularis Poir. Submerged in Lake Tangonge, Kaitaia. ,, cernus Vahl. Maritime form abundant ; inland form not common. Scirpus inundatus Poir. vars. major and gracillima. Both abundant in wet places. Scirpus nodosus Rottb. Sand-dunes ; abundant. ,, jrondosus Banks & Sol. Sand-dunes ; abundant. ,, lacustris Limi. Margins of streams and lake ; abundant. ,, maritimus Linn, var fl.uviafilis. Tidal creeks ; common. Schoenus hrevijolius R. Br. Moorlands ; common. Carsb. — Flora of the Mnngonui County. 219 Schoenus Tendo Banks & Sol. Moorlands ; common. ,, axillaris Poir. Swampy places ; common. ,, apogon Roem. & Schult. Mangonui. T. F. C. Cladiuni Sinclairii Hook. f. Sea-clift's and banks ; common. ,, articulatum R. Br. Swamps ; common. „ glovieratum R. Br. Damp places on moorlands ; common. ,, teretifolium R. Br. Moorlands ; abundant. ,, Gunnii Hook. f. Moorlands and open woods ; not uncommon. Cladium junceutn R. Br. Brackish-water marshes, abundant ; wet moor- lands near Kaitaia, common. Cladium capillaceuni C. B. Clarke. Moorlands ; not uncommon. Lepidospenna laterale R. Br. Moorlands ; common. Lepidosperma -11.111 orme Labill. Moorlands. Peria. So far the only known habitat in New Zealand. Gahnia setifolia Hoolc. f. Abundant throughout. ,, pauciflora T. Kirk. In hilly forests ; abundant. ,, xanthocarpa Hook. f. In hilly forests ; common. „ lacera Steud. In hilly forests ; common. „ Gaudichaudii Steud. On dry banks ; common. Uncinia caespitosa Boott. In hilly forests ; common. „ australis Pers. Abundant. Uncinia sp. pps. intermediate between U. australis and U. riparia. In several places, but not common. Uncinia leptostachya Raoul. Mangonui. T. F. C. ,, riparia R. Br. var. Banksii C. B. Clarke. Plentiful. Carex virgata Sol. Common in swampy places. secta Boott. Common in swampy places. inversa R. Br. Fairburn ; not common. subdola Boott. Lowland swamps ; common. ternaria Forst. Abmidant. dipsacea Bergg. Flat Bush ; rare. testacea Sol. On the coast ; common. lucida Boott. Abundant. comans Bergg. On the coast ; not common. dissita Sol. Typical form ; abundant. ,, var. Lambertiana Cheesem. Common. ,, var. ochrosaccus Cheesem. Abundant. Solandri Boott. Ahipara and Mangonui. T. F. C. hrevicuhnis R. Br. Plentiful on moorlands. pumila Thunb. Plentiful on sand-dunes. Brownii Tuckerm. Near Lake Tangonge ; rare. pseudo-cyperus Linn. Abundant in lowlands. ,, var. fascicularis. Common. Gramineae. Imperata arundinacea Cyr. var. Koenigii Benth. Hillside near Kaitaia. Zoysia pungens Willd. Abundant on sandy shores. Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn. Moorlands ; common. Paspaluni digitaria Poir. Roadsides, and margins of streams and swamps ; abundant and rapidly spreading. Most likely an immigrant. Paspalum distichum L. Salt marshes and rocks by the sea ; common, Isachne australis R. Br. Plentiful in swamps. 220 Transactions. \ \ Oplismenus undulatifolius Beaviv. Abundant in forests. i Spinifex hirsutus Labill. Abundant on sand-dunes. 4 Microlaena stipoides R. Br. Abundant in open places. | ,, avenacea Hook. f. Abundant in forests. j ,, pohjnoda Hook. f. Small wood, Tauroa ; not common. ' Hierochloe redolens R. Br. Not uncommon in swampy places. j Slipa teretijolia Steud. Near the sea ; common. \ Echinopogon ovatus Beauv. Not luicommon. ' Sporobolus indicus R. Br. Abundant. As pointed out in " Manual of the ; New Zealand Flora," p. 861, this is an immigrant. ' Deyeuxia Forsteri Kunth. Abundant in waste places. I ,, Billardieri Kunth. Near the sea ; common. j ,, avenoides Buch. var. brachyantha Hack. Not uncommon. : ,, quadriseta Benth. Moorlands ; common. Dichekichne crinita, Hook. f. Plentiful in open situations. j ,, sciurea Hook. f. Not common. Trisetuni antarcticum Trin. Mangonui. T. F. C. ' Danthonia pilosa R. Br. Abundant. i ,, semiannularis R. Br. Abundant. j Arundo conspicua Forst. Abundant on sandhills on cost ; rare in inland '. situations. Arundo fulvida Buch. Creek-banks : common. ; Poa anceps Forst. Not uncommon. | ,, scticulmis Petrie. Sandy places near sea ; common. j Festuca Uttoralis Labill. Sand-dunes ; plentiful. j Agropynim m.ultiforum T. Kirk. Common on coast. Filices. ■ Hymenophyllum rarum R. Br. On tree trunks and branches ; common. j Hymenophylluni polyanthos Swartz var. sanguinolentmn Hook. Abundant in forests. i Hymenophyllum australe Willd. In damp woods ; not common. ,, dilatatum Swartz. In damp woods ; plentiful. j ,, demissum. Swartz. In damp woods ; abundant. | ,, scahrum A. Rich. In damp woods ; common. < ,, flabellatum Lab. In damp woods ; common. ' Hymenophyllum subtilissimum Kunze. Chiefly on stems of Dicksonia and on damp rocks ; not uncommon. Hymenophyllum. tunbridgense Smith. In woods ; abundant. j ,, muUifidum Swartz. In woods ; common. j Trichomanes renijorme Forst. In woods ; common. Trichomanes humile Forst. In woods, on damp rocks ; common on stems of j Dicksonia. \ Trichomanes venosum R. Br. In woods ; common. | ,, strictum Menz. Kaitaia ; rare. i ,, elongatum A. Cunn. Damp shaded banks in woods ; common. j Loxsoma Cunninghamii R. Br. In woods and on banks of streams ; local. i Cyathea dealbata Swartz. Abiuidant in woods. ' ,, medullaris Swartz. Abundant in woods. j Hemitelia Smithii Hook. Abundant in woods. | Dicksonia squarrosa Swartz. In damp woods ; abundant. ■ „ lanata Col. In hilly forests ; abundant. \ Caese. — Floni of the Mangomii Coi//ifi/. 221 Davollia novae-zealandiae Col. Ou shaded creek-banks ; rave. Lindsaya linearis Swartz. Moorlands ; common. Lindsaya trichomanoides Hook. f. and var. Lessonii Hook. f. Not im- common in hilly forests. Adiantum aethiopicum Linn. Plentiful in places, but local. Adiantum diaphanum Blume. Creek-banks and rocky places in woods ; common. Adiantum hispidulum Swartz. On dry banks ; plentiful. ,, nfjine Willd. Abundant. ,, fulvum Kaoul. In woods ; abundant. Hypolepis tenuijolia Bernh. In damp open situations ; abundant. ,, distans Hook. Several places in woods ; not common. {Jkeilanthes Sieberi Kunze. Ahipara ; Kaitaia ; Mount Camel ; maritime rocks. PeUaea rotundifolia Hook. Usually in damp lowland woods ; common. Pteris aquilina Linn. var. esculenta Hook. f. Abundant. ,, scaberula A. Rich. Abundant ; usually in dry open places. ,, tremula R. Br. Abundant in woods. ,, comans Forst. Along the coast ; not uncommon. ,, macilenta A. Rich. In woods ; plentiful. „ ,, var. pendula Cheesem. C^ommon. ,, incisa Thunb. Abundant. Lomaria discolor Willd. Abundant in woods. Lomaria lanceohta Spreng. Creek - banks and damp slopes in woods ; abundant. Lojnaria Banksii Hook. Dripping rocks, west coast ; rare. ,, capensis Willd. Abundant. ,, ,, var. minor Hook. f. In kauri bush ; not common. ,, filiformis A. Cmm. Abundant in woods. Lomaria nigra Col. In dark ravines between Fairburn and Hokianga ; never plentiful. Lomaria fluviatilis Spreng. Banks of creeks ; not uncommon. ,, memhranacea Col. Banks of streams and shaded slopes ; common. ,, Fraseri A. Cunn. In hilly forests ; abrmdant. Doodia media R. Br. On dry banks and slopes ; common. Doodia caudata R. Br. Damp lowlands, Kaitaia ; one plant among damp rocks in hilly bush, Fairburn. Asplenium, falcalmn Lam. Common in woods ; usually pendulous from trees. ,, obtusatum Forst. On maritime rocks ; not common. ,, lucidum Forst. Abundant on trees and rocks. ,, ,, var. obliquum Moore. Dry rocks and banks ; common. ,, Hooker ianum Col. Kaitaia ; rare and local. ,, hulhiferum Forst. Abundant in damp wood?. ,, ,, var. tripinnatum Hook. f. Not common. Asplenium flaccidum Forst. Forms pendulous from trees abundant ; terres- trial bulbiferous forms much less common. Asplenium umhrosum J. Sm. Alluvial flats ; abundant. Asplenium japonicum Thunb. Alluvial flats and creek-banks, Fairburn, common ; Kaiatia, rarer. Aspidium Richardii Hook. Not uncommon on rocks, inland and maritime. ,, capense Willd. Not uncommon in woods, often climbing up trees. Nephrodium Thelypteris Desv. var. squamulosum Schl. Maritime marshes, not uncommon ; swamp, Lake Tangonge. 222 Transactions. Nepdrodium decompositum R. Br. Damp open situations ; common. Nephrodium glabellum A. Cmm. Fairly dry slopes and creek -banks; common. Nephrodium velulinum Hook. f. Dry rocky slopes in woods ; not un- common. Nephrodium hispidum Hook. Plentiful in woods. Nephrodium unitum R. Br. Maritime marshes, margin of Lake Tangonge ; not micommon. Nephrodium molle Desv. Near Mangatete ; rare. Polypodium punctatum Thunb. Common. ,, pennigerum Forst. Abundant throughout. ,, australe Mett. On tree-trunks ; common. ,, grammitidds R. Br. On tree-trunks ; common. ,, tenellum Forst. In damp lowland woods ; common. „ serpens Forst. On upper branches and rocks ; abundant. Polypodium Cunningham.ii Hook. On damp rocks and tree - trunks ; common. Polypodium pustulatmn Forst. Abundant in woods. ,, Billardieri R. Br. Usually on trees or rocks ; abundant. Gleichenia circinata Swartz. Throughout the district ; not common. ,, dicarpa R. Br. var. hecistophylla. Abundant on wet moorlands. ,, Cunningham.ii Heward. Plentiful in forests. ,, jiahellaia R. Br. Damp moorlands ; not uncommon. Schizaea fistulosa Labill. Moorlands ; common. ,, bifida Swartz. Moorlands, Peria ; Kaitaia ; not common. ,, dichotoma Swartz. Kauri forests ; common. Lygodium articulatum A. Rich. In forests ; abundant. Todea harhara Moore. On or near the coast, common ; inland, Kaitaia. ,, hynienophylloides A. Rich. In damp woods ; common. Marattia fraxinea Smith. In deep gullies of the Maungataniwha Ranges; Herekino ; Parapara. Ophioglossum lusitanicum Linn. Dry sandy places ; not common. Ophioglossum vulgatmn Linn. Moist lowland bush and scrub ; not un- common. Botrychium ternatum Swartz. Not uncommon. „ dissectum, Muhl. Rangaunu Heads. Lycopodiaceae. Phylloglossum Drummondii Kunze. Barren open places, Kaitaia, and near Rangaunu. Harbour. Lycopodium Billardieri Spring. Usually pendulous from trees, but often terrestrial among Leptospermum. Lycopodium densum Labill. On moorlands among scrub ; common. Lycopodium cernuum L. On moorlands, old land-slips, and roadside cuttings ; common. Lycopodium later ale R. Br. In peaty swamps ; common. Lycopodium Drummondii Spring. Wet peaty swamp near Lake Tangonge ; Kaitaia. Lycopodium volubilc Frost. Abundant among scrub. Tmesipteris tannensis Bernh. Usually on the stems of tree - ferns ; common. Psilotum triquetrum Swartz. Rangaunu Harbour, and at Merita Bay. Carse. — Flora of the Mangonui County. 223 Naturalized Plants. Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. repens Linn. bulhosus Linn. sardous Crantz. parviflorus Linn. muricatus Linn. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. Sisymbrium officinale Scop. Brassica oleracea Linn. Capsella Bursa-pastoris D. C. T. F. C. Senehiera didyma Pers. ,, coronopus Poir. Raphanus sativus L. T. F. C. Silene galliea L. Cerastium glomeratum Thuill. Stellaria media Cyr. ,, holostea Linn. Arenaria serpyllifolia Linn. Sagina apetala Linn. Spergula arvensis Linn. Polycarpon tetraphyllum Linn. Caladrinia sp. Portulaca oleracea Linn. T. F. C. Hypericum perforatum Linn. T. F. C. ,, humifusum Linn. Lavatera arhorea Linn. Malva verticillata Linn. Modiola mulitfida Moench. Linum marginale A. Cunn. „ gallicum Linn. Erodium cicutarium L'Herit. „ malachoides Willd. T. F. C. F^^^s vinifera Linn. Melianthus major Linn. ZJZecc europaeus Linn. Medicago lupulina Linn. T. F. C. ,, denticulata Willd. ,, maculata Willd. Melilotus officinalis Lam. T. F. C. Trifolium arvense Linn. pratense Linn. glomeratum Linn. hyhridum Linn. repens Linn. fragiferwn Linn. resupinatum Linn. procumbens Linn. Lotus corniculatus Linn. ,, uliginosus Schkuhr. ,, angustissimus Linn. Fi^t'a gemella Crantz. F*cm sativa Linn. Acacia dealbata Link. ,, decurrens Willd. ,, arniata. Albizzia lopantha Benth, Prunus persica Stokes. Ruhis fruticosus Linn. Fragaria vesca Linn. Alchemilla arvensis Scop. i?osa rubiginosa Linn. ,, multifiora Thunb. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Blue- gum). Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Red- gum.) Lythrum Hyssopifolia Linn. Aenothera sp. Apium graveolens Linn. ,, leptophyllum F. Muell. ,, Lessonii. Daucus Carota Linn. Sambucus niger Linn. Galium Aparine Linn. „ parisiense Linn. Sherardia arvensis Linn. Scabiosa maritima Linn. T. F. C. Bellis perennis Linn. Erigeron canadensis L. ,, linifolius Willd. Gnaphalium purpureum Linn. Achillea millefoliMm Linn. Anthemis arvensis Linn. Chrysanthemum Parthenium Bernli. ,, leucanthemum Linn. Matricaria discoidea D. C. Soliva anthemi folia R. Br. ' Tanacetum vulgare Linn. Senecio vulgaris Linn. „ sylvaticus Linn. ,, Jacobaea Linn, ,, mikanioides Otto. Cnicus lanceolatus Willd. ,, arvensis HofEm. Cynara cardunculus Linn. Chicorium Intybus Linn. Lapsana communis Linn. Crepis virens Linn. Hypochaeris radicata Linn. Leontodon hispidus Linn. Taraxacum officinale Linn. Anagallis arvensis L. 224 T rail no rt ions. Vinca major L. Eryihraea centauriuni Pers. Myosotis collina HofEm. Cuscuta epithymum Murr. var. tri- foliis. (Dodder.) Solanum sodoinaeuni Linn. PJiysalis peruviana Linn. Lycium chinense Mill. Nicotiana Tabacum Linn. Verbascum hlaUaria Linn. Miniulus sp. (Musk.) Linaria Elatine Mill. Veronica agrestis Linn. ,, arvensis Linn. ,, serpyllifolia Linn. Bartsia viscosa Linn. Verbena officinalis Linn. ,, bonariensis Linn. Mentha viridis Linn. ,, Pulegium Linn. Melissa officinalis Linn. Prunella vulgaris Linn. Stachys arvensis Linn. Plantago major Linn. ,, lanceolata Linn. Awte^Wa H. B. K. Chenopodium album Linn. „ murate Linn. Phytolacca octandra Linn. Polygonum Convolvulus Linn. Rumex crispus Linn. ,, sanguineus Linn, var, viridis. ,, obtusifolius Linn. ,, acetoseUa Linn. Hahea acicularis R. Br. Euphorbia Peplus Linn. Ricinus communis Linn. Humulus Lupulus Linn. Ficus carica Linn. jSa^ia: fragilis Linn. ,, babylonica Linn. //•is germanica Linn. Antholyza aethiopica Linn. Agave americana Linn. Asphodelus fistulosus Linn. Allium vineale Linn. Colocasia antiquorum Schott. Richardia ajricana Kunth. Cyperus lucidus R. Br. Andropogon annulatus Forst. T. F. C. Paspalum dilatatum, Poir. Panicum sanguinale Linn. ,, crus-galli Linn. Stenotaphruni glabrum Trin. Phalaris canariensis Linn. Anthoxanthum odoratum Linn. Phleum pratense Linn. Alopecurus pratensis Linn. Polypogon fugax Nees. Agrostis vulgaris With. ,, aZfea Linn. Holcus lanatus Linn. y4?Va caryophyllea Linn. Avena saliva Linn. ,, strigosa Schreb. Cynodon Dactylon Pers. Er agrostis Brownii Nees. Briza maxima Linn. ,, minor Linn. Dactylis glomerata Linn. Cynosurus cristatus Linn. Poa annua Linn. ,, pratensis Linn. ,, trivialis Linn. Festuca elatior Linn. ,, Myurus Linn. Bromus sterilis Linn. ,, mollis Linn. ,, racemosa Linn. „ xinioloides H. B. K. Lolium perenne Linn. Aston. — riutnerogamic PJaiifx liidigenoKs in WeU'nigton rroviiirr. 225 Art. XXVIII. — List of Phanerogamic Plants Indigenous in the Wellington Province. By B. C. Aston, F.I.C, F.C.S. [Read befoie the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th October, 1910.] No list of Wellington indigenous flowering-plants has been published since Buchanan (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 6, p. 210), in 1873, published his paper, '• Notes on the Flora of the Province of WeUington." In this he gives a list of all indigenous plants known to him, including the cryptogams. In Buchanan's time the flora of the alpine portion of the province was prac- tically unknown, and some of the alpine species included in his list were wrongly identified. Owing to the researches of the late T. Kirk, who from time to time discovered several new species ; T. F. Cheeseman (" Manual of the New Zealand Flora," Wellington, 1906), who on three occasions visited the volcanic plateau ; D. Petrie ('" Visit to Mount Hector," Trans. N.Z Inst., vol. 40, 1907, p. 289) ; L. Cockayne C Report of a Botanical Survey of Tongariro National Park," Lands Department, Wellington, 1908) ; E. Phillips Turner (" Report of a Botanical Examination of the Higher Waimarino District," Lands Department, WelUngton, 1909) ; and the writer (" Botanical Notes on a Journey across the Tararuas," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, 1909, p. 13) the distribution of species has become better known, identifications have been corrected, new species have been described, and the ecology of certain districts has been worked out. Thus, though Buchanan enumerates only 476 species of phanerogams, the present list includes some 680, a fact which alone would warrant the publication of a revised list. Since this paper was read, the author, with Mr. J. S. Tennant, spent in January, 1911, a week exploring the Kaimanawa Mountains, lying to the south of the volcanic plateau. As a result of this visit it has been found necessary to widen the range in altitude of a number of species. It has, for instance, been quite common to find a plant growing 1,000 ft. above its accepted habitat, a fact which would point to the cHmate and soil conditions of that range being much more favourable to plant-hfe than those of mountains of the same altitude elsewhere in the province. The results of the Kaimanawa visit have been largely embodied in this paper. The land-boundaries of the WelHngton Province as defined in a map kmdly supplied to me by the Lands Department, WelUngton, are as follows : A straight line is drawn from the mouth of the Patea River to Pipirild, on the Wanganui River, which is the natural boundary from this point to the 39th parallel. Following the parallel eastward, the northern boundarv stops at the Ahimanawa Range, a little to the west of the Township of Tarawera. From this point to the Manawatu Gorge the boundary runs south in almost a straight line through the Kaweka Range, but following at the southern end the axis of the Ruahine Range. From the Gorge the 8— Trans. 226 Transactions. boundary follows the Manawatu Kiver eastward to its southernmost point, and then strikes off to the coast at the mouth of the Waimata River. Wellington Province consists of the country lying from the south of the boundary to the coast. The author has made full use of the information contained in the works of Cheeseman, Petrie, Cockayne, and Turner. Wliere a habitat has not been verified by the author the authority for its insertion has been given. For the rarer plants the actual habitat has been given. For those less common the type of country or altitude it inhabits is recorded. For the commonest merely the names and dates of flowering are stated. The names of the months refer to the dates of flowering, which have generally been verified by the author. The term " volcanoes " refers to the volcanic South Te.-a-;aki Biglil HAP IE.-? English Mies. _iL_ Map of Southern Part of North Island. (Dotted line shows the boundary of Wellington District.) plateau, including Ruapehu (9,175 ft.), Tongariro (6,458 ft.), and Ngauruhoe (7,515 ft.). In deference to the wishes of the Publication Committee, the trivial and Maori names of species have been omitted. Finality in any respect is, of course, impossible. The author merely wishes to place on record what is known of a flora which even in the so- called reserves is rapidly changing through the attacks of wild rabbits, pigs, horses, and cattle. It is hoped at some future date, when the northern and eastern portions of the province have been more fully explored, to correlate in some degree the quality of the soil with the quality of the flora. The author desires to thank Dr. D. Petrie and Mr. T. F. Cheeseman for their many kindnesses, especially in identifying plants and supply- ing dried specimens from their herbaria, and for much valuable inform- ation. Aston. — Vh(vicroiiamic Vlautx. ludigenovs in Well'niqton Province. 227 List of Phanerogamic Plants Indigenous in the Wellington Province. 1. Ranunculaceae. Clematis indivisa Willd. Aug.-Nov. Ascends to 2,500 ft. hexasepala D. C. Sept.-Nov. Marten. Colcnsoi Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. On dry hillsides. Ascends to 3,000 ft. 'parviflora A. Cunn. Oct.-Nov. Ascends to 1,500 ft. niarata Armst. Sept.-Nov. Near Wanganui (Allison). Myosurus aristatus Benth. Palliser Bay (Col.) ; ocean-beach, Wellington (Buch.). Ranunculus insiqnis Hook. f. Dec- Jan. Volcanoes ; Tararua and Ruahine Mountains. 4,000-5,000 ft. Monroi Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Tararua Mountains (Buch.). nivicola Hook. Dec-Feb. Volcanoes ; Kaimanawa Mountains. 3,000- 6,000 ft. geraniifolixis Hook. f. Oct. -Dec. Ruapehu and Tararua Mountains ; Tongariro (T. F. C.) ; Hauhangatahi (Spencer). 2,000-5,500 ft. tenuicaulis Cheesem. Mount Holdsworth (Cock.). hirtus Banks & Sol. Oct. -Jan. Ascending to 4,000 ft. reeens T. K. Levin Beach. Coastal. lappaceus Smith. Nov.-Mar. Ascending to 4,500 ft. macropus Hook. f. Dec- Jan. Wainuiomata (Buch.). rivularis Banks & Sol. Oct. -Mar. Li swamps and creeks. Ascends to 4,000 ft. in Kaimanawa Mountains and volcanoes. acaulis Banks & Sol. Sept.-Nov. Coastal. Caltha novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Oct.-Jan. Ruahine and Tararua Moun- tains. 2,500-5,500 ft. 2. Magnoliaceae. Drimys axillaris Forst. Oct.-Dec Ascending to 3,500 ft. on Kairaanawas. colorata Raoul. Nov.-Dec Ascending to 4,000 ft. on volcanoes. 3. Cruciferae. Nasturtium palustre D. C. Nov.-Dec. Upper Wairarapa (Buch.). Cardamine hirsuta Linn. Flowers throughout the year. Ascending to 5,000 ft. Lepidium oleraceum Forst. Near Terawhiti, and sparingly round the coast. obtusatum T. K. Oct.-Feb. Port Nicholson (T. K.). tenuicaule T. K. var. minor Cheesem. Nov.-Jan. Titahi Bay. 4. Violaceae. Viola filicaulis Hook. f. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 4,000 ft. Lyallii Hook. f. Oct.-Jan. Ascending to 4,000 ft. Cunninghamii Hook, f . Oct.-Jan. Ascending to 5,000 ft. Melicytus ramiflorus Forst. Oct.-April. Ascending to 3,000 ft. lanceolatus Hook. f. Tararua Mountains. Ascending to 2,600 ft. a Waimarino. micranthus Hook. f. Dec-Feb. Upper Wairarapa (Buch.). Hymenanthera crassijolia Hook. f. July-Aug. Bluffs on Onetapu Desert, 3,500 ft. ; base of Ruapehu. Usually coastal. dentata R. Br. var. angustifolia Benth. Upper Rangitikei (Petrie) ; Turangaarere (Hamilton) ; volcanoes, 4,300 ft. (Cheesem.). obovata T. K. Nov. Titahi Bay. Considered by Cheeseman to be intermediate between H. crassifolia and H. obovata. chathamica T. K. Sept.-Oct. Patea (Hector). 228 Transactions, 5. Pittosporaceae. Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. Oct.-Nov. Ascending to 3,000 ft. Colensoi Hook. f. Oct.-Nov. Upper Rangitikei (Bucli.) ; base of Tongariro, Waimarino Forest (T. F. C). Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. Buchanani Hook. f. Wellington (T. K.). rigidum Hook. f. Dec. Ruahine and Tararua Mountains, 3,500- 4,000 ft.; volcanoes (Cock.). Ralfhii T. K. Oct.-Nov. Upper Wanganui (Field) ; Patea (T. K.). Kirhii Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ohakune, at 2,000 ft. (Turner). cornijolium k.Cvinn. June-Sept. Epiphytic. Ascending to 2,800 ft. eugenioides k.Qmin. Sept.-Oct. Ascending to 1,000 ft, at Waimarino. 6. Caryophyllaceae. Gypsofhila tuhulosa Boiss. Cape Palliser (Col.). Stellaria parviflora Banks & Sol. Ascending to 4,000 ft. Colobanthus Billardieri Fenzl. Ruahine, Kaimanawa, and Tararua Moun- tains. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Muelleri T. K. Usually coastal. Spergularia media Presl. Oct.-Feb. Coastal. 7. Portulacaceae. Claytonia australasica Hook. f. Ruahine ; volcanoes ; Kaimanawa and Tararua Mountains. Ascending to 6,500 ft. (T. F. C). Montia fontana Linn. Ascending to 4,000 ft. 8. Elatinaceae. Elatine americana Arn. var. australiensis (Benth.). Muddy places and margins of still waters. 9. Hypericaceae. Hypericum gramineum Forst. Ascending to 2,000 ft. japonicum Thunb. Ascending to 3,000 ft. 10. Malvaceae. Plagianihus divaricatus Forst. Sept.-Oct. Salt marshes. betulinus A. Cunn. Nov.-Dec. Ascending to 2,500 ft. at Waimarino. Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. Dec.-Feb. Ascending to 2,200 ft. at Wai- marino. 11. Tiliaceae. Entelea arborescens R. Br. Nov. Cape Palliser and Paekakariki (T. K.). Aristotelia racemosa Hook. f. Sept.-Dec. Fruit, Januar3^ Ascending to 3,000 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. Colensoi Hook. f. Wairarapa Valley (Col.). Ascending to 2,600 ft. at Waimarino (Turner). fruticosa Hook, f . Ascends to 4,000 ft. Elaeocarpus dentatus Vahl. Oct.-Nov. Ascending to 2,600 ft. at Pokaka (Turner). Hookerianus Raoul. Nov.-Jan. Ascending to 3,500 ft. 12. Linaceae. Linum monogynum Forst. Oct.-Jan. Aston. — Phanerogamic Vlants Indigenous in W ellington Province. 229 13. Geraniaceae. Geranium disse^tum Linn. var. australe Benth. Dec-Mar. microphyllum Hook, f . Dec. Ascends to 3,000 ft. sessiliflorum Cav. Nov.-Dec. Ascends to 3,000 ft. molle. Linn. Nov.-Feb. Pelargonium australe Jacq. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 2,000 ft. Oxalis corniculata Linn. Flowers summer months. magellanica Forst. Nov.-Dec. Ascends to 4,000 ft. 14. Rutaceae, Melicope ternata Forst. Sept .-Oct. ternata var. Mantellii Kirk. Little Mukumnku. simplex A. Cunn. Sept.-Nov. Ascending to 3,000 ft. on Tongariro. 15. Meliaceae. Dysoxylum spectabile Hook, f . April- July. 16. Olacinaceae. Pennantia corymhosa Forst. Nov.-Dec. Ascending to 2,600 ft. at Pokaka (Turner). 17. Stackhausiaceae. Stachhausia minima Hook. f. Dec. -Jan. Waimarino, 2,700 ft. (Phillips Turner); volcanoes, 3,500 ft. (Cock.. T. F. C). 18. Rhamnaceae. Pomaderris phylicaefolia Lodd. Oct.-Jan. Pongaroa ; Cape Palliser ; Otaki. Discaria toumatou Raoul. Oct.-Dec. 19. Sapindaceae. Dodonea viscosa Jacq. Nov.-Dec. Alectryon excelsum Gaertn. Nov.-Dec. 20. Anacardiaceae. Corynocarpus laevigata Forst. Sept.-Nov. Fruit, February. 21. Coriariaceae. Coriaria ruscifolia Linn. Oct.-Dec. Ascending to 3,500 ft. thymifolia Humb. & Bonp. Ascending to 5,000 ft. angustissima Hook. i. Dec- Jan. 1,500-4,000 ft. Ascends to 4,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. 22. Leguminosae. Carmichaelia EnysHT.K. Dec-Jan. Ruapehu (T. K.). 1,500-3.000 ft. nana Col. Ruapehu. Ascends to 2,800 ft. odorata Col. Nov.-Jan. River-gorges of Ruahine and Tararua Moun- tains. Ascending to 2,500 ft. flagelliformis Col. Nov.-Jan. Ascending to 4,000 ft. on Kaimanawas and volcanoes (T. F. C). Sophora tetraptera J. Mull. Aug.-Oct. Ascends to 800 ft. at Kakahi (Turner). 230 TransacHons. 23. Rosaceae. Ruhus australis Forst. Sept.-Oct. Ascends to 4,000 ft. on Kainaanawa Mountains. cissoides A. Cunn. Sept. -Nov. Ascends to 2,600 ft. at Waimarino. schmidelioides A. Cunn. Oct.-Nov. Ascends to 2,600 ft. at Waimarino. Geum urhanum Linn. var. strictmn. Nov. -Jan. Upper Wairarapa (Bucli.). Ascending to 3,000 ft. parviflorum Sm. Dec.-Feb. Ruahine and Tararua Mountains. 4.000- 5,000 ft. Potentilla anserina Linn. Dec. -Jan. Acaena novae-zealandiae T. K. Nov. -Jan. Sanguisorbae Vahl. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3,500 ft. micwphylla Hook, f . Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. 24. Saxifragaceae. Donatia novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Dec. -Mar. 4,000-5,000 ft., Mount Holds- worth (Townson). Carpodetus serratus Forst. Nov.-Jan. Ascending to 3,000 ft. Weimnannia racemosa Linn. f. Dec. -Jan. Ascending to 3,000 ft. 25. Crassulaceae. Tillaea moschata D. C. Coastal. diffusa T. K. Miramar (T. K.) ; near Seatoun. C^oastal. Sieheriana Scliultz. Sept. -Jan. dehilis Col. Happy Valley Beach; Quoin, 1,000ft. furpurata Hook. f. Cape Palliser (Col.). 26. Droseraceae. Drosera stenopetala Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Ruahine and Tararua Mountains. 2,500-5,000 ft. Arcturi Hook. f. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Kaimanawa Mountains. 2,000-5,000 ft. spatulata Labill. Nov.-Feb. Volcanoes and Kaimanawa Mountains. Ascending to 5,000 ft. binata Labill. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 2,500 ft. auriculata Backh. Oct.- Jan. Ascending to 2,500 ft. 27. Haloragidaceae. Haloragis alata Jacq. Nov.-Jan. Ascending to 2,000 ft. tetragyna Hook. f. depressa Walp. Ascending to 2,600 ft. at Pokaka. micrantha R. Br. Ascending to 4,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains and volcanoes. Myriophyllum elatinoides Gaud. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 3,500 ft. intermedium D. C. Dec-Mar. Ascending to 3.500 ft. pedunculatum Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Ascending to 3,000 ft. robustum Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Ascends to 2,000 ft., Mungaroa (T. K.). Gunnera monoica Raoul. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. prorepens Hook. f. Upper Wairarapa (Buch.) ; volcanoes (Cock.). dentata T. K. Dec.-Feb. Taupo (D. P.). arenana Cheesem. Levin Beach ; Waikanae to Patea ((V)ck.). Coastal. Callitriche verna Linn. Aquatic. Aston. — Fhaiu'roganiic riant s^ ludigenou^ in Wdii ngtoji Province. 231 28. Myrtaceae, Leptospermum scoparium Forst. Oct. -April. Asceiidiiiiif to 5,000 ft. on Kai- manawa Mountains. ericoides A, Rich. Nov.-Dec. Ascending to 3,000 ft. Metrosideros florida Sm. Feb.-June. Ascending to 2,500 ft. lucida A. Rich. Dec-Jan. Ascending to 3,500 ft. hypericifolia A. Cunn. Nov.-Jan. Ascending to 2,000 ft. Colensoi Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. at Ohakune (Turner). robusta A. Cunn. Dec. -Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. scandens Sol. Jan.-Mar. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Mjjrtus bullata Sol. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Ralphii Hook. i. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 1,500 ft. obcordata Hook. i. Dec-Jan. Ascending to 2, 00() ft. pedunculata Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. Eugenia maire A. Cunn. Mar.-May. Fruit, Jaii.-Feb. Ascending to 1,500 ft. 29. Onagraceae. Epilobium pallidifloruni Sol. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 2,600 ft. at Pokaka (Turner). chionanthuni Haussk. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 1,500 ft. Billardieranum Ser. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 2,000 ft. erectum Petrie. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. junceum Sol. Oct.-Feb. Ascending to 3,500 ft. pubens A. Rich. Oct.-Jan. Ascending to 4,000 ft. tenuipes Hook. f. Dec- Jan. Mount Holdsworth (Cock.) ; Wairarapa Valley (Col.) ; Ruahine Mountains (Hamilton). Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. Hectori Haussk. Dec-Feb. Ruahine Mountains (Col.). Cockaynianum Petrie. Tararua Mountains. 3,300-4,500 ft. alsinoides A. Cunn. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 3,000 ft. on volcanic plateau. chloraefoUum Haussk. Dec-Feb. Ruahine (Col, D. P.) ; Kaimanawa and Tararua Mountains. Ascends to 4,500 ft. insulare Haussk. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 1,000 ft. at Waimarino (Turner). rotundijolium Forst. Oct.-Feb. Ascends to 3,500 ft. at Kaimanawa Mountains. linnaeoides Hook. f. Nov.-Feb. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tararua Mountains (Buch.). Ascends to 4,500 ft. nummulari folium R. Cunn. Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Momitains. macropus Hook. Dec-Mar. 1,500-4,500 ft., Ruahine (Petrie, Andrews) ; Kaimanawa and Tararua Mountains (Buch.) ; volcanoes (Cock.). gracilipes T. K. Dec-Feb. Tararua Mountains (D. P.) ; Ruahine Mountains (Col.). melanocaulon Hook. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tauherenikau Valley ; Kaimanawa Mountains, 3,000 ft. microphyllum A. Rich. Dec-Feb. Cape Palliser (Col.) ; Orongorongo River (T. K.) ; Kaimanawa Mountains. Ascending to 3,000 ft. glabellum Forst. Dec-Feb. Ascends to 5,000 ft. glabellum var. erubescens. Tongariro, 5,500 ft. (T. F. C). 232 Transactions. Fuchsia excorticata Linn. f. Aug.-Dec. Fruit, Jauuary. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. Golensoi HookA. Oct.-Feb. Ascends to 1,500 ft. 30. Passifloraceae. Passiflora tetrandra Banks & Sol. Nov.-Jan. Ascending to 2,500 ft. 32. Ficoidaceae. Mesembryanthemum australe Sol. Oct.-Mar. Coastal. aequilaterale Haw. Dec.-Feb. Castlepoint (T. K.). Tetragonia trigyna Banks & Sol. Oct.-Feb. Coastal. 33. Umbelliferae. Hydrocotyle elongafa A. Cunn. Nov.--Mar. Ascending to 2,000 ft. tripartita R. Br. Tongariro (C'ol. and Cock.). americana Linn. Oct.-Feb. Ascending to 2,000 ft. novae-zealandiae D. C. Nov. -Mar. Ascending to 4,000 ft. moscJiata Forst. Nov.-Mar. Ascending to 2,000 ft. microfhylla A. Cunn. Dec.-Feb. asiatica Linn. Oct.-Mar. Ascending to 3,500 ft. Azorella Haastii Benth. k Hook. Dec.-Feb. Rualiine Mountains (Hamil- ton). 2,000-5,000 ft. Hooheri Drude. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. Eryngimn vesiculosum Lai). Jan. Coastal. Apium prostratum Lab. Nov.-Mar. Coastal. Oreomyrrhis andicola Endl. Nov.-Feb. Ascending to 5,000 ft. on volcanoes (T. F. C). Crantzia lineata Nutt. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 2,500 ft.. Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ruahine (Howlett) ; Kaimanawa and Tararua Mountains. Ascending to 5,000 ft. squarrosa Forst. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. Munroi Hook. I Dec-Jan. Mount Holdswortli (D. P.). 4,000 ft. n.s. Occurs on Quoin, Hector, Holdsworth, and Dundas. 3,500-4,000 ft. Ligusticuni dissectum T. K. Dec.-Feb. Tararuas. 3,500-4,000 ft. aromaticum. Hook. f. Nov.-Feb. " 1,500-7,000 ft. on Ruapehu (Cock., T. F. C). Angelica Gingidium Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Rare. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Waiouru Plain. geniculata Hook. f. Jan.-Feb. Wellington : on drv hillside near sea, Paekakariki (H. B. Kirk). rosaejolia Hook. Oct.-Nov. Ruakine Mountains (Harding) ; Upper Rangitikei (Buch.). Daucus brachiatus Sieb. Oct.-Dec 34. Araliaceae. Panax simplex Forst. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Edgerleyi Hook. f. Jan.-Feb. Ascends to 2,500 ft. anomalum Hook. Dec.-Feb. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. Sinclairii Hook. f. Jan.-Feb. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Karioi Mountains (T. F. C.) ; Kaimanawa Mountains. 1,000-3,500 ft. Colensoi Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. 1,800-4,500 ft. arhoreum Yox&t. June-Julv. Ascends to 1.500 ft. A!^TO^^ — Phaiierotjdiiiic riants Indigenous in Wclli/ii/ton Province. 283 Schefflera digitata Forst. Feb.-Mar. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Pseudopanax crassijolium Koch. Feb. -April. Ascends to 2,600 ft. at Pokaka (Turner). 35. Cornaceae. Corokia Cotoncastcr RaouL Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains ; Upper Wairarapa ; Taihape (P. T.) ; Wanganui (Cock.). Griselinia lucida Forst. Oct.-Nov. littoralis Raoul. Oct.-Nov. Ascends to 3,500 ft. 36. Caprifoliaceae. Ahcuosmia macwphyUa A. Cunn. Sept.-Nov. Tararua Mountains (D. P.). Ascends to 3,000 ft. quercifolia A. Cunn. Sept.-Nov. Waimarino (Turner). 37. Rubiaceae. Coprosma grandi folia Hook. f. April- June. Ascends to 2,500 ft. lucida Forst. Sept.-Nov. Ascends to 3,200 ft. Baueri Endl. Sept.-Nov. Coastal. rohusta Raoul. Aug.-Oct. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Cunninghamii Hook. f. Aug.-Sept. Ascends to 1,000 ft. at Waimarino (Turner). lenuijolia Cheesem. Aug.-Sept. Kaimanawa and Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Upper Wanganui and Rangitikei Valleys (T. K.) ; volcanoes (Cock.) ; Upper Wanganui River (T. F. C). ], 000-4,000 ft. rotundi folia A. Cunn. Sept.-Oct. Ascends to 2,000 ft. areolata Cheesem. Sept. -Oct. Fruit, January. Ascends to 1,500 ft. tenuicaulis Hook. f. Sept.-Oct. (Buch.). Ascends to 1,000 ft. rhamnoides A. Cunn. Aug.-Oct. Ascends to 3,000 ft. parviflora Hook. f. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 4,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. ramulosa Petrie. Mount Hikurangi (D. P.) ; Mount Holdsworth. 2,500- 5,000 it. Buchanani T. K. Oct. Tongue Point ; Happy Valley Bay. Coastal. crassifolia Col. Sept.-Nov. Ascends to 1,200 ft. rigida Cheesem. Sept.-Oct. rubra Petrie. Sept.-Nov. Maungatiriri River ; foot of Mount Holds- worth (D. P.). virescens Petrie. Sept.-Oct. Wairarapa (Col.). Ascends to 1,500 ft. acerosa A. Cimn. Sept.-Nov. Ascending to 4,000 ft. propinqua A. Cunn. Sept.-Oct. Fruit, April. Kirkii Cheesem. Coastal, near Maranui. linariifolia Hook. f. Kaimanawa Mountains. 3,000 ft. foetidissima Forst. Aug.-Oct, Ascends to 4,500 ft. Colensoi Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Tararua and Kaimanawa Mountains 1,000-3,500 ft. cuneata Hook. f. Tararua, Kaimanawa, and Ruahine Mountains (Col.). 2,000-5,000 ft. microcarpa Hook. f. Tararua, Kaimanawa (ascending to 3,500 ft.), and Ruahine Mountains ; Dav's Bay ; volcanoes ; Kakaramea to Wai- marino (T. F. C). depressa Col. Dec- Jan. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Kaimanawa Moun- tains (Cock.) ; volcanoes. 2,500-5,000 ft. repens Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Tararua Mountains. Ascends to 6,500 ft. on volcanoes (T. F. C). Petriei Cheesem. Nov.-Jan. Volcanoes (Cock.). Ascends to 4,000 ft. 234 Transactions. Nertera depressa Banks & Sol. Oct.-Jan. Rualiine Mountains (Col.) ; volcanoes (T. F. C). Ascends to 4,000 ft. Cunninghamii Hook. f. Oct.-Jan. Cook Strait (Cheesem.). dichondrae folia Hook. f. Oct.-Dec. Ascends to 3,000 ft. setulosa Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Wairarapa (Buck.) ; Wellington (T. K.) ; Tongariro (Cock.). Galium tenuicaule A. Cunn. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 2,500 ft. umbrosum Sol. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Asperula perpusilla Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. 38. Compositae, Lagenophera Forsteri D. C. Oct.-Feb. Ascends to 3,000 ft. petiolata Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Brachycome Sindairii Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. odorata Hook. f. Inland Patea (Col.). Olearia Colensoi Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ruahine and Tararua Mountains ; Mount Matthews (Travers). 3,000-5,000 ft. nitida Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. macrodonta Baker. Jan.-Feb. 1,500-4,000 ft. ilicijolia Hook, f . Jan.-Feb. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Cunninghamii Hook. f. Oct.-Dec Ascends to 2,500 ft. excofticata Buck. Dec-Jan. Tararua Mountains. 3,700-4,200 ft. lacunosa Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Tararua Mountains. 3,700-4,200 ft. aipma Buck. Dec-Jan. Tararua Mountains. 3,700-4,200 ft. (A variety of the preceding species, Petrie). nmmnulari folia Hook. f. Volcanoes and Kaimanawa Mountains. 2,000-5,000 ft. Forsteri Hook. f. April-May. Ascends to 1,500 ft. virgata Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Feilding; volcanoes (Cock., Turner). Ascends to 3,000 ft. Solandri Hook. f. Feb.-May. Ascends to 1,000 ft. Celmisia incana Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Tararua Mountains (Buck.) ; Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Waimarino (P. T.) ; volcanoes (T. F. C). 2,000- 5,000 ft. spectahilis Hook. f. Dec-Feb. Tararua and Kaimanawa Mountains ; volcanoes (T. F. C). 2,000-5,000 ft. conacm Hook. f. Dec-Feb. Tararua Mountains (Buch.). 1,500-4,500 ft. (This needs confirmation, as every recent botanist notes.) longifolia Cass. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 5,000 ft. Hectori Hook. f. Jan.-Feb. Tararua Mountains (Budden). 4,500- 5,000 ft. glandulosa Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Upper Rangitikei (Buch.) ; Kaimanawa Mountains; volcanoes. 1,500-4,500 ft. Vittadinia australis A. Rich. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Gnaphalium Lyallii Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Rimu- taka Mountains (T. K.). Ascends to 2,500 ft. trinerve Forst. Nov. -Dec Rimutaka Mountains (T. K.). Ascends to 2,000 ft. Keriense A. Cunn. Oct.-Dec. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. suhrigidum Col. Oct.-Dt-'c Makuri Gorge ; Waiiganui. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Aston. — Pliani ruffainic Plants Indigenous in W dlington Prnvinec. 235 Gnaphaliuni Travcrsii Hook. f. Dec. -Feb. Taianui Mountains. 1,500- 5,000 ft. paludosum Petrie. Dec-Jan. Ruahine Mountains (Petrie) ; volcanoes (T. F. C, Hill). Ascends to 4,700 ft. on Kaimanawas. luteo-album Linn. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. japonicum. Thunb. Nov.~Jan. Ascends to .3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. collinum Labill. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Raoulia australis Hook. f. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 5,500 ft. tenuicaidis Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Rimutaka and Kaimanawa Mountains. Ascends to 5,000 ft. qlabra Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Rimutaka and Tararua Mountains. Ascends to 4,000 ft. grandiflora Hook. f. Dec-Jan. 3,000-6,500 ft. All mountains, but not common on Kaimanawas. rubra Bucb. Jan. Tararua Mountains. 4,200-5,200 ft. Helichrijsum bellidioides Willd. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 7,500 ft. on Rua- pehu (Cock., T. F. C). filicaule Hook. f. Dec-Feb. Ascends to 4,000 ft. fasciculatum, Buch. Tararua Mountains (Travers). 4,000-5,000 ft. Loganii T. K. Jan. Mount Holdsworth and Mount Hector ; Tararua Mountains. 4,000-4,500 ft. Leontopodium Hook. f. Jan.-Feb. Ruahine (Col.) ; Tararua and Kai- manawa Mountains ; Ruapehu (scarce, T. F. C.) ; Hauhangatahi (Spencer). 4,000-5,200 ft. glomeratum Benth. & Hook. f. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. on Kai- manawa Mountains. Cassinia leptophylla R. Br. Dec-Feb. Vauvilliersii Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. julvida Hook. f. Dec-Feb. (Buch.). Ascends to 3,500 ft. Craspedia uniflora, Forst. Dec-Feb. Ascends to 5,000 ft. Cotula coronopifolia Linn. Oct.-Feb. In wet places. australis Hook. f. Sept.-Mar. minor Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. ? Titahi Bay (identification uncertain, Petrie). Ascends to 2,500 ft. pyrethrifolia Hook. f. Dec-Feb. Mount Hector. 5,000 ft. perpusilla Hook. f. Nov.-Feb. (Buch.). '( Kapiti Island (Cock.). Ascends to 4,500 ft. dioica Hook. f. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Centipeda orbicularis Lour. Jan.-Mar. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Abrotanella pusilla Hook. f. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tararua Moun- tains. 3,900-5,000 ft. Erechtites prenanthoides D. C. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. arguta D. C. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 2,500 ft. scaberula Hook. f. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 1,500 ft. quadridentata D. C. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3,500 ft. diversifolia Petrie. Dec-Jan. Base of Ruapehu (D. P.). Ascends to 3,000 ft. glabrescens T. K. Jan.-Feb. Upper Rangitikei (D. P.) ; Tojigariro (Cock.). Ascends to 4,500 ft. Brachyglottis rapanda Forst. Aug.-Oct. Ascends to 3,000 ft. on Kaimanawas. rangiora Buch. July-Sept. Shores of Cook Strait (Buch. and T. K.). 236 Transactions. Scnecio lagopus Raoul. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,500 ft. lautus Forst. Oct.-Nov. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Turneri Cheesem. Nov.-Dec. Wanganui River, near Pipiriki. latifolius Banks & Sol. Nov.-Feb. Abundant in Makuri Gorge. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. Kirhii Hook. f. Oct.-Dec. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Greyii Hook. f. Jan. On cliff-faces, Palliser Bay. Ascends to 1,500 ft. compactus T. K. Jan.-Feb. Castlepoint (T. K.). Adamsii Cheesem. Jan.-Feb. Mount Holdswortli, 4,000 ft. elaeagnifolius Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Bidwillii Hook. f. Dec- Jan. 2,500-5,500 ft. Microseris Forsteri Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Taraxacum officinale Wigg. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Sonchus asper Hill. Spring to autumn. oleraceus Linn. 39. Stylidiaceae. Phyllachne Colensoi Bergg. Dec.-Feb. 3,000-6,000 ft. Oreostylidium suhulatum Bergg. Dec-Mar. Rualiine Mountains (Pryor) ; base of Tongariro (Kirk). Ascends to 6,000 ft. Forstera Bidwillii Hook. f. Dec-Mar. 2,500-6,000 ft. teneMa Hook. f. Dec-Mar. 1,500-4,500 ft. 40. Goodeniaceae. Selliera radicans Cav. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. 4 1 . Campanulaceae . Pratia angulata Hook. f. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 4,500 ft. perpusilla Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Between Rangitikei and Turakina Rivers (Cock.). Lobelia anceps Linn. f. Nov.-Mar. Wahlenhergia gracilis A. D.C. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 6,000 ft. saxicola A. D.C. Dec.-Feb. Ascends to 6,000 ft. 42. Ericaceae. Gaultheria antipoda Forst. Ascends to 6,000 ft. perplexa T. K. Otaki. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. rupestris R. Br. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 7,000 ft. on Ruapehu (Cock.). fagifolia Hook. f. Jan. Waimarino (Turner). 1,000-2,000 ft. oppositifolia Rook. I Nov.-Jan. Near Wanganui (Field). 500-3,500 ft. 43. Epacridaceae. Pentachondra puniila R. Br. Dec.-Feb. 2,000-5,000 ft. Cyathodes acerosa R. Br. Aug.-Nov. Ascends to 4,000 ft. on Kaimanawas. empetrifolia Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Colensoi Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Volcanoes, Ruahine (Col.) ; Tai-arua and Kaimanawa Mountains. 2,000-5,000 ft. pimila Hook. f. Tararua Mountains. 2,500-5,000 ft. Leucopogon fasciculatus A. Rich. Sept.-Nov. Ascends to 3,500 ft. Fraseri A. Cunn. Sept.-Jan. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Epacris alpina Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ruahine and KainumaAva Mountains. Ascends to 5,000 ft. Waimarino (P. T.) ; volcanoes. Aston. — Phaneroga/mic Plants Indigenous in Wellington Province. 237 Dracofhyllum recurvum, Hook. f. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; volcanoes. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on Kainianawa Mountains. lomjifolinm R. Br. Ascends to 4,500 ft. UrviUeanum A. Rich. Volcanoes ; Rualiine, Tararua, and Kaimanawa Mountains. 2,500-4,500 ft. suhulatnm Hook. f. Nov. -Mar. Ruahine and Kaimanawa Mountains ; Waimarino (P. T.). 350-3,500 ft. uniflorum Hook. f. Dec. Mar. Tararua Mountains. 2,000-4,500 ft. rosmarinifolium R. Br. Dec-Mar. Tararua Mountains (Buch.). 2.500- 5,000 ft. 44. Primulaceae. Smnolus repens Pers. Nov.-Jan. Usually coastal. 45. Myrsinaceae. Myrsine salicina Heward. Sept.-Dec. Ascends to 2,800 ft. Urvillei A. D.C. Mar.-April. Ascends to 3,000 ft. montana Hook. f. ■ Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Taihape (Cock). Ascends to 3,000 ft. divaricata A. Cunn. Aug.-Oct. Ascends to 4,000 ft. nummularia Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ruapehu (Petrie) ; Ruahine Moun- tains (Col.) ; Tararua and Kaimanawa Mountains. 2,000-5,000 ft. 47. Oleaceae. Olea Cunnincjhamii Hook. f. Oct. -Nov. Ascends to 2,500 ft. lanceolata Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. tno7itana Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 2,500 ft. 48. Apocynaceae. Parsonsia heterophylla A. Cunn. Nov.-Mar. Fruit, April. Ascends to 2,500 ft. capsularis R. Br. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 2,000 ft. 49. Loganiaceae. Logania depressa Hook. f. Locality possibly uncertain. Between Onetapu Desert, east of Ruapehu, and towards source of Moawhango River (Col.). Geniostoma ligustrifolium A. Cunn. Oct.-Nov. 50. Gentianaceae. Gentiana Grisebachii Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tongariro (Bidwill) ; Tararua Mountains ; Kaimanawa Mountains. Ascends to 4,500 ft. hellidifolia Hook. f. Jan.-Mar. Tararua and Kaimanawa Mountains ; volcanoes. 1,500-5,800 ft. patula Cheesem. Jan.-Mar. Tararua Mountains (Townson). 2,500- 5,000 ft. Liparophyllum Gunnii Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Tararua and Kaimanawa Mountains; Mount Dennan ; Quoin, 3,900 ft.;" volcanoes (Cock., T. F. C), 3,500-4,500 ft. 238 Transactions. 51. Boraginaceae. Myosotis antarctica Hook. f. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Forsteri Lehm. Oct.-Feb. Ascends to 4,300 ft. on Kaimanawa Moun- tains. petiolata Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ruahine Mountains (Hill). Ascends to 3,000 ft. Astoni Cheesem. Dec-Jan. Maungatiriri and Tauherenikau River valleys ; Mount Holdsworth. 100-4,000 ft. 52. Convolvulaceae. Calystegia sepimn R. Br. Nov.-Mar. turguriorum R. Br. Dec.-Feb. Soldanella R. Br. Nov.-Mar. Coastal. Convolvulus erubescens Sims. Dec. -Mar. Palliser Bay (Col., Buch.). Dichondra repens Forst. Spring and early summer. Ascends to 2,500 ft. brevifolia Buch. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. 53. Solanaceae. Solamim nigrum Linn. Ascends to 2,000 ft. aviculare Forst. Flowers most of the year. 54. Scrophularaceae. Calceolaria Sinclairii Hook. Nov.-Feb. Ruahine Mountains. (Col., Petrie, &c.). repens Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Rimutaka Range (T. K.) ; Wainuiomata (Arnold) ; in creeks of Tararua Mountains ; Makatote Gorge (T. F. C). 250-2,000 ft. Mazus pumilio R. Br. Nov.-Feb. Manawatu River (Col.) ; Otaki (Buch.) ; Pencarrow (T. K.) ; Levin Beach, Waikanae (Cah.). radicans Cheesem. Wairarapa, Tararua Mountains (Col. and Buch.). 500-3,500 ft. Mimulus repens R. Br. Nov.-Jan. Brackish swamps at Otaki (E. H. Atkinson). Gratiola peruviana Ijinn. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 1,500 ft. Glossostigma elatinioides Benth. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Limosella tenuifolia Nutt. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3.000 ft. Veronica speciosa, R. Cunn. Nov.-Mar. Port Nicholson (Lyall). macroura Hook. f. Cook Strait (Cock.). Identification doubtful (T. F. C). salicijolia Forst. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 3,500 ft. rotundata T. K. July-Sept. Vicinity of Wellington (T. K.). angustifolia A. Rich. Dec.-Feb. River-beds of Wangaehu and Tura- kina (A. Allison). parvifora Vahl. Dec.-Feb. Wellington. venustula Col. East side Ruahine Mountains (Col.). Colensoi Hook. f. Rangitikei (D. P.) ; Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Kai- manawa Mountains. Ascends to 3,000 ft. laevis Benth. Dec.-Feb. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; volcanoes ; Ta- rarua and Kainumawa Mountains. 2,500-5,000 ft. elliptica Forst. Dec.-Feb. Titahi Bay. Coastal. Aston. — rhantrociaiuir I'Jantx liidigt/iioux in WcJ/i/if/fofi Province. 239 Veronica huxijolia Beiith. Dec-Mar. Tararua and Kaimanawa Mountains ; volcanoes (Cheesem.). 2,000-5,000 ft. tetragona Hook. Jan.-Feb. Volcanoes ; Kaimanawa Mountains. 2,000- 5,(,X)0 ft. Astoni Petrie. Tararua Mountains. 4,000-5,000 ft. catarractae Forst. Nov.- Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. catarractae var. diffusa Hook. f. Tararua Mountains, 5,000 ft. ; Tau- heronikau Valley, 1,000 ft. ; volcanoes (T. F. C). Lyallii Hook. Nov.-Mar. Ruahine and Tararua Mountains (Cheesem.) ; Wanganui (Buch.). Ascends to 4,500 ft. Hookeriana Walp. Volcanoes (Cheesem., Cock., Turner). 3,000-6,000 ft. Olseni Col. Dec-Mar. Ruahine Mountains (Col. and Petrie). 2,000- 4,000 ft. spatulata Benth. Volcanoes ; Ruahine Mountains (Hill), 3,000-7,000 ft. ; on Ruapehu (Cock.). Ourisia macwphylla Hook. Nov.-Jan. Wainuiomata (Buch.) ; Kai- manawa Mountains. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Colensoi Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Tararua and Ruahine Mountains and vol- canoes, 1,500-3,500 ft. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on Kaimanawas. caespitosa Hook. f. Dec-Feb. Ruahine, Kaimanawa, and Tararua Mountains, and volcanoes. 3,000-6,500 ft. Euphrasia cuneata Forst. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on Kaimanawas. revoluta Hook. f. Dec-Mar. Ruahine (Col.) and Tararua and Kai- manawa Mountains. 2,500-5,500 ft. zealandica Wetts. Dec-Mar. Ruahine and Tararua Mountains. 2,000- 6,000 ft. Northern limit, Pukeonake, west of Tongariro (T. F. C). 55. Lentibulariaceae. Utricularia novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Palliser Bay (Col.). monanihos Hook. f. Dec-Mar. Rangipo Plain (Petrie) ; volcanoes (T. F. C.) ; Kaimanawa Mountains. Ascends to 4,500 ft. 56. Gesneraceae. Rhabdothamnus Solandri A. Cunn. Flowers most of the year. Upper Wairarapa (Buch.) ; Wellington (T. F. C.) ; Waimarino (Turner) ; Wanganui (E. H. Atkinson). Ascends to 2,000 ft. 57. Myope raceae. Myoforum laetum Forst. Oct. -Jan. Usually coastal. 58. Verbenaceae. Teucridiuni parvifloruni Hook. f. Oct. -Jan. Rare. Ascends to 800 ft. at Kakahi (Turner). 59. Labiatae. Mentha Cunninghamii Benth. Ascends to 4,500 ft. 60. Plantaginaceae. Plantago Raoulii Decne. Upper Rangitikei (Buch.). Ascends to 3,500 ft. spatulata Hook. f. Between Castle Point and Cape Palliser. Brownii Rapin. Tararua Mountains (Buch.) ; Ruahine Mountains (Col.). Ascends to 5,500 ffc. uniflora Hook. f. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tararua Mountains. 4,000-5,000 ft. 240 Transactions. 62. Illecebraceae. Scleranthus hifloms Hook. f. Ascends to 4,000 ft. 64. Chenopodiaceae. Rhagodia nutans R. Br. Coastal. Chenof odium, triandrum Forst. Nov.~Mar. Mostly coastal. glaucum Linn. Nov.-Mar. Mostly coastal. carinatum R. Br. Dec-Mar. (Buch.). Atriplex cinerea Poir. Palliser Bay (Col.). patula (Linn.). Buchananii T. K. Dec-Mar. Wellington (Bucli. and Kirk). Salicornia australis Sol. Summer and autumn. Coastal. Suaeda maritima Dum. Dec-Mar. Coastal. Salsola Kali Linn. Dec-Mar. 65. Polygonaceae. Polygonum aviculare Linn. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 2,500 ft. serrulatmn Lag. Nov.-Mar. Wellington (Buch.). Rumex flexuosus Sol. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 4,000 ft. neglectus T. K. Nov.-Mar. Beaches near Wellington. Muehlenheckia australis Meissn. Nov.-April. Ascends to 2.000 ft. com/plexa Meissn. Nov.-April. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kainianawa Mountains. axillaris Walp. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Astoni Pe rie. Wainuiomata mouth ; Orongorongo. ephedrioides Hook. f. Dec-Mar. Upper Rangitikei (Williams, Petrie) Ascends to 3,000 ft. 66. Piperaceae. Piper excelsum. Forst. Flowers most of the year. Pcperomia Endlicheri Miq. Titah: and Evans Bays. 67. Chloranthaceae. Ascarina lucida Hook. f. Sept.-Nov. Wairarapa Valley (Col.). 68. Monimiaceae. Hedycarya arhorea Forst. Oct.-Nov. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Laurelia novae-zealandiae A. Cunn. Oct.-Nov. Ascends to 2,000 ft. 69. Lauraceae. Beilschmiedia tatva Benth & Hook. f. Nov.-Dec. Fruit, January. As- cends to 2,500 ft. 70. Proteaceae. Knightia excelsa R. Br. Nov.-Dec. Ascends to 2.800 ft. 71. Thymelaeaceae. Pimelia longijolia Banks & Sol. Oct.-Dec Tararua Mountains. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Gnidia Willd. Dec-Jan. Ruahinc Mountains (Col.) ; Tararua Moun- tains. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Aston. — Vhuntroijainic PUinta liidtyciiou^' in W dJi iKjtoii Province. 241 Pimelia huxifolia Hook. f. Jan. -Mar. Ruahine Moiui tains (Petrio) ; Kai- manawa Mountains ; volcanoes (T. F. C). 1,500 5,500 ft. viijala Vahl. Sept.-Dec. Wellington. Uncommon. Ascends to 2,000 ft. arenaria A. Cunn. Nov.-Mar. Coastal. laevigata Gaertn. Oct.-Mar. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. Lyallii Hook. f. Dec-Mar. Ruahine Mountains (Col., Tryon, Hamilton). 2,000-4,500 ft. Drapetes Dicffenhachii Hook. Dec-Mar. 2,000-4,500 ft. 72. Loranthaceae. Loranthus micranthus Hook. f. Oct. -Nov. Ascends to 2,000 ft. tetrnpetolus Forst. Nov.-Jan. Quoin, 2,900 ft. ; volcanoes. Ascends to 4,000 ft. on Kaimanawas. Colensoi Hook. f. Dec. -Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Fieldii Buch. Base of Ruapehu (H. C. Field). flavidus Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Ruahine Mountains (T. F. C). Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. Tiipeia antarctica Cham. & Schl. Oct.-Dec Ascends to 3,000 ft. Viscuni Lindsayi Oliver. Oct.-Feb. Lake Wairarapa Road. salicornioides A. Cunn. Ascends to 1,500 ft. 73. Santalaceae. Fusanus Cunninghamii Benth. & Hook. f. Sept.- Oct. Fruit, March. Wai- kanae. 74. Balanophoraceae. Dactylanthus Taylori Hook. f. Feb.-Mar. Waitotara, Upper Rangitikei, Upper Wanganui (T. F. C.) ; Kaitoke (Phillips) ; near Pipiriki (E. P. Turner). 75. Euphorbiaceae. Euphorbia glauca Forst. Oct.-Feb. Coastal. 76. Urticaceae. Paratrophis heterophylla Bl. Oct.-Feb. Sparsely distributed throughout. Ascending to 1,000 ft. at Waimarino (Turner). Banksii Cheesem. Nov. -Feb. Cook Strait ; Wainuiomata Valley. Urtica jerox Forst. Aug.- Dec. Ascends to 1,000 ft. incisa Poir. Flowers spring and summer. Ascends to 4,000 ft. incisa var. linearifolia Hook. f. Near Levin, Lake Papaitonga, at edges of creeks. Elatostemma rugosuni A. Cunn. Middle Wellington Province (Cheesem.) ; Otaki (Buch.) ; Ohau River ; Levin. Parietaria dehilis Forst. Flowers spring and summer. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Australina pusilla Gaud. Ascends to 1,000 ft. 77. Fagaceae. Fagus Menziesii Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. fusca Hook. f. Oct.-Dec. Ascends to 3,500 ft. apiculata Col. Nov.-Dec River-flats on Maungatiriri River, and Kai- toke ; Day's Bay (E. H. A.). 242 Transactions. Fagus Blairii T. K. Forest near source of Wanganui Eiver (T. K.). 1,000- 2,500 ft. Solandri Hook. f. Nov.-Dec. Ascends to 2,500 ft. cliffortioides Hook. f. Dec. -Jan. Waimarino (Turner) ; volcanoes (Cock.) ; Kaimanawa Mountains. 2,000-4,000 ft. 78. Taxaceae. Libocedrus Bidwillii Hook. f. 800-4,000 ft. Podocarpus totara Don. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Hallii T. K. Ascends to 4,000 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. nivalis Hook. Waimarino (Turner) ; Kaimanawa Mountains ; Tararua Mountains (Buch.). 2,000-5,500 ft. ferrugineus Don. Ascends to 3,000 ft. spicatus R. Br. Ascends to 2,000 ft. dacrydioides A. Rich. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Dacrydium bifonne Pilger. Waimarino (Turner) ; Ruahine Mountains (T. F. C). 2,000-4,500 ft. Bidwillii Hook. f. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; volcanoes ; Kaimanawas. 2,000-4,500 ft. cupressinum Sol. Ascends to 2,500 ft. intermedium T. K. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tararua Mountains. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Colensoi Hook. f. Waimarino Forest (T. K., Turner) ; volcanoes (Cock,). Ascends to 3,000 ft. laxijolium Hook. f. Ruahine Moiuitains (Col.) ; volcanoes, 2,500- 4,000 ft. ; Kaimanawa Mountains, to 5,000 ft. Phyllocladus trichomanoides Don. Tararua Mountains (Buch.). Ascends to 2,500 ft. alpinus Hook. f. Waimarino district (Turner) ; volcanoes (Cock.) ; Kaimanawa Mountains. 79. Orchidaceae. Dendrobium Cunninghnmii Lindl. Dec. -Feb. Ascends from sea-shore to 2,000 ft. Bulbophyllum tuberculatmn Col. April-May. Palmcrston North (Hamilton). pygmaeum Lindl. Nov. -Feb. Happy Valley Bay. Ascends to 1,500 ft. Earina mucronata Lindl. Oct.-Dec. Ascends to 2,000 ft. suaveolens Lindl. Mar.-June. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Sarcochilus adversus Hook. f. Oct.-Nov. Spiranthes australis Lindl. Jan.-Feb. Bog near Erua, 2,600 ft. (P. Turner). Thelymitra longifolia Forst. Nov.-Dec. Ascends to 4,000 ft. decora Cheesem. Jan. Volcanoes ; Taumarunui (T. F. C.) ; Kai- manawas. 2,500-3,700 ft. venosa R. Br. Mungaroa Swamp (T. K., Petrie). uniflora Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Volcanoes (T. F. C). Ascends to 3,500 ft. Orthoceras strictum R. Br. Dec. -Feb. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Microtis porrifolia R. Br. Oct.-Dec. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Prasophyllum Colensoi Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on Kai- manawas. rufum R. Br. Feb. Day's Bay ; Kaitoke ; Waimarino, at 2,900 ft. (Turner). Aston. — I'Iui/k roi/a/nic I'htnls I ml Kjruoufi iii WrUiiif/fon I'roviiirr . 243 Pterostylis Banksii R. Br. Oct.-Nov. Ascends to 3,500 ft. graminea Hook. f. Sept. -Nov. micromega Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Murimotu (Petrie) ; Wairarapa (Col.). foliata Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ruahine Mountains and Cape Palliser (Col.) ; Kaitoke. Ascends to 2,500 ft. venosa Col. Ruahine Mountains (Olsen). 2,000-3,500 ft. tndUjolia Hook. f. Kaitoke (V. Phillips, B. C. A.). barbata Lindl. Oct.-Nov. Kaitoke (V. Phillips, B. C. A.) ; Day's Bay (Atkinson, Morrison). Acianthus Sinclairii Hook. f. May~Aug. Kapiti Island (Cock.). Ascends to 2,500 ft. Cyrtostylis oblonga Hook. f. Aug. -Oct. Kaitoke (V. Phillips). Ascends to 2,500 ft. Calochilus paludosus R. Br. Upper Hutt (E. H. Atkinson). Lyperanthus antarcticus Hook. f. Dec-Feb. Tararua Mountains. 3,000- 4.000 ft. Caladenia minor Hook. f. Sept.-Dec Kaitoke. Ascends to 2,000 ft. bijolia Hook. f. Dec- Jan. Tararua Mountains ; volcanoes (T. F. C). Ascends to 4,500 ft. Chiloglottis cornuta Hook. f. Oct.-Dec. Kaitoke ; Kaimanawa Moun- tains. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Adenochilus gracilis Hook. f. No v.- Jan. Between Ohakune and Ruapehu (Turner). 500-2,500 ft. Corysanthes rotundifolia Hook. f. Sept.-Dec. Ascends to 2,500 ft. triloba Hook. f. July-Sept. Ascends to 4,000 ft. on Kaimanawa Moun- tains. macrantha Hook. f. Oct.-Dec. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. Gastrodia sesamoides R. Br. Dec-Jan. Tauherenikau Valley. Ascends to 1,500 ft. Cunninghamii Hook. f. Nov. -Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. 80. Iridaceae. Libertia ixioides Spreng. Oct.-Dec. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. ixioides var. b. Levin Beach. Coastal. grandiflora Sweet. Oct.-Nov. pulchella Spreng. Nov.- Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. 82. Liliaceae. Rhipogonmn scandens Forst. Nov. -Dec. Friiit, January. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Enargia marginata Banks & Sol. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3,500 ft. Cordyline Banksii Hook. f. Nov.-Dec Ascends to 3,500 ft. australis Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 2,500 ft. indivisa Steud. Dec-Jan. 1,500-4,000 ft. pumilio Hook. f. Nov.-Dec. Ascends to 1,500 ft. (Buch., T. F. C). Astelia linearis Hook. f. Nov.-Jan. 3,000-5,000 ft. Cunninghamii Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Fruit, Nov.-Dec. Ascends to 2,500 ft. trinervia T. K. Mar.-May. Fruit, Feb.-Mar. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Solandri A. Cunn. Jan.-Feb. Ascends to 2,700 ft. nervosa Banks & Sol. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Dianella intermedia Endl. Nov.-Dec. Ascends to 2,500 ft. 244 Transactions. Phormium tenax Forst. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Cookianum Le Jolis. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Bulhinella Hookeri Benth. & Hook. f. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Arihrofodium cirrhaturn R. Br. Nov.-Dec. candidum Raoul, Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. HerpoUrion novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Tararua and Kainianawa Mountains ; vok-anoes. 83. Juncaceae.* Juncus paucifloms R. Br. Dec.-Feb. Ascends to 2,500 ft. vaginatus R. Br. Dec.-Feb. effusus Lhm. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3,000 ft. maritimus Lam. var. australierisis. Dec. -Jan. hufonius Linn. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. planifolius R. Br. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. antarcticus Hook. f. Dec.-Feb. Tararua Mountains ; Rangipo Phiin (Petrie). 1,500-4,000 ft. prismatocarpus R. Br. Nov.-Jan. holoschoenus R. Br. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 2,500 ft. lampocarpus Ehr. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3,500 ft. novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Dec. -Mar. Tararua and Kaimanawa Moun- tains. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Luzula Colensoi Hook. f. Jan.-Feb. Mount Holdsworth (Townson) ; Ruahine Mountains (Col) ; Ngauruhoe. 4,000-6,500 ft. campestris D. C. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. 84. Palmeae. RhopalostyUs sapida WendL & Drude. Jan.- April Ascends to 2,000 ft. 85. Pandanaceae. Freycinetia Banksii A. Cunn. Sept.-Nov. Fruit, May. Ascends to 2,500 ft. 86. Typhaceae. TypJia angustifolia Linn. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Sparganium antipodum Graeb. Dec. -Mar. 87. Lemnaceae. Lemna minor Linn. Ascends to 2,000 ft. 88. Naiadaceae. Triglochin striatum Ruiz & Pav. Oct.-Jan. Potamogeton Cheesemanii A. Bennett. Nov.-Mar. Yokanoes, 4,250 ft. (T. F. C). natans Linn. polygonifolius Pourr. Dec-ApriL Ascends to 4,700 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. ochreatus RaouL Nov.-Mar. Turakina River mouth (Cock.). pectinatus L. Dec-Mar. Turakina River mouth (Cock.). Ruppia maritima Linn. Dec-ApriL Zoster a nana Roth. * J. scheuchzen'oides was iuchnU-d in my list of Tararua plants (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, J). 13) through a clerical error. Aston. — Plume inrjaniir I'lnnfx //idir/e/iovs in Welli/i;/fo/i Provinrr. 245 89. Centre lepidaceae. Centrolepis pallida Choosem. Dec-Mar. Ruahine Mountains (Col.). viridis T. K. Dec. -Mar. Base of Ruapehu (Petrie) ; Kainianawa Moun- tains. 2,000-5,000 ft. 90. Restiaceae. Leptocarpus simplex A. Rich. Sept.-Dec. Hypolaena laterifolia Bentli. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 4,500 ft. 91. Cyperaceae. Cifperus vegetus Willd. Nov. -Jan. Mariscus ustulatus Clarke. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 1,500 ft. FAeocharis acuta R. Br. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. Cunninghamii Boeck. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 4,500 ft. on vok-anoes (T. F. C). Scirpus lenticularis Poir. Dec-Mar. Base of Ruapehu (D. P., Hamilton). Ascends to 2,500 ft. aucklandicus ^oQok. Dec-Mar. Ruahine (Col.). Ascends to 5,000 ft. cernuus Vahl. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 2,000 ft. antarcticus Linn. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 2,000 ft. inundatus Poir. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 3,000 ft. sulcatus Thouars. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 2,000 ft. prolijer Rottb. Nov.-Mar. frondosus Banks & Sol. Nov.-Feb. Coastal. americanus Pers. Nov.-Feb. Palliser Bay ; Marton (Townson). lacustris Linn. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 1,500 ft. maritimus Linn. Nov.-Feb. Carpha alpina R. Br. Dec.-Feb. 2,500-5,000 ft. Schoenus hrevijolius R. Br. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 1,500 ft. Tendo Banks & Sol. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. pauciflorus Yiook. i. Dec-Mar. 1,500-5,000 ft. axillaris Poir. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 2,500 ft. nitens Poir. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 2,500 ft. nitens var. concinnus. Ascends to 4,500 ft. on volcanoes (T. F. C). Cladium Sinclairii Hook. i. Oct.-Jan. Patea (Cock.) ; Taihape. Ascends to 2,000 ft. glomeratum R. Br. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Gunnii Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 2,500 ft. ■junceum R. Br. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Vauthiera Clarke. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Gahnia setijolia Hook, f . Dec.-Feb. Ascends to 2,000 ft. pauciflora T. K. Oct.-Dec Ascends to 3,000 ft. xanthocarpa Hook. f. Feb.-Mar. Ascends to 2,500 ft. lacera Steud. July-Aug. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Gaudichaudii Steud. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Oreobolus strictus Bergg. Tararua and Kainianawa Mountains. 3,500- 5,000 ft. ; Rangipo Plain (Hill). Uncinia purpurata Petrie. Dec-Jan. Tararua Mountains (D. P.). 1.000- 4,000 ft. compacta R. Br. Dec.-Feb. Ruahine Momitains (Cock.) ; Tararua Mountains (Buch.). 1,000-5,500 ft. caespitosa Boott. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 4,000 ft. 246 Transactions. Uncinin uncinata Linn. f. Nov. -Feb. Ascends to 3,000 ft. h'ptostachya Raoul. Nov.- Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. riparia R. Br. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. rubra Boott. Dec.-Feb. Waimarino (T. F. C). rupestris Raoul. Tararua Mountains (H. H. T.) ; Ruahine Mountains (Col). filiformis Boott. Dec-Jan. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tararua Moun- tains. 1,000-4,500 ft. Carcx pyrenaica Whal. Dec-Mar. Ruahine Mountains (Col.). 3,500- 6,500 ft. acicularis Boott. Dec-Mar. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tararua Mountains ; Tongariro (Col). 2,500-5,000 ft. diandra Schrank. Dec-Mar. Ascends to 3,000 ft. virgata Soland. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. secta Boott. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 2,500 ft. inversa R. Br. Nov.-May. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Colensoi Boott. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 4,000 ft. echinnta Murr. Nov.-Mar. Ascends to 4,000 ft. leporina Linn. Nov.-Jan. Ohariu Valley (T. K.). Ascends to 4,000 ft. Gaudichaudiana Kunth. Nov. -Feb. Ascends to 4,500 ft. subdola Boott. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 1,500 ft. ternaria Forst. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 4,000 ft. dipsacea Bergg. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. testacea Sol. Oct.- Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. lucida Boott. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Petriei Cheesem. Dec.-Feb. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawas. dissita Sol. Oct.-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. hreviculmus R. Br. Oct. -Mar. Ascends to 3,000 ft. pumila Thunb. Oct.-Jan. Forsteri Wahl. Nov.-Jan. Ascends to 2,000 ft. pseudocyperus Linn. Nov.-Feb. Ascends to 3,000 ft. 92. Gramineae. Zoysia pungens Willd. Ascends to 2,000 ft. Paspalum, Digitaria Poir. Sydney Street, Wellington. Oplismenus undulatijolius Beauv. Spinifex hirsutus Labil. Coastal. Ehrharta Colensoi Hook. f. Ruahine and Tararua Mountains. 3,000-5.500 ft. Microlaena stipoides R. Br. Ascends to 2,000 ft. avenacca Hook. f. Dec-Jan. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. polynoda Hook. f. Dec Jan. Base of Ruahine Mountains (Col.). Ascends to 1,500 ft. HierocMoc redolens R. Br. Ascends to 3,000 ft. Fraseri Hook. f. Ascends to 5,000 ft. on volcanoes (T. F. C). Stipa arundinacea Benth. Wairarapa (Buch.) ; South Karori (Kirk). Ascends to 1,500 ft. Echinopogon ovatus Beauv. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Alopecurus geniculatus Linn. Wairarapa (Buch.) ; near Wellington (T. K.). Ascends to 3,500 ft. Spor obelus indicus R. Br. Simplicia laxa T. K. Lower Wairarapa (T. K.). J^STON. — Vlunieroiidin'ic I'laiitf Iiidigtnous ni Wtlli iKjton I'roriiicr . 247 Agrostis muscosa T. K. Tararua and Kaimanawa Mountains ; volcanoes. 1,500-4,500 ft. Muelleri Benth. Ruahine Mountains (Col.). 2,500-5,500 ft. Dyeri Petrie. Volcanoes (T. F. C.) ; Tararua and Kaimanawa Moun- tains. 1,000-5,500 ft. Deyeuxia Forsteri Kunth.* Ascends to 3,000 ft. Billardieri Kunth. Coastal. setifolia Hook, f . 3,000-5,000 ft. quadriseta Benth. Ascends to 2,500 ft. Dichelachne crinita Hook. f. Ascends to 3,000 ft. sciurea Hook. f. Deschampsia caespitosa Beauv. Palliser Bay. Ascends to 3,500 ft. tenella Petrie. Ruahine Mountains (Col.) ; Tararua Mountains (Travers). Ascends to 4,500 ft. Trisetum antarcticum Trin. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Youngii Hook. f. Tararua Mountains ; volcanoes (T. F. C). 3.000- 5,000 ft. suhspicatum Beauv. Ascends to 5,000 ft. Amphihromus fluitans T. K. Marton (Townson). Danthonia CunninghamU Hook. f. Ascends to 3,500 ft. bromoides Hook. f. Near Cape Palliser (Buch.) ; near Wellinfrton (Stephenson). Raoulii Steud. Ascends to 5,000 ft. pilosa R. Br. Ascends to 4,500 ft. semiannularis R. Br. Ascends to 7,000 ft. on Ruapehu (Cock.). Arundo conspicua Forst. Ascends to 3,500 ft. on Kaimanawa Mountains. fulvida Buch. Triodia australis Petrie. Mount Hector. 3,000-5,000 ft. Poa novae-zealandiae Hack. Tararua Mountains. anceps Forst. Ascends to 3,500 ft. seticulmis Petrie. Tauherenikau Valley. Ascends to 2,500 ft. caespitosa Forst. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Colensoi Hook. f. 1,000-5,000 ft. Kirhii Buch. Tararua Mountains. imbecilla Forst. Tararua Mountains. Ascends to 4,000 ft. Atropis stricta Hack. Coastal. Festuca littoralis Labill. Coastal. ovina Linn. Ascends to 4,500 ft. rubra Linn. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Agropyrum 7nultiflormn T. K. Day's Bay. scabrum Beauv. Ascends to 4,500 ft. Asperella gracilis T. K. Dannevirke (Col.) ; Turangaarere (Petrie). Ascends to 3,000 ft. * By a clerical error D. Petriei was included in my list of Tararua plants (Trans. N.Z. Inst., yol. 42, p. 13). 2i8 Transactions. Art. XXIX. — Notes on the Botany of Lake Haurolo District. By J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S. [Read before the Otago Institute, 2nd August, 191tJ.] Having long had the desire to make a botanical excursion to the mountains lying to the west of the great Waiau River, in the south-west of the fiord country, and especially to those parts surrounding Lake Hauroko, and known as the Princess Mountains, I welcomed the opportunity of doing this that presented itself in February of this year (1910). Our party con- sisted of Mr. Robert Gibb, Mr. Vernon C. Smith, and myself. Having crossed the Waiau, our route to the lake lay by the main road through the bush, past Clifden, and on past the Lillburn, to what is known as Gardner's, or the " end of the track." Two miles from Gardner's the track leads on to low peaty land extending for a mile, which has until recently been covered by a young forest of bog-pine {Dacrydimn BidwiUii). We were informed by Mr, Gardner that this bog-pine had been burnt out during the previous dry summer. Gradually the " birch " forest {Fagus Solandri and F. Menziesii) is reached, and continues more or less for the rest of the distance to the lake. Here and there in the gullies, which are very numerous, will be found Coprosma foetidissma, C. rotundifolia, Metro- sideros lucida, Panax Colensoi, Senecio elaeagnif alius, Drimys colorata, Leptospermum scoparium, and others ; also Dicksonia squarrosa, Hemitelia Smithii, Aspidium flavidum, Lomaria fluviatilis, L. discolor, Gleichenia Cunninghamii, Pteris aquilina, P. incisa, Asplenium bulbiferum, Todca superha, and Hymenophyllum spp. As the lake was neared the vegetation became thicker and the ferns more numerous and taller. The first glimpse of the lake, as its waters glimmer and shimmer through the trees in the bush, is beautiful. The track comes out on a long arm of the lake facing Mary Island, a distance of five or six miles from the lower end of the lake. Across the lake the high mountains of the Princess Range, with their towering peaks of Albert Edward and Alexandra, form a majestic background. These mountains appear almost precipitous, being bush-clad up to 3,000 ft. or more, the bare tops being covered with the usual alpine flora. As there is no record of a botanist having visited the lake previously (except perhaps Mr. G. M. Thomson, in the early " eighties," but who on account of bad weather did no collecting), we had decided to examine both sides of the lake for plants and birds, and for this purpose we hired a boat. As we opened up the lake we found the shores to consist entirely of pre- cipitous wooded hills, nowhere less than 3,000 ft., and rising to 5,000 ft,, with sharp and rugged peaks, and with more than a score of waterfalls shooting on both sides. With the exception of a couple of beaches from one to two ucres in extent, there is no flat land. The only other possible landing-places are where the many steep creeks or waterfalls have filled up the edge of the lake with boulders : consequently, until we reached the head of the lake, it was only on these small patches we could land to make investigations. Lake Hauroko is about twenty-five miles long by one mile wide, and, being formed at the bottom of a deep gully, becomes most treacherous to a rowing-boat, the wind sweeping down it as down a funnel. On account of Sjiith. — Botoiiji of Lalce Uauroho Bhirict. 249 this it took us tliree days to reach the head of the lake, during which time we had been consuming tlie provisions we had intended for an extended land journey. At the head of the lake we pitched camp, and made excursions some distance up the Hauroko Kiver, and also up Hay Eiver. On the flat at the junction of the Hauroko River with the lake there is a piece of country that might well l)e the habitat of such a bird as the takahe, but after a careful search we found no traces of such a bird. On the western side, at the head of the lake, the vegetation in the bush is most luxuriant ; especially is this the case with ferns and mosses. Our object was to climb End Peak, a name which was given to the last, or end, peak of the Princess Range. It lies near the head of Hay River, on the western side, and is about 4,500 ft. high. Making an early start, we struck into the bush half a mile below Hay River. We had to make our own track through 3,000 ft. of dense bush, blazing it as we went along. Now and again we struck Mr. Hay's blazed trees of thirty years ago, and it was this that led us on to a very serviceable razorback ridge, and for some time kept us clear of deep gullies. After a five hours' climb we reached the clearing, at an elevation of 3,500 ft. Another hour sufficed to find us on the highest point of the peak. For a height of nearly 2,500 ft. there is little variation in the character of the vegetation, which differs very little indeed from that of the lower elevations on the eastern side. The trees and shrubs were much the same, with the addition perhaps of Panax lineare, Pittosporum Colensoi, a couple of species of Coprosma, and one or two others. Up to this point very little of the usual thinning-out of the bush on account of elevation could be detected ; the trees were as thick and as tall and straight as lower down. After this height the stunting gradually began ; the trees became scarcer, and Coprosmas became more plentiful, and gradually the mountain -flora began to make its appearance. Although it was nearly the end of February, we were rewarded with a very large number of plants in flower, especially of Celmisia, and very fortunately so with a new species of Olearia and of Aciphylla. Next day, as our provisions were getting low, we decided to pull our- selves to the foot of the lake, some twenty-five miles, which was done in nine hours, with only one stoppage of an hour for rest and lunch. At the foot of the lake, on the eastern side, there is a mountain known as the Hmnp, 3,500 ft. high, over which an old sheep-track passes, leading down to the coast some sixteen miles below the Waiau mouth. As I was desirous of comparing the vegetation of the Hump with that on End Peak, we decided to find this track, a,nd make for home by that route. For a distance of half a mile this track is now completely overgrown and difficult to find ; but once the ascent of the hill commences it is well defined, but becomes very steep, especially for the last 1,500 ft. This ascent occupied us nearly the whole day, and, a fog coming over as we reached the top, we pitched the tent and turned in for the night. Next morning, being clear on the top, gave us an opportunity to examine the vegetation and collect. I was not very greatly surprised to find the plants on the Hump almost identically the same as those on End Peak, as the elevation and bird-life were much the same. As far as I could observe, there were only about half a dozen plants different — that is, all the plants found on the Hump were also found on End Peak. The geological structure was much the same, the soil being peaty, and the rock mica-schist and gneiss (white granite). 250 Transactions. Botanic-ally the trip may be considered very satisfactory, as the plants noted cover 225 species and forty-five orders. Mr. D. Petrie has kindly looked through my material, from which, in another place, he is describing no less than five new species, named as follows : Euphrasia australis (Petrie), Aciphylla pinnatifida (Petrie), Gentiana flaccida (Petrie), Olearia Croshy- Smithiana (Petrie), Danthonia (?) harhata (Petrie). These are all very dis- tinct. Euphrasia australis has creamy-yellow flowers. Aciphylla pinnati- fida is far removed from any other New Zealand species, and would appear to be almost unique. Olearia Crosby-Smithiana Mr. Petrie considers " one of the most distinct species of the genus," nearest perhaps to 0. lacunosa, having very narrow linear leaves with a besom-like habit of growth, 6-15 in. high. The Danthonia (?) cannot be described till flowers are procured ; but its strong characteristic is that all the leaves are densely ciliate, giving the appearance of being barbed. Of other plants, some are very rare, as, for instance, Cehnisia Traversii, the most beautiful of all the Celmisias, which is the first discovery of this plant to the south of Lake Tennyson. Until flowering specimens are obtained, the species of several other plants win have to be left in abeyance, as, for instance, the plant put down temporarily as Aristotelia (?) fruticosa probably does not belong to this genus at all. There yet remains much work to be done in the Hauroko district, or the country between Lake Monowai and Long Sound, and the botanist who undertakes it will, I am sure, meet with a rich reward. List of Plants collected. Ranunculaceae. Tiliaceae. Ranunculus Lyallii. End Peak and ' Aristotelia {^ fruticosa. End Peak ; Hump, sp. End Peak. Buchanani. Hump. ternatifolius. End Peak. Clematis indivisa. Common. Magnoliaceae. Drimys colorata. Common. Cruciferae Cardamine hirsuta, var. deb His. Common. depressa. Lake flat. Violaceae. Viola Cunninghamii. End Peak. Lyallii. Hump. Pittosporaceae. Pittosporum Colensoi. Common. tenui folium,. Common. eugenioides. Common. rare ; 2,500 ft. racemosa. Common. Geraniaceae. Geranium microphyllwn. Lake flat. Coriariaceae. Coriaria thymilifolia. End Peak and Hump. angustissinia. End Peak and Hump. ruscifolia. Common. Leguminosae. Carmichaelia sp. End Peak. Sophora tetraptera. Common. Bosaceae. Geuni parviflorum. End Peak and Hump. Acaena Sanguisorbae. Common. Rubus australis. Common. schmidelioides. Common. Smith. — Jiohnni of L(tlxi' llaurolco IJ/sfrirf. 251 Saxifrayaceae. Donatia novae-zelandiac. End Peak and Hump. Weintnannia racemosa. Common. Carpodetus serratus. Common. Droseraceac. Drosera arcturi. Hump. binata. Lake flat. Haloragidaceae. Haloragis alata. Blue Cliff. MyriophyUmn pedunculatum. Hau- roko outlet. elatinoides. Hauroko outlet. Gunnera monoica. Common. Myrtaceae. Metrosideros hyperici folia. Common. lucida. Common. Leptospermum, scoparium. Common. Myrtus pedunculata. Common. obcordata. Common. Onagraceae. Epilohium nummular if olium var. pps. distinct. Hump. nummularij olium var. peduncu- lare. End Peak. rotundi folium. End Peak and Hump, sp. Hauroko outlet. Fuchsia excorticata. Common. Umbelli ferae. Aciphylla pinnatifida (Petrie) sp. nov.* End Peak. Lyallii. End Peak, sp. Near lake. Ligusticum, aromaticum. Hump. Haastii. End Peak. Hydrocotyle tripartita. End Peak. Araliaceae. Panax lineare. End Peak and Hump. simplex. Common. arboreum. Common. Colensoi. Common. Pseudopanax crassifolium. Common. Cornaceae. Griselinia litloralis. Rubiaceae. Coprosnia arenaria. End Peak. rugosa. End Peak. propinqua. End Peak and Hump. Colensoi. End Peak and Hump. linariifolia. Common. Cunninghamii. End Peak. serrulata. End Peak. repens. End Peak. lucida. Common. foetidissima. Common. rotundif olium. Commo n . sp. Hump. Nertera depressa. End Peak. dichondraefolia. End Peak. Compositae. Lagenophora Forsteri. Common. sp. Hump. Olearia Colensoi. Hump. nitida. End Peak bush. Crosby-Smithiana (Petrie) sp. nov. End Peak. Celmisia Walkeri. End Peak and Hump. holosericea. End Peak. discolor. End Peak and Hump. Traversii. Hump. coriacea. End Peak and Humj). Petriei. End Peak. longifolia. Common. laricifolia. End Peak. sessiliflora. End Peak and Hump. argentea. End Peak and Hump. sp. pps. distinct. Hump. Gnaphalium luteo-album. End Peak ; common. Traversii var. Mackayi. Hump. Raoulia tenuicaulis. End Peak. sp. var. Blue Cliff". Erechtites glabrescens. Common. prenanthoides. Common. Helichrysum bellidioides. End Peak. grandiceps. End Peak. Senecio Lyallii. End Peak and Hump. * Descriptions of most of new species mentioned herein will be found in the next article of this volume. 252 Trotisactions. Senecio revolutus. Hump. elaeagnijolius. Hump. End Peak and End Peak and Stylidiaceae. Forstera sedifolia. End Peak. tenella. Hump. Campanulacecie. Pratia angulata. Common. Isotoma fluviatilis. Outlet of lake. Ericaceae. Gaultheria antipoda. End Peak. antipoda var. depressa. Hump. Epacridaceae. Pentachondra pumila. Cyathodes acerosa. Common. pumila. Archer a T raver sii. Dracophyllum muscoides. End Peak and Hump. uniflorum. End Peak and Hump. Menziesii. Hump. longijolium. Common. Myrsinaceae. Myrsine Urvillei. divaricata. Gentianaceae. Gentiana patula. End Peak. corymhifera. End Peak. flaccida (Petrie) sp. nov. Hump. Boraginaceae. Myosotis antarctica. Convolvulaceae. Dichondra brevifolia. Scrophulariaceae. Gratiola peruviana. End Peak. Veronica Lyallii. End Peak. Hectori. End Peak and Hump. huxi folia End Peak and Hump. salicifolia. Common both sides of lake. Ourisia macrophylla. End Peak and Hump. sp. End Peak. caespitosa. End Peak. Euphrasia australis (Petrie) sp. nov. End Peak. Polygonaceae. Muehlenbeckia axillaris. Common. adpressa. End Peak. Thymelaeaceae. Drapetes Dieffenbachii. End Peak. Pimelea arenaria. End Peak. laevigata. Hump. laevigata var. alpina. Hump. Loranthaceae. Tupeia antarctica. Common. Loranthus Colensoi. Common. Fagaceae. Fagus cliff ortioides. End Peak bush. Solandri. End Peak bush. Menziesii. End Peak bush. Taxaceae. Phyllocladus alpina. End Peak and Hump bushes. trichomanoides. End Peak and Hump bushes. Dacrydium cupressinum. Common. laxifolium. Common. Bidwillii. Common. Podocarpus ferruginea. C'ommon. spicata. Common. totara. Common. Hallii. Scarce. Orchidaceae. Dendrobium Cunningh a m i i. Common. Earina suaveolens. Common. mucronata. Common. Corysanthes rotundifolia. End Peak bush. rivularis. End Peak bush. Caladenia Lyallii. Hump. Lyperanthus antarcticus. Hump. Gastrodia Cunninghamii. Hump. Liliaceae. Astclia montana. End Peak and Hump. nervosa. End Peak and Hump. linearis. End Peak and Hump. Smith. — Botany of Lake Hauroko District. 253 Phormium tenax. End Peak and Hump. Coohii. End Peak. BuJbinella Hookeri. Hump. Juncaceae. Juncus novae-zelandiae. Centrolepidacea£. Gaimardia setacea. End Peak and Hump. Chjperaceae. Oreobolus pectinatus. End Peak. Scirpus sp. End Peak. inundatus. Lake-outlet. cernuus Hump. Carpha alpina. End Peak. Carex flava. End Peak. sp. End Peak. sp. End Peak. sp. End Peak. Uncinia tenella. End Peak. sp. End Peak. Eleocharis acuta. Hump. acuta var. Lake-outlet. Gramineae. Deyeuxia Forsteri var. humilior. End Peak. Forsteri var. End Peak. Forsteri var. pilosa. Hump. ( = Agrostis pilosa). Himip. semi-aquatic form. Lake. Microlaena avenacea. End Peak. Colensoi (= Ehrharta Colensoi). Hump. Hierochloe redolens. End Peak. Agrostis Dyeri. End Peak. Deschampsia novae-zealandiae. End Peak and Hump. caespitosa. Hump. Danthonia (?) harhata (Petrie) sp. no v. End Peak. Filices. Hymenophyllum rarum. End Peak and head of lake. polyanthos. End Peak and head of lake. pulcherrimum. End Peak and head of lake. End Peak and head End Peak and head End Peak and head Hymenophyllum dilatatum. End Peak and head of lake. demissum. End Peak and head of lake. scabrum. End Peak and head of lake. faheUatum. End Peak and head of lake. rufescefis. of lake. unilaterale. of lake. multifidum. of lake. bivalve. End Peak and head of lake. Trichomanes reniforme. Head of lake. Cyathea medullaris. Head of lake. Hemitelia Smithii. Head of lake. Dicksonia squarrosa. End Peak and Hump fibrosa. End Peak and Hump. Davallia novae-zealandiae. End Peak and Hump. Pteris aquilina. Common. incisa. Common. scaberula. Common. Lomaria Patersoni. Both sides of lake. discolor. Common. vulcanica. lanceolata. alpina. End Peak and Hump. capensis. fluviatilis. Asplenium flaccidum. Common. bulbiferum. Common. Aspidium aculeatum. Polypodium pennigerum. Head of lake. grammitidis. Common, sp. Billardieri. Gleichenia Cunninghamii. Todea superba. hymenophylloides. Tmesipteris Forsteri. Lycopodiaceae. Lycopodium fastigiatum. End Peak and Hump. Selago. End Peak and Hump. 254 Tranmctions. Art. XXX. — Descriptions of New Native Phanerogams. By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 22nd November, 1910.] Plate II. 1. Olearia Crosby-Smithiana sp. nov. Frutex humilis, ramosa, compacta, 4-6 dcm. alta. Folia anguste linearia, 4-9 cm. longa, 2 mm. lata, marginibus forte revolutis ; costa media in- feriore valde prominente. Paniculae summos ramulos versus dispositae ; capitula parva, pauca, floras paucos gerentia. A low compact shrub, 4-6 dcm. high, with numerous short erect or suberect branches, marked by the scars of fallen leaves ; the higher part of the branches alone leafy. Leaves crowded, alternate, coriaceous, acute, entire, vemless, narrow- linear, 4-9 cm. long, 2 mm. broad, shortly petioled ; margins strongly revolute ; upper surface with a deep longitudinal groove, more or less lacu- nose ; mider-surface marked by a stout midrib that is fringed by a delicate line of whitish tomentum ; the petiole ending below in a broad thickened callosity, above which the leaves become detached. Panicles towards the tops of the branchlets, and springing from a cluster of short acute squamiform leaves having white tomentose margins. Peduncles filiform, + 2 cm. long, divided into 2-3 branches that are again subdivided. Heads few, small, of few florets ; involucre turbinate ; scales in 2-3 series, dark brown, the lower ovate-lanceolate, the upper linear, glabrous or slightly pubescent at the tips. Achenes very narrow, glabrous, 1 mm. long ; pappus very slender, spreading, longer than the achenes. ^rt6.— The Hump (3,500 ft.), south of Lake Hauroko. I am indebted to Mr. J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S., of Invercargill, for a number of fruiting specimens of this most distinct species. The narrow- linear strongly ribbed leaves and the small slender inflorescence are very different from those of any other native species. Its nearest ally is 0. lacu- nosa Hook. f. It was collected long ago at Dusky Sound by Mr. Reischek, who gave Mr. T. F. Cheeseman some pieces not in flower or fruit, and I have seen flowerless specimens from the neighbourhood of Puysegur Light- house. 2. Aciphylla pinnatifida sp. nov. Caulis 15-20 cm. altus, gracilis, sulcatus. Folia 5-8 cm. longa, trifolio- lata, usque ad svimmam vaginam divisa ; segmenta linearia, pinnatisecta ; pinnis linearibus, brevibus, integris, subremotis ; vaginae baud in spinas laterales productae. Stem 15-20 cm. high, slender, grooved. Leaves numerous, radical, 5-8 cm. long, flaccid, trifoliolate, divided to the top of the sheath ; segments linear, pinnatisect, the middle one Pktiue. — Desmpfion of New Nafivr Plid/irroi/aiiis. 255 longer ; pinnae linear, short, rather remote, entire, acuminate, with thick- ened margins and subrigid piuigent tips. Sheaths short, thin, broadly obcuneate, not produced into lateral spines. Inflorescence shorter than the culm, subflexuous, broadly ovate ; bracts leaflike, with broad compressed sheaths + 2 cm. long ; the segments of the lower bracts more or less pinnatisect, those of the upper entire or slightly cut. Primary peduncles longer than the sheaths, the secondary short. Fruits + 3 inm. long, elliptic, 3-5 winged. Hab. — End Peak, Lake Hauroko. I have seen only three specimens of this very distinct plant, collected by Mr. J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S. One bears no fruit, and may be a stami- nate plant ; the others are pistillate, but few ripe carpels are left on them. 3. Gentiana flaccida sp. nov. Herba perennis, gracilis, flaccida, indivisa, erecta, + 10 cm. alta. Folia radicalia numerosa, 2-3 cm. longa, tenuia, obovato - spatulata, gradatim in petiolos latiores per-flaccidos lamina duplo longiores attenuata. Folia caulina radicalibus similia, petiolis brevioribus, superiora acuta in paribus oppositis disposita. Flos terminalis, solitarius, grandis, ad 2 cm. longus. A slender flaccid apparently perennial herb, not branched, erect, + 10 cm. high ; root rather stout. Radical leaves numerous, 2-3 cm. long, thin, obovate-spathulate, gradually narrowed into rather broad flaccid petioles twice as long as the blades. Cauline leaves similar to the radical, but with shorter petioles or almost sessile ; the upper in opposite pairs, the topmost pair acute. Flower solitary, terminal, + 2 cm. long. Calyx green, divided for three- quarters its length into thin linear acute lobes with an evident midrib. Stamens as long as the calyx ; pistil rather longer. Fruit not seen. Hab. — End Peak, Lake Hauroko. I have seen only a single specimen of this plant, but it is so clearly dis- tinct from any of its native congeners that I feel little hesitation in describ- ing it. It is, of course, uncertain if the specimen I have seen represents the typical form of the plant. Its nearest ally is G. lineata T. Kirk, a plant that was first collected by myself on Stewart Island in 1877. The present species was collected by Mr. J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S. 4. Euphrasia australis sp. nov. Herba tenuis, subrigida, parce foliosa, ad 8 cm. alta, sparse pubescens, a basi ramosa ; rami laterales parce subdivisi. Folia in paribus oppositis remotis disposita, suborbicularia, crassiuscula, basi subito contracta. Flores majusculi, axillares, pedunculati, plerumque in paribus oppositis dispositi, albidi ; pedunculi foliis subduplo longiores, maturi ad 1| cm. attinentes. Capsula calyce persistente brevior, late obovato-cuneata. A slender, rather rigid, sparingly leafy herb, 8 cm. high or less, sparsely pubescent wuth short white hairs, branched from the base, branches sparingly subdivided. Leaves in distant opposite pairs, suborbicular, suddenly contracted into a very short petiole, rather coriaceous, apparently glabrous, recurved 256 Transactions. at the margin, + 6 mm. long, either side showing two broadly rounded teeth separated by a wide shallow sinus. Flowers rather large, axillary, peduncled, generally arranged in opposisi pairs; peduncles nearly twice as long as the leaves, at maturity IJcni. long, curved. Calyx narrow-campanulate, pubescent, divided for one-third its length into four short obtuse subcostate lobes ; margins recurved. Corolla whitish, funnel-shaped, expanded at the throat ; upper lip 2-lobed, lobes short, obtuse, entire ; lower strongly refiexed and cut into three short obtuse entire lobes, the middle one narrower. Anthers cohering, glabrous or nearly so. Capsule shorter than the persistent calyx, broadly obovate-cuneate, sparingly pubescent at the top. Hah. — End Peak, Lake Hauroko. I have not seen good specimens of this plant, which was collected by Mr. J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S., during an adventurous and laborious visit to Lake Hauroko and its neighbourhood. Owing to difficulties of travel, they are so mouldy and indifferently dried that I cannot be sure of the glabrous condition of the leaves or of the exact colour of the corolla. The species finds its nearest ally in E. Cockayniana Petrie, from which it differs in the suborbicular differently cut leaves, the more diffuse branching, and the elongated curved peduncles. 5. Euphrasia umbellata sp. nov. Herba annua, ramosa, gracillima, glabra. Caulis gracilis, l|-2 cm. longus, deinde umbellato-ramosus ; rami gracillimi, patentes v. ascendentes, 5-10 cm, longi, parce subdivisi. Folia in paribus oppositis subdistantibus disposita, viridia, tenuia, trinervia, anguste cuneata, ad apicem in 5-7 breves subulatos subacutos dentes secta. Flores solitarii, longe pedmiculati ; corolla per-anguste infundibuli- formis, 1-li cm. longa, recta : stamina glabra. A low delicate much-branched glabrous annual herb. Main stem very slender, 1^2 cm. long, then umbellately divided into 4-7 spreading or ascending filiform branches 6-10 cm. long that are again sparingly subdivided ; branches not creeping or rooting. Leaves in rather distant opposite pairs, greenish when dry, sessile, thin, not recurved, 4-6 mm. long, 2 mm. broad, narrow-cuneate in outline, entire for two-thirds their length, the upper third cut into 5-7 narrow subacute subulate lobes. Flowers solitary in the axils of the upper leaves, not in opposite pairs, long-peduncled ; pedimcles capillary, 1-1| cm. long, straight, calyx short, tumidly campanulate, cut into four short subulate teeth. Corolla 1 cm. long, very narrow funnel-shaped, straight ; the lips short : anthers glab- rous or nearly so. Capsule (unripe) apparently shorter than the tube of the calyx. Hab. — Mouth of Oreti River, Southland. Li common with the preceding species described in this paper, the present plant was collected by Mr. J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S. His zealous and fortunate collecting is revealing in the south-western region of the South Island a more distinctive and varied flora than has hitherto been supposed to occur there. The Fiord County, with its many high ranges of Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIII. Plate II. MTTEIIT.ENBEf'KIA ASTON'I Pff.rll Face p. '4^7. \ Petrie. — Description of ^'ew Nafivc Phanerogams. 257 hills, is especially worthy of exploration, but difficulties of travel have made it almost impracticable. Now that these difficulties are being in part removed, our knowledge of the alpine plants of the region must steadily improve, and to Mr. Crosby Smith and his fellow-workers in the South we must look for a fuller knowledge of them. In addition to the new species enumerated above, Mr. Crosby Smith has found Celmisia Traversii Hook. f. on End Peak (Princess Range), at Lake Hauroko, a most unexpected extension of the range of that well-marked species, and in keeping with his former discovery of Stellaria Roughii Hook. f. on the Takitimu Mountains. 6. Muehlenbeckia Astoni sp, nov. Frutex erectus, ad 15dcm, altus, caules complures lignosos, rectos, teretes, brunneos, transversim + 8 mm. latos emittens ; tertia caulis parte summa tantummodo ramosa ; ramis multitoties in ramulos tenues, flexuosos, leves, brmineos, divaricantes et intricate implicatos divisus ; internodiis brevibus. Folia parva, pauca, terna v. bina in ramulis lateralibus valde decurtatis insita, magnitudine variabilia, 3-9 mm. lata, paene aeque longa, plerumque late obcordato-cuneata, tenuia, glabra, Integra, apice late incisa ; petiolis gracillimis, laminas fere aequantibus. Flores minuti, subglomerati, unisexuales (ut videtur), in extremis ramulis lateralibus foliosis insiti. Fructum haud vidi. All erect shrub, reaching a height of 15 dcm., and consisting of a number of straight dark -brown glabrous wrinkled canelike woody shoots, + 8 mm. across ; unbranched below, at three-quarters their height branch- ing and repeatedly subdividing into very numerous slender fiexuous divari- cating and interlacing branchlets with short internodes ; the main middle shoot general^ overtopping the lateral ones. Leaves in twos or threes on short arrested side shoots, small, few, very variable in size but not in outline, 3-9 mm. broad and about as long, glabrous, thin, entire, broadly notched at the apex, widely obcordate-cuneate or with the base rather rounded, on very slender petioles that equal or ex- ceed the blades ; veins very obscure. Flowers mmute, apparently unisexual, m small fascicles at the tips of the arrested leafy lateral shoots. Pedmicles short, very slender, rarely almost obsolete. Ripe fruit not seen. Hah. — Palliser Bay, near Orongorongo, and Wainuiomata. Collected by Mr. B. C. Aston, who informs me that the plant is of rare occurrence. This species is a near ally of M. complexa Meissn. The stout erect woody canelike shoots, the divaricate and interlacing habit of branching, and the thin small obcordate-cuneate leaves clearly mark it off as distinct. Fresh specimens must be studied to ascertain the characters of the flowers and fruit. Owing to the entanglement of the twigs and their flexuous form it is difficult to make satisfactory dried specimens, as the leaves and flowers cannot be directly subjected to pressure, so that they are very apt to curl and fall off. 9— Trans. 258 Transactions. Art. XXXI. — The Igneous Rocks of the Waihi Goldfield. By P. G. Morgan, M.A. [Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th October, 1910.] Contents. Introduction. Outline of geology. Previous jietrographic descriptions. Special petrography — continued. (2.) Stratified tuff of the Grand Junc- tion shaft. Special petrography — I (,3.) Andesites and tuffs of the " Second (1.) Rocks of the auriferous series. [ Period." (a.) Quartz-andesites and dacites. (a.) Andesites. (b.) Wall-rocks. j (6.) Tuffs. (c.) Vein- material. (4.) Rhyolites. (d.) Discussion of nomenclature. 1 (a.) Spherulitic rh^'olites. (e.) Alteration of vein-bearing i (b.) Wilsonite. dacites. (c.) Tridymite-rhyolites. (/.) Significance of propylitic i (5.) Andesitic rocks of doubtful age. facies. ' Literature. Introduction. In leisure time during the years 1903-5 the writer was engaged in making a petrographical study of the rocks occurring in or near the Waihi Gold- field. The main object of this study was to obtain data that would be of value in a detailed investigation of the geology and the mineral veins of that district. It was thought that such an investigation would assist in defining the limits of the auriferous rocks, and in discovering the mode of origin of the veins and the source of their metalliferous constituents. More especially it was hoped that clues to the laws regulating the distribution of values in the auriferous veins and the depth to which payable ore might be expected to persist would be foimd. In this work the writer was interrupted by a change of residence and occupation. So far as his researches went, the possibility of data of high economic value being obtained by close petrographical study, by chemical analysis, and by other methods of scientific investigation was clearly in- dicated. Since the study as originally planned by the writer remains woefully incomplete, it is not possible to set forth all that might be accom- plished by scientific work, nor is it advisable to state various conclusions that are not fairly well supported by the evidence actually obtained. The object of the present paper is to put on record the main results of the writer's petrographical work, with such descriptions as may be useful to future workers. It is desired especially to direct attention to the nature of the rocks enclosing the veins of the Waihi Mine, and to the type of altera- tion that these rocks have undergone. Outline of Geology. The oldest rocks exposed in the neighbourhood of Waihi are the altered lavas in which the gold-bearing lodes of the Waihi, Grand Junction, and other mines occur. These rocks are very generally considered to be quartz-bearing andesites and dacites, although a few years ago, when various samples from the Waihi mines were determined by Professor W. J. Sollas as altered pyroxene-rhyolites, some doubt as to their true nature arose. MOROAN. — Thf- Iff neons. Itarl-x of the W ailii Gohlfehl. 259 The term " auriferous series " may be applied to the rocks in question as a non-committal name with respect to their petrographical character. There is as yet no very positive evidence available concerning the age of the auri- ferous series, but it may be assumed as Eocene, or possibly early Miocene. After the rocks of the auriferous series had been subjected to more or less denudation, and very probably to the internal change known as propy- lization, a limited amount of material accumulated in valleys or other hollows that were doubtless occupied by lakes. Such material, in the form of well-stratified tuff, is exposed in the Grand Junction A or No. ] shaft at a depth of 620-640 ft. below the surface, and about 240 ft. below present sea-level. Soon volcanic activity on a large scale was resumed, and a second great outpouring of andesitic lavas took place. These rocks form high hills to the north of Waihi, and appear oji the surface in the open valley west of Martha Hill. They also occur to an unknown extent under the younger rhyolitic rocks at and near Waihi. In point of age these younger andesites and their accompanying tuft's (developed only very slightly near Waihi) may be referred to the Beeson's Island group of McKay, or to Eraser's " Tertiary Volcanic Rocks of the Second Period." To the Beeson's Island group may also be assigned the great development of tufts, in places much intersected by dykes, seen along the coast east and north-east of Waihi. After the eruption of the " Second Period " volcanics a comparatively brief period of rest from igneous activities was followed by the outpouring of acid lavas. Some of these were rhyolites of the peculiar brecciated- looking ty]De known as " wilsonite " (11,* vol. 1, pp. 123, 124 ; vol. 2, pp. 46, 138). This rock forms the greater part of the so-called " Waihi Plains," and wraps partly round the outcrops of the auriferous series. With it are associated small amounts of tuft. Between Waihi and the coast there appear spherulitic rhyolites, pro- bably of approximately the same age as the wilsonite, but possibly older. These are well developed east and north-east of Waihi. They are seen on the coast north of Houmunga Bay, at Waihi Beach (where they contain auriferous veins), and at Mount Hikurangi, a conspicuous elevation a few miles south of Waihi. Breaking through the wilsonite in various places, and therefore of younger age, are light-coloured rhyolites of harsh texture. These are observable mainly in and near the Town of Waihi, and are also well seen near Wai- kino, four miles to the west. The various rhyolites may be provisionally regarded as of Pliocene age, and as contemporaneous with the great rhyolitic flows of the central part of the North Island. Some hornblende-andesites that occur near Waihi are younger than any of the other andesites, but their age with reference to the rhyolites is uncertain. The recent surface accumulations of the Waihi district, consisting of a little conglomerate, talus, clay, &c., are of little moment from a purely geologic point of view. The loamy clay on the slopes of the Martha Hill is apparently largely of aerial origin, and might therefore be called loess. Since this material furnishes a cheap and efficient " filling " for the Waihi Mine workings it has considerable economic value. * This and other numbers similarly inserted in brackets refer to list of literature at end. 9* 260 Transactions. Previous Petrographic Descriptions. In 1870 Sir James Hector (1) passed through the Waihi district. Ap- parently he considered the andesitic rocks of the neighbourhood to be of doleritic and basaltic character. On the Waihi Plains he noted the presence of " trachyte " [? wilsonite]. To the eastward Hector observed hills capped by " true rhyolite " or " quartzose trachyte " [spherulitic rhyolite with quartz phenocrysts], and on the coast-line cliffs of " true trachyte agglome- rate." In 1882 Mr. S. H. Cox (2), now Professor of Mining in the Royal College of Science and Technology, London, made a flying survey of the Ohinemuri Goldfield. Cox mapped the rocks near Waihi as " tufaceous sandstone" [propylitic facies of andesites and dacites], dioritic rock, anamesite (?), and rhyolite. About 1883 the late Professor G. H. F. Ulrich determined by micro- scopic study the andesitic nature of the gold-bearing rocks of the Thames district. Ulrich's work, though known only through a communication made to Professor F. W. Hutton (3, p. 19) may be regarded as the most important contribution ever made to New Zealand petrography. Hence- forward the auriferous rocks at Waihi and in other parts of the Hauraki Goldfield if resembling those at Thames were regarded as altered or de- composed andesites — an essentially correct conclusion. In 1897 Professor James Park, apparently on the strength of micro- scopic examinations specially made by Ulrich (3, pp. 27, 28) referred to the rocks of the Waihi auriferous series as propylite resulting from the altera- tion of hypersthene-augite-andesite (3, pp. 26, 87). It ought to be remarked that the two rock-specimens determined by Ulrich were probably both from the andesitic rocks overlying the auri- ferous series, and hence Park's determination of the latter as altered hypersthene-augite-andesite can hardly be regarded as authoritative. Ap- parently this writer at that time regarded the Waihi andesites as all of one type and of one geological age. Park described the other volcanic rocks at Waihi as rhyolites, of which he mentioned there were at least two distinct flows. In the same year as the publication last cited an important report on the geology of the Cape Colville Peninsula appeared from the pen of Mr. Alex- ander McKay (4). On page 59 are a few sentences referring to the auri- ferous rocks in the neighbourhood of Waihi. These are placed in the " Kapanga group," but, evidently by design, no specific rock-names are given. In the absence of proper microscopic determinations McKay's attitude of reserve may be regarded as being highly correct. The various rhyolites near Waihi are described (pp. 67, 68) as " spherulitic rhyolite," " a remarkable brecciated rhyolite " (wilsonite), and " an earthy compact rhyolite." Largely as a result of the boom in gold-mining that prevailed during the years 1895-97, a number of papers in which the nature of the rocks at Waihi was more or less cursorily mentioned made their appearance, but for the purpose of the present article it is not necessary further to mention these publications, which were nearly all of an ephemeral character. In 1899 the late Mr. F. Rutley, in association with Professor Park (5), described several rhyolites from the neighbourhood of Waihi, as well as a doubtful silicified rock, a supposed silicified andesite tuft", and a supposed silicified andesite. Rutley M-as the first to observe tridymite in the rhyolites MoROAN. — The Ifjncoifs l{ricl-K of the Woihi (Unldfeld. 261 of Waihi and other parts of the Hauraki goldfields. His work on the silici- fied rocks plainly pointed the way to a theory of metasoniatic replacement of country* by vein-material. The next year Park (6) described a hypersthene-andesite stated to be from the 300 ft. level (probably No. 3 or 279 ft. level) of the Waihi Mine. He noted as original minerals plagioclase, some (probable) orthoclase, hy- persthene (much decomposed), a little enstatite, a little possible augite, some magnetite, and perhaps quartz. The possible presence of original hornblende (indicated by lozenge-shaped spaces crowded with dark dust) was also observed. Secondary minerals were magnetite, haematite, ser- pentinous matter, calcite, and quartz. Park's determination of orthoclase in this, perhaps the first specimen of rock from the Waihi Mine ever microscopically examined, is noteworthy, but, as will be shown on later pages, the primary origin of much or perhaps of all the orthoclase in Waihi andesites and dacites may be strongly questioned. In 1902 the writer, without having made any microscopic examinations, but relying on the statements of previous observers and on the results of analyses made by himself and others, stated that " the Waihi reefs lie in a decomposed andesite or propylite, which there is some reason to believe is older than the bush-clad andesite of the hills to the north and west." This latter is " of a different character to that forming the [Martha] hill itself " (7, p. 165). Two years later, the writer, having examined a number of sections of Waihi rocks, incidentally mentions that the " comitry " in which the lodes occur is " decomposed quartz-andesite " (8, p. 429). In 1905 Mr. Waldemar Lindgren, the well-known economic geologist, made a visit to Waihi. In a subsequent article on the Hauraki goldfields (9) Lindgren states, " Mr. Park determines it [the country of the Waihi Mine] on authority of Mr. Hutton [? Professor Ulrich] as hypersthene-andesite ; all of it, however, is not of that character, for specimens collected on the 500 ft-, levelf in the footwall of the Martha lode consist of a dark-green porphyritic rock with recognisable phenocrysts of corroded quartz and orthoclase. The ferro-magnesian silicates, probably pyroxene, are altered to serpentinoid aggregates. Lime-soda feldspars could not be definitely recognized, while the groundmass is micropoikilitic, and certainly contams much quartz. The rock is thus either a dacite or is intermediate between a dacite and a quartz-bearing trachyte." Lindgren also says, " The rock adjoining the sulphide ore [at the 500 ft. level, Martha lode] has suffered great alteration, although seemingly fresh. Pyrite and a carbonate, probably calcite, are abundant in metasomatic development, as is a brownish-green serpentine. The veinlets traversing it contain much secondary orthoclase or valencianite, together with quartz and calcite." A letter ^vritten by the writer commenting on Lindgren 's article remarks that the lode-bearing rock at Waihi " might perhaps be more correctly called quartz-andesite or dacite " (10, p. 861). In 1905 and 1906 appeared " The Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula, Auckland, New Zealand" (11). In this important work, consisting of * The term " country rock," now so commonly employed by writers on economic geology, is, strictly speaking, tautological. The miners of the Hauraki Goldfield, as a rule, employ the more correct expression, " country." t Probably the No. 6 or 555 ft. level. 262 Tra)isactions. petrographical descriptions by Professor W. J. SoUas, with additional matter and micro-photographs by Mr. Alexander McKay, nine rocks from Waihi mines are described. Of these, one is classed as a doubtful andesite, two as'pyroxene-rhyolites or andesites, five as rhyolites (mostly j)yroxene- rhyolites), and one is called " a much-decomposed altered quartz-feldspar- pyroxene rock." This last rock may possibly belong to the andesites overlying the auriferous series. Sollas also describes various andesites and rhyolites from the neigh- bourhood of Waihi. Reference will be made to some of his descriptions on a later page. In 1908 Dr. J. M. Bell and Mr. Colin Fraser, in an article on the Waihi Mine (12), refer to the mine-rocks as altered dacites, containing stringers of calcite, quartz (both chalcedonic and highly crystalline), orthoclase (variety valencianite) in minor amount, and pyrite. They remark, " The vein-bearing rocks have been described as rhyolites, but careful chemical and 'petrographical investigation have led the writers of the present paper to classify them as dacites " (12, p. 388). In the same paper reference is made to the younger andesitic and dacitic lavas and tuffs that overlie the vein-bearing dacites. Three types of rhyolite — namely, {a) spherulitic rhyolite, (6) pumiceous brecciated flow rhyolite (" wilsonite "), and (c) grey lithoidal rhyolite — are recognized. Dr. J. Malcolm Maclaren, who is well acquainted with the Hauraki goldfields, has also questioned Sollas's determination of the country in the Waihi Mine as a " hornblende-pyroxene-rhyolite." After quoting Sollas's description (11, vol. 2, pp. 67, 68), Maclaren remarks, " In view of the occurrence of orthoclase (valencianite) in the lodes of Waihi, and of the exceedingly altered state of the country, it is conceivable that the ortho- clase found in the above rock may be valencianite due to secondary action ; indeed, considerable indication of such a growth is outlined in the fore- going petrological description [Sollas's]. It is therefore probable that the highly decomposed rocks of the W^aihi area do not represent original rhyolites, but a local succession of andesites, dacites, and even more acid rocks that have been so thoroughly altered by solfataric solutions that many of their original characters have disappeared " (13, p. 315). In 1909 Mr. A. M. Finlayson, in an article entitled " Problems in the Geology of the Hauraki Goldfields, New Zealand " (14), remarks on tlie occurrence of valencianite (adularia) as a secondary product in the com- pletely altered rocks of Waihi. He isolated and analyzed the mineral, with the following results : — SiO^ .. .. .. .. .. 65-85 AI2O3 .. .. .. .. .. 1848 K2O .. .. .. .. .. 11-25 Na,0 .. .. .. .. .. 4-11 99-69 Specific gravity . . . . . . . . 2-61 Finlayson says, " In view of the fact that this orthoclase is, in the specimens examined, of secondary origin, while the primary feldspars are soda-lime varieties, the original rocks appear to have been in the main andesites and dacites The presence of soda in the Waihi Morgan. — The. Igneous Rocks of Ihe Waihi Goldfeld. 263 valencianite is doubtless due to its derivation from soda-feldspars by the action of the potash-bearing vein-solutions " (14, pp. 634-35). Finlayson also made a series of instructive analyses of specimens, all except one of which were from a crosscut to the Empire vein at the 850 ft. level of the Waihi Mine. These analyses show clearly the transition from " chloritized hornblende-dacite," with 58-39 per cent, of silica, to " altered dacite," with 61-78, 69-35, and 76-61 per cent, of silica, and finally to " replacement ore," with 85-65 per cent, of silica. In his latest work Professor Park refers to the rocks of the Waihi Goldfield in much the same terms as in 1897. The auriferous rocks are called " altered andesites and dacites " (15, p. 349). In a recent paper, entitled "The Waihi Goldfield" (16), Dr. J. M. Bell mentions the Waihi rocks by the same names as in the previous article by himself and Mr. C. Eraser (12). Special Petrography. From February, 1903, to May, 1905, the writer made and microscopic- ally examined a large number of sections from specimens of rocks occur- ring in or near the Waihi district. These will be described and discussed under the foUowmg headings : — (1.) Rocks of the auriferous series. (2.) Stratified tuff of the Grand Junction shaft. (3.) Andesites and tuffs of the " Second Period." (4.) Rhyolites. (5.) Andesitic rocks of doubtful age. (1.) Rods of the Auriferous Series, (a.) Quartz-andesites and Dacites. The specimens from which sections were made are for the most part from Nos. 5 and 6 levels* of the Waihi Mme. These levels correspond to depths below the surface of 445 ft. and 555 ft. respectively as measured from the collar of No. 1 shaft. Three or four are from higher levels of the Waihi Mine, and a few come from the Grand Jmiction and Waihi Extended Mines at depths of approximately 480 ft. to 500 ft. below the surface. Macroscopically the specimens are generally dark -grey or greenish close- grained rocks, showing porphyritic feldspars of moderate size and a few phenocrysts of glassy quartz. Numerous dark altered crystals are refer- able to pyroxenic or amphibolic minerals. A marked effervescence with cold dilute hydrochloric acid in practically all specimens indicates the presence of calcite. Under the microscope most sections exhibit many crystals of moderately or well twinned plagioclase which by the extinction angles and relative indices of refraction as compared with other minerals and with Canada balsam are shown to be mostly acid labradorite. Andesine is present in many cases. The twinning is nearly always on the albite law : pericline twinning is somewhat rarely seen. Zonary banding, pointing to a difference in the composition of individual crystals, is quite common. Nearly univers- ally, if not always so, the more acid feldspar (usually near andesine) is on the outside. * These are the numbers given in published plans and reports ; at the mine itself the practice is, or was, to call these levels Nos. 6 and 7. 264 Transactions. As regards alteration, the plagioclases vary from quite fresh individuals showing good twinning to highly decomposed crystals in which the original twinning has all but disappeared, and is indicated only by a faint banding in portions of the crj^stals.* From these it would seem but a small step to the highly altered feldspars without a trace of twinning that are com- monly present. The alteration-products are largely calcite and quartz. Some muscovite is occasionally present in small flakes, and in odd instances haematite fills the cleavage-cracks. The most-altered plagioclases (those with just a trace of repeated twinning) show a mosaic which is mainly secondary quartz and feldspar. The exact nature of the latter is not always apparent, but in some cases it can be determined as valencianite. In one instance where a microscopic vein of quartz and calcite crosses a section valencianite may be observed replacing a crystal of plagioclase intersected by the vein. Nearly all the sections have feldsjDar crystals that by their optical pro- perties appear to be orthoclase. These are in some instances fresh, and show Carlsbad twinning. One such crystal, with extinction angles of 19 J° and 19|°, has one half slightly but decidedly zonary. Many of the orthoclases, however, are much altered, and consist mainly of a mosaic of quartz and calcite, with some muscovite, iron-oxide, &c. The apparently residual feldspar in many cases suggests valencianite, but to prove decisively that it is really secondary is no easy matter. A consideration, however, of the manner in which transition forms occur between undoubted plagioclase and the crystals in question leads to the conclusion that the latter must represent highly altered lime-soda feldspars. In this connection the almost invariable presence of calcite is strongly suggestive of an original lime- content. Original quartz grains are present in all the sections. Some sections have only one or two small quartz grains, others have several compara- tively large phenocrysts. All the quartz grains have rounded outlines, in many instances with deep bays, and thus show clearly the effects of corrosion by a fluid magma. Very rarely can an approach to bi-pyramidal outlines be seen. Occasionally the grains of quartz seem to include small rounded patches of the groundmass, but these are probably all, or nearly all, embayments cut across in the sectioning. Ferro-magnesian minerals are represented by fairly numerous pheno- crysts, generally entirely altered to chlorite, serpentinous matter, iron- oxides, &c. In a few sections augite is quite recognisable. Hypersthene or similar rhombic pyroxene seems to have been originally present Ln every section. Hornblende is probably represented in odd sections by dark lozenge-shaped masses similar to those described by Park (6, p. 343). The other original minerals present call for little description. Small crystals or grains of magnetite are always seen. Some of these, however, are presumably due to the decomposition of ferro-magnesian minerals. The magnetite is often partly altered to a leucoxenic-looking mineral, but this, according to Finlayson, is probably siderite. Apatite can usuhUy be dis- tinguished as small needles in the feldspars. Zircon is possibly present in one or two sections. The groundmass in the various sections varies considerably in amount, but may be said to form much more than half the rock, as a rule. In the * Sollas speaks of similar feldspars as showing traces of microperthitic structure (11, vol. 2, pp. 18, 54). MoRfiAN. — llic lyneous Eorks of Hit Wa'ilii Goldfield. 265 fresher examples an abundance of small feldsj^ar laths crowded together in more or less parallel arrangement is present, and thus the structure is decidedly inclined to be pilotaxitic ; but, since calcite and other alteration- products are invariably present to some extent, the original pilotaxitic (or possibly hyalopilitic) structure is partly obscured. More commonly the groundmass consists mainly of a granular mosaic of quartz^ feldspar, and calcite, with minor amounts of other minerals. (6.) Wall-rocks. The rocks now to be discussed are from the same localities as those coming under {a), except that, as indicated by the heading, the specimens examined were obtained either within a few feet of the larger veins or were taken from the actual walls of the veins. Macroscopically the wall-rocks are evidently more highly altered than those some distance from the veins. They are lighter-coloured, and do not effervesce so freely with hydrochloric acid. Feldspar and, less com- monly, quartz phenocrysts may be observed. Ferro-magnesian minerals, while usually distinguishable, are always intensely affected by decompo- sition. Under the microscope the sections show extreme alteration. The feld- spar phenocrysts are nearly all so decomposed that the identification of their original character becomes micertain. In one or two sections fairly fresh binary twins of orthoclase may be recognized. In most of the sections there are feldspars showing traces of repeated albite twinning, and hence it may be concluded that these feldspars were originally plagioclase. In the main, however, albite twinning is absent, and, since the refractive index of any recognizable feldspar is well below that of Canada balsam, the mineral approaches orthoclase or anorthoclase in its characters. The most highly altered feldspars consist of a mosaic of quartz and feldspar, with minor quantities of calcite and " kaolinitic " matter. In some cases the feldspar of the mosaic is evidently secondary, and therefore to be termed " valen- cianite." In other instances, however, its secondary nature is less certain, though appearances are generally quite consistent with such a conclusion. The so-called " kaolinitic " matter mentioned above is strongly suspected to be near sericite in composition, but in the absence of chemical tests its exact nature seems indeterminable. Original quartz grains appear exactly as in the rocks coming under the last heading, except that they are in some instances in optical continuity with clearly secondary quartz, a phenomenon not observed in the less- altered country. The ferro-magnesian minerals are entirely altered to chloritic material, with a little iron oxide, &c., so that the original species can hardly be more than guessed at. Rhombic pyroxene may perhaps be assumed as having been present. Primary hornblende is doubtfully indicated by the presence of many small magnetite grains in some of the chloritic matter which has outlines possibly referable to amphibole. Other original minerals include a little magnetite, often with leucoxene- like alteration (? to siderite), and a few small needles of apatite. A section made from a diamond-drill core obtained in the Grand Jmiction Mine at a depth of nearly 800 ft. from the surface shows a nest of some mineral with the appearance of tridymite. '' The groundmass in the sections of wall-rocks is a granular mosaic com- posed largely of quartz, with probably more or less valencianite, a little 266 Transactions. calcite, &c. An almost opaque streaky substance, nearly white by reflected light, forms much of the groundmass. Such material is often referred to as " kaolinitic," but, as previously remarked, is probably near sericite in composition. Of secondary minerals not already mentioned, pyrite, almost invariably in small cubes, is the most conspicuous. Epidote or allied mineral may very rarely be present. (c.) Vein- material. The vein-material of the Waihi mines largely replaces country, and therefore will be discussed to some extent. In the upper levels of the Waihi Mine the vein-material is quartz, with a little clay, iron and manganese oxides, &c. Some of the quartz is crystalline to the eye, and has obviously been deposited in open spaces. Much, however, is of flinty or chalcedonic appearance. Sections of this chalcedonic material show that it is mainly an indefinite kind of mosaic that resembles the quartz mosaic seen in highly altered wall-rock, and it therefore suggests replacement or silicification of country. This view is supported by a study of the ore from lower levels. The following analysis* of a representative piece of " oxidized " ore from one of the upper levels shows that the material is far from being pure quartz : — SiO^ AUO3 Fe'^Oy (including FeO calculated to Fe.,03) MnO and NiO . . . . ' . H2O at 100° C. Loss on ignition 89-98 1-82 5-62 0-39 0-26 1-60 99-67 Gold, 2 oz. 5 dwt. 17 gr. per ton. Silver, 10 oz. 2 dwt. 12 gr. per ton. Sections made from a portion of the specimen that furnished the material for the above analysis show ore with replacement characters seamed by tiny veins of crystalline quartz. In Nos. 5 and 6 levels (445 ft. and 555 ft.) of the Waihi Mine the presence of partly unsilicified country in the veins is easily recognized. In places quite a large proportion of the vem-material is dark-coloured rock, which in some instances is actually less altered than the wall-rock. Sections of the less-silicified rock from the veins are very like those of the wall-rocks. Feldspar is the chief original mmeral recognizable. Some individuals with feldspathic outlines are mosaics of quartz and presumably secondary orthoclase or anorthoclase, together with more or less kaolinitic, or more probably sericitic, material. In places fresh, easily recognized valencianite with good cleavage and low index of refraction occurs. Binary twins of apparent orthoclase are observable in at least one section. In several slides traces of repeated albite twmning are quite distinguishable in the feldspars, and in one section acid labradorite, and perhaps andesine, can be identified. Some original quartz in rounded grains is present in all the slides. Ferro-magnesian minerals are in general even more altered than in the -wall-rocks, and are represented by somewhat indefinite masses of chlorite and othe* minerals, particularly pyrite, so that the original species * See 7, p. 182. Morgan. — The lyneous Rocks of the Waihi fJohlfield. 267 cannot be ascertained. The groundmass is more or less a quartz mosaic. Other minerals present in it are magnetite, pyrite, and calcite. (d.) Discussion of Nomenclature. With the notable exceptions of Sollas, and to some extent of Lindgren, the various writers who have been quoted on previous pages substantially agree in describing the rocks of the auriferous series as andesites, quartz- andesites, or dacites. Lindgren hesitates between dacite and quartz- trachyte as a name for these rocks ; but this geologist examined wall-rock from the Waihi Mine only. It would also seem to be the case that all, or nearly all, Sollas's determinations were made from samples of highly altered rock adjoining large veins. Had Sollas been given an opportunity of examining a series of less-altered specimens taken some distance from the larger ore-bodies it is probable that he would have reached conclusions more in agreement with those of New Zealand workers.* As matters stand, however, the presence of much apparent orthoclase has given rise to a diffi- culty in naming the auriferous rocks. From the petrographical descriptions given on the preceding pages it will be gathered that there is much evidence for the view that most, if not all, of the supposed original orthoclase is of a secondary character, replacing original lime-soda feldspar, as has already been suggested by Maclaren and Finlayson. Thus the determination of the auriferous rocks as quartz-andesites or dacites (these terms being here used as all but identical in meaning) may be regarded as proved, at least as regards the Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 levels (279 ft., 353 ft., 445 ft., and 555 ft.) of the Waihi Mine, the 500 ft. level of the Waihi Extended Mine, and the 494 ft. level of the Grand Junction Mine. There is no reason for supposing that the rocks of the Waihi-Union and Waihi-Silverton Mines are of different character. Samples of the less -altered country from all the Waihi mines show a great similarity, so that they are possibly all of one original type — probably a hypersthene-dacite with some augite and perhaps a little hornblende. Chemical analyses of the less-altered mine-rocks entirely support their determination as dacites of a somewhat basic type. The analyses known to the writer show a silica-content ranging from 55 to 61 per cent., with other constituents in proportions normal to an ordinary andesite or dacite that has been somewhat affected by solutions containing carbon-dioxide. The following determinations of silica and water made on rocks from the present lowest level of the Waihi Mine, communicated to the writer by Mr. A. H. V. Morgan, M.A., Director of the Waihi School of Mines, show that the rocks at that level are, if anything, less acidic than in the upper levels : — Moisture lost o-^-v at 100° C. ^^^2- I .. .. .. .. 2-30 55-13 II .. .. .. .. 1-80 56-23 I, cormtry in crosscut at 1,000 ft. level towards Roj^al reef, about 50 ft. from No. 5 shaft ; II, country in crosscut at 1,000 ft. level from No. 5 shaft, about 50 ft. south of No. 4 shaft. * Sollas, however, regarded some of the rocks he examined as possibly andesites, and his descriptions of specimens 3/2719 and 4/2721 (11, vol. 1, pp. 128-50) may be cited as evidence that he was inclined to call rocks similar to those from the Waihi mines altered dacites or andesites. 268 Transactions. (e.) Alteration of Vein-hearing Dacites. From the preceding pages it will be gathered that near the quartz lodes the dacites are partly silicified, especially in the groundmass. The original lime-soda feldspars have been almost entirely replaced by valencianite, quartz, probable sericite, and other minerals. Chloritization of the ferro- magnesian constituents is prominent. In the sulphide-ore zone more or less pyrite is present. At some distance from the veins chloritization of the ferro-magnesian minerals is perhaps the most noticeable feature. Many, but not all, of the lime-soda feldspars appear to be replaced by valencianite. Calcite as a secondary mineral is more abundant than in the wall-rocks. Other secondary minerals are quartz, a little pyrite, and perhaps some muscovite and sericite. By the changes outlined in the last paragraph what may be called the propylitic facies is brought about. The name " propylite " for such rocks, as used by Park and others, is a most convenient term that midoubtedly fills a M'ant, and it is therefore to be regretted that the usage is open to the objection that the name was originally intended to indicate a distinct rock species. Further discussion of the nature of the orthoclastic feldspar of the altered dacites seems desirable. Some is clearly secondary, and is there- fore valencianite. Finlayson has shown that this valencianite is a soda- orthoclase or anorthoclase (14, p. 634). Much more abundant, however, are altered feldspar crystals, now consisting partly of untwinned feldspar of low refractive index, partly of quartz, calcite, and other minerals. Reasons for believing that the feldspar in these crystals is not the remains of the original mineral, but is an alkali (potash-soda) feldspar of secondary character, are the following : — (1.) In many sections evident transitions from lime-soda feldspars to purely alkali feldspars may be seen. (2.) The nearer the lodes, the less the number of recognizable lime-soda feldspars, and the greater the number of alkali feldspars. (3.) Chemical analyses show comparatively low percentages of silica and potash in the altered dacites when 30 ft. or more from any large lode. (4.) The alkali feldspars usually contain as a decomposition-product calcite, and therefore the presence of lime in the original feldspar is indi- cated. Of the highly altered feldspars, it cannot be asserted that all were originally lime-soda feldspars, but it seems certain that at least the majority were such. There may, however, be reason for thinking that the fresh but rarely seen individuals of apparently pure potash feldspar with binary twinning are primary. It would be difficult to prove the contrary. If the possibility that some of the alkali feldspar is original be admitted, then it may be supposed either that orthoclase was a constituent of the original andesitic or dacitic magma, or that during or immediately preceding eruption there was some mixing of an andesitic magma with a rhyolitic differentiate. The presence of corroded quartz seems to support the latter hypothesis, which is decidedly an attractive one, however slender a founda- tion it may rest upon. (/.) Significance of Propylitic Facies. It may be asked whether the propylitic facies, as developed at Waihi, does not necessarily involve the formation of secondary alkali feldspar Morgan. — The Igneous Rocks of the Waihi doJdfichJ . 26y replacing lime-soda feldspar. It cannot be doubted that such a change has taken place to some extent in the rocks some distance from the veins, but more especially in the wall-rocks. The chief agents in ordinary propyliza- tion are without much doubt carbon-dioxide and water, and at Waihi a considerable amount of potash appears to have been introduced when propylization took place, so that a propylitic facies, which is possibly some- what unusual,* was brought about. The appearance of the prop3'litic facies seems closely connected in some way with ultimate silicification in the neighbourhood of planes of fracture — that is to say, with vein-formation. The concentration of metallic minerals, and more especially of gold and silver in the veins, gives a high economic value to any successful attempt to explain the various phenomena attending vein-formation and the localization of ore-shoots and bonanzas. It seems certain that vein-formation in propylitic rocks is due to ascending solutions, which also are presumably the carriers of metallic minerals, and yet in the Hauraki Goldfield the influence of the country on the localization of values is enormous. As the basis of a working hypothesis, it may be suggested that, in effect, a double circulation was set up by some unknown factor or factors ; whilst carbon-dioxide and potash in aqueous solution made their wav hundreds of feet from the vein-fractures, other substances from the country entered the veins, and probably caused or aided the precipitation of gold, silver, and other metals. Osmosis and electro-chemical agencies may well be supposed to have been concerned in the double circulation thus invoked. It is wished, however, rather to emphasize the conception that there was interaction between the whole body of propylitic rock and the ascending vein-formiiig solutions during the period of propylization. In other words, propylization and vein-formation were contemporaneous and to a great extent interdependent. Problems to be solved at Waihi and elsewhere are : What are the conditions necessary to propylization ? Does the propylitic alteration im- mediately succeed the extrusion and solidification of dacitic or andesitic lavas, or does it take place at a later date ? Is it a long-continued or a rapid process % Again, does vein-formation accompany propylization as a more or less necessary concomitant, or does it simply follow mainly because rocks with the propylitic facies afford better facilities in some way for vein- formation ? The economic geologist will be further interested to learn, if possible, why quartz veins in propylitic rocks more often contain appreciable quantities of gold and silver than quartz veins in other classes of rocks. The discovery of the laws regulating the distribution of ore-shoots and bonanzas in the quartz veins of the Hauraki goldfields probably depends in great measure upon the scientific investigation not only of the ore-bodies themselves, but of the enclosing rocks. It has been said by many persons — some with a sound practical knowledge of mining in the Hauraki goldfields — that it is impossible to discover such laws ; but the progress made in economic geology during the past twenty years gives hope that rules possessing real value may yet be formulated. (2.) Stratified Tuff of the Grand Junction Shaft. At a depth of about 620 ft. the Grand Junction A or No. 1 shaft passes from andesite into fine-grained volcanic debris or tuff, which at 630 ft. to * A similar facies is developed at Karangahake, and possibly elsewhere in the Hau- raki Peninsula. 270 Transactions. 640 ft. is in well-marked layers with a dip of 21° to 22° to the southward. At some depth not exactly ascertained by the writer this shaft enters the older rocks of the auriferous series. Pieces of much-altered wood still retaining about 10 per cent, of carbon were common in the material excavated from the shaft at 620 ft. to 630 ft. , or thereabouts. These, evidently derived from shrubs or small trees, averaged less than 1 in. in diameter, and were in no case more than a few inches long. Sections made of the enclosing tuff show its fragmentary character very well, especially by reflected light. The constituents appear to be mainly highly decomposed broken feldspar crystals, with a few grains of quartz and other minerals. The secondary products present are calcite, chlorite, pyrite, and nearly opaque kaolinitic matter (probably mainly sericite). The well-stratified tuff at 630 ft. appears to have suffered l)ut little alteration comparable to that involved in the propylitic facies of the under- lying auriferous series. There is therefore some reason for thinking that propylization of the latter rocks preceded the deposition of the tuffs ; but before any definite conclusion, if such is possible, can be drawn from the line of reasoning here indicated a more detailed study of the tuff than that made by the writer will be advisable. (3.) Andesites and Tuffs of the " Second Period.'''' (a.) Andesites. Near Waihi the rocks of the " Second Period " are almost wholly ande- sitic lavas, which in the main closely resemble one another. They are greyish, bluish, or even nearly black rocks, with numerous phenocrysts of feldspar and pyroxene. Macroscopically they differ from the earlier quartz- andesites or dacites chiefly in being, as a rule, very much less altered. Under the microscope the younger andesites show practically no orthoclase, and, though primary quartz grains are usually present, these occur to a notice- ably less extent than in the older volcanic rocks. The chief type represented is a hypersthene-augite-andesite with a pilotaxitic or semi-pilotaxitic base. The feldspars are usually fresh and well-twinned basic andesine or acid labradorite. The twinning is generally of the ordinary albite type, but other forms are occasionally seen, and good zonary banding is quite common. In very rare instances a crystal of what appears to be orthoclase may be seen in a section. Quartz, usually present, is in rounded grains of moderate size, and has the same characters as in the auriferous rocks. The occurrence of a very large bleb of white quartz in a sample of andesite collected near the Mataura track by Mr. F. T. Seelye, of the Waihi School of Mines, deserves note. Sections of this, microscopically examined, were found, except in small areas, to be optically homogeneous. Augite occurs in the usual way, and is in many cases very finely twinned. A rhombic pyroxene is usually present in abundance. In some slides it predominates over augite, while in others the reverse is the case, but, on the whole, the rhombic and monoclinic pyroxenes are about equal in amount. Generally the rhombic pyroxene is hypersthene, which, while showing well-marked pleochroism, is not of a very ferriferous type, and probably approaches bronzite. In many cases more or less enstatite is present, in some to the total exclusion of hypersthene. The rhombic pyroxenes are decidedly more subject to alteration than the augite. In sections of MOROAN. — The I;/)icou.<< Forks of flie WaiJii Clohlfrhl. 271 specimens from the 500 ft.* levels of the Waihi Extended and Grand Junc- tion Mines they are converted almost wholly into chlorite, and elsewhere are not uncommonly partly chloritized. In a few slides a little hornblende with resorption border is present. Lozenge-shaped bodies filled with dark dust such as have been observed in the older lavas are not rare and in the absence of further study may be presumed to represent hornblende that has suffered almost complete resorp- tion. The other primary minerals present in the hypersthene-augite-andesites are magnetite in small grains, apatite in microscopic needles penetrating phenocrysts of feldspar and pyroxene, and possibly one or two of the rarer rock-forming minerals, such as zircon, in tiny grains. In the Grand Junction and Waihi Extended Mines alteration of the Second Period rocks overlying the auriferous series is in places very marked. Besides the chloritization of the ferro-magnesian minerals, the feldspars may be much decomposed, with the production of calcite, quartz, and " kaolinitic " matter (probably mainly sericite). Though these effects are seemingly of a propylitic nature, they may be partly due to meteoric solutions. In specimens from shafts and boreholes on the western side of the Martha Hill much alteration is also apparent. In this area serpentine is a prominent secondary mineral in the andesites. Since the decomposed rocks mentioned in the last paragraph are not known to contain any auriferous-quartz veins, it may be supposed that their alteration was not associated with the formation of ore-bodies. The question deserves investigation, however, for the alteration may possibly have taken place during a period when the lodes in the underlying auri- ferous series were being enriched, or at a time when values in these lodes were being concentrated in ore-shoots. In the hills towards the coast-line north-east of Waihi are several varieties of andesitic rocks that differ from the ordinary hypersthene-augite-andesite. These, since they occur somewhat outside the area intended to be described in this paper, will not be further mentioned. (6.) Tuffs. On the top of a. hill somewhat more than a mile north-west of the Martha Hill is a small outcrop of coarse tuff underlain by a thin clayey layer, below which comes an ordinary andesite. A section made from one of the boulders shows that it is a vesicular hornblende-andesite, with some augite. The vesicles are lined by a yellow undetermined substance. Another boulder proved to be an andesite with beautifully twinned augite and a slightly pleochroic rhombic pyroxene (bronzite). It is quite possible that the tuii under notice belongs to a later period than is here assumed, and ought to be associated with the hornblende-andesites described on page 273. The andesitic tufTs that appear some miles north-east of Waihi and along the coast-line have not been examined in detail by the writer. (4.) Rhyolites. As already mentioned, three types of rhyolite occur near Waihi — one spherulitic, the second (wilsonite) with a peculiar flow structure, and the * In the Grand Junction Mine the exact depth is 494 ft. below the collar of the A or No. 1 shaft. 272 Transactions. tMrd a light-coloured fine-grained rock with few phenocrysts. This latter rock contains nests of tridymite, and therefore for the sake of distinction will be designated the " tridymite-rhyolite." («.) SpheruJitic Rhyolites. Macroscopically the spherulitic rhyolites show numerous spherulites, many grains of quartz, and occasional small plates of biotite. A little secondary opal is present in some specimens, and may show good " fire." Under the microscope quartz appears in large grains, with many gas en- closures. Small crystals of plagioclase and biotite may also be present. The greater part of every section, however, is seen to consist of spherulites. The exact nature of the spherulites in Hauraki rhyolites has been discussed by Rutley (5, pp. 451 et seq.) and Sol las (11, vol. 1, pp. 120-22). Rutley regards them as being composed of devitrified glass, whilst Sollas, beyond adducing evidence opposed to the devitrification theory, makes no very definite pronouncement.* For the present it may be assumed that the spherulites approach orthoclase in composition, and were formed during the final consolidation of the rhyolites. In a section of rhyolite from the hills about a mile and a half east of Waihi a quartz-grain is seen to form part of a spherulite boundary. Hence in this case the spherulite is obviously of later formation than the quartz. In the same section a phenomenon which may be termed spherulite within spherulite occurs. At Waihi Beach a beautifully spherulitic rock is traversed by auriferous- quartz veins. Sections show that the rock is more or less silicified, much secondary quartz mosaic being present. Feldspar (probably orthoclase) appears in imperfect crystals, one of which is imbedded in a spherulite. A small vein traversing one of the sections from Waihi Beach consists of a fine quartz mosaic cementing and in part replacing fragments of coun- try. . It may from this be inferred that the auriferous veins of this locality, like those at Waihi, are largely replacement veins following fracture planes or zones. The rhyolites referred to above are more fully described by Sollas (11, vol. 2, pp.' 35, 112). (b.) Wilsonite. The peculiar rhyolitic rock commonly known as " wilsonite " has been described by Sollas '(11, vol. 1, pp. 123, 124 ; vol. 2, pp. 46, 138). The same rock is mentioned by Park (3, p. 88) and McKay (4, p. 67), and has probably been described by Rutley (5, pp. 460, 461, No. H^s). The freshest obtainable specimens of wilsonite show pinkish or purplish surfaces flecked with numerous black streaks. The fractured rock has a somewhat vitreous lustre. When affected by surface weathering the pur- plish portion of the rock become nearly white, and the dark portions tend to approach a light-grey colour. Highly weathered rock is of a nearly uniform almost white colour. In places wilsonite tends to pass into a tuff, owing, it is believed, to brecciation of surface portions that solidified before the cessation of flow. Rounded fragments of andesite, usually from ^ in. to 1 in. in diameter, are very common as inclusions in the wilsonite. These are most noticeable in the highly weathered rock, which also is usually the most tufaceous-looking. * Sollas stated (11, vol. 1, pp. 122, 124) that he intended to deal more fully with the questions of structure, origin, &c., in a final report. This, apjian-ntly, was not written. MoEGAif. — Tlte Igneous Rucks of tJtc WaiJii (J old field. 273 Porphyritic grains of quartz and feldspar are easily detected in the unweathered wilsonite. Sections examined under the microscope show that the feldspar is mainly oligoclase and oligoclase-andesine. Some of the more basic feldspars may be andesine, or even acid labradorite. A little orthoclase is probably present. Small fragments of ferro-magnesian minerals also appear. The greater part of the sections consists of a glassy base nearly, but not quite, isotropic. The bulk of the glassy matter shows a streaky flow struc- ture, but there are also small patches of brownish glass not affected by flow. The dark streaks of the hand-specimen are plainly visible, and from the manner in which they pass into the lighter portions the view that the rock is a lava and not a tuff receives emphatic support. (c.) Tridymite-rhyolites. The tridymite-rhyolites in the neighbourhood of Waihi appear as a number of small flows that at several points may be seen breaking through wilsonite. They are greyish-white rocks of even grain, but somewhat harsh texture. Fluxion structure is usually more or less apparent to the eye, and on close examination small glassy feldspars may be detected. Frag- ments of andesite, and possibly other rocks, are commonly noticeable. In a flow on the east side of the Martha Hill charcoal has been observed at two points — namely, in the Grand Junction A shaft, at a depth of 110 ft. to 112 ft. from the surface ; and in the chamber at No. 3 level adjoining No. 4 shaft, Waihi Mine (depth below shaft-collar, about 195 ft.). Sections of the tridymite - rhyolites from various localities show that they are composed mainly of a glassy base with a fine corrugated flow struc- ture. The scattered phenocrysts are mostly plagioclase (oligoclase or andesine). Rutley has reported sanidine (5, p. 460). Small broken crystals of green hornblende, augite, and hypersthene (Sollas), probably zenoliths, are occasionally observable. An interesting point is that most of the sec- tions show nests of tridymite, which apparently takes the place of free quartz. Slightly decomposed or altered specimens^ — for example, the charcoal-bearing rock from the Grand Junction shaft — do not show any tridymite, but secondary quartz may be observed. Magnetite and zircon (Sollas) are present in some sections. The tridymite-rhyolites near Waihi have been minutely described by Rutley (5, pp. 457-60, Nos. Hg-H.J and Sollas (11, vol. 2, pp. 14-15 and 66-67). (5.) Andesitic RocJcs of Doubtful Age. Under this heading are included some of the younger andesitic rocks that were not suflSciently studied to enable the determination of their relative ages with reference to one another and to the rhyolites to be made. The rocks thus occurring are hornblende-andesites of a variable character. The most notable occurrence of such rocks is the andesite forming the Black Hill, east of Waihi. In places it shows well-marked though not perfect columnar structure. The rock is not very uniform in appearance, but in the main is a dark-grey hornblende-andesite, sections of which, besides abundant hornblende, show a little augite, and in places biotite. The feldspar phenocrysts are probably oligoclase-andesine. A little mag- netite and apatite in fine needles are present. A nearly isotropic mineral of very low refractive index was not determined. The base contains nume- rous feldspar microlites, and with a ^ in. objective exhibits a kind of feathery appearance under crossed nicols. 274 Transactions. SoUas (11, vol. 2, pp. 13, 14) describes a sample of rock from the Black Hill as a light-grey hyalopilitic andesite, with hornblende and biotite. He also mentions the possible presence of quartz and tridymite. The Black Hill andesite contains in places small fine-grained segregations. One of these on microscopic examination exhibits numerous small feldspar laths of rather basic type (labradorite), together with small phenocrysts of augite, chlorite, and plentiful magnetite imbedded in a glassy base. The structure is reminiscent of an ordinary basalt. The transition border con- sists of large feldspars near andesine, with some hornblei>de, enstatite or hypersthene (near bronzite), biotite, and quartz (very rare) imbedded in an obscure apparently more or less glassy base. One section of a rock from a spot on the east side of the Ohinemuri River aboiit a mile and a half north-east of Waihi shows a hornblende- andesite with some biotite, augite, and hypersthene (rare). A second section contains more hypersthene, but less augite and biotite. It thus approaches very nearly the Black Hill rock described by Sollas. About two miles and a half west of Waihi, along the course of the water- race to the Victoria Battery (Waikino), there occurs a hornblende-andesite with some augite and enstatite (or bronzite). The two sections made differ considerably in the relative proportions of rhombic pyroxene, so that a want of homogeneity in the rock-mass is again apparent. Literature. (1.) 1871. Hector, James. " On the Geology of the Cape Colville Dis- trict." Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. during 1870-71, vol 6, pp. 88-103. (2.) 1883. Cox, S. H. " Goldfields of the Cape Colville Peninsula." Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv. during 1882, vol. 15, pp. 4-51. (3.) 1897. Park, James. " The Geology and Veins of the Hauraki Gold- fields." Trans. N.Z. Inst, of Min. Eng., vol. 1. (4.) 1897. McKay, Alexander. " Report on the Geology of the Cape Col- ville Peninsula, Auckland." Mines Report, C.-9, pp. 1-75. (5.) 1899. Park, James, and Rutley, F. " Notes on the Rhyolites of the Hauraki Goldfields, New Zealand." Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc, vol. 45, pp. 449-69. (6.) 1900. Park. James. " Notes on a Hypersthene-andesite from Waihi Mine, Waihi." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, pp. 342-43. (7.) 1902. Morgan, P. G. " Notes on the Geology, Quartz Reefs, and Minerals of the Waihi Goldfield." Trans. Aust. Inst. ' Min. Eng., vol. 8, pp. 164-87. (8.) 1904. Morgan, P. G. " W\ater in the Hauraki Goldfield." Eng. and Min. Journ. of New York, vol. 78, p. 429 (15th September). (9.) 1905. Lindgren, Waldemar. " The Hauraki Goldfields, New Zealand." Eng. and Min. Journ. of New York, vol. 79, p. 218 (2nd February). Reprinted in " New Zealand Mines Record," vol. 8, pp. 370-73 (17th April). (10.) 1905. Morgan, P. G. " The Hauraki Goldfields, New Zealand." Eng. and Min. Journ. of New York, vol. 79, p. 861 (4th May). Re- printed in " New Zealand Mines Record," vol. 8, pp. 465-67 (16th June). (11.) 1905-6. Sollas, W. J., and McKay, Alexander. " The Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula, Auckland, New Zealand." 2 vols. MOKCAN. — Tile hjiKOtix Eorhx of tJir W'diJii Qoldfehl . 275 (12.) 1908. Bell, J. M., and Eraser, C. " The Great Waihi Mine." Can- adian Min. Joiirn., vol. 29, pp. 388-93 (15tli August) and 420-24 (1st September). (13.) 1908. Maclaren, J. Malcolm. " Gold : its Geological Occurrence and Geographical Distribution." (14.) 1909. Finlayson, A. M. " Problems in the Geology of the Hauraki Goldfields, New Zealand." " Economic Geology," vol. 4, No. 7, pp. 632-45. (15.) 1910. Park, James. " The Geology of New Zealand." (16.) 1910. Bell, J. M. " The Waihi Goldfield." Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Eng., voh 7, No. 1. Art, XXXII. — A Note on the Structure of the Southern Alps. By P. G. Morgan, M.A. {Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th October, 1910.] In Hochstetter's " New Zealand " (English translation), on page 487, two geological sections from east to west across the South Island will be found. One of these, after Hector, is drawn through Otago ; the other, drawn through Canterbury and Westland, was supplied by Von Haast, and il- lustrates with a considerable degree of correctness the structure of the Southern Alps. In discussing the latter feature, Hochstetter says, " A simple glance at the above sections shows, farthermore, that only the eastern half of a complete mountain-chain has been preserved, while the western half is buried in the depth of the main " (1,* p. 489). As a matter of fact, however, the sections do not prove the truth of Hochstetter's statement, which rests rather upon a hypothetical basis. One object of this note is to show that, on the contrary, the Southern , Alps are not, as Hochstetter supposed, the remnant of a vastly larger range that once extended far to the westward of their present limits, but retain the same, or almost the same, dimensions as at any past period of their history. Hochstetter's opinion, however, has been adopted by most New Zealand geologists. In 1879 Von Haast writes, " This remarkable chain, of which the geological structure is generally uniform throughout, is only the eastern wing of a huge anticlinal arrangement, of which the western portion has either been destroyed or submerged below the Pacific Ocean. It has thus the same one-sided arrangement, so conspicuous in almost every alpine chain of which the geological structure is known. The axis of this anti- cline consists of granite and other plutonic rocks" (2, p. 242). At a later date Hutton, repeating part of Von Haast's statement almost word for word, says that " the mountain-range is only the eastern half of a huge geanticlinal arrangement of contorted rocks, the western half having * This and other numbers similarly enclosed in brackets refer to list of literatuie at end. 276 Transactions. been washed away by the heavy rains which fail upon that side, and which must have fallen for a verv long time to have produced so great an effect " (5, p. 161). • In recent years Marshall (7, p. 98 ; but see also 11, p. 445), Park (12, p. 16), and others appear to have accepted Hochstetter's explanation of the structure of the Southern Alps without question. In 1908, however, the writer pointed out that a series of ancient rocks designated by him the Greenland series* occurs along the western margin of the Southern Alps. These rocks, if Hochstetter's hypothesis were correct, should show the same folding as the rocks of the Arahura series, which form almost the whole of the Southern Alps ; but, instead of that being the case, it is found that they are folded almost at right angles to the trend of the Alps (10, pp. 31, 36, 97). This fact is completely opposed to the idea that the present alpine chain is " only the eastern half of a huge geanticlinal " of which the western wing has disappeared. The great difference in lithological character between the schists east of the granitic mountains that have been supposed to represent the core of the alpine anticlinal and the much less metamorphic argillites and grey- wackes of the Greenland series in a corresponding position on the western side of the granitic mountains is in itself strong evidence against what may be called the Hochstetterian view. Von Haast was undoubtedly to some extent aware of the structure of the Greenland rocks, and it was probably in order to avoid the difficulty of reconciling this with the structure of the Arahura series, as well as to obviate the difficulty caused by the difference in lithological character, that he supposed his Westland formation to be (in part at least) younger than the alpine folding (2, p. 244). There appears, however, to be no field evi- dence of any kind in favour of this view. What, then, is the general structure of the Southern Alps ? As has been elsewhere pointed out by the writer (10, p. 43), an exposition of the principles underlying the answer to this question may be found in Eduard Suess's great work, " The Face of the Earth," where it is maintained that folded momitain-chains of the alpine type are due to overthrusts along lines where more yielding strata are pushed against buttresses of immovable rocks. In the case of the Southern Alps, Suess's main criteria are satisfied. There is a gentle rise from one side — the east — and a steep descent on the other. The strata on the western side are overturned schists. Along the western margin are great faults, believed to be of the overthrust type (10, pp. 43, 71). These faults are associated with a line of granitic mountains,! which correspond to Suess's cicatrices that mark a wound in the earth's crust. To the west of these, beyond the main overthrust, comes a buttress of Greenland sedimentaries, folded in most places almost at right angles to the alpine strike. Some imperfections in the field evidence that occur to the writer may here be mentioned. North of the Waitaha River granite is well developed along the base of the Alps, but for a hundred miles or more southward no granite except a small outcrop in Mount Bonar (10, p. 132) has been observed. Again, the Greenland buttress is apparently by no means continuous along the western base of the Alps. It is, however, well developed from Bell * Equivalent to part of Von Haast's Westland series (2, p. 250), and to Bell and Fraser's Kanieri series (8, p. 19). t In places gneiss partly covers the granite. MoROAX. — Oil tht Struci lire of the Southern A/j>i<. 277 Hill nortlivvurd,''' is seen at Lake Kanieri, and forms a considerable area east and south-east of Ross. Greenland rocks appear near Lake Mapourika, and probably have some development farther south. The breaks in the buttress are attributed by the writer to down-faulting, which also is thought since Miocene times to have caused the disappearance of an ancient land- mass to the seaward of the present coast-line (3, pp. 26-28). Suess distinguishes two types of overthrust mountain-ranges — the Atlantic, with its outer or overthrust face directed away from the nearest ocean ; and the Pacific type, with its outer face directed towards the nearest ocean. As judged by these definitions, the Southern Alps, though of the Pacific type with respect to the Tasman Sea, are of the Atlantic type with respect to the South Pacific Ocean. This has already been indicated by Marshall (11, p. 445). If, as has been assumed throughout this note, the folding of the Green- land rocks from north-west to south-east is older than the folding of the Arahura or alpine rocks from north-east to south-west, then in the alpine region the former folding has been superimposed on the latter. Confirm- ation of this view is afforded by field evidence. According to observations made by Mr. E. Dobson many years ago, the average strike of the strata forming the Southern Alps is N. 22° E., whilst the trend of the range itself is N. 55° E. (1, p. 485). More recently the New Zealand Geological Survev has noted considerable irregularities in the strikes of the alpine rocks in North AVestland (8, p. 42 ; 10, p. 78). These irregularities increase from the in- tensely folded western schists in which the supposed older folding has been almost obliterated towards the main divide, and are very marked on the eastern, or Canterbury, side. Practically all the irregular strikes, except one or two that are nearly east-and-west, fall in the N.E.-N.W. quadrant, and are therefore such as might be expected to result from a folding-force acting from the south-east on strata with an original north-Avest to south-east strike. Similar irregularities in strike are very apparent in north-west Nelson in rocks of the Aorere series (9, p. 34). It is here suggested that a similar cause to that indicated above may be assigned for the strike-irregularities in this area and in other parts of New Zealand — for example, the Wha- ngaroa Subdivision (Bull. No. 8, N.Z. Geol. Survey, p. 42). This note refers mainly to that part of the Southern Alps with which the writer is acquainted — namely, from the Otira district for about a hundred miles southward. Thus the Southern Alps as they pass north-eastward through Nelson to the shores of Cook Strait, the interesting central knot of Mount Cook, and the comparatively unknown southern portion of the range are not discussed. Before an authoritative opinion concerning the structure of the whole range can be given, a detailed geological survey of practically its entire length, and more especially of the district south of Mount Aspiring, where the Alps begin to lose their identity in the mountain complex of western Otago, must be undertaken. In conclusion, it may be said that a full and correct statement of the structure and history of the Southern Alps will be of great importance in aiding the solution of several problems in New Zealand geology, and possibly of still greater value in connection with the elucidation of the wonderful but baffling geophysical problems presented by the Pacific Ocean. • * This district, however, is outside the scope of the present note. See last para- graph but one. 278 T raiisfirliuns. Literature. 1. Hochstetter, F. von. " New Zealand " (English translation of "■ Neu- seeland," 1863). Stuttgart, 1867. 2. Von Haast, Julius. " The Geology of Canterbury and Westland." Christchurch, 1879. 3. McKay, Alexander. " On the Geology of Marlborough and South-east Nelson." Part II. Reports N.Z. Geol. Surv. during 1890-91, vol. 21, 1892, pp. 1-28. 4. McKay, Alexander. " Geological Explorations of the Northern Part of Westland." Mines Report, 1893, C.-3, pp. 132-86. 5. Hutton, F. W. " The Geological History of New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32, pp. 159-83. 1900. 6. Suess, Eduard. " The Face of the Earth " (English translation of " Das Antlitz der Erde "), vols. 1-3. Oxford, 1904-8. 7. Marshall, P. " The Geography of New Zealand." 1905. 8. Bell, J. M., and Eraser, C. " the Geology of the Hokitika Sheet, North Westland." Bull. No. 1 (New Series), N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1906. 9. Bell, J. M. ; Webb, E. J. H. ; and Clarke, E. de C. " The Geology of the Parapara Subdivision, Karamea, Nelson." Bull. No. 3 (New Series), N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1907. 10. Morgan, P. G. '" The Geology of the Mikonui Subdivision, North Westland." Bull. No. 6 (New Series), N.Z. Geol. Surv. 1908. 11. Marshall, P. " Ocean Contours and Earth Movements in the South- west Pacific." Rep. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. 12, pp. 432-50. Brisbane, 1909. 12. Park, James. " The Geology of New Zealand." 1910. The literature listed at the end of 11 may also be consulted with ad- vantage. Art, XXXIII. — Rotomahana and Dislrict revisited Twenty-three Years after the Eruption. By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. [Read before the Haivkes Bay Philosophical Institute, 24th June, 1910.] The Tarawera eruption took place on the 10th Jmie, 1886. In the months of February and March following I visited the volcanic area extending from Ruapehu to Mount Tarawera. My purpose was to study volcanic phenomena as presented by this almost imique extent of comitry, known generally as the Taupo volcaiaic zone. The distance in a straight line is a little over a himdred miles. Within this extent of country all aspects of volcanic phenomena occur, from the active volcano, as Ngauruhoe and Tongariro, to the slowly dying ngawha and puia as seen at places like Tokaanu, south of Lake Taupo, and Rotokawa, a few miles to the north of it: Twenty-three years have gone by since that visit took place, and in company with A. J. Morton, Inspector of Schools, Westland, I have pur- posely made another visit to the northern portion of the district, or more particularly that portion which was directly affected by the eruption -in 1886. Twenty-three years is a fair measure of time in the life of an Hill. — RotomaJuina and District i-evisited . 279 individual, and it provides a kind of standard in estimating the physical changes of a district when they are unaffected by artificial agencies. The past, as read in the rocks about us, goes a long way back, and our ideas of time are so limited that none of us can measure a geological period without some standard of time in relation to moving events as they af?ect the human race. We know literally nothing as to the incoming of special formations of rocks, or the time that it took in their making ; nor do we know whether fifty or a thousand centuries have elapsed since the present forms of organic life came into being. In nature's ever-active workshop changes are going on, and how small is the period which our modern fauna and flora represent of the evolutionary process that has ever been in operation, which embraces the whole gamut of past life down and back to the time when life first became possible on a cooling earth. It was some such thoughts as these that led me to renew my acquaintance with a district that had formed the subject of scientific dissertations, that had been the scene of stupendous changes in mountain, lake, and valley, and which in a brief six hours had produced devastation over a vast district estimated in thousands of square miles, and but for the isolation of the area would have resulted in the loss of many lives. Every living plant and animal within some miles of the centre of volcanic disturbance was destroyed, and there was also loss of human lives. It is not necessary for me to refer at length to the extent of the destruc- tion caused by the Tarawera eruption. Details were published throughout the Dominion and are still available to inquiriers, and scientific accomits have been issued under the authority of the Government. Among these may be mentioned the separate accounts by the late Sir James Hector, Director of the Geological Survey; by the late Captain Hutton, F.G.S., F.R.S. ; by Professor Thomas, M.A., F.G.S., of University College, Auck- land ; and last but not least by Mr. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S., late Surveyor- General. The accounts given by these scientists provide valuable litera- ture dealing with certain aspects of vulcanism as obtained immediately following the outbursts at Tarawera. As already remarked, the scene of the eruption was visited by me in February and March, 1887. My guide was the late Mr. J. C. Blythe, who had passed through the ordeal of the eruption at Wairoa Settlement, on the west side of Lake Tarawera, when the place was utterly destroyed. Mr. Blythe was Government officer in charge of the road-construction, and he knew intimately the whole country extending from Galatea to Taupo and from Taupo to Rotorua. His knowledge of the district was of much value to the authorities immediately following the eruption ; but, although he lived to help many, and to tell others subsequently of his never-to-be- forgotten experiences on the eventful morning of the 10th Jmie, his nerves were so shattered that he became a wreck of his former sfelf, and, although as an old friend I tried to cheer him at my home in Napier, it was only of temporary benefit, for on his return to Rotorua district he lived for only a comparatively short time. Mr. Blythe was my guide and companion from Rotorua over the whole of the comitry that had been immediately afl^ected by the eruption. We visited the rift in the Tarawera Mountain, the site of Wairoa, Rotomahana crater-basin, the earthquake flats towards Pareheru and the Tikitapu ; the crater-valley forming a continuation of the rift, and which subsequently became so celebrated or notorious by the break-out at Waimangu ; the momitains known as Kakaramea and Maungaongaonga, at the head of the Waiotapu Valley ; and finally made our way through 280 T7-ansacUons. the latter valley, and christened the place known as the Primrose Terrace. At that time the Waiotapu Valley had hardly been visited by Europeans, and but for our guide the visit would have been a dangerous if not a foolhardy undertaking. One well remembers the scene of desolation that appeared after getting over the hills from Whakarewarewa, near Rotorua. Looking towards the Tikitapu Bush and the lake and mountain known as Tarawera, the coimtry presented a dull-grey appearance, and not a truce of grass or fern or bush was to be seen. A valley on the road to Tikitapu had been rent in twain by an earthquake, which had produced a gulch from 30 ft. to 40 ft. in width and 50 ft. or more in depth. This extended for a long distance, and divided into three cracks or prongs to the eastward, where the rift shallowed. It seemed as if a sudden uplift had taken place, and that a wedge-shaped piece had been suddenly broken from the valley-level and had fallen and wedged itself as the upward strain was lessened and the surface pressures gave their usual stress upon the underlying rocks. The sides of the crack were vertical, as if sheared with an instrument, although nothing but pumice appeared in the sides throughout the entire length of the depression. Fur- ther in the direction of Te Wairoa Settlement the site of the Tikitapu Bush was reached, but everything had been destroyed by the falling debris and the battering of the trees by the mud that was flung from Rotomahana. The Tikitapu Lake and its adjoining one, Rotokakahi, which at present are known as the Blue Lake and the Green Lake respectively, presented a desolate appearance, the sides being mud-clad, and large furrows showed themselves from the hillsides, where the rains had carried material into the lakes during wet weather. The small stream from the Green Lake had been dammed back by the mud, and the entire country presented not a trace of either animal or vegetable life. The Te Wairoa Settlement had been the residence of a number of Natives. There was a church, a Native school, and an hotel, the latter being specially built for the convenience of tourists to Rotomahana. Every- thing had been destroyed ; not a house was left intact, and the majority had been overwhelmed. A Native whare belonging to Guide Sophia had stood, being protected by its position, and this place formed a " whare of refuge " for a number of persons who sought its friendly protection. The church and school were destroyed, and Mr. Haszard, the schoolmaster, with a number of others, lost his life. From the roof of the church one could see where the services had been held, and " Church Services " were to be seen here and there besprmkled with mud, but all, or nearly all, those who had formerly worshipped had lost their lives. The picture remains in my memory, and it is set down here twenty-three years afterwards to show the impression made upon me, for I have not previously written on the subject. We continued our journey towards Rotomahana and the great rift, and from the hill named Te Hape-o-toroa, overlookhig what had once been the hot lake Rotomahana, containmg an area of about 200 acres, and abomiding with terraces, puias, ngawhas, and geysers, there appeared an immense yawning abyss, from which steam arose as from hundreds of throats that at times sent out dismal sounds and hissings as awesome as from Dante's inferno. The sight cannot be described, and one could only wonder as to the forces that in the course of a few hours produced such an enormous crater in place of a hot lake and its inimitable terraces. Great steam-clouds rose from the abyss, and from the rift in the mountain, and Hill. — Eotomahana and District revisited. 281 from several crateral lakes near by. Sometimes the southern slope of the Tarawera chasm or the momitain could be seen. Here the volcanic forces had rent asunder a whole mountain-side before reaching Rotomahana, where the volcanic phenomena were quite different from those on the moun- tains. Stones and cinders, ashes and sand, with an abundance of the finest powdery steel-grey dust, were hurled from the mountains, but mud alone, of a bluish-grey colour, appears to have been sent from the Rotomahana Crater. We followed the rift towards Okaro Lake, and saw the various crater-shafts that had been made in various places. Some of them had thrown out enormous stones, tons in weight. These had fallen into the mud-covered area, and had made depressions that presented a curious saucer-like appearance over the country. Some of the craters were mere circular shafts of great depth, but we were unable to form an estimate of the depth, as the stones rolled into them sent back no thud or somid of any kind. To me the rift had the appearance of a great upheaval of country where a line of hills had been rent or torn asunder and thrown apart, leaving the rift-valley between them. The destructive effects of the eruption were not felt to the southward beyond the ridge that separates the drainage of the Rotomahana area from the Waiotapu Valley, for, although careful observation was made, the only trace of activity having occurred in the valley was the discovery of small globules of black sulphur near to the Primrose Terrace, and within a short distance of the great mud volcano near a terrace formation. Nature heals very rapidly the wounds she makes. Rearrangement and renewal are always in progress, and no sooner has one aspect of the earth's crust played an important part than new energies begin to manifest themselves, so that the old is quickly replaced by the new. Before, however, noting the changes that have taken place as noted by me, it may be of som.e value to future inquirers to set down here what was known by Europeans of Rotomahana and Tarawera up to the time of the eruption. In no record that has come mider my notice is the Waio- tapu Valley mentioned, and the first European to visit Rotomahana was the Rev. Mr. Chapman, a missionary. In the Missionary Record of Jmie, 1838, it is reported that Mr. Thomas Chapman started from Paihia (Bay of Islands) for Rotorua on the 2nd February, 1835, with a Mr. Pilley, and that they reached the place on the 19th March. In August of the follow- ing year the missionary station at Rotorua was burnt, and Mr. Chapman went to Taupo, where, in May, 1841, he met Dieffenbach, the scientist sent out by the New Zealand Land Company. Dieffenbach had been to Tokaanu, and was travelling northward when he appears to have met Mr. Chapman, from whom he obtained information about Rotomahana. On the 1st June Dieffenbach reached Rotomahana, and he writes, " Towards evening [1st June] we reached the hills which surround on all sides Rotu- mahana. When we arrived on the crest of the hills the view which opened was one of the grandest I had ever beheld. Let the reader imagine a deep lake of blue colour surromided by verdant hills, in the lake several islets, some showing the bare rock, others covered with shrubs, while on all of them steam issued from a hundred openings between the green foliage without impairing their freshness ; on the opposite side a flight of broad steps of the colour of white marble with a rosy tint, and a cascade of boil- ing water falling over them into the lake. Some Natives came over in a canoe to fetch us over the lake to their settlement. Mr. Chapman was probably the first European they had ever seen, as this lake has not been 282 Transactionf^. visited by any other that I am aware of. The Rotu-mahana is not more than a mile in circumference. We crossed from it in a canoe into the lake Tarawera. The stream connecting them is tepid, and of a temperature of 85°. It is appropriately called Kaiwaka (canoe-spoiler), as the canoe often touches the rocks of which the bottom is formed." In the " Tasmanian Journal of Science," vol. 1, page 268, there is given an account of a journey by the late Rev. W. Colenso, F.R.S., taken in the North Island of New Zealand in 1841-42. Mr. Colenso reached late one night Lake Rangiwaka-aita, now known as Rerewhakiatu, which is situated about two miles to the east of Lake Rotomahana. He describes the former lake, and states that the country was overspread with many blocks of com- pact lava, many being vitrified on the surface. The ground rose gently from the lake on every side, which appeared to occupy a deep hollow, and " I could but venture to suppose that this might perhaps have been the crater of a volcano which in some bygone age inundated the whole country with showers of pumice and ashes. At an early hour the next morning we rose, feverish, stiff, and sore, to recommence our march. We soon came within sight of the place where the hot springs were situated [Roto- mahana ?], from which the steam and sulphurous vapours ascended in dense white clouds. The air this morning was cool and bracing, and after travelling about an hour and a half we arrived at Tarawera Lake [Te Ariki ?]. At this place were several small hot springs, which flowed out of the earth near the edge of the lake ; the water of some was hotter than one could bear. . . . The Natives of the village informed me that at a spring on a hill a little distance away the water M'-as quite hot enough for the purpose of cooking, for which they often used it. Sulphur, too, abounded there, and was often 'thrown up' out of the earth, from which the steam and smoke ever ascended [the White Terrace ?]." This " steam and smoke " was, of course, from Rotomahana geysers and puia, and although Mr. Colenso started to visit the place while breakfast was getting ready, he gave up the quest, " his hunger," as he said, " conquering curiosity " ; and thus he missed, although less than three-quarters of a mile away, seeing, as the third European visiting the district, the inimi- table terraces. It is strange that a missionary traveller like Mr. Colenso, who was so very observant, should have passed from the east to the north end of Rotomahana by way of the south and west and yet did not see the lake. Hochstetter was the next traveller of note to visit Rotomahana. He spent three days in April, 1859, visiting every place of interest within the precincts of the lake, and made observations of great scientific value. The map of Rotomahana Lake by Hochstetter and Petermann, published in 1863 at Gotha by Justus Perthes, is the only map, as far as I can discover, that appeared in an official dress or under authority previous to the eruption. Of Rotomahana and the Terraces Hochstetter thus writes : " The Roto- mahana is one of the smallest lakes of the lake district, not even quite a mile long from south to north, and only a quarter of a mile wide. Accord- ing to my measurement it is 1,080 ft. above the level of the sea. Its form is very irregular on the south side, where the shore is formed of swamps. Three small creeks are meandering and discharging themselves into the lake — the Haumi, from the south-west ; the Hangapoua, from south- east ; and the middle creek without a name. Numerous observations lead to the conclusion that constant changes are going on at Rotomahana — that some springs go dry, others rise, and especially the earthquakes which are felt here from time to time seem to exercise such a changing Hir.L. — Fiifo/nf/hnjia fnif/ District revisited. 283 influence. The main interest is attached to the east shore. There are the principal springs to which the hike owes its fame. First of all is Te Tarata, at the north-east end of the lake, with its terraced marble steps projecting into the lake, the most marvellous of Rotomahana's marvels." The two islands Pukura and Puai that were situated in the lake, equally with geyser, puia, and ngawha, were carefully described by Hochstetter, whose obser- vations and painstaking work are a model to students of science. Of Mount Tarawera he remarks, " The chief ornament of the adjoining landscape is the Tarawera Mountain, with its crown of rocks divided into three parts by deep ravines : it rises on the north-east side of the lake to a height of at least 2,000 ft. above the level of the lake. It is an imposing table mountain, consisting of obsidian and other rhyolite rocks, and it is not to be wondered at that its dark ravines and vertical sides have given rise to many an odd story in vogue among the Maoris. Among others, a huge monster, 24 ft. long, resembling a crocodile, is said to haunt the clefts of the rock, devouring every one who dares to scale the mountain." The next writer that describes Rotomahana and Mount Tarawera is Domett, in his inimitable poem, " Ranolf and Amohia." Mr. Domett was at one time Resident Magistrate and Commissioner of Crown Lands in Napier, and he had a fine grasp of Native legends, and he has made good use of them in the above poem. Domett retired from the Government service in the year 1871, and the following year " Ranolf and Amohia : a South Sea Day-dream " was pubhshed. Ranolf is a young Englishman and Amohia a Native young woman of high caste. They love one an- other, and, leaving the girl's home, they wander over the country and at last reach the south end of Lake Rotomahana. They see a canoe which has evidently not been in use for some time, so they untie it, and finding a paddle they move towards the Pink Terrace : — As at the closing of a sultry day, In search ol' some good camping-ground They j)addle up Mahana's Lake, * * * * A mighty cataract — so it seemed — Over a hundred steps of marble streamed And gushed, or fell in dripping overflow ; Flat stejDs, in fhghts half circled — row o'er row ; Irregularly mingling side by side : They and the torrent curtain wide All rosy-hued, it seemed with sunset's glow. They continue their journey northward across the lake and they come to the White Terrace, which is thus described : — They paddle past, for on the right Another cataract comes in sight : Another broader, grander flight Of steps, all stainless, snowy-bright ! They land ; their curious way they track Near thickets made by contrast black ; And then that wonder seems to be A cataract carved in Parian stone Or any purer substance known — Agate or milk chalcedony ! * * * * Each step becomes a terrace broad ; Each terrace a wide basin brimmed With water, brilliant, yet in hue The tenderest dehcate hare-bell blue Deepening to violet. 284 Transactions. This description of lake and mountain could only have been written by one famihar with both. Neither DieJffenbach nor Hochstetter has de- scribed the lake, the geyser, puia, and ngawha in greater detail than Domett has done in his inimitable 17th canto, into which the actions of two young lovers are wound with rare poetic power. Two English writers of eminence visited Rotomahana before the great catastrophe took place, but neither Trollope nor Froude possessed any special scientific knowledge ; and although their descriptions, particularly that by Froude in his " Oceana," form dehghtful word-pictures of the inimitable White and Pink Terraces they contain nothing beyond what has already been stated concerning Rotomahana and its marvellous sur- roundings. Since the eruption in 1886 very little has been written concerning this interesting district. In March, 1893, Mr. Percy Smith, who was at the time Surveyor-General, visited the country immediately round the site of the Tarawera eruption, and noted some of the changes that had taken place. Referring to Rotomahana, Mr. Smith says, " The two lakes exist- ing soon after the eruption [Rotomahana and Rotomakariri] have since become merged into one, and the bounds very greatly extended — so much so that instead of a surface of 25 acres for the two lakes in August, 1886, they now cover, roughly, 5,600 acres, and at the same time the waters have risen from a level of 565 ft. to 985 ft. The lake as at present existing is bounded on all sides by steep hills, which formed the walls of the great crater in June, 1886." Since this was written Lake Rotomahana has con- tinued to enlarge, and at present it extends from north to south more than five miles, and in its widest part reaches nearly two miles and a half, and contains an area of about 7,500 acres. Hochstetter pointed out that the lake was fed by three streams. The only stream that is seen to flow into it at present is the Haumi, which comes from the chasm towards the south ; but another stream flows into the lake abreast of the small island known as Patiti. This stream comes from Lake Rerewhakaihu, and for a portion of its course runs underground. The rapid increase of water in the lake, and the merging of Rotomakariri and Rotomahana so soon comparatively after the eruption, suggests that the lake must be supplied largely from some underground source. Pos- sibly the water that falls upon Tarawera and Ruawahia drains into Roto- mahana by way of the chasm, so that it is likely the lake will continue to increase, and subsequently be merged with the Rerewhakaihu Lake, which is estimated to be between 30 ft. and 40 ft. above that of Rotomahana. But, as Rotomahana has only to rise a little more than 30 ft. before being able to burst through and form a channel into Lake Tarawera, an interest- ing problem presents itself which time alone can solve. Should the time arrive when Rotomahana breaks through into Tarawera, a dangerous rush of waters will take place that might result in serious damage to the low- l}dng country in the vicinity of Te Teko. But Rotomahana as a lake has plenty of room for expansion to the southward, and this it is now doing along the line where the activity at present is riiost powerful. The thousand steam-vents that were to be seen in 1887 have all been covered by water, but they are no doubt as active as ever. The pressure of the overlying water keeps them from exploding, but the steam-vents along the south-west sides of the lake are extremely active, and present features that imply rapid changes underneath. Along the fissure towards the south, near the place where tourists enter and leave the launch when coming from or ";oing to •Hill. — Rotomahana and District revisited. 285 Okaro Lake, the steam-vents are powerful and excessively active ; and along the entire chasm there are many signs of unusual activity, steam being forced through the rock at very high pressure. The water of the lake is of a greyish-green colour, and contains a fair amount of mud in suspension. The lake is bounded by high walls of pale- blue mud, which are easily washed away in time of heavy rain. This may account for the colour of the lake-waters ; but the Haumi Stream also carries down plenty of mud^ — in fact, during heavy and stormy weather the stream must carry down an immense quantity of material from the soft pasty mass of the area which the stream drains. The country, wherever it was covered with material from Rotomahana, presents a curious appearance. The blue clay is mixed with scoria that was thrown from the mountains, and they appear to have fallen together in many places. The surface becomes hard and gritty, and yet in time of rain deep ruts or gutters are quickly formed, and there appears surface- characteristics that are not seen under ordinary physical conditions. Every rut represents a drainage-basin from two adjacent slopes that may not be more than 2 ft. or 3 ft. wide, but of fair length ; and the drainage from this miniature watershed and basin forms in time ruts of extreme depth, resembling a crevasse in the ice. These provide pitfalls to the unwary, and it is inipossible for a horse to pass across country where these ridge- like places abound. As time goes on, these miniature-basin areas will merge, and the basins will grow fewer and fewer as erosion breaks down the ridges. In some places where grass was sown there are few ruts, and ■comparatively little damage to the new surface has taken place. But the lesson to be learnt is that resulting from the action of the weather upon a surface that has to be supplied with a covering of vegetation in nature's own way, and the growth of an ordinary river-basin by the merging of hundreds and even thousands of tiny miniature basins where the old basins have been obliterated presents even to-day an object-lesson of the utmost interest in the physical evolution of surface-features in a country. At the time of the eruption the mountains presented the appearance of having been torn and wrenched by some great titanic force. The south end of Mount Tarawera, known as " The Chasm," ran towards the lake from nearly the front crest of the mountain. This chasm is now quiescent, and but for the colour of the material and traces of scoria it would be difficult to suppose that the rift had been made within the past quarter of a cen- tury. Immediately above the chasm there is a fringe of black lava that h.as evidently flowed into its present position. It passes over the crest, and is lost in a dip of the mountain which has been filled with scoria and other material thrown from the craters further along the mountain. The appearances suggest that, before the chasm burst, an opening in the moun- tain further to the north had been made from which lava — a heavy dark lava^had commenced to flow. The late Mr. Blythe stated that he saw a, stream as of moving lava, and was supported by ^thers. Between this place and the first of the craters is a dip from which one rises to the flat, where the first crater is seen. This flat area is ridged, and shows a series of earthquake-cracks running north-east and south-west. The depressions have formed places of safety for lowly forms of vegetation, and several varieties of ferns were collected among other specimens of plants. The two craters on Tarawera are separated from each other by a kind of rock pai-tition. The walls of the craters on the west and north more parti- cularly show varying coloured bands of scoria and cinders, which have a 286 Traiisaetio7is. thickness in some places little sliort of 80 ft. As this banded scoria is vertical in the side of the crater, it would seem as if the scoria had been deposited from another crater before the explosion occurred that produced the adjacent craters. The largest and deepest craters are those on Rua- wahia and on Tarawera, whilst the scoria is deeper than is shown on the most southern of the Tarawera craters. The gut or saddle that separates Wahanga from Ruawahia has a crater differing from all the rest in shape ard formation. The sides are formed into ledges or terraces, and the material on the platforms resembles white sand (feldspar crystals ?). The two craters on Wahanga are at the eastern side, and not on the top, as in the other mountains, and the scarp can be seen by passing ships from the Bay of Plenty. The scoria in each crater is covered at the present time with a curious lichen (CoUenia?). In the damper places it gives the scoria a peculiar appearance, as if coloured by aerial action, and it leads an observer to suppose that the craters were formed at a remote period rather than at a recent date. Along the west side of the mountains overlooking Lake Tarawera a bold embattled top front with vertical sides is formed, below which the material is loose, and is made up, apparently, of the remains of the explosions from the craters on the top. The rock varieties are few, and there are no traces of mud such as is found over the country that was affected by the explosion in the Rotomahana Lake. A great and marked change has taken place in the general surface- features of the country. The Tikitapu Bush that was destroyed has in a large measure reappeared. Fern has covered the valleys in many places, and where grass-seed was sown shortly after the eruption it has grown and provides an abundance of food for sheep and cattle. The place known as Te Wairoa, which was destroyed, is again being reoccupied, whilst most of the area in the vicinity is covered over with a variety of plant-life, some native and some foreign. An Australian acacia {A. decurrens) has become the principal tree, and its growth is so rapid that the residents of the place use it for firewood. The plants are of a lowly type, but they show how the surface is quickly reclothed if the soil is suitable. Thus a township was overwhelmed with material from a mountain and a lake ten miles away, and to-day, after the brief space of twenty-four years, hardly a trace remains to show that such actually took place. The country is again covered with vegetation, the bare and desolate places have been reoccupied, and organic life has reasserted itself over hill and mountain and valley. The lakes Tikitapu, Rotokakahi, and Tarawera have returned to their former conditions, being either of a deep blue or green colour, so that sedimentation of the material that fell into them at the time of the eruption has been long since completed. The ridge of land that at present separates Lake Tarawera from Roto- mahana is less than a mile across, and, though bare in parts, grasses of various kinds grow well, clovers flourish, and a fair variety of native plants abound. A similar remark applies to the mountains. Two varieties of Lomaria ferns, two species of Epilobium, three species of GauUheria, two Veronicas, a DracophyUion, and four varieties of grasses were found, in addi- tion to Coriaria ruscifolia (tutu), which is common towards the lower part of the mountain overlooking the lake. And this was at the end of the summer season. No doubt in spring the variety is much greater ; but the specimens collected by me show that the mountain-sides are being Hill. — Rntomahaiui and Df strict rtvixited. 287 reclothed with vegetation adapted to the physical conditions at present existing. An interesting question arises as to what the future of the volcanic area is Ukely to be with Rotomahana as a centre. When Mr. Percy Smith wrote in 1893 the lake was 985 ft. above sea-level, and had risen 420 ft. in less than eight years. Sixteen years have since elapsed, and Rotomahana has risen an additional 65 ft., has largely extended its area, and is now within 30 ft. from the lowest point in the direction of Lake Tarawera ; and in the meantime much of the devastation caused by the eruption has been obhterated — so much so that a stranger unacquainted with the facts of the eruption would fail to realize that within so short a period as twenty- four years an entire district, occupying thousands of square miles, was affected by the material from a volcanic explosion, whilst tens of thou- sands of acres of land were covered with mud and volcanic debris and all vegetable and animal life destroyed. And yet this process of destruction and renewal is ever active. The Tarawera eruption is not the only one that has taken place in the history of vulcanism in this Island. Similar eruptions have taken place in the Waiotapu Valley, at Rotokawa, and Wairakei, in the Waikato from Tapuharuharu to Orakeikorako, and in Taupo itself. The Taupo Plateau has been covered and built up of products from explosions such as those of Tarawera Mountain and Rotomahana Lake. Nor should the student of vulcanism separate the Tarawera country from the other portions of the volcanic district, the old as well as the new ; but this aspect of the question must be left for discussion until the second portion of my paper on the Taupo Plateau is considered. There my desire is to throw out a suggestion as to the reclothing of the earth's surface with organic life following a period of great volcanic activity. It has always been a puzzle- — nay, a mystery — how new plants and animals appear at the outgoing of one formation and the incoming of another. All traces of the previous forms of Hfe are not destroyed but new species come in and old ones die out. Does an eruption like that of Tarawera and Rotomahana afford any clue to the answer ? It seems to suggest a possibility. In times gone by explosions have been on a much grander scale than are now experienced, and much larger areas of country were affected. Organic hfe must have suffered, and at times have been almost destroyed ; and adaptation to the new environment was enforced on the flora and fauna that were not swept away. Surely there is some probabihty that the life within special areas would be largely affected in this way, and when the forms of life extended from other districts and came within the limits of the conditions existing following an eruption a merging must take place so as to conform to the new conditions. Could animal and vegetable hfe undergo marked modification by such means ? It may be possible, but it is difficult to put the matter to a test. A separate inquiry into the botany of the Taupo Plateau may provide some suggestive matter, as showing speciahzation or variation from specific types ; and now that attention has been called to the subject some botanist of leisure may think an inquiry on this point may not be unworthy of his observation. 288 I'rditsdcfiuns. Art. XXXIV. — Napier to Runanga and the Taupo Plateau. By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. [Bead before the Haivke's Bay Philosophical Instihite, 24th June, 1910.] Although a good deal has been written about the volcanoes of New Zea- land from the time when Hochstetter paid his celebrated visit in 1859, very little is yet known of the Taupo Plateau and the rocks that either bound it on the east or are found upon it here and there in exposed areas. Hoch- stetter and the late Sir James Hector, F.R.S., issued maps of the so-called volcanic district, but they were theoretical rather than actual, as the larger portions of the district were not visited by either of these careful observers. Few other places in the world present better opportunities for obser- vation of volcanic phenomena of the present-day type than does the area embraced mainly within the Taupo-Waikato basin ; but this constitutes only a small portion of the area that is geologically included within the true volcanic zone. The paper by Dr. Marshall (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 79) on " The Geology of Centre and North of North Island," and the descriptive account of the volcanic cones south of Lake Taupo by Mr. Speight, B.Sc, F.G.S., in the admirable botanical-survey report of the Tongariro National Park by Dr. Cockayne, have given increased importance to the volcanic district, but much remains to be done before complete information can be made available covering the geological history of this interesting district. The key to the physical evolution of the North Island is to be found in the true interpretation and history of the volcanic area. In company with the Director c^the Dominion Museum, Christmastide was spent in studying that portion of the Taupo Plateau extending from Runanga to the Rangitaiki River, thence to Loch Inver Station, on the northern slopes of the Kaimanawa Range, finishing at Taupo. This work I had another opportunity of reviewing at Eastertide, being anxious to complete a geological section along the coach-road from Napier to Taupo. This section (fig. 1) shows the beds to be met with between the sea-beach at Petane, where the coach-road strikes inland, and Taupo ; but the sec- tion is continued to Karangahape Head, on the west side of the lake, as the intention is to give in another paper a similar section from Whakatane to Ruapehu, through Lake Taupo. Fig. 2 gives a map of Lake Taupo to scale, with the most important geological features. A reference to fig. 1 shows Pliocene beds of Napier upper limestone near the Motor Company's stables at Petane. These in places are over- topped with shingle conglomerate representing the Kidnapper shingle con- glomerates. The middle beds of the Pliocene series appear up the hill before reaching an elbow in the road, where again the shingle conglomerates top the limestones. No change takes place in the general characters of the Middle Pliocene series through the whole length of the Esk Valley ; but the overlying shingles, sometimes mixed with sand, become thicker and thicker, and on the left bank of the river they are seen dipping to the south- east as strong conglomerates. On the right bank here and there the same beds appear, but there are Recent river-gravels mixed with limestone and Hll.Ii. — Napier to liii iuiikjo aiid the Tuiijio I'latcan. 289 XtyoBi^zTzrz^er bid., ,,-,A<^< < ^<<.<<<\\\ IfangitaikiRi( Hotel ?::^'<%< < <*' << 2300- ^3B0'i 2i70 - ZJOO' wso TBOO mo !670 /■fso if7a TerracaHoUi, 137Ch TaupoToirnjfiify, //X5" A*ocuTaiko, volcanic 7iec^,.'5Z5' c ty. side, of L 7aijjOO\y KarangiOraJre Cli/T «/"< < ^ < ■^ ^379' ,y'- , JlndesiUj and basaits, Hith agaloTnerates 10— Trans. shells, and these may be mistaken for portions of the conglomerate series unless some care is taken to observe that the valley has been choked with shingle washing from the higher country at the back. Leaving the Esk Valley, a long hill gives exposures of fine sand, which is in places fossilifcrous. This sand about half-way up the hill becomes pumiceous, and in several places the whole exposure is a somewhat indurated fine pumice similar to what is met with among the shingle conglomerates at the Kidnappers. No fossil leaves, &c., were found by me, but in several other places the beds form a very good collecting-ground. Proceeding towards the top of the hill near Eskmount, the conglomerates are again met with topping the highest hills on the one hand, whilst the limestone appears in several places, and along the road up to the twenty-mile stone the middle beds appear. Here the con- glomerates top the hills on either side of the valley, whilst huge conglomerate blocks lie about the paddocks, and the whole country hereabouts is covered with conglomerates, alternating at times with fine sands mixed with pumiceous clays. Up the hill leading to Carmichael's, conglomerates, fine laminated clays, sands, shingle, sands, and shingle cement are seen in descending order in great cuttings on the roadside. From the top of the hill (1,250 ft.) the conglomerates continue towards Pohui. the highest point of the road (1,375 ft.), being occupied by them half a mile or so beyond the road- man's whare. Descending into the Pohui Valley, the conglomerates are replaced by hungry sands, and these continue as the charac- teristic rocks until crossing a small bridge leading up to the Pohui Hotel. Here nodular limestone appears in the blue clays, and fragments of broken shells are common, but it is difficult to determine their kind. Near the hotel limestone blocks are scattered about, and they appear to correspond to the lowest beds of the Napier series. Titiokura Hill is made up of Miocene beds and these are of extreme thickness. 290 Transactions. as they are traceable from 2,250 ft., whicli is the height of the Titio- kura Saddle, to 1,000 ft. at the Mohaka Bridge, where the same kind of rocks appear as in the case of the nodular limestone near Pohui, the Miocene beds varying somewhat in character as the long hill from Mohaka to the top of Turanga-kuma (2,625 ft.) is reached. Here, at what is known as the Te Kooti Track, the Miocene beds are seen resting unconformably upon the Maitai slates, and from this place onward the slates and sandstones are the prevailing rocks as far as Tarawera. A mile or two on the Napier side of Tarawera intrusive volcanic rocks are met with in several places. Up the Waipunga Valley intrusive rocks are common, and six miles beyond Tarawera rhyolites constitute the only rock by the roadside, and these continue for many miles in the direction of the Rangitaiki Hotel, or, rather, they disappear near the 68th milestone, where the swamp-area begins. Bunanga is at the 65th milestone. A mile or so from this place is a high hill, 3,200 ft. high, known as Otumakioi. It has a trig, station on the top, and there the sandstones appear very similar in appearance to the Permian sandstone of England. It seems to be connected with the Maitai slates, as these were exposed in one or two places on the hillside. The coimtry, however, is so bush-clad that climbing becomes a difficult matter. Immediately opposite Otumakioi, but to the north-east, is another hill or moimtain, Piki-o-hiko-wera, which is composed entirely of volcanic rocks. From Runanga all the exposed rocks, Avhether on the roadside, in the bed of the streams, or forming the ranges that run to the north-west and north, are volcanic lavas, mainly trachytes and rhyolites. A mile or two along the valley that extends from Runanga towards the plateau extensive washings have taken place, and pumice terraces with sloping sides leading into the valleys make their appearance. This country of late years has been occupied as a cattle and sheep run, and the owner, in order to drain a large swamp-area that is the true watershed between the Mohaka and Rangitaiki Rivers, had a trench dug, so as to drain the water into the Wai- punga Stream by wa}- of a smaller stream that passes the roadman's house at Runanga. This drain was originally made about 4 ft. in depth and 2 ft. wide, but the breaking into the pumice has resulted in the formation of a huge gorgelike area nearly three-quarters of a mile long, 60 ft. or more wide, and very deep. The removal of the surface of rushes and Sphagnum has resulted in the washing-out of a gulch that can hardly be understood without inspection. The slightest increase in the rainfall causes the removal of great quantities of pumice pebbles, which fill up the entire area of what was at one time in the history of the district an extensive crater, the walls of which can be distinctly read. In several places are volcanic hills or mounds, without craters, resembling similar structures such as may be seen to-day in the district where volcanic phenomena are active, particularly on the west of Ngauruhoc and the north- west of Ruapehu. This swamp extends for a number of miles, and to get to the Rangitaiki it is necessary to pass over the ridge or southern crater- wall, from which there is a gradual descent of about 200 ft. in a distance of two miles. The Rangitaiki River basin is separated from the Mohaka basin by a range of hills, except towards the north-west, where a small stream from the swamp also drains into the Rangitaiki. A study of the surrounding country between the 73rd and 83rd milestones leads to the opinion that HiLi.. — Napier to RuiuoKja and the Taupo Plateau. 291 at one time a scries of lakes covered this area. The Raiigitaiki River has its source in some old crateral lakes on the Loch Inver Station. Here trachytes are found in close proximity to the sandstones which top the low- lying hills that form the northern end of the Kaimanawa Mountains. The lakes seem to have been centres of explosive action, and at the place of out- flow, where the water flows into the open country and takes the name of the Rangitaiki Stream, the rhyolites form a lip which has been cut through by the owners of the station by means of blasting, so as to assist in the drainage of the swamp and lake. The country has few exposures of rock, but in a creek near the station already named both sandstones and the Maitai slates occur, just as a little lower down the volcanic rocks appear, although no intrusive rocks were met with. Following down the Rangitaiki, which runs between high banks, there appear exposures of peat-lignites of some 9 ft. in thickness. These cover a large area between the upper stream and the Rangitaiki Hotel, a distance of some six miles. Whether the beds reappear below the hotel I do not know, but the exposures show that at one time a very large part of what is now pumice-covered country consisted of swamplike areas similar to what are met with and are now being drained in the vicinity of Runanga. The lignite material is made up of Sphagnum, stems of shrubs such as Veronica and Fagus, and a large variety of fibrous roots matted together into a com- pact mass. Overlying the lignite is pumice, very fine in structure, and without pebbles. It is not more than a few inches in thickness, and it appears to have been deposited by water. It is difficult to account for this covering of lignite or vegetable beds by a pumice -deposit, because the fact of a lignite-bed implies a long period of midisturbed growth and decay. It may be that the lignite-beds represent the old surface of the plain before the last great outpouring and spread of pumice, when the country as far as the 81st milestone contained a series of swamplike lakes that spread here and there among the hills forming the head-waters of the Rangitaiki, and even flowed at times over a saddle into the swamp-lakes that begin in the vicinity of Runanga. A low saddle from the Napier-Taupo coach-road to Loch Inver forms the dray-road to the station ; and when viewing the topography of the comitry from one of the higher hills of the district it can be seen that the various lake-areas were at one time joined by low saddles that are not more than 300 or 400 yards in width. In some parts of the lignite-beds there is a thin band of pumiceous clay between the two main lignite-beds ; but everywhere the pumice-beds overtop the lignites, just as the pumice to-day covers the whole surface of the Taupo Plateau. Down the Rangitaiki River, ten miles or so from the coach-road, a series of romided hills occur, and these run north-west as far as the track, which divides, one to Galatea and one to the Waiotapu Valley, across the Kaingaroa Plain. At this place there are the remnants of rocks that must at one time have formed an immense crater, the broken-down walls reminding one of old embattlements. It seems as if the country to the north-east of the 81st milestone must have sloped in the direction of Wai- punga, and that the surplus waters, charged with pumice, were carried into the Mohaka River, and thence into the area of Hawke's Bay. In a former paper (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 415) reference is made to the original dramage from Ruapehu and Tongariro at the time when the present Lake Taupo was the crater of an immense volcano. The suggestion is mad& 10* 292 Transacfio/if that the drainage from the moimtains went in the direction of the present Rangitaiki. When this took place the series of lakes were in existence to Avhich reference has been made. The whole of the Taupo comitry to the north was in process of being fornied. It can be readily luiderstood that swamp-areas would likely be formed within an area that had already been subject to volcanic forces. From the hotel on the left bank of the Rangitaiki. Taupo Road, to Lake Taupo is twenty-three miles. A reference to fig. 1 will show that Fig. 2. — Sketch-map of Lake TArrpo. the plateau between the hotel and the lake presents two distinct areas of drainage. The entire area after passing a range of low bush-clad hills on the left is a mass of pumice of unlaiown depth, interspersed here and there with volcanic grit, magnetic iron, sand, and angular and rounded pieces of heavy rhyolite-andesite lavas that suggest water carriage without much wearing, because bedding is traceable in the pumice w^herever washaways occur. From the 80th to the 85th milestone the country to the south-east and north-west presents a high ridge, and this constitutes the line of separation IIu.i.. — Napier io Fidianr/K aud the Tai/po Phtfeaii. 293 between Taupo Lake as a drainage-area and the draiuaoe of what must be •considered as a part of the Rangitaiki drainage-area. Taupo itself is only 1,200 ft. above sea-level, and Karangahape, the high headland on the western side, reaches only 2,379 ft., whilst thirteen miles from the lake (that is, at the 85th milestone), on the^ Taupo Eoad, the height is 2,380 ft. — in other words, the top of Karangahape is on a level with the highest portion of the plateau. Taupo as a volcano was apparently much larger than it is as a lake. It would almost seem as if the long, high ridge between the 80th and the 85th milestones formed the eastern side of a great crater in which were many supplementary craters such as are seen to-day as centres of activity in places already named. In the earlier period of volcanic activity the whole comitry from the Kaimanawa Range to the ranges bounded in most places by the Main Trunk Railroad from the latitude of Ruapehu consisted of one immense lava-flow of similar volcanic material, and it is interesting to com- pare the height of some of the conelike hills with the heights of the country along the eastern and north-eastern side of Lakes Taupo and Rotokawa. The western and eastern portions of this once great sea of lava have merely left remnants of Avhat they once were as centres of volcanic movement. Here and there a hot spring remains, but otherwise all active volcanic phenomena have long since disappeared, and the only portion that is really active at the present time is the great central line where so many traces of explosive eruptions are found. The great explosive eruption at Taupo and Rotokawa, as also that at Pihanga Mountain, mark the largest and most disastrous of all those that have occurred in the North Island. The pumice thrown out spread over the country, mainly to the eastward, as far as Poverty Bay in the north and Hawke's Bay in the south, Avhilst the middle part of the Island was filled up to a great depth with pumice and other forms of volcanic ejecta- menta. Pihanga' s explosion was towards the north, where the crater- lip was blov/n right out, and is the counter of the Tarawera explosion, which was towards the south ; in fact, the whole face of the country forming the central portion v/as altered by the explosions and the materials thrown out. The water that had drauied into the Rangitaiki from the volcanoes to the south were diverted into the new Taupo crater, which, like Rotomahana, contained many traces of volcanic activity similar to what was seen in the latter bashi after the Tarawera eruption ; and, just as that basin has been slowly filling with water, so in the same manner, following what was an eruption at Pihanga, Taupo, and Rotokawa, immense quantities of debris were deposited over the country for many miles around the centres of explosion, so that watersheds were altered, drainage-areas diverted, swamp- areas replaced which before had been streams and tributaries, and finally provided a drainage-area of considerable size for the new crater that ex- tended for thirty miles or more, and in which thousands of steaming places were to be foimd. At this time there Avas no Waikato River such as Ave knoAv it to-day, for the Waikato, from the spot Avhere it leaves Lake Taupo as far as Orakei- korako, merely floAvs through a chasm or rift formed at the time of the Taupo explosion, but filled toAvards the crater-lake Avith pumice that raised the surrounding country several hundreds of feet in height. When the lake tilled in course of time the Avater found a way through the chasm, and loAvered the waters of the lake some 200 ft. or" more. A subsequent 294 T rail sad ion ><. earthquake caused tlie Huka Falls and the attendant depression, the silica- cemented pumice in the vicinity being sheared as with a knife. Lake Taupo at one period of its history was much larger thaii it is at present. The terraces on the west and east, the surface-characters of the slopes in the vicinity of the lake, and the various valleys that run for long distances towards the east at a gentl<; slope all suggest an area once covered with water. At the northern and southern ends of the lake hot springs and many other evidences of volcanic phenomena occur, and these extend miderneath the waters of the lake from a good distance from the shore. Hot springs, fumaroles, &c., are equally abundant 600 ft. or more up the hills towards Tauhara Mountain at the northern end, and even higher at the southern end, where at Waihi only a few weeks ago a hillside from the fumarole-area broke away and slid into the lake. The activities of Rotomahana and its vicinity such as have been mani- fested since the eruption, particularly to the southward, correspond in a remarkable manner to what took place to the north of Taupo following the eruption there. In pursuing one's inquiries into this interesting subject one is struck with the fact that the surface-features of the country must have been modified as much by earthquakes as by volcanic agencies ; but the key to the true interpretation of all the phenomena to be met with at Waiotapu, Rotokawa, Wairakei, Taupo North and South, and Te Mari is to be fomid in the study of the phenomena connected with the Tarawera eruption and the subsequent events that have taken place in the district. Fig. 2 shows merely the present size and boundaries of Lake Taupo, with such information as I have been able to gather during my frequent visits to the district. Earthquakes have caused marked changes in the vicinity of Taupo. Cussen reports that on the 28th August, 1883, a schooner was lying at the small wharf where the Waikato leaves the lake, when a sudden fall of 2 ft. took place. In about twenty minutes the river rose again to its former level. Mr. Enoch Hallet, who was present at the time, informed me that between 1 and 2 o'clock the same afternoon, as the river fell, two members of the Constabulary stationed in the township — namely. Major Smith and Sergeant Miles — were bathing in a warm spring called Waiarika, situated on the bank of the Waikato River, about a mile from the lake. Next the- river the bath was fenced about with stones, and it stood about 2 ft. above- the level of the water. Suddenly the bath became cold, and the bathers were astonished to find that the river had risoi to a level with the bath. It remained in this state for about five minutes, and then suddenly returned to its former position. In August, 1895, a very severe earthquake took place in East Taupo, and the public road in places was entirely destroyed. The pumice cliffs were much altered, and the isolated hill known as Manguaume, about three miles to the eastward of the lake, was split in parallel lines that ran north-east and south-west. Around the lake, but more particularly towards the east and north-east, are long deep valleys, consisting of main valleys and branching ones. It is difficult to account for the formation of these, unless- we suppose that the lake was much higher and, of course, larger than it now is. The Rev. Mr. Fletcher, of Taupo, suggests that a subsidence of a large area in the lake took place, or that the wearing-away of a barrier in the river caused the deep, regularly cut valleys. But the same kind of valley is common over the greater portion of the Taupo Plateau, and some of the valleys slope in the direction of the Bay of Plenty. The jnore likely HiLTi. — Napier to BunaiKjd and the Tnvpn VJatKiu. 295 "reason is that a sudden uplift took place of the country to the east and north-oast of the plateau, which affected the entire area extending as far as Kotorua. In riding over the district one is impressed with the fact that the surface- features suggest changes of comparatively recent date. Bidwill, in 1839, when travelling between Tauranga and Taupo, refers to traces of dead and burnt timber over a large extent of country. At that time no manuka {Lcptospcrmum scoparium) was to be found between the Rangitaiki and Lake Taupo, and, in fact, there was no manuka between Tauhara Mountain and the lake so recently as 1869. Around the base of Tauhara, on the northern slopes, and reaching for several miles, are scores of charred totara- trunks that must have been of enormous size. No Native has any know- ledge of the area being covered with forest, but the logs remain to show that at some former time the country was bush-clad, and extended appa- rently in the direction of the Opepe Bush. Even at the present time the Taupo Plain is only just beginning to have the semblance of a cap of vege- tation. The entire country has been subject to many disastrous explosions and earthquakes, so that the physical changes have been of frequent occurrence. Some of the old craters are possibly overwhelmed along the line where old •crateral walls can be traced along the ridge that now separates the Waikato and the Rangitaiki drainage-areas. As already remarked, the growth of manuka on the plateau only began in the "seventies." Tamati te Kurupae, the present leading chief at Ta^^po, recollects well when the manuka first ap- peared, and so rapidly did it spread that it drove many Natives from their settlements, as they were unable to grow crops as heretofore. Neither Bidwill nor any other writer that I can discover makes reference to the Leptospermum as growing freely, and which is now so abundant in the district. This seems to me to imply that the surface of the plateau is com- paratively new, and the limited vegetation seems to support this view. A pumiceous surface such as the Taupo Plateau would take a long time to become the abode of even the lowest forms of vegetation, except within the area of the swamps. The legends of the Natives are most suggestive in connection with the surface-changes on the plains, implying differential movements that altered the flows of the rivers, a)id even caused jealousies to spring up between them. A long time ago, so runs the legend as told to me by Tamati te Kurupae, the leading Taupo chief to-day, a serious quarrel arose between Waikato and Rangitaiki as to which had the greater mana. Rangitaiki urged that he was the greater and more important among the rivers, but Waikato replied, " No ; I am chief ; but if you think yourself stronger and better let us put the matter to the test by seeing which of us will first reach the ocean." Rangitaiki derided the words of Waikato, and many angry scenes were witnessed, but at last it was decided to put the matter to the test. The race began. Rangitaiki started from the swamps, and Waikato from Lake Taupo. Soon the latter river reached the Aratiatia Rapids, but becoming anxious about the Rangitaiki, his rival, he asked Puato (a small stream entering the Waikato on the right bank) if he had seen Rangitaiki. Puato replied that Rangitaiki was moving rapidly towards Waikato, hoping to destroy him. Waikato made strenuous effort to move away from his rival. At Orakeikorako Waikato sent Tori-patutahi (another stream entering the river on the right bank) to go and see what had become of Rangitaiki. Tori-patutahi returned in haste and said that Rangitaiki 296 7^rn/)sorfJovx. was close at hand. This news caused Waikato to alter his course to the sea, and thus he was able to outpace Rangitaiki, who, wandering through the country, lost his way in the Whakatane Swamp, which showed how inferior he was in his mana to Waikato. whose name means " a great chief or leader of the people." This legend is most suggestive as showing the likely changes that took place along the ridge that separates the drainage-areas of Waikato an.d Rangitaiki to the north of Mount Toruhara. There is no doubt whatever that the surface of the country extending from Rotokawa to Orakeikoraka and thence on to Waiotapu has undergone changes within recent times. It is possible that the Puato and Tori-patutahi Streams flowed into the Rangitaiki before the great eruption at Taupo, and even up to the time when the rift occurred that now forms the Waikato itself from the place where it leaves Taupo Lake down to Orakeikorako. An imaginative people like the Maori personifies the cha)iges or movements that take place in stream and mountain and bush, and the very fact that Puato and Tori- patutahi were sent as messengers to look after Rangitaiki implies a change of flow in these streams, or at least a modification in the conditions of the country. A study of the surface -features of the Kaingaroa Plain to-day shows that the line of movement was to the north-west, and the exposures of the rocks suggest a marked depression to the nortliward of the fault that runs across the plateau in a north-west and south-east direction about six- teen miles from the lake. A reference to fig. 1 Avill explain this point.. Tauhara Mountain is only 3,600 ft. above sea-level, and Lake Taupo is 1,200 ft. The highest point on the plateau is about 2,530 ft. There are no exposed lavas nearer than Manganamu and Tauhara. The old water- valleys show nothing more than pumice and volcanic ejectamenta, except at King's, near Opepe, where traces of volcanic rocks in situ are said to occur. Thus the lavas towards the Rangitaiki are much higher than are found between Opepe and Lake Taupo, so that unless there has been a l)ig depression between Opepe and the lake, of 1,000 ft. or more, it is difficult to see how there could have been a connection between the lavas from Tauhara and those found at Loch Inver and Runanga. A survey of the whole of the volcanic area is badly wanted. Every volcanic orifice should be located, and the country mapped to show that the present line of volcanic activity is only one aspect of the phenomena that have taken place over a long period of time to bring about the pre- sent surface-features of the country. Isolated inspection is insufficient to formulate opinions as to the history of the surface-changes of the volcanic area and the probable duration represejited by the volcanic rocks to be found in the district ; but the events at Tarawera in 1886 suggest a line lor observation. What took place at Rotomahana has likely taken place in a score of other places, and by placing the facts side by side, and studying the growth of vegetable-life within areas that appear to have been acted on by outbursts, as exemplified in lakes of depression, it may be possible to- read far into the past, and even to suggest sometliing as to the future. Hkndkhson. — ('otilpel'h (if W'ext .\r/<(i/i. OQ'J Art. XXXV. — The ( 'oalfields of West Nelson ; ivith Notes on the Formation of the Coal By J. Henderson-, D.Sc, A.O.8.M. Communicated by Professor James Park. [Bcod before the O/w/o Institute, 4th October, 1910.] At the begiiiniiig of the coal period what is now west Nelson consisted of the same series of earth-blocks as now. These blocks had been subjected to denudation, and parts of the elevated blocks had been reduced to the same level as the depressed blocks ; consequently, when depression of the whole took place, conglomerates and sandstones Avere deposited not only on those blocks with a tendency to sink, but also on the lower portions of those blocks with a tendency to rise. A pause in depression permitted vast swamps and forests to envelop the coasts ; it is possible that the centres of the valleys were still under jvater. Further sinking caused the vegetation to be smothered by deposits, and repetitions of the processes have produced other seams. The gradual filling-in of the central deeper portions of the graben valleys would permit of the higher seams overlapping the lower in that direction, while the sinking of the land would produce overlap in the other. It is thus possible that the higher seams may extend right across a valley, while the lower thin out toward the centre ; perhaps all the seams so thin out. Where the main drainage-channels crossed the vegetation-fringe the coal-seams are likely to thin out and become impure. Again, it is conceivable that dif- ferent portions of the coastal fringe, by reason of differential sinking and differential filling, would become fit for vegetable growth at different times. When all is considered, it seems probable that the coal should occur as seams thinning out in all directions, and that the beds should overlap each other in a great variety of ways. The coal has not yet been sufficiently worked to prove these contentions, but the seams of Denniston, Reefton, and Greymouth appear to conform entirely with them. The hypothesis which considers coal-seams as altered accumulation of drift vegetable matter finds support in west Nelson, in that the coal frequently rests on hard rock without the interposition of fireclay ; fm'ther, the fireclay bands occur indifferently at the bottom or the top of the coal- seams. Again, water-worn pebbles occur in the coal at Point Elizabeth. The distribution of the seams is perhaps more readily explained by this than by the groAvth-in-place hypothesis. On the other hand, if the seams have been formed from drift some at least should occur intercalated with marine beds. This does not seem to be the case, and the beds immediately associated with the coal appear to be either estuarine or lacustrine. Coalfields. The thrusting-up of what are now the peneplains, but what in Miocene tnnes were base-levelled islands, through the surrounding coal-measures permits of a somewhat arbitrary division of the coal-areas into coalfields. The Whakamarama* Coalfield comprises the coal lying to the west and north of the Whakamarama peneplain. It may be conveniently subdivided * Hochstetter : " New Zealand," pp. 58, 84, 85. Hector : Geol. Surv., No. 4, p. 18 ct ieq. ; No. 19, pp. ix-xiii. Cox: Geol. Surv., No. 15, pp. 71-73. Park: Creol. Surv., No. 20, pp. 52-57, 200-5, 237-41. Mackay : Paper.s and Reports relating to Minerals, 1900, C.-6, pp. 1-5. 298 l^rnnsacfions. Geological Sketch Map OF West Nelson REFERENCE Peneplains i, cj ''i' '■ Tertiary Formations! *lj Potential Coalfielils normal Faults -> Probable Fauitt •• Overthrust ■ 7rii. Station on peneplains -i ® Petroleum Indications - ■ Numbers refsr to numbers in Table C. Hkxdkksox. — Coalfields of West NeUori. 299 "into two portions — that lying between the Aorere and Wanganui faults and resting on a northern extension of the Whakamarama earth-block, and that lying to the west of the Wanganui fault and fringing the coast as far south as the Big River. Only the edge upturned by the Wanganui fault of this, the Wanganui subfield, occurs above sea-level. The com- position of the coal of the Wanganui section is shown in analyses 1 and 2, Table C, while analyses 3, 4, and 5 indicate the composition of the coals of the Pakawau section. Coal has been worked at West Wanganui, Pakawau, and Puponga. The seams appear to be numerous, and up to 8 ft. in thick- ness. The Taitapu* Coaltield occupies the floor of Golden Bay, and the coal measures, extensively faulted, extend southward along the valleys of the Aorere and Takaka. The seams have been worked only at Motupipi, and are there up to 4 ft. in thickness. Analyses 6 and 7, Table C, show the composition of the coal. The Whakatuf Coalfield is limited by the Motueka, Sherry, and alpine- overthrust faults. It extends beneath the Moutere gravels in the valley of the Motueka, and beneath the waters of Blind Bay and part of Tasman Bay. Coal outcrops at various points in the Motueka Valley, in the Tadmor, at Big Bush, and near Nelson, while carbonaceous shales occur in D'Urville Island. Coal has been worked near Nelson, and reaches up to 11 ft. in thickness, but is here crushed by the alpine overthrust. The composition of the coals is shown by analyses 8, 9, and 10, Table C. The KawatiriJ Coalfield occupies the Kawatiri depression. It is divided into three parts by the Motueka and Tutaki faults. Of these, the most important is the central, or Mangles, section, in which the coal is mined for local requirements at Longford and the Owen. The Matiri and Glen- roy subfields are northern and southern continuations respectively of the Mangles section. The seams of the Kawatiri Coalfield range up to 30 ft. in thickness. Their composition at various points is shown by analyses 11, 12, and 13, Table C. The Oweka§ Coalfield occurs in the basins of the Inangahua and Grey Rivers, and probably extends as far south as Ross, beneath the flats of the Taramakau and Hokitika Rivers. The main central portion of the field lies in a trough between the Inangahua and Mawhera faults, and stretches from Inangahua Junction to Ross. A series of outliers cap the hills to the east from Larry's Creek to Big River, and again near Lake Kanieri. These outliers are not so deeply foundered as the main portion of the coal- field. The seams of this field range up to 60 ft. in thickness, and have been worked at several points near Reefton. Analyses 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, and 24, Table C, indicate the composition of the coals. * Hochstetter : '^ New Zealand,"' p. 4(51. Park : Geol. Surv., No. 20, pp. 238-41. Mackay: Papers and Pv,eports relating to Mining, 1896, C.-ll, pp. 13-21. Bell: N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 3 (n.s.), pp. 49-61. t Hochstetter : ''New Zealand,'' p. 461. Mackay: Geol. Surv., No. 12, pp. 120, 121, 129, 130; Papers, &c., relating to Mining, 1896, C.-ll, pp. 27-30. Park: Geol. Surv., No. 19, p. 80. tCox: Geol. Surv., No. 16, pp. 5-9. Park: Geol. Surv., No. 19, pp. 79, 80. Mackay : Geology of S.W. Nelson, pp. 57, 59, 61. § Mackay : Geol. Surv., No. 15, pp. 140-50 ; Geology of S.W. Nelson, pp. 57-61. Cox : Geol. Surv., No. 10, pp. 78-80. Bell : N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 1 (n.s.), pp. 78-81. Morgan : N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 6 (n.s.), pp. 102-12. Campbell : Geol. Sm-v., No. 11, p. 32. 300 Transactions. The Greymoutli* Coalfield is divided into three sections by faults. The- central Brunner section rests on the southern extension of the Paparoa earth-block, and Point Elizabeth and Blackball sections are downfaulted on either side. The seams are very extensively worked, and analyses 25 to 30, Table C, show their composition. The Westportf Coalfield is analogous in structure to the Greymouth one. The central Mount Rochfort Coalfield lies on the northern extension of the Paparoa earth-block, and extends as far north as the Mokihinui. The Ori- kaka section, to the east, is downfaulted between the Orikaka and Mawhera faults. The coastal section, to the west, extends from the Punakaiki to north of Westport, and underHes the sea for an unknown distance. The coal of Mount Rochfort section is mined at several points, and the seams range up to 60 ft. in thickness. Analyses 32 to 37, Table C, show the compositions of the coals. The Karameai Coalfield extends from the Mokihinui to the Heaphy. Little is known of this field. Analysis 38, Table C, is of a coal from a 7 ft. seam in this field. Structurally, the Whakamarama and Taitapu Coalfields may be con- sidered as forming an anticline, § with the Pakawau section as the crown and the Wanganui and Taitapu sections as the limbs of the anticline. This anticline, which plunges to the north, is really the northern section of an elongated dome, formed by the thrusting-up of the Whakamarama earth- block through the coal-measures. This dome was never complete, as the coal-measures never covered the earth-block entirely. The Aorere and Wanganui faults probably grade into flexures in depth and also towards the north. A similar anticlinal structure prevails in the Greymouth and West- port fields, and probably also at the southern end of the Whakamarama earth-block in the Karamea field. The Whakatu field has probably a syn- clinal structure sloping to the north, and this structure has been brought about by the draggiug-up of its edges by faulting. The Kawatiri field is probably boat-shaped for similar reasons ; but the symmetry of the basin has been destroyed by the Motueka and Tutaki faults, which leave the Matiri and Glenroy sections as elevated shelves. The structure of the Oweka field is in the main monoclinal, although, if the Orikaka subfield in the north and the Blackball subfield in the south be regarded as parts of this field, the structure becomes synclinal at these points. Composition. It is generally admitted that, omitting cannel coal, &c., all coals have been formed from vegetable matter of initially similar composition. The transformation of this vegetable matter is due to a fractional distillation, and the quality of the resulting coal depends on its relative completeness.. The most generally recognized factors controlling this transformation are time, heat, and crustal movements. * Haast : Geologv of W. Nelson, p. 104 et seq. Hector: Geol. Surv., No. 4, pp. 24-27; No. 20, p. xiii ; No. 21, p. xxxviii ; No. 9, p. iv. Cox: No. 10, p. 81. Campbell : No. 11, p. 31. Jlackay : Geologj^ of S.W. Nelson, pp. 57-61. t Haast : Loc. cif., j). 113. Hector: Geol. Surv., No. 4, pp. 22-24; No. 9, p. iii ; No. 18, p. 156; No. 21, p. xxxiii. Cox: No. 10, pp. 106-20. Dennisfcon : No. 10. pp. 121-71. Mackav : No. 18, p. 161 et seq. ; No. 21, pp. 76-97. X Haast : Loc. at., ]>. 116. Bell : N.Z. Geol. Surv., 2nd Ann. Rep. (u.s.), pp. 7-9„ Webb : Loc. cit., pp. 24-27 ; 3id Ann. Rep. (n.s.), pp. 21. 22. § Hector : Geol. Surv., No. 19, p. x. Hkndehsox. — CoaJptl'h of Wes^t Xelsoii. 301 It is iiuportant to distinguisli between tlie effects of natural distillation and atmospheric weathering. The folloAving table shows the progressive effect of natural distillation : — Table A. Fixed Carbon. Hydro- carbons. Water. Ash. Locahty. Reference. 38-26 40-51 20-41 0-82 Charleston Col. Lab., 29. 39-16 40-63 18-46 1-75 Giles Creek J. Henderson. 42-70 41-00 i 13-70 2-60 Motupipi Col. Lab.. 41. 42-13 41-72 10-27 5-88 Golden Ridge . . 41. 46-60 43-32 8-87 1-21 Burke's Creek 28. 48-59 43-15 4-84 3-42 Seddonville . . 41. 49-15 46-75 3-20 0-90 Blackball 37. 56-43 39-68 2-10 1-87 Denniston 41. 58-69 39-26 1-00 1-05 Millerton 41. 76-38 19-25 0-93 3-44 Paparoa 38. 90-90 5-10 1 1 0-80 5-20 Fox's River . . 35. It will be noted that the change from the brown coals to the best of the sub-bituminous is accompanied by a diminution of the water and an increase in both fixed carbon and hydrocarbons. Further change takes the form of an increase of fixed carbon at the expense of the hydrocarbons, the small percentage of water being decreased very slowly. With atmo- spheric weathering, on the other hand, the percentage of water is increased ; but the main change takes the form of a decrease in the hydrocarbons, causing an apparent increase in the fixed-carbons percentage. A com- parison of the odd numbers with the next following even numbers in Table B will make this clear as far as sub-bituminous and bituminous coals are concerned. Table B. — Fixed Carbon. Hydro- carbons. Water. Ash. Locality. Reference. 1 54-31 33-81 10-46 1-42 Burke's Creek J. Henderson. 2 42-42 49-20 7-28 1-10 Same seam Col. Lab.. 42. 3 54-18 34-69 9-54 1-59 Blackball 22. 4 49-15 46-75 3-20 0-90 ,, •37. 5 50-00 38-70 5-80 5-50 Rise, Point Elizabeth 38. 6 44-08 43 00 5-85 7-07 Dip, Point EKzabeth 41. 7 52-40 38-90 6-70 2-00 Mokihinui 38. 8 48-59 43-15 4-84 3-42 41. 9 66-12 28-82 4-25 0-81 Denniston 11. 10 56-43 39-68 2-10 1-87 ., 41. A glance at Table C, on page 305, will show that the coals of west Nelson have a very wide range of composition, and it is to this wide range in the quahties of the various coals that the confusion of classification of the beds in the past has been mainly due. ;:5(>2 Tranmctionti. Von Hochstetter* divided the cotils of west Nelson into two series — Mesozoic and Tertiary — mainly on account of the difference in composition. Von Haastt does the same. ' CoxJ divided the coals between the Lower Greensand and Cretaceo-tertiary on stratigraphical grounds ; but, evidently influenced by the difference in composition, Hutton§ placed the coals of Nelson and Motupipi in the Oamaru series, and those of Pakawau, Wanga- peka, Westport, Greymouth, and Reefton in the Amuri series, of Cretaceous age. Hector II has pointed out the anomahes connected with this classi- fication, and has shown that, as far as west Nelson is concerned, the palaeontological evidence upon which Hutton rehed for his classification was very incomplete. Park^ at first recognized two coal-horizons, but now, as the result of later investigation, places the Wanganui and Inanga- hua, Westport, and Greymouth coals in the Oamaru series, of Lower Mio- <-ene age. Von Ettingshausen,** from an examination of the fossil plants, considered the strata at Pakawau, Wangapeka. Greymouth, and Reefton of Cretaceous age. Hector ft placed all the coals of west Nelson at the base of his Cretaceo-tertiary, but considered that the coals occur in an upper and a lower horizon. Mackay %% placed the seams in the Cretaceo-tertiary, and did not express any opinion as to their occurrence in different horizons. From the above it will be seen that very considerable difference of opinion has existed as to age and relationships of these beds. The writer will attempt to show that the coal-seams may occur in one series of beds. Wherever the basement rock of the coal series is exposed the coal-seams rest either hard on the basement rock or on sandstones and conglomerates immediately overlying it. Such is the case in the Pakawau field, at Motupipi, Nelson, the Owen, Reefton, Charleston, Denniston, and other points. In the Greymouth field the semi-anthracites of Paparoa, the sub-bituminous coals of Blackball, and the brown coals of MoonlighF Creek all lie very near the basement slate. At Point Elizabeth the rocks are downfaulted, and the coal rests upon a considerable thickness of sandstone and shale. These lower beds may possibly represent the coal-measures of Mount Davy. At West Wanganui the coal overlies sandstone, &c., but the basement rock is nowhere visible. These coals have been downfaulted, as is indicated by the difference in strike of the comparatively elevated outliers near Golden Blocks, and there is nothing to show that the West Wanganui coals overlie these or the Pakawau coals. Again, with the seams at Moonhght, Blackball, and Paparoa, which are taken in ascending order of elevation and carbonization, it is difficult, if not impossible, to account for their relative positions except on the assumption that they all belong to the same horizon and owe their present positions to faulting, and their various compositions to different distillation- conditions. Again, in no section do the brown or sub-bituminous coals actually overlie the bituminous senras, nor do the limestones — which at * Hochstetter : " New Zealand," pp. 58, 59, 85. f Haast: Geology of W. Nelson. X Cox : Geol. Surv., No. 15, pp. 71-73 ; No. Hi, i)[). 5-8. § Hutton : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, p. 387. II Hector : Geol. Surv., No. 21, p. xxxv. Tf Park : " Geology of New Zealand," 1910, p. 293. ** Von Ettingshausen : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, p. 241. tt Hector: Geol. Surv., No. 18, p. xxxii el seq. ; No. 21, p. xxxv ct seq. jj Mackay : Geology of S.W. Nelson, pp. 57-61 ; Papers and Reports relating Glenroy 12 and 13 Bituminous to brown. Eastern 14, 15, and 16 . . Sub-bituminous. Oweka . Central 17, 18, 22. 23. and Sub - bituminous to 24 brown. 1 Blackball . . 25 . . Sub-bituminous. Greymouth . . ' Brunner 26, 27, 28, and 30 Semi-anthracitous to bituminous. ( Point Elizabeth 29 . . Sub-bituminous. , Orikaka 19, 20, and 21 . . Sub - bituminous to brown. Westport Mount Roch- j fort 35, 36, and 37 .. Bituminous. ' Coastal 31, 32, 33, and 34 Brown. Karamea 38 . . Not even the roughest estimate of the quantity of coal available in west Nelson can be given. This is due in part to lack of data, but prin- cipally to the irregular distribution of the seams or lenses of coal throughout the measures and the rapidity with which the thickness of the seams vary. At Denniston only one-tenth of the area of coal-measures contains Avork- able coal. There is, however, little doubt but that many liundreds of Hkndkusok. — CoaJiiihh of W'tsf Xdsoi 305 millions of tons are available. The bulk of this will consist of brown coals in no wise superior to the brown coals of the rest of New Zealand. Of the remainder the greater proportion will be sub-bituminous in quaUty. The comparatively small areas containing bituminous and anthracitous coals are elevated and geologically accessible, and because of this the quantities of coal they contain are approximately known. Table. C. — Fixed Carbon. Hydi-o- carbon.s. Water. Ash. Locality. Reference. 1 35-76 43-63 15-40 4-21 3-86 Turimawiwi . . Col. Lab., 25. 2 41-40 46-25 5-65 6-70 0-51 Patarau 37. 3 47-80 42-23 5-42 4-55 0-88 Taitapu 37. 4 59-53 32-19 5-18 3-10 0-70 Pakawau 39. 5 52-50 40-20 5-90 1-40 1-92 Puponga 36. 6 42-70 41-00 13-70 2-60 5-66 Motupipi 41. 7 31-87 38-66 14-09 15-38 2-48 Takaka 41. 8 53-59 33-80 10-20 2-41 Enner Glynn 30. 9 44-35 31-78 21-27 2-60 3-13 Tadmor 15. 10 5916 30-04 6-12 4-68 Motueka 33. 11 51-20 40-20 2-80 5-80 0-36 Longford 38. 12 59-60 33-50 1-10 5-80 0-41 Glenroy 38 13 50-11 29-76 15-12 5-01 Maruia 29. 14 61-85 27-10 7-10 3-95 1-37 Ross 41. 15 48-00 35-27 1-02 15-70 2-60 Kanieri 39. 16 56-18 32-24 9-61 1-97 Murray Creek 22. 17 42-42 49-20 7-28 1-10 3-89 Burke's Creek 42. 18 56-98 31-37 9-57 2-18 Capleston 22. 19 4500 38-00 13-60 3-40 3-19 Orikaka ',', 39. 20 48-14 32-20 17-40 2-26 Berlin's Sydney Fry. 21 64-06 11-59 1014 14-21 Hawk's Crag Col. Lab., 29. 22 39-16 40-63 18-46 1-75 0-41 Giles Creek . . J. Henderson. 23 41-58 35-79 20-21 2-42 Little Grey . . Col. Lab., 29. 24 39-23 30-30 20-06 10-41 .Slaty Creek . . 29. 25 4915 46-75 3-20 0-90 3-68 Blackball . . ,[ 37. 26* 76-38 19-25 0-93 3-44 0-27 Paparoa 38. 27t 59-23 33-33 2-11 5-33 3-36 North Brunner J. Henderson. 28 58-00 37-83 0-37 3-80 1-96 Tyneside Col. Lab.. 38. 29t 50-79 38-23 7-90 3-08 0-44 Point Ehzabeth 38. 30 59-27 35-34 2-34 3-05 0-28 Mount Davy 41. 31 90-90 5-10 0-80 5-20 Fox's River . . 35. 32 34-26 31-76 20-18 13-80 Brighton 29. 33 38-26 40-51 20-41 0-82 Charleston . . 29. 34 26-83 35-31 18-24 19-62 Cape Foulwind 29. 35* 56-43 39-68 2-10 1-87 1-70 Denniston 41. 36* 58-69 39-26 1-00 1-05 4-11 Millerton 41. 37 59-35 38-20 1-95 0-50 4-38 Westport-Stock- ton Mokihinui 41). 38§ 52-40 38-90 6-70 2-00 3-83 38. 39 38-20 39-60 ^ 19-10 3-10 4-00 Karamea 37. * Mean of five. f Mean of seven. % Mean of eleven. § Mean of sixteen. 806 Transactions. Petroleum. In west Nelson traces of oil are found at Karamea, Reefton, Dobson, and Kotuku. At Reefton the oil occurs in connection with certain shales under- lying the coal. As pointed out by Morgan and Webb,* the source of the oil is undoubtedly the beds of the coal series. At Karamea and Reefton the shales and claystones which carry the oil are upturned by pov/erful faults, and the structure is synclinal. At Dobson the bore from which the oil issues penetrates the western limb of the Brunner anticline. Between this bore and the crest of the anticline runs a branch of the great Mount William fault, to the west of which the oil will occur. At Kotuku the oil-permeated gravels lie over the northern continuation of the Ross fault, and it seems feasible to siippose that these supplies of petroleum are soaking up along this fault. The struc- ture of the underlying coal-beds will be monoclinal. Summary. (1.) The coals of west Nelson, as first suggested by Professor Park.f have accumulated as marginal (probably drift) deposits. (2.) The coal-measures belong to one system only, and present an un- broken sequence. (3.) The more higlilv carbonized coals are generally the more elevated, or, more exactly, those from above which the impervious strata have been removed wholly or in part. This " stripping " permitted a relatively rapid escape of distillation-products and a relatively rapid distillation of the vegetable matter. It should be noted that Professor Parkf has long in- sisted on the influence exercised by the character of the overlying measures in determining the formation of different classes of coal. (4.) The chances of large supplies of petroleum being found in west Nelson are not good. A certain amount may occur along faults. Art. XXXVI. — On the Genesis of the Surface Forms and Present Drainage- sijstems of West Nelson. By J. Henderson, D.Sc, A.O.S.M. Communicated by Professor James Park. {Read before the Otago Institute, 14th Septemher, 190V.] The term " west Nelson " as here used includes all that part of the north- west of the South Island which lies to the west of the main divide and north of the Taramakau. This portion of New Zealand has an area of close on 8,000 square miles, and consists of a series of earth-blocks, which at one time presented a comparatively even surface, but which have suffered such a differential elevation that some of the blocks have been raised till their surfaces are 5,000 ft. or more above the surfaces of the other blocks, * Morgan : Geol. Surv., 3rd Ann. Rep. (n.s.), pp. 9, 10. Webb : Idc»i, p. 23. t Park : " Geology of New Zealand," 1910, p. 280 et seq. t Park : " Mining Geologv," 2nd ed., 1907, p. 32. Hbndersom. — Surface Forms and DraitKKjr-si/stenis of \\'t., pp. 5, 6, 8. Park : Geol. Surv., No. 19, pp. 79^ 82, 84. I Hector : Geol. Surv., No. 4, p. 27. Cox : No. l(\ p. (3. Park : No. 19, p. 80. Mackay: Geol. S.Vv. Nelson, pp. 11, 12, 57. §Park: Geol. Surv., No. 20, p. 192. Mackav : No. 21, p. 21. BeU: N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 3 (n.s.), p. 50. II Hector : Geol. Surv., No. 4, p. 27. Cox : No. 9, p. 117. Mackay : No. 21, p. 21 : Mackay here ascribes the dislocation of the rock at the base of the Lyell Mountains and at New Creek to his Motueka fault. Mackaj' : Geol. S.W. Nelson, p. 12. "^ Mackay : Geol. Surv., No. 8, pp. 103. 104. 105 ; No. 21, p. 21 (Motueka fault) ; Geol. S.W. Nelson, p. 58. ** Mackay : Geol. Suvv., No. 15, pp. 145, 146, 147. tt Bell : N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 1 (n.s.), p. 81. Morgan : N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 6 (n.s.), pp. 70, 71. tj Hector: Geol. Sm-v., No. 4, p. 19. Cox: No. 15, pp. 71, 72. Park: No. 20. p. 202. Bell : N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 3 (n.s.), p. 50. Mackav: Papers and Reports. 1896, C.-ll, p. 9. §§ Mackay : Geol. Surv., No. 8, pp. 107, 109, 112 ; No. 21, pp. 22. 78. IIJI Mackay: Geol. Sui-v., No. 8, pp. 76, 110, 113; No. 21, p. 78 ; Geol. S.W. Nelson,, p. 58. Webb : Geol. Surv., 2nd Ann. Rep. (n.s.), p. 26. HenukR80K. — Surface Furiiis (ind Drai ii(i{ft'-si/sti'iiis of Wrsf Xelmii. 309" the granite ranges south from Mount Domett, enters the Mokihiuxii basin by Eough-and-Tumble Creek, thence along the Upper Ngakawhau and Waimangaroa, past Mount William, and across the Buller by way of Cascade Creek ; thence it flanks the Paparoa peneplain to Point Elizabeth : a branch probably crosses the Grey between the first and second gorges. The faults of west Nelson, as far as the writer can tell, are all distributed faults, often many chains wide. • Peneplains. The fractures of which the general course has just been indicated separate the two main elements in the geography of the area, the pene- plains and areas of depression. The most northerly elevated earth- block is that forming the Whaka- marama Range. This peneplain has a north-east and south-west exten- sion, and is bounded by the Aorere and Wanganui faults. The highest peak is 3,980 ft., and several peaks attain 3,500 ft. This block consists mainly of Palaeozoic rocks with a north and south or north-north-east and south-south-west strike.* It is skirted on the west by a belt of - Tertiaries, and is overlain on its northern limb by the same rocks. t The Pikikirima penej>lain is bounded by the Motueka and Takaka faults. The highest peak is 4,359 ft., and the average of five peaks is 3,920 ft. The slope is to the north half of this earth-block, to the north and east is of granite, the rest of Palaeozoic rocks, f the strike of which varies much from north-east and south-west to north and south. J The Moimt Arthiu' peneplain is the principal one in this part of the country. From it have been carved the Momit Arthur, Douglas, Haupiri, Auatoki, and Leslie Ranges. It is hmited by the Takaka and Motueka faults on the east ; on the west by the Aorere fault and by a probable continuation of the Mount William fault. It is separated from the Lyell peneplain on the south by the saddle between the Baton and Karamea. This depression may be a fault-rift, or it may be a col between the trun- cated domes (uplifted by the laccohtes beneath) of the Mount Arthur and Lyell peneplains. The Mount Arthur peneplain is traversed by the Kara- mea fault, which cuts off the Mount Arthur Range from the rest of the peneplain. The highest point is 6,000 ft. above sea-level, and the mean of eleven peaks is 5,110 ft. Granites appear right along the eastern and western borders of this earth-block, and in patches in the north ; in fact, the Palaeozoic sediments which form the central portions rest on a vast plinth of granite. § These sediments contain numerous dykes, and strike fi'om north-west and south-east to north-north-east and south-south-west. I The Lyell peneplain is determined on the east by the Motueka fault, on the west by the Mount William fault, on the north by the col before mentioned, and on the south by the Upper Buller Gorge, which the Buller has formed by cutting through the saddle between the Lyell and Victoria peneplains. The Karamea and Matiri faults traverse this peneplain. The * Cox : Geol. Surv., No. 15, p. 66. t Park : Geol. Surv., No. 20, p. 186 et seq. iCk)x: Geol. Surv., No. 13, p. 2. Park: No. 20, p. 228. Hochstetter'.s '• New Zealand," p. 102. §Mackay: Geol. Surv., No. 12, pp. 102, 122. Cox: No. U, pp. 43. 44; No. 15, pp. 63, 64. Park : No. 20, pp. 230, 231. Bell : N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 3 (n.s.). p. 70 et seq. H Maekay : Geol. Surv., No. 12, pp. 125, 127, 128. Cox : No. 14, pp. 45, 49, 50, 51 . Park: No. 20, pp. 210, 211, 213, &c. Bell: N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 3(n.s.),pp. 34, 45. 310 T ransaction!^. highest peak is 5,750 ft., and the mean of twenty peaks is 4,800 ft. In structure the Lyell peneplain resembles the Mount Arthur peneplain, the ancient sediments, and in part also Cainozoic rocks resting on a platform of granite. Thus on the west the peneplain is edged by the granites of Mount Radiant and Moimt Glasgow, and granites occur on the south and east.* The strike of the older sediments is nearly north and south. f The Murchison peneplain is separated from the Lyell peneplain by the Motueka fault. It is determined on the west by the Tutaki fault, on the south-east by the alpine overthrust, and on the east by the Sherry fault. The highest peak is 4,629 ft., and the mean of eight peaks is 4,000 ft. This block is low on the east, due to denudation and to the overriding of the alpine peneplain. It has been very thoroughly dissected, so that only on the west do sediments which strike north and south occur. J To the east the granite has been cut out into isolated pyramids. The Victoria peneplain, the remnants of other domes, is bounded by the alpine -overthrust and Matiri faults. The Matiri fault traverses its northern end, and roughly separates the Brunner and Victoria Ranges. The highest peak is 5,571ft., and the mean of twenty peaks is 4,930 ft. Denudation has removed nearly all the sediments first uplifted by the iaccolites. A strip of slate with a north-and-south strike § borders its western flank. Patches of Cainozoic rocks occur on the west and north- east. The Wainihinihi peneplain! 1 flanks the alpine divide as far north as Bell Hill. The alpine overthrust separates it from the alpine peneplain, and on the west it is determined by the Ross fault. This peneplain, which has a north-east and south-west extension, has been very thoroughly dissected bv rivers flowing across it from the alpine peneplain. It now consists of a series of pyramidal peaks with an average height of, say, 4,000 ft. The sediments which formed part of its original mass occur only as narrow strips flanking the Avest of the peaks from Bell Hill to Ross, and striking north-north-east to north-west. "^j The Paparoa peneplain is a truncated dome the sediments of Avhich flanked it before peneplanation ; elevation and faulting are now repre- sented by the slates at its northern and southern extremities, which strike from north-west to north-east.** It is bounded by the Mawhera and Lower Bulier faults. Its highest peak is 4,250 ft., and the mean of five peaks is 4,000 ft. This peneplain is almost entirely surrounded by Cainozoic rocks derived from its own degradation. tf The alpine peneplain is of the same age as the other peneplains of the area. It stretches without break from D'Urville Island to Otago. The wonderfully well-preserved groups of block mountains occupying -Central and North Otago, first described by Professor Park,JJ are the * Haast : Geol. Explor. of W. Nelson, pp. 98, 99. Mackay : Geol. S.W. Nelson, p. ()(>. Webb : Geol. Surv., 2nd Ann. Rep., pp. 26, 27. t Park : Geol. Surv., No. 19, pp. 81, 82. Webb : Loc. cit., p. 27. X Park : Loc. cit., pp. 81, 82. § Haaxt : Geol. Explor. of W. Nelson, p. 101. Mackay : (leol. Sur\-., No. lo, p. 12:1 ■ et ■levated. (2.) The fault-lines separating the blocks were probably established at the time of the intrusion of the granites, consequent on the orogenic move- ment which formed the alpine chain. (3.) The first cycle of erosion, which was very complete, produced the coal series and base-levelled the elevated earth-blocks. The radial drainage obtaining on the western portion of the Mount Arthur peneplain and on the Pikikiruna, Lyell, and Paparoa penplains has probably been evolved from this ancient drainage. * Haast : Geol. Explor. of W. Nelson, pp. 3, 90, 91. t Haast : hoc. cit, p. 103. Marshall : Geog. of N.Z., pp. 140. 141. + Mackay : Geol. of S.W. Nelson, p. 43. Mines Statement, 1893, p. 175. HexuK'xSOX. — Siirfdcr Fonn^ (iiid l)rasses and the- dissection of spurs. (li.) Glacier pot-holes. (/.) Efficiency of glaciers as eroding agents: Evidence furnished by the locality. 7. Changes in drainage in the Rakaia Valley. 8. Totara forest. ,^1(3 T raiisartiom 1. Introduction. Part II. 2. Primary causes affecting the character and distribution of the vegetation. (A.) The glacial period. (B.) aimate. 3. The plant formations. (A.) General. (B.) Steppe-climate formations, (a.) The steppe series. (1.) General. (2.) Succession. (3.) The associations. (a.) Rock. [h.) Fan. (c.) River-bed. {d.) Tussock steppe. * Genera.1. ** Growth-forms. *** Physiognomy. **** Subassociations. ■\ Danthonia Raoulii steppe. j\ Danthonia flavescens steppe. iff Dwarf Carmichaelia steppe. tttt Triodia steppe. (e.) Gaya ribi folia association. (/.) Nothofagus cUffortioides forest. {(J.) Lake, swamp, bog, &c. * Lake. ** Swamp. *** Spkagmwi bog. t Growth-forms. {(i.) The rock fell-field series. (1.) General. (2.) The associations. (a.) Rock. * Vegetable -sheep subassociation. (6.) Shingle-slip. * General. ** Growth-forms. *** Ecological conditions. t Edaphic. tt Climatic, (r.) Fell-field. * General. ** Growth-forms. (C.) Forest-climate formations. (a.) General. (/3.) The rock-forest series. {!.) General. (2.) The associations. («.) Rock. (6.) Shinglc-sHp. (c.) Fell-field. * Species, &c. ** Grov/th-forms. [d.) Subalpine scrub. * General. ** Composition. *** (^rowth-forms. (f.) Subalpine totara forest. * General. ** LTpper forest. f Character. tt Composition. ttt Physiognomy. 4. Floristic. jttt Ecology. (A.) Floristic notes. (B.) List of species. -"■. Literature consulted. Si'ki(;ht, Cockayxk, Lmxc — Maim/ Arroirsmifh Dixirirf. 317 PAET 1.— PHYSIOGRAPHY. By R. Speight, M.A,. M.Sc, F.Ct.S. [Read before the Philosophical Instifvte of Cankrbxiry, 1st June, 1910. \ i. Introductory. Tins paper deals with the physiography of a part of Canterbury, which is little known even noAv. Althoiigh reference is made to its general physical features, those which depend on glaciation, both present and past, receive most attention. In presenting this account I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to Sir Julius von Haast on points so numerous that it is impossible to mention them in detail. I therefore take this opportunity to make a general acknowledgement of my debt, and also to express, as one who has followed in his footsteps, even if a long way after, my appre- ciation of the work which he did in this locality nearly fifty years ago. Considering that physiographicai geology Avas almost unknown as such at the. time when he visited the head-waters of the rivers referred to later, it is most surprising to find what a Avonderful grasp he had of the principles which underlie that phase of geological study, and, even if he did not know processes and re.3ults by the names vvhich are applied nowadays, he cer- tainly had a proper appreciation of their importance, and clearly recognized their operation in nature. I must also acknowledge my indebtedness in a minor degree to Captain Hutton and to S. H. Cox for their descriptions of portions of this area. My own conclusions are based on observations made during four separate journeys to various parts of the district. 2. Mountain Systems. {a.) Topography. (See map, p. 318.) The district dealt with in this paper lies at the head of the Ashburton and Rakaia Rivers, and forms part of the eastern slopes of the main range -of the Southern Alps, in lat. 43° 20' south approximately. In this part of the range its average direction is north-east to south-west, but owing to extensive erosion by rivers and glaciers the valleys on either side dovetail into one another in a most remarkable manner, so that the actu.al crest is a very irregular line. The principal peaks, taking them in order from Wliitcombe Pass to the head of the Rangitata River, are the following : Louper Peak (8,165 ft.). Mount Whitcombe (8,656 ft.), Blair Peak (8,185 ft.). Malcolm Peak (8,236 ft.), and Mount Tyndall (8,282 ft.). Running east from the main range, and forming the main divide between the upper valleys of the Rangitata and the Rakaia, is an elevated ridge connect- ing the Arrowsmith Range with the central mountain system. This ridge is everywhere over 5,000 ft. in height, and has several prominent peaks on it, notably Mount Goethe (over 6,000 ft.) and Mount Murray (7,065 ft.). The Arrowsmith Range stretches in a north-east to south-west direction, generally parallel to the Southern Alps, and rises to a height of 9,171 ft. in Mount Arrowsmith itself, with numerous minor points about 8,000 ft. Mount Arrowsmith is thus higher than any peak in the vicinity, and, indeed, is higher than any peak on the main divide behind it with the exception of those in the Mount Cook group. The same peculiarity in the 318 J'ronKactions. position of the highest peaks with regard to the mountain axis of the 8outb Island is to be observed further south, where Mount d'Archiac (9,279 ft.) in the Tavo Thumb Range, Malte Brun in the Maltebrun Range, and Mount Cook itself lie to the east of the main watershed, and excel in elevation the neighbouring peaks on it. The crest of the range also lies far to the east of the structural or tectonic axis of the Island, Avhich no doubt follows up through the schistose belt between the sea and the present main range about twenty miles from the west coast. This suggests that the present configuration has been the result of excessive erosion acting for a long Fig. 1. — -Map of Mount Areowsjuth District. period of time on the western wing of the geanticline of which the range- has been built, far more profoundly than it has acted on the eastern wing.. (6.) Relation to Rain jail and Conditions of Erosion. The mountains in this locality lie right across the direction of the prevailing westerly winds of this latitude, and the bulk of the moisture is intercepted on their western slopes. The conditions are exactly the same as these further north at Otira, which, according to the records of the meteorological station recently established, has a yearly rainfall of a Little over 200 in., while at Bealey, about twelve miles away in a straight line, it is only 100 in. Although no statistics are available for the Rakaia region, the effect is clearly visible in the character of the plant covering, whieb changes from the rain forest of Westland to the markedly xeroph}^ic tussock steppe of the region to the east of Mount Arrowsmith. Inter- mediately there is the totara forest of the Upper Rakaia, which has followed the rain just across the main divide from the montane rain forest containing totara on the hisher hill country of Westland. Speight, Cockayne, Laixg. — MduhI ArrDir.^inifh Disfrirf. 819 Those dift'erent conditions of rainfall have probably lasted for a very long time, and thv'w effect is evidenced by the lower elevations to the west, where the subaerial denudation has been excessive, owing to the heavy rains causing frequent Hoods and the great amount of snow forming large and powerful glaciers. There is evidence from other parts of the Alps that the dominant western erosion has resulted in the capture by the western streams of the upper tributaries of some of the rivers of the eastern watershed. It is only in some such way that the formation of Arthur's Pass can be explained.. This action is likely to continue when the marked difference in the height of the floors of the eastern and western valleys is considered^ — for example, the floor of the Bealey Valley near the tunnel- entrance is at an altitude of 2,435 ft., while the western end, at Otira, five miles and a quarter distant, is only 1,583 ft. — that is, it is 852 ft. lower. The same is generally true for the other valleys of that part of the Southern Alps, a feature well brought out by Mr. Edward Dobson's original surveys for a road across the range. This remarkable physical peculiarity can be most easily explained by the greater efficiency of eroding agents on the western side of the range. The heads of the valleys have been sapped back by glaciers, and the valleys have been deepened by ice and water action so that they have been able to encroach on their eastern neighbours ; and the marked overlapping of adjacent streams on either side of the crest of the range intensifies this effect when capture of even one small tributary has taken place. The more rapid erosion on the west will loAver the range progressively from that direction, so that the eastern region will become of relatively higher relief, and in future geological time Mount Hutt and Mount Torlesse, on the eastern border of the mountainous country, will, if similar meteorological conditions continue, become its highest elevations, (c.) Present Form of Mountain Region — a Dissected Peneplain. The rocks of which the area is composed consist of greywackes, slates, and mudstones of Lower Mesozoic age, which have been folded subse- quently by mountain-building movements into folds whose general axes rmi in a N.N.E.-S.S.W. direction. Local variations appear to be frequent, so that at times the direction is almost E.-W., and again become N.W.- S.E. This variation is apparently due to change in the direction of the thrusts by which the area was' folded. The date of the folding is probably Upper Jurassic, but it may have been Upper Cretaceous. A feature of the mountainous region which has thus been produced is the approximately uniform height of the great majority of peaks. A very large number of these are between 6,800 ft. and 8,200 ft. in height, with very few above or below these limits except in the Mount Cook region. This suggests that the whole area has been reduced to a level platform either by marine denu- dation or, more probably, has been base-levelled by a former stream system, and a few peaks, like Mount Arrowsmith, which dominate the rest are the residual elevations on the peneplain. The higher mountains which no doubt once existed further west, and have been removed by erosive agents, would represent the higher mountains on this peneplain. It is possible, however, that the present prominent elevations are the remains of an old divide which existed on it, and from which streams once flowed east and west. In advancing this theory for the present form of the mountain region >of Canterbury, I am quite aware that this is contrary to the generally H-20 T rdiixacfions . accepted opinion that in their -present form, the Southern Alps are a mountain - range of the alpine type. They were undoubtedly at one time such a range, though one in which the folding was not acute, being some- what of the natiire of a series of isoclinals ; but they have been base- levelled subsequently, and then raised and partially dissected. Dissection has not reached a moderately advanced stage, and a residual divide is still in existence. This is crossed by numerous passes, the lowest of which is Haast's Pass (1,716 ft. high). Such low passes are extremely unlikely to occur in a range of the alpine type unless it has suffered denudation for a long period of time In this connection compare the Southern Alps with the European Alps, the Himalayas, or the Andes. The Canterbury peneplain formed from the original range of the alpine type was no doubt continuous with that of Otago, which, according, to Professor Park* and Dr. Marshall,t has been traced with certainty as far north as the Waitaki River, with a general ascending slope from south to north. It is extremely unlikely that it broke off suddenly at the northerly boundary of the province, and it must have continued further north towards Mount Cook and the head of the Godley River. From an area of high land in that neighbourhood, or from a ridge continuing north and south from it, the present principal lines of drainage proceeded outward, and this may explain the remarkable orientation of the valleys of the Canterbury rivers noted by E. Dobson, who pointed out that the main valleys all appear to radiate from a point in the Tasman Sea about twenty miles west of Hoki- tika. McKay has suggested that the arrangement is due to a series of radiating faults, the lines of which are usually followed by the valleys. Of this there is not the slightest direct evidence available at present, the suggested explanation not being founded on observation, but is pro- bably in sympathy with a somewhat mistaken tendency at the present to attribute a large proportion of landscape forms to crustal movements with- out positive evidence of these movements being brought forward. In this- case it seems more reasonable to attribute the undoubted arrangement of the valleys to the shape of the original land-surface on which the drain- age was established. The peneplain explanation of the uniformity of the moimtain-tops apparently fits the case best, although there is one consideration which must not be lost sight of — viz., the tendency of all mountain-summits in an area subject to similar conditions to approximate to a general even height. The dominant erosive agent on the mountain-slopes of this region is frost. Under the influence of its powerful action they are covered with immense quantities of moving debris which has been riven from the solid rocks. The pointed masses which form the highest peaks are just those which respond most readily to it. Owing to the more rapid weathering of the highest elevations they are gradually reduced to the level of the lower ones, and Avhen the rocky eminences which crown them are destroyed the summits take on a more or less dome-shaped form owing to the accumu- lation of vast amounts of debris, which is formed faster than it can be removed by transporting agents. Although these are very active on the flanks of the mountains, they are somewhat sluggish on the tops, and become more and more so as weathering proceeds. This coating of debris acts as a protection, retards degradation of the mountains which have had * N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 5{n.s.) — Cromwell Subdivision. t " Geography of New Zealand." Trans. X Z, Inst.. Vor,. .\1>1II I'l ATK I IT. Ki(i. 1. — i!AK.\i.\ i!i\Eii Bed. with Whitcombe Pass in the Distance. .^f^T^ Fig. 2. — Lake Heron, looking North, showing Wave-formed Simt- Face J', ,9'?a] Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. .XIJII Pr ATF IV Fi :. 1. — Lyell Claiier. from ]\Iein"s Knob. .Mount Cioethe on the left. Mount Tyndall (Haast) in the middle distance, and INIak-ohu Peak just showing on the right. I'u;. 2. — Pa.ms.w (Ilacieh. riio.\i .Mein'.- K.nui;. INfount PauKsav on the left. ]\[ount Whiteonihe in the distance Spkight, Cockayne, Laino. — Mount Arroirxmith Dixtricf. 921 their proiniiieut peaks removed, and tlius promotes the gradual approxi- mation in height. This action l)e('omes increasingly effective as the hills become loAver. This phenomenon is noticed in all denuded mountain regions, but it is also in evidence in Canterbury, where the results of denudation have not I'cached such an advanced stage. If the old surface of the Canterbury plateau had been a peneplain, a generally uniform height of the principal elevations would follow, because those which stood out on it above the average level would be rapidly reduced to the mean height by the processes described above. This rough plateau or peneplain has passed through a second cycle of erosion, and the drainage established on it appears to have reached a mature stage at the present time. 3. Drainacje Systems. (a.) Relation to the Structure of the Country. Mount Arrowsmith is at present the most strongly marked physical feature of the Upper Rakaia and Ashburton district. Its great mass dominates the whole area. From its south-eastern face flow the main Ashburton River, and the Cameron River, an important tributary of the Rakaia ; at the back of it rises the Lawrence ; while it is flanked on the north by the valley of the Rakaia, to which it contributes numerous small streams. The mountain is therefore the meeting-place of the drainage- basins of the three important rivers of central Canterbury — the Rakaia, Ashburton, and Rangitata. It must not be assumed that this has always been the case, as the directions of the river-valleys were determined at a somewhat remote date by considerations quite independent of the present surface configuration. Its first lines seem to have been across the strike of the beds, and this accounts for the general parallelism of the course of the main rivers both inside and immediately outside the area under consideration. The principal valleys — viz., those of the Rangitata, the Ashburton, and the Rakaia — are controlled by this factor. The secondary drainage established itself in the direction of the strike, but modifications ensued as the primary streams cut deep down into the beds of the area, a characteristic modification being that the lateral valleys trend slightly down-stream, and thus cut across the strike at a small angle. The ternary lines of drainage appear to have reverted to the primary direction, and are seen in the Upper Ashburton and the Cameron River, l)ut the disturbing efi'ects of glaciation have been so marked that it is unsafe to come to any definite conclusion in the matter. Even now, however, the presence of weak beds dipping at high angles undoubtedly promotes the formation of small tributary streams and of low saddles along the strike. This arrangement of the stream system I have attributed solely to the normal development of drainage in a region composed of folded rocks where the direction of strike is fairly constant. I am quite aware that it is also pos- sible to attribvite the arrangement to lines of faulting ; but until these faults can be proved on stronger evidence than the occurrence of crushed and shattered bands of rock associated with steep slopes in an area where all the rocks are more or less crushed owing to folding while the mountains were being formed, I cannot accept the theory as sound, although subse- quent more detailed work may show it to be so. 11— Trans. 322 T ransactions. (h.) The Fakaia Valley. The largest river of the district is the Rakaia, which takes its origin in the Lyell and Ramsay Glaciers, on the eastern side of the main divide, and runs first easterly for twenty miles and then turns south-east. It receives on its north bank numerous streams which rise in small glaciers on the main range and run in a southerly direction in parallel valleys till they meet the Rakaia. Further down, beyond the limits of the area under con- sideration, it receives two important branches — the Mathias and the Wilber- force. On the south bank several fair-sized streams rise in glaciers on the slopes of Mount Murray, but the main tributary is the Lake Stream. This is formed from the overflow waters of Lake Heron — hence its name — but its chief supply comes from the Cameron River. This rises in the Cameron Glacier, on the south-east face of Mount Arrov/smith, runs in a south-easterly direction for about twelve miles, and forms an extensive fan on the north- west side of the lake. At this part of its course it changes its regular channel frequently, running into the lake at times, but at present it joins the Lake Stream about two miles below its outlet from the lake. This body of water receives several streams on its eastern side, the largest being the Swin. The Lake Stream runs between north and north-east and has a very slight fall for several miles, but then it becomes swifter and makes a descent of 200 ft. before joining the Rakaia. The Rakaia River and most of its tributaries are overcharged with detritus, and have filled up to a fairly uniform surface the floor of the glacial trough through which they run (Plate III, fig. 1). The width of the flood-plane is about two miles, and on this the river forms many diverging and anastomozing branches, in the way so characteristic of streams laden with waste. In winter it is frequently dr}^ owing to the freezing of the water at its sources ; but in spring and summer it becomes a large river, and often impossible to cross on horseback, although the splitting-up into different streams renders it somewhat more easy to negotiate. Near the head the valley narrows somewhat, and there the river runs in a solid body of water capable of rolling down stones a ton in weight. In this part of its course no terraces are formed except those of temporary nature, but these last long enough at times to allow of their being covered with grass and scrub ; still, they are liable to rapid destruction if the river in the course of its w^anderings impinges for long against their unconsolidated edges (Plate III, fig. 1). (c.) The Lake Heron Valley: its Features and Origin. (See map, p. 318.) The valley through which the Lake Stream runs is a very striking physical feature of the district. It is continued in a south-easterly direction for nearly thirty miles, and extends across the Ashburton River as far as the Rangitata. It intersects these streams nearly at right angles, and bears little relation to the present principal lines of drainage. It severs the eastern mountainous district of middle Canterbury from the main range of the Southern Alps, and well merits some distinctive name. Haast called a part of it the Upper Ashburton Plains ; but this name will hardly apply to the whole extended valley. I shall refer to it in this paper as the Lake Heron Valley, as that name has been used repeatedly by the recent Com- mission which examined the Canterbury runs for the purpose of closer settle- ment. At the upper end of the valley, about five miles from the Rakaia, Speight, Cockayxk, f/.\iN(i. — Mount Arrnw'Ufu'fJi Dis/rict. 323 it is partially blocked by Shaggy Hill, the remains of a ridge which in all probability formed part of the original divide, but which has been cut through by glacier and stream action. The floor of the valley is here about a third of a mile in width, but it immediately widens out with a broad flat section which reaches a maximum of about six miles in the neighbour- hood of Lake Heron. About five miles further on it contracts somewhat, but is still four miles in width, and continues so till it reaches Hakatere Station, at the upper end of the Ashburton Gorge. Immense morainic accumulations are found here covering the whole floor and extending up a tributary valley coming in from the north-west and the direction of the Upper Rangitata, which now contains no stream at all commensurate with its size, but which was an outlet for the excess of ice in the Upper Rangitata basin. It is probable that this valley marks the original course of the Potts River before it was deflected through a low saddle which was cut down on its western side by an overflow from the Rangitata Glacier, an effect which was intensified by the overdeepening of the bed of the Rangitata itself by its own powerful ice-stream. From the junction of this tributary with the Lake Heron Valley an extension of the latter goes towards the Lower Rangitata through the Pudding Stone Valley, which is now de- serted by any stream commensurate with its great width and length. From this brief description of the Lake Heron Valley it will be readily inferred that the original drainage-lines are quite distinct from those exist- ing now. The principal stream belonging now to this valley is the South Ash- burton, which runs across it and not down it. This river rises in the Ash- burton Glacier, on the south-east side of Mount Arrowsmith, and flows in a characteristically ice-eroded valley for some distance, and then passes, by means of an extremely narrow and almost impassable gorge, through elevated down country till it reaches the Lake Heron Valley. It crosses this in a wide river-bed without any distinct banks and with all the features of an aggrading stream, and afterwards penetrates the outer range of mountains by a somewhat open gorge, and emerges on to the plains near the Mount Somers Railway-station. It is joined on the northern side, about half-way through the gorge, by the Stour, the upper part of whose basin was once invaded by the ice-sheet from the great inland valley across a well- defined saddle near the Clent Hills Station. The North Ashburton does not belong to the area, as it has not cut through the outer range into the Lake Heron basin ; its upper valley probably escaped the modifying in- fluence of ice experienced by the southern branch of the river. It seems fairly certain that in pre-glacier times the arrangement of the drainage-lines was as follov.'s : First, a small stream joined the Rakaia where the present Lake Stream comes in. This had no great size, being only about five or six miles in length. Then the present Cameron and all the drainage of the Lake Heron basin flowed down towards Hakatere, and also received the Ashburton and the stream that came from the direc- tion of the present Potts River, the combined streams reaching the Rangi- tata through the Pudding Stone Valley, The lower Ashburton Gorge was not then cut completely through, and the river rose in the hills near Mount Possession. It is certain that the formation of this gorge is of later date than the formation of the Pudding Stone Valley, and it was no doubt opened out during the glacier maximum by the overflow of ice across a low saddle, which was then lowered by its erosive action and now forms the 11* 324 T rdiixaciiuna. course of the river. These remarkable alterations are certainly due to interference arising from the glaciers when at their nuiximum or when declining, and how this arose Avill be mentioned later. 4. Lakes. Numerous small lakes and ponds lie in the hollows formed b}- the morainic accumulations between the Potts River and Hakatere. The two largest of these are Lake Ackland (locally known as Lake Emma), at the head of the Pudding Stone Valley, and Lake Tripji (known as Clearwater), which lies near the Potts River. The latter is about two miles in length by about one in breadth. There is a smaller one, called Lake Howard, situated between the two. All of these lakes drain to the Ashburton. To the north of the Ashburton River, near Hakatere Station, are two shallow ponds known as the Maori Lakes, whose water is held back by a barrier of detritus deposited by the aggrading Ashburton River as it crosses the great trans- verse Lake Heron Valley. (a.) Lake Heron : its General Features ; with Special Reference to the Spits notv forming on its Shores and to the Action of Shore Ice. (Plate III, fig. 2.) The largest body of water in the district, and the highest lake in Canter- bury, is Lake Heron, which is at an elevation of 2,267 ft. above sea-level, and is situated on the very highest portion of the floor of the transverse valley. It has a most remarkable shape, as it almost encircles an isolated conical hill called the Sugarloaf, which rises to a height of 4,054 ft. The western part of uhe lake has a length from north to south of about five miles, and the southern portion a length from east to Avest of about four miles. Its actual breadth varies from about two miles down to very small dimen- sions where its two encircling arms stretch as narrow creeks behind the Sugarloaf on its north and east. The largest expanse of open water is near the south end. It is rather a shallow lake, but deep alongside the central hill, which carries down its precipitous slopes far below water-level. The shores are fringed in many places with marsh, and are usually without marked features ; but my attention has been drawn to two shingle spits which are found near the south-western corner of the lake (Plate III, fig. 2). These spits are evidently the result of wave-action, without the interference of currents, usually considered to be the principal cause of the formation of such featiues. In this case the}^ are so placed that it seems impossible that currents can have any part in their formation. They occur in a small lake at the end opposite to its outlet, and right at its very extremity. The most powerful wind on the lake is the north-wester, which sweeps down it from the direction of the Rakaia, and sometimes raises waves of such a size as to threaten danger to an ordinary boat. These seem to be the prime factor in the formation of the spits. Starting from a small projection of the shore, the larger spit stretches across a small bay for about 100 yards, and includes a patch of water as in a natural breakwater. The smaller spit is formed under somewhat similar conditions. When the waves are seen coming down the lake they move faster in the deeper water off shore, and gradually swing round where they meet the friction of the shelving bottom. The swing is prolonged till on breaking they are parallel to the margin of the spit ; in other words, the edge of the spit is the tangent to the front of each wave as it breaks. There must, therefore, be some intimate SrKicnr, Cockaynk, Laixc;. — Mount Arroirtnititli Dixirict. 325 matheniatical relation between the form of the spit and the circumstances determining the wave-motion in the lake, and an examination of the spit as they occur strongly suggests that their shape is a well-defined geometrical curve. In the initial stages of the formation of the spits it is probable that they are largely built up by a feeble shore-current due to wave-action, but directly a small spit is formed the waves Avould be almost entirely responsible for its prolongation. Both of these spits end in a rounded nose, whose position is determined by the amount of retardation of the wave in the shallow water. The wave will tend to swing round completely, so that it actually reverses its direction, and this will maintain a blunt-nosed spit in a fixed position as long as the conditions of the bottom of the lake in the vicinity are the same. If the floor of the lake keeps on shallowing ofE the spit so that it makes the depth of the lake more uniform, then the wave will not swing so quickly, and the spit will thus be lengthened (see fig. 2). The peculiarity of these spits can thus be put down absolutely to wave-action, in contradistinction to those formed on the sea-coast, which are attributed largely to littoral currents. It is evi- dent, however, that wave-action alone can form spits, and this must be a contributory cause in a large propor- tion of marine spits. Hooked spits in lakes are specially referred to by G. K. Gilbert in his paper on the "Topographic Features of Lake-shores " (5th Annual Report, United States Geological Survey), but he ascribes them principally to the action of the littoral currents ; in Lake Heron, however, these appear to play an insignificant part in their formation. Lake Heron is at such an eleva- tion above the sea that every winter it is heavily coated with ice. In ordi- nary seasons there is a covering of as much as 9 in. in thickness, a remark- able feature for such a large lake in an insular climate like ours in a latitude of only 43° S. The shores exhibit traces of the action of ice in the ridges of gravel which are pushed up by it as it expands after contraction in cold weather. Ice contracts as the temperature is lowered, and in doing so draws away from the shore, leaving a narrow lane of open water ; this freezes immediately, and when the tem- perature rises the ice expands again and is forced up the beach. Ridges formed in this way occur on Lake Heron, as well as on the smaller lakes Tripp and Acland. The stones composing the beaches are rounded on their edges and corners by the movement of the ice, and especially so when the ice breaks up in spring before an early north-wester. The floes are then piled in heaps on the exposed shore of the lake, and the wind keeps on driving others forward, which occasionally shoot up on the inclined planes formed by the masses miderncath, so that they are carried as much as a •chain from the edge of the lake, scoring the ground and ploughing it into PiC4. 2. — Showing Relation of "Waves TO Form of Spit. 326 Trai,mcUoui<. furrows. This is especially well seen on the south shore of Lake Heron, where the full force of the northerly wind is felt and the beach is shelving and low. 5. Present Glaciers. The existing glaciers of the area are divided into two groups — (1) those coming from Mount Arrowsmith and its immediate neighbouring heights ; (2) those which belong to the main Rakaia Valley. The principal glaciers of the first group are those at the head of the Cameron and Ashburton Rivers. Several other small ones occur, notably those at the head of the Lawrence, on the western flanks of Mount Arrowsmith. (rt.) Cameron and Ashburton Glaciers. The former glacier occupies about two miles of the upper part of the Cameron Valley. It is a small glacier of the first order, and is fed from tributaries coming from the south-eastern slopes of Mount Arrowsmith and its extension to the north. The lower part is covered with debris, and shows undoubted signs of recent retreat. At the present time it is almost impossible to tell the actual position of the terminal face, owing to its extreme thinness and the mantle of debris which passes insensibly from actual moraine to the apron of detritus before the glacier. This retreat is also evidenced by the presence of old lateral moraines lying parallel to the valley-sides far above the present level of the ice, and extending down the valley for some distance beyond the present termination. 'There is also there a well-marked terminal moraine about half a mile from the present face. At various positions, besides, down the valley are old terminals pass- ing into laterals, and partially blocking the stream in several places, which marked in former times undoubted halting-stages in the retreat of the ice. A special feature of the valley is the wide basin which forms its head^ a basin evidently expanded by the saj)ping-back of the containing-walls in all directions by the ice which partially filled it. This case certainly suggests that corrie glaciers and glaciers which are closely related to them in size have under some conditions the power of widening their upper reaches at a faster rate than the streams which issue from them can widen that part of the valley where they flow. There is no suggestion furnished by this locality that such glaciers act as protecting agents. The Ashburton Glacier lies to the west of the Cameron in a parallel valley, and exhibits features very similar to those of its neighbour. It is not as large as the Cameron, and hardly reaches the floor of the valley before it melts ; but it is very beautiful, and shows striking crevasses and ice- pinnacles, and a fine ice-fall at its head, depending from the slopes of Arrowsmith. All down the valley in its front are the remnants of old lateral and terminal moraines in positions where they have escaped destruc- tion by the river, and marking halting-stages in the general retreat of the ice. Immediately in front of the present face lies an immense accumu- lation of angular debris belonging to a former period, and there is evidence that the glacier has been dwindling within very recent times, though, judging from the present form of the ice-face and also from the fact that in one or two places it is crowding on to the old moraine, a temporary advance is now taking place. The valley through which the Ashburton River flows is at first broad and flat-bottomed, but about twelve miles from its commencement it stiddenly contracts, and the vWev passes through a deep, narrow gorge, of SPHimrr, Cockaynf^ LAixr;. — Momif ArroirxniifJi Dfsfricf. 327 recent origin, cut for about three miles through a solid rock barrier, the height of the lip above the floor of the basin on its up-stream side being over 200 ft.. It is extremely likely that a lake once occupied this basin, which has been drained by the river cutting down its bed through the solid obstruction. It seems impossible to explain the peculiar relation of basin and barrier on any other assumption than that large valley glaciers have under certain circumstances great powers of basal excavation. No locality that I am acquainted with shows this better. Immediately outside this ice-eroded basin the moderately elevated country has been dissected and the drainage - directions changed, largely as the result of glacier erosion ; but I have not examined the comitry in sufficient detail to speak definitely on the matter, though I feel certain that it will furnish very interesting material bearing on the much-discussed question of the efficiency of glaciers as erosive agents. (6.) Bnkaia Glaciers. The glaciers of the main Rakaia basin are (1) those on the flank of Mount Murray, (2) those at the head of the river, and (3) those on the north side in the system of valleys which rise in the main divide and run towards the south-west. Fig. 3. — Map of Rakaia Glaciees. On the north side of Mount Murray there are small cliff glaciers heading a stream known as the Little Washbourne, which joins the Rakaia about five miles above the outlet of the Lake Stream. Another glacier, of slightly larger size, heads a ravine on the north-west of Mount Gould, and almost 328 T raiisacfions. exactly opposite AVhitcombe Pass. But by far the most important are tlie glaciers at the actual head of the Rakaia, from which the river derives a great part of its water. The furthest west of these is the Lyell Glacier. (i.) Lyell Glacier. (See tig. 3, and Plate IV, tig. 1.) The Lyell Glacier was discovered by Dr. von Haast in the year 1862. He saw it from Mein's Knob, but did not actually visit it, although he must have sent on some one to take an aneroid reading of the height of the terminal face. Mr. G. J. Roberts, the late Chief Surveyor for Westland, crossed the end of it when he made his survey of the Ramsay Glacier and its neighbourhood, but he does not seem to have done more. It is thus an unknown glacier, although within a reasonable distance of settled parts of Canterbury. The present writer, with two students, made an exploration of it in December last, and the following facts about it are the result of observations made on that occasion. The Lyell Glacier extends from Mount Tyndall* in an easterly direction for nearly five miles till it reaches to within a mile and a half of Mein's Knob, the bluff which fronts the Ramsay Glacier on the south side of the Rakaia River. It is bounded on the south by Mount Goethe, and on the north by the main range of the Southern Alps, and then by a spur from that range stretching in an easterly direction towards Mount Kinkel. The floor of the valley is a little over a half a mile wide on the average ; it is wider than lower down, immediately between Mount Kinkel and Mein's Knob, where the valley takes a turn to the north towards the Ramsay Glacier. In former times the Lyell Glacier overrode the end of the spur where Mein's Knob now is, and truncated it partially, leaving the knob with the characteristic shape produced by this mode of glacier erosion. Jim's Knob, on the opposite side of the river, has been formed in the same way by the Ramsay Glacier. The river which issues from the present Lyell Glacier may well be called the Lyell River, the name " Rakaia " being given to the stream formed by the jmiction of the Lyell with the twin stream from the Ramsay, the present confluence being between Mein's Knob and Jim's Knob. The two streams from the Ramsay and the Lyell appear to be of about equal size. The Lyell River issued at the time of our visit from near the north side of the terminal face. A large body of water came from an ice-cave near the middle, ran by a tunnel under the ice in a northerly direction, and added considerably to the volume of the main stream. Behind the ice- cave the cliffs rose to a height of 60 ft. A small creek coming from the east side of Mount Goethe enters the valley on its south side immediately below the end of the glacier. This marks roughly the present position of the face. The floor of the valley is kept fairly clear of morainic accumulations by the transporting action of the powerful stream issuing from the glacier. About a half a mile dowji a high mound still remains which belonged to a former lateral moraine ; but even this shows signs of being rapidly removed by the river. It is hard to tell from the present form of the ter- minal face whether the glacier is retreating at the present time, but the southern side shows signs of a collapse, which suggests that this is the case. * This is not Mount Tyndall of the Westland survey, but the peak called so by Haast when exploring the Upper Ralcaia VaUey. The name has been retained in this paper, although it must certaiulx be replaced by another at an early date. ScKKiiir, (\hk.\YXK, Laixc. — Mnunf Arroirs/nif/i District. 329 The termiuai face is easily climbed by means of the moi-ames, and for some distance up — nearly half a mile — the whole surface of the ice is completely buried ; after that the lines of moraines from glaciers are separate and better defined. Mount CToethe. which flanks the glacier on the southern side, is a moun- tain of considerable bulk, but without a distinct peak foi'ming its summit. Small perched glaciers occur on it, particularly on the side of a small valley joining the maiji one about thi-ee-quarters of a mile from the end of the glacier ; but no glacier joins the main stream at the valley- level, except a small one near the head. Although Mount Goethe is high enough to nourish fair-sized glaciers, the high range to the west precipitates the vapour and the wind reaches the other side of the Lyell Valley in a comparatively dry condition. The heavy precipitation causes the north side of the valley, which is also the shady side, to be thickly covered with snow and ice. About half a mile above the terminal face a small hanging glacier comes down from the slope of Mount Kuikel, and a little further on a very fine tributary comes m from behind Mount Kinkel and extends back to a snow saddle evidently leading on to the St. James Glacier, a tributary of the Ramsay. On its western side are some very fine ice-cliiis, and the lower part is crossed by numerous crevasses and is very dirty, while from the upper side a well-defined medial moraine takes its origin. This glacier I have called the Cockayne Glacier, after Dr. L. Cockayne, who has done so much work on our alpine vegetation. About a mile further on another fine tributary conies in from the north side, and I have called it the Heim Glacier, after the well-known Swiss glaciologist, in order to be in keeping with the scheme of nomenclature which Haast followed Avith regard to names in the locality. It rises in a large snowfield, apparently fairly level, lying between Malcolm Peak in the west, Blair Peak on the north, and an unnamed peak on the east. The ice issues fi'om the amphitheatre, and joins the main glacier by a very fine fall. From the western side a well-marked moraine stretches down the middle of the Lyell Glacier. Malcolm Peak is a fuie pouited moimtam heavily covered with ice, and with a beautiful hanging glacier dropping ■down from behind a small dome immediately to the south of the main peak. At this point the floor of the valley is very flat, with the ice slightly crevassed, but it then extends on a generally rising slope right to the base of Momit Tyndall, about three-quarters of a mile further on. This is a fine mountain, strongly reminiscent of the shape of the Matter- horn. It culminates in a rocky peak, with a snow-covered saddle on either side. According to Mr. Earle, who recently visited the locality from the Rangitata and made important topographical discoveries, the western saddle leads to the Wanganui River, flowing to the west coast, while the eastern one leads to the Clyde, one of the main head-waters of the Rangitata. The height of these saddles probably exceeds 6,000 ft., as the floor of the valley at the base of Mount Tyndall reaches 5,000 ft. as measured by aneroid. The amphitheatre which forms the head of the Lyell Glacier is very fine, with Mount Tyndall forming its actual head and Mount Goethe and Malcolm Peak its southern and northern flanks. The length of the glacier cannot exceed five miles at the outside, judging the distance roughly, and considering that our return journey from the base of Mount Tyndall to the terminal face was made in an hour and a half. This estimate certainly necessitates an alteration in the position of Mount Goethe on the most recent official map, since it is put too far to the 330 Transaction:^. south-west. The mountain called Tyndall by Haast, and pictured in his report on the Rakaia, is not the same Mount Tyndall to which he gave the name from the valley of the Rangitata, nor yet again from the Godley. It is also probable that the Mount Tyndall of the excellent Westland survey is none of the mountains to which Haast gave the name. This is somewhat unfortunate, and appears to result from the mistake made originally by Haast, who thought that he saw the same peak from each of these three great valleys. Mr. Earle has recently pointed out that the mountain called " Tyndall " by Haast M^hen he explored the Rakaia is probably a peak not really marked on the maps, but one to which a new name should be assigned. Dr. Teichelmann has still more recently confirmed this observation in a letter to the author, and says that this peak is called variously McCoy Peak and Mount Nicholson, and that it is not on the main divide, but lies to the east of it. The Lyell Glacier presents no features of special importance. Its surface is fairly smooth and little crevassed, the roughest portion being that near the confluence of the Cockayne Glacier and its disturbing influence. The lower portion is covered with moraine, which comes principally from those momitains not covered with ice and perpetual snow, but from those specially subject to the action of frost. This weathering-agent attacks the exposed surfaces of the rocks by means of their frequent joints and bedding-planes, and produces in this region a particularly large amount of angular material, which is poured on to the surface of the glaciers by numerous " shingle- slips." Although the Lyell has a thick covering in many places, its moraine is small as compared with that of its near neighbour, the Ramsay. (ii.) Ramsay Glacier. (Plate IV, tig. 2.) This glacier takes its origin in the snowlield on the west side of Louper Peak, between it and Mount Whitcombe. It stretches for six miles in a S.S.W. direction betw^een Mounts Ramsay and Kinkel on the west and the Butler Range on the east, and maintains a direction parallel to that of the valleys on the north of the Rakaia. It receives from the west two important tributaries — (i) the Clarke Glacier, which rises between Mount Westland and Mount Whitcombe, and rmis in a north-westerly direction to a low saddle leading to the Upper Wanganui River on the western side of the range ; and (ii) the St. James Glacier, which rises between Mounts Kinkel and Ramsay. Although the upper portions are comparatively free from debris, the lower three miles is more covered with moraine than any glacier with which I am acquainted. Even the Mueller and Tasman fail to come up to the Ramsay in respect to the size of the blocks and the completeness of the covering. Not only is there an abnormal amount of small material, but angular masses of the size of cottages occur piled together in disorderly heaps. Most of this comes from the precipitous faces of Mounts Ramsay and Whitcombe, which are so steep that little snow can cling to their bare crags, and are therefore rapidly broken up by the action of frost. The amount of material which comes from the Butler Range on the east is of comparatively little importance. On the east side or the terminal face the Ramsay branch of the Rakaia rises from an ice-cave, but water certainly soaks through from all the face between Mein's Knob and Jim's Knob. The glacier is here just over half a mile wid(^ Spekjht, CocK.^Y^'K, Laixc. — Mount Jrroirs/tiifh Dis^fricf. 331 There are clear signs of the decrease in size of the gkcier, as abandoned lateral moraines marking old ice-levels occur in places along the valley- walls, and it is extremely probable that at a comparatively recent date it stretched right across the Lyell River till it impinged on the lower slopes of Mein's Knob. This river would then take a course through a tunnel partly under the ice and partly under the edge of the knob. A large part of this has at a fairly recent time slipped away from the face of the bluff and left a narrow chasm which affords a path round the shoulder of the knob, overlooking the river. (c.) Absence, of Terminal Moraines from Present Glaciers. The glaciers of this region, like the great majority of those in New Zealand, are not forming any well-marked terminal moraines. Neither the Fox or the Franz Josef on the west coast nor the Tasman or Mueller on the east have any sign of a terminal moraine ; those formed by the Mueller are really lateral moraines formed by a glacier crossing a valley. In all the cases that I have observed the debris which reaches the terminal face is removed by the transporting agency of powerful streams. The Lyell Glacier has no true terminal moraine, and, although the Ramsay Glacier is heavily laden with waste from the neighbouring hills, there is no accumulation in the form of irregular heaps or a barrier at its end ; in fact, there is no sign of such a moraine in the Rakaia Valley till the plains are reached. The Cameron Glacier is not forming a terminal moraine at pre- sent, although a very well-marked one lies some 800 yards away from the present face. In the Rangitata Valley an exceptionally distinct one occurs about five miles from the terminal of the glaciers. These moraines were formed when the glacier reached further down the valleys than now, but there must have been some difference in the then conditions which pro- moted the accumulation of debris across a valley, when no such accumula- tions are forming now. The actual circumstances under which terminal moraines are formed seem somewhat obscure. They are taken for granted as a feature of every glacier, but such is not the case. Why is it that the Fox and Franz Josef have formed huge terminal moraines some distance away from the ice, a little further down the valley, and are not forming any now ? If the Ramsay Glacier, heavily encumbered as it is, were to disappear, and the loads of waste that lies on it were to coat the surface of the ground, there would be no sign of the heaps which characterize true terminal moraines. The question must resolve itself into one of supply and demand. If the glacier furnishes material in such quantity that the river can remove it, then no moraine will form. If for any cause the supply becomes greater or the volume of the river less, then accumulations will take place. At the present time the material supplied to the Ramsay Glacier is excessive and a moraine should result, but no moraine is forming. On the Lyell the amount is not really great, and its front is swept quite clear. It may be that our rivers have such a steep bed that they are equal to removing even the fullest supply that the glaciers can furnish. But when the case of the two great West Coast glaciers is considered this explanation does not appear quite so satisfactory. In former times, when forming great moraines, they had the same steep slope as now. The same remark also applies to the Cameron. We must suppose, therefore, that a little time ago the conditions were such as promoted the formation of enormous sup- plies of waste. This may be explained by an increase in the height of the 332 Transactions. mountains, due to an elevation of the land, rendering larger areas subject to the action of heavy frost, which is the chief agent of denudation on moun- tain areas. The same effect may be produced by supposing the climate to have been slightly more rigorous than that existing at present. In a former paper on the " Terrace-development in the Valleys of the Canterbury Kivers " I have already noted as a deduction from the condition of shingle fans, and from peculiarities in the form of the river-beds, that there has been a falling-oli in the supply of waste, and this observation on the moraines tends in the same direction. In the paper referred to, I attributed this falling-off to a lowering of the land, just as I attributed the severer glacia- tion to elevation of the land. My present opinion is by no means decided that this was the predominating cause. Elevation certainly occurred, and this would assist other causes tending in the same direction, such as a modi- fication of the climate. Whether the retreat of the glaciers has been due to a lowering of the land or to an amelioration of the climate, the supply of waste has fallen off, as well as the supply of snow, which determines the existence of the glaciers. If the former falls off in a higher ratio, then there will be no moraines ; if, -however, the waste increases in a higher ratio than that of the transporting-poM^er of the streams resulting from the melting of the snow, moraines will certainly form. This will occur in general when there is a temporary advance of the ice due to climatic or other causes, just as failure to form moraines will occur during retreat. The frequent absence of moraines from the front of Pleistocene ice-sheets may perhaps be explained by the amount of water formed at their terminals being in excess — probably much in excess — of that necessary to transport the relatively small amount of material which usually accumulates on the surface of the ice-sheet and beneath it. 6. Former Glaciatiox. {a.) General. It may be inferred from the statements made previously in this article that in former times the country was subjected to a more severe glaciation. The proofs of the former extension of the ice are found on every hand. These may be summarized as follows : Old moraines, roches moutonnees, striated surfaces, ice-shorn and ice-terraced slopes, valleys with charac- teristic U section with truncated and semi-truncated spurs, and spui's with triangular facets. A deposit of boulder-clay with large angular fragments is found at the Potts River, where, according to Haast, there are the most characteristic subglacial deposits to be found in New Zealand. I do not know of any discovery recorded later which necessitates a revision of this statement. The limits of this glaciation to the eastward were in all probability not beyond the line of the foothills flanking the eastern moimtains. Glaciers certainly came through the Ashburton Gorge down to the neighbourhood of the Mount Somers Township, since immediately behind it there is a terrace formed of washed material containing large angular blocks which look like those deposited in streams at the immediate front of a glacier. The smoothed and rounded hills in the locality are also suggestive of ice- action. But the occurrence of lateral moraines high up on the hills flanking the gorge on the south is conclusive proof of its presence, and shows that even in that part of the country there was very great thickness of ice at the maximum glaciation. On the northern side of Mount Hutt, glaciers Speight, Cockaynk, Laii^g. ---lloimf Arroir^niith Di.<,//'/ // l)ixorUo//s. but this latter we consider with Tansley (1909) an unsatisfactory class, since, on the one hand, it is evidently very close to steppe, and, on the other, its forms are often altogether artificial. The land-surface of the mountain steppe consists of hill-slopes ; river- beds, sometimes lying deep below the general surface of the land ; high river-terraces w^hose remarkably flat tops are old flood-plains, but whose stony faces slope steeply to the river-bed beneath ; heaps of old morainic matter with the surface crumpled and irregular ; roches moutonnees and river and torrent fans. The surface soil is a soft silty clay, the loess or semi-loess already spoken of, which is readily denuded, easily moved by the wind, and rapidly becomes dried up. Beneath, the clay may be stiff er, and there is nearly always a porous gravelly and shingly subsoil which frequently comes close to the surface. (2.) Siiccession. So far as our observations go, steppe has originated in the following ways : — (a.) Through occupation of actual river-bed. a form of succession easily studied at the present time. (/3.) Through disintegration of rock followed either by shingle-slip or by a fan at the mouth of a river or torrent. (y.) Through occupation of moraine, boulder-clay, or other stranded glacial debris. (8.) Through soil blowing on to a rock-surface which by degrees becomes occupied by plants, these further trapping and holding fresh blown soil. (e.) Through a shallow lake being turned by various stages into dry land. (3.) The Associations. (a.) Kock. Unfortunately our notes contain but little regarding the rock-vegetation ; in fact, rock-faces are much less in evidence in the steppe belt than in that of shingle-slip and fell-field. The rock-plants, leaving a niunber of mosses and lichens on one side, are generally species also belonging to the steppe proper, and their numbers depend altogether upon the form of the rock- surface and its capacity for catching blown soil and accumulating humus. Asplenium Eichardi, a fern 5-12 cm. tall, with dark-green rather thick much-cut tufted leaves given off from a short stout rounded caudex, is abundant in shaded hollows of the rock. Tussocks of the grass Poa caespi- tosa and Festuca nihra var. are common, even where there is little soil. The small succulent herb Crassula Sieberiana is abundant, and the follow- ing are also common : Danihonia semiannularis (tufted grass with slender involute leaves), Muehlenbeckia axillaris (creeping, prostrate, wiry stemmed, small-leaved shrub), Cardamine heterophi/Ua (annual herb 10 cm. or less tall with slender decumbent stems and short moderately thick smooth pinnate leaves), (kcalis corniculata (prostrate creeping herb with slender matted stems and very small rather thick leaves), Epilobium pubens (semi- erect herb wath stems suffruticose at base and pubescent leaves about 2-5 cm. long and red beneath), Anisotome aromatica (rosette herb with very long fleshy root and moderately thick pinnate linear leaves flattened to rock), Raoulia australis (low cushion plant with much-rooting stems and small close tomentose silvery leaves), Crepis novae-zelandiac (rosette herb with Si'Ki<:nr, Cockaynk, Laixg. — Mount Anoti smith District. ;-]49 modemte-sizod thick piiuiatifid leaves and stout fleshy root). Various xerophytic shrubs occur on rock — e.g., Hymenanthera dentata var. alpina (cusliion of most rigid stout semi-spinous stems bearing, sparsely, small thick smooth dark-green leaves and with very long deeply descending root), Carmichaelin robusta (flat, assimilating leafless stems about 30cm. tall and very long deeply descending root), Discaria toumatou (described further on), Olearia avicenniae folia (shrub-composite form, much-stunted, leaves thick, tomentose). Besides the above a good many of the steppe-plants may occur on rock, the number varying according to the amount of soil and position of rock- surface with regard to sun and wind. ih.) Fan. AA^herc gullies or gorges open out on to the plain or river-bed there are fans of debris, sometimes of great extent. The vegetation of these depends altogether upon the supply of debris brouglit down by the torrent, and this again is correlated with the plant covering of the gully-walls. Fans are either active or passive, and every transition between the two may be traced. The surface of the fan is much steeper than river-bed in general. There are water-channels, but these are usually dry except during heavy rain, the stream being generally underground. The stones are frequently in part very coarse, and are often piled into comparatively high but quite unstable terraces, liable during any flood to damage or absolute destruction. The vegetation commences with the appearance of certain herbs whose *' seeds " are wind-borne, and the formation is markedly open. Competi- tion is altogether absent. These first-comers are : Erect Epilobia {E. me- lanocaulon, E. fnicrophyllum), creeping mat-forming Epilobia with slender interlacing rooting stems (E. pedunculare in various forms. E. nerterioides), herbaceous species of Ioav cushion or rounded mat-forming Raoulias (R. tenuicauHs, E. australis, R. lutescens), and the curious half-dead-looking grey-coloured cupressoid shrub Helichrysum depressum, some 40 cm. tall, with spreading branches bearing a few closely appressed woolly scale leaves. As the substratum becomes stable the tussock-grasses Poa caespitosa and Festuca rubra var., one or both, appear, probably occupying first of all a soil-making Raoulia cushion or patch ; MueMevbechia axillaris forms exten- sive circular patches ; the creeping fern Blechnum penna marina, its leaves thick and stunted, forms considerable colonies ; the vegetation gets closer and typical steppe is installed. On the other hand, the vegetation may develop otherwise, and the stable but quite stony ground be occupied by a shrub steppe of almost pure Dis- caria toumatou, a more or less leafless divaricating shrub 90 cm. to 1-5 m., or more, tall, furnished with abundant assimilating spines. At a distance such shrub steppe is black in colour and is an invariable sign of fan or of oM river-bed. Between the shrubs there are frequently more or less tussocks. (r.) River-bed. The procession of events on river-bed is much the same as on fan, and the climax association will be tussotk steppe or shrub steppe {Discaria), or, in the west, modified subalpine scrub. The most important pioneer plant of western river-bed is Raoulia Haastii, which builds true cushions of considerable diameter, green in colour, full of raw humus within, and which can cover not merely the smaller stones, but even enwrap such as 350 Transactions. are 60 cm. tall A detailed account of the ecological history of a western subalpine river-bed by Cockayne will shortly appear in the "' Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinbiu'gh." so little more need be said here. Eastern river-bed vegetation commences with the same Raoulia species as eastern fan, and the procession of events is very similar, while it is obvious that the tussock steppe of a river-terrace summit has gone through the same changes as are happening on river-bed at the present time. The old bed of the Ashburton near Hakatere is occupied by an extremely xeroph^'tic subassociation. which would repay detailed investigation. Tus- socks are few in number and far apart. The vegetation is quite open. The substratum is flat, very stony, and with but little fine soil. The xerophytic whitish moss Bacromitrium Januqinosmn is abundant, growing between the stones. There are many broad patches of the narrow erect flat green leafless stems of Cnnnichaelia uniflora and C. Emisii. Low silvery circular cushions of Eaoulia lutescens are abundant. Discaria toumatou and Helichrysum dc- pressum. no longer erect, are flattened to the groimd. Coprosma Petriei (close turf-making subshrub with stout creeping stems and very small linear- oblong coriaceous leaves), Wahhnbergia saxicola (mat-forming, creeping, and rooting herb with small thick coriaceous leaves in open rosettes), Acaena inermis (mat-forming, creeping, and rooting subshrub with wiry stems and rather thin glaucous or reddish pinnate leaves in open rosettes), some green cushions of Eaoulia Haastii. and a few flat or raised silvery round patches of /?. austraJis. There are doubtless other species present. The subassociation occupies a wide area. It probably owes its structure and character not only to the edaphic conditions, but to the wind-swept habitat. An ephar- monically similar subassociation occurs on the most stony gromid of the Canterbury Plain, but the Carmichaelia is C. nana and the principal Raoulia is R. Monroi. (d.) Tussock Steppe. * General. Montane and subalpine tussock steppe is merely a continuation of the same formation of the lowlands, and extends over much of the mountain area on the east of the Southern Alps, and has a fairly uniform floristic composition throughout. Tussock steppe is economically far and away the most important indigenous plant formation of the Dominion, and a thorough knowledge of its ecology is distinctly a matter of national importance. This statement is emphasized by the fact that overstocking and burning have so modified the original tussock steppe in various parts of the South Island that the value as pasture land is gone, a true desert having replaced the original grass land (see Cockayne, A. H., 1910). ** GrowtJi-fornis. There are doubtless considerably more species in the association thau given in our list, but a consideration of those contained therein should be quite sufficient to give a clear idea as to the gro\\i:h-forms and their relative abundance. . The number of species noted is 103, of which 15 are shrubs, 12 suhshrubs. and 76 herbs. The shrubs are : Evergreen, lU ; deciduous, 2 : and leafless, 3. The following groTAi:h-forms are represented : The creeping and rooting, 9, of which 2 are the flat-stemmed leafless ; the prostrate non-rooting, 2 ; the di- varicating, 2, of which 1 is spiny ; the bushy, 1 ; the tall flat-stemmed leaf- less, 1. Spiuout, Cockayne, Laino. — Mnunt Arroirmiilfli nixtnef. 351 The subslirubs are : Evergreen, 9 ; summer - (jrecn, 3. The following growth-forms are represented : Creeping {rooting), 11, comprising turf- making 2 and leafless 1 ; erect, 1. The herbs are : Evergreen, 72 ; summer-green, 4:. The growth-forms are represented by — annuals and hiennials, 4, made up of erect and branch- ing, 3 ; rosette, 1 : and perennials, 68, of which 4 are summer-green, made up of the following growth-forms — tussock, 6 : tufted grass, 12 ; creeping and rooting, 24, of which 7 are turf-formers : rosette, 18, 2 of which are of the Yucca form ; prostrate not rooting, 3 ; cushion, 3, but some of the creep- ing may assume this form ; erect and branching, 2. If the leaves of all the plants are considered it will be found that those of 47 species are very small, 14 have margins incurved or recurved, and 4 are leafless. Larger leaves are frequently stiff, thick or coriaceous, or flat- tened to the ground as rosettes. The number of glabrous leaves (70) is larger than might be expected, but these are frequently more or less cori- aceous ; tomentose leaves number 13. Just as the steppe develops in connection with increasingly mesophytic edaphic conditions, so does the combination of growth-forms become gradu- ally more mesophytic. But the freely developed steppe itself provides an altogether different environment to the unoccupied wind-swept ground, and it is the taller members of the formation alone {tussock-grass. Yucca form, xeromorphic shrubs) or the plants of special stony wind-swept ground {dwarf leafless flat-stemmed shrubs, leafless summer-green subshrub, cushion and patch plants, turf-making creeping herbs) that are exposed to severe conditions. Tall plants without very special adaptations cannot establish themselves, and about 80 per cent, of the florula consists of dwarf plants, mostly pro- strate or creeping, which grow under conditions of considerable shelter. *** Physiognomy. The tussock steppe of the Arrowsmith district is no longer a virgin formation. Burning and overstocking have brought about a more xero- phytic environment, and, although probably all the original species are present, their relative proportion is much changed, the originally dominant tussock having decreased together with the mesophytic grasses and herbs which grew in its shelter, while various xeromorphs (species of Raoulia, tomentose rosette plants, &c.) have increased and certain introduced plants have gained a footing. Seen from a distance, tussock steppe appears as a smooth brown carpet on the dimpled hillside. A closer view dispels the illusion and reveals the bunched-up grass culms and leaves, close together at the round base of the tussock but spreading above and mostly dead at the apices, growing side by side, each some 40 cm. tall, in some places their leaves intermingling, and in others distant and with partially covered and more or less eroded ground between the clumps. Here and there stand above the tussock low dark- coloured bushes of Discaria toumatou. On the ground between the tussocks there are the creeping plants forming mats — glaucous of Acaena Sanguisorbae var. pilosa, reddish of A. inermis, brown of Styphelia Fraseri, pale whitish- green of Raoulia subsericea, green of Brachycome Sinclairii — orange-coloured small cushions of Scleranthus biflorus and great green semi-cushions or high circular mats of Celmisia spectabilis, rosettes flattened to the ground of Senecio bellidioides (dark green and hairy), Craspedia uniflora var. (whitish or greyish-green), the small round leaves of Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae flattened to the ground, and round patches of Mriehlenheckia axillaris its 352 Trail -tactions. stems creeping beneath the surface. Other plants are quite common — cq.. small tussocks of Poa Colensoi, tufted Danthonia semiannularis, Carex breviculmis, Uncinia rubra, Colohanfhas Billardieri in tiny rosettes which may make small cushions, Ranunculus inultiscapus, Geranium sessilif.orum, Pimelea laevigata var. repens, Epilobiuni elegans, the great bayonets of Aciphylla Colensoi (much less common than formerly), A. squarrosa, Aniso- tome aromatica, Gaultheria antipoda var. depressa, close turf of Coprosma Petriei on stony ground making in places a special " group," and in the most exposed and dry stations yellowish-green cushion 5 cm. in diameter of Colobanthus brevisepalus, Wahlenhergia saxicola, Lagenophora petiolata, Celmisia longifolia, Vittadinia australis, Helichrysum bellidioides, H. fiU- caule, Cotula squalida, Microseris Forsteri, and Taraxacum glabratum. **** Subassociations. f Danthonia RaouUi Steppe. This subassociation frequently occupies wide areas. Its presence appears to depend upon increase of altitude, poverty of soil, acid or cold soil, and perhaps exposure to wind ; but the conditions governing its distribution throughout New Zealand have been altogether insufficiently studied. The tussock itself is much taller than that of Poa caespitosa or Festuca rubra var. It is also much less relished by stock, and so its present distribution ma}' not be a natural one. ft Danthonia flarescens Steppe. This subassociation generally occupies a higher altitude than D. Baoulii or Poa caespitosa steppe. Certain of the higher mountain plants enter into the combination, and the subassociation itself may grade off into fell- field. The dominant species is much relished by sheep, so the true ecology of the subassociation is not easy to determine. ttt Dwarf Carmichaelia Steppe. This has been already described. Besides C. Enysii and ('. uniflora, ('. nana is in some places an important member, and the much stouter C, Monroi builds stiff open cushions, its stout woody root descending deeply and its short stiff stems more or less vertical. The low-growing Veronica pimeleoides var. minor grows here and there, a species with small glaucous leaves and blue flowers — a most unusual colour in New Zealand ; and the leafless grey stems of Muehlenbechia ephedroides may lie upon the stony ground, their very much stouter creeping stem hidden beneath the stones. tttt '^''•'orf'V' Stcp])c. This subassociation consists principally of an extremely dense turf of the small grass Triodia exigua, which spreads most extensively by means of its long much-branching rhizomes, which form eventually a matted tangle. The leaves are very narroM% 2-5 cm. long more or less, filiform, convolute, stift", and almost pungent. StypheUa Fraseri grows through the turf, hugging the ground. Carmichaelia Enysii, C. nana, and Staclchousia minima are, so far as we remember, members of the combination, but un- fortunately our notes are too brief for an accurate, detailed description. (e.) Gaya ribifolin Association. On fairly slieltered hillsides, in gullies, on river-terraces, and freipiently where the ground is quite stony, especially in the lower Ashburton Gorge, SrEMUiT, C'ocKAYXK, ]j.\iX(;. — Mount Arroirsniifh Dixtnct. 353 the nionotony of the tussock is relieved by green clumps of trees. These consist of Gaya ribifoUa, a low tree 6 m. tall, more or less. A few ferns may grow beneath the trees — e.g., Blechnmn penna marina, Hypolepis millefolium, Pohjstichwn vestitmn, and on the outskirts a few divaricating slirubs. The presence of Gaya ribifolia is a sign of steppe climate, since a forest climate at once replaces it with the closely allied G. Lyallii. Both are strictly deciduous, but differ ecologically in their leaves, those of G. ribi- folia, covered with hairs, being more xerophytic than the almost glabrous adult leaves of G. Lyallii. Both species pass through a somewhat similar persistent juvenile stage of development. (/.) Nothofagus cliff ortioides Forest. .V. cliff ortioides forest may be considered the climax association of the subalpine-steppe climate. It occurs very sparingly in the Arrowsmith dis- trict, and is confined to a few gullies, or there may be merely a few trees, scattered or in clumps on the banks of streams. i\". cliffortioidcs is a low canopy tree with a close head of small stiff leaves. The branching is distichous, and the foliage consequently lies in layers. The trees are probably not very, long-lived, and fall before the wind as they decay, their place being taken by a close growth of saplings, which, as seedlings, formed most of the undergrowth. The following were noted as forming the undergrowth : Blechnmn fenna marina (creeping fern), B. capense tufted fern), Hypolepis millefolium (summer-green creeping fern), Podocarpus nivalis (prostrate rooting shrub), Aristotelia fruticosa, Coprosma propinqua, C. parviflora (divaricating-shrub form), Griselinia littoralis (bushy shrub). Fuchsia excorticata (small deci- duous tree), JJrtica incisa (erect herb). Doubtless a number of other species are present, but at the best this association has few members. Elytranihe flavida (hemi-parasite) grows on the Nothofagus. At one period, as also in Central Otago and elsewhere, as already noted by Speight, where now a steppe climate prevails there must have been extensive totara forests, for remains of trees lying on the ground have been frequently noted, as, for example, in the Cameron Valley according to Mr. L. Wood (see also Monro, 1869 ; Buchanan, 1869). If such a forest existed, and occupied a wide area in the eastern sub- alpine and montane belts of the South Island, it seems almost impossible that it could have been altogether destroyed by fire, as popular and even scientific opinion has declared (sec Monro, 1869 ; Buchanan, 1869). The only feasible explanation, then, is that put forth by Speight— that the climate not very long ago, geologically speaking, was more mesophytic than at the present time. If the Rakaia Valley be alone considered, it is almost certain an advance of the average western rain-line a few miles to the east would be followed by an advance of the present totara forest, and, although extending no further, it would persist for a long time after the climate had become xerophytic. On the other hand, a rainfall similar to that of the western Rakaia has only brought Nothofagus cUffortioides forest in the western Waimakariri district. (g.) Lake, Swamp, Bog, &c. The above series of associations are dealt with in this place because the climax association of a lake captured by vegetation is steppe, though 12— Trans. 354 Tra77sactions. the process is a slow one, which, however, may be much accelerated by a stream depositing shingle, &c., on the lake-floor. * Lakfl. The most important lake is Lake Heron, situated at about 670 m. above sea-level. There are several smaller lakes on the Upper Ashburton Plain, also tarns on spurs which were formerly overridden by the ice, as well as small ponds in various places. We have no details as to the lake-vegetation beyond the facts that Typha angustifoh'a var. forms the innermost girdle in some parts, and that towards the southern extremity of Lake Heron there is an extensive colony of niggerhead, probably Carex secta, with tall and stout trunks. | ** Swamp. On both sides of the so-called Lake Stream near where it issues from Lake Heron, and in certain places near the margin of the lake itself, there are extensive swamps which merge into bog and this into steppe. The water-content varies much at different seasons of the year, as likewise at times of heavy rain. Furthermore, their ecology has been much modified by burning and the trampling of stock. Two principal subassociations were noted according to depth of the surface water — viz., Schoenus pauciflorus (deepest water), Carex ternaria (shallower water). At a distance the swamp appears of a uniform grey colour. It is traversed by various streams, and pools of water lie permanently in many places. A close view shows that the grasslike Carex Gaudichaudiana is the most abundant plant. The two subassociations differ in colour, Schoenus pauciflorus being reddish and Carex ternaria green. On the surface of pools there is abundance of Ranunculus rivularis, which may quite hide the water. Montia fontana, a species of Myriophyllum, and Epilobium macropus occur more or less abundantly in the streams. Schizeilema nitens (creeping and rooting slender-stemmed herb with small trifoliate shining glabrous leaves) is abundant where water lies and the light is sufficient. Epilohium insulare, Carex diandra, C. stellulata, C. Oederi var. catar- ractae, and Elaeocharis Cunninghamii are common on the very wet ground. As the soil gets drier Mazus radicans, its thin spotted yellowish leaves flattened to the ground, is abundant, and both Carex ternaria and Schoenus pauciflorus are absent. Drier soil still favours the presence of Pratia angu- lata, and probably Isotoma fluviatilis, a creeping herb of similar growth- form, is present. The following are other plants of the boggy ground : Utricularia monanthos, Plantago triandra (rosette plant), Asperula perpusilla, a species of Cotula, Viola Cunninghamii, Luzula species (flat, red leaves). Finally, Bulbinclla Hookeri var. angustifoJia (summer-green herb with tuberous roots) is common both on wet and on dry ground, forming most noticeable colonies when in bloom with its bright-yelloAv flowers, but it is absent in the wettest part of the swamp. Also, this plant is extremely common in wet ground throughout the montane and subalpine belts of the district, and increases enormously after the vegetation is burnt. *** Sphagnum Bog. Only the bog connected with steppe is here dealt with ; that of the forest climate, a)id which elsewhere in New Zealand is related to fell-field and moor, Avas not examined. Speight, Cockaynio, fiAiNc. — Mount Arroii'unn'fh Disfricf. 355 Bog suiTouiidod by steppe can be seen at various stages of develop- ment. In one place on Prospect Hill (about 900 m. altitude) the hollow- clearly indicates a former tarn in a rock-basin, but the whole is now Sphag- num bog, while in another place, close by, a tarn is in course of occupation by bog. Let us first consider the tarn. This, where it joins the bog, is about 30 cm. deep. The water, then, will get quite warm on a hot summer's day. Growing in it is Elaeocharis Cynninghmnii ? (slender rush form), Carex ternaria (grasslike sedge), and the Sphagnum moss grows out into the water, its margin unevenly undu- lating. With the advancing moss there is Schizeilema nitens and tussocks of Schoenus pauciflorus, the former also floating on the water just at the edge of the tarn. Drosera arcturi (small herb with short rootstock and reddish linear-ligulate leaves furnished above with glandular hairs) and Carex stellulata are amongst the first plants to settle on the Sphagnum. Tussocks of Danthonia Raoulii also come occasionally right to the front. The grassy and far-spreading Carex Gaudichaudiana is abundant, but it is a later arrival than any of the above. Other plants are Oreobolus pecti- natus (dense small green cushions of distichous stiff short linear-subulate leaves with broad equitant bases), Carex suhdola, Pratia angulata. Drosera arcturi and Carex stellulata are very abundant all over the bog, but there is much less tussock than on the older bog to be next described. The bog which has buried the tarn is made up of close masses of Sphag- num, which for the most part is concealed by the grassy Carex Gaudichau- diana. In many parts steppe is virtually installed, as tussocks of Dan- thonia Raoulii are dominant. Where these do not touch there are open spaces occupied by C. Gaudichaudiana, Bulhinella Hookeri var, angusti- folia, Blechnum penna marina, some tussocks of Poa caespitosa, Anisotome aromatica, creeping Gaultheria depressa, a species of Polytrichum, Viola Cunninghamii, Schizeilema nitens and Ranunculus rivularis (where water lies), Celmisia longifolia, Epilobium chloraefolium, Helichrysum. hellidioides, Wahlenbergia saxicola. Here and there, right on the Sphagnum cushions, are rounded low bushes of Dacrydiiim Bidwillii. As is well known, the Sphagnum plants die below and are gradually converted into peat, while their apices continue to grow upwards ; and if the plants which have settled upon the moss are not able to grow upwards at the same rate as the bog, rooting at the same time, they will be eventually buried by the moss and killed. Thus on this particular bog plants of the dwarf taxad, Dacrydium Bidwillii, exhibit various stages of burial, notwithstanding the power this shrub has of extending by means of creeping and rooting prostrate stems furnished with spreading juvenile leaves. On the other hand, the rhizo- matous sedge, Carex Gaudichaudiana, can grow faster than the moss, form a turf, and check its upward growth altogether ; so that the moss in its turn is the vanquished. With the consequent drying of the ground, steppe is by degrees estabhshed, but it must be understood that the first-coming tussocks on the bog-moss are liable to burial, and a growth of these does not of necessity denote the installation of steppe. t Growth-forms of Bog. The following growth-forms were noted on the bogs of the district : — The number of species in the list of plants is 36 (35 evergreen, 1 summer- green). This would have been greater most undoubtedly had we reached the bogs (1,200 m. altitude) on Mein's Knob. 12* 336 Transactions. The growth-forms are as follows : — Shrubs : Creeping and rooting, 2, of Avhich 1 is prostrate loith subterranean stem and 1 bushy and 60 cm. or so tall. Herbs : Creeping and rooting, 21, of which 5 are grasslike, 1 rushlike, 2 frequently aquatic with floating leaves ; rosette form, 5 ; erect, 3, of which 1 is grasslike ; tussock, 3, of which 1 is rushlike (slender) ; cushion form, 1 ; prostrate non-rooting, 1. At least 70 per cent, of the species are also plants of steppe or other dry habitats. Bog at a higher altitude, or exposed to greater snowfall — i.e., to colder water — on an average is more xerophytic, and contains especially a higher percentage of cushion plants. Also, pure Sphagnum cushions in vigorous growth, thanks to the non- acid rain-water absorbed by the upper surface, will allow mesophytes to settle down Avhich cannot tolerate acid peat (see Cockayne, 1910, p. 111). (^.) ROCK FELL-PIELD SERIES. (1.) General. The altitude of the upper line of the steppe is very variable, but pro- bably corresponds to a large extent with the line of the ancient valley glacier. It also constitutes the lower limit of the series of plant-associa- tions under consideration, which depends in large measure upon the pre- sence of an easily disintegrated rock, though it is governed to no small degree by altitude and climate. Under the influence of frost the much-jointed sandstones, greywackes, and slates become rapidly disintegrated, the stone-fragments (too great in quantity to be removed by rain) accumulate to such an extent that great fields of debris occupy almost the entire mountain-surfaces for hundreds of metres. Here and there jagged masses of much-corroded rock jut out from the stone-fields and break the uniformity of the long grey even slopes. Gullies with more or less precipitous walls seam the mountain-sides, a stream sometimes occupying their floors, the water issuing all on a sudden from the base of a great stone-field at the head of the gully, and perhaps as suddenly disappearing lower down beneath the ever-increasing mass of loose stones. From the above it is plain that the edaphic conditions of the upper subalpine and alpine belts are those of desert, and it is plain also that increase of altitude, irrigation by snow-Avater, strong insolation, high winds, and occasional droughts help to increase the xerophytic character of the plant-habitats during the vegetative period. Altitude and the average height of the winter snow-line, above which the snow lies from four to six months.J separates the area into alpine and subalpine belts. The three following plant-formations occur, arranged in order of succes- sion : Rock, shingle-slip, fell-field. (2.) The Associations. {a.) Rock. The following are the only special rock-plants : Hymenophyllum villosum (filmy fern), Folypodium pumilwn (very small fern with tufted leaves), X This is undoubtedly the outside limit. Spi'Ur.HT, CocKAYNK, L.MXO.- — Moir/if Jrrou'.^mi/Ji Disfrirf. 357 Trisetum ftubspicatum. (small tufted pubescent grass), Cardamine depressa (small rosette herb), Colohanthus acicularis (small cushions of rigid glabrous linear-subulate acicular leaves), Hectorella caespitosa (dense cushions of small imbricated coriaceous leaves and thick root), Pimelea Traversii (small shrub with tortuous branches and short thick glabrous imbricating leaves), Celmisia bellidioides (subshrub forming loose cushion of leaves in rosettes), Baouh'a eximia (very large dense tomentose-leaved cushion plant with woody main stems and stout woody deeply descending root), Helichrysum grandiceps (short-stemmed subshrub with small imbricating silvery tomentose leaves), H. microphylluni and H. Sclago (tomentose cu- pressoid shrubs, more or less of cushion habit). Also, the following are common rock-plants, though not absolutely confined to rocks : Luzula pumila (small cushion), Veronica pinguifolia (decumbent low shrub with thick glaucous leaves), T^. telrasticha (dwarf oupressoid shrub), V. epacridea (decumbent shrub with imbricating thick recurved concave leaves). The rock-vegetation is scanty. It is most abundant on the shaded parts. The true rock-plants are chasmophytes. Where there are deep chinks and ledges peat forms, and then various plants of the fell-field occur — e.g., Ranunculus Monroi var. dentatus, Anisotome aromatica, Aciphylla 3Ionroi, GauUheria rupestris, Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium, Helichrysum bcUidioides, Celmisia spectahilis, and sheets of Hymenophyllum multifidum {hardly a fell-field plant on a dry mountain). So far as the true rock-plants are concerned, they are a category by them- selves, and have no relation to fell-field vegetation, but the remainder can play their part in populating stone-fields. * Vegetable-sheep Suhassociation. Where the rock is almost weathered away, and stands raised here and there as a small island in the stony desert, it is frequently occupied by the great cushions of Raoulia eximia 1 m. or more in diameter. This most curious shrub has exactly the same growth-form as its herbaceous relatives of the river-beds. There is a central main stem and a few primary woody branches radiating therefrom which branch repeatedly, the secondary branches and those which follow having a tendency to grow upwards, and this is assisted by the frequent branching and consequently increasing density preventing their otherwise horizontal extension. The closeness of growth, through cutting off the light, causes the death of all the interior leaves and many of the stems, so that only the stouter remain, the inter- spaces becoming filled closely with a sticky raw humus into which the ulti- mate branches send abundant roots. The only living leaves are those pressed closely to the shoot-axis for a few centimetres near the apices of the ultimate branches ; they are narrow-obovate, 3 cm. or so long, and densely covered near their apices with white hairs which stand almost erect. The shrub as a whole forms a great hard cushion, the ultimate shoots being pressed together as closely as possible. The interior peat even in the driest weather is soaking with water, and it is probable that the plant gets its chief food and water supply from this source, the main root, sent far into the rock, serving principally as an anchor. Certain of the fell-field plants may grow upon the cushions, thanks to the wet raw humus contained therein. 358 Trax^action.^. (h.) Sliiagle-slip. * General. The edaphic distinction between shingle-slip and fell-field lies in the fact that the former consists altogether of loose stones lying at so steep a slope that those of the uppermost layer move downwards from time to time, whereas the stones of the fell-field are in a much more stable position, and there is generally a considerable percentage of true soil. This instability of shingle-slip has led to the occupation of this land-form not merely by cer- tain growth-forms, but actually by distinct species which do not occur in any other formation. Fixrthermore, the plants are distant so far from one another, and the general plant covering is so scanty, that it plays no part worth mentioning in adding humus to the soil, while the formation is dis- tinct in itself and has nothing to do with the installation of fell-field. It is, in fact, a definite vegetation entity whose life-history it is now impossible to examine, and whose origin is wrapped in obscurity. The shingle-slip species are confined to the South Island, | and the majority to the drier mountains of the east. The following is a list of those found in the Arrowsmith district in its widest sense : Stellaria Roughii (Caryophyll.) ; Eanunculus Haastii, R. crithmijolius, R. chordorhizos (Ranunc.) ; Notothlaspi rosulatum (Crucif.) ; Acaena glabra (Rosac.) ; Swainsona novae- zealandiae (Legum.) ; Epilobium fycnostachyum (Onagrac.) ; Anisotome carno- sula (Umbell.) ; Myosotis Traversii (Borag.) ; Lobelia Roughii (Campan.) ; Veronica Haastii (Scrophular.) ; Haastia Sinclairii, Crasfedia alfina, Cotula at rata (Compos.). The following are also frequent members, but are not confined to shingle- slip : Claytofiia australasica (Portulac), Anisotome filifolia (Umhell.), Veronica tetrasticha, V. lycofodioides, V. epacridea (Scrophular.). ** Groivth-fonns. The shingle-slip plants afford a most admirable example of convergent epharmony. Nearly all are summer-green low-growing or prostrate herbs, with the leaves more or less in rosettes, though these are frequently masked through the stems, which have the power of lengthening as buried, being covered with debris. The leaves of almost all are fleshy or coriaceous, glabrous, glaucous, and almost the colour of the stones, and in some cases very deeply divided, the bending-together of the final segments much reducing the leaf-surface. Haastia Sinclairii and Craspedia alpina are densely woolly, the latter, clothed with long snow-white wool, being especi- ally noticeable. The species of Ranunculus and Anisotome carnosula have stout fleshy rhizomes ; Lobelia Roughii and Swainsona slender but far- spreading much-branching stems creeping amongst the stones. Notothlaspi rosulatum is annual or biennial. The texture of leaves and stems is such as to withstand the blows of sliding stones, and the plants as a whole can grow upwards, as buried, after the manner somewhat of dune-plants, though, of course, to a much lesser degree. *** Ecological Coyirtltionf:. t Eda))liic'. The soil consists of loose angular fragments of stone, frequently quite small, lying upon one another, and the slope of the surface is so steep that X Veronica spathulata of scoria slopes in the central volcanic plateau lias a shinglc- slip form. Spkicht, CocKAYNi;, Laino. — Mniivt Arrnirsttiifh DiKfrict. 359 the atones are very liable to move downwards, considerable breadths of the uppermost laver frequently slipping en masse. In some places there is little finer soil, but generally there is a good deal of sandy debris, and not infrequently a certain amount of sandy clay, especially at some distance below the surface, where the ground is more stable. Although the stones are quite dry on the surface, at a depth of a few centimetres they are damp, and lower still there is ample moisture available for deep-rooting plants. Movement of the stones, the most important distinguishing feature of the soil from that of fell-field, is much less near the sides of the shingle-slip than elsewhere, and there sufficient stability is provided for plants other than those of the true shingle-slip formation to settle down. The looseness of the surface acts as a " dry mulch " and prevents evapo- ration from below. ft Climatic. The general climate is, of course, that of the district and the altitudinal belt. The special climate depends upon lack of shelter, and consequently great exposure to wand : strong radiation of heat from the stones ; powerful heating of the stones themselves ; and occasionally very bright light. Within the space of a few hours the plants are frequently subjected first to a burn- ing heat and then to considerable frost ; one hour they may be surrounded by a moist atmosphere and the next exposed to a strong dry wind. In winter they are covered by snow for four months or more, but this covering is of little moment to the summer-green herbs. Shortly after the snow has melted the leaves appear above the stones, and even by the beginning of November Veronica rpacridea may be in bloom. (c.) Fell-field. * General. Warming's description of fell-field (1909, p. 256) might have been written on a New Zealand dry mountain : " The soil is never completely covered by plants. One individual stands here, and another there ; between them we see bare, stony, sandy or clayey soil, which is devoid of humus and determines the prevailing colour of the landscape." An English name was much needed for this formation, previously called by Cockayne " alpine meadow" (1900, p. 128), and a combination of "fell" = a barren or stony hill, and " field " = a wide expanse, chosen by Groom as the English equi- valent of " fjeldmark," seems to us to meet the case. Fell-field is poorly develoj)ed in many parts of the Arrowsmith district, and forms patches or lines, oasis-like, in the desert of unstable stones. It commences by a few plants settling on the stable margin of the shingle- slip or where the stone-field happens to be flat, and as soil is slow^ly formed so do the species increase in number, but never make here a closed forma- tion. At its lowest limit steppe and fell-field merge into one another, and are not distinguishable ; even to quite a high altitude occasional tussocks of Danthonia flavescens are present. The following are amongst the earliest plants to occupy the stable debris : Danthonia semiannulari^ var. setifolia, Acaena Sanguisorbae var. filosa. PimeJea LyaUii, Epilobium sp. (formerly merged with E. conferti- jolium) Hydrocotyle novae - zelandiae, Anisotome aromatica Gaultheria rwpestris. Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium, D. unifoliiim., Pratia macrodon, Phyllachne Colensoi, Forstera Bidwillii Brachycome Sinclairii, Celmisia discolor, C. spectabilis, Helichrysum bcUidioides, and Cotula pyrethri folia. 360 Tranmctious. Celmisia viscosa, Veronica pulvinaris, LuziiJa jmmua, and Phi/Uachue Colensoi are \'irtuallv confined to the alpine belt. ** Groivth-forms. Our list of eastern fell-field plants is too meagre to warrant a detailed inquiry into the growth-forms, and such would be misleading. Suffice it to say that there are represented creeping and rooting shrubs, suhshruhs and herbs, herbs and subshrubs of the cushion form, rosette plants, and tussocJc- grasses, while xerophytic structure of many kinds is exhibited. (C.) Forest-climate Formations. (a.) GENERAL. The very much greater rainfall and the increase in number of rainy days lead to a more rapid growth and speedy establishment of species, together with a much closer plant covering, than does the steppe climate. Likewise there are much more extensive formations of trees and shrubs. The formation and accimiulation of raw himius is strongly favoured — so much so, indeed, that even rocks may be covered Avith a true soil, and bear a fairly dense and rich plant covering. On the other hand, the Avinter snowfall is greater, and th^ proximity of permanent snowfields and glaciers are counteracting factors. (/i.) THE ROCK-FOREST SERIES. (1.) General. The sequence of events in the succession of the plant-associations in the Upper Rakaia Valley can be well seen on the northern bank of the river, taking the mouth of the River Louper as a central point.! Thus, " Bare rock is the first. Its disintegration leads to shingle-slip, on which special shingle-slip plants, or those of rock or fell-field possessing suitable adaptations, can settle. These prepare the way for fell-field, and this in its turn may give place to forest by way of scrub at the lowest alti- tude. " At the same time reversion frequently occurs, and there are excellent examples to be seen where forest has been destroyed by a shingle-stream. Recolonizing ensues, the plants coming from those close at hand. On the south side of the river the process is also in progress. Here a descending stream of stones has cut a path through the forest. Shingle-slip plants come first, then a grassy fell-field, which is replaced by shrubs, and these, at a suitable elevation, by forest." (2.) The Associations, (a.) Rock. Although plenty of the alpine rocks bear an abundant plant covering, this does not betoken a pioneer association, but is much younger than a good deal of the vegetation adjoining, many of the species depending on the peaty soil and having probably come by way of the fell-field. The rocks examined were at an altitude of from 1.280 m. to 1,390 m. They were covered in places with a good deal of raw humus. The species noted J What follows is almost word for word from notes written by Cockayne on the spot. Si'Eiour, Cockayne, Laing. — Mount Arrdirsmifh District. 361 Avere : Gaultheriu rupcstris (small erect thick-leaved shrub), Dracoyhyllum Kirhii (small prostrate shrub Avith stiff coriaceous crowded leaves), Heli- chrysum grandiceps (subshrub more or less erect, leaves small, imbricating, silvery, tomentose), Senecio BidwUlii (stiff-branched shrub with very thick leaves tomentose beneath), Coprosma serrulata (shrub creeping beneath the surface and rooting, its leaves moderate-sized and stiff) — the above may be called rock-plants, though all occur elsewhere ; Danthonia flavescens, Ranunculus Lyallii, Anisotome Haastii, A. pilifera, Aciphylla Colensoi var. maxima, Dradophyllwn UrviUeanum var. montanum, Coprosma cuneata, Celmisia Sinclairii, C. coriacea, C. petiolata — all of which are plants of the fell-field. (h.) Shingle-slip. The most important shingle-slips are those which descend to the valley glaciers, and where alone succession can be accurately investigated, but owing to various causes there was no opportunity for examining such. The only shingle-slip studied consisted of rather large stones, and was much more stable than those already described for the steppe climate. The earliest plants to occupy the stony ground appear to be Epilo- bium pycnostachyum,X E. melanocaulon (at the lowest altitude), E. glabellum, Muehhnheckia axillaris, Helichrysum bellidioides, Veronica Bidwillii, Senecio lautus var. montanus, Raoulia tenuicaulis — a combination very similar to that of river-bed, since the stability of the slip renders the station very similar. Very soon the grass Poa anceps var. makes its appearance, and forms a •deep carpet, quite hiding the stones, and by the great amount of dead matter it produces makes much soil and encourages various fell-field plants to settle down. Shrubs invade the shingle-slip, and capture not only the grass but even the stable stones, and herbaceous plants come in early, especially Hypolepis millefolium., Viola Cunninghamii, and Geranium, micro- phylhim, so that scrub or fell-field, as the case may be, is established. (c.) Fell -field. * Species, ckc. The plants are fairly close, in some places growing into one another. Tussocks of Danthonia flavescens are dotted about, as also clumps of Phor- mium Coohianmn and low rounded green bushes of Veronica suhalpina. Ranunculus Lyallii forms large colonies, its massive rhizomes hardly beloAv the surface, and its great glossy green peltate leaves raised on stout petioles -30 cm. or often more in height. There are tall F wcca-like plants of Aci' phylla Colensoi var. maxima. The following herbaceous plants of consider- able dimensions are common : Celmisia coriacea, Anisotome Haastii, Astelia montana, C. Sinclairii, Polystichum vestitum. The stout low-growing shrubby stift"-leaved Coprosma serrulata, spreading by its underground stems, is abundant. Other plants belonging to the association are Hypo- lepis millefolium, Trisetum Youngii, Hierochloe Fraseri, Poa anceps var., Viola Cunninghamii, Acaena Sanguisorbae var.. Taraxacum glabratum, Senecio scorzoneroides, Coprosma ramulosa, the shrub Carmichaelia grandi- flora (often abundant), Geranium microphyllum, Coriaria angustissima. % The only true shingle-slip species ; but shingle-slip plants are virtually confined to mountains with a steppe climate. 362 Transucfions. At 1,390 ra. altitude, where the ground is rocky, the erect needle-leaved shrub Dracophyllum Urvilleanum var. montanum, distinguished by its brown colour, is very plentiful, associated with tussocks of Danthonia fiavescens, and mixed with them the large-leaved herbaceous plants, the whole making- a closed association. On some of the Rakaia fell-fields there are wide stretches of Ranunculus Lyallii mixed with Ourisia macrocarfa, and I suspect there would be also plenty of Ranunculus Godleyanus, but there was no opportunity of ex- amining such a combination. ** Growth-forms. The growth-forms of forest-climate fell-field differ from those of the steppe climate chiefly in the presence of a much more mesophytic element, with leaves sometimes of great size — e.g., Ranunculus Lyallii, Ourisia macrocarpa, Anisotome Haastii, Senecio scorzoneroides. But xerophytes are not absent— e.^., Aciphylla Colensoi var. maxima, Phormium Cookianum, Astelia montana, Celmisia coriacea, C. Sinclairii — though such as these are not to be compared with Celmisia Lyallii, C. viscosa, or C. 'pseudo- Lyallii of the drier fell-field, also large plants. At above 1,500 m. doubtless, as in fell-field in general, true xerophytes increase in numbers, but so high an altitude on the mountains of the forest climate was not reached. {d.) Subalpine Scrub. * General. It has been already seen that a good many shrubs are present on fell- field or rock. It is only necessary for certain conditions to prevail and the shrubs will get the ascendency and scrub be installed These conditions are probably an altitude of not more than about 1,200 m. (with which is connected a snow-covering of shorter duration than at a higher altitude), shelter from the more intense winds, a soil containing a considerable per- centage of humus. Subalpine scrub occurs on old river-terrace, moraine, slopes near the source of rivers, and as a belt on the hillsides, frequently between the upper margin of the forest and the fell-field. The general character of subalpine scrub has been sufficiently described by various authors (see, e.g., Haast, 1866 ; Green, 1883 ; Harper, 1896 ; Laing and Blackwell, 1907 ; Cockayne, 1906, 1909, 1910). That of the Rakaia, as Haast first pointed out (1866), is of a maximum density. The roof is fairly even ; its dominating colour is green, but there are man}" patches of brown. Its height varies according to altitude and exposure, it being tallest on river-bed, in gullies, and at its lowest altitude. At 1,000 m. elevation it may average 1-8 m. The shrubs grow into one another, their stiff or rigid branches frequently stretch horizontally down the slope, the scrub as a whole being in places virtually impenetrable. ** Composition. The following were the species noted : Polystichuni vcstitum (Fil.) ; Podo- carpus nivalis, Phyllocladus alpinus (Taxac.) ; Clematis australis (Ranmi.) Carmichaelia grandiflora (Legum.) ; Aristotelia jruticosa (Elaeocarpac.) Gaya Lyallii (Malv.) ; Nothopanax simplex, N. parvum, N. Colensoi (Araliac.) Griselinia littoralis (Cornac.) ; Aciphylla Cohnsoi var. maxima (Umbell.) Archeria Traversii, Dracophyllum longifolium, D. Urvilleanum var. montanum (Epacrid.) ; Veronica salici folia, V. subalpina (Scro])h.) ; Coproma serrulata, SpKHiiiT, Cockayne, Laino. — Mounf ArmwKinith Diatrict. 363 C ciliata, C. parviffora. C. rugosa (Rubiac.) ; Olearia nitida, 0. macrodonta, O. ilicifolia, 0. nummularifolia, Cassinia Vauvilliersii, Senecio cassinioides, *S. elaeagnifolius (Comp.). *** (rroiclh-formi. Tlie " normal " forms of scrub plants are much modified by the mechanical action of wind and snow, and it is to the dwarfing, the horizontal spread of branches, and, above all, the close intermingled groAvth that the scrub maintains its position rather than to any special growth-forms of the constituents. This is admirably shown by the forest-tree Nothofagus cliffortioides, which, like the ecologically equivalent Pinus nwntana of Europe, can assume a scrub form, and so make a special type of subalpine scrub, as in the Nelson mountains. Regarding the Rakaia shrubs, all except two are evergreen. The shrub- composite form, the divaricating form, the ball-liJie form, the creeping and rooting form, the husky form, the Dracophyllum form,X are all represented. Nearly all have stiff, coriaceous, or thick leaves. The leaves of six are tomentose ; of two erect, needle-like, isolateral or nearly so ; of nine quite small. In short, with the exception of the deciduous element, Veronica salicifolia and perhaps V. subalpina, the leaf-form and structure is xerophytic or subxerophytic. Clematis australis is a tendril-climber, with much-divided rather thick leaves. The other lianes occur in the scrub of the river-bed. {e.) Subalpine Totara Forest. * General. An association in which the totara [Podocarpus Hallii, and perhaps P. totara also) is the dominant tall tree occupies the base of the mountain- slopes on both sides of the Rakaia Valley, extending on the sunny side to a higher altitude (perhaps 970 m.) than on the shady side. Only the forest on the southern side (sunny side) of the river was examined, it being impossible to ford the river on foot. The formation is the same as that composing the upper forest of West- land extending from the Taramakau Valley to the River Paringa, but it differs considerably floristically. The association under consideration changes considerably both floristic- ally and ecologically according to altitude, the lower and upper portions ■constituting respectively two subassociations. The lower forest contains the following species which are wanting (or rare) in the upper forest : Asplenium flabellifolium, Carpodetus serratus, Pitto- sporum tenuifolium, Sophora microphylla. Fuchsia excorticata, Pseudopanax crassifolium. ** Upper Fore-it (Totara- Kawaka Suhassociation). t Character. The upper forest (see Plate VII, fig. 1) is distinguished by the presence of Libocedrus Bidwillii (kawaka) as a tall tree, in addition to the totara ; by the presence of certain members of the subalpine scrub, which, shrubs no longer, have now the form of small trees ; and, above all, by the generally horizontal trunks of these latter. The floor is covered in most places with a tall growth of the fern Polystichum vestitum. Moss mantles are abundant on the horizontal trunks and branches. t Naked stitt' stems, often more or less fastigiate ; leaves long, grasslike, in erect rosettes at the apices of the twigs, and frequently almost isolateral. 364 Transactions. tt Composition. Tall trees : Podocarpus Hallii, Lihoccdrus Bidwillii. Moderate-sized and small trees : Phyllccladus al'pinus, Gaya LyalUi,^ Griselinia littoralis, Suttonia divaricata, Veronica salicijolia, Coprosma linarii- jolia, Olearia ilicifolia, Senecio elaeagnifolius. Shrubs : Polystichum vestitum, Phyllocladus al'pinus, Gaya Lyallii, Aris- totelia fruticosa, Suttonia divaricata, Coprosma ciliata, C parvif^^ora, C. cune- ata, Veronica salicifolia. Lianes : Ruhus scJimidelioides var. coloratus. Epiphytes : Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum, Asplenium. flaccidum, Lyco- podiuni Billardieri, Senecio elaeagnifdius. Parasite : Tupeia antarctica, on Gaya Lyallii. ttt Physiognomy. The forest is made up of three tiers — viz., the tall trees, their heads of foliage distant ; the smaller trees, their heads closer, but the forest-roof as a whole open ; the closely growing short-trunked layer of Polystichum vestitum.. In addition to the above, especially where there is a maximum of light, there is a discontiniious tier of more or less straggling divaricating shrubs. On the ground where there is space there is abundance of seedlings of Gaya Lyallii and a feAv floor-plants — e.g., Asplenium Richardi, Epilohium linnaeoides, Hydrocotyle 7iovae-zelandiae, and Uncinia uncinata. The leading physiognomic feature is the horizontal and semi-horizontal thick and most irregular trunks of the small trees, especially the composites (see Plate VII, fig. 2), with their long depending strijjs of papery bark, their naked branches, which finally branching several times, candelabra-like, form a spreading open greyish-coloured head. The trunks are frequently much moss-covered, but, although there may be thick masses, these can hardly be called cushions, as compared with those of Westland, Stewart Island, &c. f ttt Ecology. The soil consists, so far as it was examined, of an upper layer of loose humus some 12 cm. deep and full of roots, succeeded by stones (old shingle- slip), into which a good deal of the finer humus has penetrated. This upper layer holds and stores Avater, and the network of roots shows how important a part its power to do so plays in the economy of the forest, and how de- pendent this is on the frequent downpour — that it is, in fact, a true rain forest. The general more or less horizontal habit of the composite trees and Griselinia littoralis is very striking, and doubtless to be correlated with the mechanical action of the wind, though certainly there must be an hereditary tendency to respond to the wind-stimulus, as Cockayne has already sug- gested from observations on seedlings (1904, p. 254). How greatly the ecology of a formation depends upon the formation itself — that is to say, how a formation when established brings a change in its own environment — is here illustrated by the remarkably luxuriant groAAi:h of so many of the components. Thus the usually densely divaricating shrub Suttonia divaricata becomes an erect tree at least 6 m. tall and 57 cm. in diameter, branching above into a small head of " weeping " slender twigs. Coprosma linariifolia measured in one instance 66 cm.§ in diameter at the base of its J If a plant is mentioned under two heads it means that it has two growth-forms. § liirk (1889, p. 187) gives 9 in. (22-9 cm.) as an extreme size. Tran!>. X.Z. Inst., Vol.. XLlll. Plate VII. k;. 1. — \'ii;\\' oi' ExTEuioR or Totaka I^oukst, UrrER IIakaia. Fig. 2.— Horizontal Trunk of 0/rana iliri/ofui. Face p. 3()l. Spkiomt, Cockaynj;, Laixg. — Mount Arrowsmith District. 365 trunk. Olcarin iUcijolia was noted as quite 12 m. tall, and its trunk 71 cm. in diameter, a truly remarkable size for a tree composite. The behaviour of Gaya Lyallii within the forest is a matter of interest which still requires a satisfactory explanation, our remarks below notwith- standing. In none of the young plants examined, which grew upon the forest-floor, was the main stem at first erect; on the contrary, it was prostrate for many centimetres, putting down roots into the loose sub- stratum. In nearly all the plants examined the apex of this creeping stem was damaged, but it put forth erect branches which ultimately, as examina- tion of many plants at different stages proved, became the final trunk. Leaning trunks of Gaya put forth rapidly growing erect stems (suckers), which would finally resemble trunks. How far the floor of moist loose humus and semi-decayed leaves, which certainly would favour the pro- duction of adventitious roots, which by their pull would hold the shoot to the ground, is responsible for this primary creeping and rooting habit it is hard to say. Other shrubs of this association show the sam.e pheno- menon— e.g., Aristotelia fruticosa, " normally " a dense divaricating shrub, an example of which was noted with the basal 4 cm. prostrate and rooting, then the succeeding 5 cm. raised from the ground but still almost horizontal and giving off two vertical branches, and finally 3-5 cm. bending upwards until erect. The cases already cited by Cockayne (1908) of Styphelia fasci- culata and Myrtus pedunculata, both " normally " erect shrubs, but on the moist mossy floor of the subalpine forest of Ruapehu being creeping and rooting plants, not erect at all, are analagous examples. The divaricating shrubs are not nearly so dense as in the open. Co- prosma 'parviflora, for example, has in this forest several stems which are quite without branches for the lower two-thirds, when they arch down- wards and branch abundantly, this growth-form reminding one of the usual mesophytic habit of C. joetidissima, plants generally quite dissimilar in form. The moss-clad horizontal trunks favour the presence of epiphytes, Senecio elaeagnijolius especially following this manner of growth, and attaining a remarkable size. As the plant increases in bulk the moss no longer supplies enough water, and the roots lengthen, pass downward, and enter the soil. Finally such roots may grow together and make a trunk. Many of the trees of Griselinia littoralis and Oleana ilicifolia have also originated in this manner. The two tall trees may both be considered xerophytes. Both can tolerate physiologically dry stations — e.g., wet peaty soil ; but Podocarpus Hallii — nor P. totara, for that matter — does not appear capable of enduring a steppe climate, or, in other words, they are not found at present under such xerophytic conditions as is Nothofagus cliff ortioides. So far as form, leaf -structure, and so on, are concerned, there seems no reason why the totaras should differ in their requirements from the beech. Certainly the Nothofagus is more plastic ; it can more readily change its form accord- ing to circumstances ; it is on the borderland of the deciduous habit ; and as a forest it has wonderful powers of rejuvenescence, thanks to the shade-tolerating power of its seedhngs. The above would give it an ad- vantage over P. totara or P. Hallii, but in addition, as in many other plants, there are physiological distinctions not recorded, or not yet esti- mated, in form or structure which determine the habitat-range of a species. As for the totara forest of the Kakaia Valley as a whole, it is altogether more mesophytic than is the N. cliff ortioides association, and must be classed with rain forest. 366 Transactions. 4. THE FLORISTIC BOTANY. (A.) Notes on various Species. The number of species noted (357) most certainly does not represent nearly all that must occur in an area so large and diversified, and future observers cannot fail to much extend the list. At the same time, it may be pointed out that the steppe, owing partly to its climate and partly to the constant grass-fires, is distinctly barren, while the adjacent subalpine and alpine belts consist chiefly of dry rock and shingle-sUp, stations hostile to plant-Hfe. Further, so far as that part of the district with a forest climate is concerned, only the sunny side of a small portion of the Rakaia Valley, the poorest in both flora and vegetation, was examined, while the examination was but a cursory one. (1.) Luzula ulophylla (Buchen.) sp. nov. = L. racemosa Desv. var. ulo- phylla Buchen. in Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschrift, p. 245, 1898. An excellent description is given in Cheeseman's Manual, p. 738. The plant can be recognized at a glance, and certainly is one of the most distinct forms of the genus in New Zealand, as Cheeseman has already pointed out. (2.) Bulbinella Hookeri (Col.) Benth. and Hook, f., var. angustifolia var. nov. In omnibus partibus typo minor, non autem glaucis, superiore super- ficie folii concava, racemo quam typi breviore, densioreque. South Island : Common in the east of Canterbury and Otago. This is the common form of the steppe climate of the South Island. The leaves are concave on the upper surface, green, thicker and narrower (1-1 cm. at base) than those of the North Island and western Nelson plant (the type), which are flat, broad (3 cm. at base), and glaucous. The raceme is altogether less open than in the type, and the flowers are smaller. Seen side by side the two plants are most distinct, and can be separated at a glance. We are indebted to Mr. T. Keir, of Rangiora, for first pointing out the great difference between the two forms ; in fact, he considered — and with much justice — that they were distinct species, but we hesitate so to treat them in the absence of a large series of specimens. (3.) Epilobium confertifolium Hook. f. The above name was restricted to the plant of the New Zealand sub- antarctic botanical province by Cockayne in 1904, and Cheeseman in 1909 has come to the same conclusion. This leaves the New Zealand forms hitherto referred to this species without a name. Of these forms there are probably more than one to which we are inclined to accord specific rank, but think it best to defer so doing until examining more abundant mate- rial, and, above all, testing their fixity by cultivation. (4.) 1. Anisotome Haastii (F. Muell.) comb. nov. = Ligusticum Haastii F. Muell. ex Hook. f. in Handbk. of N.Z. Flora, p. 95, 1864. 2. Anisotome filifolia (Hook, f.) comb. nov. = Liqusticuni filifolium Hook. f. in Handbk. of N.Z. Flora, p. 95, 1864. 3. Anisotome carnosula (Hook, f.) comb. nov. = Ligusticum carnosulum Hook. f. in Handbk. of N.Z. Flora p. 96, 1864. 4. Anisotome pilifera (Hook, f.) comb. nov. = Ligusticum piliferum Hook. f. in Handbk. of N.Z. Flora, p. 96, 1864. Speight, Cockaynk, Laing. — Mount Arrowsmifh District. 367 Cockayne, following Bentham and Hooker, has in all his recent papers referred the New Zealand species of Ligusticmn to Aciphylla. But, as Cheesenian points out (1909, p. -108), this latter genus is best limited to the Aciphi/llae proper, a most distinct group, and if it be thought correct to limit Ligusticum to the northern species, then Hooker's genus Anisotome might well be revived for the reception of the southern species. This course we have taken, since we consider Anisotome a true antarctic genus, notwithstanding, as in the cases of Nothofagus, Nothopanax, and Celmisia, it has a strong northern affinity. (5.) Nertera species. The species of Nertera in the list, which occurs also on bogs in the Wai- makariri Valley, differs from N. depressa in its orange-coloured pyriform drupe, that of the latter being globose and red ; but we have no material, and are writing from memory, so are unable to give a name and description to the plant. Probably it has hitherto been mistaken for N. depressa, since the drupes oii being dried would lose their distinctive shape. (6.) Olearia arborescens (Forst. f.) comb, no v. — Solidago arborescens Forst. f. in Prodromus, p. 298, 1786. This is the well-known 0. nitida Hook. f. in Handbk. of N.Z. Flora, p. 125, and it is a great pity the name has to be changed in accordance with the rules of botanical nomenclature. (7.) Celmisia spectabilis Hook. f. A very distinct form was common on Prospect Hill. This is dis- tinguished from the type by the leaves being not " entire or minutely serrulate " (Cheeseman, 1906, p. 308), but coarsely and distantly toothed almost to the base. Young leaves on a cultivated example exhibit the same toothing. (B.) List op Species. Species, Family, &c. Plant-association. PTERIDOPHYTA. FlLICES. Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum (Forst. f. villosum Col. tunbridgense (L.) Sm. multifidum (Forst. f.) S\v. Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f. Cystopteris fragiUs (L.) Bernh. . . Sw. Hypolepis millefolium Hook. Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J. Sm. Pteridium esculentum (Forst. f.) Cockayne. Blechnum penna inarina (Poir.) Kulin capense (L.) Schlcht. A'spleniuni flabelUfolium Cav. Richardi Hook. f. flaccidum Forst. f. Totara forest. Rock, subalpine. Totara forest. Rock, subalpine. Subalpine scrub ? Stony debris in montane belt of steppe cUmate. Nothofagus forest. Subalpine scrub, where it had been burned. Nothofagus forest ; steppe ; fan. Nothofagus forest. Totara forest. Rock (steppe climate) ; totara forest. Totara forest. 368 Transactions. List of Species — continued. Species, Familj-, Ac. Plant-association. Polystichuni vestituin (Forst. f.) Presi. cystottgia (Hook.) J. B. Armstg. .. Folypodiuni Billardieri (Willd.) C. Chr. pumilum (J. B. Armstg.) Cockayne Ophioglossum coriaceuni A. Cunn. Lycopodiaceae. Lycopodium Selago L. . . — varium R. Br. . . scariosuin Forst. f. SPERMOPHYTA. Taxaceae. Podocarpus Hctllii T. Kirk* nivalis Hook. Dacrydium Bidwillii Hook. f. . . Phyllocladus alpinus Hook. f. . . PiNACEAE. Libocednts Bidwillii Hook, f . . . Typhaceae. Typhaungusti folia L. var. Muelleri ? (Rohrl>.) (iraebn. Gramixeae. Microlaena Colen.soi (Hook, f.) Petrie Hierochloe redolens (Forst. f. ) R. Br. Fraseri Hook. f. Agrostis subzilata Hook. f. ■ Dyeri Petrie Deyeuxia setijolia Hook. f. — nvenoides (Hook. f. Buch. ) Hook. f. Jjichelachne crinita (Forst. f Trisehwi antarcticuni (Forst. f. ) Trin. Youngii Hook. f. suhspicatum Beauv. Danthonia Raoulii Steud. flavescens Hook, f . semianwularis R. Br. var. setijolia Hook. L Buchanani Hook. f. Arundo co7ispicua Forst. f. Triodia exigua T. Kirk . . Poa novae- zealandiue Hack. anceps Forst. f. (?) var.j. . Debris below rock (steppe cli- mate) ; totara forest ; Notho- fagiis forest. Stony debris (stable and large), alpine. Totara forest. Rock, subalpine. Steppe. Fell-field. Totara forest. Stepjie, but local. Totara forest. Subalpine scrub (Cameron Cllacier) ; Nothofagus forest, on outskirts. Sphagnum bog ; lake, margin of, on bank. Totara forest ; subalpine scrub. Totara forest. Lake. Rock, alpine. Fell-field. Steppe ; river-bed, subalpine. Rock, alpine. Steppe; fell-field. Fell- field. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe ; fell-field. Steppe of subalpine river-bed. Rock, alpine. Steppe. Steppe ; fell- field. Steppe ; rock, montane antl sub- alpine. Steppe ; fell- field. Steppe. River-bed, montane. Steppe. Rock, subalpine. Fell-field ; coarse and fairlj- stable shingle-slip ; stepjie of river- bed. * Our notes regarding the species of totara are quite insufficient, nor have we ktiy specimens beyond one piece of bark which is evidently that of P. Hallii. On the other hand, P. totara rnay also be present, especially at the lowest altitude of the forest. t This grass is possibly an unde.scribed species. It is probably common on the- wet mountains of the central Southern Alps. Si'KiiiiiT, CocKAYNi;, l.AiNG. — Mount Arroirxiiri t Ii J)i>>frict. 369 List of Spectics — continwd. Species, Family. &c. Plant-association. Poa caespitosa Forst. f. Colensoi Hook. f. var. intermedia (Buch.) Cheesem. Kirkii Buch. Lindsayi Hook. f. inaniototo Petrie Festuca ovina L. var. novae-zealandiue Hack. '■ — rubra L. var. Agropyron scahrum (R. Br.) Beauv. Cyperaceae. Elaeocharis Cunninghamii Boeck. Schoenus pma-iflorvs Hook. f. Oreobolus pectitiatus Hook. f. Uncinia coinpacUt K. Br. uncinata (L. f.) Kiikeiith. fusco-vcujinata Kiikenth. . . rubra Boott fliforniis Boott. . Carex kaloides Petrie diandra .Schrank Colensoi Boott . . stellulata (iood . . subdola Boott . . Gaudichaudiana Kunth. . . : ternaria Forst. f. wakalipu Petrie Buchanani Berggr. Petriei Cheesem. breviculinis R. Br. Oederi Retz var. catarractae (R. Br.) Kiikenth. JUNCACEAE. Steppe ; rock ; fell-field. Steppe ; rock ; fell-field. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe ; river-bed, subalpine. Steppe. Steppe ; rock. Swamp ; lake ; Sphagnum bog. Sphagnum bog ; swamp. Sphagnum bog. Steppe ; river-bed, subalpine. Totara forest. FeU-field. Steppe. Totara forest. Wet ground. Swamp. Steppe. Swamp. Swamp. [ Swamp ; Sphagnum bog. , Swamp. River-bed. Stream, margin of. River-bed, in damp ground. Steppe. Swamp. June us effusus L. bufonius L. Luzula pumila Hook. f. campestris D. C. var. racemosa Desv. . . ulophylla (Buchen.) Cockayne and Laing LlLIACEAE. Astelia montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne Petriei Cockayne Phormium Cookiarmm Le Jolis . . Bulbinella Hookeri (Col.) Benth. & Hook. var. an- guMijolia Cockayne and Laing Orchidaceae. Microtis unifolia (Forst. f.) Reichenb. Prusophyllum Colensoi Hook. f. . . Pterostylis mutica R. Br. Gorysanthes (macrantha Hook, f.) ? Fagaceae. JSlothofagus cliffortioides (Hook, f.) Oerst. . . Lake ; swamp. River-bed, montane. FeU-field, alpine. Steppe ; river-bed, subalpine. Steppe. Steppe ; river-bed. Fell-field. Fell-field. Subalpine scrub ; fell- field. Steppe ; bog. Urticaceae. Urtica incisa Poir. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Totara forest. Nothofagus forest; bank of streams as occasional scattered clumps. Totara forest ; Xothofagns forest. 370 Transactions. List of Species — continued. Species, Family, &e. Plant-association. LOEANTHACEAE. Elytranthe flavida (Hook, f.) Engler Twpeia antarctica (Forst. f.) Cham. & Schlcht. POLYGONACEAE. Rumex flexuosus Sol. Muehlenbeckia australis (Forst. f.) Meissn. complexa (A. Cunn.) Meissn. axillaris Walp. . . ephedroides Hook. f. PORTULACACEAE. Glaytonia austrulasica Hook, f . . . Montia fontana L. Caryophyllaceae. Stellaria Roughii Hook. f. Colobanthus quiiensis Bartl. Billardieri Fenzl. brevisepalus T. Kirk acicidaris Hook. f. Scleranthus hiflorus (Forst.) Hook. f. Hectorella caespitosa Hook, f . Ranunculaceae. Clematis australis T. Kirk marata J. B. Armstg. Ranunculus Lyallii Hook, f . Godleyanus Hook, f . Monroi Hook. f. var. dentatus T. Kirk Haastii Hook. f. crithniifolius E^jok. f. — • hirtus Banks & Sol. lappaceus Sm. var. muUiscapus Hook. f. foliosus T. Kirk ■ Cheesemanii T. Kirk macropus Hook. f. rivularis Banks & Sol. Galthu novae-zelandiae Hook. f. Crtjciferae Nasturtium palustre D. C. Cardamine heterophylla (Forst. f.) depressa Hook. f. Notothlaspi rosulatum Hook. f. (). E. Schultz. Deoseraceae. Drosera arcturi Hook. . . Crassulaceae. Crassula Sieberiana Schultz Saxipragaceae. Carpodetus serratus Forst. Pittosporaceae. Pittosporutn tenuifolium Banks & Sol. Nothofagus forest. Totara forest ; subalpine scrub. Steppe. Totara forest. Totara forest ; scrub of river-bed . River-bed ; stepjie. Steppe. Shingle-slijj ; stream. Stream. Shingle-slip. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Rock. Steppe ; river-bed. Rock, alpine. Subalpine scrub. FeU-field. Fell- field ; bank of stream on river-bed. Rock, subalpine ; fell-field. Shingle-sliiJ. Shingle-slip. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe of subalpine river-bed. River-bed, in wet ground. Swamp ; stream. Swamp. Fell- field. River-bed, moist. Rock, subalpine. Shingle-slij). Sphaijnum bog. Rock. Totara forest. Totara forest. Speight, Cockayne, Laing. — Mount Arrowxmifli District. List of Species — continued. 371 Species, Family, Ac. Plant-association. ROSACEAE. Eubus schmidelioides A. Cunn. var. coloratufi T. Kirk suhpauperatus Cockayne . . australis Forst. f. cissoides A. Cunn. Geum parviflorum Sm. . . utbanum L. var. strictuin Potentilla anserina L. var. anserinoides (Raoul) T. Kirk Acaena Sanguisorhae Vahl. var. pilosa T. Kirk* inermis Hook. f. tnicrophylla Hook. f. Leguminosae. Carmichaelia Enysii T. Kirk uniflora T. Kirk nana Col. Monroi Hook. f. grandiflora Hook, f . Swainsona novae-zealandiae Hook, f.^ Sophora niicrophylla Ait. Geraniaceae. Geranium inicrophyllum Hook, f . . . sessiliflorum. Cav. OXALIDACEAE. Oxalis corniculata L. . . magellanica Forst. COKIARIACEAE. Coriaria ruscifolia L. . . thymifolia Humb. & Bonpl. angustissima Hook. f. . . Stackhousiaceae. Stackhousia minima Hook. f. Rhamnaceae. Discaria toutnatou Raoul Elaeocarpaceae. Aristotelia fruticosa Hook. f. Malvaceae. Gaya Lyallii (Hook, f.) J. E. Baker • rihifolia (F. Muell.) Cockayne CtUTTIFERAE. Hypericum gramineum Forst. f. . . ViOLACEAE. Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f. . . Hymenanihera dentata R. Br. var. alpina T. Kirk Totara forest. Totara forest ; scrub of river-bed. Totara forest. Fell-field. River-bed. Swamp. Steppe ; fell- field. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Subalpine scrub ; river-bed, sub- alpine. Shingle-slip. Totara forest. Steppe ; Sphagnum boo Steppe. Steppe. Fell-field. Steppe. River-bed, steppe ; fell-field. River-bed, steppe ; fell-field. Steppe. Steppe ; river-bed ; rock. Subalpine scrub. Totara forest ; subalpine scrub. G. rihifolia association. Steppe. Spliagnuyn bog ; fell- field. Fell-field ; debris below cliff. * This is probably Acaena Sanguisorhae subspecies caesiiglauca Bitter. 372 Transactions. List of Species — continued. Species, Family, &c. Plant-association. Thymeliaceae. Pimelea Traversii Hook. f. laevigata Gaertn. var. repens Cheesem. Lyalli Hook. f. Dra'petes Dieffenhachii Hook. Myrtaceae. Le ptospermum scoparium Foist. . . Onageachae. Epilobium chionanthtim Hausskii. pubens A. Rich. species* Hectori Hausskn. chloraefoliutn Hausskn. nummular i folium R. C'unii pedunculate A. Ciunn. macropus Hook. {crassum Hook, f.) Vf pycnostachyum Hausskn. . melanocaulon Hoolc. rostratum Cheesem. microphyllum A. Rich. glahellmn Forst. f. elegans Petric Fuchsia excorticata L. f. Halorrhagaceae. Halorrhayis un I folia T. Kirk (= H. depressa Walp. var. iinifolia (T. Kirk) Cheesem. in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 203, 1910) micrantha R. Br. Myriophyllum elatinoides Gaud. . . Gunnera [monoica Raoul) ' var. . . dentata T. Kirk . . Araliaceae. Nothopanax simplex (Forst. f.) Seem. parvum (T. Kjrk) Cockayne • Colensoi (Hook, f.) Seem. Pseudopanax crassifolium (Sol.) C. Koch var. unifoli- atum T. Kirk Umbelliferae. Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae D. C. — americana L. . . Schizeilema niiens (Petrie) Domin. Oreomyrrhis undicola Endl. var. Colensoi (Hook, f.) T. Kirk Rock, subalpine. Steppe. Steppe ; fell-field. Steppe; feU-field. Crantzia lineata Nutt var. ramosa (Hook, f.) T. Kirk rock. Steppe. Swamp. Totara forest FeU-field. Steppe. Sphagnum bog ; fell- field. Rock, in shade. River-bed ; steppe. Sti'eam. Rock. Shingle-slip. River-bed. River-bed. River-bed. River-bed. Steppe. Totara forest ; Kothofagus forest. Steppe. Bog. Stream Bog. Stream. lake. Totara forest ; subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub of river-bed. Subali)inc scrub ; totara forest. Totara forest. Steppe. Steppe. Stream. Steppe. Steppe Bog. * = one or more of the series of forms hitherto included by J. D. Hooker, T. Kirk. Cheeseman, and others with E. confertifoliuin Hook. f. of the Ne\^■ Zealand subantarctic islands. I Specimens poor ; it ma^- be E. hrevipes. Si'KiGiiT, Cockaym;, Lai-N.;.— -l/o///// Arrowsmith District. 373 List of Species — continued. Species, Family, &c. Plaut-association. Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f. var. tna.tima T. Kirk squcvrrosa Forst. Monro i Hook. Anisoiome Haastii (F. Muell.) Cockayne and Lanig. iilifolia (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing carnosula (Hook, f.) Cockayne and Laing . pilifera (Hook, f.) Cockajaie and Laing r var. pinnatifida T. Kirk . . aromatica Hook. f. Angelica Gingidium (Forst. f.) Hook. f. . . decipiens Hook. f. .Steppe. Subalpine .scrub. Steppe. Rock, .subalpine ; feli-Hekl. Fell-field. Shingle-slip ; steppe. Shingle -slip. Rock; feU-tield. Fell-field. Steppe ; fell -filled ; Sphagnumho^. Fell-field ; steppe ; river-bed. Steppe. COENACEAE. Griselinia Uttoralis Raoul Ericaceae. GauUheria depressa Hook, f . . . . • • • . perplexa T. Kirk . . • • • • rupestris (Forst. f.) R. Br. Pernettya nana Col. Epacbidaceae. I Pentachondra pumila (Forst. f.) R. Br. .. .. Styphelia acerosa Sol. . . . . ■ • • • Colensoi (Hook, f.) Diels. . . . • ■ Fraseri (A. Cunn.) F. Muell. .. •• Archeria Traversii Hook. f. . . . . • • ' Dracophyllum longifolium (Foist, i.) Bj. Bv. .. i Urvilleanum A. Rich. var. montanum Cheesem. Kirkii Berggr. . . uniflorwn Hook. f. rosmarinifolium (Forst. f.) R. Br. . . Myrsisaceae. Suttonia divaricata Hook. f. nummularia Hook, f . Gentianaceae. Gentiana Griesbachii Hook. f. . . bellidifolia Hook. f. Apocynaceae. Parsonsia capsularis var. BORRAGINACEAE. Myosotis Traversii Hook. f. species (perhaps a form of M. antarctica Hook, f.) australis R. Br. Forsieri Lehm. '. . Totara forest ; subalpine scrub. Steppe ; Sphagnum bog. Subalpine scrub of river-bed. Rock; fell-field. Steppe. FeU-field. Fell-field. FeU-field ; steppe. Steppe ; river-bed ; fell-field. Subalpine scrub. Totara forest ; subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub. Rock, subalpine. FeU-field. Rock; feU-field. Totara forest ; subalpine scrub. Rock, subalpme. Steppe. FeU-field. Labiatae. Mentha Cunninghamii (A. Cunn.) Benth. . SCROPHTTLABINACEAE. Mazus radicans (Hook, f.) Chee.sem. {Glossostignia elatinoides Benth.) ? Subalpine scrub of river-bed. Shingle-slip. FeU-field. Steppe. Shadv bank, subalpine. Steppe ; bog. Bog. Swamp. 374 Transactions. List of Species — continued. Species, Family, &c. Veronica salici folia Forst. f. ■ — — var. KirJcii (J. leiophylla Cheesem. suhcdpina Cockayne huxi folia Benth. var. odor a T. anomala J. B. Armstg. . . B. Armstg.) Cheesem. Kirk — ■ — ■ — amplexicaulis J. B. Armstg. ■ — ■ — — pinguifolia Hook. f. pimelioides Hook. f. var. minor Hook. f. tetrasticha Hook. f. lycopodioides Hook. f. . . Armstrongii T. Kirk ■ — — — cupressoidrs Hook. f. Haastii Hook. f. epacridea Hook. f. — tnacrantha Hook. f. • — ■ pulvinaris (Hook, f.) Benth. & Hook. f. ■ — loganioides J. B. Armstg. Lyallii Hook. f. • var. suberecta Cheesem. Bidwillii Hook. f. Ourisia macrocarpa Hook. f. — [Colensoi Hook, f.) ? — — — sessiliflora Hook. f. caespitosa Hook. f. Euphrasia Monroi Hook. f. LbNTIBULAEIA CEAE. Utricularia mono nthos Hook, f . . . Plantaginaceae. Plantago Broicnii Rapin spathulata Hook. f. - — triundra Bergg. RUBIACEAE. Coprosma serrulata Hook. f. rhamnoides A. Cunn. ciliata Hook. f. parviflora Hook. f. ramulosa Petrie brunnea (T. Kirk) CockajTie rugosa Cheesem. — (propinquu A. Cinin.) ? . . ■ linariifolia Hook. f. cuneata Hook. f. Pefriei Cheesem. Nertera species (probalDlv distinct from N. depressa Banks & Sol.) Galium umbrosum Sol. . . Asperula perpusilla Hook. f. Campantjlaceae. Pratia angidata (Forst. f.) Hook. f. • mocrodon Hook. f. Plant- association. Subalpine scrub ; totara forest. Subalpine scrub ? Scrub on limestone, montane. Subalpine scrub. Steppe, near stream. Habitat ? (Rakaia Gorge, E. Stead !). Fell-field. Fell-field. Steppe. Rock, subalpine. Fell-field. Habitat ?* Habitat ?t Shingle-slip. Shingle-slip ; rock. Fell-field. Fell-field. Fell-field. River-bed, subalpine. Rock, shaded, subalpine. River-bed. Fell-field. Fell-field. Fell-field. Fell-field. Fell- field. Sphagnum bog. Bog,, subalpine. Steppe. BoK. Fell-field. Subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub ; totara forest. Subalpine scrub ; totara forest. Fell-field. River-bed. River-bed, subalpine ; subalpine scrub. Nothofagus forest. Totara forest. Rock, alpine ; fell- field. Steppe. Bo?. Habitat ? ! River-bed bog. Steppe ; bog. Fell-field. * Not seen by us, but the original description gives the Upper Rangitata. t Probably fairly common originally, but now destroyed for the most part bj' fire. Speight, Cockayxe, Laixg. — Mo/mf Anoii'smith District. 2>lb List of Species — continued. Species, Family, &c. Plant-association. Lobelia linnaeoides (Hook, f.) Petrie Ronghii Hook. f. Wahlenheri/i(i //rarili.s (Forst. f.) A. D. C. saxicoln (R. Br.) A. D. C. Stylidiaceae. Phyllachne Colensoi (Hook, f.) Bergg. Donatia novae-zelandiae Hook. f. . . Forstera Bidwillii Hook. f. tenella Hook. f. COMPOSITAB. Lagenophora petiolata Hook. f. Barkeri T. Kirk Brachycome pinnatu Hook. f. Sinclairii Hook. f. Olearia arborescens (Forst. f.) Cockade and Laiiig macrodonta Baker — ilici folia Hook. f. moschafa Hook. f. Haastii Hook. f. oleifolia T. Kirk nuniniulnrijolia Hook. f. cyiiibi folia (Hook, f.) Cheesem aiicenniaefolia Hook. f. . . virgata Hook. f. Celmisia Walkeri T. Kirk (not typical, but nearer thii than to G. discolor) discolor Hook. f. Sinclnirii Hook. f. Haastii Hook. f. petiolata Hook. f. spectabilis Hook. f. pseudo-Lyallii (Cheesem.) -. — coriacea (Forst. f.) Hook. Lyallii Hook. f. viscosa Hook. f. longifolia Cass. . . laricifolia Hook. f. sessiliflora Hook. f. bellidioides Hook. f. Vittadiyiia australis A. Rich. Haastia Sinclairii^ Hook. f. Gnaphalium Traversii Hook. f. paludosum Petrie • luteo-album L. . . japonicum Thunb. collinum Lab. . . Eaoulia australis Hook. f. lutescens (T. Kirk) Cocki tenuicaulis Hook. f. Haastii Hook. f. Monroi Hook. f. {apice-nigra T. Kirk) ? ■ subsericea Hook. f. ■ eximia Hook. f. grandiflora Hook. f. Cocka\Tie f. Fell-field. Shingle-slip. Steppe. Steppe ; fell-Held. Fell-field. Bog, subalpine. Fell-field. Steppe. Steppe. Habitat ? Steppe. Steppe. vSubalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub. Totara forest ; subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub. Subalpine .scrub. Steppe. Rock, subalpine. Fell-field. Fell-field ; rock. Fell-field, alpine. Rock, subalpine, on raw humus ; fell-fiekl. Steppe ; fell- field. Fell-field. FeU-field. Fell-field. FeU-field. Steppe ; bog. FeU-field. FeU-field. Rock, subalpine Steppe. Shingle-sUp, alpine. Steppe. Bog. Steppe ; river-bed. Steppe. Steppe. River-bed. River-bed ; steppe. River-bed. River-bed. Steppe. Steppe. Steppe. Rock, alpine. FeU-field. 376 Tramamo)!^. List of Species — conlinued. Species, Family, &c. Plant-association. Helichrysum hellidioides (Forst. f. ) Wilkl. . . Steppe ; fell-field. ■ filicaule Hook. f. Steppe. grandicefs Hook. f. Rock. depressum (Hook, f.) Benth. & Hook. f. River-bed. tit if* Tr\'r\n'} (11 '}!'}>} (r\c\f\\T T ^ r^PTitn iv TTnolr i Rock. • IfCtt/ UJJfvtJl'ltt /ft \x2.yJ\Jr^* i-* ) -UClll'Il. IX J.J.UU1V. 1.. . Selago (Hook, f.) Benth. & Hook. Rock. Cassinia VauviUiersil (Homb. & Jaoq.) Hook. f. Steppe. • fulvida Hook. f. Steppe. Craspedia u7iifiom For.st. f. \nv. Steppe ; river-bed. alpiria Backhouse Shingle-slip. Cotula airata Hook. f. . . Shingle-slip. ■ pyretJiri folia Hook. f. Fell-field. perpusilla Hook, f . Steppe. ■ — squalida Hook. f. Steppe. Erechtites glahrescens T. Kirk Totara forest. Senecio hellidioides Hook. f. Steppe. scorzoneroides Hook. f. . . Fell-field. lautus Forst. f. var. monfamis ('heeseni. Shingle-slij]. Subalpine scrub. Subalpine scrub. elaeagnifolius Hook. f. . . Bidwillii Hook. f. var. riridis (T. Kirk) Subalpine scrub. Cheesem. Microseris Forsteri Hook. f. Steppe. Crepis riovae-zelandiae Hook. f. . . Rock. Taraxacum glabratuni (Forst. f.) Cockajnie Fell-field. 5. LITERATURE CONSULTED. Adams, F. N. 1885. " In the Valley of the Wilberforce," "' New Zealand Country Journal," vol. 9, p. 377. Armstrong, J. B. 1879. " Descriptions of some New Native Plants." ibid., vol. .3, p. 56. 1881. " A Synopsis of the New Zealand Species of Veronica." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 13, p. 344. Bell, J. M., and Fraser, C. 1906. " The Geology of the Hokitika Sheet." N.Z. Geol. Svirvey Bull. No. 1 (n.s.). (On p. 101 is a short list of plants collected near Browning's Pass.) Brown, R. 1894. " Notes on some New Species of New Zealand Musci : Genus Phascum." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 26, p. 302. 1895. " Notes on New Zealand Mosses : Genus Orthotrichum." Ibid., vol. 27, p. 422. 1899. " Notes on the New Zealand Musci." Ibid., vol. 31, p. 437. (The above papers by Brown contain descriptions of a few ncAv species collected at Moa Creek.) Buchanan, J. 1869. "Sketch of the Botany of Otago." Ibid., vol. 1, pt. iii, p. 22. (The opinion is expressed that at no distant time the greater part of Otago was forest -clad.) Cheeseman, T. F. 1906. " Manual of the New Zealand Flora." -. : — 1909. " On the Svstematic Botany of the Islands to the Soutli of New Zealand." The Subantarctic Islands of N.Z., vol. 2, p. 389. Cockayne, A. H. 1910. " The Effect of Burning on Tussock Country." Jour. N.Z. Agric. Dep., vol. 1, p. 7. Spkkuit, Cockayne, Laixg. — Mount Arroir.^niif/i fJisfrirf. 377 Cockavne, L. llioo. " A 8ketcli of tlie Plant Geognipliv of the VV'ainiakariri River Basin." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32, p. 95. 1901. " On the Seedling Forms of New Zealand Phanerogams." Ibid., vol. 33, p. 265. (Attempts to correllate heteroblastic development in certain plants with climatic changes.) 1904. " A Botanical Excnrsion during Midwinter to the Southern Islands of NeM' Zealand." Ibid., vol. 36, p. 225. (Restricts Epilohwm conjertijolium to the subantarctic phint, p. 320.) 1906. " Note^ on the Subalpine Scrub of Mount FyfTe." Ibid., vol. 38, p. 361. 1908. " Report on a Botanical Survey of the Tongariro National Park." (Prostrate forms of certain erect shrubs under mesophytic conditions are noted, pp. 18 and 24.) 1909. '■ Report on a Botanical Survey of Stewart Island." (On p. 7 is a note criticizing Park's theory of a polar ice-slieet.) 1910. "■ New Zealand Plants and their Storv." Cox, S. H. 1884. Geol. Survey Report : Mount Somers and Malvern Hill District. Diels, L. 1896. " Vegetations-Biologie von Neu Seeland." Engler's Jahrb., vol. 22, p. 202. 1908. " Pflanzengeographie." (Tussock-grass land and open fell- field is called " trift," and closed fell-field " matte.") Forster, G. 1786. " Florula; Insularum Australium Prodromus." Green, W. S. 1883. " The High Alps of New Zealand." Haast, J. von. 1866. " Report on the Headwaters of the River Rakaia." 1879. " Geology of the Provinces of Canterbury and Westland." (Exploration of Rivers Rangitata and Ashburton, p. 3, and of the Rakaia, p. 123.) Hardcastle, J. 1908. " Notes on the Geology of South Canterbury." (Evidence is adduced — pp. 59, 60 — regarding extensive forests diu'ing a recent geological period.) Harper, A. P. 1896. '' Pioneer Work in the Alps of New Zealand." (Some details are given regarding subalpine scrub.) Hooker, J. D. 1853. " Flora Novfe Zelandite." • 1867. '• Handbook of the New Zealand Flora." Hutton. F. W. 1900. " The Geological Historv of New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32, p. 159. 1877. " Report on the Geology of the North-east Portion of the South Island." Reports of Geol. Expl. during 1873-74. Laing, R. M., and Blackwell, E. W. 1907. " Plants of New Zealand." Marshall, P. n.d. '• The Geography of New Zealand." Monro, D. 1869. " On the Leading Features of the Geographical Botany of the Provinces of Nelson and Marlborough." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 1, pt. 3, p. 6. (Considers that the grass land has replaced extensive forests after these were destroyed by fire.) Park, J. 1909. " The Geologv of the Queenstown Subdivision." Bull. No. 7 (U.S.), N.Z. Geol. Surv.' 1910. " The Geology of New Zealand." Potts, T. H., and Gray, W. 1871. " On the Cultivation of some Species of Native Trees andShrubs." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3, p. 181. (Habitats given of a few species from the Rangitata Valley.) Potts, T. H. 1882. •■ Out in the Open." (A few ferns are recorded for the Rangitata and Ashburton Valleys.) 378 Transactions. Raoul. E. " Choix de Plantes de la Nouvelle-Zelande." Schimper, A. F. W. 1903. " Plant-geography upon a Physiological Basis." (English translation.) Speight, R. 1908. " Some Aspects of the Terrace-development in the Valleys of the Canterbury Rivers." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 16. ■ 1911. " Glaciated Surfaces and Boulder-clay near Bealey." Ihid., vol. 43, p. . T[ansley], A. G. 1909. " Review of Warming's Oecology of Plants." " New Phytologist," vol. 8, p. 218. Warming, E. 1909. " Oecology of Plants." Art. XXXVIII. — The Younger Rock-series of Neiv Zealand. By P. Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S., Professor of Geology, Otago University; R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S., Lecturer on Geology, Canterbury College ; and C. A. Cotton, M.Sc, Lecturer on Geology, Victoria College. [Bead before the Otago Institute, 1st November, 1910.] Plate VIII. [Note. — This paper has been mainly written by the first author. The observations uj^on which it is based were made conjointly by the three authors in the typical districts of North Canterbury. Other districts referred to have been examined by only two or by one of the authors, but in each case the observations made have been referred in detail to the others, and the authors are in complete agreement in regard to all the critical points set forth in the paper. The critical account of the stratigraphical relations of the Waitemata series has been kindly furnished by Mr. E. de C. Clarke, of the University College, Auckland, and the authors are specially indebted to him for the description of this important localitv.] Table of Contents. I. Introchiction. II. Classifications emploved by different geologists. (a.) Hochstetter'(1864). (6.) Hutton (1885). (c.) Haast (1879). (d.) Hector (1886). (e.) Park (1910). (/.) Comparisons of these opinions. III. Classification proposed bj^ the authors. («.) Discussion of Waipara Gorge and Weka Pass sections. (b.) Amuri Bluff. (c.) Other " Cretaceous " localities. {d.) Oamaru district. (c.) West coast of the North Island. (/.) North Aucldand. ((J. ) Waitemata. IV. Deposition of rocks of the series. (a.) Ceneral nature of palaeontological evidence. (b.) Explanation of apparent rapid change of life-forms. (1.) Isolation of New Zealand coast -line. (2.) An archaic fauna. (3.) Slow rate of deposition, (i.) Conglomerates, (ii.) Coals, (iii.) Greensands. (iv.) Limestones and later beds. V. Correlation of members of the series, VI. Correlation with European horizons. VII. Summary and conclusions. MAH8HAM., Sl'KKJHT, COTTON.— Fo/^Z/.V^ /• h'or/.-scrirs of X.Z. 379 I. Introduction. The stratigraphical relations of the series of younger rocks of New Zealand has presented a problem which each geological observer who lias worked SKETCH MrtP NEW ZEALAND Cretaceofit and Ttrtiaiy Sedir^entary flocks Fig. 1. at them has solved in a different way from all of the others. This obviously plies that elements of difficulty and confusion are involved m a treat- ment of the question. 380 Trnnsactio7is, The distribution of the series is fairly general in the coastal districts of both Islands and in some portions of the interior parts, but in most instances the outcrops are separated from one another (see fig. 1). In all but a very few of the areas where the series is exposed the stratification is simple. In many cases the strata lie flat ; but where they border on an older series of rocks they are generally inclined and folded in some simple manner, though in some places it causes them to lie vertically. It is the belief of the authors that the mere stratigraphy would have gffered no difficulties and have caused no confusion if there had not been other matters requiring considera- tion in connection with the whole question. One of these other matters is the correlation of the strata in the different and sometimes distant areas where they outcrop, but the most important is to be found in the palaeon- tological succession. The loAvest strata of this younger series contain fossils that are generally allowed to be of Cretaceous age, the upper of Miocene or Pliocene age. In general the rocks are marginal. In the North Island they unite in the extreme north portions of the older rocks that crop out here and there, and apparently constitute the greater part of the country as far south as the Upper AVaikato. They are extensively developed on the eastern side of the great ra'nge from Cape Runaway to Cape Turakirae, and in places near the East Cape form the highest part of the country. In the south part of this coast they are replaced by older series, but in the central part they extend almost from side to side of the Island except for a narrow ridge of old rocks. On the western side they form the whole country between a line through Pirongia, Taimiarunui, Waiouru, Waikanae and the coast. In the South Island the formation is more restricted and local, and is nearly always marginal. It extends up many river-valleys — Aorere, Clarence, Waitaki, for example. It is widely extended in North Canter- bury, in North Otago, and again in Southland ; Avhile it occupies interior basins in the Te Anau and Manapouri districts, as well as at Trelissick. In Westland the development is again larger in the northern part, and especi- ally large areas are found in the Wangapeka, Maruia, and other valleys. Occasionally the rocks are well folded into much older series, as at Nelson, where they occur structurally involved in strata of Trias-jura age. Recognition of this has caused various observers to seek for uncon- formities in the strata, for different members of the series contain extremely different faunas. Unconformities have been described by every observer and they have been placed in different positions in the series by every observer, and in almost every case the breaks recognized by one have not been admitted by others. In all exposures there is, however, a well-marked lithological series, so far as the observations of the present authors have gone, and this series will be stated in some detail when treating of the different areas. So similar is the succession in the various localities that it is possible without any great error to state a generalized rock -succession that will apply with considerable exactness to the many occurrences. This is as follows : — 7. Loose sands with shells. 6. Moimt Brown beds ; sands often calcareous. 5. Grey marls. 4. Greensands. 3. Limestone. 2. Creensand. 1. Sands, conglomerates with coal. •Marshall, Spei(;h'1', Cotton. — Yoni/;/er nock-t<('rirs of N.Z. 381 This series, of course, varies considerably in different localities. Some members may be quite omitted, while others are relatively thick. In general, it is thought that the following statement represents, without attention to purely local features, the variations that are found in different localities. In North Canterbury practically the whole series is present. In Otago it is luiusual to find any beds higher in the series than the limestone. In AVestland and at Cape Farewell and Shag Point the basal conglomerate is of great thickness — 7,000 ft. in the first case — and it contains important seams of coal. In the North Island, but more particularly iu its southern portions, there is an immense development of the grey marls, w^hich in the Wanganui country are perhaps 2,000 ft. thick. The greensands are highly variable in thickness, and are often absent ; they have a particularly large develop- ment in North Canterbury. The limestone is fairly general, and the most constant member of the series, but landwards always becomes somewhat sandy, and even passes into pure cjuartz sand where it is marginal to the old land. As will be more fully mentioned later, the fossils contained in the rocks at the base of the series are wholly different from those at the. top ; in fact, the lowest rocks, in some localities at least, contain Mesozoic forms, and have been referred by all observers to the Cretaceous period. On the other hand, there is a high percentage of Recent species in the highest rocks, and they are classed as Upper Miocene or Pliocene on all hands. It appears to have been the general belief of those geologists who have examined these rocks that a rock-series showing evidence of such great difference in age in its lowest and highest members could not have been deposited in a uniform stratigraphical sequence as a single formation. It has therefore been thought necessary by all authorities to refer different portions of the rock-sequence to different geological systems the members of which are supposed to be separated by unconformities. Unfortmiately, while there has been an agreement in principle, there has been a marked divergence in practice, and no two authorities have placed the unconformities in the same places. This is the more remarkable as in nearly all localities where the rocks occur there is a fine exposure of natural sections in w^hich the rock-series are displayed free from all obscurity, and in most cases with nothing but folding of a most simple description. The great variety of opinion in regard to this matter is shown in the following summary of the classifications adopted by those geologists who have published comprehensive works dealing with the geology of the whole or of large portions of the Dominion. II. Classifications employed. (a.) Hochstetter {" Reise der ' Novara ' : Geologic," vol. 1, p. 39. Wien, 1864). Kainozoic Series. — (1.) Older Tertiary System: (a) Brown coals, Lower — Coalfields of Drury, Waikato, North Auckland, Nelson, Otago ; (b) Marine series, Upper — Waitemata, Kawhia, and Aotea, Motupipi (Nelson), Aorere (Nelson), gold-bearing conglomerate (Aorere), white and yellow calcareous sands and greensands with limestone, Oamaru, Green Island, Shag Valley. (2.) Younger Tertiary : Cape Rodney, Hawke's Bay, Wanganui River, Nelson cliffs, blue clay of Awatere, Waitaki, Moe- raki. 382 Transactions. (b.) HuUon (Q.J.G.S., 1885). Wanganui System (Pliocene). — Newer Pliocene : Locality names — Kereru, Ormond, Petane, and Putiki series. Older Pliocene : Older glacial deposits — Lip;nites of Otago, Manukau, &c. Pareora System (Miocene). — Localities : Awatere (Marlborough), Kanieri (Westland), Tawhiti (Poverty Bay), Ahuriri (Hawke's Bay), Waitemata (Auckland), brown coal of Pomahaka (SoutUand). Oamani System (Oligocene). — Localities : Mount Brown (North Canter- bury), Aotea (south-west Auckland), Ototara (Oamaru), Turanganui (Poverty Bay), coals of Waikato, Kaitangata. Waipara System (Upper Cretaceous). — Localities : Amuri (Marlborough), Awanui (Poverty Bay), Matakea (North Otago), coals of Greymouth, Pakawau (North Nelson). (c.) Haast {" Geology of Canterbury and Westland," p. 251. Christchurch, 1879). Waipara. — Cretaceo-tertiary. Oamaru. — Upper Eocene or Lower Miocene. Pareora. — Upper Miocene or Lower Pliocene. ((/.) Hector (Handbook of N.Z. : Geology. Wellington, 1886 : Government Printer). Lower Greensand. — {a) Buller series ; (b) Porphyry breccia series ; (c) Amuri series. Cretaceo-tertiary. — (a) Grey Marls ; (6) Ototara series ; (c) Mawhera series ; (d) Chalk series ; (e) Waireka series ; (/) Coal series ; {g) Black Grit series ; {h) Propylite breccia series ; (i) Great Conglomerate series. Upper Eocene. — (a) Momit Brown series ; (6) Oamaru series ; (c) Wai- taki series. Lower Miocene. — (a) Awatere series ; (b) Pareora series ; (c) Awamoa series ; {d) Lignite. Upper Miocene. — {a) Te Ante series ; (6) Taueru series. Pliocene. — (a) Dispersed gravels ; (6) Napier series ; (c) Lignite series ;. {d) Kereru series. {e.) Park (Geology of N.Z., 1910, p. 25). Amuri System. — Waipara series (Cretaceous) : (a) Weka Pass stone and Grey Marls ; (6) Amuri limestone ; (c) Waipara greensands ; (d) Saurian beds ; (e) Puke-iwi-tahi conglomerates and sandstone with coal. Karamea System. — Waimangaroa series (Eocene) : («) Brunner coal ; (6) Paparoa coal. Oamaru Series (Miocene). — [a) Ototara stone ; {b) Pareora beds ; (c) Marawhenua beds ; {d) Waihao beds ; (e) Kaikorai coal-measures. Wanganui System. — (a) Petane series (newer Pliocene) ; (6) Waitotara series, (c) Awatere series (older Pliocene). (/.) Comparisons of these Opinions. The nature of this divergence of opinion appears more striking when shown diagrammatically (fig. 2), for then it is seen that a total of five micon- formities have been described by different observers, and as many as three in the North Canterbury series by a single authority : while if the series is extended to the highest member in the North Island the number of Marshall, Speight, Cotton. — Touiif/cr liork-aeries of X.Z. 383 STR/=iTICR^PHICflL SUCCESSION «r W/^lp/^RM AND WEK/^ Pf\SS Huhfan.'ls* Aw«rer« Scries fPliocent.) Karamea. Sysfem Oa«iaru Svnes (Miocene) < ©Town Cod,l of. Wa^ka^o tft. ' 5eries (Bacent) CoolI o)- We^t- Coasf- STRMTI GRAPHICAL SUCCES5I0IN «t O/qfVi/qRU Pgfk 1910 Miocene Hector '86 Miocehe. Eocene (Oamaru Sents) Crclaceo- Terfiary. ^ o- o o Hulcnt-nson Quarry t3od.s L.I wesfone We.reka Tuffs Concrehono.ry Qrecnseinels Qrsry arveL Qreen ^awcU Quarfi Qrovels NTiKi Coal Seams Ochls^ HMhroh'll^ Paveora System (Miocene) Oaniaru bystem IDligocene) Fig. 2. 884 T ronxaction^. unconformities inserted by Hector is five. Some of these unconformities that are inserted represent great lapses of time. Thus the plane between the Waipara and Karamea systems of Park represents a period of erosion extending throughout the Eocene and Oligocene periods. With Hutton the Eocene is a period of erosion and elevation, but Hector's time-lapses are of brief length, and therefore of relatively little importance. It is, hovfever, obvious that an unconformity between Cretaceous and Miocene rocks in Park's classification should be of such a marked nature as to be a conspicuous feature in all the clear sections in the districts m which the rocks are developed. Extremely different, too, are the periods to which the main portion of the series, including at least the important coal-measures of the east coast, have been referred. Hector places these in the Cretaceo-tertiary, Hutton in the Oligocene, and Park in the Miocene. III. Classification proposed by the Authors. (a.) Discussion of Waipara Gorge and Weka Pass Sections. (See tig. 3 and Plate VIII.) The writers of this paper have long been conversant with these opinions, and have seen grave reason to reject them in those portions of the Dominion with which they are familiar. The doubts thus aroused caused them to visit in company the more important of the sections upon the inspection of which the classifications of the authors named were mainly based. Of these localities, it is admitted by every one that the gorge of the Waipara River gives the most complete and satisfactory section, while that of the Weka Pass is one on Avhich Hutton and Park have mainly relied for the demonstration of the unconformities that they have described. The third locality, the Amuri Bluff, is of importance because of the abundance of fossils contained in the lower rock-series. The following quotations appear to us to represent the gist of previously formed opinions on the rocks shown in these sections : — Hutton (N.Z.G.S. Rep., 1873-74, p. 44), at Waipara : " The W^eka Pass stone is seen to rest on a water-worn surface of the Amuri limestone." Also, p. 48 : " At Waipara the Pareora formation rests on the Trelissick group without any appearance of unconformity." Haast (Geology Rep., 1871, p.-8):'"The beds [to top of Weka Pass stone] follow in unbroken sequence — that is, they belong to the same series, and mark a well-defined period in the past history of this portion of the globe." Also, p. 16 : " After the deposition of the Weka Pass beds the Avhole series seems to have risen to such an extent as to come under the full destructive influence of tides and currents, if not even under subaerial influence. However, the newer strata must in some instances have been deposited very soon, as the uppermost beds of the Weka Pass have not only been preserved entirely, so that no sign of denudation is visible, but the Cucullaea beds overlie them in most instances so conformably that it is impossible to detect the least difference in strike and dip." McKay (Geol. Rep., 1874-76, p. 39) : " At all points where the Weka Pass beds are overlaid by any higher beds the marly grey or green beds are the next in succession, and in many places they pass insensibly from one to the other." Geol. Rep., 1890-1, p. 102 : " Although the change from the Amuri limestone to the Weka Pass stone is somewhat sudden and sufficiently clearlv marked, there is not in the cross-section exposed Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vul. XIJII. Plate VIll. Face p. 3S4.] Marshall, Speioiit, Cotton. — Younger Rock-series of N.Z. 38 5 ill the gorge, or along the line of strike for a mile to the north-east or south-west, or elsewhere in the district any sign of uncomformitv between these beds. ... At the lower end of the limestone gorge the Weka Pass stone is overlaid by the grey marls. The section is clear, and shows perfect conformity between the two. ... At the junction between the lower part of the Mount Brown beds and the upper part of the grey marls a stratigraphical uncomformity is here evident enough in the section displayed." Park (Geol. Rep., 1883, p. 33) : " The sequence of the beds just enumerated is the most complete to be found in any part of New Zealand. The stratigraphy is plain and simple, being free from obscurities, and offering few points of possible disagreement." At p. 35 : " At the Waipara, on the other hand, the geological record is complete, the beds following one another in one conformable sequence." At p. 22 : " The Weka Pass stone passes gradually into the grey marls without any sudden change in the character of the deposits such as is seen between the Weka Pass stone and the Amuri limestone." At p. 28 : " The strata at the Waipara, where the complete sequence is exposed, are quite undisturbed, following one another uniformly throughout all parts of the district. ... I am strongly of opinion that a complete sequence of beds exists from the base of the Cretaceo-tertiary to the close of the Pareora formation." Very similar opinions have been expressed by the geologists in regard to the series exposed in the Weka Pass. In other words, Hutton is con- stantly bringing evidence of unconformity between the Amuri and Weka Pass stone, and, in 1886, between the grey marls and Mount Brown beds. Haast still supports a subdued unconformity between the Weka Pass stone and the grey marls, while McKay and Hector (1890-91, p. 98) place an un- conformity at the base of the Mount Brown beds only. Park, however, in 1904 (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 542) absolutely changes his position, and places an unconformity between the Weka Pass stone (Cretaceous) and the grey marls (Miocene), but states that this break is nowhere to be seen in section, although shown by the mapping. He also places an uncon- formity between the Mount Brown and the overlying beds, which he now calls Motunau (Pareora, Hutton). It is certainly remarkable that such a variety of opinion should have been given in connection with a section that is so remarkably clear and free from any obscurity. As the authors are engaged in teaching this sub- ject in the colleges of the New Zealand University, and were much perplexed by these statements and the still more conflicting results when correlations were attempted with the series in other parts of New Zealand, it was agreed to visit the Waipara and Weka Pass in company and try to arrive at a conclusion that might express the actual facts and yet perhaps be unanimous. The result, based on the stratigraphy alone, has been wholly satisfactory, and there is an unreserved agreement. For the sake of clear- ness, the unconformities described by different observers will be taken in order from below upwards. Relation of Amuri Limestone to Weka Pass Stone. 1. Hutton' s Unconformity. — The Amuri limestone is white and rubbly ; the Weka Pass stone has much glauconite, and is compact. Hutton describes the proof of unconformity as consisting of pebbles of the Amuri limestone imbedded in the base of the Weka Pass stone. McKay and Park 13— Trans. 386 Transactions. i ,\ Vf^^// P? refer to these as phosphatic nodules. Our opinion is that the change from pure (Aniuri) to glauconitic (Weka Pass) limestone does not take place throughout the mass of the rock, but interlaminations of glauconitic matter arise and separate pieces of limestone. As the con- ditions that control the depositions become more changed, the interlaminations of glau- conitic matter become larger, and the pure limestone is reduced to nodules which appear like rolled pebbles. A similar lamination is distinct at Milburn and Clarendon. In ad- dition to this, it is evident that the elevation of a foraminiferal limestone and its subsequent erosion followed by depression and deposition of glauconitic limestone in perfect accordance without any intervening strata would necessi- tate extraordinary conditions ; in fact, it is almost impossible to suggest a series of con- ditions that would satisfactorily accomit for such a sequence. In this matter we agree with Hector, McKay, Haast, and Park ; but differ from Hutton. 2. Relations of Weka Pass Stone to Grey Marls. — Very slight imconformity of Haast, but break between Cretaceous and Miocene of Park. No junction is described by either of these observers. We found one below the limestone gorge of the Waipara, as described by McKay, and found a perfect conformity. This is accentuated at the Amuri Bluff, where the Weka Pass stone is absent, and in an ab- solutely clear sea-cliff the Amuri limestone graduates into the grey marls to such an extent that it is impossible to say where one begins and the other ends. There is another clear section of a similar nature at the mouth of the Jed. The idea of this unconformity was based on the mapping of the district (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, 1904, pi. 48 ; but compare with Geol. Rep., 1888, sketch-map opp. p. 30). We believe that the former map is totally misleading, though the latter almost represents the actual outcrops. The statement that " the Weka Pass and Amuri limestone are thrown into folds in which the Tertiaries take no part whatever " we believe to be erroneous. The actual structure is as shown in the accompany- ing nuip and diagrams (figs. 4, 5 ; also sec- tions 2, 3, fig. 6), an anticline pitching sharply to the east and bringing the limestone outcrop on the east of the anticline to the level of the railway. To the north this is succeeded by a syncline pitching east and by another sharp anticline, but east of the railway-line the pitch- ing anticline and syncline radiate from a point near the viaduct, Avhere they die away ; so that further east the north limb of the M.AKSii.M.L, Si'KiniiT, roTTON.-}'r;// //,/,/• Rock-series of N.Z. 887 •Cnaftnel 1. 13* Fig. 4, 388 Transactions. Fig. 5. Marshall, Speight, Cotton-. — Yoxnger Hoch-s^eries of IWZ. 389 syncline or the south limb of the anticline beyond alone remain. Not only does this simple structure explain the somewhat irregular nature of the outcrops, but also the sudden bend of the Weka Pass Creek into the hard limestone, for this course we believe it followed in the upper softer beds above before it corroded its bed as low as the surface of the harder rock. In addition to this observation, there is further evidence in the parallel nature of the outcrops of the Mount Brown and Weka Pass stone between the Weka Pass and the Waipara Gorge. Standing on the summit of Mount Donald and looking southward, this is a particularly marked character. The two beds are hard, and dip approximately S.E. at an angle of from 15° to 20°. Sharp escarpments have naturally been formed, and are the dominating features of the country. They can be seen and followed Avith the utmost distinctness over miles of country without any bend in the strike of either being noticed. This statement is in perfect accord with the observations of McKay quoted earlier. 3. Relation of Grey Marl to Mount Broivn Beds. — Hector, McKay, and Hutton agree on an unconformity here ; Haast and Park have failed to observe one. Hector and McKay rely mainly on the junction of these beds exposed in the Waipara Gorge. This junction is now well exposed, owing to the formation of a road-cutting. We examined this with great care on the 6th February, 1910, and unreservedly agreed that in this clear section there is no unconformity whatever, but a gradual change from the one formation to the other. Hutton relied mainly on a railway-cutting in the Weka Pass a little south of the 44th mile-post. Here there is a clear break in the stratification. However, the beds on the two sides are of the same nature (Mount Brown beds), and the plane of union is most regular, and inclined 45°. This we believe to be a small fault, but the throw cannot be measured. Park and Hector do not mention this section. 4. The Junction between the Mount Brown and Greta, Motunau, or Awatere Beds of Different Classifications. — PaiJc alone has described an unconformity here. The section on which he relies is near the 43rd mile- stone. The coralline sandstone (of his Mount Brown or Miocene series) that he describes as having an isolated outcrop at the south-east we found was continued without break above the sands that he refers to the Motunau or Pliocene series. At the north-west end there is no indication of uncom- formity on the south-west side of the cutting to which he refers. The section here, however, is so much obscured by vegetation of many years' growth that details were not distinct. On the north-east side of the section the details are perfectly distinct, and there is a complete conformity in the series. In regard to this matter we are in agreement with all the other geologists who have examined this country. Careful and detailed examination of all these described unconformities, made with descriptions and diagrams of previous observers in our hands, has convinced us that there is no unconformity in the Waipara and Weka Pass sections. (b.) The Amuri Bluff. Here McKay has described a complete conformity, but Hutton states that on the south side of the Bluff the Amuri limestone is unconformable to the Grey Marls which here overlie it to the exclusion of the Weka Pass stone. This unconformity is based on the change in dip of the two series. Our observations showed that the Grey Marls dip more and more steeply as thev are followed to the west, and that the Amuri limestone does not 390 Transactions. dip more steeply than the lower strata of the grey marl which are in contact with it. At the entrance to the Okariki Stream there is, however, a strong suggestion of an vmconformity which apparently was not noticed by Hutton. Here the Amuri limestone is locally puckered in an extraordinary manner, while the Grrey Marls are stratified simply. A phenomenon of a precisely similar nature is to be seen at Kaikoura, and, judging by Haast and Hutton's descriptions, in the valley of the Conway as well. At Kaikoura Hutton describes this as an unconformity.* McKay, whose opinion is indorsed by Hector, is strongly in favour of conformity. f (See fig. 6, section 1.) Boehm, who has also visited this locality, refuses to give an opinion on this matter : '' Ich gestehe, dass ich nicht daruber in's Klare gekommen bin, ob der grey marl concordant oder discordant liber dem Amuri limestone liegt."J Our opinion is that the two series are perfectly conformable, but during the folding movements to which they have been subject the plasticity of the grey marl allowed this rock to yield to the force without its whole mass becoming deformed. The hard and unyielding nature of the Amuri limestone, however, prevented anything of this nature taking place, and finally adjustment by folding was necessary. It is only locally in the most restricted sense that the Amuri limestone has been affected in this way, as is clearly seen at the Amuri Bluff, where at the north head this rock and the grey marls are displayed in perfect clearness, and are absolutely conformable. The section at the Bluff is also of extreme importance, because there the Black Grit is well developed, and this is the lowest bed of Hector's Cretaceo-tertiary. There is here certainly no unconformity separating this bed from the rocks accepted as Cretaceous by all the authors cited ; and this is admitted by Hector, who states that " the further work of the Survey tended to show that the Lower Greensand formation (Cretaceous) was almost universally followed conformably by the Cretaceo-tertiary series, and that, too, in a manner which but little supported the idea of any unconformity separating the lower beds and higher beds of the two formations. "§ In other respects the section at the Amuri Bluff calls for no further mention at the present time. We only wish to emphasize our opinion that here, as at the Waipara and the Weka Pass, there is a perfect conformity from the youngest to the oldest of those members of this yomiger series of rocks which are present. We have also been unable to find any unconformity between any members of the series of younger rocks at the mouth of the Jed River. (c.) Other '-Cretaceous'' Localities. There are many other localities where Cretaceous rocks have been described by one or more authors, and the existence of unconformities between them and the Cainozoic rocks has been asserted. These localities we have not visited in company, and but brief mention of them will be made here, as they have not been taken as typical. Castle Hill {Trelissick) Basin. — ^This has been described by Hector, Hutton, and McKay, and unconformities have been noted by all three. * Hutton : Q.J.U.S., 1885, p. 273. t GJeol. Rep., 188(5-87, p. 74 ; also Hector, loc. cit., p. x. J: Boehm : Zeit. d. Deutscli. Geolg. Gesellschaft Jahry., 1900, p. 173. § Hector : Rep. Geol. Sur\ ., 1890-01, p. li. Marshall, Speight, Cotton. — Younger RocJ>--series of N.Z. 391 392 Transactions. In some cases these are founded on an incomplete examination oi tiie district. The sequence is slightly different from that which occurs in other parts of the country. The lower part (the Waipara system of Haast) cor- responds almost exactly with that at the Waipara Gorge, but the upper limestone — the equivalent of the Weka Pass stone of Hutton and the Mount Brown limestone of the Survey — is said by both Hutton and McKay to rest on the lower beds unconformably. The interpretation of the sections is, however, rendered very difficult owing to the disturbance caused by the volcanoes which broke out at the period when the limestones were being laid down, so that this miconformity may be deceptive. In any case, in those parts of the basin where the sequence is little disturbed no midoubted unconformity can be seen. Another miconformity above the limestone has been urged by the same two observers, but there seems to be no necessity for this as well. It camiot be said definitely, however, that none exists, as the beds are much disturbed by faulting, folding, and by volcanic action, and the district can hardly be regarded as a critical one for the elucidation of the Tertiary sequence. It should perhaps be noted that the section given by Hutton of the Hog's Back, which shows an undoubted un- conformity between the Pareora series and the Amuri limestone, is not correct, and is apparently based on unreliable information. Curiosity Shop Beds. — This well-known occurrence of the Tertiary series has been thoroughly dealt with by Hector and Hutton. The former, basing his conclusions on the observations and report of McKay, places an unconformity at the base of the equivalents of the Mount Brown series and over a limestone correlated with the Ototara limestone of the Survey. Huttoji, however, maintained that the series was conformable from top to bottom, and after a careful examination of the locality Ave can see no reason whatsoever for the unconformity and agree with Hutton in his interpretation of the section. Mdtunau Creek. — This locality is an important one, as it gives a comjjlete sequence from the base of the series, with coal-beds and saurian remains, up to marls which have been classed as Upper Miocene by McKay and Lower Pliocene, by Park. A careful examination of the sections so clearly exposed in the Motunau Creek reveals no unconformity, the dip and strike of the beds being constant from top to bottom, or, if any undetected variations do occur, they can only be very slight, and cannot affect the general conclusion that the sequence is conformable. The only appearance of an unconformity is suggested by the thinning-out of the Amuri limestone (the Weka Pass stone is absent in the section exposed in the creek) on going north, where it is apparently replaced by a calcareous sandstone, which is a natural transition on approaching a shore-line. West Coast of South Island. — The coal-series of the west coast of the South Island was tentatively classed in the Cretaceous by Hector, and definitely so by Hutton. There is practically no evidence of the age of these beds, for that given by Haast has never been confirmed.* It appears that, despite the many excellent sections that are exposed, no definite evidence has yet been found of an unconformity. Lately Morgan has laid emphasis on the occurrence of pebbles of coal in a grit.f This he regards as evidence of the elevation and erosion of the coal-series before the upper * Haast : Report of a Topograph, and (Jeolog. Explor. of Western Nelson, p. 106. Nelson, 1861. t Morgan: Third Aiuuial \{v.\). (Jeol. Surv., 1909, \)\k 12, V.i. Marshall, Speight, Cotton. — Younyer Rock-series of N.Z. 393 rocks were deposited. He has, however, up to the present been unable to find any stratigraphical break, and the occurrence of the coal pebbles may, in the meantime at least, not unreasonably be ascribed to contemporaneous erosion, or even in many ^ases to the inclusion of wood-fragments in the sediment. The coal-measures of Pakawau have been placed by Hutton in the Cretaceous. This is apparently based on the occurrence of fossil plants and on the nature of the coal. One of us has carefully examined the ground, and has formed the opinion that in that locality no unconformity separates the coal-measures from the overlying rocks of admitted Cainozoic age. This is in accord with the opinion of Park, who in 1890 classed no beds but the Cretaceo-tertiary as lying between the glacial matter and Palaeozoic strata.* Cox, in 1883, had described a Lower Greensand formation as lying below the Cretaceo-tertiary series, but makes no mention of a break.f Poverty Bay. — In the Poverty Bay district a complete series of Creta- ceous and Tertiary rocks has been described by McKay.J This district has, however, lately been worked in detail by Adams, § who classed all the rocks of Upper Miocene age, stating that no marked unconformity was observed between any of its members. One of us has examined the sections in this area in great detail, and is positive that no unconformity was shown in the many miles of continuous sections displayed. Shag Point. — Here Hutton, 1| Haast,^ and Park** have described an unconformity, but in different localities. McKay,f f in 1886, showed clearly that Hutton's and Haast's break was really due to a fault, as stated pre- viously by Cox. The imconformity referred to by Park is a matter of inference, and is placed in the middle of the Shag Estuary, where no rocks crop out at the surface. One of us visited this district, but was not able to go over the ground in any detail. No evidence of an unconformity was found as a result of the examination made on this occasion. The rocks are here somewhat more folded than usual, and it is natural to hesitate to allow the presence of an unconformity until the effects of faulting and folding have been fully set out. This was done by McKay, and, we believe, with considerable success in showing that such structural features satis- factorily accounted for the position of the various outcrops. (d.) Oamaru District. The variety of opinion in regard to the relation of the rock-series in the very clear sections of North Canterbury becomes still more confusing when attempts are made to correlate with the Canterbury series the younger rock-outcrops occurring elsewhere (see fig. 7). This is particularly true of Oamaru, where there is a clear series with quartz gravels at the base and marly shell beds at the top. The different members of the series are shown in the accompanying diagrams. In this series Hector inserted two * Park : Rep. Geol. Surv., 1890, p. 229. tCox: Rep. Geol. Surv., 1883, p. 71. % McKay : Rep. Geol. Surv., 1886, p. 192, map ; also Geol. Explor., 1900-1, p. 23. § J. H. Adams : N.Z. Geo!. Surv. Bull. No. 9 (n.s.), p. 12. II Hutton : Geol. of Otago, 1875, p. 46. H Haast : Geol. Rep. 1873-74, p. 24. **Park: Geol. of New Zealand, 1910, p. 116. ft McKay : Geol. Rep., 1886, p. 22. 394 Tt'djisactions. unconformities, above and below the Hutchinson Quarry beds, which rest on the well-known Oamaru stone. The Hutchinson Quarry beds are green- sands, with many brachiopods and other fossils. They are generally taken as equivalent to the Mount Brown beds. The Awamoa beds are more marly, and undoubtedly rest on the Hutchinson Quarry beds. They contain an abundance of forms of littoral Mollusca. The series is particularly well exposed at the rifle-butts south bu-cccssion n\ K OOk ^6i Su^CCeS-S Ion i-n. 0>.^ «ivSOwd.t 0*. witk Coal TV.OuS-Ju.TOi.'! E. I I III ■ 5». /rp . :o it:" :0. :9 o %=;r=^T=7=-5-=T=^ 4 ' ''-^x-^ 'ii'(,'Uv;v, O. o "■ o o M' Bvowv. Boil Grey Ma-rU Wekcx Ttt.ss Stone. Ayvvw-ti Lv-»»ve»lo'»v«- Ottj^vcls \A/itK cotxi. / Tv»o.s-Ju PM COMPftftlSON Of CORRELATIONS 0 5" VOO N G E.R RO C kS Fig. 7. of Oamaru, and there the conformable nature of the series is distinct, as noticed by Park. Another junction between the Awamoa beds and the thin development of Hutchinson Quarry beds is exposed at the north end of All Day Bay, and here there is a conformity, as was admitted by McKay,* who in the same reportf states that the Miocene beds (Awamoa) pass gradu- ally into the Hutchinson Quarry beds, and thus he admits the conformable nature of the whole series. * Geol. Rep., 188(i, p. 23G. t Loc cit., p. 235. Marshall, Spkioht, (Jot'iox. — Yotnn/cr linrh-iterieK of N.Z. 895 One of us has spent much time in this district, and lias made a careful inspection of these and other sections (see fig. 8), and is positive that the different members of the series are perfectly con- formable in all the sections that he has visited. I Even if, as is reasonable, the series be recognized as completely conformable, the correlation of the strata , allows room for a difference of opinion when they I J are referred to the typical" occurrences in North e'.i Canterbury, How great these differences of opinion \ J are may be seen from the accompanying table (fig. 7). In our opinion, it is perfectly reasonable and satisfac- tory to correlate the groups that are lithologically similar throughout. Thus the Oamaru stone and the Amuri limestone are similar, and should be corre- lated. So with the concretionary greensands and the Moeraki boulder-beds, the quartz grits and the basal conglomerate, the Weka Pass stone and the Hutchinson Quarry beds. The full reasons for this suggested correlation will be explained later. It is of importance to note that Boehm is unable to accept the separation of the Oamaru stone as Cretaceo - tertiary from the Hutchinson Quarry as Eocene. He says that the only distinction he can '^ discover is that one formation is richer in fossils ^ than the other, and that at Oamaru he can find no evidence in favour of placing the Oamaru stone in a Cretaceo-tertiary class.* Park has made much of a suggested distinction between two limestone series at Oamaru. f The only place where these two limestones are said to occur in the same section is at Kakanui North Head, and there they are separated by a volcanic rock only. Since the breccia at Oamaru and numerous sections in its neighbourhood show clearly that volcanic action was prevalent during the deposition of the limestone, this section is not convincing. McKay in his last report on the district omits all mention of two limestones, and one of us who has closely examined the district has quite failed to find any evidence of the presence of more than one limestone. This limestone is commonly known as the Oamaru stone, but in geological reports it is called in almost every case the Ototara series. While too much space would be taken in stating the strati- graphy in detail, the writers are of opinion that there is but one limestone formation in the district, and that its character becomes in general less pure and gradually more arenaceous as the old shore, usually tfo the west, is approached. This point of view is strongly supported by Boehm, who specifically states that the rock at the Devil's Bridge, the upper limestone at Kakanui, * Boehm : Zeit. d. Deutsch. Geolg. Gcsellschaft Jahrg., 1900, p. 175, t Park : Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1904, vol. 37, p. 504 et seq. 396 Transactions. and the limestone at Totara are all exactly tlie same series.* McKay also correlates the limestone at the Kakanui with that at Totara.f (e.) West Coast of the North Island. The series of Cainozoic rocks on the western side of the North Island from Kawhia to Palmerston is lying almost horizontally. There appears to be no imconformity throughout, and there is the same order of deposits as fou^nd in North Canterbury, Nelson, and elsewhere. The lower members of the series are, however, exposed in the north only as far south as Tau- marunui. They have been divided into different series from the Cretaceous to the Pliocene, { but on general principles only. Bell§ regards them as Tertiary, and mainly Miocene ; Park|| as mainly Pliocene, though the lower members are classed as Miocene. The most noticeable point about the development of the rocks in this area is the great thickness of the upper members of the series : the grey marls are probably not less than 2,000 ft. thick. (/.) North Auckland. Recently a careful survey has been made by Clarke of the Whangaroa district.^ The Kaeo series as there described is formed of the yomiger rocks. It consists of conglomerates, tuffs, concretionary shales, massive limestones, greensands, and calcareous sandstones. It is, however, doubt- ful whether this is a conformable series. If it is so, it strongly resembles the series developed in North Canterbury. (g.) Waitemata. [Contributed by E. de C. Claeke.] As elsewhere in New Zealand, the succession and relationships of the later sedimentary rocks immediately to the south and east of Auckland have been interpreted in more than one way. Most of the interpretations have probably attracted little notice. In his widely known " Summary of the Geology of New Zealand,"** however, Hutton gives a section illustrating his conception of the relation between the representatives of his Pareora and Oamaru systems between the Wairoa River and Howick. He gives no detailed account of the section beyond saying that it "' is hard to imder- stand but is quite clear. The Pareora system has been shown by Mr. Cox and myself to lie quite miconformably on the Oamaru system in the Auck- land Province." In an earlier paperff he says, " At Turanga Creek we find the water-worn surface [of the Papakura series] covered by a series of yellow clays and sandstones which form part of the Waitemata series of Professor Hochstetter." He also gives a section {loc. cit., pi. xxvii, sec. iv) with which the section given in Q.J.G.S. agrees in essentials. General. — After a complete examination of the district, and specially of critical localities, the author has come to the conclusion that the following * Boehm : Zeit. d. Dcutsch. Geolg. Gesellschaft Jahrg., 1900, p. 174. t McKay : Geol. Rep., 1883-84, p. 63. X Park : Geol. Rep., 1886-87, p. 180. §Bell: Annual Rep. Geol. Surv., 1910, p. 6. II Park : N.Z. Geology. 11 Bell and Clarke : N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 8 (n.s.), 1909, p. 47. ** Q.J.G.S., 1885, vol. 41, pj). 209, 210. tt Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 3 (1870), p. 247. Marshalt., Speight, Cotton. — Yoaurier Nnrk-series of N.Z. 397 account gives the most correct intcrpretaUou of its stratigraphical rela- tions. The old rocks of the Maitai series — possibly of early Mesozoic age — form the core of the Maraetai Hills and reach the shores of the Waite- mata (Auckland) Harbour near Maraetai. Skirting these hills, and lying unconformablv on the older rocks, are various sedimentaries — conglome- FiG. 9. rates, sandstones, clays, and limestones — which are typically exposed in Slippery Creek, near Papakura, and to which the name of Papakura series was given by Hochstetter. The characteristic beds of the Papakura series have since Hochstetter's time been fomid to extend along the flanks of the hills in a northerly direction at least as far as Waikopua Creek, where limestone resembling that in Slippery Creek was found by Park. 398 Transactions. Tlie beds of sandstone and clay with interbedded volcanic grits exposed round the shores of the Waitemata Harbour have been known since the days of Hochstetter as the Waitemata series. The Waitemata series is unconformably overlain by the lava-flows and fragmental volcanic material from the volcanic vents of the Auckland Isthmus, and at Panmure by later sedimentary deposits. All observers appear to agree that between Maraetai and Turanga Creek rocks belonging to the Papakura series are represented, while the sedimentaries between Turanga Creek and Auckland are mianimously called Waitematas. Near Turanga Creek, therefore, the coiitact between the two series, if they are distinct, must occur. Cox, in a paper " On certain Points Connected with the Geology of the Auckland District,"* gives a section from Maraetai to Tamaki West, in which he shows the " Maitai slates " overlain by the following sequence of rocks : " (6) Calcareous sandstone, (c) clay marls, {d) concretionary tufaceous sandstone, (e) clay marls, (/) concretionary tufaceous sandstone, {g) bedded sandstones and clay marls, {h) plastic clays and sands." He says that either a direct sequence occurs from (6) to the Orakei Bay beds, with a possible miconformity between (d) or (/) and the Howick beds — presumably (e), {g), or (h) — or else that the beds forming Howick Penin- sula are luiconformably yomiger than both {d) or {e) and than the beds found between Tamaki West Head and Orakei Bay. While he regarded the latter view as the more probable, he considered that stratigraphical evidence favoured the former view. Hutton's views have already been summarized. Park (with whom McKay f agrees in this matter) in two papersf affirms the conformity of the Waitemata and Papakura series east of HoMdck, considering that the irregular overlap taken as evidence of unconformity by Hutton and Cox was due to unequal erosion of hard and soft beds. In his paper on " The Volcanic Beds of the Waitemata Series " Fox§ remarks (p. 485) that from the Papakura limestone to the liighest Waite- mata sandstones the series apparently has no break. The evidence for miconformity between the Waitematas and the Papa- kuras appears to depend on (1) the relation between the series as seen near Turanga Creek ; (2) the relation between the series as seen in the cliffs between Howick and Maraetai. As regards (1), the Avriter has followed the sequence from the so-called Turanga greensands (which are volcanic grits) ]| which Hutton regards as part of the Papakura series to the undoubted Waitematas at Howick, and after mapping all the observed strikes and dipslj can find no evidence of unconformity. As regards (2), passing along the shore-line from Motu Karaka towards Maraetai, alternating sandstones and clays, in places dipping steeply, in others almost horizontal, are seen to be quite unconformably overlain near the top of the low cliffs by a soft clay showing little or no bedding. In the upper part of this clay is a well-defined horizontal seam, about 6 in. * Rep. Geol. Surv., during 1881. t Rep. Geol. Surv., during 1887-88, p. 40. t Rep. Geol. Surv., during 1885, p. 136, and Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, p. 301. § Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 34, p. 485. II Fox : Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 34, p. 485. Tf Too numerous to place on the rough sketch-map accompanying this paper. Maksiiaij., Spkioiii', Cotton. — Yomtf/er Koch-Re ries of N.Z. 399 thick, which may l)e traced for a considerable distance along the cliffs. This band appears to be a very impure pumiceous earth. According to Hutton, the lowest beds seen in the section described above are to be classed with the Papakuras, the upper beds with the Wai- tematas. But the lower beds show a very close resemblance to the typical Waitematas as seen near Howick, at the other side of the Turanga Creek, and may be traced at intervals round the shores of Turanga Creek until they are found to pass into the upper rocks which Hutton describes as Waitematas, and which he says uncouformably overlie the greensands (belonging also to the Papakura series) at Turanga Creek. On the other hand, the uppermost beds seen in the cliffs between Motu Karaka and Maraetai are quite distinct lithologically from the Waitematas as developed elsewhere. Stratigraphically and lithologically, therefore, there seems no reason to regard the lower beds between Motu Karaka and Maraetai as other than Waitematas, and lithologically there is good reason to regard the upper beds as distinct from the Waitematas, and younger. It may be of interest to note that at Slippery Creek, while the bed of the creek is occupied by the fossiliferous limestone and conglomerate of the Papakura series, the upper parts of the hills bordering the stream are composed of alternating sandstones and clays showing a close resemblance to the typical Waitemata beds. No evidence of unconformity between the upper and lower beds just described could be found by the writer. Stratigraphical evidence too detailed to be given in this paper has been collected by the writer which shows that there is little or no vertical differ- ence between the lowest beds of the Waitematas and the lowest beds of the Papakuras. In conclusion, therefore, it seems highly probable that the Waitemata and Papakura series are part of one conformable series The differences between the typical beds of the two series would, of course, be due to differ- ences in conditions of deposition. IV. Deposition of Rocks of the Sertes. (a.) General. A careful consideration of the stratification of these yomiger rocks, a brief summary of which has been given in the preceding pages, has im- pressed the writers with the belief that there is a single stratigraphical series of younger rocks in New Zealand, and that this series is of very general development and has a remarkably similar lithological succession in all the localities. There are, however, some problems of considerable diffi- culty that rec]uire solution if this statement be adopted. Briefly stated, the main problem is of this nature. At the Waipara Gorge, Amuri Bluff, and the Malvern Hills, fossils that have decidedly Cretaceous affinities are found in the lowest rocks. Th« most important of these are Belemnites australis Phillips, Conchothyra parasitica McCoy, Trigonia costata Hector, Trigonia sulcata Hector, Inoceramus haasti Hochstetter, as well as a con- siderable number of species of pythonomorphs and sauropterygians. In the middle beds (Momit Brown) the Mollusca have a definitely Cainozoic appearance, and 20 per cent, belong to Recent species. In the highest beds 60 per cent. (Hutton) or 71 per cent. (Park) belong to Recent species. Though it is not here intended to lay great emphasis on the percentage 400 Transactions. of Recent species, these figures are quoted to show the great palaeonto- logical difference between the lowest and the highest beds. So great is this difference that it is natural to look for breaks in the stratigraphical sequence, and the temptation is naturally great to lay emphasis on any slight local irregularity in the stratigraphy and to magnify it into an unconformity. A consideration of this difference perhaps causes one to demand from an observer who holds to the idea of a conformable sequence a special explana- tion of the rapid faunal change, since the whole series as developed in North Canterbury is not more than 3,000 ft. thick. (b.) Explanation of Rapid Change of Life- forms. We believe that this explanation is to be found in these three considera- tions : (1) A possible isolation of New Zealand during the late Mesozoic ; (2) a possible lingering of archaic types ; (3) the very slow rate at which the deposits accumulated. (1.) Isolation. Evidence as to the previous isolation of the eastern coast-line of New Zealand is somewhat conjectural. It is, however, certain that in the middle Mesozoic great rock-movements were in progress, and the early Mesozoic rocks of New Zealand were folded and elevated into mountain- ranges of great size. So important was this movement in New Zealand that it is reasonable to inquire whether it extended beyond the boundaries of the present land. It is then fomid that to the north the rocks of New Cale- donia of early Mesozoic age are also folded. In the south the quartz gravels of the lowest members of the series of younger rocks in Campbell Island were evidently derived from folded and metamorphic rocks similar to those of Otago. There is no definite evidence of further extension, for the Beacon sandstone of South Victoria Land can hardly be cited in this connection. If the New Zealand shore-lhie at that time (the close of the Mesozoic) ex- tended from very low to high latitudes a measure of isolation would be thus obtained. It is noteworthy that iii the folded and highly eroded rocks of early and middle Mesozoic age marine reptiles were numerous. Trigonia, Inoceramus, and Belemniles were well represented ; so that in regard to these organisms at least there is a suggestion that during the great interval throughout which immense rock foldings and erosion were in progress the fauna of the coast-line suffered but little from the competition of new and more vigorous organisms. (2.) An Archaic Fauva. It is well known that at the present day many forms long extinct in Europe and America linger and maintain an existence in the south-west Pacific. The Trigonia of Australia, (Jeratodus, Sphenodon, and such genera as Strutkiolaria are, of course, examples, and it is possible that owing to causes apart from isolation many Mesozoic forms had survived in New Zealand after they had become extinct elsewhere. (3.) Slow Bate of Deposition. (i.) Conglomerates. — We are inclmed to ascribe much of the advance in the fauna to the mere lapse of time. It is true that the total thickness of the strata is not more than 3,000-3,500 ft. at Waipara, where all the strata are present ; but it is also known that nearly every member of the series has a thicker development elsewhere — to take a single example, the bottom hundred feet of sands and gravels is represented by 7,000 ft. of Marshall, Speight, Cotton. — YouiKjer Jioch-series of N .Z. 401 gravels in W'estlaiid. It is also true that the greater part of the sei'ies was deposited on a slowly subsiding sea-floor, and was derived from a slowly subsiding land on which all the stream-grades were thus being gradually I'educed. and most of tlu^ material was doubtless utilized in filling up pre- viously eroded valleys. At the same time the area from which sediment could be derived was constantly being reduced. A more detailed descrip- tion of the different strata is, however, necessary in order that the slow rate of deposition should be fully realized. The basal gravels are, as previously stated, 7.000 ft. thick in Westland. They are certainly more than 1,000 ft. thick near Cape Farewell, and perhaps 3,000 ft. thick at Shag Point. This thickness points to a considerable lapse of time In most localities where they are relatively thin the component pebbles show evidence of great and prolonged attrition. This is most marked in Otago, where the gravels are composed almost wholly of quartz pebbles, and they are unquestionably derived from rocks of mica-schist. Th* rivers that flow from the schist at the present time carry down schist pebbles amongst which are a few of quartz. A great amomit of attrition of the schist and a gradual survival of the hard quartz pebbles would be necessary before the change from the schist pebbles to a quartz gravel would result. This is equivalent to the statement that the rivers supplied material more slowh^, and that it was subject to most prolonged attrition on the beaches before it was screened by a new supply. The lowest stratum, therefore, by its nature or by its thickness indicates that much time elapsed during its deposition. (ii.) The Coals. — Interstratified with these conglomerates there are in many places beds of coal which are sometimes of great thickness. Those certainly indicate a slow rate of deposition, and imply long periods of nearly stationary conditions separating the periods of more rapid depression. As the depression proceeded the area of land must have been greatly decreased, and this satisfactorily explains w^hy in some localities an aren- aceous limestone rests directly on the eroded surface of the older rocks. This is the case at Kawhia, and on the Gouland Dowiis iu the west of the Nelson Province. The search for geological indication of the presence of coal-seams has perhaps more than any other reason been the assignable cause for the close examination to which the New Zealand Cainozoic rocks have been submitted. In all places where coal has been foimd in these rocks it has been near the base of the series, interstratified with the con- glomerates. It is, however, of local extent, of very variable thickness, of variable composition, and occurs at very different levels. The fossil MoUusca associated with the coal in different places are, however, dis- tinctly different. This has been the reason for assigning the seams to very different ages. Hector classed some in the Cretaceous, but the greater part in the Cretaceo-tertiary at the horizon of the black grit. Hutton considered several coals of Cretaceous age, others Oligocene, and some Miocene, in each case forming the base of the younger series of rocks in the districts where they occur. Not only have ihey been classed in various ages by different observers, but the same observer has placed them in very different ages in different publications, and the whole subject of the coal-seams has thus become of a complex and confusing nature. To illustrate this it is only necessary to refer to the following works of Park in reference to New Zealand coals : — " The Extent and Duration of Workable Coal in New Zealand " (Park, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 327, 1889) : " The workable coals of New 402 " Transactions. Zealand are all of the same age." " At the base of the group with a Tertiarv facies " (p. 325). " Notes oil the Coalfields of New Zealand " (Proc. Inst. Min. and Met., vol. 8, 1899, ]). 148) : " All the workable seams of coal are found in mea- sures of Lower Eocene age." " Coal never has been, and never will bo. found below Amuri limestone " (p. 150). "Age and Relations of New Zealand Coalfields "' (Trans. N.Z. Insl.. vol. 36, pp. 411, 418, 1904) : Cretaceous coals (below Amuri limestone) : VVaipara series — Pakawau, Mokihinui, Westport, Greymouth, Malvern Hills, Shag Point. Miocknk : Oamaru series — All the other coal-seams, of which seventeen are enumerated. Proceedings N.Z. Inst., 1909, ]). 59 : The Clreen Island Coalfield is classed as Mesozoic. " Geology of New Zealand," 1910, p. 293 : Ui'PKR Crktaceous : Wai- PARA — Shag Point, Kaitangata, Malvern Hills, Kawakawa, Hikurangi, Ngunguru. Waimangaroa series: Eocene — Grey, Paparoa, Westport, Mokihinui, Pakawau. Oamaru series : Miocene — Taupiri, Waipa, Mokau, West Wanganui, Inangahua, Mount Somers, Kakahu, Waihao, Ngapara, Waikouaiti, Green Island, Forest Hill, Nightcaps. Thus, to take a single example, he has classed the Kaitangata coal as Lower Tertiary in 1888, Lower Eocene in 1899, Miocene in 1903, and Cretaceous in 1910. Our observations have led us to the opinion that the coal is always at the base of that development of the series of younger rocks that happens to be present in any district. Since, owing to the great overlapping of the higher beds of this series, the base in any locality may be of any age between the Cretaceous and the Miocene, it is evident that the coal in particular places may be in any part of the Eocene, 01igO(;ene, and perhaps occ'asioually Miocene system. It is therefore, in general, useless to classify the fossils and assign the shell-bearing strata to any definite period as a preliminary to a search for coal. It is only necessary to deter- mine the depth of the base of the series, for it is there that coal may be found, whatever the age of the base of the series in that locality may be. It has been recognized by all authorities that individual coal-seams ai'e not widely extended, and the fre(]uent presence of quartz or other pebbles in them suggests detrital origin. It is therefore evident that general prin- ciples cannot hei'e be used in predicting the occurrence of possible coal- seams. Prospe('ting in each separate locality is necessary, for detailed stratigraphical methods are in the main useless. The opinion that is here expressed is strongly supported by the acknow- ledged absence of seams of coal in any horizon above the basal- conglome- I'ate in any section. If coals had been formed in imconformable series, it is not unreasonable to suppose that seams would be found in some localities in two different formations at different levels. This has not yet been found. (iii.) Greensands. — The greensands at the Waipara and Amuri Bluff were apparently deposited under somewhat exceptional conditions. Though containing little or no pyrite, they liberate large quantities of sulphuretted hydrogen from the natural exposures in cliffs, and in many places there is an effloresence of sulphur formed on the surface of the sandstone in some quantity. The associated gi'cy and white sands are also alnu)st entirely formed of quai'tz, and the same remai'ks apply to them. The greensands are of Mahsiiall, Si'HitniT, Cotto.n. — Y(>itii(/( r l'nch--srrl(x of N.Z. 403 great thickness in the Waipara, and at Amuii JJlufI" (JOO ft. We are not yet fully acquainted witli the coiditions under Avhicli greensand is formed, hut the latest information shows that it is deposited near a steep coast wliere the water is particularly clear and perhaps 500 fathoms deep.* Such conditions evidently favour slow accumulation, and this idea is supported hv the abundance of sharks' teeth in th(> greensand in many localities. (iv.) Limestones. — The limestones vary much in thickness and in nature The limestone at the Amuri Bluff is formed mainly of isolated chambers of Glohigerina. It is here little more than a chalk. At other places the larger species that live on the sea-floor are more prominent. This is veiy noticeable in the more sandy varieties at Dunedin. and still more con- spicuously at the Mokau, where the limestone contains also an abundance of the remains of the calcareous alga Lithothatuniutn. At Oamaru the Imilding-stone consists mainly of phites of echinoderms, with Pohjzoa and Foraminifern. Near Cape Farewell coral is the chief organism in it. The deposition of the limestone must represent a considerable lapse of time, for at Amuri Bluff it is 650 ft. thick, and its nature there shows that it formed with extreme slowness. In all places it is uncontaminated with sediment, except quartz-grains. Its wide occurrence and penetration into many mountain-gorges sho\\s how much of the present land-area was submerged at this time. Above, as below, the limestone passes in many places into a greensand, but this upper stratum is relatively thin when compared with the lower on<', and this, of course, suggests that the upward movement was more rapid than the downward movements. The grey marls are very thick in some places, though it is quitch oftc n the case that they have been eroded off tlie surface of the limestone. Their absence in the southern part of the South Island is perhaps to be explained in this way, though it is quitch possible* that they were never deposited in that part of the country. The grey marl consists largely of minute scales of mica, though these are mixed with much calcareous matter. The Mount Brown and Pareora beds that lie on the grey marls are relatively coarse detrital formations, and may have; been deposited much more rapidly than the lower beds of the series. Taking the series as a whole, we think that the time requir<'(l for its deposition was sufficiently great to allow of considerable faunal cliange to take place, and specially when a, possible previous isolation is borne hi mind. We regard it as almost sufficient in itself to account for the im- portant differences between the fauna of the lowest and highest membei'S of tliis conformable sequence. V. CORRRLATION OF Mp^MBERS OF THE SkRIES. As previously stated, we believe that there is complete evidence of stratigraphical conformity of the rock-series hert; described. It is, however, a fact that the lowest member of the series in some localities, such as Waipara and Amuri Bluff", is much older than that of Kawhia and of Oamaru (Livingstone). This has always appeared to justify the division of the series into different geological systems, which was based on the dift'erence in faunal characters of the various members of th • series at Waipara, and supported by the stratigraphical breaks described in the series by different * Murray and Lee. 404 Transactions. geologists. We believe that this occurrence of a younger fauna in the basement beds in some districts than in others is due simply to overlapping. This, however, is difficult to prove, for earth-movements that have occurred since the deposition of these rocks have greatly altered the relative levels of different portions of the country, so that it is now difficult, if not im- possible, to restore the early Cainozoic relief.^ The disposition of the Cainozoic series shows quite clearly that the relief was then highly varied, and, if that was the case, overlapping must have taken place to a great extent in a series which in some places was 3,000 ft., in others perhaps 10,000 ft. thick, and deposited during a move- ment of depression that was more rapid than the rate of deposition. This creates great difficulties in the way of all attempts to correlate the members of the rock-series as developed in different districts, for the relief of the land before depression had been so great, and the movement of depression was so much more rapid than deposition, that limestones and conglomerates were in the middle of the period being deposited within a comparatively short distance from one another. This difficulty is par- ticularly marked because the lowest rocks are usually unfossiliferous. \ While great difficulties arise for these reasons in all attempts to correlate the basal conglomerates, there is not the same trouble in correlating other members of the series. This is particularly true of the limestones. The nature of this member of the series proves that it was deposited at the time of maximum depression, when some of the areas at least were covered by deep water, and the area of the land-surface was so decreased that little sediment was derived from it, and in many places calcareous conglomerates were deposited on the very shore-line. The differences in the limestone in different localities have already been described, but it is necessary to state that the variations are found in detail only. The fact that where a com- plete series is developed the limestone always occupies the same position strongly supports the correlation of the limestones throughout the series.* This is the correlation adopted by Hector, and almost by Hutton, except that he placed the Aniuri limestone in a lower unconformable series. It is wholly opposed to the classification of Park, who correlates the great limestone formation throughout the country with the calcareous knobbly conglomerate of Mount Brown. From this we wholly differ, for the palaeon- tological evidence upon which it is based is far from complete, and can be interpreted in very different ways. The correlation is mainly based upon the resemblance between the fossils collected by him at Mount Donald (Mount Brown beds) and those of the Black Point beds, which are lower than the limestone in this locality ; and, again, the similarity of fossils in these beds to those in the Awamoa beds, which lie over the Oamaru stone, appears to be the reason for suggesting that a second bed of limestone — Waitaki stone — should rest on the Awamoa beds. It is also asserted that McKay and Hector always agreed that the Pareora fauna lay below the Waitaki stone.t This appears to be an error, for in Hector's Handbook the Pareora and Awamoa beds are placed in the Miocene, the Hutchinson Quarry beds in the Eocene, and the Ototara series (Oamaru and Waitaki stone of Park) in the Cretaceo-tertiary. When this similarity of fossil * See T. C. Chamberlain : " Diastrophisni as the Ultimate Basis of Correlation ('• Journal of Geology," vol. 17, 1009, p. 085). t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 504, 1905. Marshai.t., Speight, Cotton. — Youny the reorganized Geo- logical Survey under Dr. Bell it has not been found practical)le to divide the younger rock-series into two or more systems. VI. Correlation with European Horizons. Any correlation of this nature must be purely tentative, except in regard to the lowest rocks at Amuri. The different correlations that have hitherto been made have been based on the percentage of Recent Mollusca among the fossil forms in different members of the series. This is wholly un- satisfactory, because (1) we do not even know wuth any exactness the jvreserit molluscan famia. though this difficulty will disappear when Mr. Suter's "Manual of New Zealand Mollusca" appears ; and (2) many mem- bers of the series, especially the greensands and limestones, were deposited iu deep water, and our knowledge of the Recent fauna off the coast of New Zealand is, at most, fragmentary. The only comparisons that can be of any value are those between the littoral fauna of different strata. It is not certain that we have at present a description of the famia of the basement beds throughout the overlapping series, and it is therefore impossible to trace the changes that took place as time went on. Some time must elapse before this can be remedied, for in the great majority of localities these beds do not contain fossils. Where fossils have been found they are of a very different nature in the various places. Thus, at Amuri Bluff and Waipara the lowest beds appear to contain no Recent species. The same is true of the Malvern Hills and Brighton, though here there are very few fossil species. At Black Pohit, in the Waitaki Valley, however, the number of Recent species is considerable. As previously stated, we believe that the series was deposited during a great lapse of time. The lowest beds are, at the latest. Eocene, and perhaps Upper Cretaceous ; the highest of the conformable series are Upper Miocene or Pliocene. If, as is here suggested, the limestone is of the same age throughout the country, it should be possible to come to a definite conclusion as to what that age is. The fauna that it contains are mainly ^-chinoderms, Polyzoa, corals, Foraminifera, and sponge-spicules. Collections of each of these groups have been examined by specialists, and the following state- ments have been made by them : — Tate said of the echinoderms, ■' There is no doubt that the Oamaru formation is correlative with the Lower MurraA'ian of Austi'alia." This, Mahshaij., Sim;i<;ht, Cotton. — Youinjcr Ilorl-xcrie.'' of X .'/ . 407 lie says, is comparable with the Eiuo])eau Eocene, with a slightly nioie Cretaceous complexion.* Tenisou-Woods says of the corals, '" I have no doubt that fi'om the fossil corals the formation at Oamaru and that at Momit Gambier (of Aus- tralia) were contemporaneous. The stage accepted by him for the latter is a stage later than the Upper Eocene. f The same author examined the Bryozoa and compared them closely with the Mount Gambier formation of Australia. Stache examined the Foraminijera obtained by the " Novara " expedi- tion from Kaglan and Whaingaroa. He classes them as the same age as those of the Vienna basin or of the Upper Oligocene of north Germany.^ Hinde and Holmes classified sponge-spicules from Oamaru. They class the deposit as belonging to the Upper Eocene or 01igocene.§ In addition to these, the sharks' teeth of the greensand have been examined by Davis, who, how^ever, makes no suggestion as to the age of the beds in which the}; occur. It is evident that there is a general consensus in favour of the limestone from which all these groups of fossils have been obtained being classed with the early Tertiary, between the late Eocene and the late Oligocene. At present we do not intend any further correlation than this, and we believe that the late Cretaceous or early Eocene may be taken as the age of the oldest bed, the Oligocene as the age of the limestone, and the late Miocene or Pliocene as that of the youngest bed in the conformable seriea at Waipara. A sk(3leton classification is thus formed which can satisfac- torily be filled up by the other members of the series. It is the intention of the authors to state fully the palaeontological side of the question in future papers. VII. Summary and Conclusions. 1. In all the sections of this series of younger rocks that we have had opportunities of examining in different parts of the country we have been unable to find any evidence of a stratigraphical unconformity in a single instance, though our observations have extended over those sections that have been regarded as crucial by diiSerent observers. 2. Though every geologist who has written about these sections pre- viously has at one time or other insisted upon the existence of stratigraphical breaks, each observer has placed these in a different position in the series from the others. 3. The palaeontological evidence shows that the fauna which existed when the upper beds were deposited was very different from that which existed when the lower beds were deposited. It is also suggested that this rapidity of faunal change is more apparent than real, and that the strata of this series were deposited at a very slow rate. 4. Correlation has been confused because the overlapping nature of the upper members of the series has not been fully recognized. There is reason for supposing that it is correct to correlate all the conspicuous limestones of this younger series as contemporaneous. 5. So far as correlation with the European geological system is con- cerned, the limestone appears to be of early Oligocene age. The lowest beds of the series are perhaps Cretaceous, and the upper perhaps of Pliocene age. * N.Z.G.S., 1892-93, p. 121. t ■' Palaeontology of New Zealand," pt. 4, 188U, p. 4. % " Reise der ' Novara ' : Palaeontology,'" p. 299. § Journ. Linn. Soc., ZooL, vol. 24, 1892, p. 178. 408 Transactions. Art. XXXIX. — The Post-glacial Climate of Canterbin-j/. By R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th October, 1910.] The question of post-glacial changes in climate has attracted so much atten- tion in Europe, and especially in Scandinavia, that it may not be out of place to consider certain indications which point to similar changes occurring in this part of New Zealand. It must be admitted at the outset that the evidence at present available is not strong, and that it is suggestive rather than conclusive ; but the author hopes that this paper may serve to attract attention to the importance of the question, and to the desirability of doing our utmost here to make more complete observations in order to see if the same sequence of events followed the recession of our glaciers here as occurred in the British Isles and on the mainland of Europe. In the absence of un- doubted evidence, the conclusions herein advanced are tentative in nature, and may have to be modified subsequently, but in disposing of them — if, indeed, that does happen — our knowledge of an important question will certainly be increased. When it is considered that in spite of the large immbers of skilled workers who are studying the question in Europe the differences on major points are very marked, and the conclusions arrived at on smaller ones are often diametrically opposed, the great difficulty of coming to any satisfactory conclusion on the matter in this country in the present state of our knowledge will be readily recognized. The gene- rally accepted opinion as to late Quaternary climates in Europe is that after the recession of the ice, or partly contemporaneously with it, northern Europe enjoyed a climate much milder than at present, and that climate increased subseqviently in severity. A school of physiographers, following the lead of James Geikie in Scotland and A. Blytt in Sweden, have urged the occurrence of a succession of maxima and minima of cold, an idea which has been supported by the work of Lewis in. Scotland, and specially by that of the Geer-Senander school in Scandinavia, but their conclusions have received strong opposition from Gunnar Andersen and his followers. Seeing this great diversity of opinion among the leaders of thought ori the .matter, I may perhaps be excused if my own conclusions meet with criticism when the evidence is so much more scanty. I hope, however, that some of the peat-bogs of Southland, Central Otago, and Canterbury may be examined according to the Swedish methods, and an attempt be made to correlate, if possible, the events which followed the recession of the glaciers in this country with those that occurred in Europe. If this can be done our knowledge of the sequence of the general climate of the globe may be much increased. The question of change of climate in Canterbury was first brought strongly under my notice on the occasion of a recent visit wdth Dr. L. Cockayne to the head-waters of the Rakaia River, and I am indebted to him throughout this paper for advice and kindly criticism which have been invaluable to me. I owe to him and to others who have helped me with iiiformation my sincere thanks for their assistance. The idea that the climate of New Zealand has undergone marked changes .since the retreat of the glaciers is by no means a new one. Captain Hutton Spkight. — The Post-glacial Climate of ^Canterbury . 409 came to this conclusion as a result of his observations on the extinction of the moa (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 24, 1892). He says, on page 154, " It is also evident that the dead moas could not have been washed into swamps under the present climatic conditions, and the solution of the problem is to be found in the fact that in Pleistocene times, when these deposits of bones were formed, the climate was very different from what it is now. ... As the Pleistocene period passed away the climate no doubt got more equable, and the surviving moas once more increased and multiplied." His conclusion is based very largely on ob- servations made in Central Otago, and on a study of the conditions under which the bones were found in the swamp at Glenmark, in North Canter- l)ury. A peculiarity in the distribution at the present time of birds allied to the moa may be noted here. Related genera, such as the ostrich, rhea. and emu, now inhabit countries with a dry climate, and it may perhaps be the case that the moas established themselves in the South Island of New Zealand when the conditions were steppe-like in character and the moist climate was responsible for the diminution either on account of their un- suitabilitv for such an environment or because it affected in some way their food-supply. The moist climate suggested by Captain Hutton was certainly post- glacial, though it must be remembered v/hen referring to his writings on the subject that he regarded the older Pliocene as the period of the maxi- mum glacier-extension. The latest pronouncement on the subject appears to be that of Professor von Lendenfeld, given in the volume published by the International Con- gress of Geology, 1910. In his article entitled " Das Quartare Klima von Australien imd Neu Seeland " he says, " Die natur der Gletscherzungeii (Reisenmoranen, Seitentaler zwischen Gletscher und Talwand) macht dur- chaus nicht den Eindruck als ob dieser Riickgang der vergletscherung schon zum Stillstand gekommen ware ; sie deuten vielmehr darauf hin, dass er gegenwartig noch fortschrietet, so das ich meinen mochte, dass in der Sudinsel von Neu Seeland, ebenso wie in Sudaustralien, das Klima gegen- wartig warmer iind trockener wird." The evidence on which this conclu- sion is based seems somewhat uncertain, but it is in all probability a general statement which would be quite true under any circumstances. The purely geological evidence of !?he change in climate since glacial times rests firstly on observations of the behaviour of glaciers, as indicated by Von Lendenfeld ; but this evidence is quite inconclusive, as they have been observed for a period too short to furnish data on which, to base any well-founded conclusion. There is evidence of a fairly rapid retreat of the glaciers on the eastern side of the Alps ; but the cause of this is unknown, although it is probably dependent on climatic changes. On the West Coast the Franz Josef Glacier is now rapidly advancing,* while the Fox Glacier, a near neighbour with very similar surroundings, was, when visited by the author three years ago, showing unmistakable signs of retreat. The Mueller Glacier, too, oii the eastern side of the range, is showing signs of advance {vide Lands Report, 1906). It is possible that these advances depend on. climatic conditions of a previous time which make themselves evident at the terminal face of glaciers of different lengths and velocities at different * A recent map of this glacier, made vuider the direction of Dr. J. Maclcintosh Bell, shows that the advance occurs principally on the northern side of the glacier, while the southern side is either stationary or actually retreating. 410 . Transaction?'. periods. Only after long-coiitiniied observations will it be possible to isolate the various anomalies and refer each to its exact cause. This line of inquiry, therefore, gives at present little satisfactory result except in so far that a recent rapid retreat must be granted, but whether this retreat is periodic or not is quite uncertain. There is geological evidence of a dry climate obtaining over the region in question either contemporaneously with the extension of the glaciers, or somewhat subsequent to it, in the fact that the loess which so completely mantles the country was a rock-flour carried by wind from the river-beds of glacial rivers. This is the general opinion of its origin, although Captain Hutton maintained that this same deposit was a marine silt. It probably indicates that the conditions over the east coast of this Island resembled somewhat those which occur in Thibet at the present time, only they are not so pronounced. A reference to this probable steppe climate will be made later when mentioning the xerophylly of certain New Zealand plants. Further conclusions may be based on the examination of the terraces which characterize the valleys of nearly all the rivers of New Zealand. Hutton attributed these almost entirely to a recent rise of the land giving all the rivers increased power of corrasion. In a paper on " The Terrace- development in the Valleys of the Canterbury Rivers " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, 1907) I have given my reason for thinking that, as far as Canterbury is concerned, the major movements have been downwards since glacier times, and that unless the land has been differentially elevated quite recently along an axis almost coincident with the main range, or closely parallel with it, mere elevation cannot account for the characteristic features of the terraces. In that paper I urged the importance of the falUng-off of the supply of waste owing to the lowering of the land, thus giving the rivers increased power of corrasion, as the principal cause for their occurrence. I have since seen reason, based on wider observation, to modify this opinion. While admitting the necessity for attaching greater importance to the supply of waste, and recognizing its great influence in the case of the large rivers of Canterbury, there are numerous terraces which cannot be attributed to that cause. Observations made recently on the small fans of detritus in the dumping-grounds of mining claims confirm my opinion that they are built up chiefly when the supply of water and its accompanying load of waste is plentiful, but that, when the supply of water is diminished, ter- racing of the fan immediately results. The profile of these terraces repro- duces exactly those which occur on our large shingle-fans, and also those formed by the rivers which cross the Canterbury Plains. The inference seems, therefore, that the material of our river-terraces was brought down in a pluvial epoch, and terracing commenced actively when the supply of water began to fall off. This course does not aflect the principle that supply of waste is also an important factor affecting the formation of terraces. The condition of many of our Canterbury streams at the present time, when deposition is overtaking transportation in the lower portions of their courses. is evidence that a maximum of erosion is past and another cycle of deposition has commenced. This may be due to the lowering of the land, but it may be due to a change in the supply of rain or to alteration in the climatic con- ditions. These are the chief lines of evidence of purely geological character which are connected directly with the question, but there are others of bio- loyical character which must b(> considered. The first of these concerns the Spkigiit. — TJtc I'oxt-rilacidl Cliniafe of Canlerhvry . 411 character of the huid Mollusca, and tlie others are mori' or k's.s botanical, and luive to do witli the peat-bogs and the forests wliich formerly covered wide tracts on the now treeless or almost treeless regions of Centrul Otago and Canterbury. Land Mollusca. I am indebted to Mr. H. Suter for the following remarks on the land Mollusca of the area. He says that they are certainly of a moist-climate type, that the indigenous fauna is almost entirely confined to the bush, and when this is destroyed or where there is no shelter from rotten logs in moist situations, it disappears entirely. It must, therefore, have esta- blished itself in tliis province when the climate was wetter. This argument standing by itself is not convincing, as the establishment of this snail fauna might date from a time anterior to the glaciation ; but taken with other evidence it seems to strengthen the general conclusion that the climate was once moister than it is now. Evidence from Peat-bogs. The evidence afforded by the peat-bogs of this country will, when they have been properly studied, give data from which well-founded conclusions can be drawn. At present their features are comparatively unknown, and the statement still finds currency that they do not contain Sphagnum (J. W. Harshberger : " Bogs, their Nature and Origin " — " The Plant World," vol. 12, p. 36, 1909), although it really finds an important place among peat-forming plants where the conditions do not allow of good drain- age. In some cases where the drainage is bad, and again in other cases where it is good, other plants contribute largely to the formation of the peat. In these cases their ecological conditions are not thoroughly under- stood at present, but they no doubt depend in some way on climate. Bogs composed of Sphagnum, and also those formed otherwise, occur extensively in both Canterbury and Otago, especially the latter. In the early days of the settlement, peat was regularly cut from the bogs of the central district of Otago and used as firing where wood was scarce. Extensive ])ogs were found then on the tops of the flat-topped mountains, such as the Rock and Pillar and Rough Ridge ; and Dr. Hilgendorf tells me that in the Waipori district twenty-five years ago these bogs were full of totara logs, and other logs lay exposed on the surface of the ground round the heads of gullies in such a way that their distribution could only be explained by supposing them to have been once bog-timber, which had been left stranded as the bogs shrank. These bogs mentioned by Dr. Hilgendorf were in all pro- bability not composed of Sphagnum, but there are others which do contain wood and undoubtedly owe their origin to that moss. Dr. Hilgendorf's statement that the bogs are shrinking in size is a very important one, and if it could be absolutely substantiated it would prove that the climate has undoubtedly changed ; but the effect of running stock over bog land tends to consolidate it, and his statement, unless supported by other evidence, would have to be taken with great care, seeing that sheep and cattle have been pastured on these lands. I certainly think that such evidence exists. It must be observed in this connection that the existence of Sphagnum bogs in the dry region of Central Otago, with an average yearly rain- fall of about 14 in., and with periods when it has fallen as low as Tin. per annum, is very striking, since it has been proved that the growth of Sphagnum depends chiefly on the water that it receives from the 412 Transactions. atmosphere, and not on ground-water. With reference to this, E. Warming says [" Ecology of Plants, p. 201 : Oxford, 1909), " It is erroneous to suppose that Sphagnum sucks up water from the soil ; it raises water for an inconsiderable distance. The movem_ent of water in a Sphagnum moor is essentially a descending one." The conditions of Central Otago at the present are not favourable to the growth of peat, and those bogs which I have examined do not show any distinct signs of renewal after being dug out for fuel, as they should do if the conditions were favourable for its growth. This seems to bear out the statement that the climate is becoming drier. More careful work \\dll, however, have to be done before this can be definitely established. Some of the bogs contain abundant remains of the roots and stems of Dacrydium BidioiUii (?). Although no positive evidence could be ob- tained that this shrub or low tree grew on the bogs, it is nevertheless extremely probable that this was the case, since in many parts of the alpine region of the Southern Alps it is a typical bog-plant, although it will grow also in somewhat dry places. The roots are common in the peat which covers the roches moutonnees of the Upper Wairaakariri Valley and other places along the eastern flanks of the range, and it occurs in well-defined layers in the peat-bogs on the line of the Midland Railway near Sloven's Creek, between Broken River and the Cass. These latter may have been swept in by floods when the chmate was more rainy than at present, or they may have grown in position on the bog. The presence of well-defined layers of trees and stumps probably points to recurrent periods when the climatic conditions favoured its growth either on the bog or on neighouring land-surfaces. At the present time in some of the bogs a keen struggle for existence is going on between the Sphagnum and the pine. It is likely that in drier conditions the latter would have the advantage, and temporarily extinguish the bog, as has been assumed to be the case with the pines in the old peat-bogs of Scandinavia and Shetland ; but this conclusion is open to serious criticism. Whatever the causes controlling the relative growth of these two elements, the presence of the layers of wood and peat points to recurrent conditions, or, rather, to probable alternations of moister and drier climate, as a very slight change in one direction or the other may be a determining factor in the struggle for existence between the Dacrydium and the Sphagnum and other peat-forming plants. The Presence oe Former Forests. Before the arrival of Europeans, and partially contemporaneous with the early settlement, extensive forests containing trees which flourish in moist situations extended over wide areas to the east of the Southern Alps and over Central Otago which are now almost if not entirely treeless. The existence of this forest is undoubted, and its disappearance is usually put down to fires before the arrival of Europeans or in the very early days of the settlement, an explanation which is extremely questionable and not supported by undoubted evidence. The Rev. J. W. Stack, an authority on the Maori history of this part of New Zealand, includes the tradition of the destruction of these forests by fire among those on which little rehance can be placed, though he remarks that there is no impossibility that they were so destroyed. The evidence for the existence of this forest is largely based on the observatiojis of the early pioiu'crs and other observers who followed Speight. — Th^ Poxt-glncial CUivaie of ('anterhvry. 413 immediately on them. These men noticed hirge logs of totara {Podocarpus totara) among the grass and in slips and swamps over very wide areas in Canterbury. The logs were frequently charred, and it was immediately assumed that the former forests were entirely destro3^ed by fire. The whole question is greatlv complicated by the destruction of the evidence by the ftres lit by settlers in the early days to clear the country from the rank growth of tussock-grass, so that now there is little proof of absolute value still remaining except in the records and recollection of these settlers. In those cases where I have had to rely on the evidence of such observers I have given their names, and I take the opportunity to thank them for much information of value on the point. Large totara logs lay plentifully on the foothills along the eastern base of the mountain region of Canterbury. They were found in quantity on the hills around Cheviot at a height of about 1,700 ft. (C. J. Westland) ; on all the country between the Hurunui and the Waipara Eivers, and on the Moeraki Downs, above a height of 800 ft. (P. J. Overton) ; on Teviot- dale, near the coast-line ; at Amberley (James Hay) ; on the Malvern Hills, as mentioned by Lady Barker in " Station Life in New Zealand." On the arrival of Europeans the present Oxford Forest extended down the Eyre River till it nearly junctioned with the bush then existing near Rangiora ; this is proved by the logs formerly lying on that part of the plains. Extensive tracts were covered with bush on the downs behind Timaru (J. Hardcastle), for large logs of totara are even at the present time found in the small creeks of that now treeless country. The same is true of other parts of the province near the mountain axis of the Island, as, for example, the Mackenzie country, and the valley of the Cameron River in the basin of the Upper Rakaia. On Banks Peninsula, too, there is evidence for a former greater extent of forest. The top and exposed northern slope of Mount Herbert, on the southern side of Lyttel- ton Harbour, were bare of trees on the arrival of the earliest settlers, although the gullies held patches of bush ; and the country was probably in the same condition when Cook saw it from the ocean half a century before. However, numerous logs of totara are even now found on the very summit of the mountain. According to my own observations on Banks Peninsula, the points of many of the spurs dividing the bays were absolutely treeless and covered with tussock-grass for a considerable distance from their terminations. This was especially the case on those spurs running north-east near Little Akaloa and Pigeon Bay. It might be urged that salt-laden winds from the sea had killed ofi the trees in these exposed positions were it not that certain spurs equally exposed were wooded right up to the very edge of the clifEs. According to observers of absolute reliability, in breaking up the open land on such a spur for sowing down in English grasses, buried totara logs of fair size were frequently found far from the edge of Aargin bush. I cannot get any satisfactory evidence that logs lay on the surface of the Canterbury Plains south of the Waimakariri, but large trees of totara have been found buried from 6 ft. to 10 ft. deep in the shingle-beds near Christchurch — as, for instance, at the city waterworks, near the foot of the Port Hills. These were undoubtedly of drift-wood, but the trees were in some cases over 2 ft. in diameter, were perfectly sound, and were used for posts in the fences round the buildings. The trees must have been brought ■down from some forests that grew either on the plains or further away in the mountains, probably by the Waimakariri River in one of its excursions 414 Transact ions. away from its present bed across the plains, as only a verj' large river woulcT be competent to move such enormous logs. The former extension of the bush on the plains is proved by the occurrence of vast quantities of fallen timber and numerous stumps in position throughout the belt of country stretching from just north of Amberley, through Woodend at the north of the present Waimakariri, and through Marshland on to Christchurch. The presoit writer has examined such a forest with trees in situ when the excava- tions were being made for extensions at the Christchurch Hospital. This forest belt extended south through Tai Tapu, round Lake Ellesmere, towards the mouth of the Rakaia, and again on towards Timaru, since extensive deposits of swamp-timber are found near Longbeach, between Ashburton and the sea, and again from the mouth of the Orari River to the termination of the downs just north of Timaru. On several parts of the coast-line the roots of trees are found in position either submerged below the level of lakes or within the limits of the tide.. Such occur in Lake Ellesmere (J. Rennie), at the mouth of the Opihi (J. Hardcastle), near Washdyke, and again near Pareora (W. AVilson). These shoAv distinctly that the coast-line has been sinking recently, a miovement in all probability only a phase of the great sinking movement of the land which, with minor temporary rises, set in during Quaternary times. This coastal forest was largely of swamp origin, and it was composed chiefly of white-pine, or kahihatea {Podocarpus dacrydioides), and manuka {Le-ptospermum scoparium), the former a tree which makes a pure associa- tion principally on swamps, and the latter a very xerophytic type, but found freely on all classes of soils and in many situations. Remains of black-pine {Podocarpus spicatus) and ribbonwood (probably Plagianthus hetulinus) are also found. On the arrival of Europeans relics of this forest existed in a few localities on the plains — for example, at Riccarton,. Papanui, Woodend, Rangiora, and at Temuka. These were mostly of white-pine, black-pine, pokaka {Elaeocarpus Hookerianus), and totara as the timber-trees, in that order of importance, but with little of the last- named. The presence of this swamp-forest was largely determined by the presence of moisture in the form of ground-water, but its disappearance from certain areas may be due to the fact that they had become so swampy that even trees like white-pine could not maintain themselves in the presence of so much water, this tree being really an oxylophyte — that is a xerophytic form which has adapted itself to moist conditions. It is possible, there- fore, that the disappearance of this forest may be partly due to altered climate, although the waterlogging of the soil may be also put down to the sinking of the land which has taken place in fairly recent times. Apart from this coastal forest there were at the beginning of settlement considerable areas of standing bush, containing totara, black-pine, and white- pine, at Mount Peel, Geraldine, Waimate, and specially on Banks Peninsula, as well as in a few other localities in hilly places favoured by a good rain- fall and a rich soil. At Mount Peel a considerable area still remains. These were in all probability remnants of a regional forest containing totara which covered extensive areas on the eastern slopes of the main range of the South Island. Excepting that which remains at Mount Peel, its most extensive remnant occurs now in the valley of the Upper Rakaia. Here for miles on the northern bank of the river the slopes of the moun- tains are covered with a thick forest composed largely of this tree. It occurs also in patches on the southern bank. In this locality the wet westerly winds reach well across the main divide, and the mountains to the Spkight. — The l'o»t-(/lari(il Climate of i'antevhury . 415 south of the river shelter the upper part of the valley from the cold souther- lies, so 4hat the climatic conditions are eminently favourable for the growth of this tree. Its former extension in the vicinity is proved by the logs Avhicli occur now on the south-eastern flanks of Mount Arrowsmith, i)i the valley of the Cameron River (L. Wood and the author), a district which is now marked by the presence of a xerophytic vegetation. The extension of this forest into Central Otago was noted by the earhest explorers and settlers, for a noteworthy feature of the land-surface in its original condition was the occurrence of enormous numbers of logs of totara lying on the hillsides and flat-topped mountains, as well as buried in the slips and bogs of that now treeless and steppe-like region. In his sketch of the " Botany of Otago " (Trans. N.Z. Institute, vol. 1, 1869) Buchanan says, " The general facies of the vegetation of the province on its eastern watershed is grassy, the greater part being open grass land with comparatively small areas of bush along the coast-line and in the gullies of the mountain-ranges, whereas on the western watershed the whole country from the sea to the altitude of 3,000 ft. on the mountains is covered with bush. It is evident that at no distant time the greater part of the province was covered with forest. On mawy of the grassy ridges may still be seen the remains of large trees, and over large areas the surface is dotted with little hillocks and corresponding hollows produced from the upturned roots of trees which have been blown over, generally in the line of the j)revailing winds, after their destruction by fire, and no doubt there have been many denudations and reproductions of bush. At the beginning of the settle- ment large tracts of the province were being reclothed with bush, but as the country was opened for cattle and sheep runs this new growth was again burnt off, and a hixuriant growth of native grasses appeared without seeds being sown." This account was written in the year 1865, and is specially important as showing that a competent observer at that early date was of the opinion that a succession of forests had covered the treeless hills of Otago. The existence of vast numbers of totara logs in Central Otago is testi- fied to by many other observers, all of whom have acknowledged that the prostrate trees indicate the presence of a forest of wide extent. The latest reference to this appears to be that by Professor Park, in Bulletin No. 5 (n.s.). New Zealand Geological Survey. The author there says, " Forest vegeta- tion is entirely absent, but there is evidence that it was not always so. Above the 2,0()0 ft. contour-line of Mount Malcolm and Mount Hocken there are still many logs of totara [Podocavpus totara), charred and well preserved, lying on the surface of the ground. The older settlers state that totara logs were at one time common on the Dunstan, Pisa, Carrick, and Eemarkable Mountains, and proved of great value to the early pioneers for fuel and fencing purposes. The totara forests apparently flourished above the flood-level of the Pleistocene rivers that filled the old lake-basins. They were probably destroyed by fire." The occurrence of the totara in the peat-bogs of Otago is referred to earlier in this paper. Although the evidence for the wide extent of this forest is conclusive, it cannot be maintained that it covered the face of the country as completely as do the forests on the western slopes of the Alps. All the same, it may have done so. The usual sequence of events in the changes which forest experiences in this region is that when destroyed by fire, wind, or any natural •cause it turns into tussock steppe. The transition is at times very rapid. 416 Transactions;, so that it is very probable that a large part of the tussock country of this Island was once bush -covered. However, some areas must always have been in existence on which there was no bush, where the tussock was esta- blished, and from which it could spread to neighbouring tracts when the ecological conditions were favourable for it doing so. Continual reference has been made previously to the occurrence of totara logs, and the inference will probably be made that the forests were largely, if not wholly, of totara. In all probability such was not the case. At the present time few areas are covered completely by this tree. It occurs widely distributed through many kinds of bush, but it also occurs at times in groves several acres in extent. It was in all probability only a con- stituent of the former forest, and its predominance among the timber lying on the ground is due to its uncommon power of resisting decay. It is one of the most long-lived of timbers when in damp situations. Other specially resistant timbers, such as broadleaf {Griselinia Uttoralis), are also found, so that in all probability the woods which grew with it have long since rotted away. It must be noted in this connection that I am not re- ferring here to bog-grown timber, such as the manuka, which is so common in so many swamps. Since totara was undoubtedly a prominent constituent of this forest, the conditions under which it grows have a very important bearing on the question of the climate which obtained in the area when the forest esta- blished itself. Although it is not a rain-forest tree in the same sense as the rimu {Dacrydium cwpressoides), and although it is perhaps the most xero- phytic of all the New Zealand conifers {vide paper by Miss Griffin, " The Development of some New Zealand Conifer Leaves," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40. 1908), it is nevertheless a tree which flourishes under con- ditions of good drainage with a damp atmosphere, and specially on deep rich soils — it is, in fact, a prominent member of the New Zealand rain forest. It will grow on light pumice and sandy soils if they have plenty of rain, as well as on heavy clays, and even at times on swamps ; but the existent patches of bush containing this tree in quantity, and also those which furnished a large part of the totara for timber purposes in former times, were in localities with a good, if not a heavy, rainfall. The " totara areas " of the North Island, according to the report made in 1875 by Major Forrestier Walker, were those tracts along the central mountain axis of the Island and near Lake Taupo which had a rainfall of 40 in. a year and upward. To take, for example, the totara forest on the northern slopes of Tongariro and the Waimarino Forest, which contains in parts a large quantity of that timber : they are both situated in a part of the central plateau which receives a heavy rainfall from the west, while the dry eastern slopes of the Ruapehu-Tongariro ridge are either treeless or dotted with patches of Nothofagus cliff ortioides, and the charred fragments of wood in the pumice- drifts which cover that region seem to be from that tree and not from totara. The distribution of totara is the South Island, occurring as it does in such localities as Banks Peninsula, Peel Forest, at Glenomaru in the Catlin's district, as well as near the east coast about Dunedin, shows that this tree delights in a well-drained soil, with plentiful supply of rain. It also occurs on the excessively moist hills and swamps of Westland, but in the latter it does not thrive. The forest now existing at the head of the Rakaia is merely an extension of the subalpine totara forest of Westland which has Spkight. — The. Posf-r/lnrial Climate of ('aiitrrlnin/ . 417 followed the. rain across the main divide, and the fact that this tree out of all the rain-forest trees of Westland has done so is really very striking. Judging from the rainfall records kept at the Bealey, where the usual amount for the year averages about 100 in., and has reached as much as 136 in., the rainfall of the Upper Rakaia Valley, which is exactly similarly placed as regards the main range and the direction of the rain-bearing winds, must certainly approach, if it does not exceed, 100 in. per annum. The climate is decidedly moist and the drainage is good, and under these favour- able conditions the totara occurs so plentifully in parts of the district that it virtually excludes other forest-trees. These fac«ts seem at variance with the xerophytic-adaptation structure exhibited in the leaves of the tree ; but this is one of the many cases which have been pointed out by Dr. Cockayne where there is a marked discrepancy between the actual structure and the structure one would expect the plants to show judging from their habitat alone. In his " Notes on the Subalpine Scrub of' Mount Fyffe " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, p. 373, 1906) he says, " The amount of xerophylly in many New Zealand plants is by no means a measure of their adaptation to present environment, but is more likely a survival from a former geological period when xerophytic conditions were more widespread." This opinion is a very important one from a geological as well as from a botanical point of view, and it agrees with that of Dr. L. Diels, quoted in Dr. Cockayne's " Plant Geography of the Wai- makariri" (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32, p. 122, 1900). Dr. Cockayne's state- ment about the xerophylly of New Zealand plants probably applies to the totara, though it is no doubt possible that the advantage of possessing a moderately xerophytic structure would aid it in its stioiggle with other plants under increasingly dry conditions, and therefore may explain its importance as a forest-tree in the forests which grew formerly over the somewhat arid regions on the east coast of this Island. The date of this former forest-extension is fixed as being certainly post- glacial, since the remains are commonly found in locahties which must have been covered with ice, according to the most conservative opinions as to the extent of our former glaciers ; and it must certainly have been pos- terior to the great glaciation postulated by Professor Park, as the region where these logs now occur in Central Otago was, according to him, covered with a great ice-sheet. It is possible, however, that, as the glaciers retreated from their furthest extension, the forest estabhshed itself fari passu on the areas left free by the ice, just as they are now doing in the case of the Franz Josef Glacier. The space of time taken for the gradual extension of such a forest over regions swept bare of soil by the glaciers must have been enormous, and if there has been a succession of forests, as suggested by some observers, then the time must have been very great indeed. The question of the extent of these forests and the conditions under which the totara grows have been gone into somewhat at length because, in my opinion, it is possible to make the deduction that when the forests esta- blished themselves the conditions must have been much different from those obtaining now. It has been just stated that the forests have ex- tended over areas which in Pleistocene times were covered with ice, and were probably dry and steppe-like. Before they could do this the chmate must have changed, as the New Zealand rain forest requires a moist climate for its growth. This conclusion seems to agree with those deduced from other observations. I must explain, however, that this conclusion is merely U— Trans. 418 Tra nsa ction s . tentative, and is based on observations of the ecological habits of the totara which are decidedly incomplete. Reasons for the Disappearance of the Forests. Although the main point to consider in this paper is the question of the establishment of the forests on an ice-swept country, yet their disappearance has also an important bearing on the question. In several parts of the country it has been noticed that the bush is shrinkiiig even when protected from the interference of man and animals. Far larger areas in the North Island were once covered with kauri forest than those which existed in the memory of man, as is proved by the extensive deposits of subfossil kauri- gum far away from growing timber. This is quite apart from the gradual restriction of the kauri forest which has gone on in Tertiary times from its former wide range, proved by the occurrence of fossil kauri-leaves in various Tertiary deposits in Otago. The destruction of the forests con- taining totara, which once existed in Canterbury and Otago, has usually been put down to the fires lit either accidentally or intentionally by the Maoris, a conclusion largely based on the fact that many charred logs were found by the earliest settlers. There is a Maori tradition, mentioned pre- viously, of the destruction of these forests by extensive fires at one period of Maori history ; but the evidence from Maori tradition is almost valueless, and there are indications from Canterbury which certainly point in a con- trary direction. Banks Peninsula was thickly peopled by Natives at the time of the arrival of the first settlers and it showed no signs of the ravages by fire (S. C. Farr). If fires had been lighted by the Maoris this is just the place where they should have occurred, yet the hillsides, with the exception of the highest points and some of the headlands, were completely clothed with bush right up to the very settlements of the Natives. The bareness of the headlands seems to have been due to other causes, since from their re- lative inaccessibility they were not Ukely to have been swept by fire. These open spaces were probably due to that natural succession of events which turns forest into grass land, but the factor controlling this change does not seem to be well understood, and it may be a function of the change in climate. At the same time, it must be admitted that continuous and repeated fires in dry seasons, fed with accumulations of dry tussock- grass, would restrict materially the areas covered with bush, and without doubt these fires occurred. It seems impossible, however, that fire could have destroyed a forest of wide extent and left no patches in sheltered gullies and other places which would have formed centres for its renewal had climatic and other conditions been favourable. If the climate is favourable for the renewal of the rain forest it is difficult to destroy it by burning, even when this is carried on for the express purpose of clearing the land for pastoral purposes. In the case under consideration, the charring of the logs mentioned previously has been caused largely by tussock-fires since the arrival of the white man, although the Maoris certainly carried on a sporadic burning in pre-Europeau times. It is a remarkable fact, however, that the existing patches of bush occur i I just those situations in which they might be expected to occur from ecological considerations had a slight desiccation of the climate come about. The bush has disappeared from situations where from exposure to wind, lack of moisture, &c., they would naturally feel first the effects of slightly drier atmosphere. The change required to produce this disap- pearance is no doubt very slight, as httle is required to upset the delicate Speight. — TJw Post-glacial Climate of Canterbury. 419 baluiice which exists between the struggling elements of different plant associations. It seems, therefore, that a slight desiccation of the climate can be inferred from the restriction of this forest. The disappearance had in all probability begun before the arrival of the Maori, following on a period of drier climate after a moist period which favoured its growth. The forests would then be specially subject to the action of fire, except in those places favoured by moist conditions. Fire certainly aided in their destruc- tion, but it is improbable that it was wholly responsible for it. The present conditions are decidedly dry over a large tract of country to the east of the main range ; however, this is due )iot altogether to lack of rail), but to the influence of parching winds. Under the combined influence of these two agents the vegetation is now markedly xerophytic, but when the plants are grown in a moist and still atmosphere they readily reveii; to leafy forms, as has been proved by the experiments of Dr. Cockayne on the wild- irishman {Discarid toumatou) ("The New Phytologist," vol. 4, p. 79, 1905). Dr. Cockayne has suggested to me that this readiness to revert to the leafy form may be due to the fact that at some period anterior to the present somewhat dry one the prevaihng climatic conditions were moist, and that owing to the environment the tendency to become more or less permanently xerophytic was checked, and the ability to respond quickly to a moist atmosphere has been kept latent up to the present time. I am aware that this evidence is not convincing, and that it is merely sufficient to establish a prwia facie case for consideration. If, however, the conclusion that a rainy climate succeeded the last glacier maximum over a wide area to the east and south-east of the Southern Alps be accepted, the reasons for such a change may be briefly considered. This moist climate may be attributed to one of two main causes — (1) a marked lowering of the land in post-glacial times, with a general climate much the same as that which obtains now ; or (2) a change in the climate affecting a Avide area, or even the earth as a whole. Cause of the Change. A marked lowering of the land in this region of moisture-laden westerly winds would have the effect of making the climate uniformly humid over the whole of the country, instead of being, as now, subject to an abnormally heavy rainfall on the west of the range, while the east is comparatively dry. With lower mountains the total amount of rain intercepted would in all pro- bability be much less than that which would be intercepted if the moun- tains were higher, but it would be more uniformly distributed. The humidity of the climate depends as much on the number of rainy days as on the number of inches that fall during the course of the year — for example, the cHmate of the Chatham Islands is markedly humid with a comparatively smaU annual rainfall. However, before lowering of the land could produce a humid climate in the Mackenzie country or in Central Otago the land would have to be lowered by hundreds, perhaps thousands, of feet below its present level, in order to allow the extension of the moisture-bearing clouds over the ranges near the coast, so that the interior of the country might receive a share of their moisture ; and there is no evidence of such a lowering since glacial times. Even if the old beaches found in various parts of the south of this Island were post- glacial— which is open to doubt ^ — -the amount of sinking that they indicate is totally insufficient to have produced a moist climate over that part of the country which lies along the east of the range. It seems 14* 420 Transactions. reasonable, therefore, to attribute the humid climate either to causes which have affected the earth as a whole or to altered meteorological conditions promoted by some change in the distribution of land and water in the Southern Hemisphere. Conclusion. The general sequence of events since the glaciation of the South Island in Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene times appears to have been the fol- lowing : — (1.) Glacial conditions, with probable steppe chmate existing contem- poraneously on the land to the east of the terminations of the glaciers, a condition which probably continued for some time, as the glaciers were retreating. (2.) Moist climate over the tract to the east of the main range, during which the forests were estabhshed or were widely spread and the rivers built up their fans. (3.) Modified steppe conditions over the belt to the east of main range. The conclusions are, in general, similar to those which have been agreed upon by European geologists as occurring in Europe, although an important school has demanded the existence of a succession of warmer and milder conditions. Of course, it is impossible at present to make any inference as to such a succession of milder and more severe climates in New Zealand, or even to infer that the changes in climate suggested by the various lines of evidence indicated above were contemporaneous. Some of the changes suggested may be due to causes which operated in Tertiary times. How- ever, in view of the general interest in the matter, the author hopes, in spite of obvious deficiencies in the statement of the case, that this paper may serve to draw attention to a problem which has an important bearing on the climate of the world as a whole, and also on the evolution of the vege- tation and the plant-associations which exist at present in this country. Art. XL,— ^ Preliminary Account of the Geological Features of the Christ- church Artesian Area. By R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. [Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 7th December, 1910.] Plates IX-XIV. [Note.- — ^This paper embodies the results available at present of an examination of the beds of the Christchurch artesian area. Although they are necessarily imperfect, it has been thought advisable by the author to submit them in this form, as they are complete in some respects ; in others, they are quite imi)ei"fect, and observations ex- tending over several y(^ars will have to be made before any finality in the conclusions can be reached.] Introductory. The part of Canterbury stretching along the coast-line from the mouth of the Waimakariri to the west of Banks Peninsula as far as the mouth of the Rakaia is perhaps the most extensive area in New Zealand where plentiful f-upplies of water can be obtained from artesian wells. The interest which Speight. — Geological Features of Chrisfchurrli Arfrsian Area. 421 attaches to this tract of country is not one of economical character alone, since an accurate examination of it may throw some light on the structure of the Canterbury Plains, and indirectly on questions of more theoretical interest, such as the cause of the Pleistocene glaciation of this country, which has lately attracted so much attention. The amount of evidence to be considered is very great, as no part of the earth's crust in New Zealand has been more thoroughly explored than this area. The number of wells already sunk extends to thousands, and of late years all well-sinkers in the transaction of their calHng, in order to be able to give accurate estimates of the cost of sinking in various localities, have kept detailed records of the wells they have sunk, and made careful note of the depth of water- bearing beds, the amount of water obtained at certain levels, the nature of the strata encountered, and the thickness of the beds. The records of various well-sinkers have been placed at the disposal of the present author, and every assistance in the way of information has been given when it has been asked for. The writer wishes especially to thank Messrs. J. Osborne and J. W. Home for assistance in this respect. It has thus been possible to examine the records of more than five hundred wells, so that an accurate conspectus can be obtained of the whole water-bearing area. General Structure of the Canterbury Plains. The detrital deposits of the Canterbury Plains have been laid down on a basement rock of uncertain character, but there is evidence which suggests that the same formations as occur in the western part of Canter- bury are continued beneath the plains to the eastward, and extend under the sea towards the Chatham Islands. The greywackes and slates of the Southern Alps outcrop again near Gebbie's Pass, on Banks Peninsula ; and the Chatham Islands are formed of schists analogous to those of Westland, overlaid by Tertiary limestone and volcanic rocks, the former of which can be correlated with limestone of Miocene or Oligocene date in the main islands of New Zealand. The only evidence of the structure beneath the sea which stretches from the Chathams to Banks Peninsula is that afforded by the collections of the steam-trawler " Nora Niven " when carrying on an experimental cruise on behalf of the New Zealand Government. As recorded in a note to a previous paper by the present author, the trawl brought up from a nimiber of stations parallel with the coast-line, and in depths of between 20 and 40 fathoms, pieces of brown coal sometimes as large as an ordinary travelling-trunk. It is hardly credible that these could have dropped from passing steamers, seeing that brown coal is rarely if ever carried by sea, and it is impossible that they could have been brought down by rivers from the coal-seams that occasionally outcrop on their banks, since such pieces would be rapidly reduced to powder and become indistinguishable among the other detrital material. It must be concluded, therefore, that the coal has been derived from an outcrop on the edge of a submarine escarpment which runs parallel to the coast and with its beds probably dipping west. These may continue westward, and, passing under the plains, junction with the coal-measures which fringe the eastern flank of the mountainous district of Canterbury. The beds would then take the form of a synchne, sUghtly tilted towards the east, with its eastern wing depressed beneath sea- level. Further, they may form part of a great ge-syncline or synchnorium 422 Transactions. extending over tlie whole area from the Alps to the Chatliain Islands, with schists outcropping on its eastern and western visible limits. The uncertainty of the soundings between Banks Peninsula and the Chathams renders it impossible to speak definitely of the form of the sea- bottom in that region, but it appears from the few that have been obtained that the sea gradually deepens for about forty miles, to the 100-fathom Une. and then suddenly drops to over 1,000 fathoms, a depth which is main- tained to the vicinity of the Chathams. WTiether this is part of a submarine plain or a portion of a fold valley which runs in a north-easterly and south- westerly direction parallel to the coast of the North Island is at present uncertain, and it is hoped that the efforts being made in Wellington to get a line of soundings run from Lyttelton to the Chathams may be successful, as it will throw considerable light on the evolution of the main crustal features in this region. That a syncline exists involving the Cretaceous coal-measures, and probably the overlying limestones, seems to be very reasonable, but the cause of its form is uncertain. It may be due to deep-seated movements of the earth's crust, of which we can say little at present, or it may be due to loading caused by the immense quantities of detritus poured into the sea by the great Canterbury rivers. The presence of a line of earth- quake origins parallel to the coast-line of the plains suggests crustal movements along a. line in the neighbourhood of the probable submarine coal-outcrops. Source and Character of the Material out of which the Plains ARE constructed. The detrital matter out of which the plains are constructed consists chiefly of shingle with an admixture of sand and silt, the whole being formed from the weathering and disintegration of the greywackes out of which the great mass of the Canterbury mountains is formed. In the higher parts of the plains, near the base of the mountains, there is a considerable mixture of angular matter and large siibangular blocks, but in the lower parts of the plains the gravel becomes much smaller. The fragments are usually from 2 in. to 4 in. in diameter, and rarely exceed 8in. ; they are well rounded, and seldom exhibit the flattened ovoid form produced by the incessant drag of the backwash on a beach subject to heavy seas. It cannot, however, be inferred with certainty, because the pebbles on the plains are usually of such equilateral dimensions that they must have been formed wholly by river-action, as the shape of a pebble on the beach is primarily determined by the shape of the block from which it has been derived. On examining a beach of limestone pebbles on the north side of Amuri Bluff, I was struck by the frequency of the cricket-ball size and shape, and this could only be due to the orighial fragments having been cuboid in form. The angular Iragments produced by the disintegrating action of the frost and other agencies on the moinitains of Canterbury are usually of equilateral dimen- sions. However, on examining the beach at Birdling's Flat, between Lake Ellesmere and the sea, it will be noticed that a very large proportion of the pebbles exhibit the true shingle form as distinct from gravel. If the plains had been formed by marine action they must have been subject on their eastern margin to attrition by the same heavy seas that sweep up the present Ninety-mile Beach, and therefore beach-shingle should form a large part nf their material. As this is not the case, I think it mav be inferred that Speight. — Geologiad Features of (.'/ir/.'l:>>J|i>l::: m. liiiii: liliiiSli iiiii "/ m a iiiiiylliiilipiiliiliiiilil iiii iliiiiiitniiil-l:! fe! iiil ■ Mr. A til;::: iiliili i'1'ii't'iu'Hi'i'wyia I. ' *^s<«' 7. \ ' 5 • I ■; 1 1 iuiiiif.:|i:: i|i|H. Speight. — Geological Feature,^ of Chrixt church Artesian Area. 427 and finer material, with occasional peat. There is a progressive diminution in the amount of gravel encountered in the bores on approaching the pre- sent coast-line. This is by no means uniformly true, as the Boys' High School well, in the western part of the city, shows a very large proportion of gravel to be present, a feature which is also shown to a minor degree by other wells in its vicinity — for example, the Christ's College, and the Ex- hibition well in Hagley Park. This exception does not, however, negative the statement that there is a general increase in the amount of shingle on going east. These beds must have been laid down where strong currents were in operation, due either to river or sea currents, the former in all pro- bability ; and they are almost certainly due to the aggrading action of a powerful stream on a land-surface. The presence of peat also proves that subaerial conditions obtained over the area while the beds were in process of being deposited. The sand and clay beds interstratified with them are in all probability principally of marine origin, since remains of shells are frequently encountered in them. Their association with land-beds proves that there was a struggle going on between the forces that tend to build up a sea-bottom to the level of the sea and to continue it as a land-surface above that level, and, on the other hand, a general sinldng of the land, which is evidenced by the peat-beds now found so far below sea-level — 600 ft. in the case of the well at Islington. It is apparent that at times the aggrading forces got the best of it. How far this depression of the land has gone on in excess of that already proved is quite uncertain, and onlv deeper wells will disclose the information. The water-bearing beds of this section, as, indeed, is the case in others, ^re almost invariably composed of shingle. According to well-sinkers, water is frequently found all through these gravels, but the most prolific supply is obtained from just above the impervious layer below the beds ; in fact, its general distribution throughout the gravel-layers in a particular well is looked on as an unpromising indication for a good flow being ob- tained from that bed. The overlying impervious layer is usually clay, but it may be sand or even more consolidated and less porous gravel. The height to which the water rises is generally found to increase with the depth of the well, though in one or two cases the reverse is found ill the case of a particular bed. This may be put down to friction prevent- ing the passage of water through the bed. Owing to the level of the ground ()\QY a large part of the area being only a few feet above sea-level and sensibly uniform, there is apparently little difierence in the height to which water rises on approaching the coast, but the condition of texture of the bed appears to be the controlling one affecting the height to which wells rise for a particular depth. In the part of the area to the west where the plains rise somewhat steeply the wells are non-flowing, although the pressure of the head maintains the water in the pipe at a fairly definite level, and it would flow, if it were possible to take it ofl", below the level of the ground. The water in the first stratum of the well at Islington rises only to 42 ft. of the surface of the ground — that is, the level of the Avater is 70 ft. above the sea. Series No. 2. — Beep Wells : Cenlral Ward, Christckurch. (Plate X.) This series of sections gives a record of a nimiber of the deeper wells of the centre of the city, with one or two others added for purposes of -(•(^mparison. They furnish the most detailed representation of any particular 428 Transactions. locality available at present, and they suggest that when other areas are similarly plotted the minute structure of the area may be determined, and some of its apparent irregularities may be removed. From this series of sections it will be seen that certain sands, sandy clay, and clay beds are persistent and regular over a fairly wide area. Well- marked beds of this type occur at a depth of between 40 ft. and 80 ft. below the surface, another between 150 ft. and 175 ft., another between 350 ft. and 400 ft. Similar, but less persistent, beds divide up some of the main gravel-beds into subordinate and irregular layers. From the occurrence of shells in certain of these beds it may be inferred that they are marine or aestuarine, although it is possible that some are not. It will also be seen that a bed of gravel, thick and continuous in one well, is frequently broken up in a neighbouring v/ell by sand and clay beds. As nearly all these gravel-beds will yield artesian water, it is obvious that it is almost impos- sible to state the exact depth of the different water-bearing strata in any locality, as a particular water-bearing bed of one well may be divided up into a number of thinner beds in a neighbouring well, where, owing to dif- ferent conditions of pressure, friction, and the supply of water, flows of varying amount may be obtained from what are apparently different beds, although they are really connected with one another. It is thus impossible to predict with any degree of certainty the number of water-bearing beds that will be encountered within a given depth, or that water will be met with at any particular level, though certain belts are extremely likely to contain it in one or more levels. It will be noticed that a very uniform and widely distributed water-stratum is found about the 400 ft. depth ; all the wells from this show a marked regularity in the height to which the water rises above the surface. This is, in all probability, a stratum covered by marine or aestuarine bed, an occurrence which suggests that the conditions were uniform over a comparatively wide area. This series of sections shows the presence of peat-beds, sometimes singly, and again divided by thin bands of clay and gravel. Remains of wood are also encountered. The height to which the water rises in any particular well is also found to depend principally on the depth, although there are one or two departures from the rule, as mentioned in dealing with Series No. 1. Series No. 3. — Papanui, St. Albans, Richmond, and Shirley. (Plate XI.) This shows the structure and character of the water-bearing beds in the district stretching from Fendalton, through St. Albans, towards the coast. The first well lies on the edge of the artesian belt, and shows, at all events in its upper levels, a marked predominance of gravel ; but on going east the amount of gravel in the sections decreases, and finer detritus becomes more important. There is a certain element of regularity in the arrange- ment of the beds. A well-defined clay-bed extends almost all over the area, with an occasional coating of peat, and under it is a fairly regular band of gravel. Under this lies an extremely persistent bed of sand or sandy clay, which contains at times marine shells, thus showing that the sea stretched over the area at a comparatively recent date. This is succeeded below by a somewhat broken set of beds composed of gravel separated by peat and also by fine detrital matter ; but in spite of the apparent irregu- larity there is an approach to order in the arrangement, and a more com- plete set of sections would show this absolutely. Even the sections as they Trans. X.Z. Inst., Voi.. .\ 1.1 1 1. Pl.vik XI. J;;j:|:b:::; m m. sUil(l5!l!S?iivij{>J't'.r?ii|',|; P!|;,i:i:K; ii m mi: E:::t: :lll::::ei;;i:i' iijililslililil Eii=; \n ill i . ! ^11 -5 s I ; iiiii Face p. J.8S'.] Trans. N.Z. [nst.. Vol. XLIII. Plate XII. iiiii.iiiiiil 6 x: S rt C/5 K LU rt X > tu n 00 a O iiBiHiiiini •SJ! ^,. iiliilii i I ! I I -I 1 V ilii iillli.'iSliJiB Nr*Jt sl d II '^ m ,\\i ii illiiil :!|i:f;i|:3 ill! I 1 rSiiax ii Speight. — Geological Featvrei< of Chri>itchnrch Artes^ian Area. 429 stand give a fair idea of tlie thinning-out and thickening of the same bed in different parts of the district. Below the belt where gravel predominates there is a set of beds composed of finer detrital matter, which would pro- bably be continuous if the records of more deep wells were available. It will be noted also that there are very regular and widely distributed peat- beds, especially in the Fendalton and St. Albans area. The series shows that there was a general struggle for existence between the land and the sea. The periods when the former got the best of it are in- dicated by the presence of peat, and perhaps by the gravel-beds, and the time when the sea stretched over the area is indicated by the finer-textured beds with their occasional shell-remains. The amount of rise in the wells increases, as a rule, on approaching the coast-line, and this may be put down to the better textural conditions near the coast. Instead of the water being distributed throughout the thick beds of shingle it is concen- trated by the impervious beds into narrower bands, and so gives higher and stronger flows. Series No. 4. — Sydenham, Opawa, Heathcote to Estuary. (Plate XII.) This series shows the structure of the belt of country which fringes the foot of the Port Hills and extends across the estuary towards New Brighton. The wells of special interest are those close to the hills, in whose records there is frequent mention of the presence of angular matter of volcanic origin. It is probable that the water supplying them comes from rain which falls on the Port Hills, and not from that on the plains, but more detailed work will have to be done before this statement can be maintained for certain. There is no doubt that the rocks of the hills exert a disturbing influence, since some wells which are sunk in their vicinity to beds of shingle yield no water, though a little distance further away similar beds at equal depths are prolific. These beds must be cut off in some way from the main artesian area. Others of them are down very close indeed to the under- lying beds of volcanic rock, especially those near the present estuary, a fact emphasized by the record of the wells sunk by the Sumner Borough Council in their efforts to obtain water for the reservoir which supplies the borough. The ignorance of artesian conditions, as well as the unnecessary expenditure of the pubUc money resulting therefrom, is thoroughly exemplified in con- nection with one well in the estuary near the Fisherman's Flat. After getting a poor flow of water at a depth of 416 ft., the boring was continued 41 ft. further, through layers of scoria and hard black basalt, evidently an outlying part of the rocks of the Lyttelton volcano, in expectation of getting a more plentiful supply. Needless to say, this hope was not reahzed. The iecords of the wells near the estuary show that beds containing shells are met with very persistently, and it may be inferred therefrom that the conditions on the north side of that part of Banks Peninsula have not altered materially since the beds were first laid down — i.e., the area has been aestuarine for a very long time. This series contains the record of two very deep wells : the first sunk to a depth of 708 ft., near the old Heathcote Racecourse, in order to obtain, if possible, a supply for the Lyttelton Waterworks — an unrealized expec- tation ; and, secondly, the well sunk at the Sydenham Water-tov/er, which reached a depth of 572 ft., and gave a flow of water from a depth of 550 ft., which rose 32 1 ft., and was described by the well-sinker (Mr. J. W. Home) as the largest flow he ever got. I believe that this is the deepest flowing 430 Tra))sacf/07}s. well in the Christchurch artesian area, the well at Islington, though sunk deeper, not giving a flow at the surface. Series No. -3. — Coastal Belt : Sefton to Estunrij of Avon and Heathcote. (Plate XIII.) This series gives a selection of w^ells from along the coastal belt reaching from Sefton to the north of the Ashley River, through Kaiapoi and NeAv Brighton to the Port Hills at the estuary of the Avon and Heathcote. In the extreme north of this belt the supply of water is poor, but fairly good flows are obtained in Woodend and at Kaiapoi ; nevertheless, the suppl}' is both deficient in amount and in the height of rise as compared with wells in the immediate neighbourhood of Christchurch. The relative small lieight of rise can be readily seen by comparing the Kaiapoi Borough Council well, sunk to a depth of 450 ft., with deep wells in the middle of Christchurch. The Kaiapoi well gives a rise of only 10 ft. from that depth, whereas the Christchurch wells give a rise approximating to, or even exceeding, 30 ft. This well gave a flow of 50 gallons per minute at a height of I ft. when first sunk, an amount which compares favourably with deep wells further south ; but the comparative smallness of supply is borne out in the case of other wells. Inland from the town the supply falls off considerably, for at Ohoka a well sunk to a depth of 374 ft. gave only a 2 ft. rise. In this case, however, the beds were almost exclusively of shingle, and the conditions of texture were decidedly unfavourable for the production of much artesian water. As a general rule, the beds of Kaiapoi and its immediate vicinity show the presence of a large proportion of shingle, from which it may be inferred that a large river has occupied the present position of the \Vai- makariri for a considerable period of time. Just to the north of Kaiapoi, and also to the south, beds composed of finer detritus become more important, till when the estuary is reached they are almost wholly of fine material, with an entire absence of shingle. The two important factors controlling the conditions of texture of the beds are the presence of Banks Peninsula to the south and the delta of the Waimakariri in the north. This river has pushed out its delta beyond the general trend of the coast-line, and the finer material brought down is deposited on either side of the mouth. This accounts for the area of swamp immediately to the north about Woodend, and also the extensive deposits of fine material in the neighbourhood of New Brighton. An important factor in the latter case is the strong littoral current which runs down the coast during northerly winds. At that time the Waimakariri is usually in flood and heavily charged with sediment, so that the conditions are eminently favourable for the transport south of large quantities of detritus. A part' of this is carried landwards, and ultimately forms dunes along the shore ; and another part is deposited in shallow water oft'shore, or in estuaries formed behind the sand-dunes. Such aestuarine deposits are indicated in the sections given by the wells by the frequent marine shells which are brought up from the bores. These show that on the site of the present estuary of the Avon and Heathcote the conditions have been the same for a long period of time. No peat or other land deposits are met with in this part of the district till deposits of angular matter are reached at the base of the series, derived without any doubt from the disintegration of masses of volcanic rocks on the Port Hills. The wells along this belt of country close to the shore lise in sympathy with the tide, and the water contains a high percentage of salt. Trans. X.Z. inst . Vol. XI.III. Pl.ATK XIII. :n:' 'iiM -'i-ii "I'ri'ii'iipt'iu w 2; 6 0 w 'w U E 2 ^ ^ ^ _> >;>v»i;:|;;;1:k|::|:::: ill: liil rv. if:!? 1 •lie .|"I5I! m i I I R S s 8 S a lifll" p St? g ^'1 R i Face p. 430. Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. -\LIII. Plate XIV |liiiifli=:; i liif;illlliiiililii|g(liiii! .i;ii!!3i=li:Sii:;:iiii:{liliilSife= i,if •'•'<'■ I ! ^[liiiiliiiiMiHta SlllillHilHiiiiniiintHi ::: ji:: s 3 if ill' Si'EiOHT. — Geological Featurex of Chrhtchurch Arfesio/i Area. 431 Series No. (>. — Ellesmere North to Addington and Gehhie's Valley. (Plate XIV.) This series gives a selection of wells from the district round Lake Elles- mere. Its special features are the marked preponderance of gravel in the upper beds in the southern parts of the area and the comparatively poor flows of water that are met with even in deep wells. The requisite arrange- ment of beds seems to be absent or but slightly developed, a condition which occurs in other cases where the distance from Banks Peninsula increases. A very interesting part of this area is that lying along the base of the hills in the neighbourhood of Gebbie's Valley. The beds here are almost wholly of sand and sandy clays, as is shown by the sections numbered 15, 16, and 17, which may be taken as typical ; they also contain a fair pro- portion of angular volcanic matter, and thus resemble those on the north side of the peninsula. At Teddington, just over the pass at the head of the valley, and within the basin of Lyttelton Harbour, there is another system completely cut off from that on the outside of the hills by the slates and volcanic rocks which form the western part of the old crater-ring of the Lyttelton volcano. It has been pointed out by Page and Prideaux in a paper entitled " Notes on an Artesian System at the Base of the Port Hills " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 335, 1901) that these wells, and also those at Gebbie's Valley, present some decided differences from those of the plains, in that they contain a much higher proportion of chemical salts, notably chlorides, as well as exhibit a higher temperature than those of the Christchurch area. It is very probable indeed, as pointed out in the paper just referred to, that the Gebbie's Valley wells belong to a different system from that on the plains, and the conditions governing the flow of water will be in that case very similar to those which occur at Teddington. In both the structure of the beds does not seem to be at all favourable to artesian flow, but con- ditions of texture appear to be the controlling factor. A well which shows a relation to these is the fourteenth on the series, sunk near the foot of the Port Hills, at Hoonhay. This gives a flow of only 4^ gallons per minute, and the water-bearing stratum is a layer of scoria lying on solid rock. The water has in all probability followed the surface of this rock down from higher levels on the Port Hills, and the well is quite distinct from the Christchurch artesian system. Level of the Water in the Wells. The height to which the water rose from the various levels in each well at the time of sinking is given in a small figure placed near the vertical sections at the depth at which the water was encountered. The surface of the ground is taken as the datum-line, and the height above this is reckoned as positive and below it as negative ; the latter applies to non-flowing wells and to beds which do not yield a flow at the surface. These records furnish a basis for determining the amount of fall in levels which takes place after a well has been flowing for some time, a fall due partly to the fact that all wells go down slightly after a short period of time, even if they are not interfered with by others, and also to the fact that wells affect each other materially if they happen to be sunk so as to cause overlapj)ing of the cones of depression which surround each well. The fall in level of the wells has been very rapid since they were first sunk in the district. 432 Transactions. In his paper entitled " The Behaviour of Two Wells at the Canterbury Museum " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 654, 1896) Captain Hutton states that a fall of from 2| in. to 2| in. per year has taken place in the case of first- stratum wells, and as much as 5| in. per year in the case of second-stratum wells. Comparing Captain Hutton's record of the height of the Museum well in 1895 with its height now, it is found that it has fallen off 53| in. in the fifteen years which have elapsed, thus giving an average yearly drop of 3-6 in. It is therefore falling off at a slower rate now than when Captain Hutton made his observations. In the paper just cited Captain Hutton also gives his observations on the height of the wells relative to the weather- conditions, &c. He notes the rapid response to rain ; an occasional rise, apparently inexplicable on any known cause ; a marked evening rise, which he attributes to a lessening of the call on the wells towards evening. He failed to find any tidal effect or any trace of variation in sympathy with floods in the Waimakariri. These observations are being continued at the present time by the author, and also by Dr. Hilgendorf, of Lincoln College, but it is too early to make any definite statement as to their trend, except that the influence of rain and the existence of the evening rise are undoubted. It was hoped that a variation in sympathy with the barometer might be detected, which might explain the evening rise to a certain extent, and also the non-response of floods in the Waimakariri, which usually, come at a time of low barometer. It is possible that the effect of floods in the Waimakariri may be just sufficient to mask the effect due to low barometer, and the isolation of the two separate effects may be a matter of consider- able difficulty. The- present author has received from very reliable observers so many authentic statements of the influence of the Waimakariri on rams and wells that the idea cannot be set aside as quite without fomida- tion, and further observations are necessary to establish or disprove it. The undoubted eff'ect of the barometer on the flow of wells must also be taken into accomit, and future observations may settle the question. At the same time, it must be admitted that the observations at the Museum may lead to no very definite result, owing to the disturbing influence of neighbouring wells, but much more may come of those which are being made at Lincoln under the direction of Dr. Hilgendorf, since the wells there are comparatively isolated. The greatest rise above the surface of the gromid in the wells I have examined is that of a well in Manchester Street North, which reached as high as 37 ft. from a 451 ft. level ; but a large number of others give a height nearly as much as this when sunk to about the same depth. As a general rule, the height increases with the depth, but there are a few cases where variations in permeability seem to exert a neutralizing effect on the depth. Amount of Flow. The amount of flow per minute is very variable, and lies between zero and 100 gallons, and it is possible that greater flows occur of which I have no record. As a general rule, the quantity is greater at the deeper levels of each well, though with marked exceptions. The well just cited above as giving a very high rise yielded 40 gallons per minute at the surface from a bed 451 ft. deep, a flow of 20 gallons from one 386 ft. deep, but one of 60 gallons from the 296 ft. level, thus showing clearly that the amount does not altogether depend on the depth. I am informed by Mr. Osborne Spkioht. — Geological Features of ('JniafchurcJi Artesian Area. 433 that such anomalies are frequent. The quantity falls oft' naturally if the well be tapped at a height above the ground, but in certain cases a very considerable flow is obtained even at a high level. Observations have not been made to see if the diminution of flow follows the law stated by .Slichter in the paper cited previously, but it is hoped that they may be carried out. It is evident that not only the depth but the permeability of the strata and the amount of supply affect the yield from any particular well. The well-sinkers say that the best flows are obtained a little above the lower boundary of the water-bearing stratimi, and, further, that where the water is distributed throughout a water-bearing bed the flow is always poor. These facts tend in the direction of the idea that there are well- defined layers of water percolating, probably at a somewhat rapid rate, through the porous gravel-beds of the area. When one considers the number of wells, the large amount which flows from some of them, and the great waste of water that is going on continuously, it will be readily realized that they must derive the supply originally from some very prolific and constant source, and one which is not very materially diminished by the enormous tax on it. Source of Water. The water which supplies the wells appears to come from two sources — - viz., the rainfall on the plains and the underground percolation through the shingle from such rivers as the Waimakariri. That the first source is undoubted is proved by the falling-ofi in the amount of water supplied by the wells during a period of dry weather, and their immediate recovery after rain. On one occasion the level of the water in the well at the Canter- bury Museum jumped up 6 in. after several days' rain. The same eft'ect was noted by Captain Hutton. The response is so marked that there is no doubt of the source of the supply, nor that the permeable beds outcrop but a short distance — probably a few miles — from where the wells are sunk. However, as the rainfall over the Canterbury Plains in the neighbourhood of the artesian area is comparatively low, and has an average of about 25 in. per annum, with a minimum of 14 in., recorded to date, it is evident that this amount could not furnish a supply sufficient to satisfy the great drain on it and keep fairly uniform, were there not some more reliable and constant source. The only satisfactory explanation for this main supply is that there is a very large amount of percolation through the shingle of the plains from leaks in the river-beds, which finds its way across the out- crops of the permeable beds and thus contributes towards the artesian supply Such leaks do undoubtedly occur, and dm'ing dry seasons a very large proportion, if not all, of the water in certain of the shingle river-beds is flowing imderground. At a small depth there is usually an abimdant supply, even when they are perfectly dry on the surface, and it takes but a slight shower of rain to make such a river again flow on the sur- face. In some of the rivers, like the Selwyn, the water disappears com- pletely from sight even during normal seasons, to reappear miles lower down at the surface where the underlying beds are not so permeable. Many springs also occur along a belt which runs approximately through the place where the Selwyn water comes to the surface parallel to the coast-line and near the upward hmit of the known artesian area. It is probable that the containing impermeable beds of clay and hard sand reach their furthest 434 Transactions. westerly limit about that line, though, by sinking deeper wells still, they may be found to reach much further west at greater depths. It is absolutely certain that water sufficient for the supply flows through the shingle. A statement has been repeatedly made to me by reliable persons that their wells flow much better during and after a nor'-wester. Accepting these statements as true, though my observations on the Museum well do not confirm it, the explanation would be that during nor' -westers the rivers are high, owing to heavy rains and melting snows on the main ranges to the west, and so an additional supply would be expected in the underground streams formed by percolation from the river-beds, and there- fore the wells would respond with an increased flow. If the observations on which this conclusion is founded are satisfactory, it would tend to confirm the idea that the major part of the water in the artesian area comes from underground streams which reach the edge of the outcrops of the clay-beds occurring on the eastern fringe of the plains in the neighbourhood of Banks Peninsula. Tidal Wells. Along the shore-line the height to which water rises is affected very markedly by the tide ; for example, at New Brighton, according to obser- vations carried out by the author, the level reached by water standing in an open pipe varied during a tide as much as 18 in. in the case of a first- stratum well (depth, about 144 ft.), while a second-stratum well (depth, 280 ft.) was only affected to the amount of 10 in., both wells being a few yards away from the high-water mark and slightly above it. The influence of the tide on the wells is noticed all along the coast from north of the mouth of the Waimakariri nearly to the mouth of the Rakaia, and its effect is felt inland for a distance of three miles in the neighbourhood of Christ- church, with a gradually diminishing amount as the distance from the sea increases. It is impossible to tell the exact limits of the influence of the tide, owing to local and variable causes masking it when the amount is small. It is also noteworthy that these tidal wells are salt. Near the shore the water from the first-stratum wells is so salt as to be unpleasant to drink, while that from the second stratum is less salt, the amount of saltness falling off with greater distance from the sea. No data are at present available as to the amount of saline matter present in these wells, but this will be furnished in a subsequent paper. In certain cases, too, wells sunk some distance from the sea are distinctly saline immediately after being sunk, but lose their salinity after an interval of a few weeks ; but this does not apply to those near the shore, which are permanently salt. Natural tidal wells are known from other parts of the world, and I have seen a reference to similar artesian wells round the shore of the Bay of Tokyo, in Japan. I cannot find the article on this subject which drew my attention, but, as far as-T can remember, the writer attributed the variation in level in this case to the loading of the surface of the ground by an additional weight of water at high tide, and cited experiments as to the effect of artificial loading on the height of wells. As far as I can recollect, the two cases are somew'hat parallel ; but the presence of salt water in the Canterbury tidal wells suggests that these wells have access to the sea, which is not explained by the theory just mentioned. The combined effect of the tide and the presence of salt may be explained if it is understood that the water-bearing stratum has an outcrop under Speight. — Qenlofiical Fcofitrfis of Chihfchurr]i Artesian Area. 435 the sea, and that there is a possibility of mixture oecurring between the salt water aud fresh under these circumstances. It will generally be thought that an outlet under the sea would at once destroy the possibility of getting artesian water near the shore, but I think it can be shown that even with an outlet the presence of a counterpoise of sea-water may be almost as effective as an impermeable bed blocking the outflow. The conditions will resemble to a certain extent those of the well-known laboratory experiment of the U tube, with its branches filled with unequal lengthened columns of liquids of unequal density which balance one another. It is perfectly possible to draw off a supply of the lighter liquid from a level above that of the heavier liquid. If now we suppose that salt and fresh water are the two liquids, then if we have a constant supply of fresh water carefully intro- duced it will be possible to draw off a continuous supply of fresh water at a higher level. Let us now apply this experiment to the circumstances on the shore of the artesian area — say, at New Brighton. In this case the rise of the tide is about 6 ft., and the depth of the first-stratum wells near the shore about 144 ft. We may suppose, therefore, that the water-bearing stratum outcrops at an approximate dejDth of 144 ft. below low water. Talcing the specific gravity of sea-water as 1-025, the length of a column of fresh water which would exactly balance this would be 144 x 1-025 — that is, 147-6 ft. So that a well sunk at the level of low water and supplied with a continuous amount of fresh water from inland would flow at about .3 ft. above the surface. If now the tide rises, the well will rise with it. Theoretically, a rise in the tide of 6 ft. with no admixture of the liquids would cause the well to flow 6 ft. higher. The New Brighton wells do not vary as much as this, a discrepancy due to a certain extent to the friction which obstructs the rapid flow of water through the beds, thus diminishing the effective pressure, and also to the admixture of the salt water with the fresh at the bottom of the well, which also reduces the difl'erence betAveen the level of the sea and that of the wells. This mixture must take place owing to the disturbed conditions at the bottom of the well, due principally to the move- ment which must take place as the water is drawn off. This explanation accounts for the mixture of salt water with fresh in the case of wells near the shore, and also the falling-off in saltness as well as in the tidal effect on increasing the distance from the shore. Conclusion. It is hoped that the diagrams given with this paper may be of some interest and use to the general public, as they afford a certain amount of information as to the depths at which the water-bearing beds are to be found, and seeing that these records are put into such a form as to be readily understood. The main results of this preliminary investigation of the area are to demonstrate, — ■^ (1.) That the geological arrangement of the beds is not so irregular as Avas anticipated at first, but that certain probable marine beds are persistent over considerable areas. (2.) That the water-bearing beds, being gravel, and in all probability laid down on a land-surface or by the agency of strong and varying currents, are liable to great variation in thickness and also to be split up by inter- calated sandy or clay beds. This increases the number of water-bearing 436 Transactions. beds, and militates strongly against accurate predictions being made as to the precise depth at which water will be struck in any particular locality. (3.) That the level of the land was gradually depressed for at least 600 ft., probably much more, while the beds were being laid down. This fact has considerable bearing on the explanation of the advance and retreat of glaciers within recent times, and also on the formation of terraces in the Canterbury District. In the face of the positive evidence for depression, the explanation of the formation of the river-terraces as a result of eleva- tion must be taken with great reserve, and the present writer does not believe that elevation was the determining cause for their formation. The reason for the depression of the land is uncertain. It may be the result of a loading of the crust with detritus, or it may be due to some great crustal movement whose prime cause can hardly be indicated at present, considering our scanty knowledge of the changes which affect the body of the earth as a whole. These are the main results of this inquiry up to the present, but there are several further lines of investigation which could be indicated, such as (1) the chemical properties of the water in relation to the geological con- ditions, (2) the various interesting hydraulic problems dependent on pressure and supply, and (3) the purely geological one of the actual order and arrangement of the various beds in their bearing on the general mode of construction of delta deposits. Art. XLI. — The Effects of the Disappearance of the New Zealand Bush. By Archdeacon Walsh. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 26ih September, 1910.] On the 19th July, 1896, I read before the Auckland Institute a paper in which I attempted to trace the principal causes which are combining to pro- duce the extensive and rapid disappearance of our native forest. This was followed in 1898 by another, in which I endeavoured to forecast what will be the future condition of the forest M^hen something like a balance shall have supervened between the destructive agents on the one hand and the resilient powers of nature on the other. It may be well to follow up the subject a stage further, and try to point out sonje of the more notable effects which are already following on the deforestation of the country, and which, as time goes on, must increase in an accelerating degree. In order to present the matter as clearly as possible I shall recapitulate once more the argument of the first paper :— The two principal destructive agents, besides the axe of the bushman, are cattle and fires. Any one of these acting alone is sufficient to do a great deal of damage ; but when they all act in conjunction — as they generally (Jo — the destruction is greatly accelerated and intensified. Walsh. — Effects of Dimppearaiice of the 'New Zeoland Bux/i. 4.37 The greater part of the forest below a moderate altitude, throughout both Islands, is an open cattle and pig run in which by the browsing, trampling, and rooting of the animals the undergrowth is gradually de- stroyed, the surface-roots lacerated, and the soil trodden into mud, which in sunmier hardens almost into a bed of concrete. The consequence is that the larger trees, deprived of their accustomed nourishment and pro- tection, gradually grow thin and open at the top ; the ground is covered with the fallen leaves, and the debris of centuries, now exposed to the sun and wind, is dried to tinder, when the whole place is ready to be swept by fire, which sooner or later is sure to happen. In thickly settled districts, and in those where timber-getting is carried on, the destruction is, of course, most rapid and complete, as every clear- ing, timber-working, and road-line forms a starting-point for the fires, which spread into and kill some portion of the standing bush. And as wherever the fire has once passed it will pass again while there is anything to burn, before very long, in districts where clearings are frequent, the whole bush is consumed, with the exception, perhaps, of that which stands in the lower and damper situations, or which from the conformation of the country is protected from the sweep of the flames. In this way, in a comparatively few years, immense areas have been destroyed in many of the more settled districts, while in others the work is going on more or less rapidly and completely, according to the nature of the bush and the climatic and other conditions. Now, it does not require a great deal of intelligence to understand that such a radical alteration in the conditions of the country as is involved in this wholesale destruction must result in very serious consequences, whether for better or for worse. So far, unfortunately, I think it must be admitted, the consequences are very largely for the worse — as I shall endeavour to show. The efiects of the disappearance of the New Zealand bush may be roughly classed under tAvo heads — viz., climatic and topographical. Climatic, (1.) Rainfall. There is a widespread popular opinion that rain is attracted by standing forest. Much speculation has been expended on this question ; but, so far as I have been able to learn, it has not led to any very satisfactory results. To a superficial viev/, the theory seems to be borne out by the fact that there is generally a greater rainfall in forest-covered districts than there is in open country — as, for instance, the west coast of New Zea- land, which is heavily wooded, is much wetter than the country along the east coast, which is comparatively dry. But this is really to mistake cause for effect ; and the truth is, so far as it can be ascertained, that the amount of precipitation is at least mainly determined by the topographical con- ditions of a country, apart from its vegetable covering — that, in fact, the rainfall is not caused or increased by the presence of the bush, but that the growth and conservation of the bush are promoted by the excessive rainfall. This contrast in the hygrometrical conditions of the east and west coasts is very easily accounted for. The moisture-laden winds from the ocean, meeting the steep face of the chain of hills which — with an occasional break- — extend along the west coast of both Islands, are thrown up into a colder stratum, with the result that the moisture is immediately 438 Transactions. condensed, and falls in the form of rain on the upper parts of the elevated ground. After passing along for a few miles the moisture is, as it were, strained out of the air, so that the same aerial current that brings rain to Hokitika, for instance, becomes a dry wind by the time it reaches Christ- church. (2.) Winds. But though the removal of the forest may not result in the diminution of the rainfall, it may nevertheless have some very marked effects on the climate. One of the principal of these is the increasing strength and dryness of the winds that blow during the summer months, and which have become more and more injurious to vegetation. The cause is not far to seek, and its operation may be observed in any part of the bush district to the north of Auckland, and especially in the high rugged country which was once the home of the kauri. A few years ago, with the exception of some comparatively insignificant areas, this extensive district was covered with forest from shore to shoi'e. The warm winds, charged with moisture from the ocean, passed gently over the country without injury to the most delicate plant — in fact, they were just what the iiative vegetation required for its full nourishment and growth. But with the destruction of the forest there came a change which is being in- tensified every day. The removal of the kauri, and the settlers' clearings, made way for the forest-fires ; and as these did not confine themselves to the portions artificially cleared, but worked their way into the standing bush, in a comparatively short time the greater portion of the country, especially along the backs of the high ranges, became denuded. Unless this bared land is immediately brought under cultivation, which is only done in the more fertile spots, it soon becomes covered with a clothing of fern and tea-tree scrub ; and this in its turn is overrun by fire every dry season, each fire consuming some of the humus in the soil, and gradually reducing the land to barrenness, until at last the scrub becomes so light that it affords no protection to the ground from the sun's rays. The con- sequence is that on every clear day from December to March the air is so superheated by the radiation from the baked soil that it rises in a column to the heavens, and a current is established to draw in a fresh supply from the lower levels. Every gully becomes a funnel up which the wind rushes in a tearing blast, becoming more and more desiccated as it travels ; orchards are blighted, grass is parched up, and crops are prematurely ripened ; while the remnant of the bush becomes so dried up that it is ready to be swept by the first fire that comes along. Old settlers will tell you that the seasons have changed of late years, and they fondly hope that after a certain cycle has rim its course the old state of things will ■return ; but this will never happen until, by judicious planting and cultivation, something like the old conditions have been re-established. But the effect of the wind is not only felt on the high lands. The draught commences at the coast, and is drawn up the estuaries and the long winding valleys that are a feature of the topography of many parts of both the North and the South Islands. On the Hokianga River, which has a navigable course of over twenty-five miles for large vessels, and tra- verses an extensive settled district, it is noticed that the summer winds are much more violent than they were when the place was first occupied. Orchards and vineyards require more protection ; while along the banks the native bush has a parched and storm-swept appearance that it never ;had in former times. Walsh. — Effects of Disappearance of the New Zealand Bush. 439 (3.) Blizzards. In certain parts, chiefly on the level lands along the west coast, and notably on the long stretch between Cape Egmont and Wellington, a new trouble has arrived in the shape of the " blizzard," the name signifying in America a snow-blast, but which has in the locality under mention iDeen applied to the salt storms that drive in from Cook Strait. The district has always been a windy one, as may be seen by the growth of the old native trees still standing, the weather side of the karakas, mahoes, &c., being shorn off, while the tall trunks of the rimus and kahikateas lean out of the perpendicular. But with the removal, partly by the axe and partly by decay induced by the rumination of cattle, of the belt of scrub and small bush that stretched along the coast the conditions have altered greatly for the worse. The salt spray that was once stopped by this natural breakwind is now carried for miles inland, and is not only severely felt by stock, but is most injurious to almost every kind of vegetation. An object-lesson might have been watched in the gradual destruction of an extensive plantation of macrocarpa-trees made some thirty-five years ago near Hawera. These for some time did very well. They grew uniformly to a fair height, and promised to make a most useful shelter-belt. But in proportion as the natural bush to seaward disappeared they were no longer able to stand against the salt blasts. Swept by succes- sive blizzards, they gradually perished, until a few years ago a picture in the Auckland Weekly News showed the last survivor, a storm-beaten dying wreck. This is, of course, an extreme case ; but the same thing may be seen more or less on any exposed part of the coast from which the natural pro- tection has been removed. (4.) Frosts. " We never used to have these heavy frosts before the emigrants came in," said the old Taranaki settlers some twenty-five years ago, as they thought of the golden days, when the "garden of New Zealand" was. fenced off from the rest of the world by forty miles of standing bush. The statement was not much exaggerated, as the forest, which was particularly tall and dense, not only sheltered the country from the violence of the south-easterly winds, but had the further effect of modifying the tempera- ture to a great extent. But when the land was tlirown open for settlement the bush disappeared with remarkable rapidity ; the cold winds swept unchecked over the bare land, and for some years past the frosts have come down to the water's edge. Hokianga used to claim a subtropical climate, and in a few sheltered spots the banana may still be found ripening in the open. But these spots are daily becoming more rare. Since the general disappearance of the forest a stream of chilled air flows down the long tributary valleys, and not only jeopardizes the growth of the more tender plants, but materially affects the remnant of the native bush. In many cases one sees the out- standing puriris — an interesting survival from the rumination of the cattle — quite seared and blackened, while the ashen hue of the withered taraire- trees shows that the frosts, once in this region confined to the flats, arc now reaching up the hillsides. In fact, it is safe to say that with the dis- appearance of the bush the frost-belt has moved many miles further north . . 440 Transactions. (5.) (Jold Winds and Droughts. During late years the dairy industry has been one of the most popular and profitable industries of the bush settler. Every acre or two of grass represents a cow, whose yield of milk helps to swell the monthly cheque from the factory ; and so, regardless of everything beyond the immediate return, the bush is cleared away as fast as possible, and the land laid down to pasture. If it were only a question of a dairy farm here and there amid the surrounding bush the results might, perhaps, justify the policy ; but when a large area is wholly occupied by dairy farms unlooked-for conse- quences are sure to follow. To take one instance where the whole thing has been worked out to its logical conclusion : Some forty years ago the Settlement of Okaihau was formed on a piece of land between the Bay of Islands and Hokianga, covered for the most part by a dense forest, then known as the Nine-mile Bush. Through the centre ran a broad level ridge — almost a tableland — 800 ft. above sea-level, which fell away on both sides in sharp ranges and deep gullies to two tributaries of the Hokianga River. When the first clearings were made the soil seemed to be of quite unusual richness ; droughts were unknown, and every variety of crops grew with the greatest luxuriance. Attracted by the fertility of the soil and the advantages of the situation new settlers flocked in, and before long practically the whole of the land was cleared. Then, when it was too late, the evil of this wholesale denundation began to be apparent. The wind ■drew up the bared gullies and swept unchecked across the tableland- — in bitter squalls in winter, and in scorching gales in summer. Droughts became common, and the smaller streams dried up for want of protection at their sources. The very character of the soil seemed to change from a rich, deep loam to poor, light stuff ; cropping was almost abandoned, the grass grew scantier every year, and the whole settlement now carries less stock than it would do if a reasonable proportion of the bush had been left standing. Topographical. But serious as are the effects on the climate caused by the removal of the bush, they are nothing to those which are produced on the topography of the country. Of these some of the most disastrous are those which result from floods. (1.) Floods. Floods have doubtless been always prevalent in New Zealand ; with its peculiar geological formation and its abundant rainfall it could not be otherwise. But with the removal of the bush they have assumed a form unknown before, both in regard to their magnitude and their power of destruction. In its virgin state — before it is invaded by cattle — the New Zealand bush forms a natural storage for rain-water, and supplies an efi'ective safe- guard against excessive floods. Even in the most toM'ential downpour a large proportion of the rain never reaches the ground. The dense canopy formed by the tops of the trees breaks up the heavy drops into a fine dew, part of which is at once absorbed by the foliage. Of the rest, some is caught by the epiphytes and parasitic plants that clothe the limbs and trunks, or by the ferns and mosses and seedling plants, and the thick coat- ing of humus, the decayed logs, and fallen leaves that cover the floor, where it is held in suspension till evaporation takes place. And here it may be Walsh- — /'Jffccfs of /Jts{/j)j)raraiic/ (if fhi' Xcii' ZcdJdiid Jii(<]i. 441 remarked that in the regions in which there is the greatest amount of pre- cipitation nature has provided, in tlie thick turfy mould, as well as in the denser grov^iih of the ferns, mosses, &c., a proportionately greater vehicle for the absorption and retention of the moisture. A considerable quantity of the water soaks into the soil, to be taken up as it is required by the roots of the growing trees, or to filter down to supply the springs that feed the head-waters of the streams ; while the remainder — but a small portion of what has left the clouds — trickles gently down to the nearest outlet. The removal of the forest quickly changes all these conditions. The first thing to happen is the erosion of the surface. No longer held back by the vegetable growth, the storm-water flows off the hillside like rain off the roof of a house, carrying away the ashes of the burnt timber with what is left of the rotted humus, channelling the lighter soil with frequent water- cuts, and bodily removing the most fertile portions. Then, as the network of roots decay, landslips occur in the steeper places — it is not unusual for a whole hillside to slide away into a gully — when the debris will be swept down, scouring the bed and sides of the creek, and covering the land below with a deposit of rocks and clay. When the ground affected forms part of a mountain district of large area, in which the creeks have a long course and several branching confluents, it often happens that the debris from a side creek or blind gully will form a temporary dam in the bed of the main stream. If this occur while heavy rain is still falling, a lake is immediately formed by the water from the hills above ; and before long the obstruction carries away, when all the mineral detritus, together with the wreck of the ruined forest, is borne down by the foaming torrent to spread destruction below. Just such a catastrophe occurred among the Tokatea Ranges in 1882, when every bridge in Coromandel was carried away and kauri logs were stranded in the main street. The most destructive floods occur when the water from an elevated region has to traverse a level country before reaching the sea, and the longer the course the greater is the damage. The floods which inundated the City of Paris in December last year (1909) are a case in point. The water was supplied by the unseasonable melting of the snow on the lofty plateau of Langres, where the River Seine takes its rise ; but the fact that much of the plateau had been recently cleared of forest caused the water to run down much more quickly than it would otherwise have done, when the winding channel through the level country was unable to carry it off. An instance more familiar to most of us is that of the great floods that took place in the Hawke's Bay and Palmerston districts in 1893, and again two or three years later. Phenomenally heavy rains had fallen along the watershed inland and down to Cook Strait. Every creek and river was flooded to an unusual height, and where, as in the Hawke's Bay District, a wide extent of level country intervened between the hills and the sea the same thing occurred as that which happened in the valley of the Seine. Rivers left their beds and cut new channels through the plains ; from Napier to Wanganui roads and railways were cut through, and bridges and culverts were swept away ; stock was drowned ; and farms and town- ships were laid under water. People said that the height of the flood was unprecedented. Possibly it was ; but there is no doubt that the un- unusual height was in a great measure due to the increasing extent of clear- ing on the high lands where the rivers have their origin. 442 'Transact I o?is. As time goes on, phenomenal floods will occur again, and former records will be beaten ; for as the hills become more denuded the floods will become proportionately more destructive. It would be wise, therefore, for the Napier people to take warning from past experience, and make more ample provision for the egress of the water from the lagoon into which several large rivers discharge themselves, as it is quite within the bounds of pos- sibility that it may cut its way through the lower portion of the township, or perhaps carry away the harbour-works at the Spit. (2.) Erosion and Silting. Erosion and silting generally go together, and either one or the other happens according to the velocity of the current in a river-bed. When the course of a river is steep, and the soil is of a soft or friable nature, the Avater in the proportion of its volume and velocity scoops out the bottom, and the excavation works back until it reaches a substance of sufficient hardness to be resistant, when a waterfall or permanent rapid is formed. But as the inclination of the bed becomes less the flow of the stream is retarded, and the substance that has been brought down by the current tends to settle in the bottom. In flood-time, however, large masses of stone are swept down, and by grinding against the rocks in the sides and bot- tom, as well as by mutual attrition, they are rounded into pebbles, becoming smaller and smaller as they travel along, until they wear down into gravel, and eventually into fine sand, which is carried in ripples along the bottom. Meanwhile all soft rock, clays, and earthy matter are quickly resolved into mud. When the bed approximates so nearly to a level that the rate of the current is less than 6 ft. per second on the bottom, then the river is no longer able to shift the solid material, and only the impalpable particles of mud, which may be almost said to be held in solution, are carried along. This is the process known as " silting," and it is easy to see that the quality of the silting must entirely depend on the character of the river- bed and of the nature of the material brought down. When the bed is short and steep and the incline is continued to the coast, the bulk of the silt is carried down to the sea, and no harm is done unless the mouth of the ]"iver be situated in a harbour, when, of course, trouble may arise from the shallowing of the water. It is when a flooded river traverses an alluvial plain that the silting does most damage. The debris brought down by the head-waters must find a lodgment somewhere, and, as the current loses its velocity on reaching the level country, it is no longer able to bear its burden along. The silt therefore lodges on the bottom, and the bed gradually rises until the water is forced over the banks. Then the water breaks away and cuts a new channel for itself, which in time fills up, and the same thing happens over again. Numberless instances of this process are found in many parts of both the North and the South Islands. Wherever, as in Hawke's Bay, Canter- bury, &c., the alluvial plains are backed by a mountainous country the surface is often torn away, the land is scored in every direction, and the fertile soil covered with a deposit of stones, gravel, and slime. A notable instance occurred during the great Napier flood of 1893, alre;idy men- tioned, when the River Ngaruroro left its bed, and, joining with the Tutae- kuri, cut its way through the road and railway to the sea. A foolish tradition has prompted local governing bodies and private owners in many places to plant the river-banks Avith AA^llow-trees, AAdth Walsh.--A'//Vv7.s- of Dixit piH'ara an of the New Zealand Bush. 443 the view of protecting them against the scour of the current But the scheme generally defeats its own object, and is often the cause of much mischief, which, moreover, is not always confined to the locality in which the planting takes place. Sooner or later, especially if the river is a rapid one, and runs through alluvial country, the trees are undermined and swept down until they are caught by some obstruction or are stranded in some shallow place. Here they intercept the silt and the floating debris that comes down with every flood, and an island or dam is formed, which drives the current into the banks, or even compels it to seek a new channel. In the Lower Waikato the obstruction of the willow islands has caused the lied of the river to silt up to such an extent that in many places the level land on the banks is flooded every winter, and the Township of Mercer is frequently under water after a few days' heavy rain. It may be asked whether the damage done by the willow-trees has any- thing to do with the subject of this paper, which professes to deal with the effect of the disappearance of the forest. The answer is that if the forest had not been removed the damage done by the willows would be comparatively trifling — if, indeed, it would have been considered necessary to plant them. But, as I have endeavoured to show, it is the removal of the forest that is directly responsible for the growing violence of the floods, and therefore for the increasing amount of silt and floating detritus, wliich the willows intercept. There is another aspect of the silting question that must not be over- looked— ^viz., the formation of river-bars and the silting-up of harbours. All the mineral debris, stones, gravel, and mud that are carried down by a stream are immediately deposited on the bottom as soon as the current ceases to act, which it does on reaching the sea, and here it forms a bank or shoal, which is augmented by the sand or other material which the sea washes on to it. If the river falls into landlocked water the finer particles held in suspension are carried out into the stream, and drift up and down with the tide until they are precipitated wherever there is least current. In many river-mouths, estuaries, and harbours the effect of the wholesale forest -clearing is already being severely felt. Of late years, unless where temporarily scoured out by a fresh, there is less water on many of the bars, while in some of the shallower harbours— e.g., those of the Thames, Coro- mandel, &c.- — ^the wharves have had to be lengthened and the buoys on the shoals moved further out. One of the most fertile sources of harbour-silt, and one not generally taken notice of, is the fine dust that is formed by the action of the sun on the bare hills, and washed by the rain into the creeks. This is, doubtless, one of the principal factors of the extensive mud-flats so frequently found in landlocked waters. ~ (3.) Drying-up of Streams. So far I have dealt only with the evils caused by water in excess ; but it can also be shown that the removal of the forest involves trouble in the opposite direction — viz., in the diminutiojti of the supply when it is moet needed. The volume of a stream is derived from two sources — the first consist- ing of the water that flows directly ofi the surface, and the second of that which comes through the ground. Both of these, of course, are originally supplied by the rain. 444 Transactions. Though varying very much according to circumstances, the imderground supply is perhaps very much greater than is generally supposed. In per- meable soil, especially if the watershed be fairly level and the surface protected by bush, there is a constant percolation into the ground, and, except in the case of a very heavy rainfall, by far the greater portion of the water goes through the earth before it finds its way to the river-bed. Even in hard rocks, underground streams, starting originally in some fault or fissure, wear for themselves well-defined channels, when, after running sometimes quite considerable distances, they emerge in the form of springs about the head-waters and sides of the creeks. It is by this underground supply that the average volume of a river is maintained. But if the bush has been removed, and nothing but a hard, bare surface remains on the watershed, then the rain, as before mentioned, runs off at once ; and, unless the ground be of a very porous nature, there is no water left to feed the underground supply, and the river is starved. Unfortunately, in many extensive forest-areas the land is of clay or " papa rock," both of which are almost impervious to water. Little or no percolation can take place, and practically the whole of the rain runs off as soon as it falls on the ground. The consequence is that in wet weather we have a succession of floods, and in dry weather a dwindling streamlet, or even an empty watercourse. On a small scale this sequence of cause and effect may be seen in the dry creeks that bring such trouble to the grazier and the dairy- farmer ; Avhile on a larger scale it may be witnessed in some of the small river-ports, where for weeks- — or it may be for months — there is not suffi- cient water to clear the channel on the bar. (4.) Permanent Loss of the Bush. It may seem rather a superfluous statement to make, that one of the results of the removal of the forest is the loss of the bush. But it is well, perhaps, to consider, before it is too late, how much the statement involves. The European and American forestry regulations, so often quoted, which provide for the judicious thinning-out and the gradual removal of the full- grown trees, and so on, cannot be made to apply to the forest of this country. No single tree once removed from the New Zealand bush can ever be replaced, while to attempt to " thin out " the New Zealand bush is to condemn it to immediate destruction. From a scenic point of view the loss also is incalculable. The New Zealand bush has grown up under conditions which, once removed, can never be restored. Favoured by special climatic conditions, undisturbed by the presence of any ruminating animal, the bush, with its patriarchal trees, its wealth of underwood, its profusion and variety of epiphytes and climbing plants, has attained a richness and beauty probably unequalled, and certainly not surpassed, in any part of the world. In a block of kauri in the Auckland Museum, measuring 8 ft. in diameter, the Curator, Mr. Cheeseman, counted no less than 455 concentric rings, each ring representing a year's growth. But the tree from which the block was cut Avas only a sapling compared wnih the giants of 10 ft., 12 ft., or 14 ft. which have been sacrificed for milling-timber. Thousands of years mi;st have been required for their growth. How many thousands more it must have taken to evolve the conditions necessary for their existence it would be vain to attempt to guess. With a fair amount of care a specimen tree may be grown away from its natural sur- roundings. A kauri, a rimu, or a totara will make a very handsome object Wai.sii. — Effects of l)isapj)e(tr. — Skction from Jacob's Estuary to tiik Waiau River. h. Palaeozoic slates. &c. Fig. 7. c cL c e c J -From North of Mount Pleasant to the Sea-coast. a. Oainaru foi'inatioii. I). Basalt, c. Palaeozoic slates, d. Granite, e. Melaphyre. /. Gravel plain. It will be interesting, before conciuding, to compare the district with that of the Coromandel Peninsula, in Auckland. One cannot but be struck with the similarity on broad lines between the two. We have seen that the Longwood district consists of a main central ridge running north and south, with spurs given off on all sides, and the whole densely wooded. The main axis, or what might be called the base, consists of Palaeozoic slates. These are pierced, as we have seen, by dykes consisting of diorite, melaphyre, and granite. On each side of the axis come younger rocks of Tertiary age. I-'.MUH HAHi^ON. — TJw I'Jdtiiium Graveh of Orcjniki. 459 Look now at the Coromandel district. It also consists mainly of a mountain-ridge running nearly north and south, with numerous spurs, and all densely wooded. Tlie base or bottom of the structure consists of Palaeo- zoic slates, which are also pierced by dykes. The latter are composed of trachyte, and what was originally called by Captain Hutton a diorite, and what has since proved to be in some cases a dolerite and in others a mela- phyre. Further, the older formation forms the centre, and younger form- ations of Tertiary age form the outskirts. Brown coal also occurs in the peninsula in places, I'esting unconformably, as in the Longwood, on the older slates. In addition, it may be remarked that quartz veins occur in the Coro- mandel, and they also occur on the south-eastern slopes of the Longwood. Gold, too, is found in both localities. A similarity is also to be noticed with the structure of Great Barrier Island, north of Cape Colville Peninsula. This, as Captain Hutton points out (New Zealand Geology Reports, 1868), consists of a base of dark-blue siliceous slates, penetrated here and there by dykes of quartz-porphyry and what he calls a diorite, but which may be of similar character to the diorite of the Coromandel dykes — i.e., either dolerite or melaphyre. There is, however, a marked difference in the associated volcanic rocks in the two districts. In the Longwood district the only volcanic rock is the basalt already described, but in the Coromandel district hypersthene- andesites were first erupted, and these were followed by large outpourings of rhyolites characterized by the presence of tridymite. The andesites are everywhere older than the rhyolites. Round Hill District and Claim. General Appearance. It will be seen that the country to the north consists of Round Hill and two chief ridges. Round Hill has a barometric height of 1,120ft., and the ridges of approximately 703 ft. and 8J0 ft. respectively. Between the Hill and the first ridge there is a gully, down waich the Rurikaka Stream flows. Between the first ridge and the second occurs a steep- sided gully, down which flows in a rapid stream the main branch of the Ourawera River. Between the second and the third ridge occurs anot ler similar gully, down which the other branch flows. A rather similar succession goes on all round the lower spurs of the Longwood R mge. In a southerly direction from the Rurikaka a rather peculiar knob is found, bordered on the far side from Round Hill by the Ouki Stream, the bed of which is flatter than that of the other streams above it. From this stream, both on the east and on the west side of the district, a more or less gradually rising slope occurs, extending on the west towards Pahia and on the east towards Riverton. It Will thus be seen that the Ourawera River flows in a kind of obtuse V-shaped hollow, rising rather abruptly to the north, and sloping gradually from tiie base of the ridges to the sea. On each side the land rises fairly riipidly, but more so on the east than on the west, and the slope increases as we go towtirds either the north-west or north-east. Thus the greatest height of the land on the west side (with the exception of the knob pre- viously mentioned) is about 500 ft., while on the east side it may rise to 700 ft." 460 I'ransactioiiH. The Township of Kound Hill is between 250 ft. and 300 ft. above sea- level, the claim itself, occurring as it does along the eastern bank of the river, being about 200 ft. to 230 ft. above sea-level. From the bottom end of the claim the land is almost quite flat on all sides, and it is on this flat plain at the base of the spurs that Lake George is situated. The whole district is densely wooded ; even Kound Hill, though a trig, station, is covered with trees of unusual height. In the course of our in- vestigation, realizing the importance of Eound Hill as an observatory, we made an excursion to the top. The Ourawera, we could see, has now reached its base-level of corrosion in that portion which extends from the base of the ridges to the coast. Its action now is one of erosion — i.e., that gradual eating-away of its banks to form ultimately a more or less flat plain. The deposits, therefore, now being formed from the river are those got from the denundation of the rocks and soil in the neighbourhood. The bank on the west side is gradually sloping at once from the bed of the river, but on the east side there is a rather steep cliff from the bed, about 20 ft. to 30 ft. high, and extending almost the whole length of the claim. This has been formed probably from the sluicing, which has been going on for a considerable number of years. Of the coast-line, all that need be said is that it has characters exactly similar to the bed of the river from the east side. The land ends in a cliff of about 10 ft. to 30 ft. high, and is flat from there inland. The beach is very flat. General Physiography of the Neighbourhood of Orepuki. If we look at a detail map of the Province of Otago, and especially of the southern portion of it, we cannot but be struck with the almost un- interrupted growth of bush which prevails as we go westwards from luver- cargill to Orepuki. Almost from Invercargill itself to the water's edge on the west coast there extends a continuous stretch of forest of the very densest description. Not only does this occur near the coast, but for miles and miles inland until the Waiau Kiver is reached, and if a clearing is met one finds it due only to the indefatigable labours of some prospectors on the look-out for gold. It is at once seen, therefore, that any examination of such a district is fraught with more than ordinary difficulty. Even at the present time, in spite of the fact that the railway-line to Te Tumutu has been open for more than twenty years, in spite of the fact that there is still a large in- ducement in the Dominion for the extension of the sawmilliug industry, and in spite of the fact that the district has proved to be more than ordi- narily auriferous, the means of locomotion are restricted to l)ridle -tracks, bush-tracks, water-races, and sawmill tram-lines. Decent roads are quite unknown in the district until we get as far north almost as Nightcaps. One cannot wonder, then, that the information in regard to this district is very meagre ; nor can one wonder that what information there is, geological or otherwise, is more or less of a contradictory character Even in my own case, though I had the advantage of tracks, water-races, and tram-lines,, not to speak of a guide or two possessing a fair knowledge of the country, my path was far from easy. When I consider, therefore, that Dr. Hector and Captain Hutton made a survey of the country, the former in 1864 and Fakquharson. — The Plat/nuni Gravels of Orepuki. 461 tho lattev only a little later, I can easily see how very difficult it must then have been for them. While the above remarks arc applicable to the whole of the western and south-western part of the Southland County (except, of course, the alluvial plains of the Waiau), they are especially applicable to the district which we have under investigation. This is bounded on the west side by the meridian of 167° 30', on the south by Foveaux Strait and Te Wae- wae Bay, on the east by the meridian of 168°, and on the north bv the parallel of latitude 4:5°. The physiographical features can be classified conveniently as follows : (1) The mountains, (2) the plains, (3) a lake, and (4) the rivers. The mountains of the district are represented by (a) the Longwood Eange and its offshoots, and (6) various isolated peaks. The Longwood Range consists of the main ridge running almost due north and south, and tapering at the northern extremity to a single peak called Bald Hill. The average height of the ridge is about 3,000 ft., and its breadth at the widest part is about four miles. From both sides of the range extend about five or six parallel spurs, which slope gradually down to the plains at the bottom. At the lower extremity of the range there are also several diverging spurs, and to the most westerly of these the name of Round Hill has been given. The whole range, including the spurs and the valleys, is very densely wooded, and, except for some water- races and a sawmill track or two, is practically virgin forest, with trees on an average about 50 ft. high. In contradistinction to most of the ranges of Otago, the mountains of this one are not rugged. Their summits are rounded, and they altogether present an appearance more like hummocks than mountain-peaks. It is hardly necessary to state that the range constitutes the chief water- shed of the district, the main river-system having its origin entirely in the valleys which everywhere occur on the flanks of the ridge. Various isolated peaks occur on the extreme north-west of the district, but these do not attain any size, the highest being only about 1,000 ft. high, and composed entirely of a Pleistocene gravel formation. Other isolated peaks occur, jutting out into the sea south of Orepuki and along the coast as far as Riverton. They also nowhere attain any considerable size, and are always completely covered with bush ; but they give the country a rather peculiar appearance, and, in conjmiction with the plains which are always associated with them, they are strongly suggestive of the idea that the district has been submerged comparatively recently. More will, however, be said with regard to this later on. Let us now turn to the plains. Generally speaking, the whole district between the Longwood Range and the sea-coast all around consists of one densely wooded plain. In fact, it is quite remarkable that the whole of the south-east coast of Otago from the mouth of the Mataura River to ten miles west of Waiau, Preservation Inlet, on the south-west coast, is extremely flat ; nor does it begin to rise until a distance of more than thirty miles from the coast is reached (the only exception to this being in the case of the district between the Longwood and the coast, where the range is distant only about five or six miles from the sea-beach). Further, too, a consideration of the soundings round this part of the coast shows that the slope continues gradual for some considerable distance under the sea-level. This plain consists, as far as can be made out, of a gravel formation, the pebbles being such as would be brought down by the rivei- ■?".€., more or 462 Transactions. less rounded, smooth, and only in rather rare cases flat. This plain looks therefore, much like one of fluviatile deposition, such as occurs in Otago, in the Waikato district of Auckland, and, according to some authorities, in Canterbury. Further evidence and opinions as to its origin will appear later on. A continuation of this p^.ain is found east of the Longwood, intersected here and there by stream.s flowing from the range. The most pronounced in character, however, of all the plains is that formed by the Waiau River. This river during nearly all the latter half of its course flows between banks composed partly of pebbles and partly of limestone or calcareous sandstone. For a distance of two m.iles in some places, in others three, on either side of the river flat alluvial land extends, passing gradually into a series of hilly spurs, and from there to the mountains. It is this flat that constitutes the Waiau Plain. It is very wide at the mouth (about a mile), and gradually tapers backwards, but it extends for many miles up the river, and south of Lake Manapouri the land is so flat that marshes have been formed. Evidently it is a plain of fluviatile deposition, the uniformity of surface being produced by the deposition of gravel and silt as the fall of the river has diminished. Pronounced terraces have been seen in places on the banks, and, since the flow of water is so great that these could hardly have been formed by changes in the course of the river, it is legitimate to assume they are due to a small elevation of the surrounding district, especi- ally as the depth of the river is very considerable. No other jjlains worthy of mention occur. The rivers must now be considered. These are : (a.) The Pourakino, which rises amongst the easterly spurs of the Longwood, flows generally in a southerly direction, and after a rather tortuous course empties itself into Jacob's Estuary near Riverton, It is chiefly interesting on account of the gold-washing that goes on near its source and as far as the point where the river enters the plains. (6.) The Ourawera, which, rising in the southerly spurs of the Longwood, flows due south, and, with a tributary from Lake George, enters Wakapatu Bay. It is along the course of this river that the gold and platinum grains are found which form the basis of this paper, (c.) The Rurikaka River, which has its source near the base of Round Hill, and, flowing in a south-westerly direction close past Pahia Township, enters Foveaux Strait, {d.) The Waimeamea, which, having its source on the western slopes of the range, with a tributary system very like that of the Pourakino, flows in a south-westerly direction across the plain, and after a remarkably tortuous course across the flat country enters Te Waewae Bay. (e.) The Orawia, a tributary of the Waiau, may also be taken as a separate stream. It takes its rise in the comparatively hilly country to the north of our northern boundary, flows also towards the south-west, and after a to tuous course joins the Waiau opposite Bald Hill. In the case of the last three rivers — viz., the Rurikaka, the Waimeamea, and the Orawia — and to some extent the Waiau, which we shall describe next, it will be noticed that they fall very conveniently into the classifi- cation (adopted by Professor J. C. Russell in his " River Development ") of streams which have their source in mountain-ranges and flow across broad j^lains to the sea. Such streams may be divided, he says, into three divisions — the mountain tract, where the streams flow impetuously in narrow depressions ; the valley tract, where the stream widens and is bordered by flood-plains ; and the plains tract, where the grade is still Kak(JU1Iarson. — The Plati/inm Gravels of Orejmki. 463 more gentle, and the stream meanders in broad curves through alluvial lands of its own manufacture. With the three streams above we have the mountain tract projiounced, followed by a more or less pronoimced valley tract. The plains tract is very evident, being shown by the complicated meanders of their courses. A similar course is followed by some rivers in the North Island, especially the Wanganui. This river, coming from the plateau of the centre of the mainland, flows in its lower portion through flat plains which quite recently (in the Pliocene) were beneath the sea-level. Complicated meanders are thus produced, and in this case, as in others, lakes are in process of formiiig by the erosive action of the waters on the banks. This action is especially to be seen in the case of the Orawia and Waimeamea. It is usually miderstood that rivers acquire complicated meanders hi their courses comparatively late in their period of existence. The work which a river unceasingly carries on is the bringing of its bed to its base- level of corrosion, after which the slow erosion of its banks begins. But, while this is true in most cases, it is not always true. As Professor Russell points out, a similar phenomenon may be witnessed with even young rivers, when the land through which they flow has recently been raised from beneath the sea, and, as will be showm afterwards, it is probable that such has been the fate of at least some of the coastal part of the district. Finally, the Waiau River has to be considered. Easily the largest of the Southland rivers, this notable river has a discharge of about 1,130,000 cubic feet of water per minute, or two-thirds the amount of the Clutha River. Though broad and deep, it is, even when flowing across theplainf^, unfortunately too rapid for navigation. Unlike most rivers, it starts away as a large river from, not a hillside, but from the southern extremity of Lake Te Anau, the largest lake of the South Island of New Zealand. After rushing swiftly over eight or nine miles of large boulders between high banks it enters Manapouri Lake. From this it emerges at the south-east corner, to be joined alm.ost at once by the Mararoa, itself a good-sized river. Some fifteen miles further on it receives the water from the Monowai Lake and the Hunter Mountains, and thenceforth, with a rather tortuous course, it flows in a southerly direction to empty its waters by several mouths into Te Waew^ae Bay. In addition to these features, a lake occurs in the district midway between Wakapatu and Colac Bay. Lake George, as it is called, is only about 100 chains long and 60 broad. The depth is in no case more than 15 ft., and this fact, together with the marshy nature of the surrounding land, gives the impression that it is either a relic of a former depression or is due to depression actually in process. It is supplied by a small unnamed spring from the lowest spurs of the range. Of the beaches which occur along the coast all that need be said is that they are imusually flat. At Orepuki the beach at low tide extends for fully 50 yards along the sand to the margin of the water. Geology of the Claim. It has already been remarked that the whole district extending for about two miles from Oiepuki Township into the Longwood and along the base of the range about Romid Hill to the edge of the coastal plain consists of a mass of diorite, possibly as an intrusion. This rock forms the base or bed-rock of the claim, and therefore calls for close attention. 464 Transactions. An examination of the rock confirms Captain Hutton's description of it. It consists, in liand-specimens, of whitisli feldspar and crystals of black or dark-green hornblende showing prismatic cleavages rather pro- minently. Occasionally, as is common in all igneous masses, parts of the rock are finer grained than others, and the rock then has a slightly lighter green colour. On exposure to the weather the feldspar is very soon acted upon, disappears to a great extent, and leaves the rock with more or less rounded crystals of hornblende projecting from it, and with an external appearance not unlike the nephrite coating seen, but very rarely, on a troctolite.* The rock is exceedingly tough, and very prone to decom- position, so much so that when a fresh surface has been exposed for about a year a more or less thick scale of decomposed material can be taken off. A fresh surface shows very fine cleavage surfaces of hornblende, and when the feldspar is not so prominent as usual the rock has almost the appear- ance of a pure hornblende rock. The feldspar usually has a faint greenish tinge, probably due to the proxim.ity of the green ferro-magnesian mineral. After weathering has acted on it for a considerable time, as with the rock ' under the alluvial deposits of the claim, the hornblende becomes almost pea-green in colour, studded with white specks of decomposed feldspar. Ultimately a clay, bluish-green in colour, and of the consistency of putty, results. Examined mider the microscope in section, the rock may be said to exist in two varieties — {a) one in which hornblende is plentiful to the exclusion of augite, (6) one in which much augite is present. The (a) variety consists of plagioclase and hornblende almost wholly. The plagioclase is usually quite fresh, and shows very pronounced poly- synthetic twinning after both the albite and periclinc laws. Karlsbad twinning was also seen in one or two sections. From the extraordinary number of lamellae and their marked development we should infer that the feldspar was very basic. A determination of the feldspar proved this conclusively. In the determination, as usual, a section was selected cut nearly perpendicular to the lamellae. This was to be recognized by the fact that the illumination of the two sets of lamellae was almost equal when the twin-line was parallel to a cross-wire. Several measurements of the extinction-angles were taken, with the result that the angle was found to be about 35° (or 55°). The feldspar, then, is an almost pure anorthite. That this is the case was also proved by an analysis of the rock, in which it was found that, while the amount of lime was very high, the amount of potash was exceedingly low (see later). The rock, therefore, is rather ex- ceptional, for the general rule is for the feldspar to vary between oligoclaso and labradorite. Inclusions are in some cases numerous, consisting of fluid pores and other kinds whose exact nature it was impossible to deter- mine. A striking peculiarity with regard to these feldspars is the presence in some sections of a decided bending of the lamellae. This bending, too, is not altogether restricted to the plagioclase, for a section has been seen in which the augite (or diallage) seems to have been bent. This bending, we know, is a result of dynamic metamorphism, and it is probably here due to pressure subsequent to the solidification of the rock-mass after intrusion. Hornblende. — This is uniformly green in colour in small plates, with usually no distinct terminations. Pleochroism is marked, from green to yellow. The extinction-angle varies between 13° and 15° ; the plates are * It is seen very conspicuously in ore from the west coast of Otago. F.vuQuriARSON. — The Platinum Gravels of Orejniki. 465 usually elongated in the direction of the pinacoid faces. No twinning has been seen. The hornblende is often much altered. The more usual alteration consists in the development round the borders of the plate of a secondary outgrowth of the mineral, causing an apparent extension of the plate. Another type not uncommon in the sections examined consists in a large development of chlorite, which is distinctly pleochroic, green in colour, and very ragged in outline. Now and again calcite and magnetite are formed in small quantities. The (6) variety consists of plagioclase, augite, and hornblende. The plagioclase has characters exactly similar to those in the [a) type ; the hornblende also much the same as before. The augite is rather peculiar. In some cases it seems to take the form of diallage, and with those cases in which it occurs to a large extent it would lead one to call the rock not a diorite, but either an augite-diorite or a gabbro. The diallage occurs in large plates with a more or less well-marked schiller structure formed by rows of inclusions, an extinction-angle of nearly 40°, strong orthopinacoidal cleavage, and with no pleochroism. The plates are also usually colourless, and the inclusions are often very numerous. Augite as distinguished from diallage also occurs. This is without regular outlines, with an extinction- angle of 35° (approximately), and quite colourless in section. Alteration, a^i with the hornblende, is sometimes pronounced. The usual type of alteration is the development of uralite. This begins at the border of the plate, gradually extending inwards, and frequently a ragged scrap of augite is enclosed almost entirely by uralite. The latter has only a very faint pleochroism. In another type of alteration chlorite is formed, and even calcite, just as in the case of the {a) type of rock. The structure of the rocks presents characters strongly suggestive of dynamic action. On first looking at a section with crossed nicols one cannot help being struck with the " crushed " appearance of the rock. The whole section seems to be composed of a mosaic of small plates of feldspar and ferro-magnesian mineral placed in a curiously disorganized manner. The appearance is exactly the same as the granulitization seen sometim.es in granitic masses, and is probably due to the same cause — i.e., crushing of the rock-mass after consolidation. Sometimes there is an appearance very like the grounduiass seen in quartz-porphyries that are holoerystalline — namely, a very small mosaic — in this case consisting of altered hornblende or augite and little plagioclase plates. An analysis of the rock runs as follows : — p^^^, q^^^ SiO, .. .. .. .. .. 47-40 " FeO Al.,0., Cab " MgO K2O NaaO H2O ^6303 MnOo TiO," Note. — In this analysis the CaO was determined volumetrically with KMnOj standard solution. This was the of the coral limestone at Funafuti, and 6-60 18-17 12-23 7-17 0-20 2-75 0-75 5-42 Trace. Trace. method followed by the analysts it certainly seems neater and just as accurate^as the other way. On fusion of the powder with the fluxes 466 Transactions. a greenish tinge was noticed, due, of course, to MnOg, but the quantity pre- sent was too small to be worth tabulating. The TiOo was determined by the colorimetric method, but the quantity present was very minute, being also not worthy of tabulation. W. C. Brogger, in his " Das Ganggefolge des Laurdalits," has given several diagrams of rocks based on their chemical composition, or, rather, what Professor Washington, in his " Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks," calls " molecular proportions." A consideration of the above analysis will show — [a) a percentage of silica which is exceptionally low — even too low for a diorite, but quite usual for a gabbro : (6) a very large percentage of CaO and AUOg, and at the same time an exception- ally low one of potash ; this shows, as has been previously shown from the extinction-angle, that the feldspar in the rock is almost wholly a nearly pure anorthite : (c) a rather high percentage of total iron and a truly high percentage of FcaOg. It may be remarked that a more than ordinary amount of black magnetite grains were found in powdering the rock, and an examination of a section shows that magnetite sometimes occurs to a considerable extent. Professor Washington, in his " Chemical Analysis of Igneous Rocks, "^ gives (p. 286) the analysis of a hornblende-gab bro which runs as follows : — Per Cent. SiO, .. .. .. .. .. 49-80 Al^C. Fe,03 FeO MgO CaO Na20 K^O H,0 19-96 6-32 0-49 7-05 11-33 2-22 0-61 1-71 Note. — The analysis is marked A2II, so the results can be rehed on. Comparing this with the analysis of the rock in the claim, we see that^ except for the low percentage of FeO in the former, these analyses agree very well. The claim, therefore, placed as nearly accurately as possible, will have the following position in Professor Washington's scheme of classi- fication : " Class II. DosALANE. Rang 4. Docalcic. Hessase." It will be noted from the foregoing that the rock will be more accurately classed as a hornblende-gabbro or simple gabbro than as a diorite, though the latter name was given to it by Captain Hutton and Sir James Hector. Considering now this rock only as far as regards the claim, we find above a series of strata of which a typical exposure is illustrated in the following section :■ — iiominiTiTrEnTmiTnirmi; Bed-rock of gabbro I Clay '—Lignite . Sandstone Z Lignite Sandstone 'Lignite: Sandstone (finer) Fig. 8. l"'.\K(^i.'iiAi{SON.— 7V;f' Pldtiiiiiiu Graveh nf Orejmki. 4B7 In this we sec that, resting on the eroded surfaces of the bed-rock, there is first a layer of sandstone and silt about 5 ft. thick, followed by a stratum of lignite of about the same thickness ; after this comes another stratum of sandstone, then a layer of Ugnite, and so on. Three distinct scams of lignite separated by beds of sandstone are to be seen. Above all is the •clay, or in places the artificial tailings. The geology, therefore, of the claim is very simple. The sandstone on the bottom is usually fine, interspersed here and there with small pebbles. Sometimes fairly large pebbles of gabbro are found. The lignite above is poorer in some places than in others, but generally speaking its value does not amount to much. That this lignite has drifted into its present position is shown unmistakably by the following : (a.) It is usually muddy, the woody tissue being interspersed with pockets of fine silt, or sometimes very similar in appearance to a brownish-black clay. (6.) Rounded pebbles of varying size, and consisting of gabbro, are found in it, more often than not in the bottom of the layer, (c.) Prone tree trunks and branches, consisting of miro, pine, and rimu, have been seen in it. {il.) An instance has been noticed where a tree-trunk has a vertical posi- tion in it, and the lignite has its layers bent up and around the trunk. Whether the trunk actually grew as it has been found is not known, but the probability is that it was simply sticking out of an underlayer, and a fresh deposit w^as formed round it. (e.) The bands are not continuous, but occur in some places and not in others, and often dovetail into the silt and sand. This would tend to show the existence of current bedding. The sandstone above the bottom layer of lignite is much the same as that below it, but does not contain, as far as can be seen, any pebbles. The thickness of the sandstone layers varies between 5 ft. and 20 ft. The beds are of only local extent, occurring only in the hollow between the two sides of sloping ground. The lignite (to a very small extent) and the sandstone are auri- •ferous, a fact which can be shown in the case of the sandstone by a simple prospect with a shovel. No fossi's of any kind have been seen. What, then, is the origin of these formations ? To answer this ques- tion, let us first suppose we have a coastal area like the Round Hill district undergoing submergence, while, of course, the land further in remains more or less stationary.* The first effect of this is to increase the corrosive action of the streams. Since, however, the land is mostly bush-covered, the corrosion ^vill not be very great, but the amount of vegetation brought -down will be proportionately increased. Again, as submergence goes on, the sea will invade the river-valleys, forming ultimately a bay or estuary, and it may extend even to some distance up the sides of the mountain-range. The water of the streams, charged with detritus and vegetation, on meet- ing the comparatively calm water of the bay will be unable longer to retain the material in suspension, and it will be precipitated. The result is that at first a bar wall be formed, but later on the bar will be flattened out. The strata in the bar will be composed partly of silt and partly of woody material, according as the stream has brought more debris than vegetation, or vice versa. There will, therefore, be a tendency towards the formation of a flat plain, as the sea-action wall round off all irregularities, and the slope will increase gradually inland. A succession of periods of flood will thus cause the formation of bands of silt, or vegetable matter mixed with silt, * if depression all round took place, the corrosive action would, of course, be di- minished. 468 Tnnisdctious. or even in some cases nearly pure woody tissue, especially when the streams- come from heavily bushed country. Again, as the land becomes more submerged, any ridges which may exist mil be conve be platinum-bearing. If we examine the geology of the west coast of Otago we see that almost the whole of the left bank of the Waiau consists of the Manapouri formation of Hutton and the Kaikoura formation of Hutton. Hutton, in his " Geology of Otago," in describing the former, says that it is found only on the west coast of Otago from Milford Sound to Preserva- tion Inlet, extending inland to Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri and to the upper part of the Waiau. The rocks, he says, are composed of syenitic gneiss, granuUtes, hornblende-schists, serpentine-schists, and limestone (marmolite). Dr. Hector, in describing the same, says that they are horn- blende-schists, felstone dykes, and serpentines. The latter, he says, wrap round the formation, and in places are found on its surface. Again, Hutton. in his " Geological History of New Zealand " (1899), refers to these rocks as eruptives. He calls them chiefly diorites and gabbros that have acquired a schistose structure by pressure. Pie says they are coincident with the peridotites and serpentines occurring at intervals between Milford Sound and D'Urville Island. The Takitimus, from which also tributaries come to the Waiau, are placed by Hutton in his Kaikoura foiniation, which has been described by Dr. Hector and Mr. S. H. Cox as filled with dykes of diorite and serpentine. It is thus evident that the river comes from it Fahquhahson. — The Phitinum GrareU of Ovepulil. 479 ;' ?^ ^ ^ %fe> 1 m-. Pah/d Pr^ m ^^# ( Z^— '^'& 1 /^ /6 >4 <'c<)iih(r. Ii)l(}.\ This paper embodies the results obtained from an examination of material collected in South Victoria Laud by Mr. T. V. Hodgson, biologist to the British National Antarctic Expedition (1901-1903). It is merely intended as a supplement to the official report, and is confined to description of individual specimens, without any attempt to generalize or arrive at large conclusions as to tlie structure of the district, From a much greater mass of material the affinities of the various rocks have been worked out by Dr. Prior, and it is only where the specimens have not been described in the official report that any detail is entered upon, except that in some instances slight variances have been met to which attention has been given. Worth. — Petrological Notes on South Victoria hand Rocks. 483 Tho following rocks are either not dealt with in the official report, except perhaps in some instances macroscopically, or show variations in the slides MOW i^repared and examined. The details as to locality and general ac- counts of occurrences are furnished by Mr. Hodgson. Casllc Rod: — I, camptonite in so far as it contains ainygdaloids of analcimo. TenninalioH Rock. — 3. tracliyte. Sultan's Head.— 3, pumice. Erebus. — 1, trachydolerite ; 3, diorite ; 4, felsite. Twile Island. — 2, trachyte ; 5, augite nodule without oHvine. Inacccssihk Island. — 1, augite-andesite ; 2. phonolitic trachyte, uii- described in detail ; 3, trachyte. Black Island. — 1, diorite ; 3, quartz-felsite ; 4, sandstone ; 5, quait2- ite ; 6, camptonite ; 7, augite-diorite ; 8, camptonite ; 9, micro-pegmatite ; 11, augite-diorite ; 13, 14, altered sedimentary, here described in detail ; 16. Brown Island. — 2, basalt ; 3, andesite ; 4, basalt. Western Mountains. — 1, mica-schist; 2, dioritic lamprophyre ; 6, tulf. Granite Harbour. — 1, felsite ; 2, quartz-diorite ; 5, quai'tz-mica-diorite. In some instances a description of the rock has been given, but no specific or varietal name applied. Such omission is j^robably unimportant in any event, and must be taken as indicating that analysis as well as microscopic examination might be desired. Observation Hill Dark -grey trachytic rock, with phenocrysts of augite up to 3 nun. and of olivine up to 4 mm. in length. It is slightly vesicular. Groundmass microlites of brown augite, of olivine-feldspar in lath shape, and magnetite. Larger augites are of a somewhat lighter shade, and show zonal structure between crossed nicols. Larger olivines are numerous, and very uniformly distributed. Fibrous isotropic patches occur, which may be analcime. Beyond a few larger laths, the porphyritic feldspar is confined to one crystal in which a band of inclusions marks out a rhomb. C'ASTLE Rock. Castle Rock is a mass of reddish breccia, and rises to a height of about 400 ft. above the general level of the Ridgeway. It gives one the impres- sion of being the solidified pipe of a vanished volcano. Between the rock and the shore, but at a considerably lower altitude, were several small cones extending over an area something like 300 yards towards the ship. All the specimens taken came from one or other of these cones, and were obviously in situ, though taken from detached fragments. Castle Rod; 1. — Dark-gvey, minutely granular I'ock. Enstatite, brown mica, feldspar in broad laths and irregular patches, uniformly clouded. Camptonite. From small cone below Castle Rock, nearest to ship, in situ. Castle Rode, 2. — Black basalt, in part highly vesicular, in part compact. No visible olivine. This rock, with Castle Rock, is typical of this area : both are from the same cone. Castle Rod; 3. — Very dark-grey rock, shghtly vesicular, with zeolitic amygdaloids. minutely crystalline texture. Groundmass, feldspar laths, minute pale-brown augite, olivine, and magnetite. Larger forms of olivine and augite, frequently with good outline. The z(^olite filling the vesicles is 16* 484 Transactions. isotropic, probably aiialcime. Basalt. From small cone within 200 yards of Castle Rock, south of and below same. Castle Rock, 4. — Black basalt. Prominent crystals of black augite and pale-green olivine. There is a sharply defined inclusion of granular augite and olivine, with no trace of any transitional material, between this and the basalt ; greatest dimension of inclusion as shown in specimen, 45 mm. Another specimen shows an inclusion, equally well defined, which is practi- cally all olivine, there being only one visible fragment of augite. A section of the augite-olivinc inclusion shows coarse-grained olivine-augite rock with ophitic structure. The augite pale green with a shade of pink, non- pleochroic. The merest beginnings of schiller structure are visil)le in places. Below Castle Rock, nearest to the rock. ■ Second Knoll. Black Vesicular Basalt. — This was one of the less-prominent landmarks, and consisted of a cone of angular lumps of black vesicular basalt of vitreous appearance. From this a ridge of snow extended northwards for some 200 or 300 yards. Whether this was a compacted drift ridge ov merely a bank of basalt covered with snow it is impossible to say. Termination Rock. Termination Rock is officially known as Hutton Cliffs. The name was given by Mr. Hodgson for his own convenience, as the exposure was the most distant one from the ship, and therefore the last on the Ridge- way. No. 1 was taken from the base of the cliff, which is some 200 ft. high, and sheer. Termination Rock, 1 (Hutton (Jlifi's). — Compact, olive-green mottled with black. Many of the black included fragments are obviously amygdaloidal, the vesicles being filled with white zeolite ; spots of this mineral also occur in the green part. A volcanic agglomerate. Frag- ments of green, black, and brown glassy highly vesicular rocks, all of which contain olivine crystals. Some of the black fragments are amygdaloidal, the vesicles being filled with a dull dusty-looking substance of finely fibrous structure, white by reflected light. This same substance also occurs at intervals throughout the slide, between the constituent fragments. On<' or two small black patches show numerous lath-shaped feldspars. Brown augite is rare, and present in small forms only. The glass in this lock is now represented by alteration-products. Apparently akin to the tuffs from "Bare Rocks" mentioned on jjage 110 of the official report. Termination Rock. 2 (summit). — Some small specimens of black vesi- cular l)asalt. Termination Rock, 3 (summit). — A dark-grey slabby rock, with slight green shade ; shows a little tabular feldsi)ar. Microlitic groundmass very ill-defined feldspars, small irregular prisms and pairs of very pale-green augite, sphene, magnetite. The larger constituents are feldspars, chiefly in elongated forms, but at places stouter ; nearly all ill-bounded, and many so crowded with microlites that it is only between crossed nicols that they can be distinguished. There are a few augites slightly larger than the general run, but these are rendered practically opaqu(^ by minute magnetite. Trachyte. Woinii. —I'ctrnloi/ical Nofex on South Victoria Land Rocks. 485 Sultan's Head. Sultan's Head, 1. — Olive-brown tuff, rather soft. A typical palagonite tuft' ; the grains arc subangular, and a few present spheroidal structure. In places a vesicular form in the original material is evidenced. A little calcite here and there, and much colourless cementing-material, which is not quite isotropic. A variety of the basalt tuff from Sultan's Head de- scribed on page 109 of the official report. Sultan'' s Head, 2.— Specimen showing passage of olive - brown tuft" (Sultan's Head, 1) into volcanic agglomerate with this material as a base and considerable included fragments of dark basalts. Sultan's Head, 3. — Small specimens of grey pumiceous rock. The inte- riors of the gas-cavities highly glazed. A highly vesicular rock, pale-grey base not quite isotropic. Fragments of both quartz and feldspar, the former with small fluid inclusions, none of the feldspar twinned. A little granular magnetite. Pumice. It is not certain that this occurs here i'n situ. Mount Erebus. The base of this mountain to the west of the Ridgeway seemed to be composed almost entirely of kenyte. The larger exposures of Skuary Point, Cape Barne, and Cape Royds had other rocks in addition, the last- named with a copious sprinkling of blocks of granite. No. 1 specimen was taken from the sea ice immediately below a small exposure some few feet above sea-level, from which it had obviously fallen. This exposure was on the side of Mount Erebus, but only a few yards from the origin of the Ridgeway. Erebus, 1. — Reddish-brown rock, compact base. Numerous tabular feldspars, water-white, with visible inclusions of groundmass. The planes of all these feldspars are approximately parallel, and thus on one surface they give lath-shaped sections, averaging about 12 mm. by 1-5 mm. The rock is also slaggy, and contains gas-cavities flattened and elongated parallel to the planes of the feldspars. While quite fresh it is thus very friable. The groundmass brown, apparently glassy, with brown and black dusty inclusions ; contains numerous lath-shaped feldspars. In some cases these are invaded along the centre from either end by black dusty material, which shows somewhat elongated forms under high power. The larger crystals of anorthoclase contain numerous inclusions of groundmass, arranged m zonal fashion, and the crystals show between crossed nicols slight local differences of tint which mark out zones exactly corresponding to the in- clusions. The olivine crystals are pale green, and usually accomplish clear crystal outline over rather more th -n one-half of their circumference, being invaded elsewhere by prolongation of the groundmass, severed inclusions of which are also common. Nepheline is rather prominent in some parts of the slides, and in one place is associated with an olivine crystal. Trachy- dolerite, akin to kenyte, Erebus, 2. — A compict grey rock of close texture, with slight tendency to cleave in flakes. Numerous tabular feldspars, mainly but not entirely in parallel planes. These give lath-shaped sections up to 25 mm. in length, and are 2 mm. in breadth. A comparatively pale ground, considerably darkened, however, by fine granular magnetite. Much looks like a brown glass, but no part is actually isotropic. There are numerous small feldspar laths. The larger feldspars are striated with alternate narrow and wide bands ; the largest show zonal structure between crossed nicols, and small 486 T Id n xactio n s . olivine inclusions as well as slight inclusions of groundmass. Some small and well-formed nepheline, occasionally with central inclusions of ground- mass. Pink-brown aiigitos ; small forms are rare. A fair amount of olivine ; small forms are again rare. Some large grains and crystals of magnetite. Tavo cracks in the rock have been recemented with a clear colourless mineral of very low double refraction. Trachydolerite. Speci- men taken from the end of the jetty in situ. Erehus. 3. — Coarse-grained granitic texture, with tendenc)^ to banded structure. The larger feldspars flesh-coloured, the smaller semi-opaque white. Quartz clear. Much black mica. Feldspar slightly clouded, but in places quite clear, practically all striated ; all contains ajiatite. Patches of micro-pegmatite. There are large areas of quartz, which show fairly numerous fluid inclusions with bubbles. A fair amount of dark mica in brown and green shades. Quartz-diorite. From Cape Royds, not in situ. Erebus, 4. — Felsitic texture ; granular crystalline ; general shade light indian-red ; some feldspars, all quite small, are a brighter pink. Micro- pegmatite, with patches of clouded red feldspar in tesselated form, and other areas of clear colourless feldspar in similar form ; striation not infre- quent, but somewhat indistinct. One feldspar is clouded in centre, with clear outer zone, surrounded by micro-pegmatite. A somewhat similar case occurs where the centre is of a pale green-grey and jiolarizes differently from margin, although extinguishing with it. Hornblende in blades and irregular forms, olive-brown in parts but mainly green, is scattered rather sparsely through the slide. The larger grains of quartz are not prominent, and contain a few very small fluid inclusions with bubbles. From Cape Royds, not in situ. These last tM^o specimens are samples of the numerous blocks of granitic materia] which lie hei'c and appear to present great variety. Turtle IsLA^'D. Turtle Island was a small pyramidal islet some eight miles from the ship, and the object of rather frequent excursions. It is about" a couple of hundred yards long and little more than half that in diameter, perhaps 60 ft. high. On its eastern side were considerable pressure-ridges on the sea ice. At the eastern base the rocks were compact, weathered to simulate stratification, and appeared to be the ordinary olivine basalts of the district, l)ut here the olivine crystals were very large and con- spicuous. The general surface of the islet consisted of very fine rubble, with occasional boulders of kenyte and other volcanic rocks, the crystals from which sparkled in the sun like diamonds, and were rendered con- spicuous for a considerable distance. Turtle Island, 1.— Two specimens, one M'ith a l)lack compact base and very elongated rhombs of feldspai'. practically lath-shaped in cross-section ; the other brown-black, rougher and more slaggy base, with well-developed rhombs of feldspar. The first shows parallel structiu'e, the second does not. Trachydolerite and kenyte. These specimens were from boulders. Turtle Island, 2.— Dark-grey, compact trachytic, with large vesicles, up to 13 mm. diameter. Cleaves easily in slabs of irregular form from 5 mm. to 10 mm. thick. Groundmass light purple-brown augite and plagio- clase feldspar in wisps and rods, with a little olivine and considerable quantity of magnetite. The sole porphyritic constituent is feldspar in very irregular forms. Trachyte. WoKTii. — I'etroloffical Notes on South Victoria Land Rocks. 487 Turtle Island, 3. — Granular, soinowliat triable, black and very light grey; in a fresher piece the light crystals are more amber-coloured. One specimen shows that this rock occurs as nodules in a black basalt of vesi- cular character. In some pieces the olivine and augite are clearly recog- nizable as such in the hand-specimens. There are small specimens in which olivine is present to the practical exclusion of all other minerals. Nodules fro 711 basalt. Turtle Island, 5. — A very heavy black friable granular rock with irides- cent play of colour on the grains represents apparently a nodu'e from basalt in which the augite is present to the practical exclusion of all other minerals. Kich-brown augite (pseudo-hypersthene) in large ophitic plates. No recog- nizable pleochroism. The cracks stained a very dark brown, almost black. Numerous inclusions, very dark brown, lying along two directions coin- cident with the cleavage. Many of these inclusions are mere rods, others are lath-shaped, some few are broader plates. They exhibit no pleochroism, and appear to be isotropic. Turtle Island, 6. — A small weathered stone, grey aiul buff. Base appa- rently feldspar, colourless, giving aggregate polarization in low tints, and showing an occasional rod form. Granular magnetite scattered uniformly throughout the slide. There is much of a golden-brown mineral in platy and sometimes rough prismatic form, which is bright orange-yellow by reflected light, shows no pleochroism, fairly high double refraction, and straight extinction in sections approaching the rectangular : this occurs in very minute forms. Inaccessible Island. The outermost of the Dellbridge Islands, so called because it was diffi- cult to make the ascent. The northern side consisted largely of black basalt, weathered to simulate stratification up to a height of nearly 20 ft. Near the western end was a large scree of very fine rubble. The rocks were much confused at the eastern end, where all the specimens were obtained, and apparently dipped to the south. Inaccessible Island, 1.— Medium grey, trachytic texture. A very few visible augites. White spots of intersecting feldspar crystals, in many cases in small druses. Groundmass pale grey, consists of a felted mass of minute fibres, with some magnetite, largely in very minute forms, and numerous rather irregular prisms of very pale-green augite. Very numerous feldspar laths, rather stout in section, for the more part simply twinned. The symmetrical extinctions are + 20°, which suggest andesine. The sUde also shows glomero-porphyritic structure, with aggregates of twinned feldspar free from interstitial matter ; in one of these aggregates occurs a crystal with very closely repeated twinning, but elsewhere all are simple twins. One larger porphyritic feldspar occurs, with numerous inclusions of augite and magnetite. An occasional pale-green porphyritic augite. some with good crystal form, some much rounded, yet others entirely clouded with magnetite. Augite-andesite. Inaccessible Island, 2. — Yellowish-grey trachyte, minutely open-textured. A pale yellow-brown ground of varying depth of tint, of very feeble double refraction, and containing both magnetite and sphene in minute forms, with rarely a small grey-green prism microlite which is apparently augite. Numerous well-terminated feldspar laths, and some few rather larger and stouter forms. Around the larger of these the lath feldspars show flow 488 Transactions. structure. The rock appears vesicular, with the vesicles sometimes com- pletely, sometimes only partiallv, infilled with a zeolite, which is probably analcime. Many of these zeolitic areas have, however, the di.-.tinct appear- ance of being pseudomorphs after some previously existing mineral, and liexagonal sections for ths latter are fairly clearly indicated here and there, mth residual patches of unaltered mineral which may well be nepheline. The extremely small percentage of augite is noteworthy. Treatment of a section with HCl followed by fuchsin produces differential staining. The groundmass becomes bright red, the feldspars remain water- white, and the zeolite areas take a violet shade. It then becomes clear that these latter are in many cases very certainly replacements of a mineral of hex- agonal form. The straining of the groundmass also throws into relief numerous thread-like feldspars of a smaller order than the lath shapes, which alone are clearly discernible in the unstained specimen. The HCl which has been in contact with this rock is stained with iron, and yields on evaporation deliquescent crystalloids with cubes of sodium-chloride. The other chlorides apparently include that of aluminium^ Phonolitic trachyte (altered). Apparently official specimen 803. Inaccessible Island, 3. — Purple-brown trachytic texture, rather com- pact. The ground a rich-brown glass, with some magnetite. Very nume- rous lath-shaped feldspars fairly well terminated, and frequently showing a line of inclusions of groundmass down the centre. There are also smaller much-attenuated feldspars. The laths as a whole have one general direc- tion. Larger feldspars, rectangular and rhomboidal, occur ; these are mainly associated in groups of two or three, in contact with each other and partly intergrown, and show considerable glass inclusions, but only in one case polysynthetic twinning. No nepheline or zeolite is discoverable, hut the rock is in many respects much like Inaccessible Island, 2. Trachyte, probably phonolitic. Apparently official s])ecimen 802. Black Island. The first camp here was pitched about the middle of the eastern side of the island, not far from where the party landed. The specimens Nos. 2 to 7, 9, 10, and 14 were all taken from a " rubble-heap " a few yards from the tent. This so-called heap was an area some 20 yards by 3 yards, and none of the specimens were in situ. Black Island, I. — ^Dioritic texture, dark brown and practically white crystals. Brown augite, ophitic, diallagic in parts. The margins frequently darkened, sometimes with the development of a rich-brown pleochroi(; mineral. A few crystals are partially altered to uralite. Much feldspar, a,pparently all labradorite. Considerable areas of micro-pegmatite, in which Ihe feldspar is always clouded. A sprinkling of ilmenite and some apatite. Q.uartz-augite-diorite. From half-way up peak of island, not in situ. Black Island, 2. — Coarse-grained granite, pink feldspars, apparently ])recisely like Erebus, 3. Black Island, 3. — Very fine-grained pale-grey rock, slightly mottled. Much white mica in minute brightly sparkling form. Groundmass micro- felsitic, with minute sericitic mica. A few scattered grains of magnetite. Scattered blades and grains of olive-green hornblende, some of which shows striking pleochroism from olive to vivid blue-green. The porphyritic con- stituents are patches of much-clouded white feldspar, and quartz in sharply Worth. — Petrological Notes on South Victoria fjcind liocks. 489 bounded grains, some of which have been cracked and then parted by considerable belts of gvoundmass. There appear to be no fluid inclusions. Quartz-felsite. Black Island, 4. — Very pale-grey fine-grained sajidstone, with marked banded structure, twelve bands in 7-5 mm. Rounded quartz-grains, with more rarely a fragment of feldspar. Inclusions of apatite, zircon, and dark mica occur in the quartz. There are also numerous fluid inclusions with bubbles, the inclusions large and the bubbles of very varied size. The cementing-material is silica. Black Island, 5. — Fine-grained granular quartzite, breaks in thin slabs ; colour red-brown. Well-rounded grains of quartz, with an occasional more angular feldspar ; the latter in some instances is microcline. The red colouring-matter is confined to the outside of the grains. Mineral inclusions in the quartz are very rare. The fluid inclusions are not numerous, and are very small. To all appearance the materials of this quartzite are de- rived from a different source from that of Black Island, 4. The cement- ing silica is frequently, but not invariably, in crystal continuity with the adjacent quartz-grain. Black Island, 6. — Purple-grey rock, breaks in thin slabs, very fine texture. Minute, very confused structure, even the feldspar laths being but rarely well defined. The larger feldspars are nearly all mere patches, without crystal outline. All are cracked and yellow-stained along cleavages. The mineral may be labradorite, but its determination is difficult. Small irregular prisms and grains of pale-green augite are very common, and occur not only in the groundmass, but also as inclusions in the feldspar. Some few larger augites are now almost entirely replaced by magnetite. There is a fair quantity of magnetite and somewhat more of granular sphene scattered throughout the slide. Camptonite. Black Island, 7. — Very fresh-looking rock of somewhat minutely dioritic texture, dark grey with light grain. The groundmass an irregular coarse matwork of plagioclase, clouded slightly in places, but for the more part clear, the forms comparatively short, probably labradorite. There is some magnetite, chiefly associated with augite. Large plates of augite, almost entirely diallagic, in shades of olive - green. Augite - diorite (gabbro). Black Island, 8. — A mottled rock in dark purple-brown and black. Weathered surface presents appearance of flow structure. Precisely similar rock found at first camp. A very fine-grained rock of confused nature. Consists apparently of ill-formed feldspar laths, small ill-formed prisms, • and grains of pale-brown augite, magnetite, sphene, a little interstitial calcite, and an undetermined zeolite. The zeolite has too-high double refraction for analcime, and it with the calcite joins to form an irregular patch, around one end of which the feldspar laths are well defined and lie parallel to its margin. From half-way up North Peak, not in situ. Camp- tonite. Black Island, 9. — Pink granular felsite, spotted with dark green. Porphyritic quartz and feldspar, but no well-formed crystals. Much micro-pegmatite, which is the prominent feature of the' slide. Some of the feldspar is clouded, some striated. Practically all the quartz areas are in mosaic. There is a little green hornblende in grains and blades ; the hornblende is to a great extent broken down to a dark-brown product, with the apparent production of some epidote. Hornblende micro-pegmatite. 49 TranHictions. Black Island, 10. — Black basaltic rock, with olivine freely developed, Groundmass liolocrystalline, consists of latli-shaped feldspars, brown augite, olivine, magnetite, and splienc. Feldspar also occurs in larger form, with rounded outline, and showing between crossed nicols a few very narrow bands widely spaced. ' Olivine inclusions in this feldspar. A few^ larger forms of pale-brown augite with rounded outline. Frequent larger olivines, mainly idiomorphic, but some with corroded outhne. Trachydolerite. Black Island, 11. — Weathered pebble. Rough-textured fine diorite in structure. Colour brow^nish-grey. Large plates of augite, in parts markedly diallagic. The more normal mineral has a distinct pleochroism from pale bluish-grey to pale pink. Here and there is slight decomposition, with development of serpentine. There is a very little brown mica, with strong pleochroism. Between the augite areas is a matwork of clear feldspars in moderately stout forms, apparently labradorite. Slight decomposition occurs here and there. Ilmenite and apatite are also present. Augite- diorite. Black Island, 12. — Very light warm buff, with greener shades locally. Trachytic texture. Ill-bounded feldspars, mainly lath-shaped, b\it some of stouter section, in a groundmass of minute feldspar mosaic. A fair (|uantity of aegirine-augite, pleochroism yellow-brown-green to blue-olive- green, in small prismatic forms and grains, for the more part ill-bounded. Possibly a little apatite. Under the |^-inch objective minute hexagonal and square forms of a clear mineral are visible. When the section is treated with hydrochloric acid, well washed, and stained with fuchsin it takes the dye locally where these hexagons and squares occur, and shows them marked out by the cleavage-cracks in larger forms of a mineral which is almost certainly nepheline. Phonolitic trachyte. From south-west corner of island ; occurs /« situ. This is 610 of official report, but there reported in error as from south-east of island. Black Island, 13. — Volcanic agglomerate. Greenish base with black nodules, evidently basaltic. From north end of island. Described on page 139 of official report. Black Island, 14. — Dark-grey rock, almost black. Tendency to con- choidal cleavage. Very close grain. Micro-crystalline (juartz and reddish- brown mica are the prominent constituents. There is a distinctly parallel structure throughout the slide, but no banding. A fair amount of magnetite in irregular patches. An altered sedimentary rock fiom a contact zone. Apparently official specimen 525, page 135. Black Island, 15. — Very dark-grey compact rock. Possibly a very little olivine. Groundmass microlitic. Consists of feldspar laths all conforming to one general direction, sphene. magnetite, and augite. In this occur larger water-clear feldspars, some striated, some zoned, many in associated intergrown crystals. A feAV porphyritic very pale-brown augites, and sphene in larger forms than in the goieral ground. From top of north peak of island, practically in situ. Black Island, 16.- — Slaggy vesicular lava, exterior with green tints, fracture red and black. Very closely resembles Brown Ishnid, 4. From top of north peak of island, in situ. Browx Island. Broini Island, !.■ — A very pale-grey slightly greenish trachyte. Com- pact and hard, weathered surface hard filso. A few dark acicular crystals Worth. — Petrological Notes on South Victoria ImhU Jiorks. 49i visible ; greatest observed length, 2-5 mm. A few glancing spots of feld- spar can be seen. Groundmass is felted feldspar, with an occasional larger individual, rather ill defined (symmetrical extinctions appear in some instances to indicate anorthite). The ground is a very pale buff in colour, scarcely distinguishable as tinted, except by contrast with the larger colour- less feldspars. There are fairly numerous small prismatic forms of aegirine, with an occasional larger crystal rendered practically opaque by magnetite. With the one-inch objective and careful lighting a clear mineral in very minute forms may be seen to be distributed throughout the slide ; with the ^-inch this is seen, in part at least, to possess hexagonal outline. On treatment with HCl followed by fuchsin the slide takes the dye locally, and thus indicates that the mineral last mentioned gelatinizes in the acid. The grains are then found to be parts of larger crystalline areas marked out by the cleavage -cracks therein. Identification as nepheline appears certain. This is the more probable since the acid which has been in contact with the slide yields, on evaporation, cubic crystals and aluminium-chlorides. There are some small porphyritic feldspars (the largest under 2 mm. in length), several of which show polysynthetic twinning, while the constituents of the groundmass frequently bend around them in flow form. Phonolytic trachyte. From crater. See official specimen 607, page 115, from which it difEers slightly, especially in being hard and compact. Broivn Island, 2. — ^A black very compact rock, with augite and olivine visible here and there. The specimen is slaggy at one angle. A rock almost opaque, with granular magnetite. Fairly frequent lath-shaped feldspars, ragged at the ends, and showing closely repeated twinning. Brown augite, in small crystals, is by far the most prominent mineral in the groundmass ; it shows no pleochroism. The magnetite inclusions in this mineral are comparatively few. The slide shows one larger augite, cracked across the centre, and parted by a belt of the groundmass. The two parts thus formed have each a central area of bright green and a complete border of pale brown. The positions of extinction of the green and brown differ by about 7° ; neither is pleochroic. Olivine is common, both in larger and smaller forms. It sometimes achieves good crystal outUne, and, although rather free from inclusions, intrusions of the groundmass do occur in it, as also do the largest and best-formed crystals of magnetite which the slide presents. Basalt. From summit of island, in situ. Brown Island, 3. — Light yellowish-brown rock ; hard, but of open texture ; appears slaggy under hand-lens. Vesicular, a brown glassy base of very feeble aggregate polarization. Lath-shaped feldspars, from sym- metrical extinctions probably oligoclase. Some of the larger forms show very closely repeated twinning, and also considerable inclusions of glass. Some are quite clear in the centre of their length, but crowded with granules and microliths toward either end, finally dying away into the gromidmass. There is a little brown hornblende, and magnetite in small crystals and dust. At places the vesicles have a narrow lining of zeolite. Andesite. Near top of south peak of island, in situ. Brown Island, 4. — Two specimens of slaggy vesicular basaltic lava, very open textured, the one a rich brown, the other largely yellow-green. The fracture of the green specimen is black. ia. — Highly vesicular, a rich-brown glass, almost opaque, red by reflected light. Ohvine the only porphyritic mineral, except for the presence of a single rod of feldspar. 492 Transactions. ih. — Less highly vesicular, almost opaque, red in parts, in parts almost black by reflected light. Some feldspar rods scattered sparsely. Olivine freely developed, and some augite. Summit of island, in situ. Armitage's Sledge Party, near New Harbour. Medium grain, granitic texture, black mica, white feldspar. At one point within a little space four crystals of clear brown sphene, the largest 2-5 mm. by 1-25 mm. Biotite-mica, pleochroism pale olive-brown to very dark greens and browns. A little chlorite, developed at the expense of the mica. Quartz in coarse mosaic, fluid inclusions with small bubbles, some appa- rently empty cavities. Two classes of feldspar. The greater part ortho- clase, but a fair proportion of plagioclase, j^robably oHgoclase. Both are very fresh in patches, much altered here and there. The plagioclase twin- ning shows the occasional shear of a crystal, and also considerable bending. Some apatite. Biotite-granite. Collected on the western sledge journey of 1902 by Lieutenant Armitage. Western Mountains. This collection numbers upwards of a dozen specimens, the wasters of a larger collection of loose rocks picked up by Dr. Wilson when on a sledge journey with Lieutenant Armitage to the southern extremity of the foot- hills of the Western Mountains forming the northern shore of the outlet of the Koettlitz Glacier. This journey was undertaken in December, 1903. Western Mountains, 1. — Mica-schist, much dark mica partially leached and iron-stained. A gneissic rock of clastic appearance. Both feldspars and quartz are in interlocked granules, and both appear distinctly fresh. The feldspar is often .striated (symmetrical extinctions 20°), and frequently penetrated by, or includes, needles of apatite. The quartz seems free from fluid inclusions. A few crystals of rutile occur. There is much mica, the more part intensely pleochroic from very pale pinkish- brown to rich red-brown ; associated with this is white non-pleochroic mica, which in certain areas occurs in tracts of long bent blades, stream- ing in a uniform direction, and associated with patches of quartz and feldspar mosaic of fine grain, within which again are small patches of brown mica, otherwise excluded from these portions of the slide. It is to the white mica so developed that the marked schistosity of the rock is due. The whole slide gives evidence that the rock has sustained an intense crush — so intense, indeed, that the quartz-feldspar mosaic is at places reduced to a mere aggregate of powdered material. Western Mountains, 2. — A grey rock of rough texture. A few feld- spars are visible, but a rather dull brown-grey mica is by far the most prominent constituent. Mui-h biotite. Face - colours vary from pale cinnamon-brown, with an occasional olive shade, to rich tints of brown in basal sections. Comparatively small patches and blades of hornblende are fairly frequent. The pleochroism is from pale olive to deep blue-green. Very numerous grains and some larger much -altered crystals of augite. showing slight pleochroism from liluish-grey to pink-grey. Large patches of calcite. All in a general confused groundmass of high double refraction, with serpentinous products. There is also, apparently, some secondary feldspar in mosaic form, and some sphene after titanifernus iron-ore. Dioritic lamprophyre. WoHTH. — PetroJogical Notes on South Victoria Land Rocks. 493 Western Mountains, 4. — A dark basaltic rock. Groundmass pale brown. Consists of small brown augites and lath-shaped feldspars, with numerous crystals of magnetite. Some of the augite shows enclosures along both cleavages, giving well-defined dark lines. More or less this feature occurs throughout the slide. Olivine is present in much larger forms, colourless, occasionally with fair crystal outline, with inclusions of magnetite and sometimes of the groundmass. Western Mountains, 5. — A thin slab, apparently of grey micaceous slate. Section cut parallel to cleavage. Much pale-brown mica, which, being largely cut parallel to the base, affords a fairly uniform tint throughout the slide, and appears as if filling the rle of a g round in which the othei' minerals are set. Exhibits moderate pleochroism, and in con- vergent light shows a slight separation of the cross into hyperbolae. Short prisms of tourmaline of pale-green colour are rather common, and are very miiformly distributed. There are numerous subangular granules of clear untwinned feldspar. Filling the interstices between the other constituents is a substance white by reflected light, mottled with palest green by trans- mitted light, showing crystal granular and fibroiis structure with high tints between crossed nicols ; the constituents are in much too minute form for identification. Dusty ferrite stains the slide in places, and magnetite is somewhat sparsely distributed throughout. Altered sedimentary. Western Mountains, 6. — Soft brown rock, lighter in colour and softer after passing 9 mm. to 10 mm. from exterior. G^laciated. Contains rounded sand-grains. A bright brown tuff with rounded fragments of feldspar, some striated, and less-numerous olivine fragments. A few inclu- sions of white and black rock minutely speckled, and also of brown glassy rocks with feldspar laths. Tuff. Western Mountains. — The collection also includes a fragment of kenyte ; a granular felsite, apparently hornblendic ; and some granites or diorites. Granite Harbour. Granite Harbour, J. — Compact horny texture, dull - brown rock, evi- dently a felsite, with small pink porphyritic feldspars. Small dark spots (1 mm. largest) rather widely scattered. Mica in somewhat granular form. Groundmass minutely crypto-crystalline, pink in shade, strewn with green microlites (pleochroic from browner to bluer shades). The longer axes of these microlites lie in one general direction, and the mineral is almost certainly mica. A very rare grain of magnetite occurs. Porphyritic feld- spars, some entirely clouded with red decomposition-products, others in parts quite clear and colourless with irregular streaks of cloudiness and a hatching of lines of same. The feldspars are clearly defined against the ground, and appear to be in large part microchne. Here and there the green mineral invades them in somewhat massive form, and it also fills cracks in the rock. Granite Harbour, 2. — Fine-grained granitic texture, white feldspar, black mica, quartz slightly stained in places. Feldspars slightly clouded locally, practically all oligoclase. The quartz contains small fluid inclusions, with bubbles, and some empty cavities. Much brown mica ; pleochroism pale straw to dark greenish-brown, almost black ; gives practically uniaxial figure in convergent polarized light. Apatite prisms are frequent, in aciculai- form, the central parts much darkened by some dusty black substance, which lies mainly in a series of planes parallel to the base. Pale granular sphene, at times with a core of titanic iron-ore. Quartz-diorite. 494 T ransactions. Granite Harbour, 3, — ■Finer grain of "r>.H.. 2"; minerals apparently identical. The rock breaks in slab form, asirl thi> mica shows tendency to mark out a parallel structure. .'^ Granite Harbour, 4. — The w^hole specimen is practically one mass of feldspar. No visible quartz. There is some dark mica partially leached and largely altered to chlorite, which occurs also lining a joint-face. Granite Harbour, 5. — A grey rock, fine-grained admixture of dark greenish-grey crystals and dirty-Avhite ; the specimen is a thin slab. Grey- brown diallagic augite, ophitic, with very slight pleochroism. Between the augite plates, labradorite-feldspar in moderately stout forms, frequently zoned. Occasional patches of micro-pegmatite ; no porphyritic quartz. Some ilmenite. Small widely separated spots of red-brown mica, asso- ciated witli the augite. Quartz-augite-mica-diorite. Note on Glacier-recession, by T. V. Hodgson. A great deal has been said and written about the retreat of the ice from north to south, and the glaciers from low to the higher levels. This has been based upon the fact that the edge of the Great Ice Barrier is some miles further south than it was when seen by Ross in 1839-40. The various sledge parties encountered many glaciers the extremities of which do not reach the sea, or even come within reasonable distance of it. One fact must impress the Antarctic explorer, and that is the thin- ness of the ice-sheet and the large proportion of exposed rock. The thick- ness of the ice on the inland plateau is purely conjectural, and with the appliances of the average sledge party it would be impossible to measure it. Theoretical calculations have shown that ice cannot exist at a greater thickness than 3,000 ft., and one feels — for one can do nothing else — when in those regions that there is no reason to believe that it might possibly be more than this. I would ask, what right have we to accept so readily the assumption that the temperature-conditions are becoming less severe, and that there- fore the ice-cap is receding ? It appears to me that the evidence is very weak at the best. To begin with the Barrier, the amount of recession is small compared to its enormous area. It is greatest on the eastern side, where we have absolutely no knowledge whatever as to the source of supply. As com- pared to the momitains of the west, King Edward VII Land, from the little that has been seen of it, is low-lying country, and if such should ultimately prove to be the case it may also prove to be the larger feeding-ground. Only in one spot has the rate of movement of the Barrier been measured. It was a rather crude measurement on a sledge journey near Minna BluflE, and is probably only local ; it works out roughly at about a quarter of a mile a year. There is no evidence whatever as to the seasonal fluctuations of this ice-sheet : a series of mild or of severe seasons seems to me to be amply sufficient to account for the difference in the position of its northern face. The icebergs met with by the " Discovery " were for the most part very small, and I think I am right in saying that none of them were over three miles long. As to glaciers, many of them do not come down to sea-level, but end abruptly, frequently at some considei'able distance from it, and it is very much open to question if they have ever been anywhere near sea-level. These facts have been interpreted as proof positive that the glaciation of the region is receding, it being regarded as certain that in no very far distant \N owni . — -Pef roloffical Nofes on South Victoria Land Rocks. 495 period i]i such a climate all these glaciers did come down to sea-level, and that those that do so now were formerly of far greater extent. This, 1 think, is far too hasty a conclusion, especially when we consider that McMurdo Sound has never previously been visited by man, and very little is known of the entire region from the point of view of its physiographical conditions. Some of the so-called glaciers, like that in McMurdo Sound described in the present paper, the Drygalski ice-sheet, and probably others, require more detailed examination before any really definite and satis- factory opinion can be pronounced. Within forty miles of our winter quarters were no less than three active volcanoes, one smoking vigorously, the other two quiescent, and in such a volcanic district it is only fair to ask what would be the probable effect of— (1) volcanic eruption, (2) earthquake. First with regard to volcanic eruption. For how long would the trace of such an occurrence be perceptible except by actual and close examina- tion of the ground ? Appareii.tly not more than a few weeks. Lava -flows certainly might be conspicuous for a much longer period ; but their age and finer characters are, not to be detected at distances measured by the mile. Ashes and other volcanic ejecta might cover large areas, and under some conditions, such as seen in the Brown Island rubble-mass, would absorb the sun's heat and quickly effect considerable changes in the subjacent snow and ice. Under other conditions the snow might speedily and effec- tively hide all traces of any eruption as visible from a distance. Li the matter of earthquakes, their effect might be far more serious, and at the same time even less conspicuous. It is by no means incon- ceivable that the land in the vicinity of McMurdo Sound has undergone some change of level quite recently from a geological point of view. How could it be recognized on a first visit ? Further, what would be the effect of a " good average " earthquake on the sea ice in such a region ? It would certainly mean considerable rupture, with probably a serious effect on the adjacent shores. From such a sheet at the Great Ice Barrier it is quite reasonable to suppose that a single earthquake of any magnitude would make such a difference to that sheet as would take many years to replace. The land visited has been seen for the first time, and we have to take it as it stands. To assume its permanency during, say, the last thousand years seems to me to be putting a great deal into a first visit. Had we bee)] able to stay four or five years, or to make an exhaustive survey of the Sound and its shores, we might have been in a different position. Before we talk so emphatically about the recession of glaciation on such limited experi- ence it would be well to bear in mind the possibilities of volcanic energy. 496 Tronsactions. Art. XLI V. — The Post-tertiary Geological History of the Ohau River and of the Adjacent Coastal Plain, Horoivhenua County, North Island. By George Leslie Adkin. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th October, 1910. \ Plates XV-XIX. The principal waterway of the central portion of the Horowhenua County is the Ohau River, situated between the Manawatu on the northern bound- ary of the former, and the Otaki and Waikanae in the south. Though a small stream, with a length of only twenty miles, its valley and the ad- jacent country pre- sent many features of great scientific in- terest. The total ex- tent of its drainage- a r e a is sixty - four square miles, forty square miles of which is mountainous, the remainder being that portion of the ad- jacent coastal plain which is drained by the Ohau. Its largest tributaries are the Makahika and M a k a r e t u Streams ; others — viz., the Blackwater, Kuku, &c. — though inferior in volume, are by no means in- considerable. At the point where the Ohau River crosses it the present coastal plain has a width of nine miles, but it is wider toward the north, and narrower in the south. The Upper Ohau River, flowing in a valley which is alternately longi- tudinal and diacUnal, lies among the western subsidiary ridges of the Tararua Ranges. In this vicinity these latter constitute a wild stretch of country varying in altitude from 500 ft. to over 5,000 ft., and characterized by parallel tectonic ridges, and, in the diaclinal valleys, by tortuous rock- Fio. 1.- -LocALiTY Plan of Akea described and MAPPED. Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vor,. XLIII, Pr.\TE XV Face p. 49fi.\ Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIII. Plate XVI Adkin. — ['ost-teriiarij Geological History of Ohau Eiver. 497 1)01111(1 gorges. Here may be seen on a very extensive scale the effects of fluviatile erosion. Tlie parallel ridges have been dissected, and their corresponding valleys deepened to an enormous extent by the action of high-grade streams and swiftly flowing rivers. The culminating peaks of the district are the Mitre, 5,154 ft.; Mount Dundas, 4,944 ft.; and Mount Crawford, 4,795 ft. These are not within or even contiguous to the Ohau catchment-area, but lie near enough to intercept the moisture-laden westerly winds, and thus increase the rainfall within that area. The principal salients of the Ohau water-parting are Mounts Waiopehu, 3,588 ft., and Tawirikohukohu, 3,455 ft. It is near the summit of the latter that the Ohau River proper has its source. In character the valleys of the Ohau and its two main tributaries differ considerably. As already stated, the Upper Ohau occupies a valley which is alternately longitudinal and diaclinal ; the lower portion of the Makahika appears to flow in a deeply incised anticlinal valley, while that of the Ma- karetu, though diaclinal immediately above its junction with the Ohau, is for the most part longitudinal. Prior to its occupation by European settlers most of the Horowhenua County was clothed in tangled virgin forest. The zone of heavy mixed bush (almost entirely beech near its upper limits) extends from low alti- tudes up to the 2,500 ft. contour-line. Above this elevation the bush usually becomes stunted, and is partially — or more often wholly — replaced by shrubs, forming a dense subalpine scrub. In most places at the altitude of 3,000 ft. the scrub terminates more or less abruptly, and the alpine meadow land is reached. The principal components of the latter are tus- sock-grass, Astelia, and alpine flowering-plants, while the subalpine scrub is for the most part Olearia Colensoi and Draccphyllums. Though the district under consideration presents many features of in- terest to the botanist and the nature-lover, it is for the geologist that it reserves its chief attractions. The successive events within its limits have been so varied, and in some cases the action of the several natural agents so complex, that an examination of these events and operations should prove of interest to geological students. Owing to the entire absence, or perhaps non-discovery, of fossil remains in the area under notice, the age of each of the geological formations de- scribed in the following has been determined entirely by stratigraphical considerations. Judging, however, from the views held by writers on the Tertiary and post-Tertiary geological history of New Zealand, the recent maximum elevation of the country occurred in the early Pleistocene, and it is upon this conclusion that the chronological divisions in the following are based. At the close of the Tertiary epoch a plain of the Upper Tertiary, most probably Pliocene, strata was uplifted, and at the cessation of its emer- gence extended seaward on the western coast of the Wellington Province from the foothills of the Ruahine and Tararua Ranges to far beyond the limits of the present shore. At the termination of this uplift the elevation of our Islands was much greater than now, but, as the movement was more pronounced in the South Island than in the North, the latter Island did not experience so severe a "glacial period" as did the former. The Pliocene (?) plain is now not visible in this district, more recent deposits having completely covered it, and on this account its exact nature cannot be ascertained from observations made in this locality alone, but that the uppermost Tertiary strata had a comparatively plane^and gently sloping 498 T ranaactions. upper surface is inferred from the configuration and character of tlic super- imposed fluviatile deposit about to be described. The rivers which at present flow into the sea along the Terawhiti-Egmont coast-line had to traverse the ncAvly uplifted plain, and were then not only of considerable length, but were also of greater volume, due to the greater elevation of the land producing a more abundant rainfall, and incidentally — for the fact does not affect the folloM'ing considerations — a larger drainage- area. Like the others, the Ohau River crossed the Pliocene plain, and its subsequent history nvdy be traced as follows : Upon leaving its vent in the foothills of the Tararua Ranges the Ohau River began to deposit material upon the Pliocene plain as soon as it was uplifted above sea-level. The deposited material took the form of a fan, and — for a while at least — kept pace with the uplift of the plain, as well as reducing the dis- similar gradients of the river-bed to a more uniform slope. The extent of the fan in a direction radial to its apex or summit is as yet unknown, but it certainly exceeds fifteen miles. Its maximum thickness is also not known, but in this respect it has l)een found to exceed 700 ft. At the pre- sent time the apex of the fan is only 345 ft. above sea-level, the average surface-slope being about 65 ft. in the mile, though the dip of its component layers at some depth below its surface is doubtless greater. The bulk of this massive and coarse fluviatile deposit consists of some- what irregular alternations of shingle, gravel, boulders, coarse sand (quick- sand when saturated with water at some depth below the surface), and thin bands of claj'. The beds of finer detritus are sometimes found in immediate association with the coarser material, any portion of the whole forming an exact counterpart of what may be seen on the Ohau River bed at the present day. The thin layers of clay which were deposited on many succes- sive levels point to a temporary cessation of deposition on such areas, due to the river changing its course to a more or less distant portion of its fan.* During its formation the Ohau fan, with its great wastes of bare shingle stretching far and wide, must have presented a very desolate ap- pearance. Any vegetation which managed to take root upon its barren slopes would, by the river changing its course, as was its unceasing habit, be completely covered by a stony mass. Swamps appear to have existed in hollows on the surface of the fan, probably on many successive levels, an ancient sAvampy layer 5 ft. in thickness having been met with at a depth of 323 ft. when the first trial artesian bore was sunk on the State farm at Weraroa. Another old land-surface was discovered when a well was dug on Section 38 in the Horowhenua Village Settlement. After passing through from 70 ft. to 80 ft. of gravel and shingle the workmen came upon a swampy layer 1 ft. thick, on the surface of which was found an entire pukatea stump in situ. Driftwood has al'oo been found at various depths in the Ohau fan. After heavy rains, driftwood derived from the bush-clad ranges and washed down by the swollen river would be cast ashore along its margin, and subse- quently buried. In several cases when wells have been sunk into the fan this old water-borne timber has been brought to light. Twigs, leaves, and branches were found at a depth of 20 ft. in a well sunk in the Levin Borough about ten years ago. In another well a layer of branches and twigs and also a piece of pukatea timber were found at a good depth. In * In tho artesian well.s sunk on the ^^■(•l•aI■oa State Farm the thin day-seams were of very frequent occurrence. Adkin. — BoU-lertianj Geological llistonj of Ohau River i99 600 Transactions. the third trial artesian bore on the State farm at Weraroa a rata log 2 ft. in diameter was found 135 ft. below the present surface. An old well- sinker stated that he had found flax-leaves which still retained their green colour beneath 18 ft. of shingle. This well was situated on Section 46 in Levin Borough. From its apex to about two miles down its slope the Ohau fan has a fairly regular surface — that is to say, the curve exhibited by a cross- section would be a regular one. Further down its slope, however, its surface is characterized by ridges and hollows, whose strike is parallel to the dip of that surface. In this part the surface-curve, as shown by a cross-section, would be sinuous, though here the fan still retains its hyperbolic contour. The ridges are usually from 5 to 10 chains apart, and, though they seldom have an amplitude exceeding 3 ft., are especially noticeable where a road crosses some of them. As shown by the coarseness of some of the transported material, and also by the occurrence of driftwood, the Ohau fan is largely a flood deposit. As material was swept out from the mountain-enclosed valley on to the coastal plain, the river, being more confined to the immediate neighbourhood of its vent, would at first spread that material evenly in every direction. Further out, where spurs were absent and the river had freer play, ridges of deposit would be built up, until it was forced to change: its course. While the river was in this state of oscillation — building up, being deflected when its bed became unstable, and eventually returning to its original position, and repeating the process on different parts of its fan — a slight change in the direction of its flow when near the apex of th(^ /an would usually cause a considerable alteration in the position of that portion of its course situated further down the slope, and as a result the low radiating ridges would there be built up. The Ohau River not only deposited shingle and gravel on the Pliocene coastal plain, but it also filled up with the same materials the deep valley it had cut (in the Tertiary epoch) through the rocks of the Tararua Ranges. This deposition of shingle, &c., in the primary valley of the Ohau was simul- taneous with the formation of the fan, the latter being the doAvnward ex- tension of the former. When the deposit in the valley had attained its maximum thickness it formed a sloping plain bounded by the hills, and traversed by the Ohau River and its two principal tributaries — the Makahika and the Makaretu. Formerly both these tributary streams joined the main river further up- stream than they do at the present time ; also, the Ohau itself flowed across the shingle plain south-east of, though more or less parallel to, its present channel. In shape the hill-enclosed alluvial plain which occupied the Ohau Valley bore a close resemblance to a three-fingered hand. The wrist was repre- sented by the narrow strip, varying from 10 to 15 chains in width and three- quarters of a mile in length, which extended up-stream from the fluviatile vent; the palm of the hand was the widest part of the plain, lying round about the junction of the Ohau and its tributaries ; and the fingers were the upward extensions of tlie shingle-beds in the respective valleys of these rivers. While the " valley plain "^ — that is, the plain within the hiU-enclosed part of the Ohau Valley — was approaching completion the Ohau River appears not only to have debouched upon the " plain "' just south of its present channel, but also to have had an alternate coiirse, from its upper Adkix. — Fost-tertiary Geological Ififfiory of Oliau River. 501 gorges, between the Mill and Square Knob Ranges, to the present junction of the Makahika and Wai-iti Rivers, and from thence, in coml)ination with those streams, down the Makahika Valley. Owing to the ruggedness of the locality and to its covering of dense bush, the exact nature and limits of this old suspected course have not been ascertained, but it is probable that it was similar in character to the branch of the " valley plain " which for- merly occupied the Lower Makahika Valley, The position of this suspected course has been shown in the maps of Horowhenua in the early and middle Pleistocene periods, but has not been included in the accompanying geo- logical map. After the Ohau River had graded its bed and built up the surface of its fan and " valley plain " until it had attained its maximum altitude it deposited upon the upward extensions and the widest portion of the latter a superficial layer of clay varying from 10 ft. to 30 ft. in thickness. The precipitation of such fine sediment as clay alluvium was an indubitable indication that the cycle of deposition on the part of the Ohau River was coming to a close, and that very soon it would be flowing at grade — pro- bably for the first time in its existence. Table sjiowixg the Sui'kkficial Dip of the " Valley Plain " and of the Fan OF THE Ohau Rivee. oo la a „ 5§ gap. Oatum-points. li istauces I e Datum iiperflcial Feet per « «i3 33 From the upper part of the " valley plain " (near the junction of the Makahika and Wai-iti Rivers) To the middle part of the " valley plain " (near the junction of the Makahika and Ohau Rivers) Ft. 777 582 From the middle part of the " valley plain " (near the junction of the Makahika and the Ohau River) To the lower part of the " valley plain " (near the head of the Levin water-races) ,^82 .367 From the lower part of the " valley plain " (near the head of the Levin water-races) To the apex of the Ohau fan 367 345 Ch. 164 105 43 95-12 163-80 40-93 D . . From the apex of the Ohau fan . . . . . . 1 345 E . . 1 To the line of the geological section across the Ohau ' i fan 250 I 110 69-09 E . . 1 From the line of the geological section across the Ohau ; 250 '. fan F . . ; To the Arapaupae Road . . . . . . . . 185 ) 81-25 F . . 1 From the Arapaepae Road . . . . . . ' 185 G ..To Levin Railway-station .. .. .119 ■ 90 ) 58-6 G .. From Levin Railway-station .. .. .. 119 H .. : To Tirotiro Road (south end) .. .. '. 78 :-- 64-31 H .. From Tirotiro Road (south end) .. .. .. '^8 1 1 „„ I . . To edge of Lake Horowhenua . . . . . . 36 j | 50-9 502 Transactions. i ■ '*» ' v^j " K tVT' -J Adkin. — P()xt-ter(iI\"EH, NEAK THE .MaKAKETU JUNCTION, SHO\\lN(i THE C'ONYEXTTY OF ITS Bed. Raised Beach" near Shannon, seen from the Tararxta Foothills. It is now imu'li dissected by small streams and rivers Face 2>' •5"^-] Trans N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIII. Plate XVIIT. ^kM '■^ ^ '^^ ' * • #fl! c 2 55. 11 %; V *<^ Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIII. aeOLOqfCAL SECTION C-. GEOLOGICAL SECTION A-B OF THE OHAU. AfAKA QEOLO(^ICAL VEKSE sec OHAU FA fi , TM£ \ISED BEAC LOQ r rdii^actioiis. This old ■■ nortli-west " course is what imi}- be termed the '" interme- diate stage " in the recent geological history of the Ohau River. Formerly by the process of aggradation it formed a massive deposit of shingle and gravel, and now by erosion it has excavated a deep valley in that forma- tion. It is hardly likely that these very adverse conditions were abruptly consecutive, but that they were separated by an intermediate stage, which was a period when the river was neither depositmg material nor to any great extent scooping out a well-defined channel. The old " north-west " channel was this " intermediate stage.'" Though the shallow '' nortli-west '" valley of the Ohau River eventually attaiiied a width of about a mile and three-quarters, it was at first much narrower. For a reason which will transpire in the sequel, the river — which originally flowed to the sea near and parallel to the present position of Queen Street (Town of Levin) — continually attacked its left bank, causing it to retreat to the vicinity of Kimberley Road. Prior to this lateral erosion by the Ohau River, the streams from the hills a couple of miles south of the fluviatile vent combined and occupied a wide but shallow valley situ- ated along the line of the present Kimberley Road. The stream formed by this union flowed first into the sea, but afterwards into the southern end of Lake Horowhenua, which was thoi from 30 ft. to 40 ft. deeper (and consequently more extensive) than now : and when it had excavated its valley through the sandstone formation to the upper surface of the Ohau fan it filled its valley-bottom with alluvium — clay derived from the hills at its sources. By the lateral erosion just described the Ohau River re- moved the right bank of the " Kimberley Road " valley, tapping it and cutting into the clay alluvium. Though subsequent erosion has removed some of this clay deposit, the remainder can still be seen extending from the intersection of the Arapaepae and Kimberley Roads, through the Weraroa >Stat(! Farm, toward the southern end of Lake Horowhenua. Originating as a flood-plain, it constitutes one of the most fertile portions of the district. By the time the Ohau had gained access to the old " Kimberley Road '" valley, however, the latter had been deserted by the stream which formed it. The " Kimberley Road "' stream seems to have been divided from the streams which drained the hills still further south by a low ridge of the soft marine sandstone ; and, having aggraded its bed with the clay alluvium, lateral erosion -commenced, by which means it cut through the dividing- ridge, and allowed itself to bo captured by one of the afore- mentioned neighbouring streams. These small watercourses have their sources in the outlying Poroporo Range, in the adjacent Tararua foothills, and in the intervening valley. They flowed round the northern and of the Poroporo Range, entering the sea directly opposite. One of them, the Kuku Stream, afterwards raised its bed by depositing alluvium, and flowed over a low col — situated near the northern end of the outlving range — subsequently cutting the small ravine which it still occupies. Though there is ' no direct evidence that the '" Kimberley Road " stream vacated its original valley befori; the Ohau had gained access to it, for two reasons such is believed to have been the case. One is that the clay alluvium has not been channelled in the manner it probably would have been had the stream flowed into the Ohau ; and the other, and more important, is that had the deviation not taken place the original Adkin. — PoKf-tertiari/ Qeological nialory of Ohau Hirer, 507 valley of the stream would have formed an iusurinoiintable barrier to the Ohau River when the course of the latter was chanj2;ed in the manner to be described later. The structure and lithological character of the material of the inclined plain of marine deposit (raised beaches) may now be examined. I am indebted to Mr. John Young for a hint as to the origin of this formation. From original observations made while travelling up and down the railway he concluded that it was nothing more or less than an extensive series of raised beaches, and I have since proved — to my own satisfaction at least — that such is indeed the case. At the foot of the ranges the raised- beach formation is composed of sandstone, but further out from them — in Levin Borough, for example — the formation consists of an U})per bed of sandstone, a middle zone of yellow clay, and a basal layer of sand- stone, the first and last being identical in all respects. Along the lower slopes of the Tararua foothills especially, the thickness of the raised-beach formation varies according to its remoteness from or j^roximity to the smmiiits of the Ohau, Otaki, and other fans. Two miles south of Shannon the sandstone lies on the lower northern slope of the Ohau fan, and there has a thickness exceeding 500 ft. Opposite Levin its thickness was orighi- ally 200 ft. to 240 ft., but has since been much denuded. The raised-beach formation is evidently a double one. When the country sank (terminating the early Pleistocene elevation), and the sea advanced over the land in this locality, sandy beaches were formed, only to be submerged and superseded by others as the subsidence continued. When the subsequent uplift took place, the sea while receding repeated the process of deposition, and formed a second series of sandy beaches above the first. The intercalated masses of clay represent, of course, the finer sediment laid down while the sea was advancing and receding, and also when this portion of the country was at its recent minimum elevation —i.e., when the sea washed the Tararua foothills. The sandstone of the formation is usually rudely stratified, and gene- rally finely laminated, the laminae sometimes exhil)iting false beddmg.. [ts colour varies from light and dark grey to various shades of red aiid vellow. Quartz grains, which constitute the greater part of the sandstone^ are coated with iron-oxide in the red and yellow varieties, and associated with black particles in the grey. Ripple-marks are of frequent occurrence in the sandstone, usually at some little distance from the upppermost sea- margin at the foot of the hills, and are without doubt due to the friction of fairly deep water, and not to the action of wind. In this district both the clay and the sandstone are quite destitute of fossil remains. This deficiency is probably due to the seas which the)i washed these shores being too turbid to be favourable to the life of shell- fish and similar creatures which were likely to be preserved in the fossil state ; or it maj- be that shells which were originally preserved have since been removed by dissolution. In some places, especially at the foot of the Arapaepae Range, the sandstone outcrops are ,seen to be riddled, or even honeycombed, with tubular holes, usually from | in. to 1 in. in diameter. The absence of fossil remains within these holes renders it difficult to deter- mine whether they were the homes of marine worms or borers, or have merely been made by land-insects since the uplift. The size of the perfo- rations and certain other characteristics seem, however, to disfavoui- the- latter suggestion. 508 Transactions. v> vT A/ ^ ^ V J. Adkin. — Post-tertiary Geological UiUorij of Ohau River. o09 The southern extremity of tlio newly uplifted coastal plain just de- scribed lies about two miles south of Paekakariki. The cliffs which border the sea fiirther south begin at this point to run inla)id. These cliffs attain in some places a height of 800 ft., and do not rise perpendicularly from the sea-margin, but form precipitous scarps, fringed at the foot with jagged rocks which lie slightly above high-water mark. As these cliffs strike in- land (as a result of the uplift), and recede more and more from the present shore, they are, by the formation of talus slopes and other effects of sub- aerial denundation. gradually transformed into steep hills, which present comparatively unbroken faces. The best examples of the former sea-cliffs are to be seen near Otaki and Ohau. Although the flat land (marine sediment) first appears near Paekakariki, there are abundant signs of uplift, and also of prior depression, of the country as far south as Porirua Harbour. The coastal plain of marine deposit varies in the different localities between Paekakariki and Wanganui in both width and elevation. The uplift was probably greatest midway between the two extremities, and the altitude of the upper edge of the sandstone increases at the southern end apparently with some irregularity as that point is approached. This irre- gularity may really be only apparent and not actual, for in some cases it is certaiii that subaerial denundation has proceeded so uniformly that, though the original surface of the sandstone has been considerably lowered the original superficial slope remains unaltered, and the denuded surface is liable to be mistaken for the original one. The projection of the coast (Kenakena) near Waikauae is, with the exception of the numerous river-mouths, the only irregularity in the grand sweep of the present beach lying between Paekakariki and Wanganui. This projection, which lies exactly opposite the Island of Kapiti, has doubt- less been formed by the flow of the tides round the ends of that island. The meeting of the tidal currents on its lee has caused the suspended sediment to be precipitated, thus forming a sandy ridge, partly sub- and (by the rise of the land) partly supra-marine. Should the uplift of the land continue, Kapiti, by the extension of this ridge, will eventually be- come a peninsula. In the immediate neighbourhood of the Ohau River the principal stream which dissected the coastal plain of marine sediment was the Koputaroa. Taking its rise in the southern end of the Arapaepae Range, and receiving many affluents from the western slopes of the same, it flows northwards into the Manawatu River. During its, geologically speaking, short life the Koputaroa has passed through many vicissitudes, and, though the stream is rather insignificant, a review of its life-history will perchance serve to indicate the nature of similar sediments and operations of larger watercourses, the conditions mider which such sediments were deposited, and the manner in which their actions and operations were effected. When seen in miniature, origins, modes of action, and cause and effect are more easily studied and understood than when the same phenomena occur on a larger scale. Towards the termination of the Pleistocene period — that is, when the Ohau River flowed in the shallow " north-west " channel, and this portion of the country was at a somewhat lesser elevation than at the present day — ^the valley which is now occupied by the Koputaroa Stream was trans- ^'^erselv divided by a low sandstone ridge. This ridge lay directly between 510 Transactions. its two remaining extremities, which may still be seen — one near the northern end of the Koputaroa Road, and the other a little north of th(^ north-east corner of Levin Borough. North of this ridge the drainage was then the same as now, but on the southern side a considerable change has occurred. The Upper Koputaroa .Stream — i.e., the portion south of the dividing-ridge, took its rise in the southern extremity of the Arapaepae Range, flowed parallel to it as far as the present position of Queen Street, and then, bending north-west and west, flow^ed into the Ohau River near the point where it then entered the sea. The Upper Koputaroa was divided from the Ohau River by another low sandstone ridge extending from near the source to the junction of the former with the latter. The " Kaiwha " ridge (such being the name by which it was known to the old-time Maoris) varied from a quarter to half a mile in wddth, and its summit was about 25 ft. above the beds of the Upper Koputaroa and Ohau Rivers, though later it was in some parts considerably lowered — apparently by pluvial erosion. While deepening and widening its valley the Upper Koj)utaroa removed' part of the ridge which divided it from the lower part of its present valley,, and, deserting its connection with the Ohau, formed a continuous stream,, which poured its waters into the Manawatu River. A base-level of vertical erosion having been established, lateral erosion became important, so that the Koputaroa attacked and removed the upper portion of the " Kaiwha " ridge, thereby gaining access to the old " north-west " channel of the Ohau River, which was by that time vacated, and therefore dry. The surface- slope of the Ohau fan preventing an overflow of the Koputaroa to the south-west or west, deflected it toward the north-west and caused it to hvig the southern side of the " Kaiwha " ridge, and by lateral erosion to cut back its bounding scarp. The sandstone of the ridge was, however, not so entirely removed as to exj)ose the underlying fan. After attaining the base-level of erosion as mentioned above, the Koputaroa began to fill its valley with alluvium derived from the Arapaepae Range. This deposition of material was probably the result of a similar process on the part of the Manawatu River— the one keeping pace with the aggradation of the other. Being in a state of stable equilibrium, the Kopu- taroa (when the pivot of its motion was in the breach of the " Kaiwha " ridge) by repeated oscillations from one side of its course to the other flowed and deposited material, sometimes on the south side, and sometimes in its valley proper, on the northern side of the " Kaiwha " ridge. This process was continued until the alluvium had reached its present thickness and structure. During its recent outfiowings along the line of Queeji Street to the centre «tf Levin a second bifurcation of the Koputaroa Stream occurred, this time near the Horowhenua Butter-factory. At this point the stream by building up its bed was able to cross a low portio)i of the " Kaiwha " ridge, and after an interval, and again by aggradation, this time of its newly- acquired channel, it entered the shallow^ valley of a small stream which formerly flowed westward into Lake Horowhenua. Taking possession of this small valley, the Koputaroa deposited material in it for the remainder of the time of its outflow in this directio)i, thrustiiig forward its alluvium as far as the intersection of Queen Street and Tirotiro Road. Both the first and second branches of the westward outflow of the Koputaroa Stream reached and entered the then more extensive Horowhenua Lake. AuKix. — I'ost-ferl iafji (jtologicdl Uislonj of Olmii Ui oil < ^ ^ P ^ 0 0 J 512 Transactions. Since the excavation of the shallow channel it now occupies the Kopu taroa has, of course, been confined to its principal valley, and again pours- the whole of its waters into the Manawatu River. The alluvium of the Koputaroa and its tributaries, being fairly typical of the deposits of the other streams which convey the drainage of the Tararua foothills across the coastal plain, is worthy of some notice. In surface form there is a marked contrast between the deposits of the Koputaroa and those of its tributaries. This difference is due to the dissimilarity in the gradients of their beds, the bed of the* trunk stream having at that time, as now, a much gentler slope than had those of its tributaries. The Koputaroa spread its alluvium from one side of its valley to the other in gently sloping sheets, w^hile its tributaries formed lateralh- coalescing fanlike deposits, each deposit having its apex in the gully of the stream to w'hich it owes its origin. The deposits of the tributary streams are not true fans, because they were modified by the presence of the lateral spurs of the Arapaepae Range, M^hich separated their upper portions. Besides having a gentler surface-slope, the alluvium of the Koputaroa differs from that of any one of its tributaries in other respects ; the area it occupies is greater, though its thickness is less ; and its contained rock debris consists of well-rounded pebbles arid boulders, and not, as do the tributary deposits, of angular fragments. The alluvium of the Koputaroa itself consists of masses of gravel, grit, and boulders, surmounted by patches of yellow clay. The total thickness probably does not anywhere exceed 30 ft., and, though the thickness of the lower portion is fairly constant, the upper clayey division varies — in some places swelling out to a depth of 5 ft. or more, and in others thinning away to the upper surface of the mider- lying gravel. These masses of superficial clay frequently contain numbers of sporadic stones of various size. Of these the largest observed was a greywacke boulder, roughly rhomboidal in form, but nevertheless well water-worn. It lay just below the surface of the clay, and was found to weigh 3201b., its greater diameter being 28 in., its lesser 20 in. From recent observations made in Victoria by Mr. Guppy it has been found that muddy w^ater, having a greater specific gravity than that w^hich is free from suspended particles, is able, even when flowing at a moderate velocity, to transport boulders of considerable size. From this it will be seen that the presence of large sporadic stones in a deposit of fine silt, and their transportation, by a stream of no great magnitude, to positions some miles from the parent rock, are phenomena not difficult to be accounted for. These facts seem to indicate that when the Kuputaroa Stream first began to deposit material it was a muddy torrent washing down large numbers of various-sized stones ; but after it had raised its bed by de- position its flood-waters spread, in the absence of any w^ell-defined channel- over the whole of the floor of its valley, and, while depositing clay, also rolled dowii and disturbed the comparatively few pebbles and boulders which happened to come within the range of its action. The Ohau River flowed in, and gradually widened, its " north-west "' valley, until the sea had receded, in this vicinity, to about five miles fronr the ranges, when a bar, or perhaps sandbanks, were formed at the mouthi of the river. By the action of wind and waves, combined with the uplift of the land, the bar or sandbanks were raised above sea-level, and sand- dunes were piled up, at first obstructing and afterwards completely blocking: the river at the point where it entered the sea. Adkin. — Poxt-teriiarij Geological l/ixfori/ of Oluni Fiver. 513 In this inaniier the Horowheiiua Lake was formed. The waters of tne river gradually banked up behind the sandy barrier, finally filling the wide channel as far up as the present site of Levin. At the time of its maximum extension the Horowhenua Lake must have had an area of be- tween five and six square miles, its former eastern and south-eastern margins being indicated by the presence of a black soil on the surface of the shingle of the Ohau fan. The uppermost edge of the area of black soil ex- tends from Levin to AVeraroa, and from thence along the Beach Road to the State farm, and is, of course, a relic of the swamps which fringed the former successive margins of the lake. During its maximum exten.sion the greatest depth of the lake was about 100 ft., the level of its Avaters being for a while kept fairly constant by an overflow between the sand- hills to the sea. When, however, by the enlargement of this outlet the Hokio Stream came into existence, the surface of the lake was more or less gradually lowered mitil it reached its present level, thereby reducing its area by three-fourths, and diminishing its deptb by more than 70 ft. The irregular swamps at the north and south ends of the lake are the relics of arms of that sheet of water when it had attained its greatest extent, or are abortive attempts to gain an outlet to the sea, or perhaps both. Former levels of the Horowhenua Lake are indicated by the position and elevation of the extremities of the alluvial deposits of streams which at one time flowed into it. The previously mentioned " Kimberley Road " stream flow^ed into the southern end of the lake when its level was rising. The Koputaroa has also left memorials of the former higher levels of the lake. The first branch of its western outflow reached the lake when the surface of the latter had attained its maximum altitude — about 110 ft. above the present sea-level ; while the second branch entered the lake when its surface had been lowered to about 70 ft. above that datum-line. At the present time the Horowhenua Lake has an area of 900 acres, its surface is 36 ft. above sea-level, and its greatest depth probably does not exceed 30 ft. The lake derives its water-supply from the overflow of the adjacent swamps and from their interfluent streams, and its only outlet is the Hokio Stream, the sluggish waterway which meanders between the sandhills to the sea. The six islands situated near the western and southern shores were artificially constructed by the Maoris in the early part of the last century to serve as fortresses in their intertribal wars. Some are now, however, more or less submerged through the wasting-away of the perishable vegetable matter of which they were partly constructed. The sandhills which enclose the Horowhenua Lake on its western and southern shores have kept pace with the uplift of the land, so that they now cover the strip of country, three miles ■v\ade, which borders the sea. On the southern boundary of the county the belt of sandhills is also three miles in width, but at its northern end the blown sand has spread inland for over six miles. The most advanced inroad of blown sand is situated near the northern end of Lake Horowhenua, where a comparatively thin stratum extends from the main belt of dunes to the Heatherlea cross-roads. This tongue of land has long ceased to drift, but it can be distinguished from the underlying raised-beach sandstone by its finer texture, its less regular structure, the absence of parallel laminae, and its hummocky upper surface. The superimposition of the blov/n sand upon the raised-beach sandstone can also be seen about one mile south of Lake Horowhenua. 17— Trans. 514 Transactions. Adkix. — I'osf-tcr/ /(/)■;/ (Icoloijicdl llixloni of Oliaii 7?irer. 515 The general ari'cUigemeut of the sandhills is in ridges at right angles to the coast-line. Their culminating point between Paekakariki and the Manawatu River is Moutere, 288 ft., and situated between the northern (^nd of Lake Horowhenua and the sea. The surrounding sandhills have a general altitude of 170ft., and vary in character considerably. Great wastes of bare drifting sand border the coast-line, but further inland the dunes are covered with manuka scrub and grass, so that in these parts the accumulation has now ceased. The hollows between the older ridges and hills of drifted sand are occupied by grassy flats, swamps, or lagoons. The last named are very numerous, though their area seldom exceeds a few acres. Papaitonga, the largest of the lagoons, is situated in the wedge-shaped sandstone area lying between the former and the present course of the Ohau River. It occupies a hollow (the former valley of a small stream) on the junction- line of the raised-beach sandstone and the hills of blown sand. Extensive swamps border the western shore of Papaitonga, and a stream connects it with the sea. The smaller island, Motu Ngarara, is artificial, but Kiwi Island is an isolated mound of raised-beach sandstone. The Ohau River flowed into the Horowhenua Lake until the latter had attained its maximum area. At this juncture the deflecting force which had caused it to continually erode its left bank compelled the river to vacate its " north-west " channel, and to flow across the plain of raised- beach sandstone in its present position, but on a much higher level. A moment's consideration will show that the deflection was southwards, which in a river flowing west is from its right bank towards the left. This fact gives some indication as to the nature of the force which impelled the Ohau River to continually attack its left bank during the occupation of its " north-west " channel. Ferrel has shown that moving bodies on the earth's surface, in the absence of other controlling forces, are deflected to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This law has already been applied to the Canterbury rivers,* and there is no doubt that the deflective force produced by the earth's rotation was the agency which caused the Ohau River to alter the direction of its flow. Having reached its present posi- tion, the deflection of the river ceased, owing to the retardation and sup- pression of the deflective force, partly by superficial obstacles- — i.e., the unfavourable configuration of the land-surface, viz., the Poroporo Range — and partly by the awakening of other forces which introduced a new cycle of action into the history of the Ohau River- — viz., the excavation of the valley it now occupies. Upon attaining its present position the first act of the Ohau River was to make for itself a valley in the raised-beach sandstone, and to deepen it until the surface of the underlying fan was again denuded, and also slightly incised. This erosion was due to the sandstone having a gentler surface-slope than had that part of the " valley plain " which lay above its limits, and to the tendency of the river to equalize the gradients of the tlifEerent portions of its bed. Soon after this erosion of the sandstone the Ohau River began to channel its former deposits. The gradual diminution in the slope of the surfaces of the fan and " valley plain " had an important effect upon the subsequent action of * F. W. Hilgendorf : " The Influence of the Earth's Rotation on the Course of the Rivers on the Canterbury Plains," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 200. 17* 516 Traiimrtions. the Ohau River, As has been shown in the appended table, this slope is very similar to a thalweg, or erosion-curve, being relatively steep in its upper parts, but gradually becoming flatter (with some irregularity) as it is descended. At that time the chief endeavour of the river was ap- parently to reduce the steepness of its bed ; and on this account, and as a result of the general progressive diminution of the superficial dip of its former deposits, the upper and middle parts of the " valley plain " were the first to be incised. The material from this excavation was washed down, and spread over the surfaces of the lower part of the " valley plain " and the upper part of the fan ; and it was also deposited to the depth of some 20 ft. on the floor of the valley in the raised-beach sandstone. Lateral erosion on the part of the river then came into play, and in the last-mentioned locality the sides of the valley were cut back — down to the level of the material just previously deposited. This lateral erosion was effected in such a manner as to cause the resultant flood-plain to have a convex surface when viewed longitudinally. In forming this part of the flood-plain the river cut sideways, on its right bank, not only through the sandstone side of the valley, but it also notched (laterally) the slope of the underlying fan. Vertical erosion again attaining an ascendency, another flood-plain was formed somewhat below the level of the first, and this time extending from the upper edge of the " valley plain " to some distance down the slope of the fan. Subsequently, periods of lateral erosion and the formation of successive flood-plains alternated with periods of vertical erosion, and in cases when the flood-plains were not totally destroyed by the further action of the river their fragments were left to form the terraces which are now so common in the several portions of the Ohau Valley. Owing to its straightness and uniform width, the Lower Makahika Valley, at the commencement of the erosion of the early Pleistocene deposits, was extremely liable to be swept from side to side by floods, so that, with the exception- of two or three fragments which now indicate the altitude of the original surface, the Makahika branch of the " valley plain " was destroyed and washed away. As the excavation progressed- — -lateral erosion being in part superseded by vertical — the lower flood-plains were less affected by the action of the river than the original surface was, and are therefore more extensively preserved. The truncation of the spurs in the Makahika Valley appears to have been effected in the Tertiary epoch, since thick masses of early Pleistocene deposits can be seen abutting upon their truncated ends. An examination of the escarpments of the terraces which have been cut in the " valley plain " shows that there are of the latter two distinct types. Li one the terrace-face consists either of shingle, gravel, &c., from summit to base, or has a considerable thickness of these materials rest- ing on the country rock, while in the other type the country rock is surmounted by only a comparatively thin layer of water-worn detritus. The first type of terrace shows that the Ohau has incised its Pleistocene deposits (which fill the primary, or pre-Quaternary, valley of the river) either in the middle or at one side of the valley, while those of the second type indicate that the river has cut laterally and then vertically into the bounding hills, and, in forming the subsequent flood-plains, deposited a veneer of gravel and shingle upon the successive platforms which it carved in the ancient base rocks. Adkix. — Vostt-ferliary Geological l/iston/ of Ohan River. 517 518 Transncfioiis. The gravels, &c., of the Ohau fan and valley deposit, and also of the recent terraces, consist of greywacke, soft slates, fragments of conglomerate, and red and green quartzose material in corresponding proportion to their occurrence in the country rock of the district. Since the excavation of its present valley the Ohau River, along the lower part of its course, has raised its bed by the deposition of fine sediment in much the same manner as the Waimakariri River has done in the neighbourhood of Kaiapoi. These alluvial flats, which constitute the fertile lands about the Lower Kuku Stream, have their origin where the terraces of the Ohau merge upon the surface of its fan, and extend from thence to the coast, though there, as elsewhere, their limits are hidden by blown sand. The establishment of these aggraded alluvial flats has prevented the inroads of the dunes on a narrow strip bordering the left bank of the Ohau River. This is the only place within the area shov/n on the accom- panying maps where the fertile land, which elsewhere lies contiguous to the foot of the ranges, approaches to within one mile of the sea- beach. The question now presents itself. What caused the Ohau River to ex- cavate its present valley ? A cursory examination of the locality would doubtless lead the observer to the conclusion that the present terraced valley of the Ohau River is the direct result of the (geologically) recent plicatioii of the folds, and consequent slow upheaval, of the Tararua Ranges, and also of the adjacent sea-bed. Such, however, was not the case. It is true that upheaval has taken place, as shown by the occurrence of raised beaches, and it is highly probable that such was due to crustal move- ments in the Tararua and Ruahine Ranges ; but there is evidence to show that the uplift and the formation of the present Ohau Valley were not coinciderit, and therefore the former was not the direct cause of' the latter. The river did not commence the excavation of its valley until the land had well-nigh reached its present elevation.* The Ohau flowed in its north- west channel until the land was within 30 ft. of its present elevation, and after that again it flowed in the same direction as it does now long enough to excavate the sandstone to a depth of about 100 ft. — all before it com- menced to incise the upper portion of its " valley plain." These facts point to a very considerable lapse of time between the beginning of the uplift and the commencement of the erosion of the Ohau Valley, so that a more satisfactory explanation of the latter operation must now be sought for. The theory recently put forward by an eminent Canterbury geologistf appears to conform with the facts of the case under notice. He considers that one of the causes which will enable a river to excavate its channel is " the failure of the supply of waste " — that is, the failure of the supply of detritus ^^'ith which the river is aggrading its bed or which it is trans- porting to lower levels. Concisely, the theory is as follows : Other factors remaining constant, a cessation or diminution of the supply of transportable * Bj' " the excavation of its valle_y " is meant the erosion by the Ohau River of its former deposits — i.e., the " valley plain " and fan accumulations. Being due to causes other than those now being considered, the origin of the second valley in the raised-beach sandstone does not come into the present discussion. t R. Speight : " Some Aspects of the Terrace-development in the Valleys of the C'anterbnrj Rivers," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 16. Adkix. — Posf-fi rf/arif (reoJoffictil ///sfori/ of 0/iaii Hirer. 519 rock debris within a catchment-area will cause the contained river to deepen its channel. In this district the ascertainable facts appear to support and confirm this view. Though at the present time the basin of the Ohau River contains only a few insignificant areas rising above the timber-line, in the early Pleis- tocene, when the river was building up its fan, a very considerable pro- portion of the mountains among its sources and upper reaches was bare of arboreal vegetation. The former lower altitude of the timber-line in relation to the sources and upper reaches of the Ohau River was, of course, due to the greater elevation of this part of the country at that time. A coveriiig of dense forest acts as a shield and filter — controlling the inipetuosity of the water following heavy rain ; binding the soil together aiid protecting the underlying rocks ; allowing only the finest silt to be transported to lower levels ; and, perhaps most important of all, prevent- ing the formation of landslips. A striking, though by no means rare, ex- ample of the last-mentioned attribute of a forest covering was observable from Levin on Friday, the 3rd September, 1909. Dry weather followed by rain ■ — a very favourable series of circumstances — produced their usual effects on the mountains ; but, though innumerable slips were visible on those ridges of the Tararuas lying above the limits of the bush, not more than half a dozen were to be seen upon the nearer forest-clad ranges.* It follows, then, that in the early Pleistocene, when the land hereabouts stood at least 1,000 ft. higher than now, the areas bare of forest suffered severely from the action of the elements— rain-storms swept away the soil ; the alternate action of sun aiid frost shattered the rocks thus exposed ; and landslips and freshets carried the resultant rock debris to the valley -bottoms, furnishing the Ohau and its tributaries with an abundant supply of " waste " whercMath to build up its deposits in the lowlands. This state of affairs was brought to a gradual close by the following subsidence of the land. It would appear that the upward extension and growth of the forest did not keep pace with the subsidence, because, had it done so, the excavation of the present Ohau Valley would have commenced in the middle Pleistocene — the period of recent minimum elevation of this part of the country. It seems, therefore, that the forest was slow in adapt- ing itself to, and taking advantage of, the new conditions, and by failing to check the supply of " waste " delayed the excavation of the valley to the Recent geological period^ — almost to the present day. In the foregoing an attempt has been made to account for the varied physical features of the district, the various geological formations, and the peculiarities of surface-configuration. As previously stated, the absence of fossils will no doubt force investigators to fall back on stratigraphical evidence and the e\'idence of the slow crustal movements — first epeirogenic, then orogenic — when attempting to place the formations of the district in their correct position in the geological scale. The problems of the district are by no means exhausted, but, as those still unsolved apparently do not affect the continuity of the chain of events, their non-solution is in the present instance of no great importance. * That the nearer ranges are not immune from landslips is shown by the fact that when the bush is felled they are particularly liable to be disfigured by these hideous scars. 620 Transactions. Table of Formations described in the above Paper. ^o-atiouB. i C-PSr^ 1 origin. 1 . „„ Alternative ^^e- Name. 1 Rocks of Tararua Greywacke, slates. Ranges j &c. Marine (?) Early Mesozoic (?) Pre-existing plain (lateral slope of Cook Strait valley) (?) (?) 1 Pliocene (?) . . Ohau Valley deposit and fan Boulders, shingle, sand, and clay- seams Fluviatile Early Pleisto- cene Period of uplift, great eleva- tion, and sub- sidence. Middle Pleisto- ! Period of mini- cene \ mum eleva- j tion. Raised beaches Soft sandstone and clay Marine . . Later Pleisto- cene to Re- cent Alluvium on the lat- est coastal plain. [Flood-plains, &c., of the minor streams] Gravel, boulders, clay Fluviatile (minor) Recent y Period of latest r uplift. Terrace gravels, &c., in the Ohau Valley Shingle and clay Fluviat le ; Recent 1 Blown sand Sand . . Aeolian Recent to pre- sent day Art. XLV. — Some Notes on the Marlborough Coastal Moraines and Waiau Glacial Valley. By Professor James Park, F.G.8.. Otago University. [Bead lief ore the Otngo Institute 4th October, 1910.] Plates XX-XXII. The Marlborougli coastal moraines extend from the shores of Cook Strait near Cape Campbell southward to Shades Creek, a distance of twenty-six miles. I have elsewhere''' spoken of the three greatest of these glacial deposits as the Cape Campbell Moraine, the Kekerangu Moraine, and the Shades Creek Moraine, l)ut a recent examination of the maritime belt in which they occur has led me to the belief that these moraines, although now more or less detached, at one time constituted a continuous deposit, having * James Park : " The Geology of New Zealand," 1910, p. 201. Vauk.— }/^ (ind Wduiii ('•hicutl Valh ii. 523 for over twenty miles. They consist of n great pile of fiuviatile drifts over 1,200 ft. thick. Towards their base the drifts are intercalated with beds of clay and soft sandstone alternating with beds of gravel. At their base, and resting on the basement rock, which is mainly greywacke and jointed argillite of probably Lower Secondary age, there is a rock-rubble deposit mainly composed of angular blocks of greywacke, few of which exceed 2 ft. in diameter. The material is loosely piled together, and in many respects' resembles the terminal moraine of the Hooker Glacier or the lateral moraines of the Tasman. It varies from 10 ft. to 160 ft. thick, and is specially well exposed on the Awatere side of Maxwell's Pass. The Vernon drifts, with their basal glacial debris, form the divide between the Lower Wairau and Lower Awatere, rising in places to a height of over 2,000 ft. above the sea. \n places they rest on the older Pliocene clays of the Awatere series. Like the Shades and Kekerangu deposits, they are in places tilted at high angles, in others traversed by faults. That they are Pleistocene seems almost certain. Waiau Glacial Valley. The southern portion of Marlborough is traversed by the Liland and Seaward Kaikoura chains, which are separated by the gorgelike Clarence Valley. Ten miles north of the Kaikoura Peninsula the seaward chain pursues a south-west course, which carries it further and further inland, so that when it crosses into the prolongation of the Province of Nelson that protrudes itself between North Canterbury and South Marlborough it is no longer a seaward but an inland range of mountains, still forming, as it does further north, the southern wall of the Clarence Valley. Five miles south of the Kaikoura Peninsula there begins another coastal range that extends southward to Cheviot and North Canterbury. Between this coastal range and the Seaward Kaikouras, now an inland chain, there lies a wide, well-defined valley extending from the Upper Waiau and Hanmer Plains to Kaikoura. When standing at the Hanmer River it is at once seen that this valley was the course followed by the ancient Waiau Glacier as it flowed towards the sea, and also of the Waiau River before the cutting of the present gorge. The evidences of prolonged and intense glaciation are everywhere present from the Hanmer Plains to the sea at Kaikoura Peninsula, in the shape of smooth, flowing, ice-shorn contours, truncated spurs, spurless ridges, isolated "ice-grooved and whalebacked hills remaining in the floor of the glacial valley, roches moutounees, and moraine debris. The Waiau glacial valley is easily identified, as the inland coach-road from Kaikoura to the Upper Waiau follows along its floor for the greater part of the way. It is not now drained by a trunk river, but is crossed transversely by a number of large streams that descend from the southern slopes of the Seaward Kaikouras, and reach the sea by deep, narrow gorges cut through the coastal range. Beginning at the Kaikoura end, we first have the Kahautara River and its branches, then the Conway River, and lastly the Mason River, with its tributary the Lottery. These rivers have deeply dissected the ancient glacial floor, which, however, can be clearly traced at Greenhills. Highfield, and Mason. Near the north end of the chain of roches moutonnees running along the floor of the glacial valley on the south side of the Conway, and locally know as the " Whaleback," there are piles of morainic debris mainly composed of -cingular blocks of Amuri limestone and Saurian greensand mingled with 524 Transactions. greywacke drift. The angular blocks appear to have been plucked from the south end of the Whaleback. where they occur in situ, and carried to their present place, a distance of six or eight miles. Exposures of this glacial debris, but not the best, are seen on the coach-road soon after cross- ing the Conway going southward. In the overdeepened portions of the glacial valley there occur consider- able deposits of stratified sands and clays, in places containing seams of impure lignite. These deposits were probably formed in the period of fluviatile activity that everywhere throughout the South Island appears to have followed the retreat of the Pleistocene glaciers. The Kaikoura Peninsula lies at the seaward end of the Waiau glacial valley, the coiu'se of which is about north-east to south-west. Art. XLVL- — The Geology of the Kermadec Islands. By W. Reginald B. Oliver. [Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterhury, 19th October, 1910.] Plates XXIII-XXVI. The first account of the geology of the Kermadec Islands is contained in a paper by Mr. S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S., written after a short visit to the group in 1887, in the Government steamer " Stella," for the purpose of annexing the islands to the Colony of New Zealand (Smith, 1888). Specimens of rocks collected by Mr. Smith were described bv Professor A. P. W. Thomas, M.A., F.L.S." (1888, p. 311). Some general information regarding the group is given in Mr. Smith's report on the Kermadec Islands (Smith, 1887). The only other notes on the geology of the Kermadecs that I am aware of are the descriptions by Mr. E. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S., of a few rocks collected by Professor Park on Macaulev and Sundav Islands (Speight, 1896). As a member of the scientific expedition which was camped for ten months on Sunday Island in 1908, among other things I made a collection of rocks, and noted as well as I was able the geological structure of the island. On the return journey to Auckland, Macauley Island. Curtis Island, and French Rock were visited in turn, when an opportunity was afforded of obtaining a few specimens from these islets. The collection of rocks has been described by Mr. Speight, who in the same paper discusses the geological evidence for the existence of a subtropical Pacific continent (Speight, 1910). I propose now to describe the physical features and structure of the various islands of the Kermadec Group, and, in the case of Sunday Island, the order in which the different series of tuffs and lavas were laid down and the island thus built up by volcanic action on a sub- merged base. The names used here for the rocks are taken from Mr. Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIII. Plate XX. Face p. 5^1.] Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIII Plate XXI '>^ J'- l'J%; 1> ■"X^>.- Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLIII. Pf.ATE XXII ^^ .-> -■T- •t*v\ ^•'v M- '"^ 'H-* M Or.ivKK. — (U'uliKiii (if the Kcrrnadec iRlaufln. 525 Speight's paper, and the corresponding numbers of the specimens are quoted in every case. For much lielp freely given I beg now to tender my sincere thanks to Mr. Speight. Sunday Island — Physical Features. Sunday Ishmd is roughly triangular in shape. Its greatest length is l()-5 km., and its area 29-25 sq. km. The present crater, oblong in shape, the longer diameter being about 3-3 km., occupies a large portion of the island, and contains three lakes (fig. 1 and Plate XXIII). From the crater- rim there branch off three main ridges — one runs north-west from Expe- dition Hill to Hutchison Bluff, another south-west from Mount Junction to Smith Bluff, the third south-east from Mounioukai to the east coast. These, with their ramifications, form practically the whole of Sunday Island. With the exception of some level ground in Denham Bay, in the crater, and on Low Flat and the adjoining Terraces, the whole of the surface of Napier Islet O '^l^fgent Islet ((^Dayrclll. nham Bay, Sunday Island. the cliff, however, is covered by the fallen material. The section exposed shows no lava-flows, but a series of irregularly stratified beds of andesitic tuffs, not pumiceous, but containing angular fragments of lava rocks. These beds have a northerly dip. Further on a few beds dip at a high angle — about 40° — as though they had been undermined and slipped down : they are adjacent to the next-described submarine series. At the north end of Denham Bay the series of beds corresponds in part to those at the south end. At the base is a horizontal flow of andesitic basalt (No. 39), then about 60 m. of evenly stratified submarine tuffs covered by subaerial tuffs, which, however, are not pumiceous. Below the lava at one place a little tuff containing some decomposed wood is exposed. The extreme point of Hutchison Bluff is quite a bare cliff .300 m. high. It consists entirely of irregular beds of andesitic tuffs. These tuffs consist of a coarse-grained gritty rock, which weathers quickly, containing small fragments of lava. On the north coast, from the Terraces (which cover the bases of the higher cliffs) to near the bluff there are two distinct series of beds, the upper ones superimposed on the eroded surface of the crumpled lower beds. The upper beds are composed entirely of andesitic tuffs (with no pumice), and, dipping generally but slightlv to the westward, pass bevond the lower beds near Hutchison Bluff". The lower beds consist of Trans. N./. Inst., Vol. XLIII. I'l.ATi; XXIII. :2^ g s 0) 3 M 0 rJ J :^ ^ 'c 0 s z cS ■^ a; ^ Face p. 528.] Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLIII. Plate XXIV. ssso I- F:g. 1. — Chanter Islets. Showiii"' sul)iii;nine fossil ifermis beds (iveilaid liy white calcite rot a.-K;3Siis^)iffifrLr , A«t««5«»i|«kj-M«f»-S iiM l''i(;. 'i. - .\1a( ai;le\ Ima.mi. Showing sections of basalt stream, pumice, tuffs, and covering of scoria. I.ava Cascade is l)elo\v lower provision depot. Trans. X.Z. Inst.. V. (>41). Oliver. — Geology of ihe Kcrmadcc hlaiuU. 535 Occasionally stragglers find their way there, but no migratory birds can be considered regular visitors to the group. The presence m the Kermadec Islands of the Pacific rat {Mus exulans), the candlenut-tree {Aleurites moluccana), and the Polynesian ti {Cordyline terminalis) is perhaps suggestive of a continental connection ; but I have given reasons elsewhere for supposing these to be introduced by Natives, of whose occupation on Sunday Island there is ample evidence (Oliver, 1910, p. 137 ; also see p. 539 of this volume). List of Works referring to the Geology of the Kermadec Islands. 1884. Sterndale : " Sunday Island." Appendix to Journals of the House of Representatives of New Zealand, A.-4, p. 64. 1887. Smith, S. Percy : " The Kermadec Islands ; their Capabilities and Extent." Wellington. 1888. Smith, S. Percy : " Geological Notes on the Kermadec Group." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20, p. 333. 1888. Thomas, A. P. W. : " Notes on the Rocks of the Kermadec Islands." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20, p. 311. 1896. Speight, R. : " Notes on some Rocks from the Kermadec Islands." Trans. N.Z, Inst., vol. 28, p. 625. 1896. Smith, S. Percy: "Volcanic Activity on Sunday Island in 1814." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 47. 1910. Oliver, W. R. B. : " The Vegetation of the Kermadec Islands." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 123. 1910. Speight, R. : " Petrological Notes on Rocks from the Kermadec Islands ; with some Geological Evidence for the Existence of a Sub- tropical Pacific Continent." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 241. Art. XLVII. — Notes on Reptiles and Mammals in the Kermadec Islands. By W. Reginald B. Oliver. [Bead before the Philosophical Insfituie of Canterbury, 1st June, 1910.] There are neither land - reptiles nor land - mammals indigenous to the Kermadec Islands, the group presenting in this respect one of the main features of oceanic islands. When the islands were discovered rats were plentiful, but reasons will be given below for considering them as intro- duced through the agency of man. Two marine animals — the green turtle and the humpback whale — regularly visit the group, while others are occa- sional \asitors. 536 Transactions. Mr. R. S. Bell, of Sunday Islcind, informed me tliat besides the green turtle one or two individuals of another species, probably the hawksbill, have been noticed from the shore. Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S.. mentions a water-snake, which, from the description given him by Mr. T. Bell, he supposes to be PeJamys hicolor (Cheeseman, 1888). On several occasions during September, 1908, I observed dolphins in Denham Bay, Sunday Island. Mr. Bell says that the sperm whale has been seen from the north coast of Sunday Island. On one occasion a. portion, about 2 ft. long, of a large cuttlefish was cast up on Loav Flat Beach. This fragment was possibly the remains of an animal which a whale had made a meal from, as it is known that sperm whales kill and eat these gigantic cephalopods. The following notes are mainly from material gathered during a ten months' stay on Sunday Island, in 1908, as a member of the scientific expedition which originated with Mr. AV. L. Wallace, of Timaru. Chelone mydas. (Green Turtle.) A large female specimen of the green turtle was shot by Mr. R. S. Bell off the rocks at the south end of Denham Bay on the 23rd May, 1908. Turtles were noticed chiefly during the summer months — January to March — often as many as five or six being seen at one time. An ob- server standing on the shore at a little h.eight can watch them browsing on a species of alga {Pterocladia capillacea), which grows abundantly on rocks in Avater down to about 5 m. in depth. Apparently, whilst in Sunday Island waters turtles eat no other kind of food. Every few minutes the}- come to the surface for a few seconds to breathe, but on the slightest alarm these timid reptiles swim swiftly away. They do not breed in the Ker- madecs. but go north to warmer regions. Megaptera hoops. (Hlimpback Whale.) A few humpback whales were noticed in Denham Bay in the latter part of August, 1908. During September their numbers increased, while in OctoJjer and November they were common all round Sunday Island ; at Macauley Island also, on 12th November, a large number were seen. They had their calves with them, and probably were migrating southwards. During their northward migration they are not seen from Sunday Island. Mus exulans. (Pacific Rat.) Specimens of the Pacific rat examined on Sunday Island agree in every particular with those from Funafuti, as described by Mr. E. R. Waite, F.L.S. (1897, p. 174), except that the under-surface, including inside of limbs, is light bixff, or sometimes pale grey ; fur pale grey at base ; uppei- surface of feet light buff, hairs" short ; hairless parts of feet pink. Skulls of Sunday Island examples appear to be proportionately more slender than the skull of the Funafuti specimen. The zygomatic arch is less prominent, thus giving a smaller breadth, whilst the nasai bones are narrower. These differences are apparent in the table of measurements given below, where the corresponding figures recorded by Mr. Waite for the Funafuti specimen are given for comparison. Of thirty-four specimens of rats from Sunday Island of which I have measurements, I select the ten largest of each sex as best showing the size ■of full-grown individuals : — Or.ivEU. — Fepfilcs nml Maiiimah in the Kcrwnder Islamls. 537 Head and Body. Tail. Wh of ' ^^^. Forearm and Hand. Hind Fo( Males. Mm. Mni. Mm. Mm. Mil'. Mm. 130 146 39 17-5 35 28-5 131 145 40 17 35 28 132 155 40 18-5 35 28-5 133 138 40 17-5 34 27-5 133 156 41 17-5 34 29 136 145 39 17-5 35 28-5 138 150 41 19 35 27 141 147 42 18 35 28 144 151 41 17-5 34 28 147 147 43 18-5 35 28-5 Fctnah'S. 125 146 38 18 33 28 127 144 39 17 33 27 127 146 37 17-5 32 27-5 128 144 38 17-5 34 28 129 138 40 17 33 27 129 152 39 18 34 28 130 140 39 18 34 29 130 140 38 17-5 34 28 133 143 40 17-5 34 28 137 146 41 18 34 27-5 Thus the male is, on an average, larger than the female. Apparently in the female the tail is proportionately longer than it is in the male ; but this is probably due to the fact that the males are the more pugnacious, and consequently have their tails bitten more frequently. A large number of specimens collected for examination had to be rejected because more or less of the end of the tail was missing. Measurements of Skulls of Rats from Sunday Island; also Measurements of Skull of Rat from Funafuti for Comparison. Sunday I.sla nd. Funa- futi Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Greatest length 33-5 33-5 34-6 34-7 35-5 35-0 ? „ breadth 15-5 16-4 16-8 16-0 ? 16-5 17-6 Nasals, length 13-2 13-0 13-5 13-0 13-5 14-0 „ greatest breadth 3-5 3-5 3-4 3-5 3-6 - 4-0 Interorbital breadth . . 5-4 5-5 5-5 5-5 5-5 5-5 Brain-case, breadth . . 13-5 13-5 13-8 14-0 14-0 13-6 Diastema 9-0 9-6 10-0 10-0 10-0 9-0 Anterior palatinal foramina 5-5 6-5 5-7 5-7 6-4 5-7 Condyle to incisor-tip 21-5 22-5 22-5 23-0 24-4 23-0 ? Coronoid-tip to angle 9-5 10-0 9-5 9-8 10-0 9-2 538 Transactions. Hahits. During the first week in January, 1908, few rats were seen, but their numbers increased gradually, until in March and April they were plentiful. In Juno rats were very numerous about our camp in Denham Bay, being seen frequently in the daytime, but more especially in the evenings, when they invaded our whares.* They searched everywhere for food, but did not gnaw into any of our boxes. Although naturally timid, they would explore every part of the whare if we kept quite still, and, as soon as the light was out, jump up on the table near which two of our party slept, and would sometimes even run over us as we lay in our bunks. We poisoned them periodically with arsenic, but it merely checked their numbers for a few days, after which they appeared as numerous as ever. As showing the large number of rats that exist on Sunday Island, the following figures are given on the authority of Mr. R. S. Bell. He estimated that in three years 44,000 were killed by poisoning and other means, while on one occasion 173 were caught in a single night near the cultivations in Denham Bay by means of a trap made with a harbour-buoy. The rats decreased in numbers during July. In August, on wet even- ings but few were to be seen, but on fine nights a fair number came about our whares. During September and October very few were noticed. That the rats disappear into the ground during the summer months seems certani. for on one occasion Mr. R. S. Bell accidentally dug out one of their burrows and discovered a number of rats which appeared some- what sleepy and dazed on being turned out into the daylight. During their out-season they usually retire to their holes in the daytime ; when surprised in the forest they immediately make for their burrows and dis- appear. It is probable that they breed in the ground, as young ones were noticed chiefly at the end of summer. Their food consists principally of fruits. Bananas, oranges, passions, grapes, and figs all disappear before hordes of rats, and the settlers on Sunday Island must protect their fruit-trees if they wish to have any share of the fruit. A piece of tin nailed round the stem at a distance of about 2 ft. from the ground will prevent rats from climbing the tree, but bananas must be cut just as the first signs of yellow begin to appear in the fruit, and placed in some position where rats are unable to get at them. Sunday Island rats are not strictly frugivorous, but, on the contrary, \vill eat any kind of food. Birds and their eggs, when they are to be ob- tained, are eaten, also the flesh and fat of goats, while specimens of rats I had gathered for examination when thrown out were usually devoured by their own kind. The beaches were constantly searched, and any fish or other animals cast up by the sea eaten by rats. Origin of the Bat in the Kermadecs. When first discovered by Europeans, Maeauley Island was described as having a " great number of rats and mice " (Watts, 1789, p. 228). There is no similar record for Sunday Island, though this island is now overrun with the Pacific rat {Mus exulans), which could scarcely have been introduced by Europeans, who have been the only visitors to the group since its discovery, a little more than a hundred years ago, and who Avould have introduced. * Huts made of a framework of poles, with sides and roofs of rushes, palm-leaves, or banana-leaves. Ol.lVEli. — Bepft^('< rey and l)Ia(k rats. These, however, are unknown in the Kermadecs. • Remarking on Lieutenant Watts's narrative, Mr. Cheeseman says, '■ This would seem to prove that the species, whatever it may be, is truly indigenous " (Cheeseman, 1888, p. 163). Mr. 0. Thomas, in his note on some rats collected on Siuiday Island, says that the Pacific rat " has l)robabIy travelled from island to island in Native canoes, or on floating logs, &c." (Thomas. 1896, p. 338). Now, if floating logs carried rats to the Kermadecs in the first instance, then the species would be truly indi- genous, provided it had not been introduced through the agency of man to the country whence it migrated to the group. The Kermadec Islands are, from a biological standpoint, oceanic in character. In order to reach the groups, therefore, rats must cross about six hundred miles (1,000 km.) of ocean, which is the distance to the nearest la.nd. The time which would be taken by a floating tree drifting this dis- tance negatives the possiblity of rats reaching the group in this manner. The Pacific rat occurs in all the principal groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. As many of the inhabitants of these islands used it as an article of food, it would often be carried intentionally from one island to another. Probably, however, it was more often carried accidentally in the Native canoes. Being a small, timid, and harmless animal, it would not be troubled much by the Native navigators, and this, possibly, may explain its wide distribution. On Sunday Island there have been found from time to time stone axes of a similar pattern to those made by Maoris. Other evidence of Native occupation of the group is furnished by the large holes on the Terraces, which, from their position, number, and size, have evidently been made by some Native race. Probably they were chiefly ruas, or storehouses for food. In some of the. larger holes, however, were large water-worn scones, no doubt brought from the beach below. These larger holes may be hancjis where the Natives prepared their ti-root. There is no doubt then that the Kermadec Islands were at one time inhabited by Natives, and it is by them, either accidentally or intentionally, that I consider the rat has in all probability been introduced.* List of Works referririy to Sunday Island Rat. 1789. Watts, Lieutenant : Chapter xx of " The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay." London. 1887. Smith, S. P.: "The Kermadec Islands; their Capabilities and Extent," p. 24. Wellington. 1888. Cheeseman, T. F. : " On the Flora of the Kermadec Islands ; with Notes on the Fauna." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20, p. 163. 1896. Thomas, 0. : Proc. Zool. Soc, 1895, p. 338. 1897. Waite, E. R. : " The Atoll of Funafuti, Ellice Group " (Mammals). Mem. Aust. Mus., 3, p. 165. * In my paper on the " Vegetation of the Kermadecs " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, p. 173) I have included the candlenut (Aleurites moluccana) and the Polynesian ti (Cordy- line termiyialis) in the list of introduced plants, as they are not distributed generally in the forest, but are found only in habitable parts of Sunday Island, where they appear to be survivors of the abandoned cultivations of a Native race. 540 Tranmctions. Art. XLVIII. — On Some Cahjptoblast llijdroids from the Kermadec Islands. By F. W. HiLGENDORF, M.A., D.Sc. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of (Janterhury, 1st June, 1910.] In 1908 a small party of naturalists sailed to the Kermadec Islands by the New Zealand Government steamer, and stayed on the islands for about ten months — that is, until the next voyage of the steamer to the islands. During their stay Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, of Christchurch, collected some hydroids, and it is through his kindness that I am able to describe those mentioned below. There is, as far as I can find, no. previous record of any hydroids from this group of islands. From their geographical position it would be supj^osed that the affinities of the fauna of the group would be mainly with New Zealand, since it lies only "about eight hundred miles north-east of Auck- land, and this supposition is supported by the few hydroids found. The hydroids of New Zealand itself have not been at all completely examined. The species described prior to 1895 are catalogued by Farquhar in the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. 28, p. 459, and to that catalogue I shall refer for all paj)ers and synonyms up to that date. Since Farquhar's list appeared I can find only the three following papers on hydroids from the New Zealand region : viz., Hilgendorf (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 30, p. 200), Hartlaub (Zool. Jahrbuchern, 1901, p. 349), Benham (Subantarctic Islands of N.Z., p. 306). Besides the hydroids, the collection as handed to me contained a part of a skeleton of an antij)atharian, part of a madreporian coral, several floats of a species of a Physalia, one or two Polyzoa, and some eggs of molluscs. Most of these, however, were not in a fit state for determination or descrip- tion. They remain in my hands. Campanularia caliculata vnv. makrogona (V. Lendenfeld). (For references and synonyms, see Farquahar, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 459). Hah. — Dunedin Harbour and Wellington Harbour, in New Zealand ; Australia ; Kermadec Islands (on seaweed, Denham Bay, Sunday Island). In reference to Campanularia, Hartlaub {loc. cit.) correctly points out that in my paper in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 30, I was wrong in transferring Campanularia and Eucopella to Hypanthea, since this last genus dift'ers from the others in its reproduction. Halecium tenellum (Hincks). //. tenellum Hincks, Ann. Nat. Hist., 3rd ser., vol. 8, p. 252 ; Brit. Hvd. Zooph., p. 226. //. lahrosum Alder, Ann. Nat. Hist., 3rd ser., vol. 3, p. 354. Hah. — England ; Australia ; Kermadec Islands (on Polyzoa, in Denham Bay, Sunday Island). HiLGENDORF. — CnJiiptohlast Hydro'ulii from KcriiKtdcr hlaiidx. 541 Two species of this genus have been found in New Zealand, but neither here nor in Australia does the genus seem common. Bale (Cat. Aus. Hyd. Zoophytes, p. 65) says he has a specimen that he thinks is //. tcnellum, and V. Lendenfeld (Proc. Linn. 8oc. N.S.W., ser. 1, vol. 9, p. 405) found speci- mens at Port Phillip that he was inclined to refer to this species. My speci- mens were not quite typiciil, having a great tendency to produce only two cups. Sertularia minima (Thompson). (For svnonyms and references, see Farquhar, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. '462 ; also Hilgendorf, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 30, p. 209.) Hob. — Timaru and Dunedin, in New Zealand ; Australia ; Cape of Good Hope ; Kermadec Islands (on seaweeds cast up on Denham Bay beach, Sunday Island). Synthecium elegans (Allman). (For synonyms and references, see Farquhar, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 465 ; also Hilgendorf, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 30, p. 211.) Hah. — Bluff, Stewart Island, and Dunedin Harbour (New Zealand) ; Kermadec Islands (Denham Bay, Sunday Island). The specimens were growing on the base of an Aglaophenia, to be men- tioned below. The interthecal spaces were longer than in previous specimens I have seen, being as long as the thecae measured along the outer curve. Plumularia setacea (Hincks). (For synonyms and references, see Farquhar, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol." 28, p. 466 ; also Hilgendorf, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 30, p. 214.) Hab. — Timaru and Dunedin (New Zealand) ; Australia ; Europe ; Kermadec Islands (Denham Bay, Sunday Island). This is a very delicate form of the species, and only about ^ in. high. Aglaophenia laxa Allman. Figs. 1, 2, 3. A. laxa Allman, 1876, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vol. 12, p. 275. Hab. — New Zealand; Kermadec Islands (Denham Bay, Sunday Island). This species seems never to have been seen since Allman found it thirty- four years ago in a collection brought home from New Zealand by Mr. Busk. Allman placed the specimen only provisionally in this genus, owing to his not having seen the corbulae. My specimen showed these structures, and a description is attached. The whole specimen was creeping over a piece of sponge about 1 in. long and ^ in. wide. It is light brown in colour, and 1 J in. in height. The hydrocaulus is simple and sparingly branched, the sketch in fig. 2 show- ing the most elaborately branched hydrocaulus found. The corbulae are about as long as one of the pinnae springing from the hydrocaulus. Each corbula consists of a rachis, from which spring about 18 costae, those on one side of the rachis alternating with those on the other. The rachis is jointed for every costa. The costae are narrow, so that the corbula is an open basket closed only by the overfolding of the lateral projections from 542 Transactions. the costae. These projections are poorly developed on the proximal two costae, and still more poorly on the distal two. Even on the medial costae the lateral projections are developed on only one side of the proximal por tion of each costa, bnt on both sides of the medial and distal portions. The Fig. ]. A(flcimens the right cheliped is the larger, while in the other it is the left ; Thomson Chilton. — Crustacea of the Kernuuhr hlamh. 549 states that in the specimens examined by him it is always the k'i't that ii the larger. The Lirgest of my specimens measures 22 mm. in knigth — i.e., half the length given by Thomson for his largest specimen. '. Arete dorsalis Stimpson. ? Arete dorsalis Stimpson, Pruc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 12, 1860 ; Coutiere, Fauna and Geog. Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes, vol. 2. pt. iv, p. 866, 190-1. Three specimens from Coral Bay, Sunday Island. These specimens are only provisionally referred to this species ; they agree with the description given by Coutiere in most respects, but differ in having the inner margin of the fixed finger regularly convex and without separate teeth, while the carpus of the smaller chelipeds is made up of 4 joints instead of the typical 3 found in this genus. The Kermadec speci- mens ^vill therefore probably form a separate species, but in the meantime I prefer to leave them provisionally under the above name. Arete dorsalis is found at Samoa, New Caledonia, Hong Kong, and at the Laccadives. Synalpheus sp. From Coral Bay and Meyer Island ; several specimens. Owing to want of some of the necessary works of reference these speci- mens have not yet been satisfactorily identified; they represent one, or perhaps two, species. Betaeus sp. Four specimens from Coral Bay, Sunday Island, collected by Mr. T. Iredale. Not yet identified. The species to which these specimens belong is quite distinct from Betaeus aequimanus Dana, which occurs fairly com- "nionly on the New Zealand coasts. Suborder Reptantia. Jasus hiigelli (Heller). Palinurus hiigelii Heller, Reise der " No vara," Crust., p. 96, pi. 8, 1868; Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 172. 1882. Palinurus tumidus Kirk, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 12, p. 314, 1879. One small specimen from Sunday Island ; the dried abdomen of another was found on the beach at Denham Island. The species is common on the east coast of Australia, and is occasionally taken in the northern part, of Auckland. Thenus orientalis Rumph. Thenus orientalis Rumph, Mus., pt. 2. fig. D ; Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 170, 1882; Spence Bate. Rep. Voy. " Cliallenger," 24, p. 66. 1888 ; Borradaile, Trans. Linn. Soc, Zool., 13, p. 261, 1910. A specimen 40 mm. long with bilobed rostrum and a strong spine on the abdomen appears to belong to this species, but the descriptions that I have been able to consult are short and incomplete. 550 Transaction!^. Phyllosoma duperreyi Guerin. Phyllosoma dwperreyi Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat., Crust.. 2, p. 485, 1837 ; Gueriii-Meneville, Voy. de la " Coquille," p. 46. pi. 5, fig. 2. 1838 ; Stebbing, Willey's Zool. Eesults, pt. 5, p. 609, 1900. One specimen of this larval form was " east iip on Denham Bay Beach, Sunday Island, 31st May, 1908." It is 26 mm. long and 18 mm. broad, and agrees closely with the de- scription and figures given in the " Voyage de la ' Coquille.' " It is not certainly known to what adult form PhyUosonia duperreyi belongs, but Professor Haswell, in describing the Phyllosoma stage of Ihacus peronii Leach [I. incisus Peron], says that it is not unlikely that Phyllosoma duperreyi is an earlier stage in the development of the same animal (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 4, p. 280). His specimen was obtained at Port Jackson ; the original specimen of P. duperreyi was obtained at the same place ; while the one described by Stebbing is from Milne Bay, New Guinea. Iconaxiopsis kermadecensis sp. nov. Figs. 1 and 2. In general resembling /. andamanensis Alcock, but apparently differing in the following points : The rostrum not quite reaching to the end of the second joint of the antennular peduncle, triangular, margins towards the apex smooth, but with a prominent tooth on each side at the base of the rostrum, a sbght ridge being continued backwards on the carapace from each of these lateral teeth ; slightly further back are 3 smaller teeth closely placed in a transverse row on the carapace, one central and two lateral, Fig. 2. Iconaxiopsis l-ermadecensis. Fig. 1. Left chelipecL Fig. 2. Right cheliped. w-ith slight indications of ridges extending backwards from them. There is a small tuft of long hairs on the inner side of the base of each lateral tooth at base of rostrum, other long hairs fringe the margins of the rostrum, and there are a few scattered hairs on the carapace and abdomen. Eyes short, well pigmented. The first pair of chelipeds large, longer than abdomen, the left slightly larger than the right, propod in each compressed, with numerous hairs on the upper margin and a well-marked fringe on the lower margin just above a slight ridge which extends almost to the end of the fixed finger, rest of surface smooth ; both fingers sharply pointed ; movable finger Chilton. --Ci'ustacea of fhe Kermadec hlands. 551 withoiit definite teeth ; fixed finger with 2 small teeth, one near the base and the other, slightly larger, about the middle of the inner margin ; on the right cheliped sometimes a third tooth nearer the apex of fixed finger. Length of carapace in largest specimen, including rostrum, 17 mm. ; length of abdomen to end of telson, 29 mm. Several specimens from Meyer Island and Coral Bay ; others from rock-pools at Sunday Island, collected by Captain Bollons. I am unable to identify this species with any descriptions known to me, and therefore describe it provisionally as new ; it may, hoAvever, prove to be identical with some of the species of Axius already described. I am a little uncertain if it is properly placed in Iconaxiopsis, but it seems to agree well with Alcock's description of this genus. Petrolisthes lamarckii var. rufescens (Heller). ?PorceUana dentata M.-Edwards, Hist. Nat., Crust., 2, p. 251, 1837. Petro- listhes denlatus Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 146, 1882. Petro- listhes lamarckii var. rufescens Borradaile, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1898, p. 464, 1898 (with synonymy). Petrolisthes lamarcki Grant and McCulloch, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 31, p. 38, 1906. Several specimens found under stones on Meyer Island ; others from Coral Bay, Sunday Island, collected by Mr. T. Iredale. These specimens appear undoubtedly to belong to this widespread and variable species as understood by Borradaile, and, on the whole, they agree pretty closely with the variety rufescens. In the larger specimens the merus of the walking-legs usually bears on the upper margin a series of minute spines, but in the smaller specimens these are hardly distinguishable. Bor- radaile suggests that this variety is possibly a distinct species. Pachycheles lifuensis Borradaile. Pachycheles lifuensis Borradaile, Willey's Zool. Results, p. 424, 1900 ; Grant and McCulloch, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, p. 155, pi. 1, figs. 2. 2a, 1907. Numerous specimens from Coral Bay, Sunday Island, and from Meyer Island. These specimens seem undoubtedly the same as those from Norfolk Island examined by Grant and McCulloch, and they appear to have been rightly referred to Pachycheles lifuensis, originally described from Lifu, Royalty Islands. Mr. Borradaile describes the left cheliped as being the larger, but the series of specimens before me shows that either the right or the left may be the larger. Callianassa articulata Rathbun. Callianassa articulata Rathbun, Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. for 1903, p. 892, 1906. A single specimen from a rock-pool, Sunday Island, collected by Captain Bollons in 1907. This agrees well with Miss Rathbun's description of this species from Hawaiian Islands specimens, except that the cornea does not occupy quite so much of the eye-stalk, occupying less than one-half instead of more than one-half. The specimen also is considerably larger than Miss Rath- bun's, the carapace being 12 ram. long and the abdomen 40 mm., while 552 Transactions. an ovigerous male of her specim(Mi,s was 6-4 mm. in length of carapace, with the abdomen 16 mm. long. I have to thank Mr. A. R. McCulloch, of the Australian Museum, for kindly comparing this species with Australian forms, and for suggesting that it belonged to C. articulata. Rathbun. Upogebia danai (Miers). Gf'hia danai, Miers. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4. 17, p. 323. 1876 ; and Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 70, 1876. Upogebia danai, Chihon. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 39, p. 460, 1907. Two small specimens taken on rocks at low tide, Coral Bav, Sunday Island, by Mr. T. Iredale. Clibanarius striolatus Dana. Clibanarius striolatus Dana, U.S. Expl. Exped., Crust., pt. 1, p. 463, pi. 29, fig. 3 a-c, 1852; Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 159. 1882; Alcock, Cat. Indian Decap. Crust., pt. 2, Anomura, p. 46, pi. 4. fig. 7. 1905 (with synonymy). Two specimens collected by Mr. Roy Bell, aiid handed by him to Mr. Oliver. They agree fairly well wnth the description and figure given by Alcock, and must, I think, belong to this species ; the chelipeds are more spini- tuberculate than is shown in his figure, and in this respect appear to agree with the specimens from Port Denison referred to this species by Haswell. The rostrum is very short, and forms only a very slight projection, broadly rounded at the end. Alcock gives the distribution of this species as follows : " Gulf of Aden and Seychelles eastwards to Tahiti ; from about 43° E. eastwards to about 150° W., and from about 28° N. to about 18° S." Its occurrence at the Kermadecs extends the southern limit to about 30° S. Calcinus imperialis Whitelegge. Calcinus imperialis Whitelegge, Rec. Aust. Mus., 4, p. 48, pi. 9, 1901 ; Alcock, Cat. Indian Dec. Crust., pt. 2, Anomura, p. 164, 1905 ; Grant and McCulloch, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, p. 154, 1907. Several specimens among rocks at Meyer Island, inhabiting shells of Delphinula, Lotorium, and Gyrinemn ; also one from Sunday Island (Cap- tain Bollons). The species is common at Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands, and has also been found on the coast of Australia, near Sydney. Porcellanopagurus tridentatus Whitelegge. Porcellanopagiirus tridentatus Whitelegge, Mem. Aust. Mus., 4, p. 181, figs. 13, 13a, 136, 1900. Five specimens from Meyer Island and Sunday Island. These specimens must, I think, be referred to Whitelegge's species, although naturally they differ in some minute points from his long detailed description. The anterior spine on the lateral margin of the carapace is 7ery well marked in some specimens, but the posterior tooth is almost Chilton. — Crustacea of the Kermadec Islands. 553 or quite obsolete, the short prominence, however, being noticeable. The upper lUiirgin of the larger (right) cheliped is more even than is shown in Wliitelegge's figure. The chelipeds are unequal in both sexes. This hermit-crab is somewhat pecuUar in its habits ; it was found by Mr. Oliver under stones between tide-marks, and he states that it was not common, and that it never iises a spiral shell, but manages to keep on its back a single valve of a bivalve mollusc's shell or a vacant Siphonaria or limpet shell. Only three species of this peculiar genus are as yet known- — viz., P. edivardsi, from Campbell Island and the Snares ; the present species ; and P. platei, from Juan Fernandez. The description of this latter species I have not yet been able to obtain. Mr. Whitelegge's specimens were dredged in .54-59 fathoms, off the coast of New South Wales, and the species to which they belong is much smaller than P. edwardsi, and appears to differ also in having the chelipeds unequal in the female, while in the female of P. edivardsi, according to Filhol, the chelipeds are small and subequal. Eupagurus sinuatus Stimpson. Eupagurus sinuatus Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 10, p. .348, ' 1864 ; Haswell, Cat. Aust. Mus., p. 153, 1882 ; Alcock, Cat. Indian Decap. Crust., pt. 2, Anomura, p. 175, 1905. Three specimens from Meyer Island seem to belong to this species. They agree fairly well with the short description quoted by Haswell, espe- cially in having the merus of the chelipeds deeply excavated below, the margins provided with long cilia, and external margins spinose ; the carpus, however, does not show much trace of a smooth median line, and the median series of spines on the propod is not well marked. The species has been recorded from Port Jackson, Australia. Eupagurus hectori Filhol.* Etipaqurus hectori Filhol, Mission de I'ile Campbell, p. 419, pi. 51, fig. 1, ' 1885 ; Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 31, p. 177, 1899 ; Lenz, Zool. Jahr., 14, p. 447, 1901 ; Alcock, Cat. Indian Decap. Crust., pt. 2, Anomura, p. 176, 1905. Numerous specimens from Meyer Island, and from Coral Bay, Sunda}' Island, living in shells of various gastropods. These agree closely with Filhol's description, and can be readily distinguished from other New Zea- land species by the glabrous chelipeds. The chelipeds and the greater part of the ambulatory legs in spirit specimens are coloured red. Filhol states that this species becomes more abundant to the south of New Zealand, especially in Stewart Island ; Thomson records it from Stcwarf Island, and Lenz from D'Urville Island, and I have recently received a specimen from Miss Shand from Chatham Islands. * 1 have also from Meyer Island several specimens of a small hermit-crab which in general resembles Eupagurus, but haf, the abdomen straight, though soft, and the telson anil uropoda symmetrical. A fuller description is held over in the meantime, as I am not siu'e of the systematic position of the species. 554 Transactions. Albunea microps Miers. Alhunea microps Miers, Jour. Linn. Soc, Zool., li, p. 328, pi. 5, figs. 12, 13, 1877 ; Henderson, Rep. Voy. '" Challenger," 17, p. 40, 1888 ; Borradaile, Willey's Zool. Results, pt. 4, p. 426, 1900. One small specimen from Meyer Island (12 fathoms), agreeing well with Miers's description. The species is recorded by Miers from Sooloo Island, and was taken by the " Challenger " at Station 212 in the Celebes Sea ; more recently Borradaile has recorded it from Blanche Bay, New Britain. Dromia unidentata Ruppell. Dromia unidentata Ruppell, 24 Krabben roth. Meer., p. 16, pi. 4, fig. 2 ; pi. 6, fig. 9 ; 1830 : Alcock, Cat. Indian Dec. Crust., pt. 1, Brachyura, p. 47, pi. 2, fig. 6, 1901. One specimen taken on coral below low-water mark, Meyer Island ; the hinder portion of the carapace covered with what appears to be the dried remains of a compound Ascidian. This agrees closely with the description and figure given by Alcock. The species is widely distributed in the Indian Ocean and the Malay Archipelago, but does not appear to have been recorded from Australian seas. Ovalipes bipustulatus (Milne-Edwards). PlatyonicJius bipustulatus M. -Edwards, Hist. Nat., Crust., 1, p. 437, pi. 17, figs. 7-10, 1834 ; Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 32, 1876. Ovalipes trimaculatus Stebbing, South African Crustacea, pt. 2, p. 13, 1902 ; Doflein, Wiss. Ergebn. Deutschen Tiefsee Exped., 1898-99, p. 92, pi. 32, fig. 6, 1904 ; Fulton and Grant, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 19, pt. 1, p. 18, 1906. Ovalipes bipustulatus, M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 38, p. 577, 1910. Several small specimens from Sunday Island, collected by Mr. Oliver, and one by Captain BoUons. Mr. Oliver says that all the specimens collected were picked up dead on the beaches, and that apparently they live just below low-water mark. In connection with this, it is worth while mentioning that in March, 1888, Mr. R. Helms, of Greymouth, sent me specimens of this species that he had obtained at Greymouth whilst digging in the sand at low-water mark during spring tides for pipis {Mesodesma spissa), and he stated that the animal appeared to use the hind legs for digging in the sand more than for swimming, and that it buried itself in a remarkably short time. He added, " The colour of this animal is very fine ; the carapace is light grey, almost lavender, and the joints of the arms bright red, tinging near the claws to dark orange." The habits of Platyonichus ocellatus Herbst, as described by Verrill and Smith, seem to be closely similar. (See Stebbing, Hist. Crustacea, The species is very widely distributed in the Southern Hemisphere,, and extends also to Japan. Ciin/rON.— Crustacea of the Kcrnyulcr hlanch. 555 Actaeomorpha erosa Miers. Actaeomorpha erosa Miers, Jour. Linn. Soc, Zool., 13, p. 1, pi. 14, 1883. Several specimens from Coral Bay, Sunday Island, and from Meyer Island, on coral ; some dredged in 12 fathoms. These specimens agree minutely with Miers's description, drawn up from a single specimen dredged in 7 fathoms in Port Curtis, Australia. Some of the specimens have the dorsal surface variously marked with red, and this, together with the granulated nature of the surface, gives them the appear- ance of small pieces of coral. Xantho nudipes (Dana). Chlorodius nudipes Dana, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1852, p. 79, 1852 ; and U.S. Expl. Exped., Crust., 1, p. 209, pi. 11, figs. 12 a-c, 1855. Leptodius nudipes A. Milne-Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. Mus., 9, p. 225, pi. 7, fig. 5, 1873 ; Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 17, 1876 ; Filhol Mission de I'ile Campbell, p. 374, 1885. Xantho {Leptodius) nudipes Alcock, Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 67, p. 121, 1898. Numerous specimens from Coral Bay, Sunday Island ; Meyer Island, &c. It is only with considerable hesitation that I assign these specimens to this species. In the rugose and wrinkled character of the hands of the chelipeds, and in the general appearance of the carapace, the short legs almost destitute of setae, &c., they appear to agree pretty closely with the description and figures given by A. Milne-Edwards, except that he describes the antero-lateral margins of the carapace as being divided into 10 or 12 teeth, grouped in 4 lobes. In my specimens the teeth are much fewer in number, the two posterior ones being simple and of the usual character, while anterior to these the lobes or teeth become somewhat in- definite, so that the anterior border might be described as being divided into 6 to 8 teeth. Alcock says, " The antero-lateral border is divided into 4 acute lobes or teeth, but each of the first 3 teeth have, at base, either one or two (one on either side) small additional cusps, and the 4th tooth is generally double, so that altogether there are from 8 to 11 teeth on the antero-lateral margin." This would agree moderately well with my speci- mens, except that in them none of the lobes or teeth are quite acute. On the other hand, Alcock places the species under the subgenus Leptodius, and specially mentions that " the fingers are typical spoons," and, so far as one can judge from the figure, this appears to be the case with the speci- mens figured by Dana. In my specimens the fingers are quite sharp at the points, and this seems to be the case with those figured by A. Milne- Edwards. Consequently, while I feel pretty confident that my specimens must belong to the same species as those described by Milne-Edwards from New Caledonia, I am doubtful if they are quite the same as those described by Alcock. A'', nudipes and the allied species Chlorodius eudorus Milne-Edwards are stated to occur in New Zealand on the authority of specimens in the collections of the Paris Museum ; Filhol says that the specimens of X. nudipes come from Cook Strait, and he considers that Chlorodius eudorus should be looked upon as a variety of this species. I have seen no speci- mens from New Zealand itself that could be referred to either of these species. Xantho (Leptodius) euglyptus Alcock, from Galle and Mergui, and Xantho (juinquedentatus Krauss, from South Africa, both seem to be closely similar 556 Transactions. to X. nudipes, and the latter species is, according to Alcock, described and figured as having sharp fingers. Considering the difficulty of determining species in this group, and the fact that I have no large series of specimens for comparison, the reference of my specimens from the Kermadecs to A^. nudipes must be looked upon as provisional only. Xanthodes lamarckii (Milne-Edwards). Xantho lamarckii Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat., Crust., 1, p. 391, 1834. Xanthodes lamarckii Whitelegge, Mem. Aust. Mus., 3, p. 130, 1897 ; Alcock, Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 67, p. 157, 1898. Several specimens, male and female, from Coral Bay, Sunday Island, collected by Mr. T. Iredale. These specimens agree closely with the description given by Alcock ; the females have the abdomen fringed with long hairs, as described by Whitelegge. The species is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific region. Ozius lobatus Heller. Ozius lobatus Heller, Reise der " Novara," Crust., p. 21, pi. 2, fig. 4, 1868 ; Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 63, 1882. Three specimens, two males and one female. Mr. Oliver says this species is fairly common among rocks between tide-marks. The specimens that I have been able to examine agree minutely with Heller's description. The species is undoubtedly very closely allied to 0. truncatus Milne-Edwards ; but, as Heller points out, that species, accord- ing to the description and figures by Milne -Edwards and Dana, appears to have the front almost straight, while in 0. lobatus it is divided into 4 lobes ; the two inner ones are broad and rounded and the two outer ones are narrower and rather more prominent, being similar to the small rounded lobe at the inner angle of the orbit. 0. lobatus and 0. truncatus are both recorded from Australia, and 0. truncatus has also been found in New Zealand. The occurrence of 0. lobatus at the Kermadecs renders it still more probable that the two species are identical, but a comparison of typical specimens is desirable before the two are combined. Trapezia ferruginea var. areolata Dana. Trapezia areolata Dana, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1852, p. 83, 1852 ; and U.S. Expl. Exped., Crust., 1, p. 259, pi. 15, figs. 8 a-b and 9, 1853. T. areolata var. inermis A. Milne-Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. Mus., 9, p. 259, pi. 10, fig. 6, 1873. T. ferruginea var. areolata Alcock, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 67, p. 221, 1898. One female specimen (both chelipeds missing) from Meyer Island, found on coral, 1 fathom. The honeycomb network of fine brown lines on the carapace is still very plainly marked in the spirit specimen. The species is wadely distributed in Indo-Pacific seas. Ciiii/rON. — Crustace;i of the Keii/Kidec Island.^. 557 Chlorodopsis melanochira A. Milne-Edwards. CJdorodopis melanochirus A. Miliu'-Edwards, Noiiv. Archiv. Mns., 9, p. 228, pi. 8, fig. 5, 1873 ; Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 55, 1882. Chloro- dofsis melanochira Alcock, Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 67, p. 168, 1898. Numerous specimens from Coral Bay, Sunday Island, and from Meyer Island. These agree very closely with the descriptions and figures given by Milne-Edwards and Alcock, except that the dark coloration of the fixed finger does not extend along the lower border of the hand. In this character they resemble C. melanodactylus, but they distinctly differ from that species in having the antero-lateral margin " divided into four lobes, each of which is crowned with several spinules." The species is known from the Andamans, the coasts of AustraUa, and from New Caledonia. Banareia armata A. Milne-Edwards. Banareia armata A. Milne-Edwards, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. (4), 9, p. 168, pi. 8, 1869; and Nouv. Archiv. Mus., 9, p. 193, 1873: Alcock. Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 67, p. 153, 1898. One specimen (dried) from Meyer Island, and two small spirit speci- mens from Coral Bay, Sunday Island. The hands of the chelipeds ancl the joints of the legs are more granular than is shown in Milne-Edwards's figure, but the specimen agrees closely with Alcock's description, and must, I think, belong here. The species is known to occur at New Caledonia and at the Andamans. Pilumnus fimbriatus Milne-Edwards. Pilumnus fimhriatus Milne-Edwards, Hist. Nat., Crust.. 1, p. 416. 1834; Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 66, pi. 1, fig. 4, 1882. One specimen taken at low tide at Coral Bay, Sunday Island, by Mr. T. Iredale ; another (dried) one from Meyer Island. They agree well with the descriptions given by Milne-Edwards and Haswell. The species is known from the east coast of Australia. Eriphia norfolcensis Grant and McCulloch. Eriphia norfolcensis Grant and McCulloch, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, pt. 1, p. 151, pi. 1, figs. 1, la, 16, 1907. Numerous specimens from Coral Bay, Sunda)^ Island, and from Meyer Island, found under stones at low tide. The species is common at Norfolk Island, where it is said to be known as the " 2>oison crab." Lophactaea actaeoides A. Milne-Edwards. Lophactaea actaeoides A. Mihie-Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. Mus., 9, p. 189, pi. 6, fig. 7, 1873. One specimen from rock-pool, Meyer Island. It agrees well with Milne- Edwards's description and figure. The species is found at New Caledonia, and I have a specimen from Norfolk Island also. 558 Trxinsactions Plagusia chabrus (Linn.). Cancer chahrus Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 628, 1758. Plagusia cafensis De Haan, Faun. Japon., Crust., p. 58, 1835; Fulton and Grant, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 19, pt. 1, p. 20, 1906; Stebbing, South African Crustacea, pt. 3, p. 47 (with synonymy and critical remarks), 1905. Plagusia chabrus Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 45, 1876, and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 1, p. 152, 1878 ; Rathbun, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 38, p. 591, 1910 ; Stebbing, Annals South African Mus., 6, p. 322, 1910 (with further synonymy). One female specimen from Sunday Island. Mr. Oliver notes that only one specimen was seen during his stay on the island. The species is widely distributed, and has been recorded from the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, &c. Li his latest work, Stebbing, in deference to the opinions of others, adopts the name Plagusia chabrus (Linn.) for this species, though he had previously argued in favour of P. capensis De Haan. I am glad that it is possible to retain the name by which the species has always been known in New Zealand. Plagusia dentipes De Haan. Grapst^s {Plagusia,) dentipes De Haan, Faun. Japon., Crust, decas, 2, p. 58, pi. 8, fig. 1, 1835. Plagusia dentipes Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 1, p. 152, 1878 ; Grant and McCulloch, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, pt. 1, p. 153, 1907. One male specimen, collected on the rocks betw^een tide-marks, Sunday Island. This species is closely allied to the preceding one, but can readily be distinguished by the spine on the lower distal angle of the merus in the walking-legs and by the presence of a few small tubercles on the carapace. The other differences pointed out by Grant and McCulloch seem hardly to apply in my specimens ; thus, there is little difference between the front in the two, and both have the whole carapace equally covered with short hairs. Plagusia dentipes is common on Norfolk Island and also on Lord Howe Island, but it has not been recorded from the main islands of New Zea- land. Plagusia tuberculata Lamarck. Plagusia tuberculata Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 1, p. 148, 1878 ; Lenz, Zool. Jahrb., 14, heft 5, p. 473, 1901 ; Rathbun, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 38, p. 590. 1910. Plagusia depressa tuberculata Rathbun, Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm. for 1903, p. 841, 1906. Plagusia depressa var. squamosa Grant and McCulloch, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, p. 154, 1907. Three fenuiles from Sunday Island. Widely distributed in Indo-Pacific region. Recorded from Hawaiian Islands by Miss Rathbun, from Norfolk Island by Grant and McCulloch, and U-om " Lower California to Chile " bv Miss Rathbun. CniT/roN. — Crustacea of the Kermailec Jalamh. 559 Percnon pilimanus (A. Milne-Edwards). Acanthopus pilimanus A. M. -Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. Mus., 9, p. 300, pi. 14, fig. 5, 1873. Lciolophus pilimanus Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 1, p. IS-l, 1878. Percnon pilimanus Rathbun, V>\\\\. U.S. Fish. Comm. for 1903, p. 842, 1906. Two males and several females from Sunday Island. These specimens agree very closely indeed with Milne-Edwards's descrip- tion, except that there is no large tuft of fine hairs on the propod of the chelipeds ; a well-marked tuft is, however, present on the merus of the larger male. The width of the abdomen of the larger male at the base is just equal to that of its length to the base of the last segment ; in the smaller male the width is rather greater than this. It is possible that these specimens should be referred to P. planissimus, but I assign them to P. pilimanus owing to the slightly narrower abdomen, the spines on the inner margins of the antennulary cavities, and to the fact that they agree minutely with Milne-Edwards's description and figure except as regards the hairs on the propod of the chelipeds. The smaller speci- mens agree well with the description of P. planissimus given by Alcock (Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 69, p. 439), except that the second row of spinules on the merus of the legs is well marked on the third legs as well as on the first and second ; in the larger specimens the row is also indis- tinctly marked on the fourth. Miss Rathbun records both species from the Hawaiian Islands without comment. Milne-Edwards states that the hairs on the chelipeds act as a sponge to maintain the humidity at the orifice of the branchial chamber. He had, however, seen only one male specimen, and, as the tuft on the merus is very small or quite absent in my female specimens, it seems more likely that the hairs may be a sexual character, developed in the adult male only, and in that case may not yet be fully developed in the two males in my possession. The females resemble the male except in the much smaller size of the chelipeds, which are much shorter and have the propod only slightly widened. The merus bears only a very small tuft of hairs in the larger female specimens, and none in the smaller specimens. It seems likely, therefore, that the tufts of fine hairs on the merus and propod are a secondary sexual character, developed only in large males, or perhaps only during the breeding season ; they were evidently not present in the adult males of P. planissimus examined by Alcock, for he makes no men- tion of them. If, as seems likely, the other characters — i.e., the narrower abdomen and the spines on the inner margin of the antennulary cavities — do not prove to be constant, one would be tempted to suggest that P. planis- simus and P. pilimanus form one species, in which the males may develop the tufts of fine hairs on the chelipeds at certain seasons only. Male : Width of carapace, 29 mm. ; length, 32 mm. : total length of propod of chehped, 15mm.; width, 11mm. Largest female: Width of carapace, 28 mm. ; length, 31 mm. : total length of propod of cheliped, 8 mm. ; width, 6 mm. Mr. Oliver makes the following observations on the habits of this species : " Fairly common among rocks near low-tide mark. Very quick in its habits. Its colour somewhat resembles the rock, on which it stays perfectly still, but when any one approaches too near it darts into the water. When, after continued westerly winds, sand was driven ashore so as to bury the boulders on the north coast of Sunday Island to about half-tide 560 Transactio)is. mark, thousands of these crabs, retreating before the encroaching sand, congregated in heaps among the rocks near shore until the sand was washed away again." Geograpsus grayi (Milne-Edwards). Grapsus grayi M.-Edwards, Ann. Sci. Nat. (3" ser.), 20, p. 170, 1853; Has- well, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 98, 1882. Geograpsus grayi A. Milne- Edwards, Nouv. Archiv. Mus., 9, p. 288, pi. 16, fig. 1. One male and one female, agreeing well with Milne-Edwards's description. The species is widely distributed in Australia, New Caledonia, Mauritius. Madagascar, &c. Mr. Oliver makes the following remarks on the habits of this crab, which is almost terrestrial in habit : " This land-crab occurs sparingly on the east coast of Sunday Island, and more commonly on Meyer Island and other islets of the Herald Group. They make burrows little more in diameter than the width of their bodies, and 6-20 in. long. Often, how- ever, they are content with merely digging their way under a stone lying on the surface. I have never found more than one crab in each burrow. Their burrows are found in the forest at Coral Bay more than 100 yards from the sea. The presence of shells and pieces of coral high up on Napi(M' Islet can only be accounted for by supposing these crustaceans carried them there, but for what purpose it is difficult to imagine. Mr. Roy Bell tells me that land-crabs are in the habit of carrying shells from the rocks up to where they make their burrows." Leptograptus variegatus (Fabr.). Cancer variegatus Fabr., Ent. Syst., 2, p. 450, 1793. Grapsus variegatus Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 36, 1876. Leptograpsus variegatus Fulton and Grant, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, 19, pt. 1, p. 19. 1906 ; M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 38, pp. 547 and 588, 1910. Several specimens were taken at Sunday Island. The Canterbury Museum collections also include one from the Kermadecs. In Miers's catalogue it is included in the New Zealand fauna on speci- mens in the collections of the British Museum, but I do not knoAv from what particular locality they were collected. The species is found on the coasts of Peru and Chile, at Juan Fernandez, Australia, and other parts of the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclograpsus lavauxi (Milne-Edwards). Cychgrapsus lavauxi and Cyclograpsus whilei M.-Edwards, Ann. Sci. Nat. (3*^ ser.), 20, p. 197, 1853. Cyclograpsus lavauxi Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 41, 1876. Cyclograpsus audouinii Dana, U.S. Explor. Exped., Crust., 1, p. 359, pi. 22, fig. 2, 1852. Three spirit specimens washed up on Low Flat Beach, Sunday Island ; also two dried specimens in logs washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island. The species is common on New Zealand coasts, and is also found in Australia. 1 follow Miers in referring our New Zealand form to this species, and ill considering (*. ivhitei as identical with C. lavauxi. Other closely allied Ciiii/roN. — Crustacea of lltr Kennadtc. Ulanih. 561 species are recorded from South Africa, the Indian Ocean, New Guinea, Tasmania. &c., and a careful review of tlie genus is desirable. Planes minutus (Linn.). Cancrr minutus Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. 12, p. 1048, 1766. Planes minutus Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 39, 1876; M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 38, p. 589, 1910; Stebbing, South African Crustacea, pt. 3, p. 13, 1905, and pt. 5, p. 320, 1910. Several specimens washed up on Denham Bay Beach, Sundav Island, in October, 1908. The species is pelagic in habit, and is very widely distributed in tropical and temperate seas. Specimens from New Zealand are in the British Museum collections. Ocypoda kuhlii De Haan. Ocypoda kuhlii Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 10, p. 384, 1882 ; Miers, Collection H.M.S. " Alert," p. 237, 1884. Several specimens from Sunday Island seem to belong to this species as described by Miers. The carapace is evenly granulated throughout, as in some of the specimens examined by Miers. Specimens were obtained at Thursday Island during the cruise of the " Alert," and the species is known from other parts of Australia, and is also widely distributed elsewhere. ? Cryptochirus coralliodytes Heller. F Cryptochirus coralliodytes Heller, S. B. Akad. Wien., 41 (1), p. 366, pi. 2, figs. 33-39, 1861 ; Grant and McCulloch, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1906, pt. 1, pp. 7 and 33. 1906; Caiman, Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool.. 8, p. 47, 1900. Several female specimens from Meyer Island " in brain-coral, 2 fathoms " ; also two or three small male specimens among other Crustacea from Coi-al Island. The males are much smaller than the females, and are less modified from the normal Brachyuran type — just as is the case in C. dimovphus Henderson.* Of the Meyer Island specimens Mr. Oliver says, " Lives in a perfectly <-ircular hole bored in living brain-coral." In general appearance and mode of life these specimens evidently closely resemble this species, but I have no means of consulting Heller's description. Mr. McCulloch has kindly compared a specimen from the Kermadecs with those collected ofi the coast of Queensland by himself and referred to this species, and finds that they are identical. He states, however, that he is doubtful if these specimens should really be referred to C. coralliodytes, as they appear to differ in certain points, and he suggests that they pro- bably form a new species, distinct also from C. dimovphus Henderson, from the Andaman Island. I postpone consideration of this question till I can •consult Heller's description of C. coralliodytes. * Ann. Mag. Nat. Hi.st., ser. 7, 18, p. 214, 1906. 562 Transactions. Halimus spinosus Hess. Halimus spinosus Hess, Arcliiv. fiir Nat., 1865, p. 129, pi. 6, fig. 1, 1865 ; Haswell, Cat. Aiist. Crust., p. 6, 1882 ; McCulloch, Rec. Aiist. Mus., 7, p. 53, 1908, Halimus truncatipes Miers, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., • ser. 5, 4, p. 3, 1879 ; Baker, Trans. Roy. Soc. S.Aust., 29, p. 120, pi. 22, figs. 2, 2a, 1905. One male with carapace 27 mm. long from rock-pools. Sunday Island (Ciiptain Bollons) ; two smaller males from Meyer Island (W. R. B. Oliver) ; and one female with carapace 23 mm. long from Coral Bay, Sunday Island (T. Iredale). These specimens agree closely with the description given by Miers for //. truncatipes, and undoubtedly belong to the same species as the specimen described by him ; they also agree with the short description of H. spinosus given by Hess as quoted by Haswell, and I follow Haswell in considering these two species probably identical. According to Miers, //. truncatipes differs from H. spinosus by the much more squarely truncated joints of the ambulatory legs. In my female specimen, and particularly in the very small male specimen, these joints are less squarely truncated than in the large male, and the character is doubtless one that varies with the age of the specimen. The tubercles on the carapace agree very closely with the description given by Miers, and nearly all of them bear a number of yellow hooked or curved hairs. These are mentioned by Hess, but not by Miers, who only says that the legs are clothed with long fulvous hairs. In a dried specimen nearly all these hairs came away with the seaweeds when these were removed to expose the surface of the carapace. The median spine on the posterior margin of the carapace is moderately well marked in the female, but in the male is represented only by a small tubercle tipped with yellow hairs. Miers describes the cholipeds in the male as small ; in my specimens they are somewhat swollen and smooth, w4th the fingers meeting only at the tip when closed, as in //. laevis Haswell. Both specimens bear on the carapace a number of seaweeds held by the curved hairs. [1 had written the above before I noticed that Mr. McCulloch had come to the same conclusion as to the identity of these two species, and that Mr. Baker also concuri'cd after comparing Sydney specimens with those at first referred by him to //. truncatipes.'] Huenia proteus De Haan. Maja {Huenia) proteus De Haan, Faun. Japon., Crust., p. 95, pi. 23, figs. 4-6, 1839. Huenia proteus Haswell, Cat. Aust. Crust., p. 9, 1882 ; Alcock, Journ. Asiatic Sec. Bengal, 64, p. 195, 1895 ; Miers, Coll. H.M.S. " Alert," p. 191, 1884. One small specimen, 5 mm. long, from Meyer Island, 12 fathoms, ap- pears to be an immature female of this species. The species ranges from Japan and China southwards to the eastern coast of Australia, and is also found at the Andamans, in the Indian Ocean. Schizophrys hilensis Rathbun. Schizophrys hilensisH-Athhun. Bull. U.S. Fish. Commission for 1903, pt. 3, p. 882, fig. 38, 1906. I have several specimens from Coral Bay, Sunday Island, and from Meyer Island, which must, I think, be referred to this species. They agree CiiiiiTON. — Crustacea of the Kennodec Inlands. 563 with Miss Rathbim's description in having no accessory spines on the rostrum ; the siiperocular eave thick, projecting at its posterior angle into a sharp tooth ; the post-ocular spine simple ; in having two spines on the posterior margin of the carapace ; and in most of the other characters. The carapace, however, appears smoother than in Miss Rathbun's speci- mens, and in the central part the spines mentioned by her are either absent altogether or indicated only by slight tubercles ; the two cardiac spines and the intestinal spine are thus indicated in some specimens, but there seems no indication whatever of the three gastric spines. My largest speci- men has the carapace from the tip of the rostral spines to the extremity of the spines on the posterior margin 17 mm. in length, and the width with- out spines 10 mm., thus corresponding with the dimensions given by Miss Rathbun. Her specimens are from the Hawaiian Islands. Order EUPHAUSIACEA. Thysanoessa gregaria G. 0. Sars. Thysanoessa gregaria G. 0. Sars, Rep. Voy. " Challenger," 13, p. 120, pi. 21, figs. 8-17, and pi. 22, 1885. Numerous specimens taken from the stomach of a kahawai fish {Arripis trutta Forster) caught at Denham Bay, 8th September, 1908. The species is very widely distributed, especially in southern seas. Mr. Oliver states that during September and October the surface waters of the bay were literally full of shrimps and shoals of kahawai, and that heaps of shrimps were washed up on the beach. Humpback whales ap- peared in considerable numbers, and probably fed on these shrimps. These " shrimps " may have been of various kinds, but the present species and the Hyperids mentioned below are the only pelagic forms in the collection that are likely to have occurred in great numbers. Order AMPHIPODA. Nannonyx kidderi (Smith). Nannonyx kidderi Chilton, Subant. Islands N.Z., p. 615, 1909 (with synonymy). One small egg-bearing female from Coral Bay, Sunday Island. This specimen seems to be quite the same as specimens from New Zea- land that I have referred to this species. The telson has the sides con- siderably upturned, and bears one long and one short plumose seta on each margin ; the posterior margin has a rather deep though fairly wide indenta- tion, each portion ending posteriorly in two or three stout setae. Third uropod of normal shape for the species ; the inner ramus very small. Eurythenes gryllus (Licht.). Gammarus gryllus (H. Lichtenstein) in Mandt., Observ. Groenl., p. 31, 182 2. Euryporeia gryllus Chevreux, Resultats C'ampagnes Sci. Albert 1*^" de Monaco, fasc. 16, p. 24, pi. 14, fig. 4. Eurythenes qryllus Stebbing, Das Tierreich Amphip., p. 73, 1906. I have one imperfect specimen from Sunday Island which from its size and other characters certainly belongs to this species. The body is 35 mm. in length, and the shape of the different segments and of the side plates and the dorsal depression on pleon segments 3 and 4 agrees well wdth h lit' •: I Ivt «.;j ii^ a|i^ ijfi m «K »- "^ 562 Halimus sfinosus Hes Haswell, Cat. :■ 7, p. 53, 1908, ser. 5, 4, p. 3, pi. 22, figs. 2, 2- One male with car (Captain Bollons) ; two and one female with cai (T. Iredale). These specimens agj //. truncatipes, and undoi described by him ; they ; given by Hess as quoted these two species prob;:! differs from H. spinosv of the ambulatory legs. the very small male spe than in the large male, with the age of the sp^ very closely with the de- bear a number of yellow by Hess, but not by M\ with long fulvous hairs, came away with the sea surface of the carapace, the carapace is moderate! y is represented only by a - describes the chelipeds in somewhat swollen and sni: when closed, as in FI. lacvn, a number of seaweeds held [1 had written the above to the same conclusion as Mr. Baker also concurred a. first referred by him to //. ti' Hueni Maja {Huenia) 'proteus Be Hiui 1839. Huenia proleus f Journ. Asiatic Sec. Be: " Alert," p. 191, 1884. One small specimen, 5 mii pears to be an immature fenia The species ranges from • coast of AustraHa, and is also Schizopl Schizo'phrys liilensis Rath bun, p. 882, fig. 38, 1906. I have several specimens Meyer Island, which must 1^ 1., I >in. 'Wrti'v. -.1 ^i: lent. 11 the pit' - :. cies of Mfia^ 5>» *^ «iM Th HOST :-Kc- fXiie- fine L. we ar- H.M^ frtrf of pe ids Xi-jJ- 643- !>• Tig- I>af TieiTeacL Am.]) Cora] BfiT. Smidav l^-nd wiiii fes fiuctaigpsci > form of "die male k var v-iq^ ',- dismbm^d- ^ Orchestis. gami3Mfc-:u: my), imens "m sand oodr kuhmx ati9v« 1iollons, l!)')7) ; two Hmidh^' ones wiished up on h'lat l)ea,ch, Sunday Island (VV. \i. I>. Oliver. I'.»()K). I refer these specimens to this species, ol which a, sin^dc^ Sp(M'imeii. und(!r a. eacli, Siinda\' Island. Piatysceliis iiilciincdiiis (I. M. Thomson. ridh/scchis liilcniu'dids (!. M. Thomson. Trans. N.Z. insl., II, p. -I I. pi. KM), lie. I, IH7'.). Severa,l specimens from Suiida\ Island {('aplain rxillous) ; one Iroiii Htoinaeh (d' a, kineOsh, Sunday Island (\V. II. I'>. Oliv(M). IVlr. Stebbiiif.^ Hu\H that, this species " ,s(M',mH MC!i.rc(d\-, if at all, distineuish- able from I'Idli/sciius (ironlrs.^^ Ciiii/rox. — Crustacea of ihc Kerniadec Islands. 567 Oxycephalus clausi Bovallius. 0,11/cephalus clausi Stebbing, Rep. V'oy. " Challenger," 29, p. 1583, pi. 202. 1888. One specimen cast up on Terrace's Beach, Sunday Island, and two im- perfect specimens washed up on Flat Beach. The perfect specimen agrees closely with Stebbing's descriptions and figure. He points out that the species is nearly allied to 0. edivardsii G. M. Thomson, which is occasionally wasiied up on New Zealand shores, but that there arc differences in the gnathopods, the fifth peraeopod, &c. In the Kermadec specimens " the postero-lateral angles of the first three seg- ments [of the pleon are] produced into a short sharp point, behind which, at some distance, the hind margin forms a similar point " as described by Stebbing, while in 0. novae-zealandiae it is only the hind margin that is produced into a point. Caprella acutifrons Latreille. Caprclla acutifrons Mayer, Die Caprelliden der Siboga-Expedition, 24, p. 79, pi. 3, figs. 4-28 ; pi. 7, figs. 62-65 ; 1903. A large nmnber of specimens of both sexes and of various sizes " from husk of cocoanut washed up on Denham Bay Beach, Sunday Island." These specimens show all the essential characters given by Mayer, and must be referred to this widely distributed species. The assignment of them to any one of the numerous varieties described by him is a much more difficult task ; but in the shape of the second gnathopod, with its concave palm, &c., the thickened peduncle of the first antenna, and the lateral ex- pansions of the third and fourth segments of the body they resemble var. porcellio, from the Cape of Good Hope. Another variety occurs at Port Jackson, Australia, and the species as a whole is very widely distriljuted, though it has not been recorded from New Zealand. Order ISOPODA. Rocinela orientalis Schiodte and Meinert. Bocinela orientalis Schiodte and Meinert, Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, ser. 3, 12, p. 395, pi. 13, figs. 1-2, 1879; Stebbing, Trans. Linn. Soc, Zool., 14, p. 101, 1910; Richai-dson, U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Document No. 736, 1910. One ovigerous female cast up on Denham Bay Beach, Sunday Island. This specimen agrees very closely indeed with Schiodte and Meinert's description and figures. The whole of the dorsal surface is light brown in colour. They record the species from the Philippines and from Calcutta ; the specimen examined by Mr. Stebbing was from Zanzibar. Meinertia imbricata (Fabricius). Oniscus imhricatus Fabricius, Mantissa Insectorum, 6, p. 241, 1787. (Jera- tothoa banJcsii Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust., p. 105, 1876. Meinertia im- bricata Stebbing, South African Crustacea, pt. 1, p. 58, 1900. Several small specimens from Sunday Island (Captain Bollons, 1907) ; others from the throat of a " maomao " (Scorpis aequipinnis) , Sunday Island (W. R. B. Oliver, 1908) ; and one collected by Mr. Roy Bell. The species is widely distributed in the Indian Ocean, South Africa, &c. f #ri f*^< ^?^ 66u T raiimctions. Parorcestia sylvicola (Dana). Parorchestia sylvicola Stebbi?, Das Tierreich Amp hip., p. 558, 1906 (with synonymy). Sunday Island : seven mles and twelve females, '• under dead nikau- leaves, Expedition Hill, 26th lay, 1908 " ; and ten males and two females, " under dead fern-leaves, Momoukai, 27th June, 1908." I cannot find any pointin which these specimens differ appreciably from typical New Zealand camples of this species. It will be noted that in the specimens submitted i me the males — i.e., the specimens with large second gnathopods — are moj numerous than the females, though on the mainland of New Zealand lales are usually very scarce. Whether this depends on the method of cdecting — i.e., selecting the largest specimens — on the season of the year, oon the characteristics of a local variety I can- not say. I have elsewhere Irawn attention to the similar abundance of males in the collection of dierent species of Parorchestia from the subant- arctic islands of New Zealan (see Subant. Islands N.Z., p. 603). i 41 IP if- Phrosia australis (Stebbing). Phrosina australis Stebbing, iep. Voy. " Challenger," 29, p. 1431, 1888. On-e large specimen, Snday Island (CaJ)tain Bollons, 1907) ; two smaller ones washed up on^'lat Beach, Sunday Island (W. R. B. Oliver, 1908). I refer these specimensto this species, of which a single S2:)ecimen. under a quarter of an inchn length, was taken by the "Challenger" at Station 164d, east of Austral. Mr. Stebbing says that he only difference of importance he can dis- cover between P. semilunat Risso and this species is that the first and second uropods, " instead c having broadly rounded extremities, are dis- tinctly narrowed and acute or nearly so ; the telson also is less rounded apically than in the other spdes." In my specimens the pleopods and telson are rather imperfect, but sd'ar as they can be observed they do not seem to differ much from the figie of P. seniilunata given by Stebbing. In the otiier points mentioned by tebbing my specimens seem to agree with his, but the differences from P.semilunata appear to be very trivial, and but for the locality in which th/ were found I should be inclined to refer my jspecimens to that species. Phronirr. novae-zealandiae Powell. Phronima novae - zealandiac VoweW, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 7, p. 294, 1875; Stebbing, Rep. Voy. Challenger," 29, p. 1356, 1888. Several specimens washe up on Low Flat Beach, Sunday Island. Platysceluintermedius G. M. Thomson. Platijscelus intermedius G. M Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 11, p. 244, pi. IOd, fig. 4, 1879. Several specimens from Sunday Island (Captain Bollons) ; one from stomach of a kingfish, Sundr Island (W. R. B. Oliver). Mr. Stebbing says that tis species " seems scarcely, if at all, distinguish- iible from Platyscelus ovoides' - Chilton. — Crustacea of Ike nniiadec Islands. 567 fr.:.. Oxycephalus clausi Evallius. 0.1 //cephalus clausi Stebljing, Rep. Voy. " CI Uenger," 29, p. 1583, pi. 202, 1888. One specimen cast up on Terrace's Beac Sunday Island, and two im- perfect specimens washed up on Flat Beach. The perfect specimen agrees closely wii Stebbing's descriptions and figure. He points out that the species is nejiy alUed to 0. eclwardsii G. M. Thomson, which is occasionally washed upon New Zealand shores, but that there are differences in the gnathopod: the fifth peraeopod, &c. In the Kermadec specimens "the postero-later; angles of the first three seg- ments [of the pleon are] produced into a shrt sharp point, behind which, at some distance, the hind margin forms a niilar point " as described by Stebbing, while in 0. novae-zealandiae it is ^nly the hind margin that is produced into a point. Caprella acutifrons Ltreille. Caprella acutifrons Ma3^er, Die Caprelliden dt Siboga-Expedition, 24, p. 79, pi. 3, figs. 4-28 ; pi. 7, figs. 62-65 ; 193. A large number of specimens of both se?s and of various sizes " from husk of cocoanut washed up on Denham BajBeach, Sunday Island." These specimens show all the essential caracters given by Mayer, and must be referred to this widely distribute' species. The assignment of them to any one of the numerous varieties de'iibed by him is a much more difficult task ; but in the shape of the secor. gnathopod, with its concave palm, &c., the thickened peduncle of the fir. antenna, and the lateral ex- pansions of the third and fourth segmen" of the body they resemble var. forcellio, from the Cape of Good Hope. Another variety occurs at Port Jackson, .ustralia, and the species as a whole is very widely distributed, though iihas not been recorded from New Zealand. Order ISOPOD. Rocinela orientalis Schiodttand Meinert. Rocinela orientalis Schiodte and Meinert, Nairhistorisk Tidsskrift, ser. 3, 12, p. 395, pi. 13, figs. 1-2, 1879 ; Stebbing, Trans. Linn. Soc, Zool., 14, p. 101, 1910 ; Richardso. U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Document No. 736, 1910. One ovigerous female cast up on Denham 5ay Beach, Sunday Island. This specimen agrees very closely indee( \vith Schiodte and Meinert's description and figures. The whole of the di'sal surface is light brown in colour. They record the species from the Philippics and from Calcutta ; the specimen examined by Mr. Stebbing was fron Zanzibar. Meinertia imbricata (Fbricius). Oniscus imhricatus Fabricius, Mantissa Insecirum, 6, tothoa hanhsii Miers, Cat. N.Z. Crust, p. 105, hricata Stebbing, South African Crusta'i. ^^^ i Several small specimens from Sunday I others from the throat of a " maonui" " " (W. R. B. Oliver, 1908) ; and on< The species is widely p 241, 1787. ( 'era- 18 76. Meinertia im- ■n 58, 1900. iii Bollons. 1907) : '■• SlU..l::- Island k m I 570 Transactions. In the size, form of the body, character of the dorsal surface and of the appendages this species is close to T. commensaUs Chilton, which is com- monly found in ants' nests in New Zealand. That species differs, how- ever, in colour and in the greater compactness of the body and in the shorter antennae and uropods, and it has the tubercles on the dorsal surface much better marked. Philoscia oliveri sp. nov. Fig. 4. Elongate-oval, widest at fourth and fifth peraeon segments, narrowing slightly anteriorly and posteriorly, dorsal surface with small sparsely scattered hairs. First two segments of peraeon with margin very slightly sinuous, first segment slightly longer than the others, postero-lateral angles of segments 5, 6, and 7 somewhat produced but not acutely, those of seventh segment reaching to the middle of the lateral margin of the second pleon segment. Pleon abruptly narrowed ; first two segments a little shorter than the others ; third, fourth, and fifth with very small adpressed epimera ; last segment broader than long, sides slightly sinuous ; extremity broadly rounded and bearing a few setules. Antennae about half as long as the body, hirsute, second and third joints subequal, the fourth shorter than the fifth, and sub- equal with flagellum, the 3 joints of which are of about equal lengths. Uropods with the base extending beyond the telson, nar- rowed proximally, its outer side grooved and inner margin with a dense fringe of very short setae, inner ramus arising a little anterior to the outer and about half as long, both slender and hirsute ; total length of uropod nearly equal to that of pleon. Length, 5 mm. ; greatest breadth, 2 mm. Colour. — Light brown, with marblings of darker brown sometimes forming indistinct longitudinal bands, one central and two lateral. Mr. Oliver notes that the species is " very variable in colour." Hab. — Expedition Hill and Mount Junction, Sunday Island ; several specimens from each locality. This species appears to belong to the same section of the genus as P. puhescens Dana from New Zealand, P. mina Budde-Lund and P. hirsuta Budde-Lund, both from the Cape of Good Hope. I have specimens, not yet described, from Norfolk Island which are a little broader and a little darlcer in colour, but M'hicli appear to be only a variety of the present species. P. lifuensis Stebbing, from the Loyalty Islands, presents some resemblances, but differs in the outline of the iDody and in the much shorter pleon and uropods. I have named this to indicate my indebtedness to Mr. W. Reginald B. Oliver for the opportunity of examining the fine collection of Crustacea be made at the Kermadec Islands in 1908. Fig. 4. — Philoscia oliveri and uroi^od. Pie Cmi/rox. — Crust iu'ca of the Kevmruh'c Ixhnich. 511 Metoponorthus pruinosus (Brandt). Porcellio pruinosus Brandt, Conspectus Oniscidornm, pp. 181 (19), 188 (26), 1833. Metoponorthus ))ruinosus Budde-Lund, Crust. Isop. Terrt\st., p. 169, 1885: Chilton, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, 16, p. 428, 1905 ; and Trans. N.Z. Inst., 38, pp. 64, 65, 1906 : Stebbing, Ann. Soutli African Mus., 6, p. 440, 1910. Numoroiis specimens found under logs, stones, &c., at Denhani Bay, Sunday Island. Mr. Oliver says of these specimens, " Perhaps introduced," and tliey certainly belong to this European species, which has now been distributed to most of the temperate regions. I have already discussed its occurrence in Norfolk Island and New Zealand in the papers quoted above. Subclass CIRKIPEDIA. Order THORACICA. Lepas pectinata Spengler. Lepas pectinata Darwin, Cirripedia (Lepadidae), p. 85, pi. 1, fig. 3, 1851 ; Hutton. Trans, N.Z. Inst., 11, p. 329, 1879; Gruvel, Cirrhipedes, p. 107, fig. 119, 1905. Numerous specimens from Sunday Island ; some on Spirula shells. They agree well with Darwin's description. The species is very widely distributed, and was recorded from Auckland, New Zealand, by Hutton in 1879. Lepas denticulata Gruvel. Lepas denticulata Gruvel, Cirrhipedes, p. 107, fig. 118, 1905. A few small specimens collected at Sunday Island by Captain Bollons in 1907 appear to belong to this species. They agree well with the figure given by Gruvel, dift'ering from L. pectin- ata in having the ridge on the scuta from the umbo to the apex situated some distance from the convex occludent margin ; the carina is dorsally crested, and bears 4 or 5 well-marked teeth, but I cannot make out the projecting points on the two branches of the inferior fork, nor is the tooth on the internal umbonal angle of the left scutum distinguishable. Gruvel's specimens are from the Philippines. Lepas anatifera Linnaeus. Lepas anatifera Darwin, Cirripedia (Lepadidae), p. 73, pi. 1, fig. 1, 1851 ; Gruvel, Cirrhipedes, p. 103, fig. 121, 1905 ; Stebbing, Ann. South African Mus., 6, p. 563, 1910. Numerous specimens which I refer to this species were obtained from Sunday Island. These specimens can be separated pretty easily into three varieties. A few of them agree pretty closely with the type of this species as described by Darwin : in them the valves are almost smooth, the radiating lines not being prominent ; the carina is rather narrow and fairly acuminate at the end. Many other specimens have the carina more or less distinctly barbed, and agree well with Darwin's " var. {h) " ; in these the radiating 572 Transaction.s. lines on the scuta are more distinct than in the specimens already referred to. A few specimens differ from both of the varieties already mentioned in having the carina much broader and less acuminate, not barbed, and in having little or no trace of an internal tooth on either scutum. The radiating lines on both scuta and terga are fairly distinct. These speci- mens therefore differ from the typical form of L. anatifera in the absence of the internal tooth on the right-hand scutum and in the shape of the carina. In some respects they seem to come pretty close to L. testudinala Aurivillius, from the Cape of Good Hope. They differ, however, from that species, as described and figured by Gruvel, in the broader carina and in the shape of its fork, and apparently also in having 5 teeth on the mandibles. Neither of these points is of much importance, and but for the absence of the internal tooth on the scutum there is perhaps little to distinguish L. testudinata from L. anatifera. In my Kermadec Island speci- mens both the scuta have the umbonal angle somewhat incurved, but there is nothing that can strictly be called a tooth on either of them. For the present I prefer to look upon these specimens as a variety of the wide- spread and variable L. anatifera. It difEers from L. hillii in having only two filaments. I have numerous specimens from the Chatham Islands that appear to be practically identical with this variety from the Kermadecs. L. anatifera is almost cosmopolitan, but has not been recorded from New Zealand seas. Lepas fascicularis Ellis and Solander. Lepas fascicularis Darwin, Cirripedia (Lepadidae), p. 92, 1851 ; Gruvel, Cirrhipedes, p. 105, fig. 116, 1905; Stebbing, Ann. South African Mus., 6, p. 564, 1910. A single specimen washed up on Sunday Island. This specimen has the short peduncle completely surrounded by a spherical mass formed of the secretion of the cement-glands, the whole forming a float, as described by Darwin. Subclass OSTRACODA. Order PODOCOPA. Cypridopsis minna (King). Cypris minna King, Proc. Roy. Soc. Van Diemen's Land, 3, p. 64, pi. 10b. Cypridopsis minna 'G. 0. Sars, Fresh-water Entomostraca of N.Z., Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., I, M.-N. K!., No. 5, p. 30. pi. 4, figs. 3 a-d. 1894. , A few specimens from fresh-water swamps, Denham Bay, appear to belong to this species. They agree well in shape of the valves with Sars's description and figures. The species is very near to C. viridis Thomson, and, like it, is found both in New Zealand and in Australia. Ilyodromus smaragdinus G. 0. Bars. Ilyodromus smaragdimis G. 0. Sars, Fresh-water Entomostraca of N.Z., Vidensk. Selsk. Skr., 1, M.-N. KL, No. 5, p. 43, 1894. Spccimcnis from fresh water in swamps at Denham Bay and from under stones in shallow water, Green Lake, agree well with Sars's descriptions. CuiT/rON. — Crustacva of the Kerniadec hlaiuh. 573 The type spocinu'tis w^ere raised by Sars from dried nuid from the neigh- bourhood of Duiiedin, but the speeies doubth'ss occurs more widely in New Zealand. I have several specimens of another Ostracod with the shell light- coloured, with 3 or 4 irregularly scattered patches of black or very dark- blue pigment on each valve. These I have not been able to identify. Subclass BRAN( 'HIOPODA. Order CLADOCERA. Daphnia thomsoni G. 0. Sars. Daphnia similis Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 16, p. 240, pi. 13, figs. 6-9, 1881. Daphnia thomsoni G. 0. Sars, Fresh-water Entomostraca of N.Z., Vidensk. Seisk. Skr., 1, M.-N. Kl., No. 5, p. 5, 1894 p Stebbing, Ann. Sonth African Mus., 6, p. 489, 1910. Daphnia similis Claus var. thomsoni Richard, Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 8, vol. 2, p. 217, pi. 25, figs. 13, 14, 1896. Numerous specimens from fresh water in swamps at Denham Bay ; collected on 20th June, 28th July, and 28th September, 1908. I have been able to compare these specimens with some from the type locality, Eyreton, North Canterbury, New Zealand, and can detect no difierence except that the Kermadec specimens have both the head and the body a little less broad. In them, too, the spine of the carapace is longer than in most of my New Zealand specimens, but the length of this varies, and, according to Sars's observations, is longest in specimens of the earliest generations, in these attaining nearly half the length of the carapace, as in the Kermadec specimens. It will be noticed that Mr. Oliver's collections were all made early in the season, the first on the 20th June. The species is known both from New Zealand and from the Cape of Good Hope. Dr. Jules Richard considers D. similis Thomson simply a variety of the widely distributed species of the same name earlier established by Claus. Subclass COPEPODA. Order EUCOPEPODA. Numerous specimens of a Cyclops were obtained in the fresh waters of the swamp at Denham Bay, and also from among weeds in Green Lake, but I have not yet been able to identify them satisfactorily with any of the numerous species of this genus known from Austraha and New Zealand. A few specimens of a Pontella were washed up on Flat Beach, Sunday Island, on the 6th June, 1908. The species has not yet been determined. In the collection are also two parasitic Copepoda, one apparently a Lcpeophtheirus, taken on the hapuka ; and the other, which appears to belong to Pandarus, on a shark. Neither species satisfactorily identified. 574 Transactions. Art. L. — Sponges collected at the Kermadec Islands by Mr. W. B. B. Oliver. By Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A. [Read before the WelU)i(j1oii Philosophicdl Society, 5lh October, 1910.] Plate XXVII. In May of this year I received from Mr. W. R. B. Oliver a small collection of sponges from the Kermadec Islands. Apparently about eleven or twelve species are represented in the collection. Nearly all of these, so far as I have at present been able to examine them, are species hitherto undescribed. This is surprising, in view of the fact that the " Challenger " collections contained some sponges from the Kermadec Islands, and Von Lendenfeld has described others. It is remarkable also that there is so much distinct- ness from the Australian sponges. It is, however, highly probable that most of these Kermadec Island sponges are found in New Zealand. I hope to deal with the remainder of this collection in a subsequent paper. In the descriptions in this paper I have not generally given the diameter of fibres, but the scale of the drawing is shown in each case. All drawings of fibrous skeletons are from specimens treated with water and afterwards carefully dehydrated and brought into balsam. In the dried specimens as received the fibres were in nearly all cases much shrunken. Genus Tethya Lamarck. More or less spherical Tethyidae, without highly specialized pore-bearing grooves, and without a sand-layer in the choanosome. Tethya lyncurium Lin. var. australis var. no v. Fig. 1. Sponge about 2 cm. in diameter and 1-5 cm. in height. Surface marked by rounded elevations and depressions, the elevations echinated by the spicules of the brush. No appearance of tesselation. Colour of formalin- preserved specimen pale yellow. Fig. 1. — Tethya, lyncurinm var. australis. \a, \l). Styli. 2. Strongyle. 3. Oxeote. 4. Sphcraster. 5. Chiaster. The general arrangement of the skeleton is that of the typical T.' lyn- curium. Megascleres are for the most part styli (fig. 1, lo, \h) with [the base rounded, the apex usually blunt but sometimes sharp, and ^the widest part of the spicule about a third of the distance from the base. The styli vary in size; an average size is 1-3 mm. by 0-02 mm. There] are Ktrk. —Sponc/cs collected at the Kermadec Islands. 575 a smaller number of strongyloxea, 1-05 mm. by 0-015 mm., and a few un- doubted oxea, 0-9 mm. by 0-015 mm. Spicules of all three kinds occur also in the choanosome, between the rays. The microscleres are very small chiasters, and larger and more massive spherasters. The chiasters are most abundant just at the surface of the sponge, where they form a close layer, as in the type (see Bowerbank, " British Sfongiadae''' vol. 2, p. 93). They are also abundant in the inner portion of the ectosome, and are freely scat- tered throughout ectosome and choanosome. The spherasters are unevenly scattered through the ectosome, and are rare in the choanosome. The chiasters have a very small centrum, and about 12 slender straight rays always distinctly tylote. This tylote termination of the rays is like that of T. japonica, figured by SoUas (IX, pi. xliv), and that of T. lyncurium var. a, described by Dendy (IV, p. 113). The chiaster is noticeably different from that of the type as figured by Schmidt (VIII, pi. iv). Carter (XI, pi. ii), and others. Length of ray, 0-01 mm. The spheraster has a massive body and from 12 to 18 stout pointed rays, which are never spined. The length of the ray is 0-02 mm., and the total diameter of the spicule 0-06 mm. This sponge is identical with one found on the New Zealand coasts, but not hitherto described. It is perhaps identical with Lendenfeld's T. multi- stclla (V, p. 46), in which, however, no strongyloxea nor oxea are reported. It is also very near Dendy's T. lyncurium var. a (IV, p. 113). I note these points of difference : — T. lycurium var. a. Vent noticeable in preserved speci- mens. Megascleres : Styli faintly tylote. No oxea nor strongyla. T. lycurmm var. australis. Vent not noticeable in preserved specimens. Styli not tylote. Oxea and strongyla present. Microscleres : Spheraster rarely ! Spheraster never spined. Spheraster- spined. Spheraster-rays about 12. i rays usually more than 12. Chiaster : Rays 6-9. | Rays more than 9. I propose to establish this variety with some reluctance, and only do so to avoid any possible confusion in notions of distribution. Five specimens were received, preserved in formalin. " Meyer Island, near Sunday Island, in rock-pools ; 24/4/08." Genus Reniera Nardo. Skeleton forming a close reticulation of usually single megascleres, each forming one side of a mesh. Spicules short, usually oxeote. In most cases the ends of the spicules are bound to the adjacent spicules by a little spongin. Reniera reversa n. sp. Fig. 2. Sponge flattened and encrusting. Length, 4-5 cm. Thickness, 0-7 cm. There are a few scattered oscula flush with the surface of the sponge, and about 4 mm. in diameter. The skeleton consists mainly of blunt oxea, which are slightly curved. These are bound together by scarcely discernible spongin into meshes which may be 3-, 4-, or 5-sided. From the upper surface of the sponge there project slightly curved styli, the blunt end directed outwards. These are imbedded for about half their length. They form various angles with the surface. 576 Transactions. Size of spicules : Oxea.. 0-1 mm. by 0-005 mm. ; styli, 0-84 mm. by 0 0 14 mm. Two specimens were received, dry and somewhat broken. The label reads, " Taken in rock-pools, Meyer Island (near Sunday Island) ; 29/2/08," Fig. 2. A ^ fssmMk Fig. 3. Fig. 2. — Reniera reversa. 1. Section of skeleton at right angles to surface. 2, 3. Styli. 4. Oxea. Fig. 3. — Chalina fistulosa. 1. Portion of dermal skeleton. 2. Section of skeleton at right angles to surface. 3. Oxea. Genus Chalina Grant. Chalininae whose skeletal reticulation is typically rectangular. Fibres usually slender, with much spongin, and few, but usually well-developed, spicules. Chalina fistulosa n. sp. Fig. 3. Sponge massive, sessile ; with well-developed oscula, oval or rounded, which terminate short fistular processes on the upper surface of the sponge. Fistulae from 5 mm. to 12 mm. in height ; oscula from 5mm. to 8mm. in dia- meter. Surface smooth. Colourof dry specimen dirty-yellow. Texture harsh. Internal skeleton showing approximately rectangular meshes. Longi- tudinal fibres usually a little stronger than the transverse ones, and loosely cored with a strand of spicules often arranged with some irregularity. In the transverse fibres the spicules are few, never forming a connected strand and never polyserial. Dermal skeleton shows fibres that are about the same diameter as the primary fibres of the internal skeleton, but dark in colour. They form a Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XMI Platk X X VII. '^ ^^^-^^-^\ Face 13. o/'fl.] KiKK. — S/)(>ii(/rs roJJcrfcd at ihc Kirnutder hJandn. 511 polygonal network, the meshes of whieh are broken up by finer, irregular fibres of light colour. Spicules are never polyserial in the dermal skeleton, and are more numerous in the secondary fibres. Many lie outside the fibres. Spicules are all oxea, straight or slightly curved, running somewhat suddenly to a fairly sharp point. Size, 0-05 mm. by 0-004 mm. This sponge appears to be close to Dendy's C. clathrata (IV, p. 151) and to Topsent's C. similis (X, p., 481). A single dry specimen received. " Cast up on Denham Bav beach, Sunday Island ; 27/7/08." Genus Toxochalina Ridley. Ridley (VII, p. 402) founded the genus Toxochalina for " Chalinidae with well-developed horny fibre arranged rectangularly. Spicules, a skeleton acerate and a tricurvate acerate (' Bogen ') flesh spicule." One of the Kermadec Island sponges is a Ghalina in every respect of structure, except that it has minute flesh spicules in the form of oxea. In view of the fact that many of the Chalininae have been described from beach-worn specimens, and some of them may yet be found to possess flesh spicules, it seems unwise to establish — at present, at all events — a new genus differing from Toxochalina only in the form of its microscleres. I there- fore suggest a slight emendation of the generic character to admit sponges differing from Chalina in the presence of simple linear microscleres. Toxochalina oliveri n. sp. Fig. 4, and Plate XXVII, fig. 2. Sponge attached by the greater part of the lower surface. Oscula pro- minent, on the summit of rounded elevations on the upper surface, or on the crest of level ridges formed by the concrescence of such elevations. Colour yellowish-buff. Texture firm. Length of specimen, 9-5 cm. ; width, 6 cm. ; height, 1-5 cm. Structure of skeleton : Primary fibres running in parallel or in radiating lines to the surface, connected by .the secondary fibres, which form with them and with each other rectangular meshes. The primary fibres contain an uneven strand of oxea loosely and irregularly ar- ranged, most numerous at the nodes. The strand thins out in places to the point of disappear- ance, but usually it consists of about six series of spicules. Secondary fibres thinner than the primary, containing few spicules, and these not poly- serial and not in contact end to end. The general appearance of a section of the skeleton is very like that of Siphonochalina procumbens as figured by Dendy (III, pi. 58, fig. 4). In the dermal skeleton the meshes are subdivided by finer fibres (fig. 4, 2). 19— Trans. Fig. 4. — Toxochalina oliveri. Section of skeleton at right angles to surface. 2. Portion of dermal skeleton. 3. Oxea. 4. Microscleres. 578. Transactions, Spicules : The spicules of the skeleton are slightly curved oxea with bluntish ends. Size, 0-24 mm. by 0-008 mm. The microscleres are minute strongyla, smooth and straight or slightly curved. The sponge is quite unlike Toxochalina joliodes {Desmacidon foliodes Bowerbank), reported by Lendenfeld (VI, p. 797) from Thursday Island. That sponge is not in Mr. Oliver's collection. A single dry specimen received. " Cast up in Coral Bay, Sunday Island ; 2/5/08." Genus Clathria Schmidt. " Ectyoninae of various habit, frequently clathrous. Skeleton a reti- culation of fibre, usually with much spongin, containing smooth styli and echinated by spined styli." — Dendy (IV, p. 170). Fig. 5. — Clathria intermedia. Portion of skeleton, la. Portion of skeleton at right angles to surface. 2 a, b, c. Echinating smooth styli. 2 d, e, f. Smooth styli, sometimes echi- nating, more often in fibre or in s])onge-flesh. 3 a, b, c, d, e. Smooth slender styli of fibre and sponge-flesh. 4. Echinating spined styli. 5. A diact spicule in boiled-out preparation. 6. Toxa. 7, 8. Isochelae. 9. Simple sigma. KiKK. — Spo)ificK coUectcd (it the Kcrmcuhc hJniuh. 579 A Clathrioid sponge in Mr. Oliver's collection has both smooth and sjiined echinating styli. I think it best to interpret the generic character as to echination to mean that there must be spined echinating styli and that there may be smooth echinating styli as well, rather than to establish a new genus for this sponge. Clathria intermedia n. sp. Fig. 5. Sponge massive, encrusting, harsh to the touch. On the upper surface are numerous low, conical elevations, each terminating in a circular osculum, which is about 3 mm. in diameter. The single specimen is 5 cm. long, 1-5 cm. high. Colour brownish- grey. Skeleton showing primary and secondary fibres. The former generally radiate from the walls of the gastral cavity to the surface ; the latter connect the primary fibres, giving approximately right-angled meshes. Colour in balsam light amber. The primary fibres are cored by a strand of smooth styli, the strand being from 1 to 4 spicules thick. The apex of the spicules is nearly always directed towards the surface of the sponge, where one or two of these smooth styli may project from the end of the primary fibres. Secondary fibres seldom contain spicules. Both primary and secondary fibres are echinatcd sparsely by smooth and by spined styli in about equal numbers. Only the base of the echinating spicule is imbedded in the sjiongin, and the spicules project at almost right angles to the fibre. There is no special dermal skeleton. The sponge-flesh contains abundant smooth styli showing no definite arrangement. Spicules : Megascleres all styli. (1.) The most characteristic are fairly stout spicules with well-rounded base, the broadest part of the spicule being about one-third of the length from the base. These spicules usually run ab- ruptly to a sharp point. Size, 0-1 mm. by 0-009 mm. The smooth echinating spicules are all of this kind, as are most of these that core the fibres or that lie loose in the sponge-flesh. In the latter position the styles may be blunt, and there are long and slender styli. The most slender have a thickness of about 0-001 mm., and these may be variously curved. (2.) Spined styles occurring as echinating spicules only ; somewhat tylote, spines irregu- larly scattered, directed straight outwards. The spicule tapers to a fairly sharp point. The apical portion of the spicule — about one-sixth of the whole length — is the only part that is always free from spines. Microscleres — (1) Isochelae, palmate. As the spicule lies on its side it presents a distinct indentation on the convex side ; this represents the shank of the spicule, along which the palmate expansion does not extend. (2.) Simple sigmata, somewhat larger than the isochelae. These are few in number. (3.) Toxa, slender, sharp-pointed ; usually with a well-marked primary curve, and feeble secondary curves. A single dry specimen. " Cast up on Denham Bay beach, Sunday Island ; 27/7/08." Genus Clathriodendron Lendenfeld (V, p. 215). " Desmacidionidae with exceedingly large tylostylote megasclera. The spongin fibres of the supporting skeleton contain only few spicules. Echi- nating spicules spined styli." 19* 580 Transactions Clathriodendron rubrum n. sp. Fig. 6, and Plate XXVlI, fig. 1. External Characters : Sponge erect, branching freely, the branches spreading widely. Branching begins close to the basal disc, and here the branches are thick and in section roundish or oval ; above they become flattened and expanded, the ultimate branchings being digitate processes on the margins of these palmate portions. Surface unbroken by conuli ; no oscula observable in the dry state. Height of largest specimen, 9-5 cm. Colour of dried specimen reddish-brown, becoming dark red on immersion Fig. 6. — Clathriodendron rubrum. 1. Section at right angles to surface. 2. Oxeote. 3. Stylus. 4. Tylostyli. 5. Bases of tylostyli. fi. Filiform tylostyli. 7. Spined styli. 8. Doubtful microscleres. in water. The colouring-matter is in the sponge-flesh, and dissolves out readily ; it appears to be due to associated Algae. Skeleton tough, and harsh to the touch, becoming soft when wetted. Skeleton reticulated ; spongin abundant ; primary fibres generally radiating, and somewhat uneven. The secondary fibres form with them meshes that are oval or polygonal, or often rectangular, the rectangular shape most observable in the younger parts of the sponge. Primary fibres cored more or less abundantl}' with smooth slender styli and tylostyli, Kirk. — Sponges coUeded at the Krrmadec hhtndx. 581 . ■ among which are a few slender oxea. Siinihir spicules lie in the sponge- flesh, and often parallel to the fibres. Secondary fibres not cored. Both primary and secondary fibres are sparsely echinated by spined styli. On the older surfaces of the sponge the echinating spicules are much more numerous, and many of the styli that lie outside the fibres become closely bound to them. Spicules : IVIegascleres — (1.) Smooth styli. These are long and slender, and variously curved. They may be 0-5 mm. long, but seldom exceed 0-005 mm. in thickness. The thickest part of the spicule is usually about one-cjuarter of the length from the base. Apex sharp. (2.) Smooth tylo- styli ; very numerous, and presenting much variation. The most cha- racteristic are, on an average, 0-7 mm. long and 0-008 mm. thick ; apex sharp, base either simply tylote or with the tylosis not quite terminal (fig. 6, 5). There are also exceedingly slender, hairlike tylostyli, sometimes Avith a double tylosis (fig. 6, 6). (3.) Oxea : These are not numerous ; they are slender and variously curved. Length, 0-045 mm. ; usually sharp- pointed. Intermediate forms between these and the smooth styli occur. (4.) Spined styli : These occur as echinating spicules only. They usually taper from near the base to the apex. Size, 0-09 mm. by 0-007 mm. Spined irregularly throughout their length, the spines directed backwards. Micro- scleres (?) : There occur both in the sections and in the boiled-out pre- parations, numerous irregular rodlike bodies that are possibly microscleres (fig. 6, 8). They are usually straight, and may be scattered or arranged in starlike masses. They seldom exceed 0-005 mm. in length. Three specim.ens received, two of them small and battered. Owing to the great length of the characteristic spicules and to the fact that the sponges had been much crashed in transit, the longer spicules are usually broken. " Cast up on Denham Bay beach, Sunday Island ; 29/8/08." References. I. Bowerbank : " A Monograph of the British Spongiadae.''^ 1866. II. Ridley and Dendy : " Report on the Monaxonida of the Voyage of H.M.S. ' Challenger.' " 1887. III. Dendy : " On West Indian Chalinine Sponges." Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., vol. 12, pt. 10. 1890. IV. Dendy : " Report on Professor Herdman's Ceylon Sponges." Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries Reports, 1905. Supplementary Report, No. 18. V. Von Lendenfeld : " Descriptive Catalogue of the Sponges in the Australian Museum, Sydney." 1888. VI. Von Lendenfeld : " Die Chalineen des australischen Gebietes." Zool. Jahrb., band 2, 1887. VII. Ridley : Spongiida, in Report on Zoological Collections made on Voyage of H.M.S. " Alert." Brit. Museum Nat. Hist. Reports, 1884. VIII. Schmidt : " Die Spongien des Adriatischen Meeres." 1862. IX. Sollas : " Report on the Tetractinellida of the Voyage of H.M.S. ' Challenger.' " 1888. X. Topsent : " Spongiaires de la Bale d'Amboine." Revue Suisse de Zoologie, iv, 3, 1897. XL Carter : Four Subspherous Sponges." Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., series 4, vol. 4. 582 Transactions. Art. LI. — Anatomij of Siphonaria obliquata (Sniverhy). By A. J. CoTTRELL, M.A., M.Sc. (N.Z.).* Communicated by Professor Benham. [Bead before the Otago Institute, 1st November, 1910.] Plates XXVIII, XXIX. Habits, etc. Siphonaria ohliquata is a marine Gastropod, being one of the commonest characteristic of our shores. Superficially it resembles the limpet, and, like the latter, it is found in rocky places attached to rocks which are covered at high tide. I have collected specimens of this mollusc on the rocky beaches at Portobello (Otago Harbour), St. Clair, Brighton (Dunedin), and Oamaru. I have also examined specimens collected at Kaikoura, and also some very fin*^ specimens from Wellington. When out collecting I have found them always in the same regions as limpets, but on the parts of the coast I have visited they are not nearly so plentiful as the latter. As a rule, the large specimens were found in out-of-the-way crevices in the rocks, well above the low-water mark. Others, however, were found nearer the low- tide mark, while many of the smaller specimens were col- lected from pools. Externals. The Shell Plate XXVIII, figs. 1, 4, 5 ; Plate XXIX, fig. 1. The mollusc is protected by a strong calcareous conical shell, which can easily be distinguished from that of the limpet by the following fea- tures : — In Siphonaria the apex of the shell lies nearer to the posterior end and to the left side of the middle line, while in Patella (all species found on our coast) the apex lies nearer the anterior end of the shell, and in the middle line (Plate XXVIII, figs. 1, 4, 5; a). Ridges radiate from the apex to the margin, which is notched, and concentrically are the lines of growth. On the right side, starting from the apex and extending to the edge of the shell, is a triangular ridge which corresponds on the inner side of the shell to the siphonal groove or notch (Plate XXVIII, figs. 1, 5 ; Plate XXIX. fig. 1 ; sh). The external surface of the shell is dark in colour, resembling the rocks to which the creature adheres, while the inner surface is of a light colour, varying from a light cream to a brownish-yellow. The interior of the shell is coated with the usual nacreous layer, in which the muscle-impressions can be seen (Plate XXIX, fig. 1 ; mt). These indicate the points of attachment of the pallial muscli's, both past and present. They form an almost complete ring, broken only in the region of the siphonal notch. Bodii-waU. Plate XXVIII, figs. 1, 4. The creature is divisible into head and body, but there is no neck. During locomotion these parts are distended, and protrude considerably be- yond the shell (Plate XXVIII, figs. 1, 4), but when the tide is out the body is drawn into the shell, which comes into close contact round its margin * This article is part of the thesis upon whicli the University of New Zealand awarded the author first-class honours in 1006. CoTTinci.L. — J/iafoiiij/ of Siphouai-ia oliliquata. 083 witli the rock, though not so closely as does that of the limpet. This is the condition in which I have most freciuently found them. The thick body- wall surrounding the internal organs on the sides (Plate XXVIIl, fig. 1 ; hie) is composed of a dense mass of muscular tissue, the fibres of which run in all directions, thus rendering a great variety of movement possible. In all regions of the body-wall forming the sides of the mollusc some of the cells of the epidermis are differentiated to form multicellular mucous glands, which project inwards among the muscles. The cavity of each is club-shaped, the narrow part ending externally in a pore. Around this cavity the cells are arranged — large glandular vacuolated cells, the out- lines of which are not distinct. These cells secrete the mucus or material which forms it. It is stored in the cells in the form of granules, which staii; very deeply in borax carmine. These can be seen even under the low power as conspicuous red masses. The secretion is discharged into the cavity, and on the contraction of the muscles in the vicinity it reaches the exterior. These glands are very numerous, and some of them are of considerable size. When the animal is disturbed it shrinks up, causing a considerable quantity of mucus to be exuded. Foot. Plate XXVIIl, figs. 2, 3. The foot is of considerable size, consisting of the whole of the ventral surface behind the head. In the case of specimens preserved in formol the foot is much shrunken (Plate XXVIIl, fig. 2 ; /) ; but I managed to kill a fine specimen in a very well-distended condition, and then hardened it in a strong spirit. This specimen shows very well the extent of the foot (Plate XXVIIl, fig. .3 ; /) There is a slight propodium, on to which a large pedal gland opens in the median line. This gland extends through the whole length of the foot (Plate XXVIIl, fig. 3 ; pg, p). The foot, hke the body-wall, is very muscular, and has the same structure as the latter, except that here are no mucous glands, aiid in this region the epidermis is com- posed of columnar cells. The beautiful movement of the muscular foot may be well seen if a living specimen be made to creep up the inside of a glass vessel. The action is similar to that of a snail. Head. Plate XXVIIl, figs. 1, 2, 3. The head is marked ofE from the body by a slight furrow running trans- versely across the ventral side immediately in front of the foot, and ex- tending upwards for only a short distance on each side (Plate XXVIIl, figs. 1 and 2). Anteriorly the head is convex, and the thick wall investing it is continuous with the bodv-wall described above, and has the same structure. Ventrally the head is flat, and is in contact with the surface to which the mollusc attaches itself. Like the foot, this part of the head is used for effecting locomotion, and has the same histological structure. When dis- tended the right and left lobes of the head can be well seen (Plate XXVIIl, fig. 3 ; rl, II). No tentacles are present on the head, though part of these lobes on either side may correspond to tentacles. External Orifices. Plate XXVIIl, figs. 1, 2, 3 ; Plate XXIX, figs. 2, 3. The mouth is situated in the middle of the ventral side of the head ; it is a transverse slit, somewhat crescentic in outline, and median in position (Plate XXVIIl, fig. 3 ; m). On the right side of the body is the respiratory orifice, situated half- way along that side (Plate XXVIIl, fig. 1 ; r). In large specimens it is about 584 Transdctions. \ ill. in diameter. The ojfifice is bounded above by the mantle-edge, and below by the body-wall, which is here differentiated to form a kind of muscular valve (Plate XXVIII, figs. 1,2; tm). To close the aperture this is brought into contact with the mantle-edge by means of its muscles. The creature thus has the power of opening and closing this respiratory orifice. The anus opens into this orifice on the lower side (Plate XXIX, figs. 2, 3). The single genital pore also opens on the right side, at the junction of head and body (Plate XXVIII, figs. 2, 3 ; (jpY Mantle-edfjc. Plate XXVIII, fig. 2. The free edge of the mantle extendi all round the upper edge of the creature, just inside the shell (Plate XXVIII, fig. 2 ; me). This is th? lower margin of the mantle, and normally it lies close to the shell all round and nearly flush with its margin. Its edge resembles in colour and form that of the shell. On irritation the pallial muscles draw it up into the shell with the body. In it are numerous blood-vessels, and it is probably respi- ratory. Mucous glands like those of the body-wall are present in this part of the mantle. Morphology and Histology. Pallial Organs. Plate XXVIII. fig. 7 ; Plate XXIX, fig. 2. The shell is attached to the creature by means of the pallial muscles, which extend round the latero-dorsal margin of the body, except at the siphonal notch, thus forming a ring broken only at this point, as is indicated by the muscle-impressions on the shell mentioned above (Plate XXVIII, fig. 7 ; ym). At the siphonal notch and over the rest of the dorsal surface the tissues are quite free from the shell. The pallial muscles are thickest near the siphonal notch. On dissecting the muscles away from the shell, the latter may be re- moved, and the mantle, which extends over the whole dorsal surface, is ex- posed (Plate XXVIII, fig. 7). It encloses between itself and the dorsal body- wall a large pallial chamber, which extends out as far as the pallial muscles, by which the mantle is attached to the body. In the region of the heart, however, the roof of the pallial cavity is attached to the dorsal wall of the pericardium. This chamber commmiicates with the exterior by the respiratory orifice opening on the right side — a comparatively small branchial aperture — a contrast to the extensive apertures of a large section of the Gastropods : in this feature Siphonaria resembles the Pulmonates. The pallial organs can be seen by transparency. Perhaps the most interest- ing of these organs is the lung ; it is formed by about the anterior third of the mantle, which is very vascular (Plate XXVIII, fig. 7 ; I). Just behmd this, on the left side of the chamber, can be seen the heart, lying in the pericardium ; this I shall include in the account of the vascular system. The kidney is attached to the walls of the second third of the chamber, and immediately behind this the uill is seen forming a semicircular band round the posterior region (Plate XXVIII, fig. 7 : PLate XXIX, fig. 2 ; g). The lung is similar to that of the Pulmonates. From a vessel running round the anterior margin of the mantle numerous vessels are given off' which run backwards in the mantle ; some of these give rise to two and even three rami. A corresponding set of vessels take their origin among the terminations of these, and convey the blood to the pulmonary vein, which runs along the posterior edge of the lung to the heart (Plate XXVIII, fig. 7, ef.v, af.v; Plate XXIX, fig. 2). COTTKEi.L. — Ai/afoiiii/ of Sip]i(inari:i obliciuat; 585 The Iddiiev is of a pale-browiusli colour : it consists of two regions, dorsal and ventral, folded one over the other (Plate XXIX, fig. 2 ; dk, vk). The former is attached to the mantle, and near the respiratory orifice, close to the gill, has a small spherical swelling — the renal papilla — on which the renal pore opens (Plate XXIX, fig. 2; rp). The papilla is always more or less concealed by the gill. The ventral region is somewhat leaf-shaped in outline, and is attached in the same way to the floor of the pallial chamber. The whole of the kidney is glandular, and contains no extensive cavity as is seen in the kidney of, e.g., Anodonta or Unio. On the left side the kidney lies close to the pericardium, the right end of which it partially surrounds. The gill is composed of a series of laminae separate from one another, and each independently connected to the mantle by one of its lateral edges, the other edge hanging freely into the pallial chamber (Plate XXIX, fig. 2 ; g). As noticed above, this series of gill-laminae forms a semicircle round the posterior end of the pallial chamber. Running round the gill on its posterior side is a large vein — the afferent branchial vein ; and there is another having a corresponding position on the anterior side — the efferent branchial vein. With these vessels the ends of each lamina are connected, the posterior end with the former vessel, and the anterior with the latter. Each lamina tapers at each end to a small tubular structure carrying a branch from one of these vessels on to the lamina. Between these two extremes each lamina spreads out and is thrown into longitu- dinal folds, and on the edges or ridges formed by these folds secondary laminae often arise. Dorsally some of these folds may unite with the mantle, especially in the case of those laminae form- ing that part of the gill near the respiratory orifice, where the gill is most strongly developed and the folding is very complicated. Each surface of a gill-lamina is covered by a layer of ciliated epi- thelium, consisting of a single layer of cells, which are somewhat cubical, and contain large nearly circular nuclei. These nuclei stain very deeply in borax carmine. Between these two surfaces lies connective tissue co)itaining blood- spaces. There are no skeletal ele- ments in connection with this gill. The blood flows from the posterior vessel into the gill-laminae, and, passing through the blood-spaces in them, is brought close to the water in the pallial chamber, and is thus aerated. The gill is ciliated, and the water surrounding it is kept in motion by this means. The blood passes on, and is gradually collected into larger spaces, and finally, reaching the efferent vessel, is carried to the heart. This gill seems to be quite different from the typical ctenidium ; it does, however, resemble certam parts of the ctenidia of some opisthobranchs. Fig. 1. — Teaxsverse LAMINA ; Section of Gill- X 50. Anterior renal vein going to the kidney ; e, edge of lamina attached to mantle ; ■ e', free edge of lamina ; rjl, gill-lamina ; gV, secondaiy gill-lamina ; m, mantle forming roof of pallial chamber. 586 Transactions. Alimentary System. Plate XXVIII, fig. 6 ; Plate XXIX, fig. .3. The mouth perforates the thick muscular wall of the ventral side of the head in a direction vertically upwards, and leads into the cavity of the buccal mass — the " buccal cavity." The buccal mass is situated in the head, the cavity of which it practically fills. It is spherical in shape, of a dark colour, and is very muscular. Lying on the dorsal surface of the buccal mass, and usually almost concealing it, is a pair of salivary glands, one on each side. The oesophagus passes away from the buccal mass on the dorsal surface, arising near the anterior end, and, following the curve of the buccal mass, it passes backwards and downwards till it reaches the floor of the body-cavity, where it soon enters the stomach, which it joins on the ventral region of the anterior surface, the transition from oesophagus to stomach being very marked (Plate XXIX, fig. 3 ; oe, st). The stomach extends from the buccal mass to the posterior end of the creature, occupying a large part of the left half of the body-cavity. When distended it is cyhndrical^ and is of smaller diameter in the middle than at the two ends (Plate XXVIII, fig. 6; st). The digestive gland is very extensive ; it occupies a large part of the posterior half of the body-cavity, aiid its lobes completely surround the posterior half of the stomach. It is really divisible into a right and a left part ; the left is the larger, and the digestive juice is collected from its various lobes by ductules into the main ducts, which enter the stomach close together on the left side near the posterior end. The right part is much smaller ; its duct joins the stomach on the right side, also near the posterior end (Plate XXVIII, fig. 6 ; dg, dr/). The intestine passes away from the left side of the stomach, at the hinder end, posterior to and below the ducts of the digestive gland (Plate XXVIII, fig. 6; i). It is at first wide, but soon becomes a narrow thick-walled tube. After passing forwards and upwards it coils twice among the lobes of the digestive gland, and comes on to the dorsal surface on the right side, near the posterior end of the creature. It then runs forwards as the thin wall rectum, which on reaching about the middle of the length of the animal takes a sharp turn to the right, ending at the anus on the lower side of the respiratory orifice. Just inside the mouth, at the entrance to the cavity of the buccal mass,^ there is a chitinous jaw. This jaw is crescentic in outline, and extends from side to side of the buccal cavity on the anterior side of the mouth. When the creature is fully distended the jaw comes to the surface, and assists in breaking up food. It is attached at the lower end of the thick muscular anterior wall of the buccal mass to the chitinous lining of this region. The structure of this jaw is very similar to that of a radula ; it is composed of a basement membrane of chitinous material, beset with numerous smal teeth. These teeth are cylindrical, pointed, all alike, and very numerous. Captain Hutton seems to have incorrectly described this jaw as " An- terior margin papillate — ^rest smooth."* The epithelium lining the buccal cavity is everywhere covered by a layer of chitin, which varies in thickness. This cavity is blocked up by two similar and symmetrical muscular masses, one on each side of the middle line. Each is simply a muscular thickening of the wall of its respective side. Also projecting into the buccal cavity, behind these structures just described, is the " odontophore," with the radula. The radular teeth are comparatively small, very numerous, as in Helix, and are carried on a chitinous basal membrane. They are * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 15, p. 141. CoTTREr.i.. — Audloinj of Siplidiiaiia nbli(|uata. 587 a.rranii;od in trjitisvcrse rows, the average iiuml)cr of teeth in each row being a.l)Out 120. Each row contains three ki}ids of teeth, and these are found in definite positions on the raduh^ : — 1. A median tooth. This tooth is about half the size of those immediately to the right or left ; it is conical and symmetrical (fig. 2 ; mt). Fig. 2. — Radula (x 370), showing Median and Admedian Teeth. at, x^dmedian tooth; mt, median tooth. 2. To the right and left are a large number of admedian teeth, each of which is roughly conical, and on its outer side has a notch which gives rise to a second cusp about the middle of the outer side of the tooth (fig. 2 ; at). 3. The lateral teeth resemble the admedian, but each has three cusps ; the median one is large, and, instead of being pointed, is broad and rounded : the lateral cusps, one on each side, are small, pointed, and occupy a corresponding posi- tion to those of the admedian teeth (fig. 3). Each radular tooth has a basal portion which is imbedded in the chitinous membrane support- ing the teeth. There is no sharp line of demarcation between ad- median and lateral teeth, but one series graduates into Fig. 3. ' ^^^ other. Radtjlar Teeth ; x 370. FiS'. ohli- quata. Results arrived at may be summarized briefly as follows : — Opisthohranch Characters. 1. The spermoviduct is undivided throughout its length, a condition not characteristic of the Pulmonates. Some closely related genera, how- ever— e.g., Gadinia and Aniphibola — have the duct divided. 2. The condition of the hermaphrodite gland. 3. The gill is possibly a modified ctenidium, but some authorities con- sider it a secondary structure. Pu Imonote Characters. 1. Large mantle-cavity, with small contractile respiratory pore. 2. Presence of a lung by which aerial respiration may be effected. 3. Presence of a pedal gland opening anteriorly between head and foot. 4. Its mode of life differs from that of Opisthobranchs. In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Benham for many valuable suggestions in preparing the present paper for publication. Bibliography. 1. Bronn's " Thierreichs." pi. 77, figs, xv -xix (f866). 2. Cooke : Cambridge Nat. Hist. — Mollusca. 3. Haller : " Die Anatomic v. Siphonaria gigas, eines Opisthobranch. Gasteropod" (Arbeit. Zool. Inst. Wien, x, f892). (Abstracted in Zonl. Jahresbericht, f892.) 4. Hutton: Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. f5. p. 140 (1882). 5. Kohler : " Beitrage z. Anatomic des Gattung Siphonaria " (Zool. Jahrb., vii— Morph. Abth.). (Abstracted in Zool. Jahresbericht. 1893. p. 46.) 6. Lankester : Article on Mollusca in Encycl. Brit. 7. Lang : " Text-book of Comparative Anatomy," 2nd cd., pt. 2 — • Mollusca. 8. Pelseneer: Q.J.M.S., 37, n.s. (1895), p. 99. "Hermaphroditism in Mollusca." 9. Pelseneer : " Prosobranches aeriens et Pulmones' branchiferes " (Arch. Biol., xiv, p. 351). (Abstracted in Zool. Jahresbericht, 1895, p. 29.) 10. Pelseneer : Mem. Cour. Mem. Sav. Etrang. Acad. Bruxelles, vol. 53. (Abstracted in Zool. Jahresbericht, 1894, p. 39.) 11. Perrier : " Traite de Zoologie," 1897, p. 1967. 12. Plate : Sitzber. Acad. Berhn, 1894, p. 217. (Absti-iicted in Zoo). Jahresbericht, 1894, p. 52.) 594 TransacUoiis. 13. Sarasin, P. and F. : " Die Sdsswasser Molluskeu v. Celebes," Wies- baden. (Abstracted in Zool. Jahresbericlit, 1898, p. 37.) 14. Sedgwick : " Text-book of Zoology," pt. 1 — Mollusca. 15. Rawitz : Internation. Monatsclir. Anat. Pliys., xv, p. 199. (Ab- stracted in Zool. Jahresbericht, 1898, p. 29.) 16. Pelseneer : Lankester's " A Treatise on Zoology." pt. 5 — ^Mollusca. EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXVili. XXIX. Plate XXViII. Fig. 1. Side view of Siphonaria obliquata ; natural size, a, apex of shell ; hw, body- wall ; h, head ; ms, muscular swelling of body-wall forming valve to close respiratory orifice ; r, respiratory orifice ; sn, siphonal notch ; s, shell. Fig. 2. Ventral view of 8. obliquata ; natural size (from a contracted spirit specimen). /, foot ; gj), genital pore ; h, head ; m, mouth ; ms, muscular swelling of body- wall forming a valve to close the respiratory orifice ; me, free edge of mantle ; r, respiratory orifice ; s, shell. Fig. 3. Ventral view of 8. obliquata ; natui'al size (from a large specimen well distended). II, left lobe of head ; pg, pedal gland ; p, pore of pedal gland opening on to l^ropodium ; rl, right lobe of head. Other letters as in fig. 2. Fig. 4. Anterior view of *S'. obliquata. Same specimen as represented in fig. 3 ; natural size, a, apex of shell ; e, eye ; h, head ; rl, right lobe of head. Fig. 5. Shell of f.) 1. Ay, with Zeus the Defender, with Her of the aegis and spear ! ^ 2. Now, henceforth and forever, — 0 latest to whom I upraise A new variation is developed in these two verses : — (35rf. ) 1. Archons of Athens, topped by the tettix, see, I return ! 2. Now, henceforth and forever, — O latest to whom I upraise Compare this with No. (16) h, a Nibelmigen verse — (35e.) 1. Now/, henceforth/ and fore/ver, — / 0 la/ test to whom/ I upraise/ 2. Fair/ without/ a ble/mish, / her gra/cious bo/dy_ was/, — and it is at once seen that Browning's verse is a triple Nibelungen verse, the pause in the middle showing where a stressed syllable has been dropped. Again, couple No. (35e) 1 with the verse immediately following in the quotation— (35/.) Now/, henceforth/ and fore/ver, — / 0 la/test to whom/ I upraise/ Hand/ and heart/ and voice !/ / For A/thens leave pa/sture and flock !/ — and a paused triple Alexandrine is seen following the Nibelungen, as in No. (26) h. Again, couple together the third and fourth verses of the third stanza : — (35(7.) Razed/ to the ground/ is Ere/tria — / but A/thens, shall A/thens sink/, Drop/ into dust/ and die/ — the flowei*/ of Hel/las ut/terly die/. Here the pause in the second verse is not due to a dropped syllable as in the first ; so that whereas the first verse is Nibelungen, the second is not Alexandrine, but full Ballad. Were the pause supposed to represent a dropped unit the result would be — (35/*.) Drop/ into dust/ and die/— / the flower/ of Hel/las ut/terly die/, — a verse of eight units. Read the third stanza to its conclusion, and any doubt of the verse being full Ballad at once vanishes : — (35/.) Drop/ into dust/ and die/ — the flower/ of Hel/las ut/terly die/. Die/ with the wide/ world spit/ting at Spar/ta, the stu/pid, the stan/der-by ?/ An/swer me quick/, what help/, what hand/ do vou stretch/ o'er destruc/tion's brink ?/ How/, — when ?/ No care/ for my limbs !/ — 4thei"e's light/ning in all/ and some/ — It is evident that the sweep of the Ballad measure has been with the poet throughout : the poem is in Alexandrines, and the natural, and conse- quently more musical, manner of reading it will consist in observing the mid-pause of each verse ; for the rest, the metre will assert itself : — (35/.) First I salute this soil of the blessed, river and rock ! Gods of my birthplace, daemons and heroes, honour to all ! Then I name thee, claim thee for our patron, coequal in praise-- Ay, with Zeus the Defender, with Her of the aegis and spear ! Also ye of the bow and the buskin, praised be your peer, Now, henceforth and forever, — 0 latest to whom I upraise Hand and heart and voice ! For Athens, leave pasture and flock ! Present to help, potent to save, Pan — patron I call ! The pause is merely a sustaining of the sound of the word preceding that pause ; it need be but slight, yet it works a magical change, making of Andehs^en. — The Verse-unit. 621 an irregular metre one perfectly regular and familiar ; it destroys the obtrusively harsh " clickety-clack," " click ety-clack " of the mibroken choriambs. 18. One other fact concerning this dominant metre of " Pheidippides " mav be noted : verses such as Archons of Athens, tojiped by the tettix, see, I return ! are, when the mid-pause is disregarded, nothmg more or less than parallels of the " Alexandrin trimetre " referred to in paragraph 15.* It is difficult to compare French and British metres, even when of the same type, as in this mstance, seeing that the stresses of French verse are almost free from the definite, though not rigid, laws to which British verse is subject. It is most interesting, however, to observe that parallel developments are taking place in huge bodies of verse, dissimilar in general nature, but similar in their fmidamental laws. 19. The unpaused Alexandrine, then, by which is meant the Alex andrine without mid-\)avise, would appear to be an unnatural variation, for which but short life might be prophesied did not the art of printing forbid. Irregularly paused Ballad verses, too, confusing as they do the l}Tic flow, cannot live — except in print. Of this kind is Browning's " Reverie " : — • (36.) Power is known infinite : Good struggles to be — at best Seems — scanned by the human sight, Tried by the senses' test — Good palpably : but with right Therefore to mind's award Of loving, as power claims praise ? Power — which finds nought too hard, Fulfilling itself all ways Unchecked, unchanged : while barred, Baffled, what good began Ends evil on every side. To Power submissive man Breathes " E'en as thou art, abide ! " While to good " Late-found, long-sought, " Would Power to a plenitude But liberate, but enlarge Good's strait confine, — renewed Were ever the heart's discharge Of loving ! " Else doubts intrude. (Stanzas 16-19.) This poem was published in 1889, the year of Browning's death, in the volume " Asolando : Fancies and Facts," and it is even more defiant of the restraints of metre than the most miruly of his previous poems. These restraints, or natural laws, consist of number of units to a verse, and posi- tion of the two principal pauses in the verse. As regards the former law, it is so palpable, though unwritten, that very few poets disregard it. The full Romance verse must contain no more than eight stress-units ; if it contain less, it becomes Ballad, Nibelungen or Alexandrine, and each of * See remarks on this metre in French poetry, by H. E. Berthon, in " Specimens of Modern French Verse," p. xxvi. — London, 1899. 622 Transactions. these variations must adhere to its number of units at peril of its exist- ence. Less palpable is the latter law, the position of pauses ; a pause, having no sound, and being thus liable to lengthening or shortening at the will of the reader, is miable to assert itself in the aggressive manner of audible parts, and is liable to be disregarded ; but to tuned ears the pauses are as full of harmony as the articulations, and divide those articulations into harmonious groupings. In the full Komance verse there is the natural pause, the breath-pause, following every eighth stress : there is a mid- pause, not so marked, following the fourth stress, dividing the full verse into two equal parts : — (37.) Ye banks and braes o" bonie Doon, how can ye bloom sae fre.sh and fair ? As in the course of the arrow shot upwards there are two parts, the ascent and the descent, with a slight hover in the air as the arrow turns, so in the full verse there are two parts, and a slight dwelling at the union of the two parts that welds but does not crush them together. Besides these two principal pauses the verse may, and usually does, contain minor pauses, Avhose positions are entirely optional, depending as they do on the syn- tactical construction : — (37rt.) How can ye chant, ye little birds, when I'm sae weary, fu" o" care ! So, too, of the Ballad verse : — (38.) There blew a drowsy, drowsy wind, deep sleep ujion me fell ; Here the end-pause, dividing the verses, is much more marked than in the Romance verse, the reason being that a full miit has been dropped to allow of easy breath being taken. The consequence is that the verse is divided into two unequal parts by the mid-pause, which still falls, as in the Romance verse, after the fourth stress. Should it fall after the third stress, the sense of balance is lost, as in No. (35A). Drop into dust and die — the flower of Hellas utterly die, Here the " utterly " sounds superfluous, the reader being strongly in- clined to read the verse : — (39.) Drop/ into dust/ and die/ — / the flower/ of Hel/las die/, The true mid-pause should fall after " flower " — (39rt.) DroiV into dust/ and die/ — the flower/ of Hel/las ut/terly die/, — when it becomes an ordinary Ballad verse. In the poem " Pheidippides " it comes especially strangely because it occurs among Alexandrines, whose mid-pause naturally falls after the third stress ; but, as observed in (35^), if this Alexandrine mid-pause — the equivalent, it will be remembered, of a dropped unit — be observed, a verse of eight units, a full Romance verse, results — Drop/ into dust/ and die/ — / the flower/ of Hel/las ut/terh^ die/, - — which is reminiscent of the Romance swell occurring in the Nibelungen metre of the German epic: see No. (19), the last verse : — He saw/ the love/ly mai/dcn, / her grace/ and her splen/dour he/ beheld/. Drop/ into dust/ and die/ — / the flower/ of Hel/las ut/terly die/, Supposing it to be a full Ronuvnce verse, it is the solitary Romance verse in the poem. One rather supposes it to be an ordinary Ballad verse, with Anderskn. — 7Vte Verse-unit. 623 the mid-pause misplaced ; a principal pause, in short, has been placed in the position of a minor pause, and hence the confusion. As contrast, two examples may be quoted : — (40.) (I. I see Thou mind'st him much, that dost reward him so : Being but earth, to ruU^ the earth, whereon himself doth go. b. Razed to the ground is Eretria — but Athens, shall Athens sink, Dro]) into dust and die — the flower of Hellas utterly die, A probable origin of such unbalanced Ballad verses is more fully discussed in paragraph 4 of Section II. 20. It was said in the last paragraph that the full Romance verse must contain no more than eight stress-units. This is no arbitrary but a natural law, implicitly obeyed by the poets. On the perception of the law poetry emerged from the rhythmical to the metrical form, and since that emer- gence the law has been obeyed — intuitively, it may be, but the more per- fectly perhaps for that very reason. One may search the garden of British poesie for violation of the law in vain, until the latest garden of Tennyson is entered, when the failing hand of the gardener was no longer able to check the growth of weeds : — (41.) Will my tiny spark of being wholly vanish in your deeps and heights ? Must my days be dark by reason, 0 ye Heavens, of your boundless nights. Rush of Suns, and roll of systems, and your fiery clash of meteorites ? " Spirit, nearing yon dark portal at the limit of thy human state, Fear not thou the hidden purpose of that Power which alone is great, Nor the myriad world. His shadow, nor the silent OiJener of the Gate." (" God and the Universe.") The thought is starlike in its splendour of bloom : was the flower calledja weed ? At least, around the briar to which the rose has ranked lingers^a sweetness intense as the subtlest odour of the rose ; and it must not be forgotten that the rose was, in the first place, a foster-child of the briar. But, shutting his eyes to the beauty of the thought, is not every reader con- scious of a certain inharmony in the metre ? What is the cause of it ? — of what does the thorn of the briar consist ? Approach the flower from another side : — (41a.) Will my tiny spark of being vanish in your deeps and heights ? Must my days be dark by reason. Heavens, of your boundless nights. Rush of Suns, and roll of systems, fiery clash of meteorites ? " Spirit, nearing yon dark portal, limit of thy human state, Fear not thou the hidden purpose of that Power, the one, the great, Nor the myriad world. His shadow, silent Opener of the Gate." Has not the sense of inharmony disappeared ? What, then, was its cause ? In (ila) the verses are full Romance verses of eight units ; in (41), on the other hand, each verse contains nine units, the first half of the verse four, the second half five. The intruding ninth unit was the cause of the in- harmony ; it was as though one, thinking to have reached the stair-foot, had fomid another step. As Browning's verse in (35A) was an unbalanced Ballad verse, so Tennyson's is an unbalanced Romance verse — a solitary example. 21. To summarize this section, the " verse-unit " of British lyric mea- sures, which are all included in Romance metre and its three variants, is a verse of eight stress-units or their equivalent ; as — 624 Transactions. Romance. Ye banks and braes o' bonie Doon, how can ye bloom sae fresh and fair ? Ballad. There blew a drowsy, drowsy wind, deep sleep upon me fell, Nibelungen. From Greenland's icy mountains, and India's coral strand, Alexandrine. What love of thine own kind ? What ignorance of pain ? and the dubious Unpaused Alexandrine. In profuse strains of unpremeditated art. To show their connection and variation, these may be divided, — Ye banks/ and braes/ o' bo/nie Doon/, how can/ ye bloom/ sae fresh/ and fair ?/ There blew/ a drow/sy, drow/sy wind/, deep sleep/ upon/ me fell/, / From Gi'cen/land's i/cy moun/ tains, / and In/dia's co/ral stiand/, / What love/ of thine/ own kind ?/ / What ig/norance/ of pain ?/ / In pro/fuse strains/ of un/preme/dita/ted art/ / (?) / The last is so irregular that it almost seems to repudiate kinship with the others ; nevertheless, as its development from the Alexandrine can be traced, its existence must be recognized. The above examples are all pure duple ; the triple metres follow precisely the same laws, so it will be suffi- cient merely to quote a verse of each variation : — The glad/ birds are sing/ing, the flow/rets are spring/ing, o'er mea/dow and moun/tain and down/ in the vale/ ; The cup/ was all fill'd/, and the leaves/ were all wet/, and it seem'd/, to a fan/ciful view/, / We sat/ down and wept/ by the wa/ters / of Ba/bel and thought/ of the day/ / Ah sun/Hower ! wea/ry of time/, / who coun/test the steps/of the sun/ ; / Consi/der it well/ : each tone/ of our scale/ in itself/ is nought/ ; / (?) / Then, again, there is the not yet etheralized quadruple metre, of which the following are examples of Komance and Ballad : — And the bush/ hath friends to meet/ him, and their kind/ly voices greet/ him in the mur/mur of the bree/zes and the ri/ver on its bars/. There was move/ment at the sta/tion, for the word/ had passed around/ that the colt/ from old Regret/ had got away/, / These three — duple, triple, and quadruple — are the extremes of type of the Romance verse and its developments ; and over this verse of eight units, each unit with its triple variation of sound and its fourth variation of pause — over this octave of verse — the poets of Britain's Helicon have breathed their hearts into the immortality of song. Section II. 1. The poems heretofore considered have been those whose stanzas contain an exact number of full verse-units — that is, every verse in the stanza is complete of its kind — Romance, Ballad, Nibelungen, or Alexandrine. There is, however, another form of stanza which, whilst not nearly so common as the perfect form, is yet sufficiently common to demand consideration when deciding upon the " verse-unit." It is a " fixed varia- tion," and any variation that can become fixed must have a large amount of inherent vitality — must be closely akin to the parent form. Andersen.— TAe Verse-unit. 626 2. The " telescoping " of a Romance and Ballad verse has been referred to in paragraph 8 of Section I. It gives rise to a very popular form of stanza : — (1.) This mayilen in a mornc betime Went forth, when May was in her prime. To get sweet cetywall. The honeysuckle, the harlocke, The lilly and the lady-smocke. To deck her summer hall. (Drayton, " Dowsabel," stanza 6.) Stanzas such as this would almost suggest that a four-stressed rather than an eight-stressed verse should be adopted as the natural verse-unit. Such a, unit would apply to all eight-stressed verses, whilst it would also apply to a large number of others that must otherwise be regarded as exceptions to the law, and variations of the type ; practically the whole of our Lyric measures would conform to the four-stressed unit. Much of the Romance poetry, moreover, is found in four-stressed riming lines, each full Romance verse thus forming a rimed couplet, as in Scott's " Metrical Romances " : — (2.) Fitz-Jamos look round — yet .scarce believed The witness that his sight received ; Such apijarition well might seem Delusion of a dreadful dream. Sir Roderick in suspense he eyed, And to his look the Chief repHed, " Fear nought — nay, that I need not say — • But doubt not aught from mine array." (" The Lady of the Lake," canto v, seen, xi.) The very punctuation here indicates that each couplet in the above is a practically complete sentence which it would be a violation to divide with a breath. The verse is divided into two equal parts, but is knit or coupled by the rime. That the couplet is a complete whole is, I think, felt instinc- tively, and very few readers, if any, would take a breath after every line. It is not denied that advantage may be and is taken of a break such as that after the line " Fear nought — nay, that I need not say — but admitting this is only admitting occasional ex<;eptions that do not vitiate the contention that the full Romance verse is the average length of a breath-sentence. The very fact that it is an average implies that there were, and may still be, verses longer or shorter. Every law of classification has its exceptions, but when these exceptions are so small a minority in comparison with the conforming numbers they in no way weaken the law. 3. Scott's reasons for adopting the " Romantic stanza," as he calls it, are set out in his introduction to the 1830 edition of " The Lay of the Last Minstrel." He rejected the Ballad measure because " The Ballad measure itself, which was once listened to as to an enchanting melody, had become hackneyed and sickening, from its being the accompaniment of every grind- ing hand-organ ; and, besides, a long work in quatrains, whether those of the common ballad, or such as are termed elegiac, has an effect upon the mind hke that of the bed of Procrustes upon the human body ; for, as it must be both awkward and difficult to carry on a long sentence from one stanza to another, it follows, that the meaning of each period must be comprehended within four lines, and equally so that it must be extended so as to fill that space. ... In the dilemma occasioned by this objection the idea occurred to the Author of using the measured short line, which forms the 626 Transactions. structure of so much minstrel poetry, that it may properly be termed tlie Romantic stanza by way of distinction ; and which appears so natural to our language, that the very best of our poets have not been able to protract it into the verse properly called Heroic without the use of epithets which are, to say the least, unnecessary." In a note to this remark he adds, " Thus it has been often remarked, that, in the opening couplets of Pope's translation of the Iliad, there are two syllables forming a superfluous word in each line, as may be observed by attending to such words as are printed ill italics : — (3.) Achilles' wrath to Greece the direful spring Of woes unnumber'd, heavenly goddess, sing ; That wrath which sent to Pluto's gloomy reign The souls of mighty chiefs in battle slain, Whose bones, unburied on the desert shore, Devouring dogs and hungry vultures tore." Scott rebels against the expansion or limitation of thought to the average of four lines — he should have said two lines. He also objects to the extra unit in Heroic verse ; but the Heroic was the stepping-stone to Blank verse, a metre that evolved to accommodate sentences of varying length, as the Romance evolved to accommodate sentences of average length ; and as the Romance metre will not tolerate sentences that run on from verse to verse, so the best Blank verse will not tolerate verses that do not run on or over- flow. Whilst, however, Scott rebels against the yoke, he bows to it ; for his sentences, as in the example quoted from " The Lady of the Lake," are nearly always comprised within two lines — a verse. Whilst, too, he rejects the formal ballad as his vehicle, he constantly admits it to relieve the monotony of the " Romantic stanza " (see in " The Lay of the Last Minstrel," canto i, sections x, xii, xiii, xviii, xxiv, &c.). It will scarcely be denied that Ballad verses of seven stresses are recited in one breath to one verse ; and admitting this, it is admitted that the parent verse, the Romance, was recited in a breath. Had Scott's tales been sung — as, indeed, they were supposed to be sung in the Lay — Ballad metre would, without doubt, have much more largely predominated. The eye, however, does not require the rests required by the breath ; and the period elapsing between the evolution of the Ballad form from the Romance and the time of printing is so comparatively short that, whilst the Ballad had time to become a most vigorous living form, the Romance also was given new life ere it had joined the hexameter and runic stave as a fossil parent form. In the formal ballad that Scott and others condemned, even despised — the ballad whose form appeared to be of greater moment than its thought — the form was, as it were, making root and wood ; it throve sturdily and persistently among other and more tended forms, and upon its vigorous stock are now grafted the finest flowering of British lyrics. 4. A reason has already been given for supposing that the Romance verse was shortened by the dropping of a unit to admit of a breath being easily taken (see paragraph 8 of Section I). Were a breath taken after each line of four stresses, as is usually done in Church congregations (maugre Section I, paragraph 8), there would have been no need for any shortening at all. The mere fact that there was a tendency to shorten the eight-stressed verse shows that there was a tendency to take the whole in one breath, and it is for this reason that the unit of verse-length has been taken as the breath-sentence, or full verse of eight stresses, rather than as Andehsen. — TJic Vcrse-iiiiit . 627 the half-verse, or line of four stresses. The breath-sentence, as a. rule, falls naturally into two parts : — (4.) Everye white will have its blacke, Ami everye sweete its sowre ; This founde the ladye Christabelle In an untimely howre. For so it befelle, as syr Caulinc Was with that ladye faire. The kinge her father walked forthe To take the evenyng aire : And into the arboure as he went To rest his wearye feet, He founde his daughter and syr Cauline There sette in daliaunce sweet. The kinge hee sterted forthe, I-wys, And an angrye man was hee : ' Nowe, traytoure. thou shalt hange or drawe. And rewe shall thy ladie.' {" Sir Cauline," part II, stanzas 1 to 4.) If this or any other ballad be read aloud, it will be found that the breath is invariably taken after the seventh stress, at the place of the dropped eighth unit. It may be said that advantage is taken of the verse-end to take the breath, not that the verse was moulded of a length to enable the breath to be so taken ; but the breath is the imperative need, and it is more Hkely that the articulations borne on the breath will be made coterminous with the natural breath than that the natural breath Avill be unduly shortened or lengthened to accommodate the articulations. Development is along the lines of least resistance, and it is easier to accommodate the articulations to the breath than the breath to the articulations. Again, it is easier to take a leisured breath than it is to take a hurried breath ; and the unit was dropped from the eight-stressed Romance verse to avoid the gasp and discomfort of a hurried breath. Now, whilst the unit was usually dropped at the verse- end, instances may have occurred — indeed, must almost necessarily have occurred — where the unit was dropped at the opening of the second verse, and not at the end of the first. In the fourth stanza of example No. (4) the verse (5.) The kinge hee sterted forthe, I-wys, and an angrye man was hee, can be divided either as two lines of four and three stresses respectively : — (5a.) The kinge hee sterted forthe, I-wys, And an angrye man was hee : or as two lines of three and four stresses respectively : — (56.) The kinge hee sterted forthe, I-wys, and an angrye man was hee : Verses of the latter type are of frequent occurrence, and are probably examples of a type where the unit was dropped at the beginning of the second verse instead of at the end of the first. The following occur in the first book of Chapman's translation of Homer's " Iliad " :— (6.) a. Jove's and Latona's son/ ; who, fired against the king of men (Verse 4.) 6. Obeying his high will/, the priest trod off with haste and fear ; (Verse 33.) c. And quiver covered round/, his hands did on his shoulders throw ; (Verse U.) d. Filled all his faculties/ ; his e3^es sparlded like kindling fire, (Verse 101.) 628 Transactions. Also verses 134, 163, 202, 210, 239, 242, and 249. It is probable that in poetry, in the transition stage from Romance to Ballad, these heavy-ended verses will be found in more abundance than in later poetry. In natural growths all departures from the " type " tend to die out, seeing that the type is the mean result of many varying forms of which the departures are individuals only. If they have sufficient vigour to persist, they may pro- duce new forms — fixed variations. When poetry was more recited than written the process of ehmination of departures from type would be carried on in the speech, and it is only when the departures have become fossilized in manuscript that we can see the process at work. Had Chapman's verses been memorized and recited instead of being written, it is probable — almost certain — that the heavy-ended verses would have been changed ; nor would any great change be needed to convert them into the light-ended, heavy- headed verses of the " type " — the Ballad. (6a.) Obeying his high will, the priest trod off with haste and fear would easily become (66.) The priest, obeying his high will, trod off with haste and fear ; and so on. Wliilst the verses quoted in example No. (6) seem unbalanced when separated from the context, they are, when read in the poem, paused in accordance with rhythmical division, not syntactical : — • ^ (7.) a. Jove's and Latona's son; who, fired Against the king of men h. Obeying his high will, the priest Trod off with haste and fear ; c. And quiver covered round, his hands Did on his shoulders throw ; This reversed divisioji occurs with a new feature in modern poetry : — (8.) Well does the May that lies Smiling in thy cheeks, confess The April in thine eyes ; Mutual sweetness they express. No April e'er lent kinder showers, Nor May returned more faithful flower.s. {Cnishdir, " Saint Mary Magdalene.") (9.) So it is, my dear. All such things touch secret strings For heavy hearts to bear. So it is, my dear. {D. G. Rosseiti, "Even So.") (10.) Go forth ! for she is gone ! With the golden light of her wavy hair, She is gone to the fields of the viewless air, She hath left her dwelling lone ! (Mrs. Uemans, .'.'The Bird's Kcleasc") (11.) A voice from Scio's isle— A voice of song, a voice of old Swept far as cloud on billow rolled. And earth was hushed the while. (Mr.". Hemntif, "Tile Voice of Scio.") The new feature is the place now taken by the pause ; it neither precede nor follows the Ballad verse, but divides it, so that the first line in each example is, as it were, isolated, the latter half of the first full verse com- Andersen. — The Verse-unit. 629 billing with the next verse. Take example No. (11), in which are combined two full Ballad verses. As read, this stanza is divided by the pause : — (ll'(.) A voice/ from Sci/o's isle/ — / a voice/ of song/, a voice/ of old/ Swept far/ as cloud/ on bil/low rolled/, and earth/ was hushed/ the while/. / The first three stresses are isolated, and the rest of the stanza is knit into a perfect whole. The heavy half of the Ballad verse refuses to follow — it will lead, as does the heavy head of the arrow — and a new combination results. Let two stanzas be quoted : — (11?).) A voice from Scio's isle — A voice of song, a voice of old Swept far as cloud on bUlow rolled, And earth was hushed the while. The souls of nations woke ! Where lies the land, whose hills among That voice of victory hath not rung As if a trumpet spoke ? In both stanzas, and in every stanza of the poem, the first line of three accents is separated from the rest of the stanza by a pause ; the rime is its sole connection, from a metrical point of view. Omit the first line of the two stanzas quoted : — (lie.) A voice of song, a voice of old Swept far as cloud on billow rolled. And earth was hushed the while. Where lies the land, whose hills among The voice of victory hath not rung As if a trumpet spoke ?* Substitute for " And earth was hushed the while," " Nor earth the silence broke," and the " Dowsabel " stanza is the result. Or if the pause isolating the first line be filled — (lie?.) A voice from Scio's isle, 'tis told, A voice of song, a voice of old Swept far as cloud on billow rolled, And earth was hushed the while The souls of nations woke and sung. Where lies the land, whoso hills among That voice of victory hath not rung As if a trumpet spoke ? — the stanza of " Helen of Kirkconnel " results, this stanza being a com- bination of a Romance with a Ballad verse, as the former is the " tele- scoping " of those two verses. 5. Another possible origin may be conjectured. Bishop Percy, in his Reliques, has fortunately preserved an unpolished piece of work from the stithy of the poet's brain. He prints the first stanza of " A, Robyn, Jolly Robyn " : — (12.) "A, Robyn, Jolly Robyn, Tell me how thy leman doeth, And thou shalt know of myn." * Reference might be made to the remarks by Professor Saintsbury on what has in this paper been called the Dowsabel form of verse, in "History of English Prosody," vol. i., pp. 92, 93. 630 Trail met ions. And the second stanza : — " My lady is uukynde pordf." " Alack ! why is she so ''. " " She loveth an other better than me ; And yet she will say no." The Bishop remarks, " Yet the first stanza appears to be defective, and it should seem that a line is wanting, unless the first four words were lengthened in the time." But the two fragmentary lines — • A, Robyn, Jolly Robyn, • — simply form half of a Romance verse ; and the stanza runs trippingly as^ — (12«.) " A, Robyn, jolly Robyn, Tell me how thy leman doeth, And thou shalt know of myn." — -which, again, forms half of a " Dowsabel " stanza. These fragmentary lines give body to a certain thought that lies at the back of the mind when it is said that the Romance verse is the average length of a spoken or recited sentence — ^the thought that in old ballads, newly taking shape, there must have been many sentences that either exceeded or fell short of the average. These eiTatic verses would naturally be altered to conform to type, or if they proved inconformable they would be replaced by others, and would in either case disappear. If, indeed, they were possessed of sufficient vitality, and were on the lines of natural development, they would become established as permanent variations, or might even supplant the parent type, becoming themselves the new type from which subsequent variations would flow. The latter is the case with the Ballad metre, which threatened to supplant the Romance metre ; the former is the case as regards the pi'rmanent variations of the Alexandrine and Nibelungen metres. This constant alteration and development was a process at first largely carried on in the minds of the. singers or reciters : a verse that sounded harsh when recited by one poet would be altered by another with perhaps a finer ear, and so the change would go on until the whole poem was conformable to type, or until it had been caught and set up by a scribe, becoming an example for all time. Even after a poem had been committed to manu- script, and often during that very process, it underwent new changes, until, excepting for the matter, the two forms can hardly be recognized as being originally one and the same. 6. A short study of the " Ancient Ballad of Chevy Chase " will reveal the existence of many varieties of verses, some of which are now fixed types, but most of which are obsolete. One stanza is printed by Bishop Percy : — (13.) " Nay [then] " sayd the lord Perse, " I tolde it the biforne. That I wolde never yeldyde be To no man of woman born." (P.) " Nay/ then " .sayd/ the lord/ Persi-/, '" 1 tolde/ it the/ biforne/, " Nay " sayd/ the lord/ Perse/, / '• 1 tolde/ it the/ biforne/, [or] " Nay "/ sayd the lord/ Per.se/, / " 1 toldo/ it the/ biforne/, Andersen. — The Verse-unit. 631 Similarly, the stanza given by Percy as opening — (14.) Tiie[y] tooku [on] on etliar hand Be the lyght off the mono ; (Part ii, stanza 25.) — should be, — (14rt.) The tooke on othar hand Be the lyght off the mono ; Again comparing the divided forms : — (146.) The[y]/ tooke [on]/ on e/tliar hantl/ be the/ lyght off/ the mone/ ; The tooke/ on e/thav hand/ / be the,' lyght off/ the mone/ ; In both instances Percy has made an abrupt Ballad verse out of what was originally an ordinary Alexandrine. Such alternation of Alexandrine with Ballad was and is common enough : an example by the Earl of Surrey has been given in example No. (28), Section I, of this chapter. The Nibelungen verse is also found in " Chevy Chase " — (15.) Then sayd the doughte Doglas Unto the lord Perse : " To kyll all thes giltless men, A-las ! it wear great pitte. (Part i, stanza 19.) (15rt.) Then sayd/ the dough/te Dog/las / unto/ the lord/ Perse/ : — though by the accent-marks Percy would make the verse Alexandrine. In the stanzas following hereunder the Ballad of the first verse dwindles to Nibelungen in the second and third, and to Alexandrine in the fourth : — ■ (16.) Thear was slayne with the lord Perse Sir John of Agerstone, Sir Roger the hinde Hartly, Sir Wyllyam the bolde Hearone. Sir Jorg the worthe Lovele A knyght of great renowen. Sir Raff the ryche Rugbe With dyntes were beaten downe. (Part ii, stanzas 28, 29.) (16a.) Thear/ was slayne/ with the lord/ Perse/ Sir John/ of A/gerstone/, Sir Ro/ger the hin/de Hart/ly, / Sir Wyl/lyam the bolde/ Hearone/. Sir Jorg/ the wor/the Lo/vele / a knyght/ of great/ renowen/, Sir Raff/ the ryche/ Ruglje/ / with dyn/tes were bea/ten downe/. The swelling of the Ballad to the parent Romance is even more noticeable : — (17.) The dougheti Dogglas on a stede He rode att his men beforne ; His armor glytterj'de as dyd a glede ; A bolder barne was never born. (Part i, stanza 14.) (17«.) The dough/eti Dog/glas on/ a stede/ he rode/ att his men/ beforne/ ; / His ar/mor glytt/eryde as dyd/ a glede/ ; a bol/der barne/ was ne/ver born/. It swells to full Romance in both verses of the following : — • (18.) Tivydale may carpe off care, Northombarlond may mayk grate mone, For towe such captayns, as slayne wear thear. On the march perti shall never be none. (Part ii, stanza 34.) (18a.) Ti/vydale/ may carpe/ off' care/, Northom/barlond/ may mayk/ grate mone, For towe/ such cap/tayns, as slayne/ wear thear/, on the march/ perti/ shall ne/ver be none/. ^^qJO^M^ 632 TraiisacUoiiH. In several verses even the Eomance is exceeded : — (19.) " Leave ofif the brytlyng of the dear,"' he sayde, " And to your bowys look ye tayk good heed ; For never sithe ye wear on your mothars borne Had ye never so mickle need." (Part i, stanza 13.) This " Battle of Chevy Chase " is a stirring, rugged old Ballad ; and the jorocess of forcing to type is clearly seen when the foregoing stanzas are compared with the parallel stanzas in the later version, given by Percy as " the more improved edition of that fine Heroic ballad." He says the bard of the latter has " everywhere improved the versification " — that is, he has brought it into strict conformity with type. In this " improved edition " quotation No. (13) becomes — (20.) " Noe, Douglas," quoth Erl Percy then, " Thy proffer I doe scorne ; 1 will not 3'eelde to any Scott That ever yett was borne." (Stanza 38.) Quotation No. (16) becomes — (21.) With stout Earle Percj% there was slaine Sir John of Egerton, Sir Robert Ratcliff, and Sir John, Sir James that bold Barron : And with Sir George and stout Sir James, Both knights of good account, ( >ood Sii Ralph Raby there was slaine. Whose prowesse did surmount. (Stanzas 51, 52.) Here Procrustes has been lengthening the limbs of his victims without a doubt. Quotation No. (17) becomes — (22.) Ei'le Douglas on his milke- white steede, jNIost like a baron bold. Rode foremost of his company. Whose armour shone like gold. (Stanza 17.) And, lastly, c|Uotation No. (19) becomes the second verse of— (23.) All men of jjleasant Tivydale, Fast by the river Tweede : " " O, cease your sports," Erie Percy said, " And take j^our bowes with speede : Ail the ruggedness, and. much of the life, have disappeared in the^course of " improvement,'' and we may be quite certain that our smoothest ballads have resulted from a similar process. It is possible that even in the older form the process is seen at work in a verse like — (24.) That day, that day, that dreadfuU day : The first Fit here I fynde. (Part i, last stanza.) — where an Alexandrine — (24a.) That day, that dreadfull day: The first Fit here I fynde. — has been swelled to the full Ballad by the insertion of another " that m ^ ^ , „ Went forth, when May was in her prime, i ^"^ """^ ''''^^^ cetywail. The honeysuckle, the harlocke, ) m . . ■ , ,, 'PI 111 1 iu 1 1 1 ■ lo deck her summer hall. Ihe liliy and the lady-smocke, ) And so also — (38.) .Mone walking ) In thought plaining all desolate, And sore sighing ) Me remembering ) Of my living, ■ both early and late. My death wishing j {Chavcer, " Virelai.") The brackets now absolutely couple all that is taken in a breath. If it be held that two breaths are required, where are the verses to be broken ? If the couplets be broken, the rule observed in Scott does not hold here ; if the couplets be taken together, the short line is absurdly isolated ; but if each group be taken in a breath, a smooth, agreeable stanza results. The same holds with the triplets of No. (38). The reader should perhaps be reminded that the question at issue is not how poetry should be read aloud, but what constitutes the verse-unit. And the verse-unit is practically synonymous mth the breath-unit, the average length of verse read on one breath. 12. The half-Dowsabel stanza quoted from " Sir Cauline " may be still further extended by the addition of an extra unit to the first, third, and fourth lines : — (39.) To-night this sunset spreads two golden wings Cleaving the western sky ; Winged too with wind it is and wiimowings Of birds ; as if the day's last hour in rings Of strenuous flight must die. (D. G. Rossetti, " Sunset Wings.") A complete change of metre has, however, taken place. Lines containing five stresses are blended with lines of three stresses (or four stress-units) ; 21— Trans, 640 Transactions. irregularity that^has^developed to a regular type. It is conceivable that a Ballad or Romance verse might need considerable extension, yet not so as to equal two verses, to be able to express certain thoughts, and it is also conceivable that during a certain period of the evolution of metre the verse would be lengthened to suit the thought rather than the thought cramped to suit the verse. There are many examples among those given that show this conception to be reasonable. The British ballad of " Sir Cauline "^gives examples of " regular irregularities " : — (34.) Faire Christabelle, that ladye bright. Was had forthe of the to\vre ; But ever she droopeth in her mynde, As nijit by an ungentle winde Doth some faire lillye fiowre. (Part ii, stauza 9.) The thought expressed in the last three lines of the stanza is one of con- siderable beauty, and it can well be imagined that poet and hearer alike would rather suffer violation of the form than loss of the thought. As regards the metrical construction, one of two things may have taken place : a half-verse of four stresses may have been added, or a half-verse of three stresses may have been dropped. There is, of course, another possible origui, but of so ancient date as to be undiscoverable in British poetry. The vital question is, will the three lines be spoken in a breath ? The two first cer- tainly are : what difference will be made by the presence of the interloper ? Readmg aloud having fallen into disfavour, opinion will vary ; some will hold that a breath will be taken after " mynde," of the third line, as well as after " towre," of the second. Refer back, however, to the verses quoted in No. (2) of this section, part of " The Lady of the Lake." Will it be denied that in almost every instance in this quotation tivo lines are taken in a breath, and easily taken ? It is quite possible to take all three lines of the second part of the stanza from " Sir Cauline " in one breath ; with many it is quite an easy matter to do so ; and if easy now it would presumably be much more easy at a time when the recitation of verse was the rule, and reading the exception. Be it noted, moreover, that whilst this exceptional construction has, like all other vigorous variations, been taken and made an actual type in some instances, as a rule the construction occurs as an occasional, not as a constant, variation in Ballad poetry ; occurring occasionally only, the breath can quite easily make the extra effort required to give utterance to the extra length of verse. A curious instance of the length to which this construction will be carried out on paper occurs in Burns's " Battle of Sherramuir " : — (35.) But had ye seen the philibegs And skyrin tartan trews, man, When in the teeth they daur'd our Whigs And covenant trueblues, man ! In lines extended lang and large, When baig'nets o'erpovver'd the targe. And thousands hasten'd to the charge, Wi' Highland wrath they frae the sheath Drew blades of death, till out of breath They fled like frighted dows, man ! The reader, too, is out of breath after reading this amazing stanza. The first four lines (two verses) are easily taken in two breaths ; then, inveigled by the rimes, the reader is induced to attempt the remainder of the stanza, ^ iM li» th/^ H* • y* V ^' r .'ii:i!iuii-Ji;i;wiiu.i;iwiiwiiuiitiiHHMi!!H;nHi;.'i:T,nn: Ik: So ANUKHijEN. — The Verse-unit 641 six " lines extended laiig and large," in two breaths also. In " Sir Cauline " the stanza preceding the one quoted, No. (34), is differently constructed : — (3(). ) All woc-beuone was (iiat »entil knight To ])art from his ladye ; And many a tiim^ ho sighed soiv And oast a wistful eye : '■ Faire Christahelle, from thee to parte Farve lever had I dye." Here a full verse takes the place of the haJf-verse of four stresses. The stanzas can, of course, easily be made similar : — (30r<.) All woe-begone was that gentil knight To part from his ladye ; ; .„, He sighed sore with many a smart, " Faire Christahelle, from thee to parte . . Farre lever had I dye." Seeing that the three-versed stanza required three breaths, it may be con- tended that, though half of one verse has been dropped, the residue of that verse should still retain its breath, and that the shortened stanza should receive the three breaths. As pointed out in Scott's couplets, however, two riming lines are taken in a breath ; moreover, stanzas such as the above were often printed in this way : — (37.) This maydeii ill a morne betime ! m ^ .. ^ m Went forth, when May was in her prime, ) ^"^ »^^ ""'^^^ cetywall, The honeysuckle, the harlocke, I m j i i in The liUy and the lady-smocke, ) ^^ ^eck her summer hall. And so also- (38.) Alone walking ) In thought plaining all desolate, And sore sighing ) Me remembering ) Of my living, - both early and late. My death wishing ) (Chavcer, " Virelai.") The brackets now absolutely couple all that is taken in a breath. If it be held that two breaths are required, where are the verses to be broken ? If the couplets be broken, the rule observed in Scott does not hold here ; if the couplets be taken together, the short line is absurdly isolated ; but if each group be taken in a breath, a smooth, agreeable stanza results. The same holds with the triplets of No. (38). The reader should perhaps be reminded that the question at issue is not how poetry should be read aloud, but what constitutes the verse-unit. And the verse-unit is practically synonymous with the breath-unit, the average length of verse read on one breath. 12. The half-Dowsabel stanza quoted from " Sir Cauline " may be still further extended by the addition of an extra unit to the first, third, and fourth lines : — (39.) To-night this sunset spreads two golden wings Cleaving the western sky ; Winged too with wind it is and wmnowings Of birds ; as if the day's last hour in rings Of strenuous flight must die. {D. O. Rossetti, " Sunset Wings.") A complete change of metre has, however, taken place. Lines containing five stresses are blended with hnes of three stresses (or four stress-units) ; 21— Trans. ji i ■1 m tc .ntf' •'■'' ■ f.f ii>i :«■ ■># ■,„ \.i,. ■« ^s! ai ai- m isS: Hi *$ ►« «».* Mi M t 644 't^raiis(icti07t$ '.-' He has added a syllable to the first hne. such syllable falling in the mid- pause of the verse ; but the hearer is not conscious of the same demand for the repetition of this variatio)i, and the stanza could as well have run,^ — (3a.) Graceful Acacia ! slender, brittle, I think I know the like of thee ; But thou art tall, and she is small — what God shall call lier his own tree ? Some God must be the last to change her ; from him alone she will not flee ; 0 may he fix to earth the maid, and may he lend her shade to me ! Nevertheless, the fact that the poet repeats the variation is sufficient indication that there is a degree of expectancy ; and, if repeated, this first repetition creates a demand for the second. Whoi present at the beginning of the verse the variation consists of the dropping or adding of syllables in the first unit. If the metre be ordinary duple, the natural metre, the dropping of one syllal)le makes it "abrupt " (trochaic), and it is usual, though by no means obligatory, to continue it as abrupt. If tlic metre be triple, the dropping of two syllables makes it abrupt (dactylic), whilst the dropping of only one syllable simply gives it an ordinary duple opening ; and this is the common opening of triple measures. There is not quite the same demand for regularity in the opening of a verse as in its close, for which fact the rime is responsible ; in the example from Shelley's " Sensitive Plant," No. (1) of this section, the verses open either in duple or in triple units, and the poem contains many verses with abrupt opening. If a poem be regularly duple or triple, however, it usually continues as it begins ; if it opens ordinarily, it will be ordinary throughout ; if abruptly, it will be abrupt throughout. 3. These three regular variations, then, are taken as the index of " varieties " in poems. The verse-end variation, as the most important, distinguishes the varieties ; the beginning-variation and the mid-variation distinguish subvaricties. The duple unit being taken as tlie natural type of unit, the natural Romance verse will be a duple verse of eight stress-units :— ../ ../ ../ ../ ../ ../ ../ ../ This, expanding in all units, may become full triple :■ — .../.•■/.•"./.•./.■./.../•••/..•/ Here each dot represents a syllable ; the bars divide the verse into its constituent stress-units, every syllable preceding a bar bearing a stress. It will be remembered that whilst the stress-units may be unequal syllabic- ally, they are equal temporally. The natural Romance verse may expand to the full triple by three different intermediate stages : — (1.) ../ ../ ../ ../ ../ ../ ../ ../ (2, 2, 2, 2 ; 2, 2, 2, 2) (Normal). (2.) ../.../.../.../../.../.../.../ (2. 3, .3. 3 ; 2. 3. 3, 3) (3.) ../.../.../.../.../.../.../.../ (2, 3, 3, 3; 3. 3. 3, 3) (4.) .../.../.../.../../.../.../.../ (3,3,3,3:2,3,3,3) (5.) .../.../.../.../.../.../.../.../ (3, 3, 3, 3 ; 3, 3, 3. 3) No. (1) is ordinary duple, every unit containing two syllables, as indicated by the figures on the right ; No. (2) is duple in the first unit of both half- verses, triple in the remainder ; No. (3) is duple in the first unit only ; No. (4) is duple in first unit of the second half-verse only ; No. (5) is triple throughout. These variations may appear very slight, l)ut they are regular, and they form the basic verse-unit of entire stanzas, examples of which follow : — (1.) O they/ rade on/, and far/ther on/, the steed/ gaed swif/ter than/ the wind/ ; Until/ they reached/ a de/sert wide/, and li/ving land/ was left/ be- hind/. (" Thomas the Rlij-mer," stanza 9.) (2.) My heart's/ in the High/lands, my heart/ is not here/, my heart's/ in the High/lands a-cha/sing the deer/, A-cha/sing the wild/ deer and fol/lowing the roe/ — my heart's/ in the High/lands where/ver 1 go ! (R. Burns. " My Heart's in tin; Higlilands.") (3.) Twelve years/ have elapsed/ since 1 last/ took a view/ of my fa/vourite Held/, and the bank/ where they grew/ ; And now/ in the grass/ behold/ they are laid/, and the tree/ is nn' seat/ that once/ lent a shade/. (l^■. Votvjiei; " The Poi)lars," stanza 2.) This stanza is defective in so far that it contains two duple units — the third and the seventh in the second verse. The more usual form of the stanza of this type is the one following : — I .saw/ from the beach/, when tlic mor/ning was shi/ning, a l)aik/ uer llic wa/ters move glo/riously on/ ; I came/ when tiie sun/ o'er the beach/ was dccli/ning, tlic bark/ was still there/, but the wa/ters were gone/. (T. Moore, " I .saw from the Beach," .stanza 1.) (4.) Like the bright/ lamp that shone/ in Kildare".s/ holy fane/, and burned/ through long a/ges of dark/ness and storm/. Is the heart/ that sor/rows have frowned/ on in vain/, whose spi/rit outlives/ them, unfa/ding and warm/. (Erin, 0 Erin ! thus bright through the tears of a long night of bondage thy spirit appears.) (T. Moore, " Erin, O Erin," stanza 1.) The above stanza has one intruding duple unit, the second of the second verse. (5.) The Assyr/ian came down/ like a wolf/ on the fold/, and his co/horts were gleam/ing in pur/ple and gold/, .\nd the sheen/ of their spears/ was like stars/ on the sea/, when the blue/ wave rolls night/ly on deep/ Galilee/. (Lord lif/ron, " The Destruction of Sennacherib," stanza 1.) This stanza takes a slightly different form when the first half-verse is given a feminine ending :■ — From the brown/ crest of New/ ark its sum/mons exten/ding, our sig/nal is wa/ving in smoke/ and in flame/ ; And each for/rester blithe/, from his moun/tain descen/ding, bomids light/ o'er the hea/ther to join/ in the game/. (Sir W. Scott, " The Banner of the House of Buccleuch," stanza 1.) Besides thus expanding to triple, the duple unit may expand to quadruple, so that between Nos. (3) and (4) the following verse should come — (3c.) ../..../...../..../..../..../..../..../ (2,4,4,4; 4,4,4,4) — which again may be varied by differences in the fifth unit : this unit may contain, two three, or four syllables — three variations. This verse is, however, of extremely rare occurrence, and whilst it need not, perhaps, be included in the scheme of classification, its position may be indicated. A specimen of the verse may be given : — (3c.) 1 bless/ them but I'm sad/ for them — I wish/ I could be glad/ for them, for who/ alas ! can tell/ me the fate/ that shall befall ?/ The flow'/rets of the mor/ning, the green/ wood path ador/ning, may be scat/ter'd ere the noon/tide by the wild/ wind's sudden call/ ; (C. Maekay, " Flowers and Children," fifth line from opening.) The above has two triple units, the seventh of the first verse and the third of the second verse ; but, indeed, this quadruple type of verse is seldom 646 TrniiKactiui-Di. perfect. Then, following No. (5) should come the quadruple verse with triple opening : — (5c.) .../..../..../..../..../..../..../..../ This verse, again, may vary at the mid-pause by having two, three, or four syllables, making other three variations. This metre is more frequently met with than (3a), yet is comparatively rare, at least in the better class of British poetry. The variations in the quadruple verse may be tabulated : — (3a.) ../..../..../..../ ../..../..../..../ (2, 4, 4, 4 ; 2, 4, 4, 4) (36.) ../..../..../..../ .../..../..../..../ (2,4,4,4; 3,4,4,4) (3c.) ../..../..../..../..../..../..../..../ (2,4,4.4; 4,4,4,4) (5a.) .../..../..../..../ ../..../..../..../ (3, 4, 4, i ; 2, 4, 4, 4) (56.) .../..../..../..../ .../..../..../..../ (3,4,4,4; 3,4,4,4) (5c.) .../..../..-./••••/••••/..••/..../••••/ (3.. 4, 4, 4; 4,4,4,4) An example of (3c) has been given ; the following illustrate other of the variations : — (3(/. ) And how/ the happy Earth/, growing young/ again in mirth/, has prank't/ herself in jew/els to do ho/nour to the day/ — Of gold/ and purjilc bright/, of a/znre and of white/ ; her di/adem and brace/lets, the mea/dow -flowers of Maj'/. (C. Maclcay, " 'Tis Merry in the Mead," part of stauza 2.) This has a triple and a duple unit in the first verse besides the duple unit at the opening, whilst in the second verse it has a triple and two duple units besides the duple unit at the opening. As noted in (3c), the type is seldom perfect. (56.) Every mo/tion of the ves/sel, every dip/ of mast or spar/, is a dance/ and a rejoi/cing, and a pro/mise from afar/ ; And we love/ the light above/ iis, as it tips/ the waves around/, all the moi'e/ because, ere co/niing, it has beain'd/ on English ground/. (C. Maclean, " Boiling Home," part of stanza 3.) (5c.) And the bush/ hath friends to meet/ him, and their kind/ly voices greet/ him in the mur/mur of the bree/zes and the ri/ver on its bars/. And he sees/ the vision splen/did of the sun/lit plains exten/ded, and at night/ the wondrous glo/ry of the e/verlasting stars/. (A. B. Pnterson, " Clancy of the Overflow," stanza 4.) There's a cry/ from out the Lone/liness — Oh lis/ten, Honey, lis/ten ! Do you hear/ it, do you fear/ it, you're a-hol/ding of me so '!/ You're a sob/bing in 3'our sleep/, dear, and your la/shes, how they gli/sten — do j^ou hear/ the Little Voi/ces all a beg/ging me to go ?/ {R. W. Service.) There may be a further variation of the quadruple verse : it may open with a quadruple unit. No example of this has been noted, however. Should it be found, its place will fall naturally after (5e). 4. The verses exampled in the foregoing paragraph may vary in yet two more ways at the mid -pause- — that is to say, in the fifth unit. This unit may contain either one syllable only, or it may contain one syllable more than the normal number contained by the units of the verse. In the former instance the second half -verse opens abruptly ; in the latter instance the first half-verse has a feminine ending. (G.) ../../../••/ ./../../../ (2, 2, 2, 2; 1,2, 2, 2) (7.) ../.../.../.../ ./.../.../.../ (2, 3, 3, 3 ; 1, 3, 3, 3) (8.) .../.../.../.../ ./.../.../.../ (3, 3, 3, 3 ; 1, 3, 3, 3) . (9.) ../../../../.../../../../ (2, 2, 2, 2 ; 3, 2, 2, 2) (10.) ../..■./.../.../..../.../•••/•••/ (2, 3, 3, 3 ; 4, 3, 3, 3) (11.) .../.../.../.../..../.../.../.../ (3. 3, 3. 3; 4, 3, 3, 3) .\\ui:i>'Si;n.--77?'= V rr-tc-uuit , 647 The variations (6), (7), and (8) are of very infrequent occurrence ; they occur chiefly in isolated verses, not in complete stanzas. There appears to be a repugnance for an abrupt second half-verse to follow a half-verse wnth ordinary duple or triple opening. No example of No. (6) has been noted ; the following verse shows the structure, but is rendered imperfect by the triple unit : — (6.) The draw/bridge falls/ — they hur/ry out/ — clat/ters each plank/ and swin/giim' cham/, [Scoll, " Cadyow Castle," stanza U.) The verse would be conformable were the " each " omitted : — (6«.) The draw/bridge falls/ — they hur/ry out/— clat/ters plank/ and swin/ging chain/, The two following are quoted as examples of (7) : — (7o.) The year's/ at the spring/ and day's/ at the morn,' ; inom/ing's at seven/ ; the hill-/side's dew-pearled/ ; The lark's/ on the wing/ ; the snail's/ on the thorii/ : God's/ ux his heaven/ — all's right/ with the world/. (R. Browniwi, from " Pippa Passes.") The third and seventh units of both verses are defective in being duple, but that is immaterial : the type is presented. The following is nearer type, though further from poetry ; it is metrically defective only in the sixth unit : — (lb.) As gay/ as a lark/ and as blythe/ as a bee/, hand/some, gen/erous, sprigh/tly, and young/ ; (Cross, " By goles, I never will many.") No. (8) is represented by the following :• — (8.) I have read/ her roman/ces of dame/ and knight/ ; she/ was my prin/cess, my pride/, my pet/, (A. L. Gordon, " The Romance of Britomart.") Gordon's poem contains several examples of the metre, but all are defective in admitting two duple units — the fourth and eighth in the examples quoted. The construction shown in (9), (10), and (11) is more frequently met with : — (9.) When love/ly wo/ man stoops/ to fol/ly, and finds/ too late/ that men/ betray/, What charm/ can soothe/ her me/lancho/ly ? What art/ can wash/ her guilt/ away ?/ (O. Goldsmith, " Stanzas on Woman.") (10.) How long/ didst thou think/ that his si/lence was slum/ber ? When the wind/ waved his gar/ment, how oft/ didst thou start ?/ How ma/ny long days/ and long weeks/ didst thou num/ber, ere he fa/ded before/ tliee, the friend/ of thy heart ?/ (Sir W. Scoll, '• Hclvellyn," part stanza 3.) (11.) Of the mail-/cover'd ba/rons, who prou/dly to bat/tie led their vas/ sals from Eu/ropo to Pa/lestine's plain/, The escu/tcheon and shield/, which with e/verj- blast ra/ttlc, are the on/ly sad ves/tiges now/ that remain/. (Lord Byron, " Ou leaving Newstead Abbey," stanza 2.) The blending of (10) and (11) is shown in the following, where it is curious to note how the humorous writer changes the metre from duple to triple : — (11a.) " When wo/man," as Gold/smith declares/, " stoops to fol/ly, and finds/ out too late/ that false rnan/ can betray "/. She is apt/ to look dis/mal, and grow/ melan-cho/ly, and, in short/, to be an/ything ra/ther than gay/. 648 Trannactions. He goes on/ to remark/ that " to pun/ish her lo/ver, wring his bo/som, and draw/ the tear in/to his eye/. There is/ but one me/thod " which he/ can disco/ver that's like/l\- to ans/wer — that one/ is to " die " !/ (R. U. Biiihain (Ingoldsby), " The Black Mosquetaire," canto II.) The quadruple metre may vary in this way also, but no examples have been encountered ; when found, they readily fall into place in the scheme. 5. The whole of the examples given in paragraphs 3 and 4 constitute one group of the varieties into which Romance verse is di\nded. The group may be summarized and tabulated as follows : — Grottp a. Variation 1. Ordinary duple Triple, with opening and mid- duple Triple, with o)»ening du])le Quadruple, with o])ening and mid -duple Quadruplf, witli o)K'niiig dupit and mid -triple. Quadruple, with opening duple. (g.) Triple, with mid-diipk' (h.) Ordinary triple (('.) Quadruple, with opening triple and mid -duple. Quadruple, with opening and mid- triple Quadruple, with opening triple Ordinary quadru))!*- witli mid variants if any found. Sub variation (a.) (h.) if- ij-) il.) Example (1). Example (2). E.xample (3). Example {'^a). Example (4). Example (5). Example {5b). Exam])le (5f). Variation 2. (Mid or fifth unit abrupt in all cases.) Subvariation (a.) Ordinary duple . . . . Example (6). (b.) Triple, with opening duple . . Example (7). (c.) Quadruple, with opening dujile. (d.) Ordinary triple . . . . Example (8). (e.) Quadruple, with opening triple. (/.) Ordinary quadruple. Variation 3. (Mid-feminine — i.e., fourth unit with feminine ending.) Subvariation {a.) Ordinary duple . . . . Example (9). (6.) Triple, with opening duple . . Exam])le (10) (c.) Quadruple, with opening duple. {d.) Ordinary triple .. .. Example (11) (e.) Quadrui)le, with opening triple. (/.) Ordinary quadruple. Key to Group and Vari.vtions. 1. Any Romance verse whose first unit is ordinary dujile, triple, or quadruple — i.e., two-, three-, or four-syllabled, with stress on the last syllable — and whose last unit is stressed on the last syllable, irrespective of number of syllables from one to four, belongs to (irouj) A. 2. Any such verse whose fifth unit contains two or more syllables, up to the number of s\'llables in the normal unit of that verse, belongs to variation 1— that is, in duple metre the fifth unit must have no more than two syllables ; in triple, no more than three ; in quadruple, no more than four ; and in no case less than two. 3. Any verse whose fifth unit has only one .syllable, and that one stressed, making the second half- verse abrupt, belongs to variation 2. 4. Any verse whose fourth unit has a feminine ending followed by a normal fifth unit belongs to variation 3. In a dujile verse the fifth unit will then contain three syllables; in tiii)l('. four; and in (juadru)ile. five. Andkkskn. — Tlie Verse-unit. G49 f). A combination of variations 3 (a) and 2 (a) will result in an ordinary duple verse ; of Nos. 3 (b) and 2 (b), in variation 1 (b) ; of Nos. 3 (c) and 2 (c), in varia- tion 1 (g). 6. There may exist rare examples where the fourth unit of a verse falling within tliis £t'voup may end with a dauble-iexninine. Should sucli verse be found it would bo classed as variation 4. Ill the examples given illustrating the variations of the above group, regular verses have been selected — regular, that is, in so far that a duple verse is composed of duple units, a triple or quadruple verse of triple or quadruple units. In all poetry the tendency of the units appears to be towards this regularity. The formal school of Pope and Dryden almost insisted upon the necessity for such regularity, but the fact that poets gifted with keener vision and more facile utterance than Pope or Dryden showed repeatedly that the best poetry could be conveyed in irregular verse is conclusive proof that whilst the tendency towards regularity exists the necessity does not. A great many readers derive more pleasure from a regular than from an irregular verse, and there are many who for this reason would still impose the syllabic fetters. Coleridge's " Christabel " is largely irregular ; still more typically so is Shelley's " Sensitive Plant." When Leigh Hmit, in 1835, first published his " Captain Sword and Captain Pen," he found it necessary to remark in the advertisement, " The measure is regular with an irregular aspect, four accents in a verse, like that of Christabel, or some of the poems of Sir Walter Scott : — CajJtain Sword got up one day — And the flag full of honour as though it could feel — He " [the author] " mentions this, not, of course, for readers in general, but for the sake of those daily acceders to the list of the reading public, whose knowledge of books is not yet equal to their love of them." Though this development was regarded by many as new, it was in reality a " reversion." The original constitution of poetry was irregular, purely duple and purely triple verses being the result of a slow development. 6. Take again the opening stanza of " The Sensitive Plant " : — A se«/sitive plant/ in a gar/ den grew/, And the young/ winds fed/ it with sH/ver dew/. And it o/pened its fan-/Uke leaves/ to the light/, And closed/ them beneath/ the kis/se^ of night/. The first verse opens and closes with duple miits, and the second verse opens and closes with triple units, as italicized ; in all cases the stress is on the last syllable of the imit. These facts accord with the requirements of para- graph 1 of " Key to Group," and therefore the verses belong to that group. Again, the fifth unit of the first verse contains a triple and the fifth unit of the second verse a duple miit ; and as neither exceeds the length of units found in other parts of the verses, these accord with the requirements of paragraph 2 of the key, and consequently belong to variation 1 of the group. For the rest, the verses are a blending of subvariations (a), (h), (c), (g), and (h). 7. Group B. — This differs from Group A in one unit only, the eighth or last. This miit has a feminme ending, or, in other words, is followed by an extra unstressed and unaccented syllable. The variations and sub- variations of both groups are identical, and it will not, therefore, be necessary to quote examples for all the subvariations — one for each main variation will suffice. 22— Trans. 660 Transactions. Variation 1, Sub variation (a) : — (12.) And is/ she dead ?/ — and did/ they dare/ obey/ my fren/zy's jea/lous vik/ving ? My wrath/ but doom'd/ my own/ despair/ : the sword/ that smote/ hor's o'er/ me vfa,/vijuj. (Lord Byron, " Herod's Lament for Mariamne," stanza 2.) Variation 2, Sub variation {a) : — (13.) a. Awake !/ my love/, the sun's/ bright ray/, hills/ and val/leys now/ a,Aor/ning. (T. Blake, " Good Morning," opening.) b. Oh may/ it prove/ for Scot/land's good !/ bon/nie lad/die, High/l^'ii'^l lad/c?ie, But why/ so drench/ our glens/ with blood ?/ bon/nie lad/die. High/land \a,d/die. (James Uogg, " Highland Laddie," last stanza.) Variation 3, Subvariation (a) : — (14.) Her voice/ did qui/ver as/ we ^a^r/ted, yet knew/ I not/ that heart/ was iiro/Jcen From whence/ it came/, and 1/ depar/r must open his cars to admit the pipings of Pan no less than the lyrings of Apollo. Andkrsen.— r//< ; Verse-unit. 65? Group A. Variation 1. Subvariation— - {a.) •1 ./ ./ -7 • ■ / •/ ./ • / (1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2) (b.) ■1 ■ ■/ • ■/ •••/ . ■1 ■ • / • ■/ . •/ (1 3 3 3 2 3 3 3) (c.) •1 ■ ■/ . ./ .../ .. ■ / ■ •/ . • / . • / (1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3) (d.) ■/■■ •/•• ./..../ . ./.. ./.. ./.. • / (1 4 4 4 2 4 4 4) le.) ./.. ■/•• ./..../ .. ./.. ./.. ./.. •/ (1 4 4 4 3 4 4 4) if-) ./■■ ./.. ./..../ ... ./.. ./.. ./.. ./ (1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4) Variation 2. Subvariation— - («.) ./ •/ ■/ ••/ ./ 1 ■ 1 • / . •/ (1 2 2 2 12 2 2) (h.) ■1 . ./ . •/ .../ • / . ■ / . • / . • / (1 3 3 3 13 3 3) (c.) ./.. ■/•• ./..../ ./.. ./.. • /.. ./ (1 4 4 4 14 4 4) Variation 3. Subvariation— - (a.) ■/ . / • / -./. . • / ./ ./ •/ (1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2) (b.) ./ .. / •• / .../• .. ■ / . • / . • / . • / (1 3 3 3 4 3 3 3) ic.) ./.... /... /..../. ••. ./.. ./.. ■ /•■ •/ (1 4 4 4 5 4 4 4) Group B and Gboup C vary in the same manner as these two groups vary in Division I — that is, each verse of Group A is followed by a feminine or double-feminine ending. Division I. Group A. Variation 1. Subvariation- 2. Ballad Metre. (n.) ib.) (c.) (d.) ie.) if-) ig-) ih.) (»■.) i)-) ik.) il-) {»».) (n.) Variation 2 Subvariation ia.) ib.) (c.) id.) (^■) (/■) Variation 3. Subvariation i'l.- ih.] ic.) id if.). Variation 4 Subvai (a.) ib.) (c.) id.) (''■) (/■) ./ ■/ ./. •/ ■/• ./• ../ • ■/ ■ ■/ • • / ../ .. .../ .../ .../ ./ . . . / . . . .../ .../ .../ .. •/ .../ ... .../. .../. .../ •/. .../... .../. .../. .../ .. ■/. .../... ../. .../. .../ ... •/• .../... .../ .../ .../ •/ .../ ... .../ .../ .../ .. ./ .../ ... ../. .../. .../ . •/• .../.... ■ •/■ .../. . ../ •/• .../.... • ■/■ .../• .../ ... ./. .../.... .../. .../. .../ ./. .../.... ../. .../• .../ .. •/. .../.... .../. .../. .../ ... •/. .../.... ./ ./ .. ./ . ./ ... ./■• ./.... ./ . ./ ... ./•• ./.... ./.. ./.... • • / ■ / ../ . •/. / ../ .. ■ •/ •/ ../ .. ./• .../ . ../ ... ../.. •/. ../... ./ ..../.. ../ .../ . •/ ../ .. •/• .../ . ../ ... .../.. ./. ../... •/ ..../.. ../.... .../.. ./. ../... •/ ..../.. ../.... iation / / / / / / ./..../..../. ./ ■/ / / (2222 2 2 2-) / / (2333 2 3 3-) / / (2333 3 3 3-) / / (2444 2 4 4-) / / (2444 3 4 4-) / / f2 4 4 4 4 4 4-) / / (3333 2 3 3-) / / (3333 3 3 3-) / / (3444 2 4 4-) / / (3444 3 4 4-) / / (3444 4 4 4-) / / (4444 2 4 4-) / / (4444 3 4 4-) / / (4444 4 4 4-) / / (2222 1 2 2 -) / / (2333 1 3 3 -) / / (2444 1 4 4 -) / / (3333 1 3 3 -) / / (3444 1 4 4 -) / / (4444 1 4 4 -) / / (2222 3 2 2-) / / (2333 4 3 3-) / / (2444 .5 4 4-) / / (3 3 3 3 4 3 3-) / / (3444 5 4 4-) / / (4444 5 4 4-) / / (2222 4 2 2-) / / (2333 5 3 3-) / / (2444 6 4 4-) / / (3333 5 3 3-) / / (3444 () 4 4 -) ./ / (4444 6 4 4-) 654 Transactions. Gbotjp B and Group C. The same remarks apply in Ballad that applied in Romance metre — that is, the two groups are the same as Group A except that they have feminine and double-feminine endings respectively. Division II. This again, as in Romance, differs from Division I only in that the verses all begin abruptly, or with a stressed syllable. Division I. Group A. Variation 1. Subvariation- (a.) (b.) (c.) id-) (e.) (/•) ig-) (h.) (i.) {?■) {k.) (I.) (m.) (n.) i Variation 2. Subvariation- (a.) (b.) (c.) (d.) (c.) 3. NiBELUNGEN MeTRE. • •/ • •/ • •/ / ■ ./ ../ .. • •/ .../ .../ / ■ ■/ .../ ... ../ .../ .../ / •• •/ .../ ... ../. .../. .../ / • •/. .../... ../. .../. .../ / •• •/• .../... ../. .../. .../ /... ./. .../... • ■/ .../ .../ / • ./ .../ ... • ■/ .../ .../ / ■• ./ .../ ... ../. .../. • ••/ / • ./. .../... ../. .../. .../ / •• •/• .../... • ■/■ .../. .../ /... •/• .../... ../. .../. .../ / • •/• .../... ../. .../. • ■•/ / •• •/• .../... ../. .../. .../ /... ./. .../... ■ •/ •/ •/ / •/ ./ .. ■ •/ . •/ • •/ / •/ . ./ ... ../.. ./.. •/ / ./.. ./ • ■/ • •/ • ■/ / •/ • ./ ... ../.. ./.. •/ / ./.. ./.... ../.. ./.. •/ / ./.. ./.... •/ / •/ / •/ / •/ / •/ / •/ / ■/ / ■/ / ■/ / •/ / •/ / ■/ / ■/ / ■/ / •/ / •/ / ■/ / •/ / ■/ / ./ / 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Group B and Group C. Again the remark concerning these groups in Romance and Ballad metres apply. Division II. As in Romance and Ballad, the verses in this division begin abruptly. Division I. 4. Alexandrine Metre. Group A. Variation 1. Subvariation— (a.) •/ •/ •/ / • •/ •/ ./ / (222-222-) (6.) •/ . ■/ • •/ / • •/ • ■/ . •/ / (233-233-) (c.) •/ . •/ . •/ / .. •/ • ■/ • ./ / (233-333-) id.) ■/■• ./.. •/ / • •/•■ ./.. •/ / (244-244-) (e.) ./.. ./.. •/ / •• ./.. ./.. •/ / (244-344-) if-) ./.. ./.. •/ /... ./.. ./.. •/ / (244-444-) (9-) •/ • ■/ • •/ / . •/ ■ •/ • ■/ / (333-233-) {k.) •/ . ■/ • •/ / •• •/ • •/ . •/ / (333-333-) {i.) •/•■ ./.. •/ / . ./.. ■/•■ ■/ / (344-244-) {?■) ./.. ./.. •/ / •• ./.. •/■• •/ / (344-344-) (k.) ./.. ./.. ■/ /... ./.. •/■• •/ / (344-444-) {I.) ... ./.. ■/•• •/ / • ./.. ./.. •/ / (444-244-) (m.) . . •/•• ./.. •/ / •• ./.. ./.. •/ / (444-344-) (n.) ... ./.. ./.. • / /... ./.. • /.. ./ / (444-444-) Andersen.- -7'A^' Verse-unit. 655 (b.) ../.../•■•/ / /.../.../ / (333-133 /..../..../ / (344-144 /..../..../ / (444-144 Variation 2. Subvariation — (a.) ../ ../ ../ / ./ ../ ../ / (222-122 ./.../.../ / (233-133 ./..../..../ / (244-144 id.) .../•■•/••■/ / (e.) .../..../•■•■/ / (/.) ..../■•■■/••••/ / Group B and Group C. Again the remark concerning these groups in Romance, Ballad, and Nibe- lungen apply. Division II. As in Romance, Ballad, and Nibelungen, the verses in this division begin abruptly. Division III. In this division may be classed the " unpaused " Alexandrine : — ../../../../••/••/ // (2 22222--) This can vary only at opening and close, with ordinary duple, triple, or quad- ruple, or abrupt, at the former, and feminine or double-feminine at the latter. In the foregoing groups will be included all poems whose stanzas are regular ; stanzas, that is, composed of a definite number of full verses. To each group will be appended one or more subgroups where an exceptional con- struction is met with, as in the following : — Winds are loud and you are dumb. Take my love, for love will come. Love will come but once a life. Winds are loud and winds will pass ! Spring is here with leaf and grass : Take my love and be my wife. After loves of maids and men Are but dainties drest again : Love me now, you'll love me then : Love can love but once a life. (Tennyson, " No Answer " from " The Window.") When, dearest, I but think of thee, Methinks all things that lovely be Are present, and my soul delighted : For beauties that from worth arise Are like the grace of deities. Still present with us, though unsighted. (Sir John Suckling, " A Song.") The construction of these is similar to the construction of the Dowsabel stanza, but the effect is entirely different. The whose difference lies in the third and sixth lines, which in the two above examples contain four stresses, against three in the Dowsabel. The former will therefore more naturally fall into Division I of the Romance metre, under variation 1 of Group A ; the latter into the parallel division of Ballad metre. A fuller discussion concerning exceptional forms will be more in place in the chapter on the stanza. 656 Trnnmctinufi. Art. LVI. — ISlexo Zealand Bird-song. By Johannes C. Andersen. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterhunj, 2nd November, 1910.] The following additional notes and variations have been observed since publication of the 1908 Transactions. On the 12th November, 1909, in company with Mr. T. D. Burnett, of the Mount Cook Eun Station, I climbed Mount Burnett, 6,23i ft. in height. On the western slope of the peak, at a height of over 5,500 ft., we found a quantity of moa gizzard-stones. They were quartz, and lay in an earth- filled pocket of rock, near an amphitheatre or half-basin, a formation commonlv found among the weathered tops of this range, the Liebig, which is composed in great part of clay slates and sandstone. Many large moa- bones have been foimd on the lower pavts of the run, the homestead of which is 1,900 ft. above sea-level. On descending the eastern side we saw one kea just below the snow-line. Keas were formerly very numerous on this run, a tally kept for thirteen years showing an average loss of five hundred sheep a year through their attacks alone : the flock runs from five to six thousand. The consequence is, unrespited war against them has very considerably reduced the numbers of the kea. Mr. Burnett told me that it has a greater variety of calls than any other bird known to him. When worrying a sheep it emits a detestable chuckling sound ; and he has lain through a night in an out-hut hearing this sound, exasperated at being unable to interrupt the feast he knew was going on above him. There was a high wind blowing when Ave saw this solitary kea, but, as the bird stayed close to us for a considerable time (thanks to the forbearance of my host), I was able to take the pitch of his characteristic cry, 5^« - -■ ' ifrp^aU^ la: Jr ■■ v> m V 1 -iI5_ Kee-a-a-ah Kee-e aJi No. (1) was the most frequent cry. It is most plaintive, as if the bird were the injured party. The cry differs at various times in several ways. Some- times the slur is from a short note to a longer one, dropped a semitone, as (1) ; sometimes it is from a long note to a short one, without the semi- tone drop, as in (la). This latter cry I heard several times over the moraine of the Tasman Glacier ; and whereas (1) is plaintive, (la) is more sinister. Again, the interval was often much less : it constantly varied, and was sometimes so slight that it sounded very like the mewing of a lost kitten. On the 18th November, 1910, we camped for a night at the terminal face of the Murchison Glacier^ on the slopes of the Malte Bruu Range, and before daylight on the 19th we heard several keas in the heights above. A most characteristic cry was as follows : — pva. gy-fx.. Keeeeeeah. ' iKeeeeeeah The first note of (2) was long drawn out on the /, and slurred vigorously down through an octave. No. (2a) was most curious : the long d was Andkrsen. — New Zealand Bird-so/u/. 657 uttered with a rapid vibrato, as though it were bubbling through water, and slurred to / as in (2). In both instances the intervals between the long note and the short note varied, the pitch being anything apparently between a third and an octave above /. If the name of the kea be onomatopoetic, as seems almost certain, it should be spelt hia, not kea. A bird regarded with quite different feehngs is the paradise duck. {Casarca variegata — putangitangi). This is very common on the Jollie and great Tasmau River beds, and is never molested. It is a beautiful bird, and I never saw it but in pairs. The cries of the duck and drake are quite distinct. ^ gy-CC.. S^^ ^ ( The tangi) Nos. (1) to (5) are cries of the duck. Her note varies exceedingly in pitch, sequence, combination, and duration. The notes are uttered both whilst at rest and on the wing. The sound is not a whistle, but is nearer a clear human cry, especially as regards No. (5). The drake's note is very different. It is represented in (6). The sound differs altogether from that of the duck — it can be very nearly reproduced with a piece of paper and a comb. There is an overtone of a third distinctly audible, and this overtone, very much softer and fainter than the deeper note, has a sound more allied to the cry of the duck. I did not hear this note of the drake's varied in 1909, but on the 16th and 17th November, 1910, in the same locality, it was varied as under : — Fgt^t ^^^^^ '-t^^'Sj The quality of the note is as in (6), but the overtone is absent. It Avas repeated twice or oftener, both whilst the drake was at rest and on the wing. On the 21st November, 1910, I noted the following variations in the •crv of the duck : — ^^m »^^ She uttered the cry (9) whilst walking on the river-bed, changing to (10) on taking to the wing, and returning to (9) again whilst on the wing. Very often during flight the drake sounded his deep note whilst the duck cried the notes of (5), and one could not help imagining that she was then lamenting a lost brood or desolated home, whilst the old drake, with tears in his voice, was doing his utmost to comfort her. If, as is said, the native name " putangitangi " was given on account of the cry, then (5) is certainly the note whose plaintiveness touched the poetical nature of the dusky name-giver. Whilst on the Jollie River bed a duck suddenly appeared 658 Transactions. before us, fluttering away on the shingle as if wounded and in the last extremity. " There's a nest somewhere," said my companion, " and she is decoying us away from it," We humoured her maternal instinct, and after preceding us for a dozen yards or so she rose in the air and flew off. Whilst resting after breakfast on the lateral moraine of the Tasman Glacier at the southern end of the Murchison Valley, on the 19th November, 1910, we were much pleased by the actions of a paradise duck and drake. A clear, gentle stream flowed along the foot of the moraine at our feet, and the duck waded fearlessly backwards and forwards not more than 15 ft. from us. She approached nearer and nearer each traverse, until she was no more than 8 ft. away. As she moved she constantly emitted a quiet, pleasing sound, the quack (though the term is too hard) of the paradise. After a time she rejoined her mate on the gravel beyond the stream, where they both settled down to sleep in the morning smi. We were de- lighted with their tameness : it gave us excellent opportunity of noting and admiring the beauty of their plumage. This Murchison Valley was extremely quiet : it has never been ent; red by stock of any kind, and bird- life was also very scarce at the time of our visit. Besides half a dozen paradise ducks, we saw only two seagulls, and heard the keas above men- tioned. At dawn of the 19th, too, away up at the Murchison terminal, we heard a blackbird in the Malte Brun scrub, and lower down two more blackbirds and a ubiquitous chaffinch — an extremely common bird. I was at Stony Bay, near Okain's, Banks Peninsula, late in December of 1909, and a solitary pair of paradise ducks had nested and brooded in the valley— a most unusual occurrence. The blue duck {Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus — whio) is now rare, even on the river-beds away in the mountains, where it was formerly extremely common. It is loo good a table-bird to escape the common run of rabbiter and station hand. I saw none in 1909 ; but on the 15th November 1910, whilst riding down the Jollie, I made the acquaintance of a pair. They were floating down the rapid stream, bobbing about on the broken water, apparently entirely at the mercy of the current ; but by some dexterous movement both shot sideways out of the swift water into a comparative still stream behind a big rock. Here they dived and probed with their beaks for a time, when one made a dash at the rock, moimted half-way to its top, but slipped back into the water. It made a detour, and soon both were seated on the rock, preening their feathers. I dis- mounted, hoping to obtain a nearer view, and the birds allowed me to approach to within a few yards. In colour they were slaty blue, almost the colour of the water ; their breasts were bronze ; their bills pale yellow, almost white. Their note was a highly pitched cry — hardly a whistle : — One of them uttered the cry in (1) three times whilst they were in the still pool diving and probing. It is a rapid vibrato, not a trill, and the duck thrusts out its neck when uttering the cry. It was varied as in (2). the quality of the note being the same. We saw two grey ducks, but they were silent. A^'■DKRSI:N. — New Zealand Binl-Rong. 659 A very common bird on the Tasman River bed is the dottrel {Octho- dromus obscuriis — tutnriwatu). Its constant cry, which I did not hear varied in 1909, was a in alt, shirred to a flat : — gyvL This is an agreeable whistle, repeated at intervals. In 1910 (November) its cry as it ran before me on the river-bed was constantly a repeated at intervals 2^v- 19 » it m ^ — M We presently saw the reason. Two young downy birds, scarcely able to run, for they constantly stumbled and fell on the sand, the river there being free from stones, were scurrying away from us towards the stream, into which they plunged. They were then in their element, for they swam perfectly, and had soon placed the stream between them and the supposed source of danger, when they stumbled up the sand on the other side. They were simply little balls of grey-brown down, and each could easily have been contained in a small teacvip. On the 18th November, 1909, I was on the west side of the Tasman River, in the bush on Bush Creek. Here I heard a single grey-warbler three times, and each time he sang the following variation of the usual warbler sequence : — ^^ ^^ Here, in so far as the notes arc in triplets, the scheme is similar to that of the variations (3) and (4) in the Transactions of 1908. The difference is Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-wng. 661 that u rest takes the place of the last two notes of every alternative triplet. Each of the three times I heard the variation it was as above. A month afterwards I heard a somewhat similar variation in the Stony Bay Bush, viz. : — 2^« ^^ This was sun^ by itself, or as an introduction to the ordinary rambUng indeterminate song : in the latter case, when the ordinary song commenced, it was on a, a drop of a third. Sometimes the town song, varied to triplets (8), introduced the variation (7) ; or the latter was often sung as an in- dependent fragment — fg?ff: J^^^^S^ often Followed by 7 I had read in Buller's " Manual of the Birds of New Zealand " that " Layard compares the note of the grey- warbler to the creaking sound of a wheelbarrow." I was never able to imagine which of the warbler notes induced this unmelodious simile. It was probably (7) ; but, whilst the pitch and slight occasional variation from g to / may coincide with the squeak of the wheelbarrow, there is absolutely no resemblance in the quality of the sound : the warbler's is sweet ; the barrow's is shrill. The simile may also have been induced by No. (9), following: — This song hovered about a flat, a semitone above or below, the phrases of three triplets being separated by a short rest. For the second time I had the pleasure of seeing a warbler whilst actually singing. The first I saw sat still, devoting all its energy to its song ; this one, on the contrary, moved briskly about in an apple-tree, prying under the still remaining autumn leaves, and whilst thus busily searching for its food it kept up the continuous minor melody. On the 28th March I noted a variation, as under : — ^tc. This is the ordinary town song, varied in the second and third notes. These are usually semiquavers, both of the same pitch as the opening note ; here 662 Transactions. they form a triplet, the middle note being a third below the others, in the season I noted the followino; : — Later 2L. ^w g/=1^l'^^ This, again, is the commoner song in triplets, varied by the omission of the third note of two of the triplets and the dropping of the third note of the third odd triplet, as above. The dropped note, /, in the above is usually softer than the others, so it may be that in cases where the notes appear to be omitted they may be only very subdued. I heard on the 27th March a call and reply which, from the pitch of the notes, their quality, and the appearance of the birds, I took to be warblers' : — ?^ :5S«= ^ree kree Arurr 20$ -4 — 4- Wk w, Wt '^ -^v- ^ree kree Ararr Arurr Here the notes inserted give the relative duration of the sounds. The sweet bubbling song Avas again heard. I took down the following : — 2^1 Z\l Tf H 3 3^ 3 3 -J Cliclc A curious click often broke the song ; or an explosive note, a sweet d, an octave lower than the bubble, would burst out, as though the bird were quite unable to suppress the full sweetness of its song altogether. This year the vesper bell (7) was (j d, g d, each pair being uttered in a second ; the bell-like tone was perfect, most delightful to hear. I heard it on the 28th. And on that day, too, I saw two tuis in a totara, the one wooing or cajoling the other. The wooer sang the chime of (12) closely at the ear of his companion, following it with the high soft notes — This was sung in a very subdued manner ; and, as the silent bird retreated, the other, singing, followed it flutter by flutter over short distances. Its cajoling was unsuccessful, however, so far as my observation went, for the one so sweetly persecuted flew off. The high-pitched song was also varied as follows : — ^ ^ ^P^ ;t-4r# ^ I record it as it has been suggested that the bird may be a native — the brown creeper {Finschia novae-zelandiae — toitoi) — though I am doubtful. Fantails and grey-warblers have been very plentiful in the eastern parts of Christchurch this season ; wax-eyes not so plentiful. I have never before, in the bush or elsewhere, heard the fantail so full of song as during April Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song. 669 and half of each mouth before and after. Previously I had rather a poor opinion of the bird as a songster, though a high opinion of him as a cheery companion. I can thoroughly appreciate the choice of Maui, the 8un-god, when he induced the small birds of the forest to accompany him on his last and greatest adventure — the conflict with the Great Woman of Night, the Western Darkness. And it is said that it was the laughter of a cheery fantail that awoke the Woman of Night to a sense of her danger — alas for Maui! On the morning of tlie 6tli April, 1910, I awoke at the day-spring, and a fantail was singing vigorously just outside my bedroom-window : — ,:^^n4M^s^TTT^ '-^ The notes were still the constricted, almost vocal sounds previously de- scribed, excepting the high e, which was nearer a sweet, pleasant whistle. Easter thoughts and feelings permeated all things, and the fantail's song at once carried me back to the days when, as a boy. Good Friday morning meant tea and hot buns in bed before getting-up time. I can well remember lying dozing, waiting to hear in the street outside, '' Hot-cross-buns— ting-a-ling, ting-ting, ting-a-ling." This fantail's song was exactly like the cry and bell of the H.C.B. man. I listened to it with pleasure for some time : sometimes it opened with the common tweet-a-Uveet-a-tweet, sometimes directly on g. I heard a much more frequent variation of this song many times during the autumn : — S^^ GtC^. Here the lower notes were all g, the first two followed by a quick slur up to c, resulting in a pleasing variation of the tiveet. The high notes e were almost invariably much softer and of less volume than the lower f/, /, c, or f/. Art. LVII. — On Centroidal Triangles. By Evelyn G. Hogg, M.A., F.R.A.S., Christ's College, Christchurch. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Ganterbiinj, 7th December, 1910.] 1. Let the side BC of any triangle ABC be divided internally in the point X' and externally in the point A' in the ratio p : q ; let CA, AB be similarly divided in the points Y', B' and Z', C respectively. The triangles X'Y'Z', A'B'C are termed "centroidal" triangles, inasmuch as the centroids of these triangles are coincident with that of the triangle of reference ABC. 670 Tra/is(tcfio/is. The co-ordinates of the points X', Y', Z' are reBpectiveiy (o. A|, Af). (a;;, „, ^. (a?, a|, „) where A. = -- — , A being the area of the triangle of reference. j> + q » The co-ordinates of the points A', B', C are respectively (o,/4,/^f)-(^f.4o), (^?,4o) where jj. P- 1 It follows that the co-ordinates of the centroids of the triangles X'Y'Z', A'B'C are { ^, ^, -7;— |, which are those of the centroid of the ' \ 3a 3o 3c / triangle ABC. Since this result is independent of ^j and q we see that all triangles formed in this manner are co-centroidai with the triangle ABC. Let now the sides Y'Z', Z'X', X'Y' be divided in X^, Y^, Z^ so that Y'X,: X,Z' = Z'Y, : Y,X' = X'Z, : Z,Y' = v - 1, then the co-ordinates of the points X^, Y^, Z^ are respectively - X -2 A where v P + Q {P + '!}- Hence the triangle X^Y^Z^ is also co-centroidal with the triangle ABC. This result also holds for a triangle similarly formed by dividing the sides of the triangle A'B'C, and the process may evidently be continued indefinitely. 2. The following simple relations may be easily proved : — If A, A', A, be the areas of the triangles ABCj X'Y'Z', A'B'C respectively, then {p + g.)^ ^p^+pq + q"^ (p-q)^ if A' = iiA, the minimum value of n is 7, in which case p = q, and the triangle X'Y'Z' is the medial triangle of the triangle x\BC. The triangles AY'Z', BZ'X', CX'Y' are equal in area, the common . vq value bemg j^-jy, A . The triangles AB'C, BC'A', CA'B' are equal in area, the common , . pq value bemg 7-^^-T^ A . The centroids of the triangles AY'Z', AB'C, as the ratio p : q varies, lie on straight lines parallel to BC and bisecting AG, w^here G is the centroid of the triangle ABC. The middle points of the sides of all centroidal triangles lie on the ■sides of the menial triangle of the triangle ABC. Hogg. — On Centroidal Triangles. 671 If the sides of the triangles X'Y'Z', A'B'C be respective!}^ rr', y' , z' and a' , h' , c' Ma-)='Hj^-Ma') {p - q)' If 2h> lh> V-' ^® ^^® perpendiculars from G on the sides of a centroidal triangle, and^', if, p'" the perpendiculars on those sides from A, B, C, then ;_^ _ Pa _ i^s p' p" p'" The equation of the circle circumscribing any centroidal triangle is (A -1)(A^' - 1) abc {a/3y + bya + Caft) + A {an + b/3 + cy) [aa (a-A + b'X^ + c'^) + b^ {a^ + &-A + c^A-) + Cy (a-A'^ + Z'--^ + C'X)] := 0, and the radical axis of this circle and of the circle ABC envelops, as A varies, the conic {a' - 46V^) aV- + {b' - 4:chi:') 6-/5-' + (c* - Aa'^b-) cy - 2 (2a^ + b'c^) bc^y - 2 (26^ + c'^a'^) caya - 2 (2c^ + d'b'^) aba/S = o. The locus of the symmedian point of the triangle xAY'Z' is the curve 2bc (cf3' + by') - c(c^ - a") fiy + b {a^ - b'') (if = abcdfty. 3. The equations of the lines B'C, C'A', A'B' are respectively L' = pqaa + q'^b/3 + p-cy = o M' = _p^aa + 2^q b/S + q~cy = o N' = q^aa + p~b^ + P^cy = o, while those of Y'Z', Z'X', X'Y' are respectively Li = — ^jg aa + g-ftyS + p^cy = o Ml = 2faa — pqb/3 -{- q^Cy = o Nj = q^aa + ^~6y8 — pqcy = o. Hence as the ratio jj : q varies, the lines L', Li; M', Mj; N', Nj envelop respectively the parabolas S' = aV - 46c^y = 0 S" = 62;82 _ 4g^^^ ^ 0 S'" = cy - 4ft6a^ = 0. The points of contact of L' and Li with S' are respectively hence the sides of any centroidal triangle are divided internally and externally in the same ratio at the points in which they touch their enveloping parabolas. €72 Transactions. The lines L', Li intersect on BC ; M', M] intersect on CA ; and N', Nj intersect on AB. Calling these points of intersection A", B", C" respec- tively, we have for the equations of the lines B"C", C"A", A"B" L" = p-qhia + p^b^ + q^cy — o M" = q^aa + if(fbji + p'cy = o N" — p^aa + q^b^ + p'q-^^^y = 0. Comparing the equations L", M", N" with those of L', M', N' we see that the triangle A"B"C" is a centroiclal triangle formed by dividing the sides of the triangle ABC in the i-atio q^ -.p^. The area of the triangle A"B"C" is given by and therefore the areas of the triangles A"B"C", A'B'C, X'Y'Z', and ABC are connected by the relation A " . A =^ A ' . A , . If BC, CA, AB be divided internally in X", Y", Z" so that (A"BX"C), (B"CY"A), (C"AZ"B) form harmonic ranges, we have a fourth centroidal triangle X"Y"Z", inscribed in the triangle ABC, the equations of whose sides, Lo, M2, No, may be formed from L", M", N" l)y writing — g^ for q^ in the latter equations. 4. Let P'Q'K', P"Q"R", PiQiRj, P,Q,'R-. be respectively the poles of L'M'N', L"M"N", L^M^Ni, L.^MaN., with regard to the triangles. The co-ordinates of P'Q'R' are proportional to (— , -- --^ (-^ — , -^) (--, ~ —) These points are the vertices of the triangle formed by the lines AX', BY', CZ' ; as the ratio }) : q varies the loci of these points are the •ellipses Sj = a^o~ — bc-Py = 0 52 = b^l^^ — cay a = 0 53 = c%^ — abaji = 0. The lines AP', BQ', CR' will meet S^, S.,, S, respectively in P^, Q^, R,. The position of P^ may be found by observing that (B . AP'CPj^) is an harmonic pencil. Q^ and R^ may be found in a similar manner. The lines BB', CC meet in P,; CC, AA' in Q., ; AA', BB' in R,. P", Q", R" may be found from P.^, Q.^, Ro in the manner employed to deter- mine PiQiRj. The four triangles P'Q'R', P"Q"R", PiQiRi, and P,Q,R-2 have their •centroids at the point G. 5. The lines L', L^ may be respectively written L' = pq (aa -f 6/3 + Cy) — {i) - q){qb/3 — pcy) — 0 Li = - pq (aa + b(3 + Cy) + {p + q)iqb(5 + pcy) = 0. The equations of AX', AA' are respectively pbfS — qcy = 0 pbfS + qCy — 0. IIoOG. — On Centroidnl Trianr/hs. 673 Let lines drawn throuf,'li A, B, C parallel respectively to L'M'N' meet the opposite sides of ABC in DM^VF'. The equation of the line-pair AX', AD' will be {php - qcy){qhf3 - pCy) = 0 pq (^2/^2 ^ c2y2) - (p^ + q^) hefty = 0. Hence the six points X'Y'Z', D'E'F' lie on the conic — (p2 -|- q^){bc-[iy + caya + aha ft) = o. We now proceed to show tliat this is the Steiner ellipse of the triangle X'Y'Z' — i.e., the locus of points whose polars with respect to the triangle X'Y'Z' pass through the point G. If -, r, - be substituted for a, ft, y in Lj, Mj, Nj, these quantities have the common value 2:>~ — 2^q + q^ 'y hence the equation of the Steiner ellipse of the triangle X'Y'Z' may be written 1,1,1 Li + M, + Ni = ^- This on multiplying out and dividing by the common factor 2^~ — pq + q- reduces to S^. Let lines through ABC parallel to Lj^MjNj respectively meet the opposite sides of that triangle in D^E^F^. Then the six points A'B'C, DjEjFj lie on the conic So' = 2^1 («'«' + ^'/Q' + c'y') + {v"^ + q^}{^(^f^y + ca-ya + ahaft) = o, and this conic is at once shown to be the Steiner ellipse of the triangle A'B'C. The envelope of the Steiner ellipses of centroidal triangles, as the ratio 2^ '• q varies, is {aa + hft + cy)'^ {Vau + Vbft + Vcy) = 0. 6. The circum-circle of the triangle AY'^'Z' will for all values of the ratio 2) : q pass through a fixed point. The equation of the circle in question is p [{a^ - h^) fty + caaft - bcy^] — q [{c^ — a') fty — ahya + hcft"^] — o. Hence this circle passes through the intersection of two fixed circles, which may be written «S — hyh = o rtS — cftLi = 0 where S = afty + bya + ca(3 and L =^ «a + hft + cy. The former of these circles touches AC at A and passes through B ; the latter circle touches AB at A and passes through C. The radical axis of these circles is eft — by = o, and this line meets the circles again in the point H' (- ^ — , h, c\. Hence since Y'Z' envelops a parabola S' which touches AY' and AZ', and the circum-circle of AY'Z' always passes through a fixed point H', that point must be the focus of S' = o. Similarly it may be shown that the foci of the parabolas S', S" are at ^1 ■ i. TT// / 2crt cos B \ rrn, / 7 2a6 COS C\ ,• 1 the pomts H" ( a, r , cj , H" I a, h, \ respectively. 674 Transactions. It is seen by inspection that if K be the svmmedian point of the triangle ABC, then H', H", H'" He on AK, BK, CK respectively. The trilinear ratios of the middle point of the chord of the circle ABC drawn from A through K are (26c cos A 7 \ Hence we see that the three foci H', H'', H'" lie on the Brocard circle or circle having as its diameter the Ime joining the centre of the circle ABC to the symmedian point K. If F be the centre of the circle ABC, then H' lies on the circle whose diameter is AF — viz., the circle {c/3 + by)'L-2aS = 0. It may also be shown that the four points BCFH' are concyclic. If the tangent to the circle ABC at A meets BC in T, then H' is the foot of the perpendicular from A on FT. The equation of the Brocard circle may be written '^bc(l + l + l)L-i{a').S = o. and it is easily seen that it is satisfied by the co-ordinates of H', H", and H'". 7. If 8j, 8.2, 83 be the medians drawn from A, B, C respectively to the middle points of the opposite sides of the triangle ABC, then the semi- latera recta of S', S", S'" are respectively A« a; a_2 5i3' 5.2«' 538' where A is the area of the triangle ABC. Also, AH' = |, BH' = |, CH' = |, whence AH'^ = BH'. CH'. We have AK = J^ . 28^, and therefore AH' . AK = ^,— „,. l(a2) Hence if T', T", T"' be the lengths of the tangents from A, B, C respectively to the Brocard circle, abc aT = hT" = cV" = —7==r. The directrices of the parabolas S', S", S'" are respectively Dj = a cos Aa — 0/3 — by — 0 Do = — ca + /> cos B/3 — ay ■— 0 Dy = — ba — afS + c cos Cy = 0. From the form of D^ it is seen that it passes through the point in which the tangent at A to the circle ABC meets BC. Let the vertices of the triangle formed by Dj, D2, D3 be Vi,V2,Vs. The equations of the lines AV^, BV.^, CV., are respectively P {ca + b^ cos B) - y {ab + c^ cos C) = 0 y (ab + c" cos C) — a {be + a^ cos A) = 0 a (be + a* cos A) — /B{ca + &=• cos B) = 0. IIoGQ. — On Centroidal Triangles. G75 Hence the triangle ViVgV:! is in perspective with the triangle ABC, the centre of perspective being the isogonal conjugate of the point [{he + a^ cos A), {ca -f- b^ cos 13), {ah + c^ cos C)] , which is the centre of the Brocard circle. If p^, 2hy Ih be the lengths of the perpendiculars from V^.V.^.V;, respec- tively on the opposite sides of the triangle ViV.jV^, then ^•^1^1 = VA = V^^ the common value of these products being \ [2 {a') ^ D^- (1 + cos A cos B cos C)l . If a^, b^, Cj be the lengths of the sides of the triangle ViV^V.,, then Hence the sides of the triangle formed by the directrices of the three parabolas S', S", S'" are proportional to the medians of the triangle ABC. 8. Writing X for - we have as the equations of the sides of a centroidal triangle X^ Cy + X (la + bfS = 0 X^ Cla + X b/3 + Cy = 0 X^ h/3 + A Cy + rta = 0. Let the condition now be determined that a triangle (AoBiC.,), the pai'a- meter of whose sides is X,, maybe inscribed in a triangle (A^B^Cj) whose sides have the parameter A^. Solving for the equation of the sides CgAg, A3B2 ^or the co-ordinates of the vertex Aj we have aa : b/3 : Cy = 0 : — 1 : A.^. Hence if Ao, lie on B^C^ we have the condition AiU2= 1. The same condition holds that Bo and Co lie on C^A^ and A^B^ respec- tively. We may now find the locus of the intersection of the corresponding sides BjCi, BA A^ aa -f hft + Aj- Cy = 0 Ao aa -{- b/3 -\- X./ Cy = 0, and therefore aa : b/3 : Cy = — (A^ + Ao) : X^X^ : 1. Eliminating A^ and Aj between the above and the equation A^^Aj = 1, we see that the intersection of corresponding sides (BC) lies on the cubic b'/3' + cV + abca/3y = 0. Similarly the intersections of corresponding sides (CA) and (AB) lie on the cubics cy + ftV" + abca/3y = o af'a:' -f ¥p^ -f- abca/3y — 0 respectively. 676 Transactions. 9. Let D'E'F', D"E"F" be two centroidal triangles, and let the two corresponding (BC) sides— i.e., those which touch S' = o — meet in the point D (a^^oyo)- The equations of E'F', E"F" will be X'^cy + k'aa + h/3 = 0] X"^Cy + A"aa + b^ ^ o'i (i) when A', A" are the roots of the equation A^cyo + Aaoo + '^Ao = 0. The sides F'D', F"J3" will be A'Vta + \'b/3 + cy = 0) A"2oa + A"6/3 + Cy = 0 ) (ii), and the sides D'E', D"E" will be X'^b/S + X'cy + aa = 0 [ A"26^ + A"cy + aa= o\ (iii). Let F'D', F"D" meet in E, and D'E', D"E" m F. The co-ordinates of E are given by aa : A/3 : cy = 1 : - (A' + A") : A'A", butA' + A"=: -^^"-^A'A"^^", and therefore ,. c a b ^ "■ ■ P ■ Y = -Yo : ^^o '■ jPo- In the same way it may be shown that the co-ordinates of the point F are('^o,p'o,~ao). . . The equations of DE, EF, FD are respectively aa P„ H- i^ Q^ + cy R^ = 0 aa R„ -t- 6^ P„ + Cy Q„ = 0 aa Q,_ + b(i R^ + cy P^ = 0 where ^,= a'-a,' - bc(i^y^, Qo^^W - cay„a„ RoEEC^o' - «K^o- Hence if the point (a^fi^y^) lie on any of the conies S^, Sj, S3, the sides of the triangle DEF will pass through the vertices of the triangle ABC. We also see that if (a^^^yj lie on the curve /(a/3y) = 0, then E and F will lie on the curves/ h, ^, ^J) = 0 -.ind fC'^, '^ , ^) = 0. If the point D (a^,/?^y.) lie on the Steiner ellipse — + A + - = ^'- 1^^®" ^ ^'"^ ^ (la 0/3 cy the points E, F will also lie on this ellipse. In this case we have Po : Qo : Ro = ''«o : ^^^o : cy^, and_ it may be easily shown that the sides of the triangle DEF touch this conic Vaa + Vb/S + Vcy = 0. If D lie on the conic Vaa + VFft + Vcy = 0, so also will the points E and F, and the sides of the triangle DEF will envelop the conic VtJ + \/V + \/w= «' where U = — «a -f b/3 + cy V = aa - bfS + Cy W = aa + b^ - Cy. Hogg. — On Ceniroiddl Triangles. 611 10. The equations of the sides of the secondary centroidal triangle PQR formed by joining the points of contact of L', M', N' with S'S"S"' respectively are SpY aa + (i)* + 'ipif) b/3 + iq' + "Ip'q) cy - o and two others. Writing A = - we have X'hfB + 2A'cy + 3A'^aa + 2A^/3 + cy = o. The invariants I and J of this quartic are I = !f!^, J = J-(6a6cay8y - 26«^^' - 2cV - aV), 4 o whence the envelope of the above line is (a«a« + b'lS' + C'V - 3abcal3y){h'l3' + cy - 3a6ca/3y) = 0, whence we may infer that the envelope of the sides of the triangle PQR consists of the line at infinity, the point (-, j, -], and the system of cubics b'/S'' + c'V - Sabc a/3y = o C' y-* + Abe. If two chords of a circle are at right angles, the tangents at their extremities form a cyclic quadrilateral ; hence since l^ and l^ are at right angles to each other, it follows that the common tangents to S and S' form a cyclic quadrilateral which is real if a^ > Abe. If a^ = 4:bc, the parabola S' and the circle S touch each other, the line /j being the tangent at the point of contact. The equations of the four common tangents of S and S' are [a {a^ - 4:bc) S + be l^'] [a (a^ + 46c) S + bcl^] = o. 679 IISTDEX AUTHORS OF PAPERS. PAGE the Flora of New 596 194 178 175 Adkik, G. L.^The Post-tertiaiw Geological History of the Ohaii River and of the Adjacent Coastal Plain, Horowhcnua County, North Island . . . . 496 Andersen, J. C. — New Zealand Bird-song . . . . . . . . . ■ 056 The Verse-unit . . . . . . . • • • • • 606 Annamdale, N.— Description of an Undescribcd Barnacle of the Genus Scalfellum from New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . • • . . 16-t Aston, B. C. — List of Phanerogamic Plants Indigenous in the Wellington Province 225 Bell, N. M. — On the Velocity of Evolution of Oxygen from Bleaching-powder Solutions in Presence of Cobalt-nitrate, and the Modifications produced by the Addition of various Compounds . . . . . . . . . . 26 Benham, W. B. — Stellerids and Echinids from the Kermadec Islands . . . . 140 Broun, Major T. — Additions to the Coleopterous Fauna of the Chatham Islands 92 BuDDLB, R. — Maori Rock-engravings in the Kaipara District Carse, H. — On the Flora of the Mangonui County . . Cheeseman, T. F. — Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of Zealand : No. 4 . . „ New Species of Plants . . Chilton, C. — Note on the Dispersal of Marine Crustacea by Means of Ships . . 131 „ Revision of the New Zealand Stomatopoda . . . . . . 134 ,, The Crustacea of the Kermade^ Islands . . . . . . 544 Cockayne, L. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats (VI) . . . . 169 ,, (and Speight, R., and Laing, R. M.). — The Mount Arrowsmith District : a Study in Physiography and Plant Ecology . . 315 Cotton, C. A. (and Marshall, P., and Speight, R.). — The Younger Rock-series of New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 CoTTRELL, A. J. — Anatomy of Siphonarm dbliquata (Sowerby) . . . . 082 Easterfield, T. H. • — Studies on the Chemistry of the New Zealand Flora. Part IV : The Chemistry of the Podocarpi . . . . . . . . 53 Farquharson, R. a.— The Platinum Gravels of Orepuki . . . . . . 448 Farr, C. C. (and Macleod, D. B.). — Further Experiments on tlie Influence of l| Artesian Water on the Hatching of Trout . . . . . . . . 55 Farrow, F. D.— Depression of the Freezing-point of Water by Carbon-dioxide in Solution . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . 29 Hamilton, H. — Notes on Entomological Collecting Tours during the Seasons 1908-9 and 1909-10 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..115 Henderson, J. — On the Genesis of the Surface Forms and Present Di-ainage- l^* systems of West Nelson .. .. .. ■• 306 ,, The Coalfields of West Nelson ; with Notes on the Formation of the Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 HiLGENDORF, F. W. — On Some Calyptoblast Hydroids from the Kermadec Islands 540 Hill, H. — Napier to Runanga and the Taupo Plateau . . . . . • 288 ,, Rotomahana and District revisited Twenty-three Years after the Eruption . . . . . . . . . . . • • . 278 Hogg, E. G.— On Centrcidal Triangles . . . . . . . . • . 669 Howes, G. — New Species of Lepidoptera . . . . ■ ■ ■ • 27 680 TransactiovR. PAGE KiRK, H. B. — Sponges collected at the Kermadec Islands by Mr. W. R. B. Oliver 574 Laing, R. M. — -The Rediscovery of Ranunculus crithmifolms Hook, f . . . .. ]!i2 „ (and Cockayne, L., and Speight, R.). — The Mount Arrovvsmith District : a Study in Physiography and Plant Ecology . . 3lo Lancaster, T. L. — -Preliminary Note on the Fungi of the New Zealand Epiphytic Orchids .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..186 Maclaurin, J. S. — The First-noted Occurrence of Peiitathionic Acid in Natural Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 9 MACLEon, D. B. — On the Rate of Oxidation of Acetaldehyde to Acetic Acid . . 33 ,, (and Fare, C C). — Further Experiments on the Influence of Artesian Water on the Hatching of Trout . . . . 55 Marshall, P. (and Speight, R., and Cotton, C. A.). — ^The Younger Rock-series of New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Matthews, R. H. — Reminiscences of Maori Life Fifty Years ago . . . . 598 Meyrick, E. — -A Revision of the Classification of New Zealand Tortricina . . 78 ,, Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . . . . 58 Miller, D. — New Species of Syrpliidae .. .. .. .. ..125 Morgan, P. G. — A Note on the Structure of the Southern Alps . . . . 275 The Igneous Rocks of the Waihi Goldficld . . . . . . 258 Oliver, W. R. B. — Notes on Reptiles and Mammals in the Kermadec Islands . . 535 „ The Geology of the Kermadec Islands . . . . . . 521 Park, J. — Some Notes on the Marlborough Coastal Moraines and Waiau Glacial Valley .. .. .. •• .. .. .- •• 520 Peteie, D. — Descriptions of New Native Phanerogams . . . . . . 254. Smith, J. Crosby. — Notes on the Botany of Lake Hauroko District . . . . 248 Smith, W. W.— Notes on the Saddleback of New Zealand (Creadion carunculatus) . . 165 Speight. R. — A Preliminary Account of the Geological Features of the Christchurch Artesian Area . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 „ The Post-glacial Climate of Canterbury . . . . . . 408 „ (and Cockayne, L., and Laing, R. M.). — The Mount Arrowsmith District: a Study in Physiography and Plant Ecology .. 315 „ (and Marshall, P., and Cotton, C. A.). — The Younger Rock- series of New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . 378 Stubbs, C. M. — The Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of Carbon-dioxide prepared under Pressure at various Temperatures ; with Special Reference to the Forma- tion of a Hydrate at Low Temperatures . . . . . . . . 1 1 Sttnley, R. M. — Notes on the Larvae of some New Zealand Lepidoptera . . 12& SuTEK, H. — Two New Fossil Molltisca . . . . . . . . . . 595 Walsh, Archdeacon. — The Effects of the Disappearance of the New Zealand Bush .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..436 Worth, R. H. — Petrological Notes on Rock Specimens collected in South Victoria Land .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..482 Wright, A. M. — Oa certain Changes in the Composition of the Nitrogenous Con- stituents of Meat-extracts . . . . . . . . 7 „ The Chemical Composition of Meat-extract . . . . . . 1 John Mackay, Goveruuuut Printer, Wellington. — 1911. PROCEEDING-S NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1910 PART I EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE Issued 10th Sepjembeh, 1910. ®ldlington, f .%. JOHN MACKAY, (iOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICK Wm. "Weslky and Sons, 28 Essex Street, Stmand, Liondon \\.( CONTENTS. PROCEEDINGS. Wellington Philosoj)liical Society : Meetings, ttli May, 30tti May, and j 1st June. Auckland Institxite : Meetings, 17th May, 6th June, and 4th July. Manawatu Philosophical Society: Meetings, 17th March and 21st April. Otago institute: Meetings, 3rd May, 7th June, and 5th July. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury: Meetings, 20th April, ith May, 1st June, and ()t]i July. HaAvke's Bay Philosopliical Society: Meetings, 27th May and 24th June. ABSTRACTS. [ 1. Additions to the Fish Fauna of New Zealand. 2. The Pharmacological Action of Tutu. 3. New Zealand Ctenophores. 4. New Zealand Petrels. 5. Glohicephalus melas Traill. I 6. Mesoplodon howdoini Andrews. | 7. New Zealand Lichens. I 8. Maori Numei'ation. j 1 P E O C] E K ]) I N G 8 NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. 1910. PART I WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. FiusT Mkktini; : Jff/i May, 1910. Ml'. A. Hamilton, Pn^-^ident, in tlie chair. Nev: Menihers. — Miss Helyer, Mr. J. Marchbanks, Mr. V. C. Hav, Mr. J. I). Climie, Mr. M. N." Watt, and Mr. C. G. G. Berry. Honorary lAfe Member. — On tlie motion of Professor Easterfield, seconded by the President, the following resolution was carried unani- mously: "That this Society desires to place on record its appreciation of the valuable services of Mr. Thomas King during the term of his Secretaryship of the Society, by electing him an honorary life member of tlie Society.'" The Pi-esident announced that the Philosophical Institute of Canter- bury had offered to supply members of the Society with copies of its publication "' The Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand " at a reduced price. The President referred to the loss sustained by the Society owing to the death of two of its members, Mr. A. P. Buller and Mr. G. U. Marriner. Address. — The President deliveiod the following address: — The Tararuas. — When I addressed you last year at this time I suggested that we should endeavour to open up the southern end of the Tararuas by cutting a track on the Quoin and establishing some kind of a camp there of a permanent nnture. Early in the season, through the active co-operation of some of the members, a tent was erected in a suitable place just at the edge of a small piece of bush on the Quoin, and during the season it has been found useful as a shelter for several parties of explorers. Mr. Aston, who takes the greatest practical in- tere.st in this matter, has ascended several times, and has reported to me from time to time the condition of the track. Towards the end of the summer Mr. W. H. 6 Proceedings. Field, member of Parliament for Otaki, accompanied Mr. Aston to Mount Hector from the Kaitoke end, and came out at Otaki. I wished him to have a look at the Kaitoke end with a view to our co-operating with him in his efforts to cut a good track from the Otaki side, for which purpose a sum has been voted by the Government. I believe that the Lands Department has now agreed to undertake the expenditure of this £50 on the track from the Otaki Gorge through the bush at that end up to the clear land on Mount Denham. There is also a bridge being placed across the creek at that end. I hope that during the present season we shall be able to complete arrangements for working on our end of the track in the vvay of clearing the present track, so that horses may be taken up with provisions or materials for erecting a permanent hut. There are also some small ditticulties about the approach to the track which I hope will be got over shortly, and I think that this year the Society might vote a small sum towards the expense of clearing the approaches. In my last address I suggested that we should endeavour to have a permanent hut erected on Ruapehu and another on the Tararuas. Since then I visited Ruapehu from Rangitaua, and I am of the opinion that there is no necessity for us to take the initiative in building a hut on that side of the mountain : the people in the locality have taken the matter up with so much vigour that in a short time I think every necessary facility will be provided for. At present there is very little difficulty in liding to within a short distance of the siunmit. This leaves us to devote oar energies to co-operating with those who are working on the Tararua tracks from the Otaki side, and also with those who are working with a similar track from Masterton and the Wairarapa. It therefore appears that next summer we may be able to say that the Tararua Range is open to the study of naturalists to a better degree than it has ever been. The results of the small amount of collecting on the Quoin and the adjacent parts show that there is a vast amount of material of a most interesting character ready to our hand. The collectors who have been there have been well rewarded in ol3taining new species of insects and new records for many Lcpidopteia. The iilpine insects are so very local that as each fresh region of the alpine country is examined we may expect fresh discoveries and additions to our fauna and floi-a. In one of Mr. Aston's papers which will appear in the forthcoming volume of the Transactions there is a useful map, unfortunately on a small scale, prepared by the Lands Department, showing the tracks upon the different spurs. Mountain Oh.^crvaturic-'t. — Before leaving this subject I may say that I should like to see later on a small observatory built en Mount Hector at which self- recording instruments could be installed for the purpose of making records during the winter-time, mainly of the rainfall and barometric pressure. The amount of alpine rainfall is not sufficiently estimated in this country, as a rule. Owing to the destruction of the bush on the lower grounds which retarded the descent of the water from the higher portions of the watersheds, the rainfall now descends very rapidly, and in consequence is liable to injure the valuable land on the flat, to say nothing of the culverts, bridges, roads, &c. I saw a suggestion the other day that observations of this kind should be taken on Momit Egmont, as there were facilities for doing so at the present time at the moimtain houses. This should certainly be arranged, and observations taken at the head-waters of all the larger streams with a view to getting a better understanding of the water- power which will be valuable for industrial purposes when the question of the harnessing of rivers for electiical purposes is in a more practical position. This question of an accurate knowledge of the condition and amount of rainfall over given areas is perhaps even more important to those in manufacturing localities than a knowledge of the local weather is to the agriculturists and others who are concerned in the ripening and preservation of their crops. If electrical energy is provided for industrial purposes by water-power, we must have the knowledge of the probable I'ainfall, as well as the means of conserving and properly distributing the supply of water for the energy required. Coiiief. — Perhaps I may be permitted to make one or two remarks on the subject of the comet, about which you will hear more this evening, which may interest, and which I think are hardly likely to be made by any of the gentlemen who are speaking on this subject. This brilliant visitor, known as Halley's Comet, is generally regarded as one which has made many brilliant visits at various dates, and the visit of lOGfi is recorded in the Saxon chronicle in the following terms : " There was seen over all England such a sign in the heavens as no man ever before saw. Some men said that it was the star Cometa, which some men called the haired star; and it first appeared on the eve of Litania major, the viiith of the Kal. of May [24th April], and so shone all the seven nights." This was regarded after the event as William's lucky star. Wellington Philosophical Society. 7 " Ordeiicus Vitiilis " (Book v, chap, ix) contains the following lines in reference to this comet : — History's ancient annals fix The year one tliousand sixty-six : Then a tiriy conict wtiiilcd, Dreadful oiiicn, round tile world. As the time when En<;land's lord PVU before the Norman's sword. — Forester. Henry of Huntingdon, in concluding his account of William the Conqueror's reign, writes, — VVliat thoiish, like Caesar, nature failed To give thy brow its fairest grace ! Tiiy brigJit career a comet hailed. And with its lustre wreathes tliy face. — FORKMTKK. On one of the first coins struck by William I there appears a star, and authorities consider it possible that this star was a representation of the visit of this comet, and was adopted as a distinguishing mark for that issue of the coinage. ('/(Of haul /s/o/ic/.s. — I still hope that we may be able to organize an expedition for the purpose of studying the natural history of the Chatham Islands. At the time when I first brought this before you w'e were unable to get the co-operation of the other scientists in New Zealand, mainly because they were engaged in working up the material which they had accumulated in the visit to the Auckland and Campbell Islands ; and you will no doubt have seen the two volumes which have been issued by the Philosophical Institute of Canterbviry containing an account of the expedi- tion and the scientific results. We must all join in the congratulations which have been offered to the editor, authors, and printer on the satisfactory result of their labours. I hope it will not be long before we shall have a volume of the same character on the Chatham Islands. Lihrari/. — And now a few words with regard to a matter which requires atten- tion in the affairs of the Society itself. We have in this room a very considerable number of books, and we subscribe as a Society to about twenty periodicals, and I think we should take steps to make provision for the proper binding of the numbers as soon as the year is complete. I think we have not expended any money in this direction for some considerable time. A year or two ago I was fortunate enough to get some binding done by the Government in the library in general, and possibly some of these periodicals may have been bound at that time; but it would be better if there were some general instructions to the effect that a certain amount of money should be expended on binding in each year. You may recollect that last year I drew your attention to a scheme which I had under discussion for the purpose of making the libraries of the branch Institutes available to students. There has been a good deal of correspondence on the matter, and there are some points still to be decided upon : but one of the main objects of the scheme has been attained, and it is now possible for any member of this Society to borrow from any of the other libraries, if they happen to possess it, any book that is not in this library that may be required by the member for the purpose of scientific research. This arrangement is, of course, subject to certain restrictions which are absolutely necessary, and which no reasonable person would dream of objecting to. The other main point which has not yet been settled is the question of a joint card catalogue. This entails preparation by an expert, and should be as far as possible uniform. The question of the cost has not yet been settled, and I am trying to find the cheapest and best way out of the difficulty. This catalogue should be compiled on the same basis by all libraries, and, although this may appear to be a simple matter, it has its difficulties. It is only, however, when this catalogue is satisfactorily made that we can proceed to consider the question of how far we can effect economies in the pui'chase of books. This is not, apparently, a burning question at the present time, as I find that the expenditure on books is not very great, the average number of new volumes added being small. I am more than ever convinced of the necessity for some united action, and more particularly with regard to scientific journals. I am frequently asked for the loan of volumes containing papers of importance in the leading periodicals ; but in many cases we do not possess a complete set. This is to be regretted, as, though the libraries housed in this room have had exceptional, opportunities during the last forty years, members have been unable to utilize their privileges to the best advantage, there being no regularly trained librarian, the care of the books having to be undertaken by the Museum officials. It is time that this was brought to an end if the library is to fulfil its functions properly. 8 Proceedimjs. Hector Fund. — You will be pleased to hc;u' that the fund for the memoriar to the late Sir James Hectoi- has now reached a sum which will enable sonic practical benefit to accrue from it to science. The deliberations of the committee- who have charge of the fund have not yet been announced, but before the next annual meeting T trust that a satisfactory scheme for the utilization of the fund will be before you. There are few iiienibers of this Society, however, who knew the late Sir James who will need any public memorial to strengthen in their hearts the memory of the many kindnesses they received from, him, and to perpetuate the memory of a true friend to all scientists. Obituart/. — I may perhaps add my tribute of regret that the Society has lost within the last few months two scientists who loved their country and who enjoyed working in the fields of science. I refer to the death of the late Mr. A. P. Duller, who for many years studied with loving cai'e the New Zealand Lepidoptera, and to the late Mr. G. R. Marriner, Curator of the Wanganui Museum, who was a well-trained obser\er in natural history, and whose death at an early age is much regretted by me. A very distingviished contributor to our Transactions, and a worker on New Zealand Upmiptcrn, has recently passed away in the person of Mr. G. W. Kirkaldy, entomologist to the Hawaiian Sugar- planters' Association. Mr. Kirkaldy was the recognized expert in [leiniptera, and was preparing to devote special attention to those species of Ilemiptcra which are injurious to vegetation in 5s^ew Zealand. His services in Hcmiptera were invaluable to sugar-planters, and his general scientific work was recognized throughout the scientific world as of the highest importance and interest. New Zealand Palaeontoloiiy. — In the last volume of the Transactions I brought together a few notes relating to the present position of New Zealand palaeontology, and added a short bibliography of the literature on palaeontology of New Zealand. By the last mail a very valuable compilation was received from Professor Otto Wilckens, which brought together in an elaborate form the whole of the references relating to the geology of New Zealand in its widest terms. This publication will be invaluable to future workers, and wo are indeltted to Professor Wilckens for his labours in this respect. While speaking to you about the suggested expedition to the Chatham Islands for the pirrposo of working up the natural history I should have mentioned that it might be possible to induce the Marine Department to so order the goings of the training cruiser, the " Amokura," . that she should make soundings between New Zealand and the Chatham Islands. This would be useful, and would not interfere- with the routine of the ordinary cruising voyages. I should be glad if it is found possible to make arrangements for such soundings. I have purposely made my address to-night very short, as we have several gentlemen who have undertaken to speak on the subject which is of special interest at the present time — the reappearance of Halley's Comet. I will therefore commend to your thoughts and studies during the coming session the thousand aspects of the world around you, and if you can aid in the search for a fuller knowledge of things material and immaterial you will do at least a part of your duty. We are gradually recognizing that modern science and modern inventions tend to increase the community of material interests, and that many of our older ideas must be thrown overboard. Our i-solation is gradually disappearing under the development of electricity, aviation, and other modern marvels, and we are pressing on to a fuller future, and gradually recognizing that in becoming enlightened the world rises to unity ; that, instead of racial hatred and jealousy, we are progressing towards a time which will unite in one great Fatherland all the fatherlands we now pride ourselves in belonging to. We must, as Lamartine says, work for the time when we can call ourselves " fellow-citizens of every thinking soul." Pnjyers. — Halley ami Ilallev's Comet: (1) Historical, by Mr. i'honias King; (2) Physical, by Rev. Dr. Kennedy, F.R. A. S. Mr. Thomas King gave an historical address, in which he said that the interest in the comet did not lie in its brightness, its size, or its physical nature, but in the human associations that its very name suggested. The name of Halley was ;i,s.sociated not only with the comet, but with the greatest scientific discovery the world had known, for without Halley the " Principia " of Newton would not have been published. The Rev. Dr. Kennedy dealt with the physical properties of comets. Their movements could now be determined with accuracy, but there were still problems WeUi7igtoii I'iiilosophical Society. 9 regarding their constitution and structure upon some of which it was hoped light would be thrown by improved methods and appliances. The spectroscope had re- vealed hydrogen and hydiocarbons in the tails of comets. But the comets, though of large volume, were insignificant in mass. Bulking sometimes hundreds of tinies as large as the sun. they contained less substance than an asteroid ten miles in ■diameter. Their tenuity was almost inconceivable— a state of rarefaction exceeding the most perfect vacuum that could be produced artificially. Comets possessed a light of their own beside that reflected from the sun, but 'its nature was not yet determined. Both papers were fully illustrated with lantern-slides, including a fine series of photographs of the approaching comot taken at the Meeanee Observatory, Napier. Si'EciAi. Meeting: 30f/i May.. J9J0. Ml-. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair. rajyer.— '' The Astronomical Importance of the Theory of the Third Jfody," by Professor A. W. Bickerton. The author delivered a lecture on the astronomical importance of the theory •of the third body before n largely attended meeting of the Society, and lucidly explained the formation of a third body from the partial collision of two celestial bodies. He said astronomers were now all agreed in recognizing the existence of "dead suns," and grazing-collisions among the stars, but were not in agreement as to the dynamic and physical changes produced by such collisions. The common assumption was that the two bpdies concerned were enormously increased in temperature by collision; he held, on the contrary, that they were' heated only to a comparatively slight extent, but that the third body, struck off in the collision, w;i,s heated to an enormous temperature. This third body had many times the energy of ;;ny other equal mass, and was capable of producing very extraordinary phenomena. Astronomers had missed the idea of the third body, as no reference could be found to it in any standard astronomical work, so that the idea had not presented itself to them sufficiently for them to speak about it. The lecturer entered minutely into the vast energies involved, and defined a new term necessary for any easy understanding of the forces involved — "kinetol," this being propor- tional to the reciprocal of the atomic weight : thus the kinetols of hydrogen and oxygen are as 16 : 1. The lecturer had taken up the problems more than thirty years ago. not as an astronomer or astrophysicist, but as an engineer with a know- ledge of thermodynamics.* He had stated his problems and worked out their solutions, placing his results before astronomers for examination in the light of a.ctual research. He found that the great works on astronomy contained many facts that could only, in his opinion, be explained by his theory ; this was notably the case ill spectrum analysis. Mr. A. C. Clifford moved a vote of thanks to Professor Bickerton, and instanced various phenomena which were still a puzzle to astronomers and which this theory seem.ed to explain. Dr. Kennedy, F.R.A.S., who seconded the motion, was unable to follow the theory in all points, yet recognized that Professor Bickerton had devised an admirable working theory, worthy of being put to the test by astronomers and investigators into astrophysics. The lecturer had been too modest to mention one important fact^ — his anticipations had been proved in the recorded spectrum of Nova Aurigae. which agreed with predictions made thirteen years previously. The theory deserved much more attention from leading astronomers than it had received in the past. The President said he would be very pleased if the Society could help to bring the theory prominently before the astronomical world, and a recommendation might be made to the New Zealand Institute to help the matter forward. The vote of thanks was carried amid hearty applause. *S(e Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1878, 1879, 1880. 10 Proceedings Astronomical Society. — Advantage was taken by the President of the large attendance of those interested in astronomy to introduce the ques- tion of the formation of an Astronomical Society or an Astronomical Section of the Society. Dr. C. Monro Hector thought it matter for regret that the Carter bequest for a telescope had lain idle so long. He had no definite proposal to make, but thought the time opportune to bring the matter forward and try to interest the public in the subject. Mr. C. P. Powles thought the time for action had come, and moved, That steps be taken to form a branch of the British Astronomical Association in connec- tion with the Wellington Philosophical Society'. The motion, after some discussion, was withdrawn, it being uncertain whether a branch of the Association could be affiliated with the Society, and finally a com- mittee was appointed to consider the whole matter and report to a later meeting, the committee to consist of Mr. A. Hamilton, Mr. C. E. Adams, F.R.A.S., Dr. Kennedy, F.R.A.S., Dr. Hector, Mr. E. D. Bell, Mr. G. V. Hudson, Mr. A. C. Gifford, Professor Easterfield, and Mr. C. P. Powles (convener). Second Meeting : 1st June, 1910. Mr. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair. New Members. — Mr. W. H. Carter, jun., and Mr. A. E. Aston. Papers. — 1. "The Elementary Psvchologv of Child-life," bv Miss C. E. Kirk. The author illustrated her paper by many personal experiences with children of different ages, and endeavoured to trace the causes of many interesting actions and sayings incidental to childhood. 2. "The Customs and Traditions of the Poutini Ngai-Tahu," by Mr. H. D. Skinner. Abstract. It should first be explained that the Ngai-Tahu were the tribe that claimed lordship over the greater part of the South Island at the beginning of the nine- teenth century. The Poutini Ngai-Tahu were that branch of the tribe that had won a home in what is now called Westland. The succession of conquest in that district is as follows : First came Ngati-Wairangi ; they are said to have inter- married with or been conquered by Ngati-Mamoe, who were in turn conquered by Ngai-Tahu. Ngai-Tahu settled among the conquered, and the name Poutini Ngai- Tahu was given to the united tribe. In the yeai's 1828 and 1832 these people were raided by bands from Ati-Awa and Taranaki, who, however, did not settle in the district, but withdrew. Hardly any record of the customs and traditions of Poutini Ngai-Tahu has been preserved. For this reason it is worth recording details which if told of any other tribe might be called trivial. The Maoris from whom most of the information was obtained were, — Hemi, aged about 95 ; Mrs. Hemi, aged about 97 ; Kere, aged about 75 ; Jacob, aged about 65 ; and Bill, aged about 50. They were living at the Makawhio River, in South Westland, and belonged to Poutini Ngai- Tahu, though they probably had Ngati-Wairangi and Ngati-Mamoe blood in their veins. The paper begins with an account of the various passes across the Southern Alps. It tells which of them were known to the Maoris, and to what extent they were used. It then describes in some detail the preparation of food, sandals, socks, and all the other things necessary for a journey across the range. Next comes some account of old-time hunting and fishing, after which journeys and routes from place to place on the West Coast are touched on. The account given of canoes Wellington Philosophical Society. 11 and canoeing is of greater general interest, so may be quoted in full. You will see that it throws light on the construction of double canoes— a point about which there is no information elsewhere— and that it raises the question of the existence of rowing, as distinct from paddling, among the Maori. It may well be the case that in this remote part of New Zealand old customs, long discarded by all other tribes, lingered on almost into our own time. The natives said that the only voyage of any length ever made by the Poutini Xgai-Tahu was that from Bruce Bay to Milford Sound for tangkvai. Such a voyage would be made only once in a generation. It would occupy any length of time from a week to a month, as they landed at the slighte.st sign of bad weather. Katau said they travelled in winter; but that can hardly be correct. Natives of other parts of New Zealand sometimes came round the coast in canoes. It would thus seem that Poutini Ngai-Tahu were a timid folk — a supposition which is borne out by the history of their wars. They made their canoes in their own district, two canoes of, say, 30 ft. and 20 ft. length by 4 ft. beam often being lashed together by cross-pieces. A canoe which Kere helped to make near Martin's Bay was called Kai-Whiri. The Arahura natives had come down for tamjkvai, and the Bruce Bay Maoris took them and their fangiwai back in this canoe. There were five oars on each side. On being cross-questioned they asserted that they used oars sometimes, and sails of woven flax, before the white man came. If this statement as to rowing is true, the objects figured in Hamilton's "Maori Art" and in Hawksworth's illustrations of Cook's Voyage are probably oars. Kere said that the ancient unit of measurement was the fathom, which was calculated by the span of a man's outstretched arms. He described the longer single canoe of the double canoe as being seven fathoms long. The shorter one would then measure five fathoms. Spars were lashed from each end of the longer to the corresponding ends of the shorter canoe. A platform united them about the middle. This was floored, and a mast was erected on it. They said that a big canoe from the North Island was washed up at Hunt's Bay. Though it was much battered, they could see by the braces and lashings that it had formed part of a double canoe. Two double canoes loaded with greenstone once went from Milford to Waimate. One of them was made on the Makawhio above Kitchie's by Tuarohi, " our grandfather." Two other canoes are mentioned as having gone to Kaiapohia. Takahe (Notornis), Mua (Dinornis), and Pou-a-Hawaiki. It is said that the Maoris hunted an d caught the Notornis at the head-waters of the Rakaia, and that the last of them were seen there. When questioned on this point the natives could give no reply. They said that the takahe was large enough to kick the dogs. It was caught with a forked stick, with which its legs were pinned to the ground. It was not 10 ft. high, as the questioner suggested, for then, said Jacob, it would have been large enough to kick a man — it would, in fact, be a moa. Although split and charred moa-bones have been found in the middens on the West Coast, the natives could tell nothing about the bird. They had, however, a story about a great bird which they called Pouahawaiki. This may have been the bird known to other Maoris as Pouaki. " Pouahawaiki " may perhaps be an expansion of " Pouaki," arising from a mistake as to its derivation. " Pou-a- Hawaiki " means " Pou from Hawaiki." Now, it will be remembered that a mythological character named Pou journeyed to New Zealand from Hawaiki on the back of a great bird. A confusion may thus have arisen between the two stories. But, whatever the derivation of the name may be, I have little doubt that the story is an old one, and has at least a kernel of truth, and that referring to the great eagle [Harpogornh)^ bones of which are to be seen in the Dominion Museum. The natives said that once, a long time ago, some of the Maoris who went hunting or fishing failed to come home. Then, when their fellow-tribesmen watched, they saw an immense bird take up a man and carry him away to a hill-top. A Maori named Pukirehu fastened a dog's skin on a stick near a lagoon, and lay beside it in the water with only his head above the surface. He had armed himself with a long spear. The Pouahawaiki flew towards the skin, but when it saw Pukirehu's head it swooped down and attacked him with its wings. Then 'Rehu drove his spear hard at its wing. Again it came at him, and this time he made 12 FroceedvKjs. a mighty thrust into its body, and it fell dead in the water. Then its mate flew down, only to bo killed in the same way. Now Pukirehu climbed up to the eyrie, where he found the bones of many men who had been killed by the Poxiahawaiki. He also found and killed two chicks, one of which was just ready to Hy. They said that the Maoris brought dogs with them when tiiey came front Hawaiki. The descendants of some of these ran wild in the bush. Some of the domestic ones were kept for food and some for hunting. Their myth as to the creation of the first dog somewhat resembles Kipling's story " How the Elephant got his Trunk" : Two brothers once went out hunting. One of them went down on his hands and knees to allow his brother to comb his hair. Then his brother made him stay down, and pulled his nose till it grew long like a dog's nose, and his ears till they became like a dog's ears. So he went on, till the man became a dog and ate dirt. When they went home their father said, "Where is your brother?" The son said, "Here he is," and whistled, and the dog ran up. This is a debased form of the story of Irawaru given to Wohlers by the Ngai-Tahu of Ruapuke Island. War. The Poutini Ngai-Tahu were not a fighting race. Excepting the fights against taiias from the North Island which invaded the Poutini coast in the years 182.' and 1836, their only regular warfare consisted in border skirmishes with Ngati- tu-mata-kokiri to the north of them. When defeated, they scattered into the bush. It is said that the natives of Greymouth retreated by canoe up the Grey and the Arnold into Lake Brunner. This was denied by those interrogated. The idea of keeping the existence of the passes secret for strategic reasons had not occurred to them. The paths of the tauas were the ordinary trade-routes. Greejistone. The paper next deals with the working, cutting, and marketing of greenstone, after which it treats of mythology and traditions. It is interesting to find a branch of the Maori race shut off for so many centuries from the northern tribes telling exactly the same story of the coming of the Tainui and Arawa canoes as is told by the tribes of the North Island. The incidents are those of the well- known story, though the names of the canoes are not given. They had, as was natural, an intimate knowledge of the story of Tama-Ahua, discoverer of the greenstone. The most interesting variation from the published version was sup- plied by Jacob, who said that Tama-Ahua blew the dart, putting his hand to his mouth to illustrate. There are in the MS. fragments of other legends of which fuller versions have been printed ; and there are indications of legends that nov never can be told. At the present day time would only be wasted in regrets. One tale which was given in fuller detail than in any published version is the well-known one of Eaureka. Raureka was the mad woman of the Ngati-Wairangi Tribe who, about the year 1700, discovered Browning's Pass, and, pushing on across it, descended the eastern slopes of the Alps. Following down the course of a stream, she came on a party of Ngai-Tahu shaping a canoe somewhere near the present site of Geraldine. Seeing, perhaps, that she was mad, they did not interfere with her. She watched their cutting, which was slow, for their adzes were made of toki uri, or basalt. Taking from her bundle a little packet, she showed them what all versions of the story agree in calling the first piece of greenstone the eastern tribes had seen. Now, we know well from archaeological research, as well as from other traditions, that greenstone was known to Maoris in all parts of New Zealand long before the time of Raureka, and this contradic- tion has caused historians a good deal of trouble. Stack, in his " History of the South Island Maoris," has no satisfying solution to offer, and Mr. Justice Chapman, in what will probably long remain the classic essay on the working of greenstone, leaves the question open. The true explanation of the story as we now have it seems to be that in the course of generations the emphasis has been moved on to the wrong point of the story. The story did, as might be guessed from its per- sistence, enshrine an event of the greatest importance. That event was not the discovery of the greenstone, but the discovery ot a new and easy road to it. Before Raureka's lifetime, doubtless, greenstone ornaments and weapons had been rare. Parties in search of the stone had been faced either by a canoe voyage along a stretch of rugged and storm-beaten coast, or by a long and difficult journey on foot around the coast from Arapaoa to the Arahura. The boldest might well be Welhngton Philosophical Society, 13 daunted by either course. But now a pass had been discovered across the mountain barrier, and the way was easy. At once, we are told, a war-party gathered, crossed the pass, iought with Ngati-Wairangi, and came home laden with the stone. If this interpretation of the story is the true one, all the other passes known to the Maoris must have been discovered since the journey of Raureka. 3. ''Halley's Comet,"' by Mr. C. E. Adams, M.Sc, K.ll.A.S. The author exhibited a number of large-scale diagrams showing the path of Halley's Comet, with positions every ten years since the 1833 apparition, the positions being obtained by the graphical solution of Kepler's problem, using the method devised by the late J. C. Adams : while other diagrams showed the relative positions of the Earth, Venus, and the comet in 1835 and 1910. Appreciative reference was made to the excellent results of Messrs. Cowell and Crommelin's predicted return of the comet, their date of perihelion passage being 1910, April 16-57 G.M.T., while the actual date was very close to April 197. The difference, about three days, would require a correction of about 130,000 miles in the semi- major axis of the ellipse, a quantity of the same order of magnitude as the uncer- tainty of the Earth's distance from the Sun. The author gave a brief account of the photographs of the Sun taken every five minutes from 2 to 3 p.m. on the 19th May, but stated that no certain trace of the transit of the comet could be seen. Exhibits. — ^1. Mr. H. D. Skinner exliibited a Maori paddle, piobably used by the Ngai-Tahu. 2. The President exhibited an ancient Maori musical iu.strument, about 18 in. long, and elaborately carved, and resembling a flageolet. It probably came from the Bay of Plenty, and was procured by Major Robley. 14 Proceedtnga. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. First Meeting: l?fh May, 1910. Dr. R. Briffavilt, President, in the cliair. New Members. — A. Buchanan, A. W. Chatfield, J. Coe, A. B. Harding, \i. Cranwell, Hallyburton Johnstone, W. Satchell, Rev. W. Trotter, R. M. Wilson. Professor H. W. Segar, M.A., delivered a lecture on •' Halley"s Comet." After describing the general features of comets, and the views held by astro- nomers respecting them, the lecturer gave a full account of the previous visits of Halley's Comet. He then described Halley's great discovery of 1705, in which, as the result of calculation and observation, he predicted that the comet was periodic, and followed a regular orbit contained within the limits of the solar system. In this Halley made one of the first applications of the knowledge given to the world in Newton's " Principia." The peculiarities of the orbit of Halley's Comet, as compared with those of other comets, were then dealt with, and the path followed by it during its present visit was described, its position at various times being compared with that of the Earth. The lecture was copiously illus- trated with limelight views and diagrams. As the hall proved much too small to accommodate the audience, the lecture was repeated, with slight alterations, on the 23rd May. Second Meeting : Gtlt June, 1910. D]-. R. Briffault, Piesident, in the chair. Ne^v Member. — R. J. Morgan. The President delivered the aniiiversai-v address, taking as his sub- ject " The Nature of Life." The lecturer explained the mechanical theory of life, and contrasted it with the old theory of vitalism. The latter was, he said, inconsistent with the prin- ciple of the conservation of energy, and of the equivalence of forces. It was noteworthy, nevertheless, that in many quarters dissatisfaction had of late been expressed with the mechanical theory, and that many biologists displayed a tendency to return to vitalism in some modified form. Among the causes of this tendency were the fact that the mechanical theory did not supply an interpreta- tion of the distinction between living and non-living matter, and that the ideal of the theory — the reduction of living processes to terms of physics and chemistry — had not in any instance been achieved. The nu'chnnical tlicoiy originally regarded life as the property of a chemical compound, protoplasm. That view, however, was negatived by the fact that perpetual change of chemiciil composition is a Auckland InstUute. 15 I'int' ({ltd iton loiulition of life. Thf study of inetabolic; processes had recently made great advances, which were discussed' at some length, and the lecturer concluded that nothing exactly analogous to the process was known in the inorganic world. Metabolism, which might be a manifestation, or cause, or result of unknown physical conditions, was, the lectirrer submitted, the proximate known physical basis of vital procesaes. Passing to a discussion of the reactions of living objects, the distinctive characters of those reactions appeared to be a continual self-adjustment, and re- ad j.ustment to external conditions — in other words, adaptability. The analogy between automatic devices designed to meet a certain purpose, and adaptive response to all conditions, with continual readjustment, was, the lecturer said, superficial and misleading. Since the physical conditions of the metabolizing organism differed in a funda- mental manner from any to be found in non-living objects, it was not surprising that the principle of the self-adjusting mechanism could not be deduced from inorganic phenomena. And, since the readjustment was known in some cases to be accompanied by sensibility, it was not unreasonable to suppose that the physical phenomena corresponding to sensibility constituted that self-adjusting mechanism which is distinctive of living organization. Third Meeting : ^fh July, 1910. Di'. R. Briffaiilt, President, in tlie chair. Mr. S. E. Lamb, B.Sc, delivered a popular lecture on " Ferro-con- crete Structures," illustrated with numerous lantern views. At the close a discussion arose, in which the President, Mr. Moore, and Mr. W. E. Bush took part. 16 Proceedings. MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. FiusT Mektino : l//h March, lUlO. The President, Mr. W. ¥ . Durward, in the chair. New Members. — Messrs. G. H. Bennett, J. Mounsey, C. N. Taplin. Papers. — 1. "The New Zealand Saddleback," by W. W. Smith, F.E.S. 2. "The Ancient Maori, and some of his Peculiarities." by L>. Sinclair, C.E. The Secretary reported that since the last meeting between foity and tifty fresh exhibits had been received at the Museum, and that the need of increased accommodation was becoming daily more urgent, as it was impossible under present conditions to make use of the Museum for educational purposes. Seco>.d Meeting : iht April, 1910. The President, Mr. W. F. Durward, in the chair. The Hon. Dr. Findlay, K.C., gave a lecture on " I^egal Liberty." The lecturer described the evolution of government in England, and the various influences at work, attributing the theories ultimately adopted to the French dreamer Rousseau's philosophy of government as embodied in " Le Contrat Social," published in 1762, that were adopted in the Fiench Revolution, and have replaced the teachings of John Stuart Mill in England. The lecturer summarized his conclusions thus : There is in Anglo-Saxon nations an excessive impatience of State interference, due partly to the struggle by which freedom has in the past lieen wrested from Government. That in their attitude towards the powers of the State the people of our nation are apt to ignore the fact that it is only from these powers and under their protection alone that they derive their rights and liberties. For many centuries man has been trying to find some scientific boundary between the rights of the individual and those of the State ; and the theories of Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Adam Smith resulted in the doctrines of natural liberty which limit the State's functions to those of keeping order and protecting rights, while they extend the area of individual freedom to the widest extent possible without injury to the rights of others. This led to a fanatical individualism, under which the condition of the English labourer was worse than at any previous period of English history. The school of natural liljerty still largely dominates orthodox economic thought. It is based upon the cosmic process, the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest, and is opposed to the moral or ethical process of human betterment. Thought and experi- ence has shown that in modern nations the system of natural liberty is not a policy of true social progress ; that, on the contrary, such progress can be attained only by limiting greatly individual liberty and by eliminating the struggle for a bare exist- ence. That the true policy of progress in modern nations is not the mere protection by the State of legal rights, but provision by the State of the conditions which are essentials to the wetfare of the people. That for the improvement of those coerced, and for the provision of the conditions of general welfare, the State may, in defiance of the tenets of individualism, properly curtail individual liberty. That, as the solidarity of a nation increases and society becomes increasingly organized, the closer relation and intei'dependence of the units of population necessitate a lestricted area of individual freedom. That conceptions of the area of personal freedom have changed with changes in our national aims, and a policy of "Want and Vice and their Reduction " is slowly supplanting the cardinal policy "Wealth and its Production." That the trend of the freest democracies is towards a State paternalism. That the national character and temper of our nation may be trusted to prevent any serious limitation of the area of liberty really essential to a self- lespecting vigorous manhood. At the close of the lecture the chairman spoke eulogistically upon it, and so did Mr. E. 1). Hoben, who moved a vote of thanks on behalf of the Society, and Mr. IV Buick, M.P.. who seconded it. Otciijo InatUute.. .17 OTAGO INSTITUTE. First Mkkting : SnI May, 1910. The President, Professor Waters, in the cliair. Tlie President delivered his presidential address, entitled " Mining Education in relation to the Mining Industry." The President referred in feeling terms to the serious illness of the "N'ice-President, Dr. Hocken, and commented on the very great interest which Dr. Hocken had always taken in the Otago Institute, and lie moved a hearty vote of thanks to him for the gift of some valuable periodicals which he had recently presented to the Institute. This was carried with heai'ty applause. Sk(joni) Mehtinc : lih Jit/ic. 1910. The President, Profes.sor Waters, in the chair. The Pi'esident announced certain changes which had taken place in the pe?'sonf)eI of the Council, Dr. Fitchett having been elected in the place of Dr. Malcolm (resigned), Mr. x\lexander Bathgate having been elected Vice-President in place of Dr. Hocken (deceased), and Mr. E. J. Parr in place of Mr. Bathgate. iVetv Members. — Messrs. R. W. Brickell, Cuthbert Fenwick, Charles Butterwurtli, W. T. Glasgow, George Howes, and J. C. McGeorge. The President referred lo tlie inestimable loss sustained by the Institute through the death of Dr. Hocken, and on the motion of Dr. Colquhoun the following resolution was carried in silence, the members standing : — That the men)bers of the Otago Institute record their keen sense of loss at the removal by death of Dr. T. M. Hocken, who has been a member since the incep- tion of the Institute in 1869. During these forty-one years Dr. Hocken was a member of the executive for thirty-seven years, and held the position of President on three occasions. As a member he was most enthusiastic, and ever ready to contribute to the proceedings. Whilst taking a keen interest in all subjects brought before the Institute, anch in its aims and objects, he devoted himself to investi- gating and recording the early history of New Zealand. Endowed with a tempera- ment favourable to close study, and possessed with perseverance, his investigations in this his labour of love remain as an undoubted authentic record for all times in bis volumes entitled " Contributions to the Early History of New Zealand," and " Bibliography of New Zealand Literature." He has by his priceless gift to New Zealand of all the documentary and other evidence upon which his records are based enhanced the value of these records beyond estimation. This evidence, now forming portion of the Hocken collection, housed in the Hocken wing of the Otago Museum, will ever be a history of the Dominion defined and traced from the earliest beginnings. This Institute joins in the hope that his collection, freely given, will ever be under good guardianship, and expresses its appreciation of his high ideal of citizenship and his fine personality, which endeared him to all who knew him Dr. Benham showod some very interesting and valuable mats of Maoi'i workmanship. These mats had been presented by the late Dr. Hocken, and some of them were of historical value. They were of different kinds, were used for various ceremonies and different occasions, and each had its own special Maori name. He also showed a very valuable tattooed dried Maori head from Dr. Hocken's collection. 18 Proceedings. Mr. George Howes exhibited some specimens of moths and butterflies. Dr. Marshall gave an address upon the geology of the Cook and Society Islands, and made interesting references to the features he had observed during a trip to the Islands. He dealt with the theories advanced by Darwin, Sir John Murray, and Professor Agassiz as to the formation oi: the coral reefs around the Islands, and said that his own observations supported Darwin's theory. Dr. Marshall, with the assistance of Dr. Benham, showed a number of photographic views of the Islands, which he commented upon and explained in a vei-y lucid manner. Thikd Meetino : ofli Jiihj, 1910. The President, Pi'ofessor Waters, in tlie cliaij-. Xeiv Member. — Mr. Peter Barr. Papers. — 1. " Description of an Tudescribed Barnacle of the Genus ScalpeUum from New Zealand," by Dr. Annandale, Superintendent of the Indian Museum, Calcutta; communicated by Dr. Benham. 2. '"The Occurrence of the Starfish Nectria in New Zealand," bv W. B. Benham, F.R.S. 3. "Note on a Male Coccid {J.eacliia •eeiJandica Maskell), Ijy W. B. Benham, F.K.S. Dr. Pick.M'ill showed the tooth of a deer which was supposed to have a coating of gold upon its grinding surfaces. He then read an interesting- paper entitled " Golden Teeth." Dr. Pickerill pointed out that, though cases of alleged golden teeth had occurred from time to time in human beings and various lower animals, when the matter came to be carefully investigated it was evident that the golden sheen or fluor- escence upon the teeth was really due to the presence of an organism which had the power of giving a greenish-golden tint to any substance on which it was growing. It is probable that a thin deposit of calculus on the teeth was thus coloured, giving them a peculiarly golden appearance. Dr. Benham exhibited the decorated skull of an Andaman- Islander, which was a most interesting relic of mourning worn b}^ the widow on various occasions. The skull was curiously marked with circular patches of colour, decorated with shells, and was worn suspended from the back of the head. Dr. Benham also showed a human lower jaw from the Andaman Islands, which was similarly worn by relatives of a deceased native, as a mark of mourning or respect. These interesting exhibits had been presented by Captain Malcolm Thomson, M.B., late of the Indian Medical Service. Dr. Fulton then read a paper giving a description of a visit to Rio de Janeiro in li^89. Dr. Fulton pointed out the very unhealthy condition of the city at that date, yellow fever being very prevalent. He described many prominent features of the city, its magnificent harbour, the interior of the Cathedral, the Jardin Botanique, the Corcovado Railway, and, after giving a few statistics of modern Rio, showed how, under improved conditions of sanitation, destruction of the mosquito-larva, establishment of electric tramways and lighting, the city had become one of the fines-t and most up to date of the New World. In concluding the lecturer showed some fine photographs of Rio and suburbs, which were kindly exhibited by means of the lantern by Dr. Benham. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury . 19 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Special Meeting : 20th April, 1910. Present : Mr. R. M. Jjaing (President), in the chair, and eigiity others. The President explained that the meeting had been called to give members an opportunity of hearing a paper by Professor Bickerton on a vital point of his theory, and to allow of full discussion thereon. He gave a brief historical account of Professor Bickerton 's efforts to lay his theory before the scientific world, and a summary of its leading features, and saionstitutes an addition to the known fauna of New Zealand. MacuUochia gen. nom. nov. In 1872 Castelnau used the name Richardaoaiu generically for Histiopicrus faOiosiis Giinther, but in 1903 I drew attention to the fact that it had been first applied by Steindachner in 1866 in the Atherinidae. I did not, however, move further in the matter. Since that time Dr. Jordan has reviewed the Histiopterid fishes of Japan, and has supplied a key to all the genera of the family. He appears to have overlooked my former note," for he still uses the name Richardsonia as 26 Abstracts: applied by Castelnau. Mr. A. R. McOuIlocli, wliose name 1 associate with the species, informs me that he has received a large number of specimens, which enable him to pronounce H. forndli as the yonnt; of .1/. hiJiiosa. notwithstanding the differences exhibited by the type specimen. Ct'pold aofro sp. nov. D., 74; A., 69; V., i, 5; P., 20; C, 6+4. Length of head, 98; height of body, 12 6 in the length; diameter of eye, 3'0 ; interorbital width, 6'0 ; and length of snout, 51 in the head. The preopercle is unarmed, and the maxilla extends to below the middle of the eye. The lower jaw protrudes and fits into a notch in the upper one, the anterior teeth remaining without when the mouth is closed ; the teeth in the jaws are in single series, but there is a patch in front of the lower jaw, the anterior teeth of which are strongly curved ; there are no teeth on the vomer, palatines, or tongue. The dorsal fin arises above the edge of the opeicle. the anal less than the length of the head behind it. The scales are extremely small ; no colour remains after the partial digestion of the fish, but there is a conspicuous black spot on the membrane between the maxilla and premaxilla ; no mark traceable on the dorsal fin. The largest specimen was taken from the stomach of a Znis : smaller ones were obtained from I'agrosomus ; all being taken in the Bay of Plenty. The genus is new to the waters of the Dominion, and the species is typically a C'epola as restricted by Bleeker. The Australian (^. au.-f liijhi andi rfoni sp. nov. D., vii, 12: A., i, 11 ; V., i. .'> ; P.. 11 + H; C.. 11 + S; L. lat. 65. Vert. 10 -f 16 = 26. Length of head, 2'9 ; height of body, 3'8 ; length of caudal, 48 in the total: diameter of eye 3'2, interorbital space 3"0 ; and length of snout. 21 in the head. Form and coloration much as in Ptcrj/gofrif/Iti Jicmixt'n-ta, but maxilla does not extend beyond the anterior margin of the orbit. One large plate in front of the dorsal fin and five pairs of smaller ones bordering the spines. The rays are rela- tively higher and both pectoral and ventral are longer, while the chiropods (free pectoral rays) are shorter than in that species. The black spot on the dorsal fin ot P. hemifftirta is replaced with small scattered spots like those on the body : the rays bear three rows of spots, and the ventrals and chiropods are also spotted. The pectoral of /'. lie iiiiy. Soc. of i'^tliii burgh, vol. xlvii, 1910, pt. ii, No. 13, pp. 287-316, i) figures). MS. received, 20th November, 1!)09 : read, 21,st June, 1909; issued separately, 29th Jaiuiary, 1910. Professor Marshall has been working at the pharmacology of tutu during the last ten years, the pure tutin being supplied by Professor" Easterfield and the abstractor. Being published after the researches of Dr. Fitchett and Professor Malcolm (Trans. N.Z. Inst., xli, p. 286), the author's paper will no doubt be read with considerable interest. Professor Marshall in a footnote states, in so far as the experiments are common with those of Fitchett and Malcolm the results are in general agreement : on a few physiological points imly are the researches not in accord. Professor Marshall thus summarises his lesults : — 1. Tutin, the active principle of the toot-plant, causes epileptoid convulsions in various classes of animals. After large doses to I'abbits the earliest convulsions commence with a general tonic spasm, which is followed by clonic movements. After small convulsant doses the convulsions begin with clonic spasms of the muscles of the head. These extend to the fore and then to the hind part of the body, and may terminate in a tonic spasm. The latter convulsions after larger doses also assume this form. After the initial convulsions following small doses, somersault- ing movements are not uncommon. 2. The convulsions are mainly of cortical and pontine origin. Convulsive move- ments can be obtained when the brain is divided below the pons, but they are less characteristic and are more difficult to induce than when the pons is intact. In frogs the optic lobes seem to be the most important centres alfected. Unequivocal conclusive movements were not obtained below a section of the spinal cord. 3. The convulsions arising in the pons are very susceptible to anaesthetics. This probably explains why convulsions are limited to one .side after excision of one cerebral hemisphere during the continuance of the anaesthesia. 4. In unanaesthetizecl rabbits the two fore limbs act together, and the two hind limbs act in concert and synchronously during tutin convulsions ; in the anaes- thetized animal the limb-movements are often asynchronous. Individual muscles of the limbs often act vicariously, and this probably explains the irregular clonus which the movements of the limbs show. 5. Preceding the onset of the convulsions the medullary centres are stimulated. This effect is also produced by non-convulsant closes. 6. All doses which produce an obvious action cause in rabbits a fall of body- temperature. 7. When heated with dilute caustic-alkali solutions, tutin rapidly decomposes, the product being pharmacologically inactive. Prolonged heating with dilute acids leads to the same result. 8. The substance most closely allied to tutin — namely, corianiyrtin — is a more powerful convulsant, and, for similar physiological doses, is more rapid and more transient in action than tutin. B. C. A. 3. New Zealand Ctenophores. " Raccolte planctoniche, fatte dalla R, nave ' Liguria ' " : vol. ii, Ctenofori, by Alessandro Ghigi, 1909. In 1906 there was published (Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxix, p. 138) an account of two species of Ctenophores from the New Zealand seas, the first to be recorded scientifically — viz., Bcroe s/takc'i'peari and Enplokainis au. AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE Iss0BD 18th January. 1911 Mlcilincitoii, g.%. JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PBINTING OFFICE VVm. Wesley and Sons, 28 Essex Street, Steand, London \V.C. CONTENTS. PROCEEDINGS. Wclliiigtou Philosopliical Society : Meetings, 6tli July, onl August, ITtli August, 22nd August, 7th September. Auckland Institute: Meetings, 1st August, 29tli August, "iDth Si-p- teniber, 2-ith October. Manawatu Pliilosophical Society : Meetings, otli September, 2Ut]i October. Otago Institute : Meetings, 2nd August, 6tb September, 4tli October. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury: Meetings, -ird August. Tth Si.'p- tember, 5th October, 19th October. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute : Meetings, ."itli August, 26tli August, Ttl) Octol)er. PAPERS AND ABSTRACTS. 1. Note on the Flora of Mount Egmont : a Coriection. 2. Additions to the Fish Fauna of New Zealand, Xo. II. :? The Alkaloids of the Pukatea. 4. Plianzengeographie {h. Diels). •J. Fossil Oxniuiidoceae. ir>. Morphology of the Fodocarplneae . 7. Irees and Shrubs of New Zealand. 5. Pratut anf/uhifa Hook f., and LoheJia J i ihkk oulex Petrie. 9. Deforestation in New Zealand. lU. Oiiris/a inodesto Diels, Description of. 11. Pec.tti) multi^quaniatuii Dunker, and Ptcttn lad/afu-^ Hutton. 12. Bird-life on the Ksrmadec Islands. l-"5. .Marine Mollusca from the Kermadec Islands. PROCEEIJINGS (IF THK NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1910. PART II. ^VELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Third MEETixn : (jfh .Inly, 1910. Mi-, a. Hamilton, President, in the chair. IS'ew Member.— Mr. E. S. Baldwin. Astronomical Serf ion. — The President referred to the report of the connnittee on tlie pi'oposed formation of an Astronomical Section, and announced that owing to lack of time the Council was not prepared to recommend any proposal at present, hni that a conference between the Council and the committee would take place at an early date. Mr. C. P. Powles, chairman of the committee, expressed disappoint- ment that the Council had not had time to reach a conclusion, and hoped the intended conference would Ije held shortly for the purpose of putting something definite before the public. Fa2)ers. — 1. " Notes and Descriptions of Ntw Zealand Leindopteni,'' by Mr. E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S.; communicated by Mr. (I. Y. Hudson. 2. "A Revision of the Classification of the New Zealand Tortricina," by Mr. E. xMeyrick, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. ; communicated by Mr. C. V. Hudson. 3. " Notes on the Life-history of Mehinchra rhodopleura and Leucania eyiastra Meyrick," by Mr. R. M. Sunley. 1. "New Zealand Lepidoptera : Notes on Collections made in 1909-10," by Mr. H. Hamilton, A.O.S.M. ; communicated by Mr. A. Hamilton. Exhibits. — The President exhibited interesting entomological speci- mens recently added to the Museum; also some stone implements recently received from India. Tlie President announced that the sum of £10 had been voted to Professor Bickerton to assist him in the elaboration and publication of 36 Proceedings. his astronomical theoin- ; but tlie Council, in wishing him every success in his efforts to obtain a full hearing for his theory, does not profess to form an opinion as to its merits, but wishes him to have every facility in presenting it to the astronomical societies for criticism. Joint Library Scheme. — The Cliairman announced that the Council had resolved to allow Victoria College students and others interested the privilege of consulting books in the library, under suitable regu- lations to be drawn up by the Council. FouETH Meeting : 3rd August, 1910. Mr. Thomas King, Vice-President, in the chair. Aistronomical Section. — The I'eport of the connnittee set up to advise on the formation of an Astronomical Section was received, and con- tained the following resolutions of the committee : — 1. That an Astronomical Section of the WelUngton Philosophical Society be formed. 2. That the objects of the section be the establishment of an observatory in or about Wellington, and the promotion of the study of astronomical subjects generally. 3. That a fund be established for promoting the objects of the Carter bequest, and for rendering it available as soon as possible. 4. That the proposed observatory, if established, be called the King Edward VII Memorial Observatory, as a memorial to the late King. 5. That the question of promoting such a memoiial be brought before the public, and that for this purpose a committee be formed, including prominent citizens, in conjunction with members of the Philosophical Society. On the motion of Professor Easterfield, seconded by Mr. G. V. Hudson, it was resolved, That an Astronomical Section of the Welling- ton Philosophical Society be formed. On the motion of Mr. G. Hogben, seconded by Professor Picken, it was resolved. That the Secretary should call a meeting of all who desire to form the section, and that the new section be forthwith formed, and elect its own officers. Papers. — 1. " University Reform," by Professor T. H. Laby. 2. " The Need for a Societv of Eugenics in New Zealand," by Pro- fessor H. B. Kirk. [Reports (if these papers, and of the discussion thereon, were pub- lished in the New Zealand Times of the 4th and 6t]i August.] Special Meeting : 17fh Aur/usf, 1910. Mr. Thomas King, Vice-President, in the chair. An apology was received from Mr. A. Hamilton, President, for non- attendance, on account of ill health. Mr. T. Buckley, Chief Electrician of the Telegraph Department, delivered an interesting lecture on wireless telegraphy, illustrated by numerous diagrams and experiments. The lecturer reviewed briefly the liistory of " wireless," and described the existing systems in consider- able detail, and gave a number of practical illustrations on the apparatus Welhtigton Philosophical Society. 37 erected in the lecture-i-ooiu. The lecture was listened to with close attention, and on its conclusion the Chairman moved a hearty vote of thaidxs to Mr. Buckley for his interesting and instructive lecture. Special M]<;eting : 32hd Aur/usf, 1910. Mr. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair. Astronomical Section. — This meeting was held in accordance with the resolutions carried at the meeting held on the 3rd August to form an Astronomical Section of the society. The Secretary read the resolutions relating to the section. The President briefly explained the objects of the section, which he declared duly formed. He then left the chair, and the section met to elect its officers, &c. Fifth Meeting : 7th September, 1910. Mr. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair. The Chairman referred sympathetically to the loss the societ}^ had sustained in the death of Mr. George Denton, a very old member of the, society, and of Mr. Alexander Shand; and, on the motion of Mi-. King, it was resolved that votes of sympathy and condolence should be communicated to their relatives. Mr. H. L. James was prevented by indisposition from attending the meeting, and apologized for being unable to deliver his address on "Othello.'' Papers. — 1. Professor Kirk opened the adjourned discussion on his paper on the need for a Society of Eugenics in New Zealand, and briefly repeated the arguments in favour of the establishment of such a society. Mr. G. V. Hudson, in supporting Professor Kirk, made a strong plea for the study of the science of heredity in our educational institutions. 2. " Notes on the Discovery of Dactyhmthus Taylori," by Mr. James Grant, B.A. ; communicated by Mr. T. W. Downes. In the absence of Mr. Downes, this paper was read by the Chairman. 3. " Preliminary Note on the Fungi of the New Zealand Epiphytic Orchids," by Mr. T. L. Lancaster; communicated by Professor Kirk. On the invitation of the Chairman, Mr. Lancaster read his paper. Exhibits. — 1. Mr. M. Crompton Smith exhibited a helio-chrono- nieter, or universal sun-dial, and stated that trials carried out by himself showed that the instrument will give the time correct within a minute or less, and that not only can local mean time be obtained, but that the instrument will also give standard time as well as local, and standard time for any other place to which it is set. 2. The Chairman exhibited an ancient stone bowl from the east coast; a carved stone from Rabbit Island, Nelson, probabl}- used as a kanaka god; and an onewa, or blackstone mere. 3. Mr. G. V. Hudson exhibited some excellent enlarged photographs, of insects, by Mr. Davies, Grey town. 38 Proceedings. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. FouKTii MeetixNC : i-<^ Aiif/i/sf, 1910. Dr. 1{. ]iriliault, Pixsideut, in the chair. Lecture. — Mr. A. Wyllie, Eh'otrical Engineer to the City of Auck- land, delivered a lecture on " Wireless Telephony." The lecturer explained the different systems at present in use, taking first of all those dependent on light or heat radiation, such as the photophone, the speak- ing arc, the photographophone, &c. He then passed on to consider those modes which are worked by means of electrical forces, explaining at some length closed- circuit telephony, electro-magnetic induction telephony, and spark telephony. A large number of illustrative experiments accompanied the lecture, and the "speaking arc" was exhibited for the first time in Auckland. A unanimous vote of tliaiiks was awarded to Mr. Wvllie. Fifth Mketino : '29th Ai(gust, 1910. Dr. 11. Briffault, President, in the chair. New Memberfi. — A. Allison. J. C. Dickinson, W. Cole, F. Finch, (t. Graham, D. Holderness, T. Macfarlane, J. E. Moore, Hon. J. McGowan, A. H. V. Morgan, E. K. Mulgan. Lecture. — Mr. E. V. Miller delivered a lecture on "The Ultra- microscope." The lecturer pointed out that the magnitude of an object which can be ren- dered visible by the highest power of the microscope is now well understood, and that from tiie very nature of light we cannot hope for much further improvement. Those ol)jects which are too small to be revealed by the ordinary microscope are consequently called " ultramicroscopic," and require special modes of treatment to make theii' piesence appreciable. Thei'e are two methods at present in existence, which may be called respectively that of ultra- violet light and that of diffiaction on a dark field. The lecturer showed that by modification oi these two systems it is possible to render visible infinitely smaller things than can be exhibited by the finest microscope, and that even the almost inconceivably small particles suspended in a colloidal solution can be seen, measured, and their movements observed. Sixth Meetinc; : 26tli Se/>fr//ib('r. 19/0. Dr. R. JJriffault, President, in the chair. New Me/nberK. — E. A. Price, J. W. Stewart, 11. Leslie Stewart, J. Wilson. Lecture. — The Kev. Arclulcacon Walsh gave a lecture on " Tlie Effects of the Disappearance of the New Zealand Bush." The lecturer sketched the causes of the destruction of the forests— cattle, fire, and the axe of the bushman. Cattle roam through the bush and destroy the under- growth, and fire follows immediately afterwards. The consequences of this de- forestation are great and far-icacliing, and are of two kinds, climatic and topo- graphical. Aicckland Institute. 39 Dealiny with the cliimitu' rhiingt's, Aicluleiicon Walsh said that al'ti;r two or lliiee fires had passed over an area of hind it left the soil very poor and scantily protected with vegetation. It became easily heated by the sun, and then the air was heated by radiation from the earth, giving rise to winds whi( h parched up surrounding lands, prematurely I'ipened crops, and rendered other areas liable lo be swept by lire. \Vhen the forests were near the sea, their (h'struclion left the way open for sea-winds, which carried salt spray many miles inland, and killed still more vegetation. In northern Taranaki and at Hokianga it had been found thai, severe frosts, hitherto unknown, had followed deforestation, owing to the loss ol protection from cold winds from the sea. Although in many districts every possible acre was being cleared in order to allow for the grazing of dairy cattle, it would have been better had a reasonable amount of bush been left standing as protection. As for topographical results, w'hen heavy rain fell on forest land most ui it was held by the ti'ees and evaporated again. When the bush disappeared the water began to flow on the surface, causing ei'osion and landslips. This erosion gradually filled the water of the rivers with solid matter, which was deposited on the bottom, raising the bed until the river overflowed, and destroyed wide tracts of land by silting and by eating out other courses, and eventually caused the formation of harbour bars. In many countries foresting work was carried out to a large extent, liut the methods generally adopted were not at all applicable to the New Zealand bush. It was impossible in thin New Zealand forests. Once this work were started, fire must follow, and the bush be totally destroyed. And no amount of r(;afforestation could make up for the damage which had already been done. Looking into the future, one could only see the damage already done being greatly increased. Reafforestation was being carried on in a way by the Govern- ment, but not at all in prt)portion to the area which had been wasted. There was no hope that forests at present standing would remain intact. Land must be found for settlers, and as long as there was a demand f(jr timber the sawmiller would be found to attack the bush. Even the present Government reserves weie not safe, and would not be until they were surrounded by stout barbed-wire fences, for, once cattle and pigs got into the bush, fire was a natural consequence. Several reserves have already been lost in this way. Settlei's in different parts should be made to keep certain aieas always under timber. Thus they w^)uld have adequate protection for their remaining lands, while at the sanu^ time they would find that they had no more profitable crop than their timber-trees. Seventh MEETixr; : Jjfh October, 1910. Dr. R. Briffatilt, President, in the chair. Lecture. — The Rev. D. D. Scott delivered a lecture entitled " Huxley : an Appreciation and a Criticism." The lecturer emphasized the human qualities of Professor Kuxley : he was neither icy n(jr remote. With a towering intellectuality, he had a childlike and loving personality, and a warm home-life. His early struggles no doubt toughened him for his future work, and he lived thiough his trials to see the fruit of his labours. Huxley's great services in support of the theory of evolutiim were dwelt upon, and then the lecturer entered upon the critical side, pointing out certain inconsistencies in his logic, and particularly in what may be called his schaol of philosophy. The lecture concluded with a warm tribute to Huxley's rare inde- pendence of character and transparent integrit3\ 40 Proceedings MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Third Meeting : oth September, 1910. The President, Mr. W. F. Durward, in the chair. Neiv Members. — Messrs. C. R. Hewett, R. Mo Nab. Paper. — Mr. E. D. Hoben read a paper on " The Moving Picture," and its variovis historic, scientific, business, and educational aspects, showing the immense possibilities of the machine as it was developing — how it would presently show scenes in natural colours and with all the sounds produced simultaneously. After the j^aper various qviestions were asked, especially in relation to the method of production of trick films, and attention was called to a remarkable film recently exhibited at the E^mpire Hall, in which a second picture is shown within the covers of a book, apparently quite independent of the main movement. Alteration of Rule. — On the motion of Captain Hewitt, acting for Mr. Eliott, seconded by Mr. Hoben, Rule •! was altered to read as fol- lows : " Candidates may be elected members of the society, on the recom- mendation of a member of the Council and of one other ordinary member, by a majority of the Council present at any meeting of the Council, and on payment of the annual subscription within three months." Fourth Meeting : 20th Ortoher, 1910. The President, Mr. W. F. Durward, in the chair. Additions to the Museum.- — Some recent additions to the Museum were exhibited, including the collection of ferns exhibited by Mr. Lan- caster at the last Winter Show of the local Agricultural and Pastoral Association, to which had been awarded the societj^'s prize; also a col- lection of fossils from Scinde Island, and a couple of meres and some Maori ornaments, which were described by Mr. C. M. Waldegrave, the owner, one of the meres having belonged to Te Rauparaha. Paper. — Wv. R. McNab then read a most interesting paper on " Recent Researches into the History of Te Rauparaha 's Raid on Akaroa, and the French Race for the same Place in 1840," showing with regard to the latter event, from original documents, both French and English, that the generally accepted story was quite unsupported by facts. Otaqo Institute. 41 OTAGO INSTITUTE. FoUHTH Mi^iETiNO : "Jnd August, 1010. The Pn'sidout. Professor Waters, in the chuir. There were fort}- members present. New Members. — Messrs. E. E. Stark, James NicoU, and K. A. Farquharson. Paper.^. — 1. Professor Waters laid on the table an important contri- bution by Mr. R. A. Farquharson, M.A., entitled " The Occurrence of Platinum in New Zealand," and he proceeded to show by means of maps and diagrams the various localities where the metal is obtained, and how by dift'eront methods the pure metal is finally extracted. He spoke in highly flattering terms of the work that was being done by Mr. Farquharson. 2. Mr. J. Crosby Smith sent in a paper on the plants of Lake Hauroko, and this was read by the Secretary. Exhibits . — Mr. George Howes exhibited some fine specimens of Lepidoptera, and Dr. Benham spoke of the valuable work that was being done in the field by Mr. Howes. Address. — Dr. Fulton gave a short address entitled " An Hour with a Water Diviner," and argued that m the man interviewed there was no more than a shrewd knowledge of localities, a good idea of the run of all the streams in the district worked upon, and an almost imper- ceptible volvmtary contraction of the muscles of the fingers, whicli caused tlie twig to descend wherever it was deemed expedient. Dr. Benham and Mr. McLeod also spoke on the subject. Fifth MEpyriNG : 6th September, 1910. The President, Professor Waters, in the chair. There was a large number of members and friends present. Address. — Dr. Cockayne, of Christchurch, gave a most interesting- address, entitled " The Scientific Importance of our Scenic Reserves and National Parks.'' The lecturer stated that New Zealand st\ 40 MANAWA Thikj The Presii New Members. — M Paper. — Mr. E. I' and its various lii.sl showing the immense how it would prest'i! sounds produced sin After the paper to the method of | a remarkable film second picture is si independent of the Alteration of /^ Mr. Eliott, second. lows : " Candidat< mendation of a member, by a m Council, and oi months." The Additions t were exhibited caster at the Association, t lection of fo Maori ornai owner, one icte of Ca rbury. 45 li m th€# / . and others, liowing how these scientists of negativelyharged electrons in matter. lound to havi in exceedingly small value, of the hydrogei tom, which we had hitbei'to *^rr capable of miate existence. Moi^eover, eiy that thi nass is not mechanical, but e rapid mot-i of a charge of electricity. lid the tent.ive view that all matter is tnts contaimg these negatively charged re\y charged phere. These electrons are lifferent elennts, but the arrangement is ine same elemeni On this supposition it is periodic table o the chemist ; for a periodic necessarily lead o a periodic recurrence of from the pres ential address of Professor iation last ye , wherein he expressed the of the last deicle had given new life to ak must yet be :aled before an outlook over of the universe m be hoped for. vote of tlian^ was accorded to Dr. jfh Ocfob-, 1910. President), ii the chair, and fifty-five amett and Dr t\ Morton Ander.son. ce. — A letter waticceived from Dr. W. S. Ppt of a copy of le " Subantarctic Islands 'ulating the Institte on its production. -The President diw the attention of mem- )cken Memorial Fud. i Flora of Mount^gmont: a CoiToction," li Fauna of XewZealand : Part II," by ographical Skw re briefly discussed, also its ' iiphytes. Short pei'iods of !•; find the growth- forms 'vnamical standpoint, ppe series and rock- It is further shown linings. le district, arranged i! i ji V^^l >n *«; 0'^ »fl* ?^ 44 Proceedings. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Fifth Meeting : 3rd August, 1910. Present : Mr. R. M. Laing (President), in the chair, and seventy others. yen- Mtmher-:. — Messrs. J. A. Bartruiu and W. L. Parker. AihJrtsa. — " The Geology of the Cook and Soc-ietv Ishmds," bv Dr. P. MarshaU. The lecturer gave a veiy lucid and interesting description of the geology of the islands, based on observations made during a recent visit. He dealt specially with the characteristics of the coral reefs surrounding the groups, and illustrated his remarks with a very fine series of lantern-shdes, some of which were made from photographs taken by the lecturer himself during his visit. Some of these were taken from the mountaim; overlooking the reefs, and displayed in a striking and original way their position and extent, a feature which photographs taken from near sea-level fail to illustrate. Dr. Marshall referred to the various theories of the origin of reefs, and to the geological structure of the islands which they encircle. The Cook and Society Islands consist largely of alkaline volcanic rocks, and their occurrence here runs counter to a widely accepted theoiy which associates such rocks with coast-lines of the Atlantic tvpe. At the conclusion a very hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Marshall for his address, and for the time and trouble he had spent in coming from Dunedin to deliver it. Sixth Meetinc; : 7th Septeymher, 1910. Pre.sent : Mr. A. M. Wright (Vice-President), in the chair, and fifty others. .Vew Mtrnhtr. — Mr. K. O. lioss. Letter front Sir Jo^ejjh Hooker. — A letter was received from Sir Jo.seph Hooker acknowledging the receipt of the two volumes of the " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand." It was resolved that the Council of the Institute be instructed to preserve the letter in a fitting manner, and deposit it among the papers of the Institute as one of the most valued documents in its possession. Addrean. — " Modern Views of the Constitution of Matter," by Dr. H. G. Denham. The lecturer said that two of the most impoitant problems that remain more or less unanswered are the constitution of matter and the nature of electricity. A vast amount of experimental research has, however, led many of the ablest physicists of the world to the view that these two problems are very closely inter- woven— in fact, that electricity and matter are really two manifestations of the samephenomenon. The lecturer then proceeded to describe the experimental evidence that has led physicists to this conclusion, illustrating his remarks by experiments and lantern- slides. After explaining the nature of the < athode rays, he proceeded to the more Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 45 recent work of Thomson, Lenard, Lorenz,, and others, showing how these scientists have been able to establish the existence of negatively charged electrons in matter. The mass of these electrons has been found to have an exceeiUngly small value, being in fact only one-thousandth part of the hydrogen atom, which we had hitherto supposed to be the smallest part of matter capable of separate existence. Moreover, research has led to the interesting discovery that this mass is not mechanical, but electric in origin, and is really due to the rapid motion of a charge of electricity. Thomson has thus been led to put forwaid the tentative view that all matter is electric in origin, the atoms of all elements containing these negatively charged electix)ns in rapid rotation inside a positively charged sphere. These electrons are diffei-ently arranged in the atoms of the different elements, but the arrangement is always the same in the atoms of the same element. On this supposition it is pt>ssible to give a real meaning to the periodic table of the chemist : for a periodic arrangement of the electrons would necessarily lead to a periodic recurrence of many chemical and physical pi-operties. In conclusion, the' lecturer quoted from the presidential address of Professor Sir J. .J. Thomson to the British Association last year, wherein he expressed the opinion that the experimental work of the last decade had given new life to physics, but that many a difficult peak must yet be scaled before an outlook over the whole constitution of matter and of the imiverse can be hoped for. At the oouclusion a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Denhain for his address. Sevkxth Mektctg : -jfh October^ 1910. Present: Mr. R. M. Laing (President), in the chair, and fifty-five others. Xtw Jlember.^.—}ir. J. A. Pannett and Dr. C. Morton Auderson. Letter from Dr. W . S. Brucf. — A letter was received from Dr. W. S. Bruce acknowledging the receipt of a copy of the " Snbantarctic Islands of Xew Zealand," and eougratiilatiug the Instittite on its production. Hocken Memorial Fund. — The President dreAv the attention of mem- bers of the Institute to the Hocken Memorial Fund. Paper.$. — 1. "Note on the Flora of Mount Egm<''^ Correction," by Di . L. Cockayne (see p. 49). 2. "'Additions to the Fish Fauna of New Zealand: Part II," by Edgar R. Waite (see p. 49). 3. A Preliminary Phytogeographical Sketch of the Vegetation of the Mount Arrowsmith District." by Dr. L. Cookayne and R. M. Laing. The paper deals in the first place with the repoptdating of the glaciated areas after the retreat of the ice, using as data the present happenings on river-bed at the terminal faces of glaciei-s, on and 26 of the present publication. Iicxea gen. no v. Family Trk-hhiridne. Body moderately elongate, fusiform. Mouth large, with a single row of dagger-like teeth in each jaw, three enormous fangs towards the fi-ont of the upper jaw, and two smaliei' ones in the lower jaw; teeth on the palatines, none on the tongue. Two contiguous dorsal fins ; two finlets above and below; pectorals small and low; ventrals small, each witli four spines; caudal forked ; peduncle without keel. Scales small and smooth. Lateral line single anteriorly, but divides, and forms an upper and lower branch. This genus is near to Prnmrth'irhfhyx Gill, differing principally in the character of the ventral fins and in the eimfiguration of the lateral line. It includes the type below diagnosed, Tliyi.^ltc.f pii/i/iff/ioirh.< Bleeker. T. micro pit ■■< .McCoy, and possibly T. ( Prompf/ilrhf/i i/<) hen(/aleii.fnfi.--- by the small subsymmetrical mouth, the large eyes, the upper of which is close to the profile, the b;ick\vard origin of the dorsal ftn, and the absence of any lostral prolongation. I'ehitretis flariltifus sp. nov. B., vii; D., 89; A., 71 : V., dex. 7, sin. f) : P., dex. 12, sin. 11 : C, 18 + 4 : scales, 78 . Length of head, 4'S : height of l)o(l_\-. l.S : length of caudal. ")() in the length: diameter of eye, 3'9 in the the heafl. The eyes are large, crowded to the front of the head, and the upper one is close to the dorsal edge, which is incised so that the eye can be seen from the under-side; lower eye slightly advanced, separated from the maxilla by a narrow ridge only. The dorsal fin begins aV)ov(' the front edge of the eye. and none of the rays is entirely free ; the longest are 2'2 in the head. Scales: Imbricate, ctenoid on the right side, smooth but striated on the left. Head, body, and fin-rays (ventrals and antei'ior rays of the dorsal and anal excepted) covered with scales. Colours: Grey or brown above; both body and fins with inegular though well- defined markings, sometimes absent : under-side yellow. Length, 311 mm. This is the common "lemon sol(>" of tlu; colonists, and does not appear to have been previously diagnosed, the n-nne having been erroneotisly associated with A mmofrefis rosfraftis. Papers and Abstracts. ol (I'lKiUnujinta irinofabilis Waite. Three specimens weie originally taken off the coast of New South Wales, and those now recorded constitute a record for New Zealand, the genus not being previously known from our waters. Several examples were obtained in tlie Ikiy of l^lenty, at depths from 'J') to 04 fathoms. The largest specimen previously known was Ll'i mm. in length, but specimens trawled in New Zealand show that it attains much grcatei dimensions, up to a( least oliO mm Kdf/iefo.'ifniiKi ijlynnteuin ?laast The species of Kof/iefosto/iin hitherto regarded as A', lafve is distinct from the Australian species, differing in relative proportions and in colour-markings. The name A'. ijUjnnteuin is to be used for the New Zealand form. :{. The Alkaloids of the Pukatea. Hv H. C. Aston. (Jouni. riioin. Sdc, xcvii, pp. I.'uSl-ST. July, 1910.) In addition to the author's previously published work (see Proc. N.Z. Inst.. 1909. pt. ii. p. 56), the methods of preparation, description, and analyses of the. salts of the alkaloid Laureline CigHoiOaN, the sulphate (C, pH2i03N)2HoS047HoO, the hydrochloride C, cfHoiOgN HCI, and the nitrate (l|s,H2,0aN HNO3, are given. The provisional formula C'l.jHisOaN is suggested for a third alkaloid, neither the base nor the salts of which could be obtained in a crystalline state. Pukateine, (\7H17O3N, is shown to possess feebly acid properties in the jnesence of a strong base, forming salts with the alkali metals of the formula Ci^HirMO^N (M— KorNe) and to have an optical activity of a ]> — 220°. g f< p^ 4. Pflanzengeographie. By L. Diels. Pp. 163, witli 1 map. Leipzig: G. J. Gotschen'sche Verlagshandlung, 1908. This book is of interest to New Zealand botanists not only because it states clearly and briefly the fundamental principles of phytogeography, but because there are some important remarks regarding the New Zealand flora. The subject-matter is treated under four heads — namely, floristic plant- geography, ecological plant-geography, genetic plant-geography, a synopsis of the floral regions of the earth. The term " plant formation " is used in its broadest sense, and the follow- ing are given as types of vegetation applicable to the whole earth : (a) Sea vegetation (thallassium) ; [h) fresh-water vegetation (limnium) ; (c) mangrove (halodrymium) : (rf) rain-forest (hygrodrymium) ; {(■) monsonn-forest (tropodry- mium) ; (/) summer-forest (therodrymium) ; [g] coniferous forest (conodrymitun) ; (/() dry forest (xerodrymium) ; (/) heath (mesothamnium) : (/■) savannah (meso- poium) ; (/) steppe (xeropoium) ; [in] meadow (hygropoiuin) : (/i) meadow-moor (low-moor, hygrophorbium) ; (o) moss-moor (high-moor, hygrosphagnium) ; {-p) mat- vegetation — "matte" (mesophorbium) [This is the " niat-gras.sland " and "mat- herbage" of Warming, and is represented in New Zealand by the closed asso- ciation of herbaceous and suffruticosc plants on the wetter mountains] ; (q) diy pasture, " trift " (xercjphorljium). defined by the author as a formation of peren- nial herbs occurring in a climate with m Inw rainfall, or on dry ground, the eastern slopes of the Southern Alps of New Zealand being cited as a noteworthy ex- a.mple, where on the stony groimd of the east an open xeromorphic pasture (" trift ") offers a great contrast to the closed mat-heibage (" matte ") of the western slopes. Part iv, dealing with the divisions of the plant-world, is iiased on the opinion that in estimating phytogeographical aieas the facts of floristic, genetic, and ecological plant-geography must all be considered, tliougli the two first- named branches must supply the details fiist to be considered. The following is the classification proposed : (1.) The Palaeotropic Floral Kingdom (Palaeotropis). This comprises the tropical lands of the Old World and their descendants in the plant-geographical sense. It is subdivided into 3— Proc, pt. ii. 52 Pnfers and Ahatmcts. (a) the Malesian Province (Malesicum), {b) the Indo-African Province (Indo- Africanum). (2.) The Cape of Good Hope Province (Capensis). (3.) The Holoarctic Province (Holavctis). This comprises the frigid and temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere. It is subdivided into (a) the East-Asian Province (Oriasiaticum) ; (6) the Central Asian Province (Centralasiaticuni) ; {r) the Medi- terranean Province (Mediterraneum) ; (d) the Eurasian Province (Eurasiaticum). which extends from Iceland to Kamtchatka ; (e) the North American Province (Septamericanmn). (4.) The Neotropical Floral Kingdom (Neotropis). This in- cludes Central and South America, excepting that portion of the latter belonging to the next floral kingdom. (.'J.) The Antarctic Floral Kingdom (Antarctis). This comprises Fuegia, southern Patagonia, south-west Chile, the Subantarctic Islands, including those of New Zealand and Antarctica. (6.) The Australian Floral Kingdom. The Malesian Province and the Antarctic Kingdom specially concern New Zealand. The former extends from Ceylon on the west through the Malay Archi- pelago, and puts out three arms eastwards and southwards. The middle arm is the richest. It includes Melanesia from the Solomon Islands by way of the New Hebrides and New Caledonia to New Zealand. The eastern arm includes Micro- nesia and Polynesia. The western arm crosses to Australia, and extends along the east coast in a narrow band southwards, so that a trace reaches Tasmania. New Zealand appears both geographically and biologically to be the remains of an area almost continental in extent, which may have extended to Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands. But the groundwork of the floia may be considered Malesian, though the formations, through the great variation of surface, &c., of the islands, are of many kinds, and bear a distinct stamp owing to the extreme abundance of Co/iiffiiaf. ferns, and certain other groups which do not require a hot climate. The north and the very moist soiath-west coast are occupied by rain - forest, but the east by heath, grassland, and dry open pasture ("trift- land "). The high mountains of the south offer a sharp distinction between the vegetation of their windward and lee slopes. Besides the Malesian floral element, one altogether different appears the further south one goes, or the higher one ascends. It occurs also in Tasmania and on the higher land of east Australia, shows a strong affinity to the extreme south of South America, and for a long time has been known as Antarctic. This element dominates the alpine floras of New Zealand and Tasmania, but in the lowlands the part it plays is too trifling to make desirable the separation of New Zealand from Palaeotropis. The author regards the Auckland and Campbell Islands as the last remnant of a mountain-axis which extended to New Zealand proper. As for the Antarctic flora in general, it is considered a remnant of one much more extensive which formerly occupied the Antarctic lands, and whose traces still remain in the fossils of Sevmour Island and the remains of trees on Kerguelenland. L.C 5. On the Fossil Osmundaceae, Bv R. KirlKtmi and D. T. Cwynne- Vaughan. (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. i5, pp. 759-TO ; Vol. 46, pp. 213-32 and 651-67; vol. 47, pp. 455-76, pi. 22. 1907-10.) This most important memoir gives detailed descriptions, illusti'ated by admir- able microphotographs, of a number of stems of fossil ferns referred by the aiithors to the Osmundaceae. Two of the s])crimeiis described were discovered in (certain Jurassic rocks near Oore, Southland, the one by Mr. II. Dunlop, formerly of Orepuki, and the other by Mr. R. Cibb. Both plants arc described as new species, under the names of Osm\ind\t(:< Duidojii and O. (HhhiaiKi respectively. The two specimens agree in all essential characters witli (lie slcin.s nl' tlie modern Osinunduei'ai . An examination of the di.stribut inn ot the xiiiious sclemlic strands that occur at the base of the fully developed petiole of a number of living species of Osmundaceae showed that it was characteristic of, and practically constant in, each species examined, but it varies sufficiently to be suitable for a mark of com- parison. .Judged from this standpoint, the leaf -base of 0.do/ji comes very near that of Tndea hnifjord of the present New Zealand flora ; while that of d. Gihhiana, although in some respects unique, approaches nearest to O. regalia and O. jacanica, Paper ii and A ha tracts. ' 53 The iiKJst important character that sliows any cuiisideiablc variation m the hving species (apart from Oiiiminda riniwinomea) is the extent of the interruption m the continuity of the xylem ring caused by the departure of the, leaf-traces. Osmunda regaHs represents one extreme, where the xylem ring is broken up into many distinct strands free from one another, while the other extreme is shown by Tod,ea barbara and T. .■aujjcrba, in which the strands are fused with each other and with the xylem ()t' the leaf-trace, so forming continuous bands. As regards the two fossil species, Osmunditcs Duiilojji, with its continuous xylem ring, points in the direction of Todca barbara, while 0. Gibblana points in" the direc- tion of 0. regalis. and the authois consider that amongst the living Osinundaceae, "so far as our data permit us to judge," 7'. barbara shows most resemblance to O. Daidopi, and O. regalis to O. (iibbiana. But until the sporophylls are known the species are to be kept in the fossil genus Osiniiiidifni. An unnamed Oannindites in the British Museum collection, said to have come from New Zealand, was examined, and was found identical with O. Diiidopi. Besides the two species mentioned above, ail the recorded fossils of an osmiuid- accous charactei' are dealt with excepting one. A table is given showing th<: chronological order of the species, and a synopsis of their more important ana- tomical features. This latter shows that the medullation of the stele and the subse(juent breaking-up of the xylem ring takes place pari imishi with the advance from the older to the younger strata. The age of the fossils is as follows : Upper Permian, ') : Jurassic, '1 ; Upper .Jurassic, 1; Lower Cretaceous, 1; i^ower Eocene, 1 ; i^ower Pliocene or Upper Miocene, 1. Dealing with the ancestry of the O.-^inundacfac-, the authors consider them, as a whole, as "an ascending series of forms whose vascular system is to be derived from a primitive protostele with a solid homogeneous xylem," by the medulla- tion of which and the subsequent breaking-up of the peripheral xylem ring thus formed into separate strands the typical osmundaceous stele has been derived. By a consideration of the methods through which the medullation of the stele has come about, the authors find the existence of an intermediate stage in which the pith consists of tracheae mixed with parenchyma, and it becomes inevitable that the mixed pith of the Zygopte.rideae. is of the same nature and origin as that of the Osinundaceae, especially as the authors believe the two families have descended from a common ancestor. Further, the authors postulate the discovery of a primitive zygopterid stele with a solid xylem mass, the central tracheae of which are short, and transitional toward a pith, as in two of the osmundaceous genera dealt with. This prophecy was confirmed by the discovery of a stele exactly as antici- pated by W. T. Gordon, a figure of which is given. The monograph concludes with an attempt to explain the derivation of the .specialized leaf-trace of the Zygopterideac from the simple primitive form of the Osinundaceae. L. C. 6. The Morphology of^,, the Podocarpineae. By Mary S. Young. (Bofa/iicai Gazette, vol. ."JU, pp. 81-lUU, pis. 4-6. August, 1910.) Before the year 1902 very little was known regarding the morphology of the Podocarpinaceae, but since that date a number of investigators, using in large part material from New Zealand, have found out a good deal about the group, the only genus yet untouched being Pherosphaera, with its two species. Of special interest is the question of relationships of the Podocarpineae, particularly with regard to the Araucarineae. The paper deals first with the gametophytes of Phyllocladus, the authoress having examined a considerable amount of material of Phyllocladus alpinu-?, which had been collected by the reviewer at fairly regular intervals from the 16th October to the 28th January. A full account is given of the male and female gametophytes, and of the process of fertilization, and there is something as to the development of the embryo. The conclusion come to by the authoress regard- ing the affinities of Phyllocladus is that it is a relatively primitive member of the Podocarpineae, which branched off from them a comparatively short time after their separation from the Taxineae. This conclusion is based on the following : (1) Phyllocladus has primitive characters of the Taxineae which are being elimi- nated in the Podocarj)i>icae ; (2) it has primitive characters of the Podocarpineae which have been entirely eliminated in the Taxineae; (3) it has some advanceed characters of Podocarpineae; (4) the taxad resemblances are more superficial and variable, and the podocarp features more fundamental. 54 Papers and Abstrdcts: The remainder of the paper deals with the relationship between the Podo- cuipuieac and the Araucanntae. The authoress brings together the available tacts from the different publications bearing on the subject. She comes to the conclusion that the Podocarijineat and Araucaiiiieue are very primitive, and that they are probably related ; but the question is by no means settled. There are various gaps in our knowledge, especially regarding the Aiaucarineae, the female gametophyte of which is little known, while of the embryo we know virtually nothing. In the Podocarpineae, too, adequate knowledge is wanted of the female gametophyte, embryo, and the development of ovulate structures. Wanting the above knowledge, "we should be hardly justified in coming to a definite decision in regard to relationships, and at present it seems best to hold Taxineae, Poducur- /iineae, and Aiaucarineae apart as separate tribes, leaving open the question of larger grouping amongst conifers."' L. (J. 7. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. By L. S. (libbf^. (Thu Uar- (lnirr'>i Clironidi., vol. i7, pp. D(, !).S,'ll8, l;il. February, 1910.; .Vn account of New Zealand trees and sluul)s with regard to their value as plants for cultivation in English gardens, for which purpose the authoress recom- mends a numl)er highly. The statement is made, "that heyond (JuidyHiif. antral U and tree-ferns it is rare to see a native shrub or tree in a \ew Zealand garden." With the exception of Pittuspunnn Kirkii, the other species of the genus are de- scribed as "uninteresting." L. C. 8. Pratia angulata Hook, f., and Lobelia linnaeoides Petrie. By J. B[uylc3J BLalfourJ. (The (Tardtnt'r\ L'hroiiiric , vol. -tl, p. 98. February, 1910.) Both the above plants are hardy in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden. Pratia ungulata, although growing in damp situations in New Zealand, and noted by Cockayne as a bog-plant in Stewart Island, when grown in dry sandy soil in the full sun in Edinburgh forms a close carpet on the soil, and every leaf -axil sends up a short-stemmed flower, making during the summer a perfect sheet of white blossom. If the plant be grown in the shade, or where the soil is heavier and moister, the stems arch from the soil, forming more or less of a cushion, grow freely, and the flowers, which are produced in fair abundance, are concealed amongst the greenery and make little show. L. C. 9. Deforestation in New Zealand. By L. S. Gibbs. (The Gardener's ('Inonuic, vul. 14, pp. o5.j-5fc) ; November, UlOf^: and vol. 45, pp. 225-2G and 2-t:i-44 ; April, 1909.) The authoress, who spent six months in New Zealand, gives, in three articles, her views regarding the wholesale destruction of forest in the Dominion, and the methods pursued. The observations were made chiefly from the most frequented tourist routes. The following extracts show the scope t)f the articles : — " The results of deforestation everywhere to be witnessed in the country between Auckland and the Bluff were such as to create an impression as painful as it was indelible. Past and present evidences of the effect of the destruction haunt me everywhere, from the bai'ien plains and barren hills of the older ' settled ' districts in the one case, to the miles of blackened tree-stumps, even on much-advertised tourist routes, in the other." "These results are caused by the requirements of the settlers ; for, unfortunately, they and devastating bush- fires always go hand-in-hand. Once the fire has done its worst, English grass- seed is immediately sown, and cattle and horses are turned loose amongst the standing and prostrate logs, which are left to rot on the ground. A little home- stead will be run up amidst the dilbris, a couple of rectangular paddocks will be, perhaps, cleared of the roots of the trees and enclosed by a hedge of Pinus pinaster (erroneously called /'. Insignis) and Cupressus marrocarpus respectively as wind- screens, and the result is a typical New Zealand landscape. To have the pine without the cupressus would be wanting in imagination and taste." "The re- maining forest land is generally Government property, and is leased in ' sections," which, when large areas are opened up, are put up to auction. This land may be covered with the most splendid forest-growth, such as the Waimarina Bush, now being cut up by the Main Trunk Railway frDin Wellington to Auckland, Papers and Abstracts. 06 whicli has been purposely run lluuugh il." " Tlie leyiun in tjuesliun, like the greatei portion of the JNlorth Island, is of a soapstone or ' pappa ' formation, which weathers into a clammy clay." " Cleared in the usual wasteful fashion, not only are the uninteresting contours of the country exposed to view, but the forest is replaced l)y a weedy upgrowth of Fuc/i-sia exiortirata and Aris- totdia raceiiiodci, mixed with any and every species of the heterogeneous mass oi herbaceous and shrubby aliens, which are ever ready to invade fresh areas, turning a natural garden into a vegetative slum."" "The disreputable Maori who idled our canoe up-streain voiced, parrot-like, the cry of the country, ' Too much bush; too few children." 'Bush is there to be burnt, and the sooner the better. It is a most contemptuous and unfortunate term.'" Speaking of the South Island, after explaining the effect of the Dividing Uange on the rainfall and distril)ution of foi'est, the authoress writes, " The mixed forest of the West Coast is too soaked with moisture to Imrn easily .... but all the best trees are being rapidly cut out by sawmills.'' " riie natural forest-growth, if worked on scientific principles, would form a magnificent asset to the resources of any country. As it is, in such mixed forest, each kind of tree is limited in numbers, and, when cut without regard to age, only the old and aborted specimens are left standing, and the forest is, in lonsecjuence, unable to regenerate itself. The resulting thinning alters the prevailing conditions as to light, moisture, and wind, and allows the ingress of rabbits, which devour all young vegetation, and so prepare the way for an army of alitm herbaceous plants and shrubs, including blackberries, sweetbriar, gorse, and broom, which luxuriate in the vii'gin soil. Fungal diseases attack the weakened indigenous trees, which will have no further chance to re-establish themselves; so that all commercial value in wood, which forms one of New Zealand's exports and its chief scenic charm, goes into the pocket of the first man who comes to enjoy the unrestricted exploitation of the virgin forest.'" " Once through the [Otiraj Gorge, we enter the country of dry rainless winds and tussock plains beyond, between bare tussock hills, yellow even in the beginning of December : all sheep- runs, the grass burnt off every year, and rabbits ubiquitous. Here one shrub, Uiscaria toumatou, or ' wild Irishman," holds its own. It is a veritable mass of thorns (arrested branches), with inconspicuous green leaves and white flowers. It grows singly in the wide river-beds, on sheltered mountain-slopes, and in the plains. Otherw'ise not a tree is visible — that would mean fewer sheep to the acre ; and the unfortunate animals in the blaze of the sun find such shelter as they may under the Dl^raria. It is a familiar sight to see them crowding under what can be only shade in their imagination, and it makes one question whether it is really advantageous, or is merely an atavistic idea inherited from ancestors accustomed t3 more luxuriant conditions. These places must all have been wooded at some time not far distant. . Nothing else could account for the extraordinary paucity of herbaceous plants, of which Ch-aspedia uniflora is one of the few which occurs in any quantity on the plains." Speaking of the Mackenzie country, it is stated, " These plains, thanks to the agency of man, run up to the foot of .Mount Cook, and, as far as I could make out, they constitute the subalpine meadows of New Zealand ecologists." "It is a three-days drive from Mount Cook to Lake Wanaka, and for the whole way there is no native tree to be seen. I was told there was ' bush ' in the back country, so that it must once have existed in the front ; but this country of huge sheep- runs, where every station has to keep a gang of rabbiters, tells its own tale. Deer have been also introduced, and are increasing to a large extent, much to the disgust of the runholders."' " At Lake Wanaka .... there was the same baneful deforestation, sheep-run bareness, and poverty of soil. The moun- tains in the background show up green, for the runs have not ^ot so far back yet." A brief description is given of the Clinton and Arthur Valleys, and of their suitability as a sanctuary for the indigenous flora and fauna. The articles con- clude as follows : — " Isolated reserves here and there are of no value from a physiographical, economic, or rainfall point of vieAv. In a naturally wooded country like New- Zealand the question should be treated as a whole on some recognized plan drawn up by competent forest officials who have been trained not only in the great schools of Nancy, Munich, and the magnificent economic forests of France and Germany, but also in the management of virgin forest, which under scientific guidance has achieved such a success in India." " India is in the happy position of being able to treat questions from a scientific rather than a party standpoint. In New Zealand the Government alone can act in the matter, as for economic reasons the private owner is helpless and the mere occupier indifferent. Labour costs 10s. a day, and is difficult to obtain at that: therefore private enterprise is discouraged." L. C. 56 Papers and AhstrattH. 10. Ourisia modesta Diels, eine neue Art Neuseelands. \^\ L. Diels. (Fcddc, li^'pertuiiuin, Vol. 7, p. 114. J DO!).) The following is the original description uf Uiuisia /iiudcsta Diels, an inconj- plete account of which was given by Cockayne in his " lleport on a Botanical Survey of Stewart Island," p. 44 : — ■' Herba niinuta. Caulis procuiiibus repens radicans. Folioruni petiolus hinc inde villosulus vel ciliatus, 2-4 mm. longus ; lamina crassiuscula glabra, e basi leviter cordata reniformis vel rotundato - elliptica, 3-5 mm. longa, 2'5-4'5 mm. lata ; flores solitarii ; pedunculus 5 mm. longus ; calyx 4- (rarius 5-) lobus, tubus circ. 5 mm. longus, lobi r5mm. longi, lati, obtusi ; corolla 5-fida, tubus 4 mm. longus 2"5 mm. latus, lobi anguste elliptici apice truncati vel levissime emarginati 3'5 mm. longi, 1'5 mm. lati ; staminum antherae reniformes, loculi demuni con- flvientes ; ovarium glabrum ovoideum 1") nun. Jongum, syiiis 2u mm. longus; stignuv capitato-discoideum. " Neu-Seeland : Stewart Island, Uakialuia Valley, auf nassem Boden (Dr. L. Cockayne !). " Species minuta Oiiiisiar (■.ue.'le. Strombus aratus Mart. S. urceus Linn. A*?, elegans Sowb. Xenophora corrugnta Rve. Hipponix foliacea Q. & (}. Natica sagiUata Menke. N. oriental) s Gmel. Polinires simiae Desh. lanthiiia ianthiiia LiiuK'. /, umbilicaUt d'Oili. /. exiguu Lam. /. globo-m Swain. Heduzia Hargravesi ( 'ox. Oypraea eiosa Linne. C\ CMputserpentis Jjiiine. RraU) lafhryma (!ray. K. corriigafu Hinds. 7'/«vV; napolina Kiener. Sepln rubicanda ferry. Argobuccinum atidralasia Perry. A. siphonatum Rve. (= Tatuja (Cro.s- sata) califomica (Hinds) Suter, Trans. N.Z. List., xxxviii, p. 328). A. papilla Wood (— Ranella verru- cosa, Sowb.). Cymatium Spengleri Gmel. C. Dunkeri Lischke. C. caudatum Gmel. C. exaratum Rve. C. costatum Born. G. labiosum Wood {— Triton stravqei. Ad. & Aug.). 0. vespaceum Lam. C Parkinsonia Perry. Gassidea pyrum soph in e Braz. G. cernica Sowb. Dolium pomum Linne. D. perdix Linne. Architectonica cingvla Kien. Heliacus variegatus (imei. H. stramineus (imel. Kpitonium pcrplcxuui Pease (= Sca- In.ria, australis (Lam.) Suter. Journ. Malac, vii, p. 54). AilaMa fusca, liydoux and SonleNef. (Joins torcuma Mart. Mitra mitra Linne. M. carbonaria Swainsoii. M. lancfohitu Hcr\ier. Alectrioii .s/j//(//h.v a. Ad. .4. gaudiosus Hinds (= Nassu zonalis (A. Ad.) Suter. Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxviii, p. 331). .4. scalaris A. Ad. 63. Thais chaidea Duclos. 64. T. succincta Lam. 65. T. Smithi Braz. (— Purpura striata var. bollonsi Suter, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxviii, p. 331 ; Ihnpa bollmisi Sutei', Proc. Mai. Soe.. viii, j). 254). 6(]. Golurnhella versicolor Sowb. 67. Lyria imcleus Lam. 68. Goralliophila neritoiden Lam. 69. C. nivea. A. Ad. 70. G. Lischkeana Dunk. 71. G. monodonta Q. & G. 72. Magilus antiquus Montf. 73. Marginella mustelina Angas. 74. Turris cingulifera Lam. 75. Terebra venosa Hinds. 76. Gonus vermiculatus Lam. 77. G. minimus Linne. 78. Pugnus parvus Hedley. 79. Bullaria ampulla Linne. 80. Bullina scahro Gmel. 81. Limaciiia bidimnide.s d'Orb. 82. Styliola subula (). & C. 83. Glio pyrainidala Hi-. 84. G. aciculii Rang. 85. G. virgula Rang. 86. Gumerina columnella Rang. 87. Gavolinia tridentata (^niel. 88. G. trispinosa Lesueur. 89. G. longirostris Lesueur. 90. G. inflexa Lesueur. 91. Umbraculum umbella Mart. 92. Siphonaria diemenensis Q. & G. (V). 93. 8. atra Q. & G. 94. Gadinia conica Angas (= G. nivea Hutton). 95. Placunanomia ione Gray. 96. Area, foliata Forsk. 97. A. domingensis Lam. 98. Lima bullata Boni. 99. Philobrya costata Bern. (incl. P. filholi Bern.). 100. Modiolus auriculatus Ki'auss. 101. Lithophaga straminea Dunk. 102. Septifer bilocularis Linne. 103. Modiolaria impacta Herrm. 104. Meleagrina vulgaris Schum. 105. Melina nucleus Linne. 106. Julia exquisita Gld. 107. Spondylus ostreoides Smith. 10J<. Godakin bella Conrad. 109. Diplodonta zclandica Gray. 110. Lasaea miliar is Pliil. ill. lirrilio biscHlptd Gld. 1 12. Ghionc torcuma Gld. 113. Lutnrria oldonga Gmel. 1 14. iSa.ricara arctica Linne. 115. (laslriKliaoui Retzii Desh. 116. Gild ma fntiarra Q. & G. 117. yaiilihis potii pilins L. 118. A'. tiKicroniphalus Sowb. 119. Spirula spirula L. 120. Argonnuta argo L. 121. A. nodosa Sol. PBOCEEDINGS NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1910 PART III EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHOKITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE Issued 12th May. 1911 JOHN MACKAV, GOVERNMENT FEINTING OFFICE WiLLiAii Wf.slf.y and Son, 28 Essex Stkeet, Strand, London VV.C. CONTENTS, PROCEEDINGS. 1. New Zeahind Institute: Minutes, annual meeting, 26th January, 1911. 2. Presidential address. 3. Auckland Institute : Meeti)igs. 22nd November, 1910 ; (itli February, 1911 ; annual meeting. 27th February, 1911. 4. Wellingto)! Philosophical Society: Annual meeting. 5th October. 1910. 5. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury: Meeting, 2nd November. 1910; annual meeting, 7th December, 1910. 6. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute: Meeting. 4th November. 1910; annual meeting. 6th January, 1911. 7. Manawatu Philosophical Soi'iety : Annual meeting, 7th December, 1910. 8. Otago Institute: Meeting, 1st November, 1910: annual meeting, 6th December. 1910. PAPERS. 1. "Glaciated Surfaces and Boulder-clay near Bealey," 1)V R. Speight. 2. •' Notes Oil the Discovery of Dacti/lanthus Taylori.'''' by James Grant. 3. '' Groplana auckhnid'ica Mid (ileophma marrineri : a Correction in N(<)nen- clature,'' bv Arthur Dendy. 4. ■• Notes o!i the Vegetable ('ater pillar." l)y G. Howes. APPENDIX. PROCEEDINGS OP THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. 1910. PART III, EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING. The annual general meeting of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute was held in the Auckland Museum Library, Auckland, ■on Thursday, 'iGth January, 1911. Present : Mr. A. Hamilton, President (in the chair). Professor W. B. Benham, F.R.S., Dr. L. Cockayne, Dr. Hilsfendorf, Mr. D. Petrie, Mr. R. Speight, Mr. J. Stewart, Mr. K. Wilson.^ Changes in the Re prtscntafioii . — The Secretary announced the fol- lowing changes in the representation of the Government and of the incorporated societies on tlie Board of Governors :■ — Nominate*! by the Government : Mr. C. A. Ewen (vice Mr. J. W. Joynt, resigned). Elected by incorporated societies : Dr. Hilgendorf {vice Dr. Farr, resigned). The Secretary then called tlie roll. The President declared the meeting open, and apologized for the absence of His Excellency the Governor, the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs, Mr. Martin Chapman, K.C., Professor Easterfield, Mr. C. A. Ewen, Mr. H. Hill, and Mr. John Young. Presidential Addres.^. — The President then delivered his presidential a>: £ s. d. Balance . . 642 2 I £642 2 1 FositioH of the Incorporuird. Societit><. — It was resolved, on the motion of Dr. Hilgendorf, .seconded by Dr. Cockayne, tliat Mr. Martin Cliap- man, K.C., Mr. Hamilton, and Dr. Cockayne be a committee t(* consider the position of the incorporated societies. Iluttoii Mtiiiori(d Award. — A recommendation, dated tith December, 1910, was received from Professors T. W. E. David, W. A. Haswell, and Mr. Maiden, the Committee of Award appointed to recommend a suitable recipient for tlie Hutton Medal. The committee lecommended that the medal be awarded to Professor AV. \^. Benham for liis contri- butions to the zoology of New Zealand. On the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by Dr. Hil<^endorf, it was resolved that the report of the committee be adopted. It was resolved that the Secretary lie authorized to act witli the President in getting a suitalile inscription engraved on tlie medal. It was resolved that the Chancellor of the University of Otago be asked to present the Hutton Medal to Professor Reidiam at tlie first public ceremonial held by the University Council. On the motion of Mr. Speight, seconded by Dr. Hilycndoif, it was re- solved that the thanks of the Institute l)e accorded to the committee for their assistance in making this award of tlie Hutton Medal. On the motion of Dr. Hilgendorf, seconded by Dr. Cockayne, it was resolved that Professor David, Mr. Maiden, and Professor Benham be appointetl a committee to inaki' the ne.xt award of the Hutton Medal. Hutton Fund /I'cxrurr/i drnut. — An application, (hited 2()t]i Sep- tember, 1910, from Dr. C. Chilton, ajiplying for a gi-ant of ,£1U towards the cost of preparing illustrations for a ri'vision of tlic New Zealand (' riixt(trca , was, on tlic motion of Di\ Bi-nliam. s<'con(h'd liy Dr. Cockayne,. granted. Hector Miniorial Coniniift< r Hcport. — The report of the Institute's Hector Memorial Committee was tlien read and nceivcd, togctlier with the audited statement of the fund at the tim*' of talking it ovei' on 30th August, 1910. A statement by tlie Public Trustee showing the condi- tion of the fund on 21st January, 1911, was also ri'<-eived. I'eport. In presenting this repoit voiu runiinittef desires to pift';ui' it.s reniiuks h\ a short summary of the means which have been adopted to cnlleit the sum in hand, how the Institute became the administrator of the fund, ami under what conditions- it accepted the responsibility. Sir James Hector died in November. 19(r7. ( '(iiiniiitties weie iit once si't up in the various centres with the object of cnlh-ct ini; funds to pi'vpetuati' Iiy sojne fitting Enjlifli AiiiiiKi] Mr(liii(/, 67 incm()ii;il I he i;rtMt sei'vices leiideiod to science and to the coiony liy the late gentleman. At the fifth annual meeting of the New Zealand Institute, in January, U'OS, a eoiiuiiittee of the Institute was appointed " to eo-operate with the other ooniniittees already moving in the direction of collecting funds foi' a memorial." This committee consisted of Professor Benham, "Slv. M. ChapiiutTi, J)r. ('ockayne. Professor Easterficld, Messrs. T. (Uil, D. Petrie, and T{. Speight. The Wellington Philosophical Society elected a committee consisting of Messrs. (!. V. Hudson and A. Hamilton, and the Canterbury Philosophital institute a committee consist- ing of Dr. Chilton. Dr. C. C. Farr, Messrs. Speight and Waite. Committees foruied outside of the Institute were the Wellington Hector Memorial Committee, ccmsisting of Sir Robert Stout, Mr. M. Chapman, Mr. A. (,'rawford, Professor Easterfield, Dr. J. M. Mason, with Mr. T. King as Secretary. This was the chief committee, to which the other committees remitted the funds collected by them. The Dunedin Hector Memorial Committee consisted of Professor Benham, Dr. Cul(|uhoun, Dr. Hocken (Secretary), Piofessor Marshall, Professor Scott, Professor Park, and .Mr. Ci. M. Thomson. By .May, 19()S, the chief committee had in hand £T.W, the greater portion of which had been collected in Wellington Province. In .July, 1908, the Standing Committee of the Institute passed the following resolu- tion : •' That Dr. J. M. Mason be informed that the Standing Committee is of opinion that the several Hector Memorial Committees should issue a joint circular inviting further subscriptions to the fund, and undertaking that the final allocation of the fund shall not l)e decided on until tln' subscribers have been duly consulted u)>on the suliject. On 4th February, 1909, a conference of the delegates from the \arious commit'.ees was held, and it was agreed to issue a joint c-ircular appealing foi' more funds. The ciicular was issued on 1st March. 190!). and resulted in a considerable augmentation of th(^ funds. The Institute's Wellington committee was not leappointcd at the sixth annual meeting in Febiuary, 1909. 'N'our committee was not appointerl until the annual meeting in .January, 1910. On 1st March, 1910, the Government having promised the fund a pound-foi- pound subsidy up to £500, the Wellington Hecto)- Memorial Committee issued a furthei' circular calling for additional subscriptions before -'Jlst Mai'ch. Subscrip- tions more than enough to enable the (lovernment subsidy to \m\ earned were quickly received. The subscribers were then appraised of the proposal of the Wellington Hector Memorial Committee to hand over the funds to the Institute in the follow- ing circular (dated 18th April, 1910), a copy of which was sent to every snb- serilxu' : — Circulur to Suffcrihci-^. I have the honour to state that there is now £1,04.5 10s. 2d., which includes a subsidy of £500 received from the Government, standing to the credit of the fund. The following terms under which the Hector Memorial Coumiittee is pre- pared to hand over the management of the fund to the Governors of the New Zealand Institute have been approved by the committee : — 1. The fund shall be investivl in such securities as are proper for the invest- ment of trust funds. 2. The Governors shall, out uf the income arising from the fund, pi§)vide an annual prize, to be called the " Hector Prize," which shall have for its object the encouragement of scientific research within New Zealand. .3. The prize shall be awarded by rotation for the following subjects : liotany, chemistry, geology, physics (including mathematics and astnmomv), and zoology. 4. In each year the prize shall be awarded to that investigator who, working within the Dominion of New Zealand, shall, in the opinion of the Governois of the Institute, have done most towards the advancement of that branch of science to which the prize is in such year allotted. ."). The r;overnors of the Institute shall draw up regulations giving effect to the foregoing scheme, and may, if they think proper, provide for the appointment from time to time of a committee of experts to give advice in thv awarding of the prize. Whilst not wishing to lay down any hard-and-fast rule, it is the desire of the Hector Memoiial Committee that the recipient of the prize devote the same towards defraying the expenses of further investigation, or of the publication of lesearches already completed. Egbert Stout, On behalf of the Wellington Hcctoi' Mniiorijil Committee. 68 Procecdmgs. No replies of any kind weie received from any subscriber. The following correspondence then took place between the Wellington Hector Memorial Committee and the Standing Committee of the New Zealand Institute : — SiE, — Hector Memorial Committee. 20th June, 1910. At a meeting of the Hector Memorial Committee, Sir Robert Stout presiding, it was resolved that a copy of the circular to subscribers to the fund, dated 18th April, 1910, be sent to the New Zealand Institute, with the addi- tion of the words "including physiology" after the word "zoology" in con- dition 3; and after condition 2 the words "The Governors may also cause a medal to be struck in connection with this memorial, and may decide under what circumstances it shall be from time to time awarded." I am directed to inquire whether the Institute will, under the terms of the amended circular, undertake the management of the Hector Memorial Fund, and in the event of your reply being in the aHirn)ative, to ascertain your wishes as to the custody of the funds in hand. Yours faithfully, B. C. Aston, Hon. Secretary. The President, New Zealand Institute, Wellington. The President of the Institute thereupon cucularized .ill mcinbers uf the Jioaid of Governors as under : — Sir, — New Zealand Institute, Wellington, 24th June, 1910. The President of the Institute has received a letter from the Hector Memorial Committee, asking if the Institute will undertake the management of the Hector Memorial Fund in terms of the amended circular enclosed. The President desii'es me to ascertain by application to each Governor of the Institute whether he is willing that the Board of Governors should ad- minister the fund. The conditions of the circular are such that most of the details of the administration may be provided for by regulation to be made at the next annual meeting of the Board. Your reply merely in the affirmative or negative is therefore only desired at present. in case the majority are in the affirmative, the President proposes to accept the fund from the Hector Committee, and to consult the Standing Com- mittee as to the future investment of it. YcHU'.s t'aitlifully, U. {'. Aston, Secretary. Si.xteen Governors replied to the circular, three (iu;ilifying their replies by sug- gesting the inclusion of other subjects ; in all other instances the replies were in the affirmative, and unqualified. The following minute of the Standing Committee, dated 13th July, 1910, was duly communicated to Sir Roliert Stout, Chairman of the Hector Memorial Committee : "It was resolved that the inquiry of the Hector Memorial Committee as to whether the Board of Governors would be willing to undertake the manage- ment of the fund be answered in the afliirmative, and that the Hector Committee be inform.ed that the Institute is prepared to accept the custody of the fund foii^hwith." On 13th August the following inquiry was addressed to the Wellington Hector Memorial Committee by the Standing Committee : — 1. Whether it is the desire of the Hector Memorial Committee that the medal should go to the recipient of the Hector Prize, or that a portion of the whole of the fund may be awarded to another individual. 2. Condition .5, last paragraph : The Standing Committee suggest that this might be amended by the addition of the wurds "or be devoted towards the fui'therance of the cause of that science witti which the name of tlie recipient of the prize was most intimately associated." This was dealt with on the same day by the Hector .Memorial Connnittee in the following minute, which was duly comnumicated to the Standing Committee : "It was decided to inform the Institute — (1) That it is the Committee's intention that, if an award is made, the medal and prize should go to the same individual in each year, and that the money awarded should not be divided among several recipients : and (2) that the Committee agree to the addition of tlie words quoted alx)vc to condition 5, last pai'agraph, of the amended circular of bSth .\pril." On l.'')th .'Vugust Messrs. Chapman, Skerrett, Wylie, and Tiipp were instructed by the W'ellington Hector Menuirial Connnittee to liand ovei to the Board of Governors of the Institute the funds collected, and on KUli September the transfer was completed. luflhth Animal Meeting. 69 B.M.ANCE-tfHEKT 1 IfOM XOVEMBKR, 1907. TO VIlH AUGUST, 1910. Receipts. Expenditure. 1910— June to. £ s. d. £ .s. d. Subscriptions rocoiv(Ml . . 557 13 6 Petty cash payments . . 8 15 9 Government subsidy . . 500 0 0 Printing ami stationery . . 5 14 1 Balance. 12th August, 1910 1,043 3 8 £1,057 13 6 £1,057 13 6 Liabiliiies. t Petty cash owing Mr. Aston . . 0 Chapman. Slcerrott, Wylie. and Trip]) 0 1 Balance . . 1,060 4 3 £1,061 4 0 Assets. s. d. Cash on deposit with W.I.T. and A. Company . . 1,043 3 8 Accrued interest to 13th Au- gust, 1910 . . . . 18 0 4 £1,061 4 0 Statement of Account by the Ptblic Trustee. Wth Xovember to :}1st December, 1910. Cr. £ s. d. Balance . . . . . . 424 4 7 Fixed depo:>it, W.I.T. and A. Company, £20 Os. 7d. ; less balance due to Chapman and Co., £1 9s. 4d. . . . . 18 11 3 Interest, Public Trust Office . . 1 12 0 Dr. Bala I £ s. d. 444 7 10 £444 7 10 £444 7 10 £ s. d. 444 7 10 619 4 0 Assets. Balance as above Fixed deposits, W.I.T. and A. Company £1,063 11 10 Hector Memorial Iie(/uia/ions. — The President submitted a draft ot" the regulations which the sub-committee appointed bv the Standing Com- mittee had framed. Aftei' discussion the rules were adopted in the follov,-ing form : — The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize Fund. Resolved by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute that, — 1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington Hector Memorial Committee be called " The Hector Memorial Research Fund," in memory of the late Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed and granted for the purpose of the memorial and all other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose. 2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Governors of tht; Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys. 3. A sum not exceeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronze medal to be known as the Hector Memorial Medal. 4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid, shall be invested in such securities as may be approved by the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund. 5. The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize shall be awarded annually by the Board of Governors. 6. The research for which the medal and prize are awarded must have a dis- tinct bearing on New Zealand (1) botany, (2) chemistry, (3) ethnology, (4) geology, (o) physics (including mathematics and astronomy), (6) zoology (including animal physiology). 7. Whenever possible the medal shall be presented in some public numner. 70 Proceedings. Appoint ineitt of t'oniiiiittee of Award. — On tlie motion of Dr. Hilgen- dolt", Hfconded by Mr. K. Wilson, it was resolved that a committee be ap- pointed to recommend the Governors of the Institute as to the award of the Hector Medal and Prize. The committee for 1911 to be the Pro- fessors of Biology of the four University Colleges and Mr. Speight. The awards to be made in the order in which the sidjjects are herein numbered. Committee to obtain Hector Medal . — On the motion of Mr. Petrie,. seconded by Mr. James Stewart, it was resolved that a committee, con- sisting of the President, Mr. Hamilton, and Professor Easterfield, be appointed to arrange for preparing the Hector Medal : tlie cost not to eyeeed £100. Report of the L'uhlication . Committee. — The following report of the Publication Committee was then read : — The Committee begs to report that seventy-five papers were sent in for pub- lication in the Transactions for 1909 [i.e., Vol. xlii). These were considered at a meeting held in January, 1910, immediately after the annual meeting of the Board of Governors, and, with the exception of a few that were held over for further consideration, weie at once handed to the Government Printer. Sixty-three papers were published in the Transactions, Vol. >:lii, two in the Proceedings for 1909, Part IV, and two as separate bulletins; one was rcfericd back to the author for condensation, and the remainder were not reconmiended for publication. With regard to two of these there was some correspondence with the author, but the committee adhered to its decision, on the ground that papers that are purely con- troversial and add no new facts of importance to the subject discussed are not suitable for inclusion in the Transactions ; moreover, fairly full abstracts of these papers appear in the Proceedings. The Transactions for the year 1909, Vol. xlii, contains vi and 642 pages and 67 plates, in addition to a very large number of figures included in the text ; the fourth part of the Proceedings for 1909 extends from pages 91 to 160, and includes the lists of members, the New Zealand Institute Acts, &c., which have hithei'to been given in the volume of the Transactions. The final proofs of the Transactions were corrected about the middle of May, and the volume was ready for issue early in June. The thanks of the Institute are due to the Government Printer for getting the volume out at such an early date. A few of the papers in the Transactions are of great length, and in the opinion of the committee some of them are capable of being condensed with advantage, and it may be necessary in the future to recommend this course in a greater number of cases than has been done in the past. In some cases, again, the papers are accom- panied by a large number of photographs, some of which are not absolutely neces- sary for the illustration of the paper. As these photographs have to be reproduced as half-tone blocks on special paper, they add veiy considerably to the cost of the volume, and it may be necessary for the future to restrict in some way the number of plates allowed to each paper. It is desirable whenever possible that papers should be illustrated by line drawings prepared in accordance with the instructions printed for the guidance of authors of papers. Most of these can be then incorporated as text-figures, and in many respects are preferable to separate plates. In accordance with the instructions of the Board of Governors, the committee arranged for the publication of two of Major Broun's papers on New Zealand Cole opt via as separate publications under the name of ■" Bulletins,"" and it hopes that the example thus set may be taken further advantage of, and that other lengthy and important papeis which for any reason cannot suitably be included in the Transactions may be published as separate bulletins. Bulletin No. 1, " New Genera and Species of Coleoptcra,'" contains 78 pages, and Bulletin No. 2, "Revision of the New Zealand Byrrhidav." 26 pages and 1 plate. Both were issued on 30th August, 1910. The first part of the Proceedings for 1910, amounting to 30 pages, was issued on 10th September, 1910 ; the manuscript of the second part was sent in to the Printer early in November, and, though delayed owing to pressure of other work in the Printing Office, it is now ready for press, and will probably be issued before the annual meeting of the Board of Governors. For the Transactions for 1910 (Vol. xliii) sixty-five papers have been sent in. These have already been considered t<,i some extent by the Publication Committee ; . Eighth Annual Mteting. 71 several of them have been sent un to the (Joveininent Printet fur insertion in the volume, and the rest will be definitely dealt with at a subsequent meeting of the committee. Three short papers have already been printed in the Proceedings at the request of the authors, and several of the others sent in seem suitable for dealing with in the same way. The committee would, however, like to have some expression of opinion from the Board of Governors as to the policy to be adopted in future with regard to the insertion of such papers in the Proceedings. Their insertion in the Proceedings would insure more speedy publication, and would pio- bably encourage members to present their papers at an earlier period of the year. A considerable number of papers are still hand-written, although the instructions to authors are that the manuscripts must be typewritten unless special permission to send in written manuscripts has been given by the Editor. Some opposition has been shown to the sti-ict interpretation of this rule. Unfortunately, in written manuscripts there is room for much difference of opinion as to what constitutes a clear manuscript, and many, though apparently clear, contain numerous technical terms which are by no means clear to those unacquainted with them, and unneces- sary trouble and mistakes are thus caused. The committee is of opinion that the Editor should have the support of the Board of Governors in returning any manuscript which in his opinion is likely to give the compositor more trouble than a typewritten manuscript would do. It is desirable also that greater attention should be paid to the instructions issued for the preparation of drawings for the Transactions. The question of the number of reprints to be supplied to each author has been brought befoie the notice of the committee, and after carefully considering the matter the conunittee recommends that, as hitherto, twenty-five should be the ordinary number supplied gratis, but, in consideration of the facts that a wide distribution of the scientific work done in the Dominion is desirable, and that reprints reach many more persons interested in a particular subject than the com- plete volume of the Transactions can do, the committee suggests that authors who so desire may, with the approval of the Publication Committee, be allowed fifty copies free of charge, and that additional copies, if required, be charged for at cost-price, the rate to be duly announced ; the committee to have power, subject to the approval of the Board of Governors at its annual meeting, to deal with any exceptional cases that may arise. The committee has also considered the possibility of more fully indexing the future volumes of the Transactions as they appear. There are several difficulties in the way, and the preparation of a complete index might delay the appearance of the volume, but the committee hopes that when the second part of the index to the first forty volumes, containing the titles of the papers classified according to the subjects dealt with, has appeared it may be possible to include in each volume of the Transactions a subject-index on somewhat the same plan. For the Publication Committee. Christchurch, 11th .January, 1911. Chas. Chilton. Hon. Editor. On the motion of Professor Benhani, seconded by Dr. Hilgendorf, it was resolved tliat the report of the Publications Committee be received. Papers fo he printed in Proceedings. — On the motion of Mr. Petrie, seconded by Dr. Cockayne, it was resolved that the Board of Governors approve of the policy of printing short scientific papers in the Proceed- ings of the New Zealand Institute. Instructions to Authors of Papers. — On the motion of Professor Ben- ham, seconded bj' Mr. R. Speight, it was resolved that the memorandum for authors in the Transactions, section 1, be amended by the insertion of the words "for the time being" after the word "Editor"; also tjiat the words "By order of the Board of Governors" be placed at the end of the memorandum. Auf/tors' Separate Copies. — On the motion of Mr. Speight, seconded bv Mr. K. Wilson, it was resolved that the recommendations of the Publi- cations Committee re authors" separate copies be approved, and that the authors must intimate their wishes as regards the number of copies required when sending in manuscript. 72 Proceedings. * Professor Ueiiliaiu moved, and Mr. Speiylit seconded, that the rule in regard to authors' separate copies be inserted in the iiienioranduni to authors. Carried. Monographs and BuUetiiin. — On the motion of Professor Jienhani. seconded b}- Dr. Cockayne, it was resolved that a new re<^ulation be adopted : "In addition to Proceedings and Transactions, special mono- graphs or bulletins may lie published from time to time."" Report of the Librarian . — The report of tlie Hon. Librarian was received, as follows : — During the past yeai' considerable progress has been made in the anangement oi the library. Proper pigeon-holes have been provided, and labelled for the current numbers of the serial publications received from various parts of the woild. This enables the parts as they arrive to be kept together in definite places. A new system of entering the parts received has also been instituted, and will enable the checking of parts received to be more easily accomplished ; il also points out- thi; missing numbers. Owing to the kindness of the Minister of Internal Affairs, a lady has been employed for two months in tying up and checking bound and un- bound sets of serial publications. A list has also been prepiircd of the unbound volumes, showing the parts missing. From this list it will be easy to compile a list of parts to be ordered on some future occasion to complete the sets. The number of items received during the year is 859. 1 would draw your attention to a book which has been received, the report of the exploratiou nf the subantarctic islands, carried out by the Philosophical Institute of C'anterl)ury. ;\ work whic'h is in every way a credit to New Zealand. Report of the Index Committee. — The rei>ort of the index Committee^ was received, as follows : — The Index Committee repoit that work on llie index has been proceeding steadily during the year. The first part of the index is already set up, and a fev copies have been printed, but the Government Printer has hitherto been imablc to work off the number of impressions ordered. The second part, which gives titles and contents in a more detailed manner, has taken some considerable time, but is now ready in card form for the Printer, and the printing has been autho- rized by the Standing Committee. As soon as the Printer can pidcced with the work it will be gone on with. Election of Honorary Members. — The election of an honorary memliei- ia place of the late Mr. R. B. Sharp was then proceeded with. Nominations were as follows : Captain R. H. Scott, nominated by the Auckland Institute; Sir Robert Ball, nominated by the Manawatn Philosophical Society; Dr. W. S. Bruce, nominated by the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury; Mr. W. W. Froggatt. nominated by the "Wel- lington Philosophical Society ; Sir John Murray, nominated by the Otago Institute. The ballot resulted in the election of Dr. W. S. Bruce, leader of the Scottish National i^tarctic Expedition. Bathymetrical and Biological Survey. — On the motion of Mr. Speight. seconded by Professor Benham, it was resolved that the New Zealannd and othei' islands was it>ad as follows : — Tlio ronimittoe did not meet, but its Dieinbi-rs communicated witli each other and inlerviewid menihi-rs of the House and the Secretary to the Lauds Department. .Mr. Ell, .M.P., laid the views of the committee before the Premier. The islands have, it is now known, been leased for £47 per annum. ('oncxiJOiKltiice. — Correspondence was received as follows : — From the Melbourne University (2'h'd February. 1910), acknowledg- ing the resolution i)assed at the last aiunial nieetinu witli reference to the British Association. From Captain Scott (27th April, 1!>10), acknowledging the resolution of the last annual meeting with regard to antarctic soundings. From Dr. W. S. Bruce (21st May, 1910), on the same subject. From tlie Under-Secretary of Internal Affairs (17th February and 2Gth Api-il, 1!)10), with T'eference to the printing of Government scientific reports. From Xclsoii Colleue. i<'(]uesting to be placed on the exchange list. ApproviMl. Ejection of Officers. — The following oHicers for 1911 were elected: President, Mr. T. F. Cheeseman ; Hon. Treasurer, Professor Easterfield ; Hon. Librarian, Mr. A. Hamilton; Hon. Editor, Dr. Chilton; Publi- cation Committee, Professor Benham. Dr. Chilton, Dr. Hilgendorf, and Mr. Speight. Index Committee, Dr. Chilton, Mr. Hamilton, Professor Easterfield. Professor Benliam, Mr. Speight. Mr. B. C. Aston was ap- pointed Secretary. riace of Meeting. — On the motion of Professor Benham, seconded by Dr. Cockayne, it was resolved that the next meeting be held at Christ- church, on the last Thui'sday in Januai-y, 1912. Tnn'clli/ig-cxpeNses. — On the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by Mr. Stewart, it was resolved that the hotel and travelling expenses of members and the Secretary be ]»aid by the Institute. Reports of I iicor[)orated. Societies. — The anniial reports of the Mana- Avatu and Canterbury Societies were received. Moved l:)y Professor Benham, seconded by Mr. Speight, that the atten- tion of Secretaries of societies be drawn to the resolution passed last year, and that the Governors reaffirm the need of the annual report and balance-sheet of each branch of the Institute iDeing forwarded to the Secretary of the New Zealand Institute before the 31st December in each year, for presentation to the annual meeting. Votes of Thanks. — On the motion of Professor Benham, seconded by .Mr. Wilson, it was resolved that a special vote of thanks be forwarded to Dr. Chilton for his woi-k as Hon, Editor. A vote of tlianks to tlie Auckland Institute for the use of the Museum Library was carried. Confirmed. 27th .laiiuaiv, 1911. A. Hamilton. President. 74 Proceedings. IMJESJDENTIAI. ADDIJ ESS. The t'ollowing- is tlie presidfiiti.il addix'ss tlclivci-ed at the annual meeting of tlie Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute at Auckland, 26th Jannarv, 1011, by A. Hiuiiiltnii, Diiectoi-, Dominion Miiseuni : — Gentlemen of the Board of Governors, — It is my duty to lay before you a few remarks relating to the progress of the \\ork of the Institute during the last year, and to supplement in some cases the items whiih yon wiH find in tlie annual I'eport of the Board of Governors and the balance-sheet. In aectn-dance with the resolution of the Board passed last year, the Secretary li;is diawn up ii list of the resolutions of the Standing Committee which have the I'nri'c of reguhitions, and these are submitted for the purpose of being put into such form as may be required to bring them into line \s ith the regulations originally gazetted. As I have said before, I think it is our duty to have these duly printed and set forth for the information of members so long as they stand as valid and operative regulations of the Board of ({oveinors. I have suggested that instead of their being dealt with seriatim in this meeting they should be referred to a small committee, who could report later on to the Council, and that we should consider the report of the committee as a whole. In the ](>port of the Publication Committee y(ju will find ii good many practical suggestions for the improvement of the Transacti(jns. It is a matter which requires constant attention, and although many improvements have been brought about within the last few yeais, still much might be done with advantage, especially in the way of condensing a good deal of the matter which is now printed in full. The ijuestion of the expense of publishing is also one which will require veiy care- ful consideration, as the publication of Proceedings ((uartcrly increases the total Hiinual cost of publication. When in Australiii recently I noticed that there is also ;i movement there in the direction of co-oi'dinatiug the serial pul)lications taken liy the various bodies, :in(i that an effort is being made to avoid the duplication of necessary and ex- pensive works in the collection. The same movement is being initiated in Wel- lington, and the various libraries in that city have agreed to a systematic and mutual co-operation in the procuring of magazines, and have agieed to render them available to all students under certain conditions. By this means a certain amount has been set free for expenditure in magazines not hitherto taken. There are still several important serial publications which are not taken by any Inanch of the Institute oi' liy any public library in New Zealand, and I think it would be within the province of the Institute to ascertain which of these are most necessary and ay be devoted to the advancement of research and of assistance to those engaged in research. Although we cannot yet compare with scientific institutions in other countries, still we have a beginning, and in these matters an actual start is a matter of importance. With careful administration the lesults ()l)tain(>d freciuently lead to the establishment of other funds, and matters then progress much more easily. In Australia it is to the munificence of private individuals that science has fellow- ships which may be awarded for I'esearch work in connection with societies. The value of these fellowships is (]uite considerable, and they are found to be useful and productive of good work. We have this year seen another well-equipped .Vntaictic expedition leave these shores under the command of Captain Scott. On behalf of the Institute. I wished Captain Scott success and a safe return. In Sydney at a recent meeting of the Australasian .\ssociation for the Advance- ment of Science I had the pleasure of attemling an enthusiastic meeting of the General Council, when a sum of £1,000 was voted from the funds of the associa- tion towards purely Australasian explorations, which have been organized for the purpose of aJitarctic research under the leadership of Dr. Mawson. New Zealand is not within the political bounds of the Commonwealth of Australia, but neverthe- less we must feel as a scientific body deep interest in any scientifii' work within the Antarctic area, and I think perhaps more especially in l)i'. .Mawson's expedi- tion, as they intend exploring, if po.ssible, a particular part of the southern con- tinent within which the meteorological observations that will be made will be of the greatest possible interest to New Zealand and the shipping of the surrounding waters. The commercial advantages which are hoped for may or may not be realized, Imt the scientific data in meteorology will certainly l)e of interest and value. It is therefore, I think, right and pi'oper that at this our meeting we should send t(j Dr. .Mawson our best wishes for his success and safe return of his ♦expedition. At the Australasian meeting several matters of interest to New Zealand were dealt with, and several recommendations were passed by the committee which are of interest to scientists in New Zealand. One of them relates to the desirability of the New Zealand CTOvernment taking steps to arrange for the description of the New Zealand fossils i-ollected by the New Zealand geological surveys. This resolution also refers to a previous one which had been communicated to the New Zealand Coveinment during the Dunedin meeting. It recognized that certain steps had been taken to prepare the mass of fossils for description, and hoped that the further and more important step would be taken of having them properly described and published. It is with considerable satisfaction that I notice that the Animals Protection Act has been so altered by the last Parliament as to tleclare all indigenous birds protected. This is a matter which I have been advocating for some consideiable time as l)eing the best way to cany out protective measures. With this principle as a basis it is easy to exempt from protection for any time that is desiral)le, or in any place, birds which may be proved to be a real nuisance in destroying fish or injuring sheep. No doubt the steps taken by the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury assisted in biinging about the present result. In other countries where this principle has been adopted it has been found to work satisfactorily, and I have no doubt that eventually this principle will be adopted by all countries which find it necessary to have protective legislation on their sta'tute-bocjks. I interviewed members of the House on behalf of the Institute with a view to making lepresen- tations to the Coveinment as to leasing the Auckland Islands. It is true that we recognize with much pleasure the reservation of Adams Island as a sanctuary for the native flora of that part, but the leasing of the main island must be legarded with i-egret in view of the small amount of levenue which is thereby obtained. The Standing Committee considered the question of themselves applying for the lease, but it was found that matteis had gone too far. There is one subject that I should like, in this my last oppoitunity of address- ing you from the piesidential chair, to bring forward. Once every year we have a general meeting of the members of this Board. Owing to geographical consider- ations it is sometimes difficult to get a full meeting. Those who do attend the meeting have to receive the annual leport of the work that has been done by the Standing Committee, which is practically the executive of the Board. As a rule, it is best to have an executive consisting n in professional employment. The man who can give his life for an idea is unknown among us, and, following the line of least resist- ance, we are apt to do tht^ work nearest us with no eagle eye on ultimate issues. Once we are made to feel the influence of science, not merely on the accelerating progress of the State, but on the world of ideas, of moials, and of emotion, we may expect endowment to be much more frequent than it has been in the. past. -Men could be found to do the work if the opportunity was present. Undoubtedly the best plan is to provide research scholarships for young graduates, tenable for short teims : from them in time will come the born investigator — the one in a thousand — who should be permanently kept at work by private endowment or by the State. 78 Proceedinas AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. Eighth Mketix(; : JJ/u/ Xorcmber, 1910. Mr. E. V. Miller, Vice-President, in the chair. Fopers. — 1. " Mao7-i Rock-enuravincfs in tlie Kaipara Di.strict. " hv R. Buddie. 2. " Maori Methods of 8hark-tishinhased from Mr. W. Townson. In foreign ethnology by far the most valuable addition is a series of over five hundred articles from Japan, including a few from China, deposited by Mr. H. S. , Dadley. The collection includes many fine bronzes, swords, daggers, and other articles in metal; numerous carvings in wood and ivory; many varied specimens of pottery^, porcelain, and cloisonne ; specimens of lacquei-work ; of silks em- bi'oi'dered with gold and silver ; and other articles too numerous to mention: This collection is the result of Mr. Dadley's personal efforts during three visits to Japan, and the specimens have been carefully and judiciously selected. The Museum was so poorly supplied with ethnographical material from China and Japan that Mr. Dadley's deposit was a most weh-ome addition, and its presence in the Muse\mi lias attracted gieat numbers of visitors. AucL-land Institute. .SL Liljraiy. — The ,M;u-kelvit' l^ibraiy Bequest has yiuldecl its usual icveiiuc during fhe year, and this, in eoiiipliance with the terms of the ))equest, has been expended solely in the purchase of books. Two consignments have been obtained from London, numbering about \'lb volumes. In addition to the purc^hase of books, a large expenditure has been incurred in binding scientific journals, publications of societies, &c., about eighty-five volumes having been added to the library from that source alone. The usual presentations and exchanges have been received from foreign societies, in addition to several donations from private individuals. In last year's report it was stated that the Council had decided to proceed with the preparation of a printed catalogue of the library. The work has been completed during the year, and copies of the catalogue can now be obtained from the Secretary at the price of .5s. each. The usefulness of the catalogue cannot be ques- tioned, but so far the sale of copies has hardly equalled the anticipations of the Council. It should l)e mentioned that purchasers of the catalogue will be suppli<^d each year with a printed list of additions to the library. In concluding the report, the Council have once more to thank the members for the assistance they have given in furthering the objects of the society. They have also to express their gratification at the countenance and sympathy evinced by the general public, and pai'ticularly at the increasing number of donations to the .Viuseum forwarded liy country residents. In many respects the steady progress of the Institute and Museum is a matter for congratulation. It is true that the slender means available will not permit of rapid or startling advances, but the Council can faiily claim that in carrying out the work of maintaining a free public Museum and scientific library they are discharging a duty of no small importance, and one which entitles them to the sjmipathetic assistance of the whole community. Election of Officers for 1911. — President — J. H. Upton; Vice-Fresi- dtnts — Dr. R. Briffault, Professor C. W. Ejiertoi] ; Council — L. J. Bag- nail, Professor F. D. Brown, E. V. Miller, T. Peacock, J. Reid, Dr. E. Roberton, Professor H. W. Segar, J. Stewart, Professor A. P. W. Thomas; Trustees — Professor F. D. Brown, T. Peacock, J. Reid, J. Stewart, J. H. Upton; Secretarj/ (tiul Curator — T. F. Cheeseman ; Auditor — S. Gray. On the motion of Mr. T. Peacock, a special vote of thanks was passed to the retiring auditor, Mr. W. Gorrie, wlio had acted in tliat capacity for eighteen years. A vote of thanks to the retiring President. Dr. R. Briffault, was also passed, also to Mr. T. F. Cheesennm, with congratulations on his election as President of the New Zealand Institute. so as the appiuximate total nun;! very slightly under the estiniati u The progress made by the M factory. Many important additi'. placed on exhibition. Much tin preparing and mounting the spei efforts of Mr. Griffin, who has . general appearance of the collect]' been much enhanced. In last year's report it was the formation of a collection of kept steadily in view, and, in orde. made to the Bay of Islands, the ( Hauraki Crulf. Altogether sixty-( painted from life, and it is intend i coming autumn Another novel a gelatine casts of the tuatara lizard ■ work performed during the year i; . the collection of New Zealand 1)i ■ prepared specimens. Other noteworthy additions ar. .- kiwi, obtained through the good o< '■, ample of the white crane, now nea \ . W. Townson; a specimen of Siila / -a. of the vddely spread water-snakc^^f/, west of Helensville. This last spdmen warded to the Museum by the find^. Mr. three fine specimens of the robber-ab (/ north of Tahiti, and presented bv Ir. .1. as to show the tjce-climbing habit of tl other forms of the Crustacea^ Another important addition ccsists ecies ( sources during the last eight or n yea)s Malaya, New Guinea, &c. ""It shod be im i collection is displayed has been pBented i several Auckland gentleiium. A considerable number of impivements the Maori collections. Among tihobiert.> \ are those which can be described s tishinu lines, fishing-weights, nets, miLss-dred-; -^ canoe-balers has been remoimted. :■ also a ;,i. the new additions the following ny be part, tained by purchase in the Upper hames disti Lower Waikato : a series of carvirs in pumici Lake Eotoehu, presented by Mr. V J. Blake : presented by Mr. W. J. Benner an(Mr. J. Gril polished stone axe found near Npruawahia, 1 elaborately carved step of a ko orpade. some \ and various other articles presented)y Mr. G. (i seventeen articles in greenstone, oroiary stone. : T(Avnson. In foreign ethnology by far th most valuab hundred articles from Japan, inclrng a few fro . Dadley. The collection includes any fine bro articles in metal : numerous carvi of pottery, porcelain, and cloisoi broidered with gold and sil.y^; ai collection is the r Japan, and the Museum was Japan tha the M in wood an specimens er jirticles isonai ully H ograph 'jst welcon t visitors. S if ^t 0. ' 'ii n jji Librartj. the year, ;it solely in London, r.; large exp socict'- that forei_ In 1..- with th, completi Secretai} tioned, 1 Council. each veai In r for the . have als by the >;• Museum the Inst slender iiu..: Council can Museum and and one whh : Election or < ir dents — Dr. E I. • nail, Profes-< ! • E. Robertoii. ]' Thomas; Tni^-- Stewart, J. H. i ii Auditor — S. Grav On the motioii n; to the retiriiie a: for eighteen war- A vote of tha]^ also passed, ako i. election as Presiii'ri; Philosophnl Soctetij. 85 u'uei' exhibi'il a erected Pol jipod iti m dm- )eciuien of lie oocnvrenGC. iiinnher of t.'l' tlir Astronomical Section, that the fu'Is in hand amounted to £34, Dr. KenU'lys lecture and private dona- ting of th section will he held on lltli —The t'cowin^ otticers were elected for Hudson, .E.S. ; Vice-Presidents — Mr. Munro lector ; Council — Mr. Martin i;. Kirk, dr. F. G. A. Stuckev, M.A., )r. Keuuty. F.R.A.S., Professor T. H. I'.L.S.; Secretary and Treasurer— Mr. f.ihraria — Miss J. A. Wilson ; Auditor [ C.\ L V. C T 1 O N . L\-D AuG-r, l'.)in. lector iitlie chair. I lie foUtving objects : To promote tlio eneralh and to secure the establisli- Wellinfon. I'cted: 'resident find Treasurer — Mr. E. Adms, M.Sc, F.R.A.S., Dr. C. r, F.R.-S.. Professor Picken, Mr. G. Mr. A. '. Gifford, M.A. ibservahv was opened by subscription. Sbptebei!, 1010. rth in le chair. S., gav an illustrated popular lecture vatorj-Fund. in the Concert Chamber ed fred)y tlio City Council. H OCTCKR. 1910. Presid<]t, in tlie chair. h had k-n drawn up by the Council, lis preslcntia] address on astronomy, •ollectio I if lantei-n -slides. m i n 84 Proceedings. Example for Ko tide : — If the following lines aie used from the list : — (185 - 97) ; (96 - 8j — i.t., equal intervals of 88 day.s — then the S. tides arc eompletely eliminated, and the maximum value is obtained foi' the Ko tide. If the following lines aie used (when the observations extend over a year), a further value is obtained : — (362 - 274); (273 - 185). The selection of these lines and the sums from the list is shown in detail on the sehedule, giving the 24 values of Df, which are subjected tservatio'ns have been legularly takc-n throughout the year at every 10 chains, and specimens collected at frequent in- tervals in order to have a permanent lecord of the rocks encountered. The lie of the beds, faults, and other features have been observed throughout the 86 chains that the bore has penetrated at the Otira end of the tunnel. Little work has been done at the Bealey end. The general results are somewhat inconclu.sive in that there has been no appreciable rise in temperatuie, a result which is n(j doubt due to the rapid percolation of water through the beds ; and, since the Tunnel follows the general strike, little variation is to be met with in the character of the rocks i n- countered. The thanks of the Institute are due to Messrs. .John .McLean and Sons, the contractors, for the facilities afforded for the examination of the Tunnel, and to Mr. John Manson, of the Public Works Department, f(jr the \aluable services he has rendered in taking temperatures and collecting speciuu-ns when memltei's of tin- Institute were unable to visit Otiia. Lakfii (joiiiiii'itti'.e.. — As mentioned in the repoit last year, it was originally intended to commence investigatiims on Lake Coleridge, and, as a preliminary step. a representative of the committee visited the lake. It was decided latei' to examine first a lake of smaller area, and Lake Sarah, on the West Coast lioad, was therefore chosen. Early in the year three members spent a lew days in the locality, and did some useful preliminary work, making collections and surveying the lake." On the completion of the present .section of the Midland Pailway, facilities for visiting the lake will be greatly increased, when it is hoped that the investigati(»ns may be continued. Arffsian I n ri'. pressure of other rmUteis the Committefci foi' the Investigation of the Artesian System of Christchurch and Neighbourhood has been unable to meet and woik as a general comiuittee ; investigations have, however, been carried out by individual memViers, and a pape)- dealing with further experiments on the effect of artesian water on fish has already been presented at the Institute by Dr. Farr and Mr. D. B. Macleod. and a comprehensive paper dealing v/ith the depths of the artesians in different districts and the strata through which they pass will be Ijrought forv/ard by Mr. P. Speight at the annual meeting. AnimalH Frotntlon Art. — This question has V^een fully considered by a sul)- committee of the Council, and al.so by the Council itself working in conjunction with the local acclimatization societ\' and the Otago Institute, and there is .sonu- satisfaction in noting that their combined efforts were successful in securing a modification of the present Act so as tf) give more adequate protection to our native fauna. A (government BiH lecenlly introduced into I'arliament contained a clause which declared all native l)irds to l)e protected, and imposed a substantial penalty for molesting them. The Hon. D. Buddcj, Ministei- of Internal Affairs, has kindly informed the Council that this clause has been finally adopted, and it is hoped that it will check the destiuction which went ')n formerly in spite of the regulations. The hearty thanks of the Institute are specially due to ^Ir. H. ('•. Ell, M.P., and to Colonel Heaton Pihodes, M.P.. for their cordial and ready assistance in the matter. Aurl-Jand /■■'Ifiiul^. — The Council notes with much pleasure the decision of the Government to make Adams Island, the large island to the south of Carnlev Harbour, a sanctuary for the preservation of the unique native fauna and flora of our subantarctic islands. It is to be hoped that arrangements will ahso be made for 88 ProccediffffS. declaring as scenic reserves the two beautiful haibours on the east coast of the island — viz., Norman Inlet and Cascade Inlet; and also Ewing Island.' at tlir north end of the group, with its remarkable forest of Olcaria Li/alli, whicli, with the exception of a similar patch at the Snares, is the only one in existence. Xor- man Inlet is further remarkable as possessing the most southei'ly Icnown tree-forn in the world. " Subanf arctic Islands of X-cw Zealand." — At the end of the year 190!) the- report of the expedition to the southern islands of New Zealand, organized by this Institute, was issued to the public. The result has been specially gratifying "to all concerned, the general appearance of the volumes reflects great credit on the printer, and it is confidently hoped that they will be welcomed by the scientific world as a substantial contribution to knowledge of the Antarctic, and especially of the part immediately to the south of Xew Zealand. The work has been well received throughout New Zealand and the Australian States, and the .sales from this part of the world are very satisfactoiy. It is too early to speak of its leception in Europe and America, but judging from the few reviews that have l)een leceived. and from the cordial congratulations and appreciative references from such well- known men as Sir Joseph Hooker, Dr. W. S. Bruce, Professor L. Joubin, Dr. C. Skottsberg, Dr. L. Diels, an equally good reception may be expected linm those- parts of the world as well. During the year the Institute communicated with the Xew Zealand ( lo'.ernmeut urging the establishment of a high-power wireless telegraph-station at the Bluff, so that communication could be made with expeditions to the Antarctic equipped with a similar outfit. The Premier stated, in reply, that the station proposed by the New Zealand Government would l)e of sufficient power to communicate under favourable conditions with the Antarctic nuiinland. Tlir Institute hopes that this may lead in the near future to the establishment of a pciiiutncnt or semi-pernument meteorological station in the neighbourhood of Cape Adare. since such a station would prove of the very greatest value in making accuiate weather-forecasts fm- Australia and New Zealand. Library. — The amount spent on the library was far in excess of the proportion fixed by the constitution, and as many donations were alsc received, the additimis are more than usually ntmierous. As Port Lyttelton has been chosen as the point nF departuie foi' yet another British Antarctic Expedition, it is felt that th(> formation of a section dealing with works devoted to Antarctica was more than justified, and the Council was pleased to be able to place the library at the disposal of Captain Scott and his fellow-explorers of the " Terra Nova," to whom it has already proved of service. ' The following are among the woiks added to the section durijig the year : "The Antarctic Regions": Fricker ; 1904. "The Heart of the Antarctic": Shackleton ; 1909. "The Birds of Terra del Fuego " : Crawshay ; 1907. Schwe- dische Siid-polar Exp. IV: Nordenskiold ; 1901-3. National Antarctic Exp., 1901-3 : Magnetic Observations. British Antarctic Exp., 1907-9 : Pep. Scientific Observations — I, Biology ; 1910. Exp. Antarcti^iue Fran(jaise, 1903-5 (in part) ; 1909 {ed. Charcot), (presented bv the French fiovernment). " Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn"; 1S8'2-S3. 1888-91. " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand •" : 1909. Meetings of the Institute. — Ten meetings of the Institute have been held during the year, at which the average attendance has been sixty-four. At these, twenty- seven papers embodying the results of original research have been read. These may be classified as follows : Botany, 4 ; zoology, 7 : geology, 5 ; chemistry, <> : physics, 2 ; mathen^atics, 1 : miscellaneous, 2. The number for the year is well up to the usual average, and it is pleasing to note that a fair proportion of thi-se are by young members of the Institute. Besides these original papers the following- addresses of a more general and popular character have been delivered : " The- Nesting Habits of Fishes" (ex-presidential address), by Edgar P. Waite ; "The Permanent Pastures of New Zealand,"" liy .\. H. Cockayne: "The Ceology of the Cook and Society Islands." by Dr. P. .Marshall : ' Modern Views of the Con- stitution of Matter," by Dr. H. C. Denham. Membership. — During the year thirty-one new inemliers have been elected and twenty-six have resigned or been struck off, so that the number now stands at 173. Balance-sheet. — The balance-sheet shows a credit on the Institute's ordinarv ac- count of £60 9s., and on the Tunnel Account of €142 10s. lid. A sum of £101 15s. 8d. has been spent on the library, and £7 9s. has been collected and forwarded to the Hector Memorial Committee as a further contribution to that fund, in response to an appeal made by the conmiittee to raise the total sum subseribcd to- £rA)0. in order to secure the full Government subsidv. Ph')lo^(>phu-al hi^lilnh of Caiilerhvni . '^\) KhrliDii (if Of[i <■(!■•< far lUII. — TIk' follow uil; Wcir cleft;'!! otiliTl'S of tlu Institute for the vli : I'icsidc nl—y\y . A. M. Wiiuiit : Vl.cf- /'irsi(/('iif.'<-— Mr. \\. M. LaiiijLi', Dr. L. Cockayne; //o/i. Sern'fnri/ — Mr. U. S]H'iglit ; I/i)//. T rtdxnrer — Di-. ('. Chilton; lloii. Lihrandii — Mr. K. I{. Waite; I'oiiiiril^-^^r. H. JJj'aiier, Mi'. .1. Dnminiond, Dr. [1. <:. Denl.am, Dr. V. \\ . Hil-endorf. Mr. W. i\ . Jloti'y, Mr. S. Pa-re. I'dperx. — 1. "The Kediscovery of ]i. '■ iiepoi't on a Colloetion of (' nistdcca from thi' Kerina(k'e Islands," by Di-. C. Chilton. .Vn account of the ('n/e a pi'ebniinaiv to others dealing with various features of the area. ^S. " On Centr(»idal Trianolcs. " b\- E. G. Hosti'. ':)0 Proceedings. !). ■■ l»epi.)it (Ui the Cm -stared collected l»y the " Nora Xivcii ' Trawliiig^ Exj)C(litioii," by Dr. C. Chilton. An account of the Crustacea collected by Mr. Waite during the trawling CI uise of the " Nora Niven " in 1907. The collection is an interesting one. being partic-ularly rich in the hermit-crabs, some of which have not been seen since they were taken by the " Novara " or "Challenger" expeditions. All the forms are referred to species already desciibed, but in many cases additional information is given and the synonymy cleared up. [This paper will be published with the other Results of the " Nora Niven "' Tr;iwling Expedition in the Records of the Canterbury Museum.] 10. " Pctrological Notes on a Collection of Koeks from Soutli Vic- toria Land,'' bv 1\. H. Worth; cotunmnicated Ijy T. Y. Hodgson. This paper gives a petrological description of a number of .specimens collected by ^Ir. T. V. Hodgson when a member of the British National Antarctic Expedi- tion (1901 3). They include descriptions of material not required in the prepara- tion of the official re{)ort. Hiiicki'.'s Bay Philosophical Institiite. 91 HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. SiM'ii .\Iei:tin(; : '/fh yoi(tnbet\ 19/0. Mr. J. Wilson Crai<4' in the cliair. Xrir Members. — .\[V. W. J. W. Turvey and Mr. E. J.. I'aterfsou. Paper. — " Torpedoes in Peace and in War," by W. J. W. Turvey. The lecture gave an account, illustrated by lantern-slides, of the histoiy, con- struction, machinery, and action of the torpedo. llorken E iidoiniienf Fimd. — £5 was voted from the funds of the Institute in support of Hocken Endowment Fund. AnnuaT; Genkral Mketixg : OOi .Januarii, 1911. Dr. Henley in tlif cliair. liepovf. — Tlie annual report and balance-sheet were read and adopted, and ordered to be printed. Annual IJepodt. During the year seven meetings of the Institute were held, and the Council has met seven times. Six papers have been read at the meetings. Eleven new members were elected during the year, four members resigned, and one died, so that the membership is now seventy-four. The society wishes to place on record its regret at the death of Mr. H. R. Holder, who was one of its oldest members. The library still grows, over forty volumes having been added during the year. Two sets of valuable volumes have been presented to the library — " Hawkesworth's Voyages," presented by Mr. T. Hyde, and "The Institutes of the Emperor Akbar," presented anonymously. The thanks of the Institute are due to these donors. The Institute has decided to encourage nature-study by offering prizes for collections of plants, shells, and insects. These prizes are offered through the Agricultural and Pastoral Society. In order to fall in line with other Institutes snd for convenience, the date of the annual meeting has been changed to December. The Council, desiring to help in making the Hocken collection more available, decided to vote £5 for that purpose. The Treasurer's statement shows that the Institute is in a sound position, there being a credit balance of £23. Election of Officers for 1911 .—President^B.. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. ; Vice-PresifUnt — T. C. Moore, M.D. ; Council — G. Clark, W. Dinwiddie, J. Hislop, J. P. Leahy, M.B., D.Ph., G. K. Sinclair, J. Snodgrass; f/o7i. Secretary — J. Niven, M.A., M.Sc. ; Hon. Treasurer — J. W. Craig; I/on. Auditor — J. S. Large; Hon. Lantern '>t — E. G. Loten. Valedictory. — On behalf of the Institute, Mr. Craig wished the Presi- dent (Dr. Henley) a safe joui-ney to England, and a pleasant holiday thei'e. 2 — Proceedings, pt. iii. 92 Proceedings. MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Annual Meeting : 7th December, 1910. The President, Mr. W. V . Durward, in the chair. The anniial meeting (adjourned from the 24:th November) was held on the above date. The annual report and balance-sheet were adopted. Annual Eeport. Since the last annual meeting only five general meetings have been held, as those from ]May to August lapsed, several gentlemen who had heen expected to read papers having been prevented from vaiious reasons from doing so. During the year one of our members has been removed by death, five by leaving the district, three by resignation, and three have been struck off the list for non-payment of their suVjscriptions. During the same time five new members have been elected, and our present roll is sixty-five. In consequence of the lamented death of Mr. Keeling, the Council subsequently appointed Mr. J. ^Mitchell auditor in his place. The following papers have been read before the society : Mr. W. W. Smith, F.E.S. : "The New Zealand vSaddlehack." Mr. D. Sinclair, C.E. : "Education among the Early Maoris." Dr. Findlay, LL.D., K.C. : "Legal Liberty." Mr. E. D. Hoben : "The Moving Picture." Mr. E. McNab : "Recent Researches into the History of Te Rauparaha's Raid on Akaroa in 1830, and the French Race for the same Place in 1840." An admirably mounted collection of ferns was exhibited at the Agricultural and Pastoral Winter Show by Mr. T. Lancaster, which, though not entirely ful- filling the conditions attached to the prizes offered by the society, was so highly commended by the Judge, Mr. T. W. Kirk. F.L.S., that the Council awarded to it a prize of £2 'is., and on the judge's recommendation further altered the condi- tions so that, in future, collections sent in in competition for the prizes may be confined to any one or more orders in either botany or entomology, a limitation which the Council hope may encourage more competitors to enter. Individual additions both to the museum and the library continue to come in steadily, many of them of considerable interest, there having been over 150 during the year : but the Council has been compelled to decline representative collections which have been offered by Government Departments and by individuals, on account of the total want of space available for their display. In view of the recent rejection of the loan for a new library and museum, some definite plan for obtain- ing increased accommodation is urgently required. An application has been made on behalf of the society for the use of the old fire-brigade station, oi' a portion of it, as a museum ; and, failing that, it seems a matter for serious consideration whether the society should not try to raise funds for a building of its own. A site could be probably obtained either from the Corpcu'ation or the Government, and Mr. Sinclair has kindly prepared an estimate showing that a brick building pro- viding accommodation that would be adequate for manv vears might be put up for from £650 to £700. A reference to the statement of receipts and expenditure will show that if all outstanding subscriptions were paid up the societv's overdraft would be reduced to £1. ' A report by Captain Hewitt on the work of tlic Obsei'vatory is attached : — Report on Ohservatory Work during 1909-10. by Captain Heivitt. During the past year we have liad only forty-nine visitors, though during the comets visit, with the kind assiHtanc(^ of Messr^i. Eliott and Glendinning, the Observatory was open three evenings a week. We hav«^ had only one visit from the pul)ii(' schools, when Mr. Vernon l)rought some pupils from tiu- High School. Mandiiuilic Plulo-sopliical Society. 93 Observations of Halley's comet were interesting, specially before its passage of the smi, when its tail was incn^asing. At o a.m. on 18th May the tail, well defined, exceeded 1P>° of arc, and at 3 a.m. on the l!>th the tail, very diffvised, covered the J^i.E. quarter of the heavens nearly to the zenith ; at 5 a.m., no defined limits to the tail — apparently the earth was in the tail. The dates of the comet's first appearance may be of interest. On 14th Septembei', 1!>09, it was seen at Yerko's Observatoiy, when the ob.served position differed only 3" it> 11. A. and 4' in decl. from the position calculated for the Pulkowa Observatory. On 18th October, 1909, it was found on a photograph-plate at Meeanee. Here it was not seen till 18th April, 1910, in the constellation Pisces, where, though approaching the earth rapidly, it appeared tp remain till 4th Ma}', when change of position was easily perceived. On 21st April the tail extended about 45' ; on 13th May I estimated it at 20°, reaching about 5° above a Pegasi. The observed j)osition of the nucleus was then R.A. 0° 39' 40", decl. 11° 48' N. At 5 a.m. on 18th May the tail stretched from the horizon at E.N.E. to a point about 7° above .Altair — .say, 75° of arc. At 6 a.m. the nucleus liad not risen, and daylight effaced the light of the comet. On 21st May I observed the comet in the evening, in i30sition Pv.A. 5h. 51' 45', and decl. 18° 11' N. This is near the calculated position between the 18th and 19th, but 3° further north. This looks as if the comet had been retarded in its )>rogress, though I have not heard of any one who observed th(^ position that evening. On the following evening, 22nd May, Mr. Ward's observation ai Wanganui agrees closely with mine ; but if the comet was checked, subsequent observations on fourteen evenings u]) to 24th June show that it was graduall}' making up for lost time. Observations of sun-spots have been interesting, confii-ming me in the idea, put before you some three years ago, that we must consider solar forces as converging on our earth and ])lanets of our system, ratlier than that these bodies catch the chance ray.s which may hit them from a body which radiates force into space, heedless whether there is matter for those forces to act on. Unfortunately, times of magnetic disturbance are generally accompanied by bad weather, when the sun is obscured by clouds, so simul- taneous observations of spots and magnetic oscillations are rare ; but on two occasions • — 25th September and 29th November, 1909 — I noted considerable movement in .spots on the southern hemisphert^ of the sun, and the iSurveyor-General's report, «'hen pub- lished, showed that on those days there had been magnetic disturbance in the observa- tory at Christchurch. Commenting on these coincidences to the Surveyor- General, I was able to draw his attention to solar disturbances w.,i h I .suspected had caused magnetic disturbances between 29th September and 6th October, 1910. He referred my letter to Mr. Skey, at C!liristchurch, who replied that the magnetograms showed considerable disturbance from 29th September to 7th October. This encourages us to ask for more observers of these phenomena, so that v.-e may get more knowledge of that mysterious force magnetism. We have received from Messrs. Home and Thounthwaite, at a cost of 16s., an eyepiece to replace the. 70-power one that was injured. 1 have to thank Messrs. Eliott and Glendinning for kind assistance when I have been unable to attend. Papers. — 1. "Local Vej^etable Pai-asitfs,'' by D. Sinclair, (J.E. This paper dealt with some of the Nev, Zealand mistletoes, lontrasting them with the European species; al.so with />arti/hitt(/tu.< Tai/lori, which was stated to grow on the roots of the white miri {Pitto^poni/ii), appearing about 2 in. above gioimd like a fir-cone on end, and with the flower in the centre tinged with pink. The plant is rare, and its means of propagation imknown. Tieference was also made to various New Zealand epiphytes. In the course of his paper the author suggested the f(niiiati()n of a field naturalist club in connection with the society. 2. " Assumption of tlic Swoi'd of rli.^ Sutter of tlic .MuMivc Lslauds.'' by W. F. Durward. This was an account given by tlie brother of the author, an officer on H.iM.S. ■'Proserpine," of the curious ceremonies on the "assumption of the sword" by the sutter of the Maldive Islands, the local equivalent to coronation. Special atten- tion was called to the employment of seven as a mystical number symbolic of royalty, the whole procession being arran<;ed in sevens, and the proceedings being repeated at seven different stations. 94 Proceedings. 3. " The Evidences of the Condition of the Interior of the Eartli.'" by M. A. Eliott. Abstract. 1. Gravitation proves that the total mass of the earth is 5^ times heavier than water, the weight increasing towards the interior, the surface being from 2^ to 3^. and the interior more than 8 times heavier than water. 2. The shape of the earth shows that the density of the mass increases towards the centre, and in such proportion that the rocky shell must be from 800 to 1,000 miles thick. 3. (a.) The tides prove that the globe as a whole must be as rigid as steel, though at the same time flexible, the core being 4 times as rigid as steel, [h.) Polar oscillations show that the interior is of a plastic nature. 4. Earthquakes prove that at a depth of 950 miles — i.e., the point of passage from the rock mantle to the metal core — a sudden change occurs in the condition of the strata. 5. The temperature increases rapidly towards the centre, probably to thousands ol: degrees, liquefaction, however, being prevented by the enormous pressure. 6. The moon, formed from the same materials as the outer layers of the earth, is known from astronomical observations to have a density of 3'4. coinciding exactly with the average density of the rocky mantle. Thus the final conclusion is that the earth consists of a metal core, composed principally of iron, with some alloy of heavier metal, as nickel, surrounded by a rocky mantle about 9.50 miles thick. Election of Officers for 1911. — -Vresident — Captain Hewitt, R.N. ; Vice-Presidents — Messrs. K. McNab and R. Gardner: Secretary and Treasurer — Mr. K. Wilson; Auditor — Mr. J. Mitchell; Council — Messrs. Barnicote, Bendall, Durward, Eliott, Sinclair, and Yernon. Otago Institute. 95 OTAGO INSTITUTE. Seventh Meeting : Ut Novembfr, 1910. Professor Waters, President, in the chair. Neir Members. — Dr. Chatuptaloup and Mr. D. Tannock. Papert^. — 1. "The Kinetic Energy of River-currents; or The Utiliza- tion of River-currents for Power Purposes," by F. W. Payne. The author showed interesting photographs of a current-wheel which he had constructed and erected at Alexandra, and gave an account of its power and work- ing-capacity, and the quantity of water it could lift and discharge, and showed clearly that there was an almost unlimited supply of power entirely untouched in the midst of a great district with enormous possibilities in the way of fruit-pro- duction under a comparatively economical system of irrigation. In the course of the discussion that followed Mr. Payne stated that the wheels could be multiplied indefinitely on a river such as the Clutha, and that the cost per head by current- wheel was about £500, as against £1,400 per head for water brought in by the usual pipe-lines. 2. " Report on the Echinoderrns collected at the Kerniadec Islands," by Professor Benham, F.R.S. , 3. "A New Species of Syj-phidae," by D. Miller. 4. " Anatomy of Siphovaria ohliquaia," by A. J. Cottrell. 5. " Description of Son\e New Species of New Zealand Lepidoptera,^' b)" G. Howes. 6. "The Younoer Rock Series of New Zealand,"" liy Professor P. Marshall, D.Sc. Addresi^. — Mr. A. Batligate gave an interesting account of a trip to the Waitonio Caves and to the north-west portion of the Nelson Province. Eighth Meeting : fifh Devemher, 1910. Professor Waters, President, in the chair. New Members. — Messrs. .T. Laing and G. E. Thonipson, M.A. Exhibit. — Professor Benham exhibited a very fine greenstone axe, measuring 11 in. by 6 in., discovered at a depth of about 6 ft. at the corner of Leith and Hanover Streets, Dunedin. The axe had been dug up by the workmen of the Drainage Board, whicli body had cominendably donated the implement to the Museum. Governor. — Mr. G. M. Thomson being unable to attend the next annual meeting of the New Zealand Institute, Dr. P. Marshall was elected a substitiite Governor in his place. '^T«?- iaiiL'gtai ^^^^^rt sjurl >i!aiMiJ»o^-^&aBi ■mere' a-i'j'pBS*!- i ii '^^sv Ttjfcigfftf- mff^Kcc, -:t.-:^-I 'iEanmie. F. 'iislmr ^t^';>^ n-iSMT-^jS^ j.J!>'v4wU. .» i^,..«i^,«*> . i«^ •^ i)i ^i rf f7 1^ iti (I OSa^ ImssiSmsi^ re «e ^jhe trdHuzj' au.iiKa^!E ani sKtuJiHui a a pkauuiusd: neiinTeaL 3£ sis' The Hise^K MiaananaS. «r MastfooB ^^ : . TusmaBiBC "umitimajt- i^^raiK^ Sep imeA at ^oe- sseBonr «Be «e cor X' inalaei;. smi a msm^ra: £*?.T-/ — Tie- stiisaer: .^-n i mnk OK sennal iwafliiij aai snii:. r: : CoEaeiK' jies: FiEscssr"? Xev Zwiiaaii iaESsafi» T«i^am)>s x'i~:--^-^-i. krr.' T^:c^l :: - _ - ■ - . ;cn: P. JliTskj^a. M-A.. D»jS^., F,*;,>^. PV?c;ss»<. P A P E R S. 1. Glaciated Surfaces and Boulder-clay near Bealey. By K. Speiglit, M.Sc, FAt.S. (Read before the Pliildsuphical Institiite of Canterbur\-, 7th December, 1910.) Glaciated surfaces where actual striae still remain clearly visible have not been often recorded as occurring in this country, nevertheless a caieful inspection of likely places shows that they are by no means infrequent. During a visit to the Bealey I had opportunity to examine minutely several places where ice was likely to leave its traces, and specially the large roche. moufonnee near which the Bealey Hotel is situated. This is in all probability an outlying fragment of a former spur which has been almost entirely removed by the erosion of the great valley glacier which occupied the Waimakariri Valley in former times, and its surface exhibits in many places the characteristic striae and flutings due to glacier erosion. These have remained hidden for years, but recent heavy rains have removed the covering of soil and clay and exposed the surface of the solid rock to view for over 3 chains along the roadside. The flutings and striae are not parallel to the axis of the valley, but make a small angle with it. The general surface of the mound shows the dimples usually as.sociated with glacier-eroded surfaces. Similar dimples are to be observed on Goldney's Saddle, about seven miles below the Bealey near the junction of the Cass with the Waimakariri. In order that these forms may be well preserved, they must be protected from the disintegrating action of frost, which (juickly breaks up any exposed surface in this region. The rapidity of this mode of disintegration is well shown on the surfaces of rocks on Goldney's Saddle, where they have been deprived of their blanket of clay, loess, or peat. The completeness of this protective covering accounts for the surface markings being so well preserved at the Bealey. On close examination this appears to be composed of an upper layer of loose material, yellowish-brown in colour, closely jcsembling loess, but not a true loess. The actual thickness is doubtful, and no doubt highly variable, but where exposed on the roadside it is from 4 ft. to o ft. thick. This poi'tion owes its origin partly to material contained in the ice and left behind when it melted, partly to material weathered at higher levels and carried down by the action of water, snow. &c., and partly to the fine rock-flour which has been swept by strong winds from the dry river-beds left exposed as the ice retreated. The most interesting part, however, is the bottom layer of about 18 in. thick. This consists of a stiff clay containing subangular stones which are frequently striated — that is, it is a true l)oulder-clay, the first recorded from New Zealand which exhibits all its special characters. Such clays have been reported, but without the presence of scratched stones. In this case they are common, and a dozen good examples were collected in the course of two forenoons. It must be stated, however, in order to prevent possible misunderstanding, that a portion of the upper surface of the roche. wou- fontiee had been ploughed, and scratched stones were turned up in this part of it. It might be urged that the scratches on the stones were marks produced by the ploughshare wei'e not equally good specimens found in the clay on that part of the hill which had not been broken up. No doidit this clay collected in some of the hollows formed in the rock-surface by the erosive action of the glacier. Striated surfaces are also to be seen in the locality on the side of the road just past the hotel, and a very well-marked occurrence was pointed out to me by Mr. Patterson, the Public Works Engineer, about six miles below the Bealey, on the W^aimakariri cutting near the site of the projected railway-bridge over the river. Curiosity-hunters are rapidly destroying this surface in the desire to obtain speci- mens. Both these occvu'rences owe their preservation to the protection afforded V)y the suiface layer of loose material, and they have only been recently exposed. 2. Notes on the Discovery of Dactylanthus Taylori. By James Grant. B.A. ; coniiiuniicatetl by Mr. T. W. Dowiies. (Read l)efore tlic WelliiiL-toi) Plnlo.sophical Society, 7th September, 1910.) In Vol. xli of the "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute" Mr. H. Hill, in describing the I)actyl(inthu.< Tai/Ioii. quotes a letter he received from Mr. D. H. Williamson, in whi<'h that writer claims that his father, the late Francis Williamson. Papers. 99 was tliL' (lisi.ovfri.1' of Uic [jlanl. but tluit insteiul uf aeiuiiiii;- it to Eii^UukI us he originally intended he yave it to the llev. Richard Taylor, who was Then on the point of paying a visit to the Old Country. The concluding sentence of the letter indicates that Mr. Williamson has a grievance against Mr. Taylor because Dr. Hooker (now Sir Joseph) associated the name of the veteran missionary with the plant. The Kev. 15. Taylor came to New Zealand in March, 183U, and paid his first visit to England in 18.35. Hence the late Mr. Williamson must have found his .■specimen early in that year. Possibly Mr. D. H. Williamson was led to make the claim on behalf of his late father on reading an article in Vol. xxviii of the Transactions where the late Mr. T. Kirk mentions 1857 as the probable date of Taylor's discovery. But, as Mr. Hill points out, there is a sketch of the Dacly- ianthus in Taylor's " Te Ika a Maui," which was published in 1855. In the second edition of " Te Ika a Maui'" (page 697) Taylor says, "I first found it [Dactyhmtlius) on a mountain-range near Hikurangi, retiuning from Taupo, and noticed it growing among the roots of a tree near the path. . T . Mr. Wil- liamson afterwards brought me another specimen which lie had found in clearing some ground. The whole plant and flowers were entirely covered with vegetable mould ; the stem between the bracts was of a rusty brown. There were twenty-five flowers open all at once ; another excrescence had eighteen. He states the odour of one plant was something like that of a ripe melon, whilst the other had a disagreeable earthy smell." JJr. Hookei-. who descriljed and nan)ed the plant, says, " For a specimen of this singular plant I am indebted to my friend the Rev. R. Taylor, of New Zea- land, who brought a fragment of it to England in 1856, and, on my pointing out its probable interest, promised to procure more on his return to New Zealand. This he did. and early in the present year (1859) I had the pleasure of receiving from him a dried specimen of a female plant, a perfect male inflorescence in a letter, .and a pen-and-ink sketch of the peduncle and flowers, with notes on the same." The most important evidence was discovered by Mrs. Harper, the wife of Mr. H. S. G. Harper, in whose possession the Rev. R. Taylor's impublished journals are. The whole entry for the day is copied out exactly as it stands, except that the writer of these notes has supplied the punctuation-marks. ■' March 18, 1845. — It was a rainy night, and very cold, wet, and cheerless. In walking through the dense, humid forest I was soon as wet as if I had been in the water. We had constantly been ascending and descending. We crossed the Mangawera [Mangawhero] after dinner. The stream here makes a remarkable noise, which I fancy is occasioned by its flowing through some cavern in the rock. The Natives say it is a large tuna. I found the Parei myself to-day. It is cer- tainly one of the most remarkable vegetable productions I have seen, and appears to be the union of fungus with the plant. I passed several, taking them for toad- stools, but one more remarkable than the rest caused me to stop and gather it. I then found that it was a plant in full flower, although very much resembling a fungus. It has no leaves, and has a calyx containing a kind of pollen with rather a disagreeable smell. The Natives say it is more prolific than the potato, but will only grow in the forest. We passed thiough several small nionkit< to-day and had some very wearisome and precipitous ascents. We are encamped for the night where the road for Pulcehika branches off from that to Ikurangi [Hikurangi]."" This quotation, the compiler ventures to think, establishes the fact that the Rev. R. Taj'lor discovered the Darti/lantliKt' in 1845. It is not improbable that the specimen received by Hooker in 1856 is the one Mr. Williamson refers to in his letter. But as Taylor had seen the plant more than ten years previously, he could hardly be expected to represent it to Hooker as the discovery of another man. Besides, he is (juite frank in mentioning the specimen he received from Williamson. So I think the hint in the conclusion of Mr. Williamson's letter that Taylor was guilty of something akin to sharp practice has nothing to support it. These notes have been compiled to vindicate the character of tlie Rev. R. Taylor, a man who worked strenuously not only for the good of the Natives, but also for the public generally. Ijike many mcne (jverworked men, he found time to study the natural history of the district over which he made so many journeys. He wrote two books, the second edition of one of these being practically a new work, numeroijs articles of a scientific nature, besides many volumes of unpublished matter. Unfortunately, no biography of Taylor has yet been written. Until some one accomplishes that work the man will remain unknown. Suffice it to say here that, even if the evidence in his diary had not been forthcoming, the man was so up- right in character that he would never have been guilty of attempting to appropriate another man's discoverv. 100 Ffoceediitgs. 3. Geoplana aucklandica and Geoplana marrineri : a Correction in Nomen- clature. By Arthur Dendy, D.Sc, F.R.S. In my article " On Land Planarians from Auckland and Endeiby Islands," in the " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand" (Wellington, N.Z., 1909), I have described a new species from Auckland Island under the name Gtojjlana aucklandica, having overlooked the fact that I had myself eight years previously given this name t'j a totally different species from a widely separated locality — viz., Auckland, in the North Island of New Zealand. I now desire to rectify this error by proposing a new specific name for the subantarctic form from Auckland Island, and I suggest that it be called Geoplana marrineri, in acknowledgment of the services rendered to the study of zoology in New Zealand by my late friend and assistant, George R. Marriner. 4. Notes on the Vegetable Caterpillar. By G. Howes, F.E.S. During a recent visit to Riverton I raided a patch of the well-known vegetable caterpillar. This patch I have known of for some years, and have on several oc- casions drawn on it for specimens for friends'. The patch of bush where they occur is but small, and the more open spaces have been depleted, but amongst the stems and roots of shrubs and creepers a fair number of the spore-bearing spikes appear. Digging had to be carefully carried out, as carelessness or rough handling caused breakage and spoilt the specimen ; indeed, it was impossible to dig up any particular specimen without running the risk of breaking some other near by. The special point I wish to place on record is that fragments from specimens accidentally broken and again buried during some previous search had sent out healthy spore- bearing spikes. Several of these fragments were less than 1 in. in length, while one of about 2 in. (being the tail half) had grown two fair-sized spikes Along with the fungi I took an apparently healthy larva of Porina dinodt)-, and, so far as I could see, all the vegetable caterpillars there were those of this moth. The largest specimen I took was 5 in., but I have never seen a living dinode-i larva of this length, and suppose that the fungus growth distends the skin of its host. APPENDIX. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACTS. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903. The following Act reconstituting the Institute was passed by Par- liament : — 1903, No. 48. An Act to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute. [18th November, 1003. Whekeas it is desirable to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute with a view to connecting it more closely with the affiliated institutions : Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, ai)d by the authority of the same, as follows : — 1. The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903. 2. The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867, is hereby repealed. 3. (1.) The body hitherto known as the New Zealand Institute (here- inafter referred to as "the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland Institute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Insti- tute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland Institute, and such others as may hereafter be incorporated in accordance with regulations to be made by the Boai'd of Governors as hereinafter- mentioned. (2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso facto members of the Institute. 4. The control and management of the Institute shall be in the hands of a Board of Governors, constituted as follows : — The Governor ; The Colonial Secretary ; Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council during the month of December, one thousand nine hundred and three, and two members to be similarly appointed during the month of December in every succeeding year ; Tw'o members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during the month of December in each alternate year; One member to be appointed by each of the otljer incorporated societies during the month of December in each alternate year. 5. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council two shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors ; the tirst two members to retire shall be decided by lot, and thereafter the two mem- bers longest in office without reappointment shall retire. (2.) Subject to the provisions of the last preceding subsection, the appointed members of the Board shall hold office until the appointment of their successors. Netu ZeaUiful Institute Acts. 103 6. The Board of Governors as above constituted shall be a body cor- porate, by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name they shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and hold lands for the purposes hereinafter mentioned. 7. (1.) The Board of Governors shall liave power to appoint a fit person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all necessary work in connection with the afi'airs of the Institute, and to pro- vide liim with such further assistance as may be required. (2.) It shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a com- mittee to assist him in the work of editing the same. (3.) It shall have power to make regulations under which societies may become incorporated to the Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be incorporated if such regulations are not complied with, and such regulations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law. (4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose of them as it thinks fit. (5.) The Board shall have control of the property hereinafter vested in it, and of any additions hereafter made thereto, and shall make regulations for the management of the same, for the encouragement of research by the members of the Institute, and in all matters, speci- fied or unspecified, shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute. 8. Any casual vacancy on the Board of Governors, howsoever caused, shall be filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board of Governors. 9. (1.) The first annual meeting of the Board of Governors herein- before constituted shall be held at Wellington on some day in the month of January, one thousand nine hundred and four, to be fixed by the Governor, and annual meetings of the Board shall be regularly held thereafter during the month of January m each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual meeting. (2.) The Board of Governors may meet during the year at such other times and places as it deems necessary. (3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance- sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the Institute. 10. The Board of Governors may from time to time, as it sees fit, make arrangements for the holding of general meetings of members of the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in the colony by any means that may appear desirable. 11. The Colonial Treasurer shall, without further appropriation than this Act, pay to the Board of Governors the annual sum of five hundi-ed pounds, to be applied in or towards payment of the general current expenses of the Institute. 104 Appendix. 12. (1.) On the appointment of the first Board of Governors under this Act the Board of Governors constituted under the Act herehy repealed shall cease to exist, and the property then vested in, or belong- ing to, or under the control of that Board shall be vested in His Majesty for the use and benefit of the public. (2.) On the recommendation of the President of the Institute the Governor may at any time hereinafter, by Order in Council, declare that any part of such property specified in the Order shall be vested in the Board constituted under this Act." 13. All regulations, together with a copy of the Transactions of the Institute, shall be laid upon the table of both Houses of Parliament within twentv davs after the meeting thereof. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908. 1908, No. 130. An Act to consolidate certain Enactments of the General Assembly relating to the New Zealand Institute. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : — 1. (1.) The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908. (2.) This Act is a consolidation of the enactments mentioned in the Schedule hereto, and with respect to those enactments the following pro- visions shall apply : — (a.) The Institute and Board respectively constituted under those enactments, and subsisting on the coming into operation of this Act, shall be deemed to be the same Institute and Board respec- tively constituted under this Act without any change of consti- tution or corporate entity or otherwise ; and the members thereof in office on the coming into operation of this Act shall continue in office until their successors under this Act come into office. (b.) All Orders in Council, regulations, appointments, societies incor- porated with the Institute, and generally all acts of authority which originated under the said enactments or any enactment thereby repealed, and are subsisting or in foi'ce on the coming into operation of this Act, shall enure for the purposes of this Act as fully and eil'ectually as if they had originated under the corresponding provisions of this Act, and accordingly shall, where necessary, be deemed to have so originated. (c.) All property vested in the Board constituted as aforesaid shall be deemed to be vested in the Board established and recognized by this Act. [d.) All matters and proceedings commenced under the said enact- ments, and pending or in progress on the coming into opera- tion of this Act, may be continued, completed, and enforced under this Act. See New Zealand Gazette, 1st September, 1904. Neiv Zealand Institute Acts. 105 2. (1.) The body now known as the New Zealand Institute (herein- after referred to as " the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland Insti- tute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical In- stitute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland Institute, and such others as heretofore have been or may hereafter be incorporated therewith in accordance with regulations heretofore made or hereafter to be made by the Board of Governors. (2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso facto members of the Institute. 3. The control and management of the Institute shall be vested in a Board of Governors (hereinafter referred to as " the Board "), constituted as follows : — The Governor : The Minister of Internal Affairs : Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council, of whom two shall be appointed during the month of December in every year : Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Duuedin during the month of December in each alternate year ; and the next year in which such an appointment shall be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine : One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated societies during the month of December in each alternate year ; and the next year in which such an appointment shall be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine. 4. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council, the two members longest in office without reappointment shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors. (2.) Subject to the last preceding subsection, the appointed member* of the Board shall hold ofiice until the appointment of their successors. 5. The Board shall be a body corporate by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and hold lands for the purposes hereinafter mentioned. 6. (1.) The Board shall have power to appoint a tit person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all necessary work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, ^nd to provide him with such further assistance as may l)e required. (2.) The Board shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a committee to assist him in the work of editing the same. (3.) The Board shall have power from time to time to make regu- lations under which societies may become incorporated with the Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be incorporated if such regulations are not complied with ; and such regu- lations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law. (4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose of them as it thinks fit. (5.) The Board shall have control of the property from time to time vested in it or acquired by it ; and shall make regulations for the 106 Ajrpendix. inanageinent of the same, and for the encouragement of research by the members of the Institute ; and in all matters, specified or unspecified, shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute. 7. (1.) Any casual vacancy in the Board, howsoever caused, shall be filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board. (2.) Any person appointed to fill a casual vacancy shall only hold office for such period as his predecessor would have held office under this Act. 8. (1.) Annual meetings of the Board shall be lield in the month of January in each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual meeting. (2.) The Board may meet during the year at such other times and places as it deems necessary. (3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance-sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the Institute. 9. The Board may from time to time, as it sees fit, make arrange- ments for the holding of general meetings of members of the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in New Zealand by any means that may appear desirable. 10. The Minister of Finance shall from time to time, without further appropriation than this Act, pay to the Board the sum of five hundred pounds in each financial year, to be applied in or towards payment of the general current expenses of the Institute. 11. Forthwith upon the making of any regulations or the publica- tion of any Transactions, the Board shall transmit a. copy thereof to the Minister of Internal Affairs, who shall lay the same before Parliament if sitting, or if not, then within twenty days after the commencement of the next ensuing session thereof. Schedule. Enactraents cunsolidated. 190.3, No. 48.— The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903. KEGULATIONS. The following are tiie regulations of the New Zealand Institute under the Act of 1903 :—' The word "Institute" used in the following regulations means the New Zealand Institute as constituted by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903. Incorporation of Societies. 1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the pro- visions of the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903, unless sucli society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate New ZeoAand Gazette, 14th July, 1904. Begnlations lOv a sum ot not less tliaii £25 sterling annually for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the President for the time being of the society. 2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £25. 3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one- third of the annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main- tenance of the New Zealand Institute. 4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue specified in Eegulation No. 3 aforesaid in manner provided shall from henceforth cease to be incor- porated with the Institute. PUBLIC.A.T10NS. 5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti- tute, and then may be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Institute regarding publications : — (a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of — (1.) A current abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled " Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute " ; (2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the mcorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as here- inafter mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of Governors shall from time to time determine to publish, to be intituled " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute." (b.) The Board of Governors shall determine what papers are to be published . (c.) Papers not reconunended for publication may be returned to their authors if so desired. id.) All papers sent in for publication must be legibly written, type- written, or printed. (e.) A proportional contribution may be required from each society towards the cost of publishing Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute. (/.) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor- tional number of copies of the Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors. Managemknt of the Property of the Institl^te. 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor- porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of li l»- YfiV vr . -, ■?, ~ H~f- "ber .^ ihe ZI& r » ■y^^' # '^f mm Hutton Memorial Fund. 109 THE HUTTO.N .±.xMOEIAL MEDAL AND RESEARCH FUND. Resolved by theBoard of Governors of the New Zealand Institute that — 1. The funds ploed in the hands of the Board by the committee of subscribers to the Hutton Memorial Fund be called "The Hutton Memorial Researcl Fund," in memory of the late Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, '.R.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys sub- scribed and grante< for the purpose of the Hutton Memorial, and all other funds which n^y be given or granted for the same purpose. 2. The funds still be vested in the Institute. The Board of Governors of the istitute shall have the control of the said moneys, and may invest ie same upon any securities proper for trust moneys. 3. A sum not eseeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronj^e medal to be known s "The Hutton Memorial Medal." 4. The fund, orach part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid, shall be invested in uch securities as aforesaid as may be approved of by the Board of Govcnors, and the interest arising from sucli investment shall be used for th turtherance of the objects of the fund. 5. The Hutton lemorial Medal shall be awarded from time to time by the Board of *■ i* -^}. # ;f# .f 1 110 Appendix. 6. The Board of Governors may, at an annual meeting, make grants from the accrued interest of the fund to any person, society, or commit- tee for the encouragement of research in New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology. 7. Applications for such grants shall be made to the Board before the 30th September. 8. In making such grants the Board of Governors shall give preference to such persons as are defined in regulation 4. 9. The recipients of such grants shall report to the Board before the 31st December in the year following, showing in a general way how the grant has been expended and what progress has been made with the research. 10. The results of researches aided by grants from the fund shall, where possible, be published in New Zealand. 11. The Board of Governors may from time to time amend or alter the regulations, such amendments or alterations being in all cases in con- formity with resolutions 1 to 4. AWAKD OF THE HuTTON MEMORIAL MeDAL. 1911. Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.E.S., University of Otago— For researches in New Zealand zoology. Grant from the Hutton Memorial Research Fund. 1911. To Professor C. Chilton, Canterbury College — £10 for the preparation of illustrations for a revision of the Criistacea of New Zealand. NEW ZEALAND I N S T r J' U T E ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED- THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867 ; RECONSTITUTED BY AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OP NEW ZEALAND UNDER THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903, AND CONTINUED BY THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908. Board of Governors. EX OFFICIO. His Excellency the Governor. The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs. NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT. A. Hamilton ; E. Tregear, F.E.G.S. ; John Young ; Charles A. Ewen. ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES. Wellington: Martin Chapman, K.C. ; Professor T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D. Auckland: D. Petrie, M.A. ; J. Stewart, C.E. Napier; H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. Qhristchurch : E. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. ; F. W. Hilgendorf, D.Sc. Westland : (vacant). Nelson: L. Cockayne, Ph.D. Otago : Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.E.S. ; G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.C.S., M.P. Manawatu: K. Wilson, M.A. OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1911. President: T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. Hon. Treasurer: Professor T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D. Hon. Editor: C. Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. Secretary: B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S. AFFILIATED SOCIETIES. Wellington Philosophical Society Auckland Institute Philosophical Institute of Canterbury Otago Institute Westland Institute Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute Southland Institute Nelson Institute Manawatu Philosophical Society DATE OF AFFILIATION. 10th June, 1868. 10th June, 1868. 22nd October, 1868. 18th October, 1869. 21st December, 1874 31st March, 1875. 21st July, 1880. 20th December, 1883. 16th January, 1904. 112 Ap-pendix. FORMER HONORARY MEMBERS. Agassiz, Professor J^oiiis. Drury, Captain Byron, It.N. Flower, Professor W.H., P.R.S. Hochstetter, Dr. Ferdinand von. 1870. Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.J3. C.M.G. Owen, Professor Richard, F.R.S. Richards, Rear- Admiral G. H. Darwin, Charles, M.A., F.R.S. Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. 1871. I Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S. E. Grev. Sir (Jeorge, K.C.B. Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S. 1872. I Stokes, \'ice- Admiral J. L. 1873. Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G. C.M.G. I Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S. Cambridge, the Rev. O. Pickard, M.A., | C.M.Z.S. INIcLachlan, Robert, F.L.S. Newton, Alfred, F.R.S. 1874. I Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S. Filhoi, Dr. H. 1875. I Rollestou, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S. Clarke, Rev. W. B., M.A., F.R.S. 1876. I Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S. Baird, Professor Spencer F. 1877. i Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G. Garrod, Professor A. H., P.R.S. Miiller, Professor Max, F.R.S. 1878. I Tenison- Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S. 1880. The Most Noble the IMarquis of Normanby, G. C.M.G. 1883. •Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S. I Thomson, Sir William, P.R.S. Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S. | •< iray. Professor Asa. 1885. I Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., P.R.S. Former Honorary Members. il3 1888. Beneden, Professor J. P. van. I McCoy, Professor F., D.Sc, C.M.G. Ettingsbausen, Baron von. j F.ll.S. 1890. Riley, Professor C. V. 1891. Davis, J. W., F.G.S., F.L.S. 1894. CodringtoD, Rev. R. H., D.D. 1895. Mitten, William, F.K.S. 1896. Langley, S. P. 1900. Agardh, Dr. J. G. 1901. Eve, H. W., M.A. | Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S. FOKMER MANAGER AND EDITOR. [Undek the New Zealand Institute Act, 1867.] 1867-1903. Hector, St James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. PAST PRESIDENTS. 1903-4. Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S. 1905-6. Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. 1907-8. Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., F.C.S., M.P. 1909-10. A. Hamilton, F.L.S. HONORARY MEMBERS. 1870. FiNscH, Otto, Professor, Ph.D., Braun- I Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D. schweig, Germany. | F.R.S., O.M., Royal Gardens, Kew. 1873. GvNTHER. A., M.D., M.A., Pb.D., F.R.S. , Litchfield Road, Kew Gardens, Surrey. 114 Appendix. 1875. Scr-ATER, Philip Lutlev, M.A., Ph.D.. F.It.S., Zoological Society, London. 1876. Berggren, Dr. S., Lund, Sweden. 1877. Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge. 1885. Wallace, A. K.. F.L.S., O.M., Broiidstone, Wimborne, England. 1890. NoRDSTEDT, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Uni- I Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., F.R.S., versity of Lund, Sweden. | Sjdney. 1891. Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.T)., Harvard University, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 1894. Dyer, Sir W. T. Thiseltok. K.C.M.G., 1 Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadhurst CLE., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., Royal Rectory, Sussex, England. Gardens, Kew. | 1896. Lydekker, Richard, B.A., F.R.S., British Museum, South Kensington. 1900. .AvEBURV, Lord, P.O., F.R.S., High Elms, | M.assee, George, F.L.S., F.R. M.S., Royal Faruborough, Kent. | Botanic Gardens, Kew. 1901. Goebel, Dr. Carl, University of Munich. 1902. Sars, Professor G. 0., University of Christiania, Norway. 1903. Klotz, Professor Otto J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada. 1901. :R,utherfoiil), Professor E., D.Sc, F.R.S., \ David, Professor T. Edgeworth, F.R.S., Victoria University of Manchester. i Sydney University, N.S.W. 1906. Beddard, p. E., F.R.S., Zoological I Br.\dv, G. S., F.R.S., University of Dur- Society, London. ham, England. Milne, -L, F.R.S., Isle of Wight, England. | 1907. Dendy, Dr., F.R.S., Kmg's College. I Meyuick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough Universitv of London, England. | College, England. DiELP, L., Ph.D., Marburg. j Steering, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S., Tun- j bridge W'ells, England. 1909. Dauwin, Sir George, P.R.S., Cambridge. 1910. Bruce, Dr. W. S., Edinburgh. BoU of Member: ' 1. 1 r; .'^ A R Y 15 ORDINARY MEMBERS." ^.y WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. * Life members. A.lams, C. E., M.Sc, A. I. A., F.R.A.S. Adams, C. W., Lower Hutt Adkin, G. Leslie, Levin Aston, Rev. A. E., Te Awamutu Aston, B. C, F.C.S., F.I.O. Atkinson, Esmond H. Baldwin, E. S. Barraud, W. F. Beetham, W. H., Masterton Bell, E. D. Bell, H. D., KG. Berry, C. G. G. Blair, J. R. Borghetti, Dr. E. Brandon, A. de B., B.A. Campbell, 0. N., Hamilton Carter, W. H., jun. Chapman, Martin, K.G. Christie, Mrs. H. M. Chudleigh, E. R., Orongomairoa, Waihou Climie, J. D., Lower Hutt Cockayne, A. H. Cotton, C. A., M.Sc. Crawford, Alex. D. Carter, P., M.A. Downes, T. W., Wangauui Dymock, E. R. Easterfield, Professor T. H., M.A., Ph.D. Ewen, Charles A. Ferguson, W., M.Inst.C.E. Field, H. C, Aramoho, Wanganui FitzGerald, Gerald, A. M.Inst.C.E. Fleming, T. R., M.A., LL.B. Fletcher, Rev. H. J., Taupo Eraser, Hon. F. H., M.L.C. Freeman, H. -I. Freyberg, Cuthbert Gatenby, James B. Gifford, A. C, M.A. Gill, Thomas H., M.A., LL.B. Girdlestone, H. E. Graham, K. M., A.O.S.M. Gray, WilUam, M.A., B.Sc. Hadfield, E. F. Hamilton, Augustus, F.L.S.i Hanify, H. P. Harding, R. Coupland Hart, H. S. Honorary members] Hastie, Miss J. A., London, England'' Hay, F. C, A.M.Inst C.E. Hector, Charles Monro, M.l)., B.Sc, Lower Hutt Helyer, Miss E. Hogben, G., M.A. Holmes, R. L., F.R.Met.Soc, Baa, Fiji- Holmes, R. W., M.Inst.C.E. Hudson, G. V., F.E.S. Hunter, Professor Thomas A., M.A,, M.Sc. Izard, Dr. Arnold W. James, Herbert L., B.A., Khandal- lah Johnson, Hon. G. Randall'' Johnston, T. A. Jones, Rev. Joshua, Lower Hutt. Joseph, Joseph Joynt, J. W., M.A., London, Eng- land. Kennedy, Rev. D., D.D., F.RA.S. King, Thomas, F.R.A.S.- Kingsley, R. I., Nelson Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A. Krull, F. A., Wanganui Labv, Professor T. H., B.A. Latrobe, W. S.. M.A. Levi, P., M.A. Lewis, John H., Greymouth. Liffiton, E. N., Wanganui Lomax, Major H. A., Aramoho, Wanganui Ludford, Ernest J. MacDougall, Alexander ' Maclaurin, Dr. J. S., F.C.S., D.Sc. Mackenzie, Professor H., M.A. McKenzie, Donald, Merrivale, Mar- ton Marchbanks, J., M.Inst.C.E. Mason, Dr. J. M., Lower Hutt Mason, Mrs. Kate, Queenstown, i Lake Wakatipu Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E. Mestayer, R. L., M.Inst.C.E. Moore, George, Eparaima, Master- I ton Moorhouse. W. H. Sefton Morgan, P. G., M.A. Morison, C. B. Murdoch, R., Wanganui 116 Appendix . Myers, Miss P., B.A. Newman, A. K., M.B., M.R.C.P. On", Robert Oram, M. H., M.A. Patterson, Hugh, Cass, Canterbury. Pearce, Arthur E. PhiUips, Coleman, Carterton Phipson, Percy B. Picken, Professor D. K., M.A. Pollen, Hugh Pomare, Dr. M. Powles, Charles P. Poynton, J. W. Reid, W. S. Renner, F. M., M.A. Richmond, Professor ^I. W., B.Sc, LL.B. Robertson, J. B. Roy, R. B., Taita- Sims, Thomas Sladden, H., Lower Hutt Smith, M. Crompton Stewart, John T., Wanganui Strachan, J. R. Strauchon, John Stuckey, F. G. A., M.A. Sunley, R. M., Karori Swan, W. G. Collington Tennant, J. S., M.A., B.Sc. Thomson, J., B.E., M.Inst.C.E, Tollev, H. R. Tombs, H. H. Tripe, Joseph A.. B.A., LL.B. Turnbull, Alexander H. Turnbull, John Ure Turner, E. Phillips Watt, M. N., AVanganui Wallis, Rt. Rev. Dr. Frederic • Wilson, Miss J. A. Wilton, G. W. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. '■* Honorary Aickin, G. Aldis, M. Allison, A., Leatham, Wanganui Arnold, C. Bagnall, Ij. J. Ball, W. T. Bankart, A. S. Bartley, E. Bates, T. L., Waratah, Newcastl New South Wales ' Batger, J. Benjamin, E. R. Best, Elsdon, Wellington Birks, L., C.E., Rotorua Brett, H. Briffault, R., M.B. Broun, Major T., F.E.S. Brown, Professor F. D. Buchanan, J. Buddie, J. H. Buddie, T. Burgess, E. W. Burnside, W. Burton, Colonel'' Bush, W. E., C.E. Buttle, J. Cameron, R. Campbell, Sir J. L., M.D.= Chatfield, A. W. Cheal, P. E. Cheeseman,T.F.,F.Ti.S Ching, T. and life members.] Clark, A. Clark, A., M.B. Clark, A. W. Clark, H. C. Clark, M. A. Clarke, E. Clarke, W. St. John Coates, T. Cochrane, W. S. Coe, James Cole, W. Combes, F. H. Cooper, C. Cooper, Mr. Justice, Wellington Cottrell, A. J. Cousins, H. G. Craig, J. J. Cr an well, R. Crosher, J. Cuff, J. C, F.S.A. Daw, A. G. Dearsly, R. J. De Clive Lowe, G. T. H., L.R.C.P. Dettmann, Professor H. S. Devereux, H. B., Waihi Devore, A. E. T. Dickinson, J. C. Douglas, W. S. Downard, F. N. R. Duthie, D. W. Earl, F. Edson, J. Itoll oj Members. 117 Egerton, Professor C. W. Ellison, T., Papatoitoi Ewington, F. G. Finch, F. Florance, E. S., Blenheim, Marl- borough Fowlds, Hon. G., M.P.- Garrard, C. W. George, G. Gilbert, T. Girdler, Dr. Goldie, D. Gordon, H. A. Gorrie, W. Graham, M. Grant, Miss J. Gray, S. Griffin, Miss E. M. Grigsby, E. C. Guinness, W., M.D. Haines, H., F.E.C.S. Hall, J. W. Hamer,W.H., C.E. Hansen, P. M. Harding, A. B.,TePapapa,Onehuiiga Hazard, W. H. Heaton, F. Herbert, T. Hodgson, J. Holderness, D. Horton, H. Houghton, C. V. Howden, J. Hutchinson, G. Inglis, E. T., M.B. Jarman, Professor A. Johnson, H. D., Mangauhenga, Te A rob a Johnstone, Hallyburton, Howick Jones, H. W., Papakura Kenderdine, J. Kirker, J. Kronfeld, G. Lamb, G. E., M.A. Langguth, E. Lennox, J. M. Lennox, N. G.'' Leys, T. W. Luudon, J. E. Macfarlane, T.. C.E, McDowell, W. C., M.D. McGowan, Hon. J., Thames McLean, M. McMillan, CO.* Mahoney, T. Mair, Captain G., Eotorua Mair, Major W. G. Mair, S. A. E,, Hunterville, Wel- lington Martin, J., F.G.S. Metcalfe, H. H., M.Insl.C.E. Miller, E. V. Milnes, H. A. E. Mitchelson, Hon. E. Moore, J. E. Morgan, A. H. V., Waihi Morgan, H. H. Morgan, E. J. Morton, H. B. Mulgan, E. K. Murdoch, D. L. Myers, A. M. Natban, N. A.- Newton, G. M. Nicholson, 0. Pabst, Dr. Partridge, H. E. Patterson, G. ^A^ S. Peacock, T. Petrie, D., M.A. Philson, W. W. Player, C E., L.E.C.P. Pond, J. A. Powell, F. E. Price, E. A. Pycroft, A. T. Eangihiroa, Dr. Eeid, J. Eenshaw, F. Ebodes, C. Eoberton, E., M.D. Eobertson, W. A. Eocbe, H., Waihi Eolfe, W. Eossiter, C. B., F.E.CS. Satchell, W. Savage, T. C, M.E.C.S.E. Scott, Eev. D. D., Onehunga Seegner, C. Segar, Professor H. W\ Shaw, H. Simson, T. Sinclair, A. Smeeton, H. M. Smith, H. G. Seth Smith, S. Percy, F.E.G.S., New Plymouth- Smith, W. H. Somerville, J. M. Spencer, W. C. C. Stewart, J., C.E. Stewart, J. W. 118 Appendix. Stewart, E. Leslie Stopford, R., M.D. Streeter, S. C. Stringer, H. G. Thomas, Professor A. P. W., F.L.S. Tibbs, J. W. Tinne, H., Union Club, Trafalgar Square, London, England' Trotter, Rev. W. Upton, J. H. Urquhart, A. T., Karaka, Drury Yaile. E. E., Broadlands, Waiotapu Vaile, H. E. Walker, Rev. Mr. Walker, S. Walsh, Archdeacon Philip, Cam- bridge, Waikato Waterworth, A. Ward, P. Webster, J., Opononi, Hokianga Webster, W. H. Weetman, S., F.R.G.S. Wells, T. U. Wilhams, Right Rev. W. L., Napier. Wilson, A. Wilson, A. P. Wilson, J. Wilson, R. M. Wilson, W. R. Withy, E., Rotor ua Wyllie, A., C.E. Yates, E. Young, J. L. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OP CANTERBURY. r* Life members.! Acland, Dr. H. D. Adams, T. W''., Greendale. Adamson, Rev. H. Ager, F. T. Aldridge, W. G., M.A. Allison, H. Andersen, Johannes C. Anderson, Dr. C. Morton Aschman, C. T. Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc, Lincoln Beaven, A. W. Bell, N. M., M.A., Cambridge, Eng- land Bernstein, Rev. I. A. Bevan-Biown, C. E., M.A. Bishop, F. C. B. Bishop, G. W. Bishop, R. C. Blair, W. D. Blunt, Professor T. G. R., M.A. Boag, T. D. Booth, G. T. Borrie, Dr. F. J. Bowen, Sir Charles C, F.R.G.S. Brauer, H, Ph.D. Bridges, G. G. Brooker, F. J. Brown, Professor Macniiilan, M.A., LL. D.- Bruce, H. A. Buddo, Hon. D., M.P., Wellington Bullen, Miss Gertrude Chilton, Professor C, D.Sc, M.A., M.B.,F.L.S.- Clark, S. A., B.A., Rangiora Cockayne, L., Ph.D., F.L.S. Cocks, Rev. P. J., B.A. Cocks, Miss Coles, W. R. Cross, Miss B. D., M.A. Cuthbert, E., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst. San.E. Dash, Charles, Spreydon Denham, H. G., Ph.D., D.Sc. Denniston, Mr. Justice Dobson, A. Dudley Dorrien Smith, Captain A., D.S.O., England Drummond, James, F.L.S. English, R., F.C.S., M.I.M.E. Enys, J. D., Penrhyn, Cornwall, England Evans, Professor W. P., M.A. , Ph.D. Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc, A. M.Inst.C.E. Farrow, F. D., M.A. Finlavson, Miss, M.A. Floraiice, D. C. H., M.A., M.Sc. Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc. Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S. Foster, T. S., M.A. Gabbatt, Professor J. P., M.A., M.Sc. Garforth, Miss Gibson, Dr. F. Goulburn Godby, M. H. Gray,'G., F.C.S. Gray, Melville, Tnnaru Grigg, J. C. N., Longbeach Grimes, Rt. Rev. Bishop, D.D. Boll of Members. 119 Gudex, M, C, M.A. Guthrie, Dr. J., sen. Guthrie, Dr. J., Lyttelton Hall, J. D., I^Iiddleton Hall, Miss Hallenstein, P. L. Hardie, C. D., B.A. Haszard, H. D. M. Haynes, E. J. Herring, E. Hight, Professor, J., M.A., Litt.D. Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A. , D.Sc, Lin- coln Hill, Mrs. Carey Hitchings, F. Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S., Plymouth, England Hogg, E. G., M.A., F.R.A.S. Hogg, H. R., M.A., F.Z.S., London W., England. Howell, J. H., B.Sc. Hughes, T., B.A. Humphreys, G. Hutton, Mrs. Ingram, John Irving, Dr. W. Jackson, T. H., B.A. Jameson, J. O. Jamieson, J. S. Jekyli, H. J. C. Kaye, A. Keir, T., Rangiora Kidson, E. R., M.Sc, Washington, U.S.A. King, R. Kitchingman, Mih^s, M.A. Laing, R. M., M.A., B.Sc. Lester, Dr. G. Lewin, G. A., Lyttelton Louisson, Hon. C. Macbeth, N. L. Marshal], Mrs. Marshall, A. G., M.A. Mayne, J. B., B.A. McCallum, P., M.A., M.Sc, Edin- burgh Macleod, D. B., M.A. Meares, H. 0. D. Meredith- Kaye, E. K. Mill, Dr. Thomas, Geraldine Mollett, T. A.- Molineaux, M., Wellington Moorhouse, Dr. B. M. Moreland, Rev. C. H., M.A. Mulgan, E. K., M.A., Auckland Murray- Aynsley, H. P. Nairn, R. North, W^ B., Geraldine Oliver, F. S. Oliver, W. R. B. Olliver, Miss F. M., M.A., M.Sc. Hokitika Opie, C. H. A. T. Page, S., B.Sc. Pairman, Dr., Governor's Bay Panne tt, J. A., Springston Pinfold, Rev. J. T., Springston Parker, W. L. Poulsen, John, Styx Powell, P. II., M.Sc. Purnell, C. W., Ashburton Reece, W. Relph, E. W. Rhodes, A. E. G., B.A. Rhodes, Colonel R. Heaton, M.P. Tai Tapu »* Richardson, Miss Margaret Robinson, W. F., F.R.G.S. Ross, R. G. Rowe, T. W., M.A., LL.B. Scott, J. L. M.A., B.Sc. A., A.M.I.E.E. Sheard, Miss F Shrimpton, E Auckland Seager, J. H. Seager, S. Hurst, F.R.I.B.A. Simmers, G. A., M.A., Timaru Sims, A., M.A. Skey, H. F., B.Sc. Sloman, C. J. Snow, Colonel Speight, R., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. Spiller, J. Staveley, N. C. Stead, E. F. Stevenson, Dr. J. Stone, F. Symes, Dr. W. H.^ Symes, Langford P., Belfast Talbot, Dr. A. G., M.A. Tavlor, A., Lincoln Taylor, G. J. Terrv, F. W., Honolulu Thoinas, Dr. W.- Tripp, C. H., M.A., Timaru- Vickerman, H. Waller, F. D., B.A. Wallich, M. G. Waite, Edgar R., F.L.S. Washbourn, Dr. H. E. A. Waymouth, Mrs. F. Wayraouth, F. 118 Appendix. Stewart, R. Leslie Stopford, R., M.D. Streeter, S. C. Stringer, H. G. Thomas, Professor A. I W., F.L.S. Tibbs, J. W. Tinne, H., Union Clu, Trafalgar Square, London, Enland" Trotter, Rev. W. Upton, J. H. Urquhart, A. T., Karai, Drury Yaile. E. E., Broadlam, Waiotapu Vaile, H. E. Walker, Rev. Mr. Walker, S. Walsh, Archdeacon iiilip, Cam- bridge, Waikato Waterw^orth, A. Ward, P. Webster, J., Opononi, Hokianga Webster, W. H. Weetman, S.. F.R.G.S. Wells, T. U. Williams, Right Rev. W. L., Napier. Wilson, A. Wilson, A. P. Wilson, J. Wilson, R. M. Wilson, W. R. Withy, E., Rotor u a Wyllie, A., C.E. Yates, E. Young. J. Ij. PHILOSOHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBUKY, '' Life members.": Acland, Dr. H. D. Adams, T. W., GreendLe. Adamson, Rev. H. Ager, F. T. Aldridge, W'. G., M.A. Allison, H. Andersen, Johannes C. Anderson, Dr. C. Morta Aschman, C. T. Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc.liincoln Beaven, A. W. Bell, N. M., M.A., Camridge, Eng- land Bernstein, Rev. I. A. Bevan -Brown, C. E., I A. Bishop, F. C. B. Bishop. G. W. Bishop, R. C. Blair, W. D. Blunt, Professor T. G.;., M.A Boag. T. D. Booth, G. T. Borrie, Dr. F. J. Bowen, Sir Charles C..j\R.G.S. Brauer, H , Ph.D. Bridges, G. G. Brooker, F. J. Brown, Professor Maciillan, M A LL.D.- ■ ■' Bruce, H. A. Buddo, Hon. D., M. P., Wellington Bullen, Miss Gertrude Chilton, Professor C, ISc, M.A M.B.,F.L.S.- Clark, S. A., B.A., Ramora Cockavne, L., Ph.D., F.L.S. Cocks,"^Rev. P. J., B.A. Cocks, Miss Coles, W. R. Cross, Miss B. D., M.A. Cuthbert, E., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst. San.E. Dash, Charles, Sprevdon Denham, H. G., Ph.D., D.Sc. Denniston, Mr. Justice Dobson, A. Dudley Dorrien Smith, Captain A., D.S.O., England Drummond, James, F.L.S. English, R., F.C.S., M.I.M.E. Enys, J. D., Penrhyn, Cornwall, England Evans, Professor W. P., M.A. , Ph.D. Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc. A.M.Inst.C.E. Farrow, F. D.,M.A. Finlavson, Miss, M.A. Florance, D. C. H., M.A., M.Sc. Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc. Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S. Foster, T. S., M.A. Gabbatt, Professor J. P., M M.Sc. Garforth, Miss Gibson , Godb^ G: # ■.«■.!: :.J. Boll of Members. ■*<*a Gudex, M. C, M.A. Guthrie, Dr. J., sen. Guthrie, Dr. T., Lyttelton Hall, J. D., Middleton Hall, Miss Hallenstein, P. L. Hardie, C D., B.A. Haszard, H. D. M. Haynes, E. J. Herring, E. Hight, Professor, J., M.A., Litt.D. Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., D.Sc, Lin- coln Hill, Mrs. Carey Hitchings, F. Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S., Plymouth, England Hogg, E. G., M.A., F.K.A.S. Hogg, H. E., M.A., F.Z.S., London W., England. Howell, J. H., B.Sc. Hughes, T., B.A. Humphreys, G. Hutton, Mrs. Ingram, John Irving, Dr. W. Jackson, T. H., B.A. Jameson, J. 0. Jamieson, J. S. Jekyll, H. J. C. Kaye, A. Keir, T., Eangiora Kidson, E. R., M.Sc, Washington, U.S.A. King, R. Kitchingman, Miys, M.A. Laing, E. M., M.A., B.Sc. Lester, Dr. G. Lewin, G. A., Lyttelton Louisson, Hon. C. Macbeth, N. L. Marshal], Mrs. Marshall, A. G., M.A. Mayne, J. B., B.A. McCallum, P., M.A., M.Sc, Edin- burgh Macleod, D. B., M.A. Meares, H. 0. D. Meredith-Kaye, E. K. Mill, Dr. Thomas, Geraldine MoUett, T. A.- Nairn, R North, "^B Oliver, FS Oliver, ^R 01 liver ' - Hoki Opie, C. .. --. Page. S ' S: Pairma Panne r: Pinfold. : V Parker Poulse: Pow- Pur:... Eeece. V- RelDh. r ' Rh" , Rho.._ Tai T Rich- Roi Ross, Xi Rowe, 1 Scof She;. Shn A.... Seager, - Seaprr Sim It Sini- Ske. Sloii Sno. Spei„ Spili. Stav Stea Stev( Ston- Svm-- Syir^ Talo Tav Ta T< ■ T Monnpw B. -.D.' Tutira -?., Wellington'^ .>unt Vernon W. I.S. Havelock North jun., Rissington i c. Oka '^ellingtoi wa ^11 ^W. 122 Appendix. McLean, R. D. D. Mayne, Eev. Canon Metcalfe, W. F., Te Araroa Moore, Dr. T. C. Niven, J., M.A., M.Sc. Ormond, G., Mahia Ormond, Hon. J. D., M.L.C. O'Ryan, W., Waipiro Paterson, R. L. Rowley, F., B.A., Gisborne Simcox, Dr. Sinclair, G. K., Clive Sherwood, T. E., Makarika, piro Bay Sheath, J. H. Smart, D. L. Wai- Smith, J. H., Ohig- Snodgrass. J. Spencer, Miss, Rissington Tanner, T., Havelock North Thomson, J. P. Tiffen, G. W.. Caversham Townley, J., Gisborne Townson, W.. Gisborne Tursey, W. J. W. White, T., Wimbledon Williams, F. W. Williams, G. T., Matahiia, Tuparoa, East Coast Williams, J. N., Frimley, Hastings Williams, Rev. H., Gisborne NELSON PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. (No list sent in.) MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Armstrong, E. J., C.E. Barnicoat, J. L. Barraud, E. N. Bat(ihelar, J. 0. Bendall, W. E. Bennett, G. H. Bond, F. W. Buick, D., M.P. Cohen, M. Cooke, F. H. Davis, R. Drake, A. Durward, W. F. Eliott, M. A. Fitzherbert, W. L. Foote, F., B.Sc. Gardner, R. Gerrand, J. B. Glendinning, A. A. Graham, A. J. Greig, Dr. Guy, A. Hankins, J. H. Harm an, V. Hewett, C. R. Hewitt, Captain, R.N. Hoben, E. D. Hodder, T. R. Jickell, S. Low, D. W. Macdonald, A. McKenzie. D. H., Tarawera, Horotiu McNab, R. Manson, Thomas Martin, A. A., M.D.. CM. Martin, Donald Mellsopp, Mrs., M.A. Mitchell, J. Monckton, C. A. W. Mounsey, J . Mowlem, H. O'Donnell, W. J. Park, W. Peach, Dr. Preece, Captain Putnam, Dr. Russell, A. E. Scott, G. J. Seifert, A. Sinclair, D. Smith, W. W., F.E.S. Stevens, John Stowe, W. R., M.R.C S. Strang, W. Taphn, C. N. Tatton, Dr. A. Vernon. J. E., M.A. Waldegrave, C. E. Warden, C. H. Watson, F. E. Welch, W., F.R.G.S. Williams, G. Wilson, G., M.B., CM. Wilson, K., M.A. Wollerman, H. TAst of Free Copies. 123 LIST OF INSTITUTIONS TO WHICH THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE ARE PRESENTED BY THE GOVERNORS OP THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, 30. Neiu Zealand. Cabinet, The Members of, WeUington. Executive Library, Wellington. Free Public Library, Auckland. Christchurch. Dunedin. „ Wellington. Government Printer and publishing staff (6 copies). Library, Auckland Institute, Auckland. Auckland Museum, Auckland. Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College, Christchurch. Biological Laboratory, University College, Auckland. Biological Laboratory, University of Otago, Dunedin. Biological Laboratory, Victoria College, Wellington, Canterbury Museum, Christchurch. Dunedin Athenaeum. General Assembly, Wellington (2 copies). Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier. Manawatu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North. „ Nelson College. „ Nelson Institute, Nelson. „ New Zealand Geological Survey. New Zealand Institute of Surveyors. New Zealand Institute, Wellington. Otago Institute, Dunedin. Otago Museum, Dunedin. Otago School of Mines, Dunedin. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchiirch. Polynesian Society, New Plymouth. Portobello Fish-hatchery, Dunedin. Reefton School of Mines. Thames School of Mines. University College, Auckland. „ University College, Christchurch. „ University of Otago, Dunedin. Victoria College, Wellington. Wanganui Museum. „ Wellington Philosophical Society.. „ Westland Institute, Hokitika. Great Britain. Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London . British Association for the Advancement of Science, London. British Museum Library, London. „ Natural History Department, South Kensington, London S.W. 3 — Proceedings, pt. iii. L24 Appendix. Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge University. Colonial Office, Loudon. Clifton College, Bristol, England. Entomological Society, London. Geological Magazine, London. Geological Society, Edinburgh. „ London. Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London. High Commissioner for New Zealand, London. Imperial Institute, London. Institution of Civil Engineers, London. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, London. Leeds Geological Association, Meanwood, Leeds. Linnsean Society, London. Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool. Liverpool Biological Society. 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Geological Survey Office, Brisbane. Library, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane. Queensland Museum, Brisbane. Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane. Nexv South Wales. Agricultural Department, Sydney. Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney. Australian Museum Library, Sydney. Department of Mines, Sydney. Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney. Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Lmngean Society of New South Wales, Sydney. Public Library, Sydney. Royal Geographical Society of Austrtilasia, N.S.W. Branch, Sydney. Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. University Library, Sydney. Victoria. Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne. Field Naturalists' Clab, Melbourne. Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne. Gordon Technical College, Geelong. Legislative Library, Melbourne. Public Library, Melbourne. Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne. University Library, Melbourne. Victorian Institute of Surveyors. Tasmania. Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart. 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Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen. Naturwissenschaftiicher Verein, Frankfort-an-der-Oder. Eautenstrauch-Joest-Museum (Stadtisches Museum fiir Volkerkunde), Cologne. Eedaktion des Biologischen Central-Blatts, Erlangen. Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt-am-Maiu. Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wiirttemburg, Stuttgart. Atistrza. K.K. Central- Anstalt fur Meteorologie und Erdraagnetismus, Vienna. K.K. Geologische Eeichsanstalt, Vienna. Belgiimi and the Netherlands. Mus^e Teyler, Haarlem. Academie Eoyal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux- Arts de Belgique, Brussels. La Societe Eoyale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels. Sioitzerland. Musee d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve. Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Societe des Sciences Naturelles), Bern. List of Free Goptes. 137 F'ranci: . Bibiiotheque Nationaie, Paris. Mus6e d'Histoire Naturelle de Bordeaux. Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Societe Eutomologique de France, Paris. Societe de Geographic, Paris. Societe Zoologique de France, Pans. Italy. Biblioteca ed Archivio Tecnico, Rome. Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia del R. Institute di Studi Superiori. Florence. Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della R. Universita, Turin. Orto e Museo Botanico (R. Institute di Studi Superiori), Florence. R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti, Modena. R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome. Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples. Societa Africana d' Italia, Naples. Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome. Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa. United States of America. j Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York. „ Davenport, Iowa. „ Library, Philadelphia. j San Francisco. ] American Geographical Society, New York. j American Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia. j American Museum of Natural History, New York. American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. | Boston Society of Natural History. ; Connecticut Academy, New Haven. I Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. ■ Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. .( Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. ' •Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Natural History Museum, Central Park, New York. New York Academy of Sciences. Philippine Museum, Manila. Rochester Academy of Sciences. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Stanford University, California. Tufts College, Massachusetts. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. University of Montana, Missoula. Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia. Washington Academy of Sciences. 128 Appendix. Brazil. Museo Paulista, Sao Paulo. Escola de Minas, Eio de Janeiro. Argentine Bepublic. Sociedad Cientifica x\rgentina, Buenos Ayres. Uruguaij. Museo Nacional, Monte Video. ft Japan. College of Literature, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo. College of Science. Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo. Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu. National Library, Honolulu. Java. Society of Natural Science, Batavia. John Mackay, Government Printer, Wellington. — 1911. 1 [2,000/4/11—5076 Registered for transmisstion by post a:< a magazine vC\\0 TEANSAGTION'S PEOCBBDINGS NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1910 VOL. XLIII (New Issue) EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE Issued 1st July, 1911 WELLINGTON, N.Z. JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE William Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Stkekt, Steand, London ^V.C 128 Appendix . Brazil. Museo Paulista, bo Paulo. Eseola de Minas,lio de Janeiro. Argentine Republic. Sooiedad Cientific Argentina, Buenos Ayres. Urugimy. Museo Nacionai,'Ionte Video. J apart . College of Literatxe, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo. College of Scienc< Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo. Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi ishop Museum, Honolulu. National LibraryHonolulu. Java. Society of Natur; Science, Batavia. John MACiT, Government Printer. Wellington. — 1911. 2,000/4/11—5076 J. Registered for traiismi^nio}: i po^t a a mngazUie TBANSAOTIOn^S PROCEEDINGS OP THB NEW ZEALAND INSTTUTE 1910 VOL. XLIII (New Issue) EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTflORITY OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE niE r.«i\i;i> ^^ WELLINGTON JOHN MACKAY, GOVEP' William Wesley ant> L U ^' m % ^' '^ U'ii Mlil. WHOI IIHKAHV 111 H n(3S R 1 ■V ^^^^^^H i j HHhII^^^I' 'hH f ■ ^H ^^H- I ^^^B' I ^Bi Hi ■: 1 1 1 ] M Jivi U ^; v -^li •'.■ "■' ^ it m W -H M' i?^^ •'^' '^ h^ .^ ': . . '.. ^^^ ^^' : 4 ^^• '.i: .>'■ ' i^ H 'A ^'l y^ v^^ '^< *i ^'^^ .■^•. ^H >'^ '-(.''{ ii -^i s^\ ?- f ..?!r ./< i?( s^v M^l ^i't y; - ■ ■ : >^- ^^ ^-j*" f.^ ^' '4 fti »5t" :ii ^4 ■«[■ \^^?" j>A >si H ^ ;^ ^ ^. ^i ■•1 4 "" -^ ••••i 4 ^^ ^ <^( '^ ^^ ^*^ •'^J 'i^i' '?^v ' ' "' ■• " { .:. • . ^^' U' 1 f^i '>; >'< ri 'M. ''^ M ^ -v. , ■ i ^ Ji'i fci -4 ^t1 iJf tft ;< i M 4 fe^ n 1 -^i^ ^ Mr ^H M -U *> V^ € 'i <5^( «^i W n. 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