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TRANSACTIONS ^\cAl

AND

rQ°v

IBRAR

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

FOR THE YEAE 1914

VOL. XLVII

(New Issue i

EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS UF THE INSTITUTE

ISSUED 12th JULY, 1915

Wellington, ft.g.

JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Street Strand, London W.C.

CONTENTS.

I. BOTANY.

Art. I. A Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora, with some Notes on
the Species. By Robert M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc.

II. Notes on Aciphylla, with Descriptions of New Species. By T. F.
Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

III. New Species of Flowering-plants. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S..

F.Z.S.

IV. Descriptions of New Native Phanerogams, with other Short

Notices. By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.

V. Some Additions to the Flora of the Subantarctic Islands of New
Zealand. By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D. . .

VI. Investigations on Phormium. By Miss B. D. Cross, M.A.

VII. Plant-habitats Hitherto Unrecorded. By B. C. Aston. F.I.C.,
F.C.S.

VIII. Notes on Comparatively Recent Changes in the Vegetation of
the Taupo District." By the Rev. H. J. Fletcher

IX. Preliminary Note on the Protocorm of Lycopodium laterale R. Br.
Prodr. By J. E. Hollo way, M.Sc.

X. The Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonni County, with some
Notes on Abnormal Forms. By H. Carse

XI. The Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods. By Miss K. V.
Edgerley, M.A. . .

XII. Some New Species of New Zealand Flowering-plants. Bv
L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.R.S.

XIII. An Undescribed Species of Votula from the Chatham Islands.

By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.R.S.

XIV. Notes on the Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains, with a

List of Species. By D. L. Poppelwell

XV. Notes of a Botanical Visit to Herekopere Island, Stewart Island.
By D. L. Poppelwell

LVII. Notes on Nothopanax arboreum, with some Reference to the

Development of the Gametophyte. By E. M. Pigott, M.A. 599-612

TJ. ZOOLOGY.

Art. XVI. On a Pure-white Form of Anas superciliosa Gmel. Bv D. L.

Poppelwell .. .. .. .. .. ' .. 145-140

XVII. On Ascidioclava. a New Genus of Gvmnottlastic Hydroids. Bv

Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A. .*. .. .. .'. 146-148

XVI11. Some New Coccidae. By G. Brit tin .. .. .. 149-156

XIX. New Coccidae. By G. Brit tin .. .. .. .. 156-160

XX. Notes on some New Zealand Polychaeies. Br W. B. Benham.

D.Sc.. F.R.S. . . .. .. ..' .. .. 161-170

XXI. Preliminary Report on the Polvchaetous Annelids from the

Kermadec Islands. By W. B. Benham, D.Sc., F.R.S. . . 170-174

XXIT. Oligochaeta from the K>rmadec Islands. By W. B. Benham.

' D.Sc, F.R.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 174-185

PAGES

1

-39

39

-44

45-47

48

-59

59-

-60

61

-66

67

-70

70

-72

73

-75

76

-93

94-

111

111-

118

119

120-

142

142-

144

32409

VI

Contents.

Art. XXIII

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVII.

XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX.
XXXI.

XXXII.
XXX I II.

XXXIV.

XL VII.

XL VIII.

XLIX.

A Remarkable Case of Bifurcation in Lumbricus rubellus. pages
By W. B. Benham, D.Sc., F.R.S. .. .. .. 185-188

On Lumbricillus macquariensis Benham. By W. B. Ben-
ham, D.Sc, F.R.S. .. .. .. .. 189-191

Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera. By Alfred Phil-
pott. .. .. .. .. .. .. 192-201

Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. By E. Meyrick,

B.A., F.R.S. . . . . . . . . . . 201-204

Revision of New Zealand Tineina. By E. Meyrick, B.A.,

F.R.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 205-244

Contributions to the Study of New Zealand Entomology,
from an Economical and Biological Standpoint : No. 1
— -Plusia chalcites Esp. ; No. 2 — Nyctemera annulata
Boisd. ; No. 3 — Venusia verrkulata Feld. (Lepidoptera).
By Morris N. Watt, F.E.S. . . . . . . 245-274

Contributions to the Study of New Zealand Entomology,
from an Economical and Biological Standpoint : No. 4
— Phorocera nefaria Hut ton ; No. 5 — Psychoda conspi-
cillata Hudson ; No. 6 — Syrphus ropalus Walk ; No. 7
— -Phytomyza albiceps Mg. (Diptera). By David Miller
and Morris N. Watt, F.E.S. . . . . . . 274-284

Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand and Neighbouring

Islands. By L. S. Jennings, M.Sc. . . . . . . 285-293

The Occurrence in New Zealand of Myriapoda of the Genus

Scutige.rella, Order Symphyla. By Gilbert Archey. M.A. 293-295

The Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand. Bv Gilbert

Archey, M.A. . . . . . . .'. . . 295-315

A Fresh-water Crab, and its Distribution in Australia and
New Zealand. By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, M.B.,
CM., LL.D., F.L.S. .. .. .. .. 316-320

The New Zealand Species of the Aniphipodan Genus Elas-
mopus. By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, M.B., CM.,
LL.D., F.L.S. . . . . . . . . . . 320-330

A Commentary on Suter's "Manual of the New Zealand

Mollusca." By T. Iredale . . . . . , . . 417-497

A Comparison of the Land Molluscan Faunas of the

K< rmadec Group and Norfolk Island. By T. Iredale 498-508

The Molhisca of the Kermadec Islands. By W. R. B. Oliver 509-568

III. GEOLOGY.

Art. XXXVI. The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury.
M.Sc, F.G.S.

XXXVII

By R. Speight,

Recent Changes in the Position of the Terminal Face of the
Franz Josef Glacier. By R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S. . .

XXXVIII. Note on the Occurrence of Petroleum in New Zealand. By
R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.

XXXIX. The Geology of Tahiti. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.

XL. Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru. By P. Marshall, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.G.S.

XL1. The Recent Volcanic Eruptions on Ambrvm Island. Bv
P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.

XLI1. Brachiopod Genera : The Position of Shells with Magaselh-
form Loops, and of Shells with Bouchardiform Beak
Characters. By J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc. F G.S.

336-353

353-354

355-360
361-376

377-387

387-391

392-103

Con/nils.

vn

Art. XLill. Additions to the Knowledge of the Recent Brachiopoda of
New Zealand. By J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.G.S. ..

XLIV. On the Occurrence of Lower Ordovician Graptolites in
Western Otago. By T. S. Hall, M.A., D.Sc.

XLV. The Golden Ridge Graptolites. By T. S. Hall, M.A., D.Sc. . .

XLVI. Notes on the Soils of the Wairau Plain, Marlborough. Bv
Leonard J. Wild, M.A., F.G.S.

LVIII. Records of Borings at Horotiu. By J. R. Hetherington

PAGES

404-409

410-411
411-413

413-41 K
013-614

IV. MISCELLANEOUS.

Art. XXXV. Notes irom the Canterbury CoUege Mountain Biological
Station, Cass: No. 1 — -Introduction and General De-
scription of the Station. By Charles Chilton. M.A.,
D.Sc, M.B., CM., LL.D., F.L.S. .. .. .. 331-335

L. The Chemistry of Flesh Foods : Part II. By A. M. Wright . . 569-572

LI. Note on the Determination of Milk-fat. By A. M. Wright. . 572-573

LII. The Influence of Pressure on the Solubility of Tricalcic Phos-
phate in Carbonic-acid Solutions. By P. S. Nelson . . 573-578

LI II. On the Deflection of the Plumb-line from the Vertical due to
the Spheroidal Form of the Figure of the Earth, and its
Effect on the Latitude of Stations above the Mean Sea-
level. By W. T. Neill . . . . . . . . 578-583

LIV. On Orthogonal Circles. By E. G. Hogg .. .. 584-589

LV. The Longitude, Latitude, and Height of the Hector Obser-
vatory, Wellington. New Zealand. Bv C. E. Adams,
D.Sc, F.R.A.S . . . . . . . . . . 590-592

LVI. New Zealand Bird-song : Further Notes. By Johannes C.

Andersen . . . . . . . . . . 593-599

PROCEEDINGS.

Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Boa id of Governors. &c

617-658

APPENDIX.

New Zealand Institute Act, &c

Index

660-702
703-704

VI

Art.

Art.

LIST OF PLATES.

(Text figures not included.)

FOLLOWS

Kirk, H. B. — page

Plate I. — Ascidioclava parasitica .. .. .. .. .. 148

Miller, D., and Watt, M. X. —

Plate II. — Phytotnyza albiceps : Egg-pocket and track of mine made by larva 282

Plate III. — Phytotnyza albiceps- —

Fig. 1 . Egg-pocket in leaf . . . . . . . . . . 284

Fig. 2. Larva, full-grown, uncovered . . . . . . . . 284

Fig. 3. Pupa beneath cuticle of leaf . . . . . . . . 284

Fig. 4. Pupa exposed (lateral view) .. .. .. .. 284

Fig. 5. Posterior respiratorv processes of pupa pushed through cuticle of

leaf .. ..' .. .. .. .. ..284

Fig. 6. Photomyza albiceps photographed from life . . . . . . 284

Archey, G. —
Plate IV—

Fig. 1. Paranephrops planifrons White .. .. .. .. 314

Fig. 2. Paranephrops setosus Hut ton . . . . . . . . 314

Fig. 3. Paranephrops zealandicus (White) . . . . . . . . 314

Chilton, C. —

Plate V. — Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass —

Fig. 1 . Station building seen from the north-east . . . . . . 332

Fig. 2. General view . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

Plate VI. — Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass —

Fig. 3. Station building seen from the south-west . . . . . . 334

Fig. 4. View of the shingle-fan, looking towards Mount Sugarloaf . . 334

Marshall, P. —
Plate VII—

Fig. 1. View of upper basin of Papenoo Valley, Tahiti . . . . 376

Fig. 2. View of Orohe Peak, Upper Papenoo Valley, Tahiti . . . . 376

Hall, T. S.—

Plate VIII — Graptolites from Western Otago . . . . . . . . 410

Oliver, W. R. B.—

Plates IX-XII. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands —

Plate IX (Figs. 1-7) . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

Plate X (Figs. 8-28) . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

Plate XI (Figs. 29-39) . . . . . . . . . . . . 540

Plate XII (Figs. 4(1-49) .. .. .. .. .. ..554

ii — •Trans

■

,"■•■

• ;

TBANSACTION S

^ARYjaoJ

T BANS ACT IONS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE,

1914.

Art. I. — A Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora, with some Notes o)>

tin1 Sped en.

By Robert M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc.

[Rend before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th Novi mber, J!)14.]

Introductory.

In January and February, 1912. I paid a visit of five weeks to Norfolk Island.
During that time I collected and examined the indigenous plants, visiting
all parts of the island in search of them. Several hours were also spent on
the outlying Phillip Island, three or four miles to the south. I was unable
to make a complete examination of this interesting rock, but I had time to
reach its highest point. Since my return from the island I have had the
opportunity of looking through the collection of the Norfolk Island plants
in the herbarium of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. I have also received
many additional specimens from my father, Mr. W. Laing. resident on the
island, and I have seen a collection of specimens made on the island by
Mr. H. C. Quintal] for Mr. W. R. B. Oliver. From this material I propose
to draw up a revised list of the species, to add some notes on the lesser-known
forms, and to make some remarks on the present condition of the vegetation
and on the difficulties in ascertaining the original contents of the flora.

Before doing so, however. I should like to thank the following gentlemen
for much assistance kindly rendered : Mr. Gerald Allen, of Norfolk Island,
who gave me much aid in reaching various parts of the island ; Mr. J. H.
Maiden, Government Botanist of New South Wales, for the identification
of some species and much other assistance; Mr. D. Petrie, of Auckland,
for much help in the identification of the grasses : Mr. Cheeseman and
Dr. Cockayne, F.R.S. ; and, lastly, Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, whose investigation
of the Kermadec and Lord Howe Island plants has served to make the
florulas of these subtropical islands much better known.

I do not propose in this paper to discuss the relationships of the flora.
Much work has been done, and is being done, in this direction by many
writers. Norfolk Island has undoubtedly to be considered firstly in con-
nection with the Kermadecs and Lord Howe Island, and then in relation
to New Zealand and Australia. I have, therefore, shown as far as I could the
external distribution of all species occurring on Norfolk Island. This will
provide other investigators with the necessary data for determining the
origin of the florula.
1— Trans.

2 Transactions.

Present Condition of the Vegetation.

At present Norfolk Island is a mass of weeds from summit to base. Even
the bush, or " stick " as it is called by the Norfolkers, is full of introduced
plants ; and in the open country they are far more common than the native
species. There is probably not an acre of open land on the island — perhaps
not a quarter of an acre — which does not contain the introduced Solarium
auriculatum in quantity. Solanum sodomaeum and Cassia levigata are almost
as common. There is at present not sufficient labour on the island to cope
with these pests ; however, one at least of them (S. sodomaeum) has, I think,
reached its natural limits of increase, and is not now so plentiful as it was
when I paid a short visit to the island in January, 1901. Other serious
pests are Lantana camara, Datura stramonium, and Salvia pseudococcinea.
Ricinus communis and Phytolacca octandra are also fairly abundant. Lemon-
trees and occasional other species of Citrus are found nearly all through the
bush, and there are large groves of guavas everywhere. Stock are allowed
to run wherever there are no fences, and this helps to destroy the under-
growth. However, at Hundred Acres there is a reserve of some 50 acres
which has been enclosed for several years. In another four or five years
it will be impenetrable to man without a bill-hook. It shows how quickly
the bush would reclothe the island if stock were removed. Here the weeds
are fewer than in other parts of the island, and, apart from occasional plants
of Citrus, Cassia, and Solanum, the bush is chiefly of indigenous growth.
This, however, cannot be taken as representing the primeval forest, for
doubtless this area had been run through by stock for fifty years before its
enclosure, and also had been searched for timber. Most, though not all,
of its present covering is second growth. Indeed, in the convict days about
four-fifths of the island was under cultivation. This, where not covered
with weeds or used as orchard, is now pasture land, grassed with Cynodon
dactylon, a grass that has probably been introduced. Paspalum dilatatum
and Stenotaphrum americanum are also sometimes sown.

These grasses provide pasture for a number of cattle, horses, and a few
sheep. In dry seasons the island is altogether overstocked, and the stock
are allowed to roam freely over it in search of fodder. It is true that in addi-
tion to the reserve at Hundred Acres already mentioned there are several
other bush -enclosures, but these are at times open to stock, and wherever
the cattle go the smaller indigenous plants disappear, young bush trees
are destroyed, and weeds become abundant. Indeed, few of the bush
plants seem to be able to survive under these conditions except Lagunaria
Patersoni, Araucaria excelsa, and one or two other trees and creepers. It
is now, therefore, difficult for the botanist to distinguish between indigenous
and introduced plants. The nature of these difficulties will be discussed
more fully presently.

Our Knowledge op the Flora.

Fortunately for us, however, the plants of the island were fully collected
in 1804-5 by Ferdinand Bauer, the flower-painter. His collections were
described by a well-known botanist, Stephen Endlicher, of Vienna, in 1833.
The descriptions in most cases are so good and detailed that for systematic
purposes little needs to be added to them at the present day? Just a century
later than Bauer's visit, in 1904, there was published the comprehensive and
judicial paper on the flora of Norfolk Island, by Mr. J. H. Maiden, Director
of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. To Endlicher and Maiden's Floras, there-
fore, I am particularly indebted" in this paper, and without them this could

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 3

not have been written. Maiden paid a short visit to the island in 1902,
and in the century that had elapsed between his visit and Bauer's various
collectors had been there : but of these only one need be mentioned here —
Allan Cunningham, a former Director of the Sydney Gardens. The addi-
tions made by Cunningham to Endlicher's list were published after his
death by R. Heward in Hookers London Journal of Botany, i, p. 107. This,
unfortunately, I have not been able to see. In addition, large numbers of
plants have been sent to Sydney and Melbourne by residents on the island.
Unfortunately, such collections have contained many introductions. The
collector, though with every good intention, has been unable to distinguish
between naturalized and indigenous species. These species have been
accepted by Australian botanists, in some cases too readily. Maiden has
been more critical, and has cut out some of them from his list ; but it seems
to me that there are still more, particularly among the ferns and grasses,
which have to be rejected. In addition to introduced species, a few plants
that have been listed have not been found on the island at all, but have
been inserted through some error as to their habitat. These are plants
belonging chiefly to Australia. Lord Howe island, and in one or two eases to
the New Hebrides.

Though the botanist who does his own collecting on the island has much
better opportunities of distinguishing between naturalized and introduced
species, yet, owing to the conditions, it is frequently impossible even for him
to form a definite opinion in a given case. The chief reasons for this are
(1) the omnipresence of weeds already mentioned, and (2) the fact that
many of the introduced species are just those that might be expected to
occur indigenously. This is especially true of Australian plants. Constant
communication with Australia for more than a century has undoubtedly
led to the introduction not only of a large number of Australian plants,
but also of an unusual abundance of subtropical weeds. The mere finding
of a plant on the island can. therefore, no longer be regarded as a proof that
it. is an indigene, and other tests have to be applied : yet even with these
it is often impossible to'arrive at any certainty as to whether a plant is native
or foreign.

Indeed, the following consideration seems to show clearly that among
recent additions to the flora of the island there have been included some
importations. Maiden gives a list of forty-six phanerogams new to the
island, but not one of these is endemic. Now, in Endlicher's list of about
a hundred phanerogams about one-third are endemic. It is very impro-
bable that Bauer should have discovered all the endemic species and yet
have neglected forty-six indigenous but non-endemic species. This impro-
bability is immensely increased when it is remembered that many of the
newly added species are well-known plants elsewhere and are abundant
on the island, whereas some of the endemic species recorded by Bauer are
now very rare, and probably always have been rare on the island. One
would certainly have expected to find in the forty-six species added by Maiden
the same percentage of endemic species as in Endlicher's list. The total
absence of local forms in the list is, to my mind, very strong evidence that at
least a fair proportion of the added species are naturalized and not truly
indigenous.

Presumptive evidence to the same effect may also be derived from this
further consideration, though I do not wish to place too much weight upon
it. It is generally recognized — e.g., by Hemsley, Cockayne, and others —
that under similar conditions the number of species upon an island will

1*

4 Transactions.

be roughly proportionate to its area. Now, the Kermadec Islands have
a similar area and height to Norfolk Island, and do not differ very much
from it in latitude, and consequently they may be expected to contain a
similar number of species ; yet for Norfolk Island Maiden gives a list of
163 phanerogams and fifty-three ferns (including Lycopods), a total of 216,
whereas for the Kermadecs W. R. B. Oliver gives a total of only 115 species,
of which thirty-nine are ferns. It would seem, therefore, that either the
Norfolk Island list is in excess or the Kermadec list in defect, or that some
special cause has been at work to increase the number of species in one case
and diminish it in the other. I have little doubt myself that the first of these
reasons is the true one. On Lord Howe Island there are also over two
hundred species recorded ; but the surface of that island is much more varied
than that of Norfolk Island, and it has mountains of upwards of 3,000 ft.
upon it. One would, therefore, expect to find fewer species upon Norfolk
Island than upon it.

Tests for Distinguishing Indigenous Species.

One may feel comparatively sure that the list of Norfolk Island species
has been stuffed with aliens ; but when it comes to examining the title of
any particular species to appear, difficulties are in most cases encountered.
Two questions have to be asked and answered before a decision can be
made : (1) Has the plant been found growing on the island ? (2) if growing
on the island, is it indigenous or introduced ?

There are undoubtedly a few plants on the list which have not been
found growing on the island. They have been introduced owing to the
mixing of specimens in herbaria from different habitats, or to some other
form of carelessness, or accident. In dealing with this question I have
adopted the following rule : Plants recorded only by botanists who have
not visited the island, and without a collector's name, are to be regarded with
suspicion. Many of the species introduced into the list by the late Pro-
fessor R. Tate come under this category. In deciding whether a plant ha«
been found on the island I have also received considerable assistance from
the examination of the fine collection in the herbarium at Sydney Gardens.
This collection is by no means complete, some undoubted inhabitants not
being present in it ; but the absence of a suspected species from this collec-
tion adds a further suspicion to the record. I know, of course, from experi-
ence how dangerous it is to conclude from negative evidence that a plant
has not been found in a given place, and evidence of this character alone
should rarely be relied upon. Some of the species found by Bauer do not
seem to have been found recently, but they are not, therefore, in any way
suspect, as his herbarium is still in existence, and his records are most reliable.
Mr. Maiden has endeavoured in his list to cut out doubtful records, but
unfortunately does not always indicate those plants which he himself found
growing on the island. However, the number of species involved in the
doubtful records are few as compared with those which undoubtedly do occur
on the island but are doubtfully indigenous.

I now give briefly those rules which I have followed in determining if
a species occurring on the island is to be regarded as a native to it.

(1.) All plants recorded by Endlicher, with two ot three exceptions, are
to be regarded as indigenous. Bauer spent eight months on the island
shortly after its settlement, and before the vegetation had been ruined.
He was a careful observer, and adds notes in one or two cases where he
considers a species doubtfully indigenous.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 5

(2.) Plants now common throughout the island but not recorded by
Endlicher are probably introduced. It is quite clear that Bauer made a
thorough collection of the plants of the island. No endemic species, except
perhaps Clematis cocci difolia, has been discovered since his time. The
significance of this fact has not been sufficiently recognized by subsequent
collectors. Bauer certainly overlooked a few species, the most conspicuous
of which are Melicytns ramiflorus and Dodonaea viscosa ; the former of these,
however, is not abundant, and the latter grows in an area inaccessible in
his time. It may be that in some cases indigenous species once rare on the
island have, as a result of changed conditions, become abundant ; but I
have no specific evidence of this in any one case, and feel convinced that the
absence of any plant now common from Endlicher' s list is strong 'prima
facie evidence of its introduction subsequent to Bauer's visit.

(3.) New Zealand and Australian plants only found subsequently to
Bauer's visit are, even if not common on the island, to be considered doubt-
ful, unless the conditions of their discovery clearly show them to be native.
Early whalers frequently brought plants to the island from neighbouring
lands. This, of course, is especially true of vegetables ; thus, a kumara
— " Sunday Island kumara " — largely cultivated on the island is said
to have been brought from the Kermadecs ; a certain variety of taro
probably came from the New Hebrides. Since the earliest convict days
continual exchanges of plants and seeds have been made between the
island and Sydney.

(4.) Plants found only on the ruderal areas, on ground that has been
cultivated or in the neighbourhood of settlement, must also be considered
as probable recent importations.

(5.) When a species known as an introduction in New Zealand and
Australia is found on Norfolk Island, it is probably also an introduction
in the last-mentioned habitat.

(6.) It is clear from early accounts of the vegetation (M., pp. 774 and 775)
that when discovered the island, except for the shore-line, was original lv
totally covered with forest — e.g., "without a single acre of clear land " (Lieu-
tenant King) ; " For about 200 yards from the shore the ground is covered so
thick with shrubs and plants as hardly to be penetrated inland " (Captain
Cook). One would therefore expect the flora to consist exclusively or
almost exclusively of coastal and forest plants. Hence plants of the
prairie, pasture land, moor, or open country generally will be absent. Such
plants, therefore, as Viola betonicaefolia, Malvastrum tricuspidatum, Pelar-
gonium australe, Sida rhombifolia, may be regarded as doubtfully indigenous
at least.

These are the chief tests I have used in determining whether a species
is native or alien. The above rules are, of course, not intended to be hard
and fast, they must rather be regarded as elastic ; but the considerations
given above will enable future observers to judge of my reasons for retain-
ing a plant or excluding it from this list.

I think it very unlikely that further additions of importance will be
made to the list of indigenous species. I had good opportunities of visiting
every part of the island, and if I did not observe any species it can scarcelv
have been common. Still, there may be a few that I have failed to collect or
to identify for various reasons : (a.) In several cases the specimens secured
were too incomplete or immature for identification. (6.) Some nooks and
corners of the island escaped search. A further examination of Phillip
Island is undoubtedly required. At the foot of the cliffs and on the rock-

6 Transactions.

faces there are species to be obtained not collected by me. It is very
unlikely, however, that there will be any among them not recorded from
Norfolk Island itself, (c.) It was a season of drought — ferns, grasses, and
other plants were dried up. For this reason, some species may have been
overlooked, (d.) Some plants previously recorded are probably now extinct.
(e.) Some seasonal plants were perhaps not observed. I cannot think,
however, that much remains to be added to the list. On the other hand,
my list doubtless still contains some introduced species : the difficulty lies
in knowing which to eliminate.

Plant Associations.

It will be clear from what has already been said that it is now impossible
to give anything like an adequate account of the primeval condition of
the vegetation, or of its original plant associations. I have hitherto been
unable to get statistics of the rainfall and weather-conditions, though I
believe they have been to some extent recorded. The rainfall is, I think,
about 45 in. per year, but it is often very unevenly distributed. Summer
and autumn droughts are not infrequent. When discovered by Captain
Cook the island was in most places covered with an almost impenetrable
forest- — undoubtedly a mesophytic rain forest. The remnants of this are
still to be found, but in a very altered condition. Here and there the forest
may have consisted chiefly of a comparatively open formation of Araucaria
excelsa, as still at Bamboras, where nothing else is now to be found. Here
on the forest floor the roots from an interlacing network, spreading on or
near the surface, and the ground is otherwise bare. Undoubtedly, how-
ever, the chief portion of the forest contained, as in New Zealand, a con-
siderable number of species of trees, interlaced by huge lianes e.g., Cap-
paris, Jasminum, Tylophora, &c. — which practically stopped all progress
on foot. There is little sign of xerophyly in the vegetation, though such
plants as Wickstroemia australis, Exocarpus phyllanthoides, Cordyline Baueri,
and Phormivm tenax may be regarded as exceptions to this rule ; and, on
the other hand, the large tender membranous leaves of the hygrophytic
forest are also generally absent, though, again, in Piper excelsum var.
psittacorum, Pisonia Brunoniana, and one or two other species the leaves
approach this type. Taken as a whole, however, the forest would pro-
bably, in its adaptations to moisture, be not at all unlike the mesophytic
rain forests of Auckland Province. As there is none of the untouched
primitive forest on the island, this is, of course, to some extent only a
surmise.

Probably the only portion of the vegetation that remains somewhat in
its original condition is that of the coastal rocks and cliffs. The coastal
species show little endemism, and are mostly widely distributed plants,
whose seeds are perhaps carried by ocean birds and winds, though some
species are probably of recent and artificial introduction. Wedelia biflora
often forms a matted trailing mass on the sea-banks, to the exclusion of
other vegetation. Ipomoea palmata and Samolus repens var. stricla also
form patches on the seashore. Lobelia anceps and Mesembryanthemum
aequilaterale hang from the coastal cliffs. Tetragonia expansa, T. trigyna,
Asplenium difforme, and Canavallia obtusi/olia also occur, though less
abundantly. Oxalis corniculata var. reptans is common on the tops of
the cliffs. More rarely, Capparis, dwarfed and scrambling, is found on or
near the shore. Maiden got Ipomoea biloba and Calystegia Soldanella. Not
far inland Scirpus nodosns and Mariscus haematodes appear. In more or
less inaccessible places Coprosma Baueri is occasionally found. Probably

Laing. — Revised Lisi of the Norfolk Island Flora. 7

all these species formed portion of the original vegetation of the island,
which still exists much as it did before the island was inhabited. This
portion of the flora is quite what we might have expected to have found
in such a situation, and, as most of the species occur widely, they throw
no light on the origin of the remainder.

The best account of the general characters of the original vegetation
is to be found in Backhouse's " Narrative of a Visit to the Australian
Colonies " (London, 1843). Maiden quotes most of Backhouse's descrip-
tions in his paper on the flora.

Phillip Island.

iso account of the vegetation of Norfolk Island would be complete with-
out some reference to the remarkable story of the vegetation of this out-
lying rock. According to Governor King (quoted by Maiden, p. 183), the
island was in 1788 sparsely wooded, and, where not wooded, covered with
a '" thick entangled kind of reed." Allan Cunningham, who visited the
island later, and was, indeed, marooned there by the convicts for a time,
found in the interior " some deep hollows," " in parts densely wooded
with small trees, and an underwood chiefly of the thorny caper bush
(Busbeckia nooUis)." Of this once comparatively plentiful vegetation no-
thing is now left but a few scattered trees. In most parts the island consists
of red, yellow, brown, volcanic tuff and disintegrated volcanic rocks of all
hues. The vegetation is obviously becoming yearly more sparse, and the
island is fast becoming a complete desert. Most of the trees had been
leafless shortly before I saw them, but, as the result of some earlier rains,
young shoots and leaves had broken out from the main branches. There
was practically no soil ; scarcely a seedling was to be seen anywhere, and
the rain-water had formed deep trenches in the bare volcanic "clay/' Not
a blade of grass was to be seen except in the clefts of the rocks near the
heach. The explanation given of the disappearance of the vegetation is
that originally pigs were put upon the island. These destroyed all the
undergrowth, grubbed among the roots, and so helped to loosen the soil,
which was then washed away by the rain. Subsequently rabbits were
introduced, and multiplied until they had eaten every green leaf within
reach, and gnawed the bark of most of the trees. They added to the
havoc commenced by the. pigs, and the destruction of the soil was practi-
cally completed by them. Rumour even states that food became so scarce
that the rabbits commenced to prey upon each other. There are no rabbits
on Norfolk Island itself. The rabbits, however, still exist on Phillip Island,
and I saw one or two which had been shot there. They were in moderately
good condition. It may be that this is the correct explanation of the
desiccation and destruction of the vegetation on the island ; at least. I
could find no other. Of course, a number of years of drought would also
furnish a fairly adequate explanation. At any rate, unless conditions alter
a great deal the island will shortly be completely desert, except for a few
plants growing in the clefts of the rocks and at the foot of the cliffs.
I saw no bio; trees on the island. The largest were one or two dead
Araucarias lying on the ground. The washing-away of the soil about
their roots had apparently caused their fall.

Undoubtedly the presence of immense numbers of sea-birds also tends to
the destruction of the vegetation.* Red-tailed tropic-birds, gannets, wide-
awakes, and other birds were nesting on the island at the time of my visit.

* Vide Cockayne, " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand," p. 233.

8 Transactions.

Some of the few remaining trees were full of sea-birds, and their branches
almost white with their dung. These birds no doubt assist considerably
in the destruction of the vegetation, but they cannot account for its present
rapid disappearance.

Phillip Island contained three endemic species : Hibiscus insularis Endl.,
Streblorrhiza speciosa, and Triticum Kingianum. Of these, I obtained the
first and the third. The second is almost certainly extinct. Maiden adds
a fourth species, but this (Solanum Bauerianum) occurs also on Lord Howe.
To save space I have not drawn up a separate list of species for this island.
They will be found included in the main list.

A description of the physiographic features of Norfolk Island by myself,
and the microscopic characters of the rocks by R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, will
lie found in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute for 1913.

Origin of Flora.

As already stated, I do not intend to deal with the origin of the flora
An investigation into it can only be taken in conjunction with a discussion
of the distribution of the fauna. A rough statement, however, may be
made of the results obtained as shown by this paper.

An analysis of the species of phanerogams on the island gives the follow-
ing results : 41 per cent, are found outside Australasia, and may be regarded
as representing a Malayo-Australasian element ; 29 per cent, are endemic ;
14 per cent, are Australasian ; 7 per cent, are found only in Norfolk Island
and Australia ; of the remaining 9 per cent., approximately 5 per cent, are
confined to Norfolk Island and New Zealand, and the remainder are found
either in the Kermadecs, or Lord Howe, or in all three groups. Now, such a
bare analysis is most misleading if used as a platform for rigid conclusions.
Perhaps all that can be concluded from it is that the basis of the Norfolk
Island flora is an element widely distributed in the eastern subtropical
South Pacific. The remainder is Australasian.

A Short Bibliography.

This list includes only the chief books and articles referred to by me.
For a more complete bibliography Maiden's work should be consulted.

1. " Prodromus Florae Norfolkicae." Endlicher, Vienna, 1833.

2. " Hooker's London Journal of Botany," vol. i, 1842. " Biographical

Sketch of the late Allan Cunningham." (This includes a list of
plants discovered by Cunningham on the island, but not appearing
in Endlicher.) (I have not seen this. — R. M. L.)

3. " Narrative of a Visit to the Australian Colonies." By J. Backhouse,

London, 1843. (An excellent description of the general facies of the
vegetation in the early convict days is given.)

4. " Flora Australiensis." Bentham, 1863. (This contains many records

of Norfolk Island species.)

5. " On the Geographic Relations of the Floras of Norfolk and Lord Howe

Islands." By R. Tate. " Macleay Memorial Volume," Sydney.
(This gives a somewhat unreliable list of the species of both islands.)

6. " The Flora of Norfolk Island," part i. By J. H. Maiden, Government

Botanist of New South Wales. (Proceedings of the Linnean Society
of New South Wales, 1903.)

7. "l Manual of the New Zealand Flora." By T. F. Cheeseman, Wellington,

1906.

8. " Vegetation of the Kermadec Islands." By W. B. B. Oliver, Trans.

N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42, p. 118, 1910.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 9

List of Species of Flowering-plants and Ferns Indigenous to

Norfolk Island.!

Some Abbreviations.
* Not found by me.

E. Endlicher's list of Norfolk Island species.
M. Maiden's list of Norfolk Island species.
T.N. Z.I. '" Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.''
Cheesem. Cheeseman's " Manual of the New Zealand Flora."
Benth. Bentham's " Flora Australiensis."

Pteridophyta.

FlLICINAE.

The late Dr. Metcalf, whose knowledge of the ferns of Norfolk was
unique, assured me that he was satisfied that the number of species to be
found on the island was little over thirty. Maiden records fifty-two, but
there is no first-hand evidence that some of these have been collected on
the island by anv botanist. On this ground, the ferns numbered as follows
in Maiden's list are here omitted : 1, 8, 22, 42, 47, 49. Of these, (22) Pteris
marginata Borz. is recorded by Muller as having been found by Mr. I. Robin-
son on the island ; (8) Polypodium acrostichioides Forst. and (42) Aspidium
tenerum Spreng. are recorded by Muller as having been collected by Carne ;
(47) IAndsaya linearis Sw. and (49) Dennstaedtia (Dicksonia) davallioides
T. Moore are recorded in Benth. without any collector's name. The Nor-
folkers grow many foreign species in their ': bush houses," and it would
be quite easy for some of these to get into lists drawn up by botanists who
have not visited the island. (1) Hymmophyllum muUifidum appears first
in Tate's list : but no collector's name is attached to it.

Hymenophyllaceae.

1. Trichomanes Bauerianum Endl., E. 50. (= T. apiifoliwm Presl., M. 2.)
Abundant on the sides of rocks in darker bush creeks.

Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, Malaya, Polynesia.

2. Trichomanes humile Forst., E. 49, M. 3.
In moist places in the darker forests.

Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia, and adjacent tropics.

Cyatheaceae.

Gyathea medullaris Forst., appears E. 47, but is not in Bauer's herbarium,
and has not been found in Norfolk Island by any subsequent botanist.
(Vide M., p. 737, and under " Alsophila robusta" below.)

3. Alsophila excelsa R. Br., E. 48, M. 50.

Not common on the island, and much confused with the following,
which is perhaps more abundant.

4. Alsophila robusta C. Moore var. norfolkiana Laing var. nov.

Costis costulisque parce muricatis, fulve tomentosis et paucis squamis
linearibus conspersis.

The variety everywhere common on Norfolk Island. The typical form
<m Lord Howe ; related also to A. australis of Australia.

I had confused this with the previous species until Mr. Oliver pointed
out to me that two species occurred on the island, and sent me a specimen

t A collection of Norfolk Island plants has been presented by me to the Canterbuiy
Museum.

]i i Transactions .

of each. This differs from A. robusta of Lord Howe in the less muricated
costae and costules, and in the presence of a larger amount of tomentum
and in the absence of scales. At the same time, until I have seen more
specimens of this and A. robusta I do not feel quite satisfied about the
distinctions. Doubtless there has been some confusion between them in
the past. This is possibly the plant referred to by Endlicher and Back-
house as Cyathea medullaris ; subsequent observers have either included
this with A. excelsa, or referred it to A. australis, which it somewhat resembles
(Bentham, Tate). Without access to type collections it would be difficult
to determine the exact synonymy of this and A. excelsa.

The two species are undoubtedly quite distinct. In A. robusta var.
norfolkiana the terminal pinnules are 10-12 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide,
concave on the upper margin and convex on the lower, entire or crenulate
and obtuse. The sori are usually found from base to the top of the pinnide,
and the fertile fronds are generally incurved at the margins. Sometimes.
however, the sori do not extend beyond the middle of the pinnule, which
is much less membranous than in A. excelsa.

In the latter the ultimate pinnules are 8-10 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide,
less concave on the upper margin than in the previous species. Unfortu-
nately, I have at present only one specimen. In it the sori do not extend
along more than two-thirds of the frond, number usually 4-6 pairs, the
margin is regularly serrate on both surfaces, and the tip is acute. The
midrib of the secondary pinnules is much more markedly paleaceous than
in the preceding species. Mr. Maiden tells me that A. excelsa and A. aus-
tralis are thus distinguished : —

Rhachis more or less stramineous, and stalk of frond completely deciduous,

leaving a smooth scar on stem . . . . . . . . A . excelsa.

Rhachis not stramineous, base of stalk persistent, leaving a rough trunkf . . A. australis.

POLYPODIACEAE.

5. Dryopteris punctata (Thbg.) C. Chr. (= Phegopteris punctata Thbg.,

M. 11 and 44 ; Polypodium rugulosum Labill., E. 20.)
Australia, New Zealand, and widely in tropical and subtropical regions.

6. Dryopteris parasitica (L.) 0. Ktze. (= Aspidium parasiticum Mett..

M. 38.)

Not uncommon by bush creeks and swamps.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, and widely in warmer
regions.

7. Dryopteris setigera (Bl.) 0. Ktze. (— Aspidium setigera Bl., M. 43.)

Recorded by Mtiller. The only specimen seen by me was collected
by Mr. H. C. Quintall, and sent me by Mr. W. R. B. Oliver; perhaps intro-
duced.

Kermadecs, Australia, Polynesia, Malaya.

Dryopteris decomposita (R. Br.) 0. Ktze. (= (?) JS ephrodium micro-
sorum Endl., E. 24 ; N. calanthum, E. 25 ; and also Aspidium decom-
positum, M. 41.)

The evidence for the existence of this fern on the island is quite unsatis-
factory. A. Cunn. (quoted M. 736) considered Nephrodium microsorum and

f For the distinction between A. australis and A. robusta, vide the Rev. W. Watts,
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 39, p. 2fil (1914).

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. [\

N. calanthum as identical with the following fern of this list — Polystichum
aristatum. Maiden considers these as more probably synonvmous with
Aspidium decompositum Spreng. ; but apparently did not himself find it on
the island, nor did I. When so much is doubtful, and the fern has not been
recently found, it should. I think, be excluded from the list.

■8. Polystichum aristatum (Sw.) Pr. (= Aspidium aristatum Sw., E. :>3.
M. 39.) (See also above.)

Everywhere abundant in the drier bush.

Kermadecs, Australia, New Zealand, and widely in the Southern Hemi-
sphere.

9. Polystichum adiantiforme (Forst.) J. Sm. (= Aspidium coriaceum

Sw., E. 22 ; A. capense Willd., M. 40.)

Australia, New Zealand, and widely throughout the Southern Hemi-
sphere.

10. Arthopteris tenella (Forst.) J. Sm. (= Polypodium tendlum Forst..

E. 18, M. 5.)

Climbing on trunks of trees.

Lord Howe, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia.

11. Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) Pr., M. 46.

Pop Rock and rocky ledges.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand, and
widely in the Southern Hemisphere.

(Called on the island " Pop Rock fern.")

12. Davallia pyxidata Cav., M. 48.

Mount Pitt.
Australia.

13. Athyrium umbrosum (Ait.) Pr., M. 36. (= Alkudodia australis

R. Br., E. 31 ; Asplenium assimile Endl., E. 30.)

In the denser bush, Mount Pitt.

Australia, New Zealand, and widely in warmer regions of the Eastern
Hemisphere.

Athyrium brevisorum Wall., M. 37, is also recorded by Maiden from
Norfolk Island, but as this is a fern of northern India there is probablv
some mistake in the matter, and I hesitate to introduce it into the list.

14. Diplazium japonicum (Thbg.) Bedd., M. 35.

Mount Pitt ; not common.

Kermadecs, Australia, New Zealand, Polynesia, and tropical Asia.

15. Asplenium nidus L., E. 26, M. 30.

Everywhere common in the damper bush.

Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, Asia, Polynesia, Africa.

15a. Asplenium Robinsonii F. v. M., M. 31.

Norfolk Island ; very rare.

I retain this with much hesitation. It seems to me that this is probably
-only an occasionally occurring crested and incised sport or mutant from
the previous. I did not myself see it growing wild. The only living speci-

12 Transactions.

mens I saw were in cultivation on the island ; and in one case apparently
on the same plant I saw normal fronds of A. nidus growing, together with
the abnormal fronds of A. Robinsonii. However, it is not quite extinct.
The late Mr. Robinson sent away all the plants he could find of it. Mrs.
W. Laing has, however, recently (1914) found young specimens on different
parts of the island. It is a much less luxuriant plant than A. nidus, and its
fronds do not appear to reach 2 ft. in height. The fronds are always petiolate
and usually crested and incised but occasionally entire. As in A. nidus,
the sori are usually confined to the upper part of the frond, and, though
sometimes not reaching to the midrib, they do not differ from A. nidus
in this respect. Thus the reproductive distinctions relied upon by Baron
von Miillerf scarcely seem to exist. The distinctions in form, size, incision,
and lobing of the frond are undoubtedly sufficient to form a good species,
did one not know that such variations occur not unfrequently as recognized
sports in similar ferns. Thus the forms of A. nidus and A. Robinsonii are
exactly paralleled by the mutations of the hart's tongue fern, Scolopendrium
tmlgare.%

The less luxuriant habit and the constant petiolation are perhaps cha-
racters of more importance than the varying incision and lobing of the leaves,
and may justify the retention of this as a distinct species.

16. Asplenium difforme R. Br., E. 28. (= A. obtusatum Forst. var.
difforme, M. 32.)

Australia.

I cannot agree that this is only a form of A. obtusatum, in spite of the
weight of opinion against me — e.g., Hooker and Baker, Maiden, Christiansen.
The plant grows abundantly on the coastal rocks both of Norfolk Island
and Phillip Inland, and shows great variety in the division of its fronds ;
but at no time is it similar to the common form of A. obtusatum as met with
in New Zealand. Indeed, it approaches closely at times to A lucidum var.
Lyallii. Further, I cannot bear out the statement of Backhouse (3), to
whom we are indebted for an excellent general description of the character
<if the flora before it was overrun by weeds. He, speaking of this fern,
states that " at a short distance from the shore its leaves become more divided,
and in the woods in the interior of the island they are separated into such
narrow segments that the lines of fructification are thrown upon the margin."
The plant only grows on rocky shores, and does not occur inland, and the
ironds on one rootstock are often polymorphous. Three types of pinnae
may perhaps be distinguished, but intermediates are abundant.

(a.) The pinnae are 5-8 cm. long, 12-15 mm. broad, lanceolate to oblong
in outline, crenate-dentate at the top, pinnatifid towards the middle and
pinnate at the base ; thus much resembling A. lucidum var. Lyallii.

(b.) The pinnae are 1-2 cm. long, 8-10 mm. broad, ovate to ovate-
elliptical with well-rounded apex, dentate in the upper half, and lobed
towards the base. They are altogether smaller than in form (a).

(c.) The pinnae are much more incised, and the pinnules approach
those of typical A.flaccidum, being linear and acute or acuminate.

I admit, of course, that intermediates are so common in this genus that
it is difficult to separate the various species, but the character here insisted

t " Journal of Botany," xxii, p. 289.

t Vide J. A. Thomson: Heredity; fig. 22, p. 99 (Mutations of Hart's Tongue
Fern).

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 13

upon is that all these forms are found on one rootstock, and even sometimes
on one frond. All forms are fertile, but sori are more general on the deeply
incised forms.

17. Asplenium dimorphum Kze. (= A. diversifoliu m A. Cunn., E. 29,

M. 33.)
Abundant in the bush. Commonly called on the island " the two-frond
fern."

Apparently confined to Norfolk Island.

18. Asplenium adiantioides (L.) C. Chr. (= A. falcatum Lam., E. 27,

M. 34.)

Common, chiefly on tree-trunks.

Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand, and widely through-
out the warm regions of the Old World.

19. Blechnum lanceolatum (R. Br.) Sturm, var norfolkianum Hew.,

M. 25. (= Stegania lanceolata, E. 34.)

Common.

Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia, Polynesia.

Blechnum discolor (Forst.) Keys., M. 24, is recorded by Maiden, but,
as he now thinks, erroneously. I did not see it.

Blechnum acuminatum Baker, M. 26. This is probably identical with
or only a variety of B. lanceolatum. B. acuminatum Baker is, according to
Christiansen, a synonym for B. acrodontum (Fee) C. Chr., a Mexican plant,
but Cheesemanf regards (and no doubt correctly) Lomaria acuminata Baker
(= B. acuminata Baker) as a synonym of L. norfolkiana Hew., which in turn
is a synonvm of No. 18 above. Maiden considers B. acuminatum as inter-
mediate between B. attenuata and B. lanceolata.

20. Doodia caudata R. Br., E. 32, M. 29.

Abundantly by sides of creeks, in the bush.
Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia.

21. Doodia media R. Br. var. Kunthiana Sand., E. 33, M. 28.
Australia, New Zealand, Polynesia.

22. Doodia aspera R. Br., M. 28.

Perhaps only a variety of the above.

Lord Howe, Australia.

Pellaea rotundifolia Hook., M. 17, is recorded in Benth. from Norfolk
Island, under the genus Pteris, but almost certainly in error. I did not
see it.

23. Notholaena distans R. Br. (= Nothoclaena distans R. Br., M. 16.)
Near " the English Oak," hillsides near the Cascades, and other dry

places.

Lord Howe, Australia, New Zealand, ISIew Caledonia, Polynesia.

24. * Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Foist.) Swartz var. Sieberi, M. 15, E. 45 and 46.
This has also been recorded from Norfolk Island, but after search 1

was unable to find it. I think most probably Notholaena distans has been

Manual of N.Z. Flo: a. p. 978.

I 1 Transactions.

mistaken for it. I examined dozens of plants of the latter species, but
did not meet with a single specimen of Cheilanthes. Still, in deference to
the opinions of others, 1 allow it to remain on the list.

Lord Howe (not recently collected), New Caledonia, Australia, New
Zealand.

25. Hypolepis tenuifolia (Forst. f.) Bernh.. M. 45.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Caledonia. Australia. New Zealand. Poly-
nesia, Malaya, China.

26. Adiantum affine Willd.. E. 44, M. 12.

On damp grassy banks ; not common. f
Kermadecs. New Zealand.

27. Adiantum diaphanum Blume, M. 14.

On grassy banks, and in the opener bush ; common.

Kermadecs, New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand, Polynesia, Malaya,
south-east China.

Cheesem. (p. 964) gives A. fulvum as a native of Norfolk Island.
I did not see it. and do not know what is the evidence for its occurrence
there.

28. Adiantum hispidulum Sw., M. 13. (^ A. pubescens Schk., E. 43.)

Perhaps the most abundant species of the genus on the island.
Lord Howe, Kermadecs, New Caledonia. Australia. New Zealand, and
widelv in the Southern Hemisphere.

29. Pteris tremula R. Br.. M. 18. E. 37. (= P. Kingiana Endl., E. 40;

P. Baueriana Endl.. E. 40, according to Maiden.)
Mount Pitt.
Kermadecs, Lord Howe. Australia, New Zealand, Fiji.

30. Pteris comans Forst., E. 39 and 41, M. 23.

Anson's Bay : in forest.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe. Australia. New Zealand, Polynesia.

Forms from New Zealand, Lord Howe, the Kermadecs, and Norfolk
Island differ considerably in appearance, but can scarcely be separated
by any good characters.

31. Pteris biaurita L. var. quadriaurita Retz., M. 20. (=(?) P. Trat-

tinickiana Endl., E. 42.)

Kermadecs, tropical and subtropical regions.

32. Histiopteris incisa (Thbg.) J. Sm. (= Pteris brunoniana% Endl.,

E. 38 ; P. incisa Thbg., M. 21.)

A large form ; is common on Mount Pitt. " Oak-fern " of the islanders.
Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand, and
widely in tropical and subtropical regions.

t This is marked in rny list as seen by me, but amongst scores of specimens of
Adiantum in my herbarium there is not one of this species, and I am now somewhat
doubtful of its existence on the island.

J I have received additional specimens of Pteris from Norfolk Island, and am now
(March, tfii5) convinced that P. bnnioniana Endl. is a good species. [ shall probably
return to this in a subsequent paper.

Laing. — Revised Lirt of the Norfolk Island Flora. 15

33. Pteridium esculentum (Forst. f.) Cockayne. (= Pteris esculenta

Fork, E. 36, M. 19.)

Common.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, Australia, New Zealand, and southern Pacific.

34. Vittaria elongata Sw., M. 4. (= V. rigida Kaulf., E. 35.)

Common on tree-ferns.
Australia, Polynesia, eastern Asia.

35. Cyclophorus confluens (R. Br.) C. Chr., M. 7. (— Niphobolus ser-

pens Endl., E. 21 ; Polypodium serpens Forst., M. 6.)

Abundant on tree-trunks.

Lord Howe, Australia, New Caledonia.

I do not think that C. serpens (Forst.) C. Chr. exists on the island. In
dry seasons in exposed position the fronds of C. confluens become narrower
and rounder, and simulate non-fertile fronds of C. serpens. Both kinds
of frond may be found on the one rhizome. I am quite satisfied there is
only one species of the genus on the island. In this opinion the late
Dr. Metcalf quite concurred.

In C. confluens the veins anastomose ; the under-surface of the frond is
covered with a beautiful stellate pubescence. The non-fertile fronds are
from 2 in. to 8 in. long, linear to linear-lanceolate, and often acuminate.
Sori often confluent.

36. Polypodium diversifolium Willd. (= P. Billardieri R. Br., E. 19 ;

P. puslulatum Forst., M. 9.)

Abundant in many situations.

Lord Howe, Kermadecs, Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia.

P. pustulatum Forst. does not occur on Norfolk Island, but P. diversi-
folium is everywhere abundant on rocks and trees, growing rather more
luxuriantly than in New Zealand. Polypodium phymatodes Linn., M. 10,
does not, I think, occur on the island.

Marattiaceae.

37. Marattia fraxinea Smith, M. 51. (= M. elegans Endl., E. 17.)
Not uncommon in the beds of creeks.

New Caledonia, Australia, New Zealand, and widely, if the species is
interpreted in a broad sense.

Ophioglossaceae.

38. Ophioglossum vulgatum Linn.

As this was not found by the earlier botanists, it may possibly — though
not probably — -have been introduced. I have retained the specific name
vulgatum, not caring to venture upon the definition of varieties without
fuller material and literature.

Practically cosmopolitan.

Lycopodiaceae.

39. Tmesipteris tanensis Bernh., M. 2. (= T. Forsteri Endl., E. 16.)
A common epiphyte on tree-ferns.

Kermadecs, New Zealand, Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia,
Polynesia

16 Transactions.

40. Psilotum triquetrum Swartz, M. 3.

On tree-trunks in the darker forests.

Kermadecs, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Lord Howe, Australia, tropics
and subtropics.

Lycopod vim densum is recorded by Maiden, on the authority of Benth.
(vii, 676), but there is no first-band evidence of its collection on Norfolk
Island .

Gymnospermae.

Con i [ferae.

41. Araucaria excelsa R. Br., E. 76, M. 1.

The well-known Norfolk Island pine ; still abundant from the seashore
to the top of Mount Pitt.
Endemic.

Angiospermae.

Monocotyledoneae.

Typhaceae.

42. Typha angustifolia Linn. var. Brownii Kron., M. 130.

Longridge and in swampy watercourses in several parts of the island.
This is. I think, doubtfully indigenous.

Kermadecs. New Zealand, Australia. Almost cosmopolitan.

Pandanaceae.

43. Freycinetia Baueriana Endl., E. 63, M. 129.

Common in the bush, trailing and climbing.
Endemic.

Gramtneae.|

It becomes still more difficult in this family to distinguish between intro-
duced and indigenous species. M. (p. 725) quotes Governor Phillip as say-
ing, in 1788, " that not a single blade of grass has been seen on this island,"
and finds it " not easy to understand this statement." It appears to me that
we must accept the statement as meaning at least that there was no pastur-
age upon the island. During the last hundred years, however, grass-seed
has been frequently sent from Sydney to Norfolk Island ; and this makes
it certain that many Australian grasses have been imported, and will now
appear to be indigenous. Now, Bauer spent many months on the island
during 1804-5, and collected very carefully, and any grasses not collected
by him must be regarded as quite doubtfully indigenous. We shall cer-
tainly be much safer in excluding such species than in retaining them. In
one or two cases their habitats may be such as to make their introduction
improbable ; but the majority are found chiefly in the pasture lands. I
would therefore exclude the following : Panicum effusum R. Br., M. 145 ;
Andropogon affinis R. Br., M. 152 ; Microlaena stipoides R. Br., M. 153 ;
Sporobohis indicus R. Br., M. 155.

None of these were collected until Maiden visited the island in 1902.
All of them are grasses likely to be imported. Some of them may have
been only temporary inhabitants of the island. I did not collect 145. 152,
153, 154* 158, of Maiden's list,

1 1 have to thank Mr. D. Petrie, of Auckland, the well-known authority, for his
kind assistance in the determination of the .species.

Laing. — Revised List of tin Norfolk hi and Flora. 17

A special note perhaps is required about Cynodon dactylon Linn., which
Iralso exclude. It is the common pasture grass of the island, yet I did not
see it on Phillip Island, only three or four miles away. It is not recorded
before Maiden's list, and is probably not indigenous. Maiden includes the
grass both in his list of indigenous and introduced species.

44. Andropogon refractus R. Br., M. 151, E. 55.

Not uncommon.

Australia, Malaya, Pacific islands.

45. *Panicum norfolkianum Nees, E. 52, M. 144.
Apparently an endemic species ; not recently collected.

46. Panicum crus-galli Linn., E. 51, M. 146.

According to Cheeseman, who kindly identified this for me, an unusually
long-awned form.

Widely distributed in the tropics.

47. Panicum sanguinale Linn. var. ciliatum Retz.. M. 147.

Norfolk Island, Phillip Island.

I retain this, as I found it on the cliffs of Phillip Island, where it is
quite unlikely to have been introduced.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe. New Zealand, Australia, and warmer regions.

48. Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn.

Norfolk Island, Phillip Island (R, M. L.).

Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia, Tonga, and warmer countries.

49. Oplismenus compositus Beauv., E. 54, M. 149.

Abundant in the forests.

A common tropical and subtropical plant.

50. Oplismenus undulatifolius (Kunth.) Be<;>uv.. M. 150. (=0. aemulus

R. Br., E. 53.)
Scarcely distinct from the previous, and common on the forest floor.
Kermadecs. Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, Polynesia, and widely.

51. Cenchrus calyculatus Cav.

Edge of coastal cliffs, near Anson's Bay.
Kermadecs, Australia, New Caledonia, and warmer regions.
A new record for the island ; from its situation scarcely likely to have
been introduced.

52. * Echinopogon ovatus Beauv., M. 154.

This may have beeu introduced, but is a probable indigene. Recorded
by Maiden only.

Lord Howe, Australia, New Zealand.

53. Deyeuxia filiformis (Forster) Petrie. (= D. Forsteri Kunth., M. 156.)

Damp ground.

Though not' recorded previous to Maiden's list, I retain this. As one
of the Norfolk Island forms is very slender, and perhaps distinct enough
to be regarded as a variety, it is therefore scarcely likely to have been
introduced. The typical form also occurs.

Kermadecs. Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia.

|,< Transactions.

54. *Dichelachne sciurea (R. Br.) Hook, f., M. 157. (— D. montana

Endl., E. 56.)
Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia.

55. * Dichelachne crinita (Forst. f.) Hook., M. 157.

This has been found also in the Kermadecs and Lord Howe, and there-
fore is perhaps indigenous to Norfolk Island.
New Zealand, Australia.

56. Agropyron Kingianum (Endl.) Petrie comb. nov. (= Triticum

Kingianum, E. 58, M. 161.)

As Mr. Petrie pointed out to me, this is a true Agropyron. I collected
it on the cliffs of Phillip Island. This is perhaps the first time it has been
collected since Bauer's visit in 1801-5. The grass seems to be completely
restricted to Phillip Island.

57. *Agropyron scabrum (R. Br.) Beauv., M. 160, E. 57.
Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia.

Cyperaceae.

58. Kyllinga monocephala Rottb., M. 135.

Abundant in watercourses and wetter pastures.

A common water-weed of warmer countries, and perhaps introduced.

Lord Howe, New Caledonia, &c.

59. Mariscus haematodes (Endl.) Laing comb. nov. (= Cyperus haema-

todes Endl., E. 59, M. 132.)

" Moo-oo grass " of the islanders. Formerly abundant on the banks of
streams, &c. Now getting scarce, as it is largely used for basket- and hat-
making. Also on Phillip Island (Bauer, R. M. L.).

Lord Howe, Australia.

I have transferred this to the genus Mariscus, as the glumes are per-
sistent, the rhachilla coming away finally above the two lowest.

60. Cyperus congestus Vahl., M. 134.

Common in watercourses.

In the specimens examined by me there were only two stamens, instead
of three as in description.

Australia, South Africa.

G. rotundus, according to Maiden, also occurs on the island, but it is
probably an introduction.

61. Eleocharis acuta R. Br., M. 136.

Common in swampy ground.
Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia.

62. Scirpus nodosus (R. Br.) Rottb., M. 137. (= Ficinia guttata, E. 61.)

Common, particularly on the coastal cliffs, Phillip Island (R. M. L.).
Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, and widely in south
temperate zone.

63. Scirpus lacustris Linn., M. 139.

Creek Mission paddock and elsewhere.

New Zealand, Australia, and in most warm and temperate countries.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 19

64. Scirpus maritimus Linn. var. fluviatilis (Benth.) Torr.. M. 141.

From an open culvert near Government House ("R. M. L.) ; mill-dam
and other places (Maiden).

New Zealand. Australia, and widely in the tropics.

'55. Scirpus cernuus Vahl. (= S. riparus Spreng.. M. 140.)

Watercourses, Emily Bay. and elsewhere.
Nearly cosmopolitan.

66. Scirpus inundatus Poir., M. 138.

In watercourses near the township.
New Zealand, Australia.

67. Scirpus conspersus (Nees) Laing comb. uov. (— Isolepis conspersa

Nees, E. 60.)

Maiden, following Benth. (vii, p. 329), has identified Isolepsis conspersa
Nees, E. 60, with the previous species. T. conspersa is described in Endlicher
as having • 3 stamens, 3-5 spikelets in a head, with the glumes purple-
dotted, and the nut obscurely reticulated (" subtiliter punctata"). Now.
Scirpus inundatus Poir. has 1 stamen, 2-15 spikelets, glumes more or
iess stained with dark rec» brown, and the nut pale and smooth. The two
are obviously distinct specie;, and 1 believe that 1 have specimens of both
from Norfolk Island corresponding exactly to the descriptions, except that
in Isolepis conspersa the spikelets are almost terminal and generally solitary,
there being no bract, or only a short one just overtopping the spikelet.
I therefore propose to reinstate this species. It is perhaps endemic to
Norfolk Island. Probably examples of both species were collected by
Bauer, but not differentiated. S. conspersus is really much more closelv
allied to S. cernuus Vahl.. of which the late Mr. C. B. Clarke considered it
a form.

Watercourses, Norfolk Island ; perhaps endemic.

68. Carex Neesiana Endl., E. 62, M. 142.

Not uncommon.
Endemic.

69. Carex inversa R. Br., M. 143.

Mount Pitt ; perhaps introduced .
New Zealand, Australia.

Palmae.

70. Rhopalostylis Baueri (Hook, f.) Wendl. & Drude, M. 128. (= Areca
sapida, E. 64.)

Still abundant, though often felled for various purposes.
Endemic. Dr. Beccari has recently made the Kermadec Island plant
into a new species — 7?. Cheesemanii.

Aroideae axd Musaceae.

There are many varieties of taro on the island, known by local names.
Most of these have certainly been introduced — e.g., Forty's taro, Sunday
Island taro, &c. Maiden, however, regards Colocasia antiquorum Schott.
as indigenous. He quotes a passage written by Governor King in 1788.

»

20 Transactions.

Here King says, " On the 27th I discovered a great quantity of plantane
trees." The plants referred to by King as plantane-trees are regarded by
Maiden as taro. The evidence adduced seems to me quite insufficient to
establish the case. Though the taro may now be growing at the spot
referred to, yet it also grows so commonly by the sides of streams all over
the island that its presence on the stream referred to is certainly insufficient
to identify it with the plantane-tree of King's records. Bauer evidently
did not regard the taro as indigenous, as it is not included in Endlicher's
list ; and it would certainly be strange if it were to be regarded as indigenous
in Norfolk Island but not in the surrounding lands and islands — e.g., New
Zealand, Kermadecs. As the plant is also referred to by King as the banana,
there is still less reason for supposing that the plantane can be the taro.
On the other hand, Endlicher regards Musa as indigenous, but not Colo-
casia. Now, Musa, though plentiful on the island, is always under cul-
tivation, and, so far as I know, shows no tendency to escape therefrom.
If King did actually find bananas growing on the island in 1788, it is
probable that their presence was due to some chance human introduction
by Polynesians or others in the years shortly before his arrival. This, indeed,
is the more likely, as King is said to have been of the opinion that the
island contained aboriginal inhabitants " from discovering the banana-tree
in regular rows."

COMMELINACEAE,

71. Commelina cyanea R. Br., M. 127.

Apparently not found either by Endlicher or Maiden, though recorded
by Cunningham. It is not uncommon in watercourses. I certainly would
regard it as introduced were it not that it occurs on Phillip Island, which
has never been inhabited. It has been seen there both by Cunningham and
myself. In any case, I can only regard it as very doubtfully indigenous.
It might quite readily have been taken to Phillip Island by the Norfolkers,
or the convicts, who frequented it for birds' eggs, or the small seeds may
have been carried by natural means from the mainland of Norfolk Island.
Still, that it should occur and be able to maintain itself on the arid Phillip
Island is undoubtedly in favour of its being indigenous.

' Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, with closely allied forms in south-
eastern Asia.

Liliaceae.

72. Rhipogonum dubium Endl., E. 69, M. 121.

Australia.

Called "yam-creeper " on the island. Common in the bush.

73. Ceitonoplesium cymosum A. Cunn., E. 68, M. 122.

Common in damp bush ; also cultivated in bush houses on the island,
Lord Howe, Australia, South Pacific to Borneo.

74. Cordyline Baueri Hook. f. (= C. obtecta Baker, M. 123; Cordyline

australis, E. 67.)

Common in the bush. Endemic, but closely allied to the New Zealand
and Australian C. australis.

75. Cordyline terminalis Kunth.

The evidence regarding this species is highly conflicting. Maiden
and myself only saw it in cultivation at Steel's Point, and the Norfolkers

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 21

distinctly say that the specimens there were brought from Pitcairn
with them. On the other hand, Cunningham states that it was not
scarce on the island in 1830 — that is, long before the arrival of the
Pitcairners. Maiden suggests " that it would appear to have been exter-
minated, perhaps because the convicts turned it into a curse, as the Pit-
cairners did." It seems to me unlikely — (1) that, if common, Bauer would
have missed it during his eight months on the island ; (2) that the convicts
could have exterminated it completely ; and (3) it is probable that had they
done so there would have been some record of their excesses and of the
result. It is perhaps simpler to imagine that in some way Allan Cunning-
ham was mistaken, and I would suggest that it should be removed from the
list of indigenous species; unless it is found hereafter outside of cultivation
on the island. It is, of course, a very likely plant to be a native of the
island. It is usually regarded as an introduction in New Zealand, where
the conflict of evidence is similar.

76. Phormium tenax Forst,, E. 65, M. 125.

An undoubted native, growing on dry bare hillsides, and in such situa-
ions as P. Cookianum is usually found in on the New Zealand hills.
1 could detect no difference between this species and some of the common
New Zealand forms. It was nowhere, however, luxuriant, though Captain
Cook speaks of it as being more luxuriant than in New Zealand. I did not
see it in any swampy places or by the side of watercourses.

New Zealand, Chatham Islands. (In the Auckland Islands it is probably
introduced.)

77. Dianella intermedia Endl., E. 66, M. 126.

Apparently not found since the time of Bauer until my visit. The
olant is undoubtedly rare. Anson's Bay (Bauer), cliffs at Ball's Bay
(R.M.L.).

Rather taller and stronger than the New Zealand plant, but otherwise
apparently not different. I also saw cultivated specimens brought from
the Bay of Islands, New Zealand.

New Zealand, Polynesia, but the genus is chiefly Australian.

Amaryllidaceae.

Crinum norfolkianum A. Cunn.

This plant grows only in wet ground in the " Old Mill " garden and in a
ditch at Government House, and shows no tendency to spread. It has lived
on in the same position for the last eighty years, and is still there (1913).
It was evidently introduced in convict times. Cunningham differentiated
it from the Australian C. pedimcidatum Hew. I do not know the Australian
species sufficiently well to say whether the differentiation is sound, but the
differences are small, and may be due to cultivation. It is perhaps a form
of the variable C. peduncidatum, of which Bentham says.f " The wild speci-
mens in herbaria are, however, so unsatisfactory, and. the cultivated ones
in gardens so frequently uncertain as to their origin, that the distinction
of species can only be established by studying them in their native country."

C. pedunculatum is also reported from Lord Howe and New Caledonia ;
but Mr. W. R. B. Oliver informs me that in the former island it is only
to be found near the settlement, and may be introduced.

f Fl. Austr. vii, p. 455.

22 Transactions.

Orchidaceae.
I had little opportunity of examining the plants of this family.

78. * Oberonia Titania Lindl., M. 113. (= 0. palmicola F. v. M., M. 114:

Titania miniata, E. 71.)" ,

Anson's Bay (Maiden).
Australia. Java.

79. Dendrobium macropus Benth. & Hook.. M. 116. (= Tkelychiton

macropus, E. 74.)

Steel's Point and elsewhere.
Endemic.

80. * Dendrobium brachypus Reichb., M. 115. ( — Tkelychiton brachypus

Endl., E. 32.)

Endemic.

81. * Bulboohyllum argyropus Reichb., M. 117. (== Tkelychiton argyropus

E. 72.)

Endemic.

82. Phreatia limenophylax (Endl.) Kranzl., M. 118. (= Plexaure limeno-

phylax, E. 70.)

Non Benth., Fl. Austral., vi, 290 ; neque Bailey, Queensl. Flora, 1542. f

Epiphytic ; not uncommon.

Endemic.

83. * Microtis unifolia (Forst, f.) R. Br. (= M.porrifolia R. Br., M. 119.)

Bullock's Hut (Maiden).

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia.

DlCOTYLEDONE AE .

Piperaceae.

84. Macropiper excelsum (Forst. f.) Miq. var. psittacorum (Endl.) Laing

comb. nov. (= Piper psittacorum Endl., E. 80 ; P. excelsum Forst.,
M. 93 ; Macropiper excelsum var. major Cheeseman.)

In the denser bush.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, and South Polynesia.

Endlicher gave this plant specific rank ; Cheeseman reduced it to a
variety of M. excelsum. Endlicher' s specific name should be retained for
the varietal form. Maiden suggests that the typical form occurs on the
island. I did not see it, and do not think it can occur.

85. Peperomia reflexa A. Dietr. var. aemula (Endl.) C. D.C., M. 94.

(= Piper aemulum Endl., E. 77. f

Common in darker bush, on rocks and trees.

Lord Howe, Australia, New Zealand, and in most warm countries.

f See " Das Pflanzenreich," iv, 50, ii, B. 23, p. 21, for a description of this species,
and comments on the erroneous identification of it with an Australian form of Bentham
and Bailey.

Laing. — Revised Lirt of the Norfolk Island Flora. 23

86. * Peperomia Urvilliana A. Rich., 1832, M. 95. (= Piper simplex

Endl., 1833, E. 79 ; Piper Endlicheri Miq., 1843.)

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Polynesia.

Cheeseman has retained in his Flora the specific name Endlicheri. The
dates given show that Urvilliana has priority. I doubt whether this is the
same as the New Zealand plant, or distinct from the following.

87. * Peperomia Baueriana Miq., M. 96. (= Piper adscendens Endl., E. 78.)

Endemic.

This plant does not seem to have been collected since the time of
Cunningham, unless one or two infertile fragments that I have belong to
this species. They, however, have the leaves alternate, not opposite.

The Australian Peperomia leptostachya Hook. & Arm is recorded by Tate
from the island, but without collector's name.

Urticaceae.

88. Celtis paniculata Planch., M. 108. (= Solenostigma paniculatam

Endl., E. 85.)

Norfolk Island and Phillip Island. The fruit is used on the island in
place of holly at Christmas.

Australia, Malay Archipelago.

This tree shows on Norfolk Island a fairly distinct juvenile form. In
a plant 10 ft. high the branchlets were arranged regularly and distichously
along the main branch. Each was 15-20 cm. long, borne in the axis of
a permanent leaf, and had 7 or 8 alternate distichous leaves. These leaves
were darker in colour, and rather larger and thicker, than in the mature
form.

On a full-grown tree (25 ft. high) the branchlets were no longer dis-
tichously arranged, though the leaves remained so. The lamina in the
mature form are 7-9 cm. long, and in the young form 9-11 cm. long; in
width, young form 4-5 cm., mature 2§— 4 cm. The branchlets are deciduous,
falling away from the stem.

In Ungeria floribunda the leaves of the young plant are also considerably
larger than those of the mature form. I did not, however, see on the
island any of those markedly distinct juvenile forms so common in New
Zealand forests (vide also under Pennantia Endlicheri).

89. Pseudomorus Brunoniana Bureau var. pendulina (Endl.) Maiden,

M. 109. (= Morns pendulina Endl., E. 84.)

Common in the forest.
Australia, New Caledonia.

90. Procris montana (Endl.) Steud., M. 110. (= Elatostemma montanuw

Endl, E. 83.)

Scarce ; Now-now Valley and back of Mount Pitt, in forest.
Fiji.

91. Boehmeria australis Endl., E. 82, M. 111.

Bush at Now-now Valley, Joneniggabunit,f Broken Bridge.

Endemic, but closely allied to a species on Lord Howe and Kermadecs.

t I.e., John the nigger burnt it.

24 Transaction* .

92. Parietaria debilis Foist, f., M. 112. (= Urtica debilis Endl., E. 81.)

H. C! Quintall ! (Specimen sent to Mr. W. R. B. Oliver.)
Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, and widely elsewhere.
Malaisia tortuosa Blanco, M. 107, is excluded on the same grounds as

for Peperomia leplostachya. It has probably been introduced in confusion

with the Lord Howe plant.

LORANTHACEAE.

93. Korthalsella articulatum (Burn, f.) Van Tiegh. (= Viscum distichum

Endl., E. 118 ; V. articulatum Burn, f., M. 99.)

Abundant not only on Baloghia and other natives, but on many intro-
duced fruit-trees. It kills lemons, oranges, and peaches, and is quite a pest
on the island.

Lord Howe, Australia, India, Polynesia.

Santalaceae.

94. Exocarpus phyllanthoides Endl., E. 91, M. 100.

Common in the forest.

One of the most durable woods on the island, but the larger trees have
now all been cut down.
Endemic.

Olacaceae.

95. Pennantia Endlicheri Reiss. (= P. corymbosa Forst., E. 140, M. 25.)

Top of Mount Pitt ; not common.

Endemic.

There has long been known from Norfolk Island a species of Pennantia
which has usually been considered to be identical with the New Zealand
Pennantia corymbosa. It appears first of all in Endlicher, p. 80, No. 140
(1833), and there Endlicher identifies it with Forster's P. corymbosa from
New Zealand. In 1842 Reissek made a separate species of it, under the
name P. Endlicheri ,f and is followed by the " Index Kewensis." Maiden,
however, regards it as synonymous with P. corymbosa, and states (M. 25),
" I am of opinion that the Norfolk Island species is identical with the New
Zealand one." This opinion seems to me scarcely justifiable, and for
reasons about to be given I think that the specific name " Endlicheri '
must be revived for the Norfolk Island plant, and the species must be
regarded as distinct.

On examining the Norfolk Island form it is apparent at a glance that
the leaves are larger and more membranous than in the New Zealand species.
Indeed, similar differences exist between the two as between P. excels urn
and P. excelsum var. psittacorum of the Kermadecs and Norfolk Island.
Such differences as these are perhaps scarcely sufficient to give specific
rank to P. Endlicheri. Further small diiferences also exist in the foliage.
In the Norfolk Island plant the branchlets and petioles are glabrous, or
provided only with a few sparse hairs on twigs and midrib. In the New
Zealand plants these parts are pubescent. In Norfolk Island specimens
the lower leaves are larger than those surrounding the tips of the branches
or the inflorescence, having the blade 18-25 cm. long and 10-15 cm. broad.

t " Linnaea," xvi, p. 341, t. 13.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 25

The margins are entire, repand, or irregularly notched, with shallow indenta-
tions ; the upper surface is highly polished (in the New Zealand plant it
is dull) ; the under-surface is not polished, and of a lighter green in colour.
The upper leaves are about 10-15 cm. long and 6-8 cm. broad. The leaves
are thus very much larger than those of the New Zealand species, which
in the South Island, at any rate, do not average more than about half of
these dimensions. The flowers on both varieties seem to be very similar.
Endlicher (loc. tit.) states that the Norfolk Island plant is hermaphrodite,
with very rare male flowers among the others, but this is not so, for though
the female flowers do contain stamens, these are non-fertile. On other
specimens male flowers may be found without any trace of an ovary. The
plant is really dioecious, as in New Zealand ; indeed, the flowers of both
species agree well in all respects.

A difference, however, of a still more important type than those already
mentioned has yet to be recorded. As is well known, the New Zealand
plant goes through a juvenile stage which is very different from the mature
form. There is no trace of any such juvenile stage in the Norfolk Island
plant. This is an important and most interesting fact, and should be
compared with the similar facts known regarding the Chatham Island
Plagianthus betuUnus and Pseudopanax chathamicum.'f In the case of
Plagianthus betuUnus, Cheeseman (p. 77) does not consider the absence of
the juvenile form a sufficient difference for the demarcation of a species ;
but it seems to me that it should be considered of at least varietal import-
ance, and here I have regarded it, together with the other points mentioned,
as justification for differentiating a species.

POLYGONACEAE.

96. Muehlenbeckia australis (A. Rich.) Meissn.. M. 92. (= Polygonum

australe A. Rich., E. 86.)

Common in the forest, and apparently identical with the New Zealand
form. Phillip Island (A. Cunn.).
New Zealand.

Rumex Brownii Campd., M. 91, also occurs on the island, but obviously
as an introduced weed.

Amarantaceae.

97. Achyranthes arborescens R. Br., M. 89, E. 89.

Mount Pitt.
Endemic.

98. Achyranthes aspera L., M. 90. {—A. canescens R. Br., E. 90.)

Cliffs, chiefly costal.

Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, and generally in warm countries.

The plant varies a good deal in the colour and hispidity of the leaf and
stem.

Alternanthera sessilis R. Br. also occurs on the island (W. Laing!), but
is probably an introduced weed.

f Vide Cockayne, " An Inquiry into the Seedling Forma of New Zealand Phanero-
gams," T.N.Z.I., vol. 23, p. 277 ; and vol. 32, p. 89.

26 Transactions .

Nyctaginaceae.

99. Pisonia Brunoniana End]., E. 88, M. 88.

On the western side of the island ; common.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, and south-eastern
Pacific.

Aizoaceae.

100. Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale Haw., M. 41.

Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, and widely in America.

Like Maiden, I did not find M. australe Sol., E. 129, and think it probable
that it has been recorded in place of M. aequilaterale Haw., which is also on
Phillip Island (E. M. L).

101. Tetragonia expansa Murr. var. cornuta (Gartn.) Endl., E. 130a.

This is the New Zealand form, and is common on the coastal cliffs.
Kermadecs, Lord Howe, Australia, New Zealand, and perhaps else-
where.

102. Tetragonia trigyna Banks & Sol. (= .Tetragonia expansa Murr.

var. stronglyocarpa Endl., M. 42, E. 130b.)

Common on the sea-banks.

Kermadecs, New Zealand, and probably also Australia and Lord Howe.

Ranunculaceae.

103. * Clematis glycinoides D.C., M. 1.

This appears in the Sydney Herbarium as collected by Mr. I. Robinson,
of Norfolk Island.

Lord Howe, Australia, New Caledonia (?), Polynesia.

104. Clematis cocculifolia A. Cunn.

Mrs. W. Laing ; Mount Pitt !

I give the original description, as it is not easily accessible, and the species
has only hitherto been recorded by A. Cunningham : :' C. cocculifolia,
floribus paniculatis dioicis, 4-sepalis, foliis indivisis longe petiolatis orbicu-
lato-ovalibus obtusis membranaceis, 5-nerviis integerrimis glabris, basi
saepe cordatis, sepalis oblongis margine lanatis, antheris ovatis obtuse
apiculatis. Crescit in locis apricis, praesertim in marginis syl varum
caeduarum insulae Norfolk, ubi Augusto Septembrique floret."

The plant is obviously now very rare, and apparently endemic. Maiden,
following Cunningham, is in error in regarding it as a native of New Zealand.
It is very close to the preceding species.

Ranunculus parviflorus Linn., M. 2, recorded by Maiden, is probably
an introduction, as in New Zealand, and only adventive. I did not get it.
Ranunculus repens has also been introduced.

Cruciferae.

Nasturtium palustre D.C. (Syst., ii, 91). (= N. sylvestre A. Rich., M. 3.)

This is reported from Norfolk Island on the authority of Cunningham :

' Wet ravines and running streams." Not found by me, and apparently

not by Maiden. It has probably been introduced temporarily, and then

has disappeared. N. officinale is abundantly naturalized. Senebiera didyma

is also abundant.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 27

CaJcile maritima Scop. Reported only by Maiden.

Almost certainly introduced and adventive. New Zealand examples
show how easily even a maritime plant may be introduced, and appear
in unexpected situations. Probably most of the supposed " Scandinavian
element '" in southern floras is due to such introductions.

Capparidaceae.

L05. Capparis nobilis (Endl.) F. v. M., M. 5. (= Busbeclcia nobilis, Endl.,
E. 121.)

A common bush liane, scrambling to the tops of the trees. Known on
the island, on account of its recurved spines, as " Devil's guts."

Apparently endemic, but very close to the Australian C. arborea, F. v. M.
(Frag., i., 163).

It may possibly be the same as the Queensland C. ornans F. v. M., but
I have no material with which to decide the question. The following points
should be noted with regard to the Norfolk Island plant : It belongs to
the section of the genus that has the two outer sepals united in the bud ;
the non-flowering branches are provided with two reflexed stipulary spines
about 6 mm. long. According to Maiden, the fruit is almost globular, but
this is scarcely so. It is globular only in the early stages, and when mature
the fruit is usually of the size, shape, and colour of the common edible passion-
fruit (Passiflora edulis). Occasionally only is it nearly globular.

PlTTOSPORACEAE .

106. Pittosporum bracteolatum Endl., E. 138. M. 9.

Common in the bush.

Endemic.

I have also a fragment of an undetermined Pittosporum collected on the
island by Mr. H. C. Quintall. and forwarded me' by Mr. W. R. B. Oliver.
It may well be introduced.

Leguminosae.

107. Canavalia obtusifolia P. D.C., M. 30. (= C. Baueriana Endl.,

E. 150.)

Coastal banks ; common.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, Australia, and tropics.

108. Milletia australis (Endl.) Benth., M. 28. (= Pterocarpus australis

Endl., E. 152.)

Now confined to a strip of country running across the middle of the island.
As it rarely fruits, it is doubtless doomed to extermination. I saw only
one legume.

Phillip Island (A. Cunn.), Australia.

109. * Vigna retusa Walp., M. 31. (= Callicysthus volubilis Endl., E. 149.)
Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, and widely in the tropics.

110. Caesalpinia Bonducella Fleming, M. 32.

A few specimens only exist in an open paddock near the centre of the
island. Apparently found only by Cunningham and myself. It is quite

28 Trau sort ions.

possibly introduced. It is known on the island as " tatary maw," an
obvious corruption of the Maori " tataramoa " (Rubus australis), in allusion
to its thorny nature. Probably will soon be exterminated. f
Lord Howe, Australia, and widely in the tropics.

111. * Glycine tabacina Benth., M. 29.

Recorded only by Maiden, and perhaps introduced.
Australia, New Caledonia, and South Sea Islands.

112. * Streblorrhiza speciosa Endl., M. 33, E. 151.

Now only known from a solitary drawing. The plant once grew on
Phillip Island, and is almost certainly extinct.
Endemic.

Geraniaceae.

Maiden records Pelargonium australe and Geranium dissectum, M. 20
bis, but I think they have been introduced. They are found chiefly in
gardens and waste places, though I obtained G. dissectum on the top of Mount
Pitt ; but there are numerous other naturalized weeds there. Erodium
cicutarivm also occurs.

OXALIDACEAE.

113. Oxalis corniculata L. var. reptans (Soland.) Laing.

Captain Cook mentions in his discovery of the island that he found
" cabbage-palm, wood-sorrel, sow-thistles, and samphire abounding in some
places on the shore." In Endlicber's list there appears under No. 128,
Oxalis reptans Soland. ex Forst. Prodr., but the name is a nomen nudum,
though Endlicher remarks, " Mera fortassis Oxalidis corniculatae varietas."
Bauer apparently did not collect an Oxalis in Norfolk Island. No Oxalis
appears in Maiden's list of indigenous species, though 0. corniculata appears
in his list of introductions. I, however, found a little Oxalis common on
rocky places near the seashore on Phillip Island as well as on Norfolk Island.
It is apparently a form of P. corniculata. It can scarcely be other than
the 0. reptans of Forst. Prodr. I give a short diagnosis.

Oxalis corniculata L. var. reptans (Soland.) Laing. Planta pilosa caule
decumbenti vel reptanti, crasso fruticosoque, fructibus linearo-oblongis.
acuminatis.

The whole plant is stouter, and rather larger in all its parts than the
common New Zealand forms. It is usually densely pilose, except in the
lower portions of the stems, but some specimens are met with in which
there are no hairs on the upper surfaces of the leaves. The stem is suf-
fruticose at the base. The capsules are about 12 mm. long, and 2-3 mm.
broad at the base, narrowing at the top to an acuminate point. It is
evidently a coastal plant, growing in the sand or in clefts of rocks.

% New Caledonia, Kermadecs, Lord Howe, and almost cosmopolitan.

One species at least of the South African Oxalicls occurs as a garden
escape.

t Since writing the above I have noticed that it appears in Cheeseman's " Flora
of Rarotonga," with the Native name of tataramoa, thus confirming my conjecture.

% This is the distribution of the species ; the variety may be endemic, though per-
haps near var. crassifolia.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 29

LlNACEAE.

Maiden records Linum margmale A. D.O., but, as in New Zealand, it is
almost certainly introduced. It springs up sporadically in different places,
and then apparently dies out. Thus it can only be adventive. Linum
gallicum also occurs.

RUTACEAE.

114. Evodia littoralis Endl., E. 146, M. 21.

Not uncommon up to the top of Mount Pitt.
Endemic.

115. Acronychia Endlicheri Schott., M. 22. (= Vepris simplicifolia Endl.,

E. 148.)

Common.

Australia.

ll!i. Zanthoxylum Blackburnia Benth.,j" M. 23. (= Blackburnia pivnata
Forst., E. 147.)

Common, and on Phillip Island.
Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Vavau.

Meliaceae.

117. Dysoxylum Patersonianum (Endl.) Benth. & Hook. 1., M. 24.

(= Hartsighea Patersoniana Endl., E. 139.)

A common tree on the island ; also on Phillip Island.
Endemic.

Euphorbiaceae.

118. * Euphorbia obliqua Endl., E. 144, M. 101.

Not recently collected, and probably now extinct.
Tonga.

119. Euphorbia glauca Forst., E. 145, M. 102.

I believe I saw this south of Steel's Point, but am not certain.
New Zealand.

Euphorbia norfolkiana Boissier, M. 103. Possibly a New-Hebridean
plant, cultivated on Norfolk Island. The evidence for its occurrence on
the island in an indigenous state is by no means satisfactory. Not col-
lected by Maiden or myself.

120. Euphorbia Sparmanni Boissier, M. 104.

Emily Bay.

Lord Howe, Australia, Pitcairn Island, Tonga.

(It closely resembles the more widely distributed E. atoto.)

121. Baloghia lucida Endl., E. 143, M. 105.

A common tree ; also on Phillip Island.

Lord Howe. Australia, New Caledonia, Polynesia.

t Zanthoxylum (1737) has priority over Xanthoxybnn (1791) used by Maiden.

30 Transactions.

122. Excoecaria Agallocha L., E. 142, M. 106.

Near the beach in wind-shorn bush and clumps from Bamboras to Ball's
Bay. According to Pax (" Das Pflanzenreich," iv, 47, p. 167), two varieties
occur on Norfolk Island — var. a. genuina, and var. 8. ovalis.

New Caledonia, Australia to tropical Asia.

Phyllanthus sp. (= P. Veillardii ?) grows abundantly in the paddocks,
and does not seem to have been recorded. It is probably an introduced
species from New Caledonia.

123. Homalanthus populifolius Graham.

A few trees in a deep rocky ravine on Mount Pitt (H. C. Quintall !).f
Forwarded me by Mr. W. R. B. Oliver. New for the island, though see
M., p. 748.

Lord Howe, Australia .

Celastraceae.

124. Elaeodendron curtipendulum Endl., E. 141, M. 26.

One of the commonest trees on the island — " maple."
Lord Howe (?).

Sapindaceae.

125. Dodonaea viscosa L., M. 27.

Anson's Bay, and towards the north-west, near the coast only, Dun-
combe's Bay, Bullock's Hut.

New Zealand, Australia, some of the South Sea Islands, and widely in
warm countries.

(Close to D. lanceolata of Lord Howe Island.)

This plant is not recorded by Endlicher, and yet is fairly common over
a limited area, and undoubtedly indigenous. I would explain the omission
from Bauer's collection by saying that in his time Anson's Bay must have
been inaccessible by land, and it is almost inaccessible by sea. If there
were many such omissions from Bauer's list it would be impossible to regard
absence from it of a species now common on the island as evidence against
a plant being indigenous. Melicytus ramiflorus is another striking omission.

Malvaceae.

(Maiden records Malvastrum tricuspidatum Grey, M. 12. Modiola multi-
jida Moench. is also common in pastures and waste lands. Both are un-
doubtedly introduced. The former is known on the island as " Little Jack,"
and is very abundant. "Big Jack " is Sida rJiombifolia.)

126. Abutilon Julianeae Endl., E. 35, M. 13.

Rocky clefts, back of Mount Pitt. Evidently very rare, and in danger
of extermination. Dr. Metcalf informed me that it occurred in Ball's Bay.
I did not see it there.

Endemic.

f My father (Mr. W. Laing), in sending me a specimen of Homalanthus, informs
me that it is fairly common. (March, 1915.)

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 31

127. Hibiscus diversifolius Jacq., E. 133, M. 14.

Mission paddocks only, where it shows no sign of spreading. This
might have been definitely regarded as indigenous, except for Bauer's note
quoted by Endlicher, " ipso Bauero adnotante vix spontaneus." Its pre-
sence in cultivated ground only adds to the improbability of its being
indigenous. Still, its distribution suggests the likelihood of its occurrence
in Norfolk Island. It is most unlikely that we shall arrive at any certainty
in the matter. In New Zealand it has disappeared quickly, and it may be
following the same process in Norfolk Island.

Lord Howe, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Australia, Pacific islands, &c.

128. Hibiscus tiliaceus L., E. 131, M. 15.

Near the tops of the cliffs on entering Anson's Bay from the south.
Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Australia, and widely distributed through
the Asiatic tropics as far as India, and also in the Pacific islands.

129. Hibiscus insularis Endl., E. 132, M. 16.

Endemic on Phillip Island.

A few plants still remain on the island, but those that I saw were in
a most unhealthy condition, being covered with coccids, aphides, smuts,
and other blights and pests. They were obviously maintaining an unequal
struggle with an unfavourable environment.

H. peduncnlatus L. of South Africa grows in the bush, and is doubtless
a garden escape.

130. Lagunaria Patersonii (Ait.) Don, E. 134, M. 17.

Next to Araucaria excelsa the most abundant tree on the island ; also
on Phillip Island (E. M. L.).

On the coast it is wind-shorn, and reduced to a shrub closely appressed
to the sea-banks, though elsewhere throughout the island it is a tall spread-
ing tree.

Lord Howe. Australia.

Sterculiaceae.

131. Ungeria floribunda Schott, & Endl. E. 137, M. 18.

Not uncommon in the denser forest, particularly on the north-west side
of the island. The leaves of the young trees are much larger than those
of the mature plant.

Endemic.

Frankexiaceae

Fiwikenia pauciflora D.C., M. 10.

The only place where I saw this was between the cobble-stones on the
approach to the pier. It has probably been introduced from Australia.

Violaceae.

132. Viola Betonicaefolia Sin., M. 8.

This seems to have been hitherto collected only by Backhouse. It is not
uncommon in open pastures on the island. Quite possibly introduced.
Australia.

32 Transactions.

133. * Hymenanthera latifolia Endl., E. 127, M. 6.

jg. II dici^not get this, and it is not clear whether it was coilected by Maiden.
It is not in the herbarium of the Sydney Botanic Gardens. It has recently
been separated by Hemsley from the New Zealand species (" Kew Bulletin,"
1908, p. 95), which now is H. novae-zealandiae. It is probably scarce on the
island, or perhaps extinct.
Lord Howe (?).

134. Melicytus ramiflorus Forst., M. 7.

Not uncommon in the bush, and apparently not to be distinguished
from the well-known New Zealand plant.
Kermadecs, New Zealand, Tonga, Fiji.

Passifloraceae.

135. * Passiflora Baueriana (Endl.) Mast., M. 36. (=Disemma Baueriana

Endl., E. 123.)

This has not been found on the island recently, and is either very rare
or extinct. It is mentioned by Backhouse, but see next species.
Endemic.

136. Passiflora glabra Wendl.. M. 37. (= Disemma adiantifolia Endl.,

E. 122.)

Common in the forest.

It is quite possible that there has been only one species of Passiflora
on Norfolk Island. Endlicher mentions two, but admits that only one is
present in Bauer's herbarium. He states that the two species differ thus :
Disemma adiantifolia, petioles glandular, bases of leaves truncate, rays
barely equalling the corona ; D. Baueriana, petioles glandular at the
apex, base ovate, rays slightly exceeding the length of the corona. I
did not examine the petioles for glands in fresh specimens, and can say
nothing on this point ; but I find the leaves variable, and the bases
on the same plant either truncate or ovate. The rays in the specimens
examined by me sometimes exceed, at other times barely equal, the
corona.

Apparently the only direct authority for the occurrence of two species
on the island is that of Backhouse, who was not a botanist. Maiden
identifies his specimens as Passiflora glabra Wendl. (= D. adiantifolia).
I find it difficult with the material and literature at my disposal to decide
definitely which of the species is now represented on the island, but have
followed Maiden.

Endemic.

Thymelaeaceae.

137. Wickstroemia australis Endl., E. 92, M. 98.

A common shrub.

Endemic, but close to the widely distributed W. indica of the Pacific,
Australia, and the Malay Archipelago.
Pirnelea linifolia Banks & Sol., E. 92.
Is excluded by Maiden, and no doubt rightly so. I did not get it.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 33

Lythraceae.

Lyihrum hyssojrifolium L., M. 35.

A palaearctic plant, and almosl certainly introduced. Occurs at Emily
Bay and Bloody Bridge.

Myrtaceae.

Maiden records Rhodomyrtus psidioides, M. 34, an Australian rose-
myrtle. He regards it as only doubtfully indigenous. I did not get it,
and think that it has been possibly an escape from cultivation. The com-
plete, or almost complete, absence of the Myrtaceae from the island is note-
worthy.

^.RALIACEAE.

138. Meryta latifolia (Endl.) Seem., M. 45. (= Botryodendron latifolium

Endl., E. 119.)

Apparently becoming less common on the island.
Endemic.

139. Meryta angustifolia (Endl.) Seem., M. 46. {= Botryodendron angusbi-

folium Endl., E. 120.)

Common in moister forest.
Endemic.

Umbelliferae.

140. Apium prostratum (Thouars.) Labill., M. 43.

A common coastal plant. The form on the island is var. a of Cheeseman.
Kermadecs, Lord Howe. New Zealand, and widely in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Apium leptopkyllum F. v. M. is a common weed, generally found in
gardens, and is probably naturalized — M. 14.

141. Daucus brachiatus Sieb.

Collected by H. C. Quintal!, and forwarded me by Mr. W. R. B. Oliver.

I add this tentatively to the list of natives. It seems cpiite possible
that it may be indigenous, and that it may have been overlooked by previous
collectors.

New Zealand. Chatham Islands. Australia (?), western America.

Myrsinaceae.

142. Rapanea crassifofia (R. Br.) Mez.. M. 63. ( = Myrsine crassifolia

Endl., E. 95.)

One of the common trees on the island.

Australia, and close to the Kermadec Rapanea kermadecensis Cheesem.
1 know nothing of Suttonia (?) tenvifolia Mez. ("Pflanzenreich," heft 9, iv,
p. 335).

Plumb aginaceae.

I cannot accept Plumbago zeylanica Linn., E. 87, M. 11, as indigenous.
1 only saw it in garden hedges. Dr. Metcalf and other old residents told
me it was certainly imported, and never found except on land that had
been occupied by gardens. It was introduced in the convict days, and may
possibly have escaped from cultivation to some extent at one time, but there
is no sign of it now outside certain hedges. Cunningham found it on Phillip

2— Trans.

34 Transactions

Island, where it had been taken, no doubt, by human agency, by intent or
accident. Other garden escapes are to be found there. I was assured,
for example, that certain plants I saw at the foot of the cliffs at one place
on Phillip Island were tomatoes. There seemed^ no reason to doubt the
statement, but I was unable to obtain specimens.

Sapotaceae.

143. *Sideroxylon costatum (Endl.) F. v. M., M. 64. (= Achras costata

Endl., E. 96.)

Phillip Island (A. Cunn.), Norfolk Island (Maiden).

Australia.

The New Zealand plant, according to Hemsley, is distinct.

Primulaceae.

144. Samolus repens (Forst.) Pers. var. strictus Cockayne, E. 94, M. 62.

Common on coastal rocks, near high-water mark.
Kermadecs, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Australia

Oleaceae.

145. Oleaapetala Vahl., E. 112, M. 66.

A common tree ; also on Phillip Island.

New Zealand.

The species is identical in both localities.

146. Jasminum simplicifoliurn Foist., M. 65. (— J. gracile Endl., E. 111.)

The commonest liane on the island. It grows prostrate on the coastal
cliffs, but elsewhere produces a sturdy trunk 15 cm. through, and climbs
to the top of the highest trees.

New Caledonia, Lord Howe, New Hebrides, Australia, Fiji, and Tonga.

Apocynaceae. .

147. Melodinus Baueri Endl., E. 113. M. 67.

A common forest-liane.
Endemic.

148. Alyxia gynopogon Roem. & Schuldt., E. 114, M. 68.

A common shrub in the darker forest.
Endemic.

Gentianaceae.

Erythraea australis R. Br., M. 70, is a common weed in the fields and
pastures. It is definitely, and no doubt correctly, stated by the islanders
to have been introduced with grass-seed.

AsCLEPIADAeEAE.

149. Tylophora biglandulosa (Endl.) A. Gray, M. 69. (= Hybanfhera bi-

glandulosa Endl., E. 115.)

A not uncommon liane ; Mount Pitt.

Endemic, but very similar to T. enervia of Lord Howe Island.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora. 35

( JONVOLVULACEAE.

150. Ipomoea bona-nox L., M. 72. (= /. ambigua Endl., E. 108 ;

I. carinata, E. 107.)

A beautifully scented nocturnal flowering creeper, now quite rare. It
will probably be soon extinct tm the island if it is not cultivated.

William's Water and back of Mount Pitt.

Lord Howe, and widely spread in the tropics, but perhaps indigenous
only in tropical America.

151. Ipomoea congesta R. Br.. M. 74. (=/. cataractae Endl.. E. 106,

M. 73.)

1 am quite satisfied that there are not two distinct species, /. cataractae
and /. congesta, on the island. Mr. Maiden writes to me thus on the subject :
"The two species seem to be very similar (we have only one, I. congesta,
in the herbarium), but the}' are placed in D.C.'s Prodromus in two different
sections — i.e., I. cataractae is placed in section Cephalanthae, which has almost
capitate clustered flowers (floribus aggregato-capitatis) ; I. congesta is placed
in a section ' int eg ri folia,' which has not capitate flowers (floribus non-capi-
tatis). I. cataractae seems to be more hirsute, though the hairs are silky,
and the leaves are mostly obscurely 3dobed ; /. congesta is a softly tomen-
tose climber with entire leaves, though the leaves an- cordate in both. The
proportion, size of calyx and corolla, is different. Endlicher describes the
corolla in /. cataractae as twice as long as the calyx, while the corolla in
I. congesta is three or four times as long as the calyx. Backhouse describes
I. cataractae as having large purple flowers shot with red ; /. congesta has
brilliant carmine flowers."

Now, there is a species of Ipomoea occurring in the Cascades which is
undoubtedly the plant called by Endlicher I. cataractae. It occurs not
uncommonly between the Cascades and Steels Point, and in the section of
the island lying immediately behind this portion of the coast-line. I
examined many specimens of it in a fresh state on the island, and satisfied
myself that in spite of certain variations it represented only one species.
The leaves are softlv villous, almost tomentose on both sides, though some-
times on the upper surface the hairs are sparse. They are usually entire,
though perhaps occasionallv obscurely 3-lobed. The corolla is two or three
times as long as the calyx. The flowers vary in colour from white to carmine,
and are frequently shot with red. There are usually one to three flowers
attached to short pedicels, which are borne on a longer peduncle. The
flowers are certainly not capitate. In all these points I see nothing to
separate the plant from /. congesta. Further, /. congesta is recorded from
the island without collector's name by Maiden. It only remains to find
which specific name — cataractae or congesta — has priority, and this belongs to
/. congesta, published in 1810. I. cataractae was not published till 1833.

Australia. Polynesia.

152. Ipomoea pes-caprae Roth., M. 75.

Recorded only by Maiden. I got a young plant with leaves character-
istic of this species, but it was too immature for certain identification.
New Caledonia, Kermadecs, Lord Howe, Australia, tropics.

153. Ipomoea palmata Forst., M. 76. ( = Z. pendula R. Br., E. 105.)

Most abundant everywhere, particularly on the outskirts of the bush ;
sometimes with white flowers.

Kermadecs. Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, and tropics.

2*

36 Transactions.

154. *Calystegia Soldanella (L.) R. Br., E. 105 (for 104). (= Convolvulus

Soldanella Linn., M. 78.)

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, and cosmopolitan.

155. Calystegia marginata R. Br. (= C. affinis Endl., E. 108 ; Convol-

vulus affinis. M. 77 : C. marginatus Spreng., Benth. FL, iv, p. 430,
M. 79.)

A bush-climber ; apparently rare. I saw only two specimens — one
brought me from Mount Pitt by Mr. Gus Allen, and the other obtained by
Mr. W. Laing. The large bracts and 1 -celled ovary place it in Calystegia
rather than in Convolvulus.

Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia.

156. Dichondra repens Forst.

Ball's Bay, on a dry steep bank ; easily overlooked, and hence not
hitherto recorded. No doubt indigenous.

New Zealand, Australia, and widely in tropical and subtropical regions.

BORAGINACEAE.

Cynoglossum australe R. Br., M. 71.

Apparently found only by Cunningham " near the settlement,"' unless
some scarcely identifiable specimens of mine belong to this species. It has
probably been introduced from Australia, and is only adventive.

Verbenaceae.

Verbena officinale L., M. 86.

Occurs in waste places as in New Zealand, and is doubtless introduced.

157. * Vitex trifola L.

Apparently collected only by Cunningham.

New Caledonia, Polynesia, and tropics of Old World.

158. Myoporum obscurum Endl., E. 110, M. 85.

Called on the island " popcorn-tree "; common; also on Phillip Island.
Endemic, but closely related to the New Zealand M. laetum.

BlGNONIACEAE.

Tecoma australis R. Br., M. 84, is cultivated on the island, but there
is not sufficient evidence to show that it is also indigenous.

SOLANACEAE.

159. * Solanum Bauerianum Endl., E. 109, M. 80.

Apparently this has not been collected on Norfolk Island since Bauer's
time.

Lord Howe.

160. Soianum nigrum L., M. 81.

Abundant. A cosmopolitan weed. It may have been introduced.
Lord Howe, Kermadecs, &e.

Laino. — Revised List of the Norfolk I slant/ Flora. 37

161. * Solatium aviculare Forst., M. 52. (= S. laciniatum Ait.)

A. Cunningham noted this plant " near the settlement." It was quite
likely a temporary garden escape, though, of course, it is also a probable
indigene. It does not occur now unless in gardens. At the same time, it
is a species that in New Zealand at least speedily disappears before cultiva-
tion (e.g., on Banks Peninsula). It is also reported from Lord Howe Island.
I have for these reasons left it on the list.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia.

SCROPHULARIACEAE.

Veronica calycina R. Br., M. 83, is probably introduced. I obtained it
at Pop Rock. It is noteworthy that no New Zealand species of Veronica
occur on Norfolk Island.

RUBIACEAE.

162. Coprosma Baueri Endl., M. -17. (= C. lucida Forst., E. 117.)

I obtained this on rock}' cliffs, both on Norfolk Island and on Phillip
Island, but it is very rare. It was not obtained by Maiden. It also occurs
on the Moo-oo Stone, a rock off the north coast.

Endlicher describes Coprosma lucida as occurring on Norfolk Island in
the Prodromus, but has no reference to C. Baueri, which he described later.
Now, 0. lucida has not since been found on the island, and in spite of a
special search for it I did not get it. His description of C. lucida, however,
agrees well not with the New Zealand C. lucida but with C. Baueri.
I have little doubt that Endlicher confused C. Baueri. which he obtained
on Norfolk Island, with C. lucida (Forst. Prodr. and Rich. Fl. Nov. Zeel.).
He himself, indeed, points out several discrepancies between his plant and
the descriptions of others — e.g., the C. lucida of Endlicher has the leaves
ovate and retuse. Now, my specimens of C. Baueri from Norfolk Island
are markedly retuse, and the leaves are ovate to oblong. Again, Endlicher
describes the " Flores feminei .... pedicellis basi, medio et apice
bibracteolatis, bracteolarum pari supremo flores sessiles 3-6, raro plures
cupulatim recipiente." This exactly fits my Norfolk Island specimens of
C. Baueri. I have no doubt, therefore, that Endlicher first confused his
Norfolk Island specimens with C. lucida Forst., and then afterwards re-
described them as C. Baueri. Unfortunately, I have not access to his
original description of C. Baueri. C. lucida Forst. must therefore be re-
moved from the list of Norfolk Island species. Since writing the above,
I noticed that Hemsley ("Annals of Botany," x, p. 239) and Cheeseman
(p. 247) have both pointed out the identity of 0. lucida Endl. with
C. Baueri.

(?) Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, .Chatham Islands.

The form is somewhat different in each of these groups. The New
Zealand species should probably be regarded as a distinct variety of
C. Baueri.

163. Coprosma pilosa Endl., E. 116, M. 49.

A small fastigiate tree, not uncommon on the lower slopes of Mount
Pitt. When the plant grows in the open the leaves are much smaller and
harder than when it occurs in the bush.

Endemic.

38 Transactions.

Campanulaceae.

164. Wahlenbergia gracilis A. D.C., M. 60.

Top of Mount Pitt.

Kermadecs, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Australia, &c.

Perhaps indigenous, but also a probable introduction.

165. Lobelia anceps Thunb., M. 61. (= L. alata Labill. var. stolon if era.

E. 97.)

The maritime form only ; abundant on the rocks.

Lord Howe, Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia, and widely.

CUCURBITACEAE.

166. Bryonopsis affinis (Endl.) Cogn., M. 38. (=Bnjonia affinis Endl.,

E. 125.)

Common on Mount Pitt and at Steel's Point.

Polynesia, and very close to the Australian Bryonia laciniosa Linn.

167. * Sicyos angulatus L., E. 124, M. 39. (= S. australis Endl., E. 124.)
Lord Howe, Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia, and very widely.

168. Melothria Baueriana (Endl.) F. v. M., M. 40. (= Zehneria Baveriana

Endl., E. 126.)

Mission Paddocks, Mount Pitt.
Endemic.

COMPOSITAE.

(Taraxacum dens-leonis Desf. was introduced by Dr. Metcalf, and Vernonia
cinerea Less., M. 50, by Mr. T. Buffet in grass-seed from Australia. Cotula
australis Hook, f., M. 55, and Picris hieracioides L., M. 59, also occur,
probably as introduced weeds. The last-mentioned grows sometimes in
the bush, and is possibly, though not probably, indigenous.)

169. Gnaphalium japonicum Thunb., M. 51. (= G. lanatum Forst.,

E. 99, and G. involucratum Forst,, E. 100.)

Common.

Kermadecs, Lord Howe, New Zealand, Australia, and elsewhere — a
widely distributed weed.

170. Gnaphalium luteo-album L.. E. 98, M. 52.

Common.

Cosmopolitan in temperate and tropical regions.

171. Wedelia biflora D.C., M. 53. (= W . Fosteriana Endl., E. 102.)

Common on the sea-banks, forming a matted mass of trailing stems ;
often covering many square feet of the shore. Phillip Island (R. M. L.).

Lord Howe, Australia, New Caledonia, and widely in the tropics of the
Old World.

172. Erechtites arguta (Rich.) B.C., M. 56. (= Senecio argutus Rich.,

E. 101.)

A common weed.

New Zealand, Australia.

Laing. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora 39

173. Senecio lautus Forst., M. 57.

I sot a form of this on the beach near the Cascades.
Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia.

174. Sonchus oleraceus L., M. 58.

Sow-thistle. Was recorded by Captain Cook, but was not listed until
Maiden collected it. Phillip Island also (R. M. L.).
Everywhere except in the frigid zone.

175. Bidens pilosa L., M. 54.

Quite probably only naturalized, as it was not collected by Bauer or
Cunningham.

Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Kermadecs, New Zealand, Australia, and
widely in warm and temperate regions.

Art. II. — Notes on Aciphylla, with Descriptions of New Species.

By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.8., Curator of the Auckland Museum.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1914.]

It is somewhat singular that the genus Aciph/lla, so readily identified from
its remarkably distinct and conspicuous habit, and so full of interest in
other respects, should not have received more attention from New Zealand
botanists ; but although it probably contains a greater number of species
than any other genus of Umbelliferae in New Zealand our knowledge of the
various forms has been of slow growth, and at present is far removed from
completeness. The genus was established by the two Forsters in 1776,
very shortly after Cook's second voyage, the single species collected by
them being named Aciphjlla squamosa. In 1853, or seventy-seven years
later, when Sir J. D. Hooker published his " Flora Novae- Zelandiae,"
A. squarrosa was still the only species admitted, although the plant now
known as A. Colensoi was included in Hooker's variety latifolia. In the
second volume of the Flora, issued two years later, A. Monroi was added
In the first part of the Handbook, published in 1864, A. Colensoi was defi-
nitely separated from A. squarrosa, and A. Lyallii and A. Dobsoni were
described, making (with A. Monroi) five species in all, to which a sixth
was shortly afterwards added in the Chatham Islands A. T raver sii. For
many years no further additions were recorded, and attempts were even
made to reduce those already published. Thus Mr. Hemsley informs me
that at an early date Mr. Buchanan suggested to the Kew authorities that
A. Lyallii should be treated as an alpine form of A. Colensoi, and A. Monroi
of A. squarrosa. However, between 1882 and 1900 six additional species
were described : two, A. Hectori and A. Kirkii, by Buchanan ; three,
A. Traillii, A. polita, and A. Hookeri, by Kirk; and one, A. simplex, by
Petrie. In the " Manual of the New Zealand Flora," published in 1906,
I have enumerated thirteen species ; that is, excluding the Chatham Islands
A. Dieffenbachii, which now constitutes the type of my genus Coxella, but
including A. Townsoni, described in the appendix.

4:0 Transaction* .

The examination of the material available during the preparation of
the Manual showed quite clearly that some of the species, as understood
by Hooker and others, contained more forms than one. But it was also evi-
dent that further information and more copious suites of sj>ecimens were
required before reliable conclusions could be reached. Since then I have
been able to settle some of the points then left undetermined, and I have
also received much entirely new matter from friends. Pending the pre-
paration of a revision of the whole of the New Zealand species, which I
hope to complete before long, I have drawn up the following notes, which
it seems advisable to publish at once, especially as they include descriptions
of several new species and varieties.

A. Kookeri T. Kirk.

Some time subsequent to the publication of the Manual I was kindly
furnished by Mr. Townson with an excellent series of specimens, which lias
enabled me to give a plate of the species in the recently issued " Illustra-
tions of the New Zealand Flora." Mr. Townson has also supplied me
with remarks on its distribution, from which it is evident that it has a wide
range on the mountains of north-west Nelson. It probably exists on most
of the higher peaks from the sources of the Heaphy and Karamea Eivers
southwards along the Mount Rochfort chain, the Lyell and Brunner Moun-
tains, and the Paparoa Range. Its altitudinal range is given as 2,500 ft.
to nearly 5,000 ft.

A. indurata Cheesem. n. sp.

Affinis A. Hooked T. Kirk, a qua differt caule valde majore et robustiore,
foliorum segmentis multo longioribus et latioribus, non conspicue squarrosis.

Caulis robustus, erectus, 3-5-6 dm. altus, 0-75-1-5 cm. diam. Folia
radicalia numerosa, 3-4 dm. longa, bipinnata ; pinnis 4-6-jugis, 7-14 cm.
longis, trifoliolatis : ultimis segmentis 5-12 cm. longis, 0-5-0-75 cm. latis,
linearibus. planis aut leviter concavis, rigidis, coriaceis, acuminatis, apice
pungentibus ; marginibus valde incrassatis, serrulatis. Petioli folio
aequilongi aut breviores, basi latissime vaginantes, superne rigidi, facie
concavi. Bracteae numerosae, basi late vaginantes, apice pinnatae, pinnis
anguste linearibus, rigidis, squarrosis, pungentibus. Umbellae numerosae,
compositae, in paniculam densum angustum aggregatae. Fructus lineari-
oblongus.

Hob. — South Island : Buller Valley — Mount Lyell and the Brunner
Range, 3,000-5,000 ft, ; Paparoa Range— Mount Bovis, alt, 3,000-4,000 ft. ;
W. Townson/

Root long, stout, tapering, often as thick as the thumb at the
top. Stem stout, erect, l£-2 ft. high, |— | in. diameter or more at the
base. Radical leaves numerous, 1-1| ft. long, pinnate with most of the
pinnae trifoliolate or rarely the lowest again pinnate, the uppermost
usually simple; pinnae 4-6 pairs, 3-6 in. long; ultimate segments 2-5 in.
l°ng; w~ i m- broad, linear, occasionally squarrose but not conspicuously
so, flat or slightly concave, very rigid and coriaceous, gradually narrowed
into long rigid and pungent points ; midrib very stout, scaberulous above ;
margins much thickened, cartilaginous, rough with minute serrulations.
Petiole equalling or shorter than the blade, upper portion rigid and con-
cave, below broader and sheathing and less coriaceous. Bracts very
numerous, rigid, squarrose and spreading ; the lower ones with a sheathing-
base |— J in. broad, tipped with a pinnate leaflet 1-2 in. long ; upper

Cheeseman. — Note* on Aciphylla- 41

gradually becoming smaller with narrower and more pungent segments :
uppermost tipped with a trifid leaflet 1-1| in. long, the segments very
narrow-linear and spinous. Inflorescence compact, narrow-linear-oblong,
8 12 in. long, female slightly narrower than the male. Umbels very
numerous, compound, more or less concealed within the sheathing-bracts.
Fruit linear-oblong, not seen in a perfectly mature state.

This was first collected by Mr. Townson in 1904, but, unfortunately,
that portion of the Manual dealing with the Umbelliferae had then passed
through the printer's hands, so that I was unable to include it in the
work. It is clearly allied to A. Hookeri, but is a much larger and more
rigid and coriaceous plant, with the ultimate segments manv times longer
and considerably broader, and not conspicuously scpiarrose. The inflor-
escence is also much larger and broader, and altogether the aspect of
the plant is very dissimilar. Mr. Townson's specimens from Mount
Bovis are smaller, and the ultimate segments of the leaves are shorter,
showing a slight approach to A. Hookeri.

A. oreophila Petrie. (.4. intermedia Petrie.)

This was also gathered by Mr. Townson, on Mount Holdsworth,
Tararua Range, in January. 1908, specimens of both sexes being
obtained. The male inflorescence, which was not described by Petrie,
is apparently not much more lax than the female. Mr. Townson
remarks that it is a somewhat rare and local plant, not many examples
being observed.

A. pinnatifida Petrie.

I am indebted to Mr. J. Speden, of Gore, for excellent specimens of this
distinct species. He informs me that it is not uncommon at high altitudes
on the mountains of south-west Otago, usually along the margins of
streams or in alpine bogs. It evidently attains a greater size than given
by Mr. Petrie, some of Mr. Speden's specimens being nearly a foot in
height, with leaves 6-8 in. long. The female inflorescence, which is not
described by Mr. Petrie, is much contracted, the umbels being almost
concealed in the sheaths of the bracts. In the males the inflorescence
is more open, and the sheaths of the bracts less developed. Its nearest
ally is probably A. Lyallii.

A. Monroi Hook. f.

The original description of this species, published in the second
volume of the " Flora Novae-Zelandiae " (p. 330), is much more correct
than the later one given in the Handbook, which, I am informed by
Mr. Hemsley, included several plants not really belonging to the species.
Munro's type was discovered in 1853 in the Awatere Valley, Marl-
borough, on the "summit of Macrae's Run, alt. 4,500ft.'' With the
assistance of Mr. Hemsley, I have figured it in the recently issued
" Illustrations of the New Zealand Flora " (t. 63). It will be noticed
that the leaves are sparingly bipinnate at the base, which I find to be
characteristic of the great majority of the specimens gathered by myself
in various localities in Nelson and Canterbury, although sometimes
depauperated states from high altitudes are simply pinnate. In several
localities in Cant rbury, however, at moderate altitudes, I have gathered
a larger and more robust plant, with the leaves uniformly pinnate, never
bipinnate at the base, and with the leaflets broader and flatter. In the

42 Transactions.

Manual I included this in the circumscription of A. Monroi, as stated
in the footnote to the description, but further study has satisfied me of
its distinctness, and it is described in this paper under the name of
A. similis.

In the Mount Cook district I have collected another allied plant
which differs from the typical form of A. Monroi in the larger size,
stouter habit, and in the leaves being more profusely bipinnate, and
consequently with more numerous segments, which are rather broader
and more coriaceous. Mr. Hemsley considers that it is " specifically
different from the original on which the species was founded," but for
the present I prefer to treat it as a variety only. It may be briefly
characterized as follows : —

A. Monroi Hook. f. var. divisa Cheesem.

Caule robusto, foliis majoribus profuse bipinnatis, segmentis latioribus
magis coriaceis.

Rah. — South Island : Mount Cook district, not uncommon in open
grassy places, alt. 4,000-6,000 ft. ; T. F. C. Mr. Hemsley informs me
that there are specimens in the Kew Herbarium from other localities in
the Southern Alps.

A. similis Cheesem. n. .sp.

A. Monroi Hook. f. affinis, sed differt caule valido, foliis pinnatis nun-
quani bipinnatis, segmentis planis latioribus.

Herba glaberrima, 15-35 cm. alta, radice crassa. Folia radicalia 10-20,
7-25 cm. longa, regulariter pinnata, nunquam bipinnata ; pinnis 4-10-
jugis, 2-5-7-5 cm. longis, 2-3 mm. latis, planis, rigidis, anguste linearibus,
aculeato-acuminatis, apice pungentibus. Caulis aut pedunculus validus,
erectus, foliis multo longior. Umbellae compositae, in paniculam latam
dispositae ; bracteis late vaginantibus. Flores albi. Fructus 3 mm.
longus, lineari-oblongus.

Hab. — South Island : Peaty bogs on Arthur's Pass, Canterbury Alps,
alt. 3,000-4,000 ft. ; also near *the Waimakariri Glacier ; T. F. C. ' Upper
Rakaia Valley ; J. I). Enys !

Rather stout, smooth, simple, 6-15 in. high. Leaves 10-20, outer
spreading, inner suberect, 3-10 in. long, regularly pinnate, never bipinnate
at the base ; leaflets 4-10 pairs, 1-3 in. long, ^—^ in. broad, narrow-
linear, rigid, flat, striate, narrowed at the apex into a short pungent
point ; midrib usually evident ; margins thickened and cartilaginous ;
sheaths smooth, flattened, furnished at the top with a rigid spine on each
side |-1 in. long. Peduncle or flowering-stem considerably exceeding the
leaves, rather stout. Male inflorescence of numerous compound umbels
forming an open panicle, 2-5 in. long ; bracts with broad sheathing -bases
tipped with a small pinnate leaf. Rays of the primary umbels 8-15,
J— | in. long ; of the secondary umbels about the same number. Flowers
white. Fruit about \ in. long, linear-oblong. Carpels 3-5-winged.

This is one of the plants that have been confused with A. Monroi. But
it differs from Monro's original plant, which, through the kindness of the
authorities of Kew, I have been enabled to figure in the recently issued
" Illustrations of the New Zealand Flora " (t. 63), in the leaves never being
bipinnate, which they usually are in A. Monroi ; in the leaflets being longer
and broader and flatter, and spreading in one plane, and also in being

Cheeseman. — Xofe* on Aciphylla. 43

placed more at right angles to the primary rhachis of the leaf ; in the
stouter peduncle or flowering-stem ; and in the more highly developed
and broader sheathing-bases of the bracts. I have been acquainted with
it for many years, my first specimens having been gathered on Arthur's
Pass as far back as 1880. In subsequent visits I have again observed it
in the same locality, and also in the vicinity of the Waimakariri Glacier.

A. multisecta Cheesem. n. sp.

A. Monroi Hook. f. affinis, sed dift'ert caule multo robustiore, foliis
numerosioribus tripinnatisectrs, segmentis anguste linearibus.

Planta dense caespitosa. rigida, robusta, 20-30 cm. alta. Folia nume-
rosa, 20-40, dense conferta, suberecta, 15-22 cm. longa ; laminae 6-5-10 cm.
longae, obovato-cuneatae, rigidae, coriaceae, tripinnatisectae ; ultimis
segmentis anguste linearibus, 2-5-3-75 cm. longis, 1 mm. latis, apice
acuminatis et pungentibus. Petioli robusti, rigidi, dorso convexi, facie
concavi, marginibus valde inerassatis. Vaginae 3-75-5 cm. longae, L75-
2-5 cm. latae, superne in duas spinas laterales productae. Pedunculi robusti,
foliis longiores. Umbellae compositae, in paniculam latam congestae,
8-10 cm. diam.

Hah. — South Island : Rocky places on the lower slopes of Mount
Balloon, between Lake Te Anau and Milford Sound, alt, 3.500-4,500 ft. ;
F. G. Gibbsf

Densely tufted, stout and rigid, forming clumps 9 in. diameter and
9-14 in. high. Rootstock stout, sometimes divided above, clothed at the
top with the remains of the old leaves. Leaves very numerous, 20-40
or even more, densely crowded, suberect, 5-9 in. in total length ; lamina
2J-4 in. long, obovate-cuneate when spread out, rigid and coriaceous,
tripinnatisect ; primary divisions 4—6 pairs, suberect, closely placed and
partly overlapping ; secondary similar but smaller and fewer ; ultimate
divisions very narrowdinear, 1-H in. long, 3^ in. broad, coriaceous, striate,
narrowed into a short pungent point, Petiole as long or longer than the
lamina, very stout and rigid, smooth and convex on the back, deeply
concave in front, with the margins much thickened and rounded. Sheaths
1^-2 in. long, f-1 in. broad at the base, ^ in. broad at the top, rigid and
•coriaceous above, gradually becoming thin and membranous towards the
base, on each side at the top produced into a stiff and rigid pungent-
pointed spine 1-lf in. long. Female inflorescence alone seen. Peduncle
exceeding the leaves, very thick and stout, |— \ in. diameter, grooved,
bearing towards the top numerous compound umbels forming a dense
globose panicle 3-3-J in. diameter. Lower bracts 2-2| in. long, composed
of a broad and thin membranous sheath \ in. across tipped with a pin-
natisect leaflet 1 in. long or more. Primary umbels 6-8, peduncles 1-1J in.
long ; secondary umbels 6-10, bracteoles linear, undivided. Fruit
\-\ in. long, linear-oblong ; carpels equally 5-winged or one 4-winged and
the other 5-winged.

This falls naturally into the neighbourhood of A. Monroi, but is easily
separated from the typical form of that plant by its stouter and more
rigid and coriaceous habit, by the much more finely divided leaves, with
stouter rigid petioles, by the stouter peduncle and much more compact
panicle. But my variety divisa of A. Monroi, described above, approaches
it to some extent, although it is much less robust, and the leaves not
nearly so finely divided.

44 Transactions.

A. congesta Cheesem. n. sp.

Species ad A. Spedeni arete accedit, sed differt caule majore, foliis
latioribus et evidenter pinnatis non flabellatis.

Robusta, 15-32 cm. diam. Folia numerosissima, 40-50, omnia radi-
calia, dense conferta, 9-18 cm. longa ; laminis 5-10 cm. longis, breviter
pinnatis ; pinnis 2-4-jugis, 1 cm. latis, linearibus, rigidis et coriaceis, acu-
leato-acuminatis ; vaginae laminis longiores, ad basi 2-5 cm. latae, supernae
in duas spinas productae. Pedunculi robusti, foliis multo longiores.
Umbellae compositae in paniculam globosum 9-12 cm. diam. congestae.
Fructus 3 mm. longus, lineari-oblongus.

Hab. — South Island : Rocky places on the lower slopes of Mount
Balloon, between Lake Te Anau and Milford Sound, alt. 3,500-4,500 ft. ;
F. G. Gibbs!

Forming large hemispherical simple or branched masses 6-12 in.
diameter ; rootstock often as thick as the thumb, branched at the top.
Leaves very numerous, 40-50 or more, all radical and crowded round the
base of the flowering-stem, the inner erect, the outer spreading, 4-8 in.
in total length ; lamina 2-4 in. long, pinnately divided into 2-4 pairs of
leaflets with a terminal one, internodes short but evident ; leaflets |-£ in-
broad, linear, straight or curved, rigid and coriaceous, narrowed at the
apex into a short rigid and pungent point ; midrib stout ; margins thick
and cartilaginous ; veins parallel with the midrib, but connected by trans-
verse veinlets. Petiole or sheath usually longer than the blade, very
thick and coriaceous at the top, and there \ in. diameter, gradually
becoming membranous and broader at the base, where it is often 1-1£ in.
across ; stipules sometimes nearly as long as the leaf but usually much
shorter, adnate with the petiole to the top, and so placed as to be close
together on the inner face of the petiole. Peduncle or flowering-stem
stout, §-§ in. diameter, about 6-12 in. high, bearing at the top a globose
head 4—5 in. across of closely placed compound umbels. Lower bracts
l|—2 in. long ; sheathing portion broad and membranous, tipped by a
short pinnate leaflet. Primary umbels 6-12, secondary very numerous.
Fruit linear-oblong, |— i in. long ; carpels 4-5-winged.

So nearly allied to A. Spedeni that I almost hesitate to distinguish it
as a species. It differs, however, in being more robust, and in the leaves
being pinnate with evident internodes between the pairs of leaflets, not
flabellate with the segments spreading from one level as in A. Spedeni.
The plant was first observed by Mr. Gibbs in 1909, but at that time barren
specimens were alone seen. In January, 1914, however, Mr. Gibbs
succeeded in obtaining both male and female inflorescence and mature
fruit, and has furnished me with an ample series, 'from which the above
description has been prepared.

Cheeseman. — Nexv Species of Flowering-plants. 45

Art. III. — New Species of Flowering-plants.
By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Curator of the Auckland Museum.

*

[Bead before the Auckland Institute, lfjth December, W14.]

1. Ligusticum capillifolium Cheesem. n. sp.

Species ad L. Haastii Hook. f. valde accedens, sed differt primo intuito
foliorum segmentis multo angustioribus.

Herba perennis, erecta, undique glaberrima, 15-22 cm. alta ; radicibus
fasciculatis carnosis. Folia omnia radicalia, numerosa, 10-15 cm. longa,
2-5-5-0 cm. lata, lineari-oblonga, membranacea, 2-4-pinnatisecta ; seg-
mentis ultimis anguste linearibus vel filiformibus, 4-7 mm. longis, 1 mm.
latis, apicibus longe piliferis. Umbellae paucae, 1-4, compositae, 8-15-
radiatae ; bracteis bracteolisque lineari-subulatis. Flores albi. Fructus
ovoideo-oblongus, 4-5 mm. longus ; valleculae 1-2-vittatae, commissura
2-4-vittatae.

Hab. — South. Island : Mountains of south-west Otago, alt. 3,000-5,500 ft. ;
mountains above Chalky Inlet, A. Reischek ! Mount Tyndall, D. Petrie !
Mount Bonpland, H. J. Matthews ! slopes of Mount Balloon, McKinley's
Pass, F. G. Gibbs ! near Lake Harris, J. Speden !

Bright green, leafy, rather stout, 6-9 in. high. Roots long, stout, stringy.
Leaves numerous at the base of the stem, 4-6 in, long, 1-2 in. broad ;
petioles short, grooved, broadly sheathing at the base; blade linear-oblong
in outline, membranous, 2-4-pinnately divided, primary divisions or pinnae
8-12, the lower remote, the upper often overlapping, ^-1 in. long, deeply
and finely again divided ; ultimate segments about £ in. long, very narrow,
often under 4^ in. broad, terminating in a long flexuous hair-point. Cauline
leaves absent ; the flowering-stems not much exceeding the leaves. Umbels
few, 1-4, compound, in an open-branched panicle ; a broad sheathing-bract
tipped with a short finely divided lamina at the base of each division;
primary rays 8-15 ; involucral bracts linear-subulate, shorter than the rays.
Flowers white. Fruit ovoid-oblong, Jin. long. Carpels usually one
5-winged and the other 4-winged ; vittae 1-2 in the interspaces and 2-4
on the commissural face.

I have been acquainted with this for many years, but have delayed
describing it until I could satisfy myself as to its distinctness from L. Haastii,
to which it is very close indeed. It is, however, a smaller plant, with a
flowering-stem not much exceeding the leaves ; the petioles are much shorter,
and the leaves much more finely cut, the ultimate segments being barely
half the width of those of L. Haastii, and furnished with a long flexuous
hair-point at the tip. Mr. Gibbs remarks that " pressed specimens badly
represent the growing plant, which closely resembles in appearance a
miniature Todea superba. The final leaflets are all turned at right angles to
the plane of the leaf, giving it a beautiful mossy appearance." The first
person to collect the plant appears to have been the late Mr. A. Reischek ;
out it has since been observed in so many stations that we may fairly
conclude that it is not uncommon on the higher mountains of south-west
Otago.

46 Transactions.

2. Pterostylis Matthewsii Cheesem. n. sp.

P. foliatae affinis, sed differt foliis losulatis et multo numerosioribus,
lioiibus majoribus conspicue deflexis.

Planta terrestris, robusta, glabra vel parce puberula, 8-12 cm. alta.
Folia radiealia 6-8, ad basin caalis rosulata, petiolata, 2 -4 cm. longa,
1-1 "5 cm. lata, oblonga vel oblongo-ovata, acuta vel subacuta, ad basin
truncata vel subcordata ; venis conspicue reticulatis. Folia caulina
(bracteae) 2, vaginata, acuta, 2-2"5 cm. longa. Flos solitarius, pro planta
majusculus, conspicue deflexus, 2-5 cm. longus. Galea valde curvata ;
sepalo postico aciito, lateralibus usque ad dimidium fere connatis, ob-
lique lanceolatis, breviter acuminatis. Petala falcata, lanceolata, acuminata,
sepalo postico fere aequilonga. Labellum breviter unguiculatum ; lamina
anguste ligulata, obtusiuscuia, basi appendice brevi apice lacerato-incisa
donata. Columna gracilis ; auriculis apice breviter acuminatis.

Hob. — North Island : Mangonui County, crest of ridge leading to Puke-
miro Hill, near Kaitaia, H. B. Matthews!

Stout, glabrous or sparingly pubernlous, 3-5 in. high. Lower leaves
6-8, rosulate at the base of the stem, petiolate, f— If in. long, oblong or
oblong-ovate, acute or subacute, truncate or almost subcordate at the base,
thin and membranous ; venation conspicuous, consisting of 2 or 3 parallel
longitudinal veins on each side of the midrib connected by numerous trans-
verse veinlets. Cauline leaves or bracts usually 2, erect and sheathing the
greater part of the stem above the leaves, f \\ in. long, lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate, acute. Flowers solitary, large for the size of the plant, f-1 in.
long, h in. broad, strongly curved outwards and downwards from the base,
so that the tip becomes almost horizontal and points to the stem below the
ovary. Upper sepal acute or acuminate ; petals almost equal in length,
falcate, lanceolate, acuminate. Lateral sepals (lower lip) connate to the
middle, the free portions gradually narrowed into short filiform points
embracing the galea. Lip narrow-ligulate, flat, obtuse ; basal appendage
short, penicillate at the tip. Column slender ; auricles with an acuminate
tooth at the tip.

No doubt nearly related to P. foliata, but easily separated by the more
numerous rosulate radical leaves, which are obviously petiolate and truncate
or even subcordate at the base, and by the strongly deflexed flowers. The
flowers of P. foliata are always erect at the base, and although the upper
part curves forward it never becomes deflexed to anything like the extent
of P. Matthewsii. I have much pleasure in dedicating the plant to its
zealous discoverer, who, with his father, the late Mr. R. H. Matthews,
has done excellent work in investigating tin' orchid flora of the extreme
northernmost portions of the Dominion.

3. Pterostylis trullifolia Hook. f. var. gracilis Cheesem. n. var. (Illus-
trations N.Z. Flora, t. 194b, left-hand figure.)

Taller and more slender than the type, sometimes 9 in. high. Radical
leaves usually wanting in flowering specimens, and seldom more than I or 2
in barren plants. Cauline leaves narrower. Flowers smaller, |— | in. long ;
lobes of the lower lip shorter in proportion.

Hob. — North Island : Vicinity of Auckland, Waitakarei, and Hunua
Ranges, T. F. 0. ; Thames, J. Adams! Kaitaia, R. H. Matthews!

I have been acquainted with this for many years. It probably has the
same range as the type, with which it sometimes grows intermixed.

Cheeseman. — New Species of Flowering-plants. 47

4. Microlaena Carsei Cheesem. n. sp.

Ab M. avenacea differt rhizomate tenui stolonifero vel culmos saepe e
basi prostrata aat ascendenti edenti, internodiis 1-2 infimis saepe elongatis
infra foliorum fasciculos sitis, panicula minus divisa rigidiore magis
constricta, pedicellis brevioribus spicularum aristis brevioribus.

Hob. — North Island : Mangonui County, damp shaded places in the
forest near Kaiaka, H. Carse!

Rhizome slender, stoloniferous.- Culms slender, prostrate or ascending at
the base, erect above, 6-18 in. high, smooth and glabrous, 1-3-noded, often
rooting from the lower nodes and emitting fascicles of both barren and
flowering shoots. Leaves short or long. 6-12 in. long. |— Jin. broad,
gradually tapering to a fine point, thin, flat, glabrous, striate, faintly
scaberulous on the principal veins and margins ; sheaths long, smooth,
compressed, strongly grooved ; ligules short, thin, furnished with a few
long hairs at the sides. Panicle 5-9 in. long, rarely more, compound, but
much more sparingly branched than in M. avenacea and much narrower
and more rigid, pale green ; branches erect, appressed to the main rhachis,
slender, angled, scaberulous. Spikelets narrow, compressed, §— £ in. long
with the awns. Two lowest glumes small, many times shorter than the
3rd and 4th, not separated from them by a conspicuous interspace, the
lowest J the length of the 2nd, which is irregularly notched at the top ;
3rd and 4th long, narrow, empty, unequal, the 4th rather more than twice
the length of the 3rd, 5-7-nerved. scabrid, hairy at the base, long-awned
at the tip. Flowering-glume much shorter than the 4th, acuminate but
not awned, faintly 5-7-nerved. Palea linear, 1-nerved. Stamens 2.

Doubtless closely allied to M. avenacea, but smaller in all its parts, and
with a very different habit of growth, forming open spreading patches quite
unlike the dense tufts of that species. Leaves much shorter and narrower,
panicle also shorter and narrower, and much less divided. The spikelets
are also smaller, with shorter pedicels and much shorter awns. Dr. Stapf,
of the Royal Herbarium, Kew, who has done me the favour of examining
a series of specimens, considers that it is sufficiently distinct to be treated
as a new species, and has kindly supplied me with the Latin diagnosis placed
at the head of the description, in which he has summarized the chief points
of difference between the two species. I have pleasure in associating the
name of Mr. H. Carse with the plant, which he is the first to notice.
For many years he has devoted much time and labour to the examination
of the flora of the extreme north of New Zealand, adding many species to
the list of those known to occur in the district, and making many valuable
observations thereon.

48 Transaction

Art. IV.— Descriptions of New Native Phanerogams, with other Short

Notices.

By D. Petrie, M.A.. Ph.D.

[Bead before the Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1914.]

1 . Aciphylla Cuthbertiana sp. nov.

Caules caespitosi 25-35 cm. alti graciles + 3 mm. in diam. leviter
canaliculati.

Folia 20-30 cm. longa longe petiolata trifoliolata v. pinnata cum folio-
lorum paribus cluobus (raro unifoliolata) : foliolis 10 15 cm. longis anguste
linearibus striatis basi iterumque subaltius articulatis acuminatis sub-

A.

pungentibus ; petiolis foliolis aequilongis ac aequilatis basi articulatis ;
vaginis petiolis multo brevioribus a lateribus spinas breves subulato-
acuminatas edentibus.

Inflorescentia feminea + 9 cm. longa, umbellis parvis bracteis confertis
latis longiusculis vaginantibus paene absconditis ; bracteis apice trifolio-
Iatis (raro unifoliolatis). %

Fructus 5 mm. longus, carpellis distincte I 5-alatis.

Stems tufted, 25-35 cm. high, long-petiolate trifoliolate or pinnate with
2 distant pairs of leaflets (rarely unifoliolate), glabrous ; leaflets 10-15 cm.
long, narrow linear, striate, acuminate, subpungent, + 2 mm. broad, jointed
at the point of origin and again some distance above, midrib prominent
above and channelled, edges thickened smooth, venation very obscure ;
petioles as wide and as long as the leaflets, above concave or nearly
flat, jointed at the base ; midrib little prominent ; sheaths much shorter
than the petioles, polished, membranous, dilated downwards, with 2 short
subulate acuminate spines at the top.

Male inflorescence broadly linear-oblong; peduncles much branched.
the lower long, the upper gradually shorter ; lower involucral bracts leaf-
like, long-sheathing, the upper simple narrowed into an acuminate tip
without lateral spines. Female inflorescence short and broad, ± 9 cm.
long, umbels small with sparingly branched peduncles nearly hidden by
the crowded broad long-sheathing bracts that terminate in an acuminate
leaflet flanked by 2 lateral linear spines or are uawowed to a single fine
point.

Fruits rather huge. 5 mm. long, carpels strongly I -5-winged.

Hab. — Subalpine meadow on the mountains of Fiord County, the
Hump, and End Peak; J. Crosby Smith! Mount Cleughearn ; Messrs.
( 'losby Smith and Cuthbert !

The very narrow long rather flaccid leaves and their strongly marked
articulations are ready distinguishing characters for this species. Mr.
Cuthbert's services and kind assistance have made exploration in the neigh-
bourhood of his " run " at Sunnvside a comparatively easy task.

2. Aciphylla Crosby-Smithii sp. nov. (preliminary notice).

This plant was collected by Mr. J. Crosby Smith in January last, at an
elevation of about 5,000 ft., on Mount Cleughearn, Fiord County. It is

Pktrik. — New Native Phanerogams. I'.t

obviously distinct from any of the known native species, and seems most
nearly related to A. Spedeni Cheesm. It differs from this in having rather
long leafy stems closely covered by imbricating broadly cimeate coriaceous
leaves, each with 3 pairs of leaflets, all nearly equalling the terminal one,
and the lowermost pair somewhat remote. Above, the prominent midrib
is thickened and channelled, while the margins of the glabrous pungent-
pointed leaflets are yellowish and strongly thickened. The veins diverge
obliquely from the midrib, forming narrow more or less oblong areoles.
The flowers and fruit are still unknown. Mr. Crosby Smith having omitted
to collect them, as he supposed the plant was A. Dobsoni Hook, f., to which
it bears some resemblance in habit of growth, though otherwise very
different. A fuller description is deferred until flowering specimens are
obtained. Meanwhile this notice may serve to direct attention to an
interesting novelty.

3. Aciphylla cartilaginea sp. nov.

Culmi LO-18 cm. longi e radice simplici v. + divisa crassa elongata.

Folia omnia radicalia baud numerosa 6-9 cm. longa trifoliolata v. pin-
nata. foliolis 3-5 ad 3-4 cm. iongis + 3 mm. latis cartilagineis in apicem
rigidum pungentem attenuatis ; costa media prominente flava canalicu-
lata, marginibus flavis incrassatis, venis obscuris a costa angulis fere
paribus abeuntibus ; vaginae foliis duplo breviores latae sensim deorsum
dilatatae membranaceae striatae, nervis parallelis manifestis.

Inflorescentia feminea 5-7 cm. longa culmo subcrasso canaliculato
recto folia plerumque excedente fulta, umbellis 5-6 confertis a bracteis
breviusculis late vaginantibus ac in foliola tria longiuscula spiniformia
pungentia continuatis paene absconditis.

Fructus lineari-ellipticus 3 mm. longus.

Stems 10-18 cm. .high, from a simple or branched elongated tap-root
as thick as the middle finger.

Leaves all radical, rather few, 6-9 cm. long, trifoliolate or more
commonly pinnate with 2 pairs of leaflets and a terminal one, the lateral
leaflets sometimes giving off a secondary leaflet on the outer side, stiffly
cartilaginous ; leaflets 3-4 cm. long, 2J--3 mm. broad, narrowed to a spinous
pungent point with a conspicuous channelled yellow midrib and thickened
yellow margins, veins obscure issuing from the midrib almost at right
angles ; sheaths half as long as th ■ leaves, or rather more, g adually
widening out below, membranous, striate, broad, with evident parallel veins.

Flowering-stems rather thin and flexuous in male plants, stouter grooved
and straight in female ones ; female inflorescence 5- 7 cm. long, umbels
5-6 crowded small almost concealed by the rather short broadly sheathing
-bracts which end in 3 longish spinous pungent leaflets.

Fruit linear-elliptic, 3 mm. long.

Hab.—Wet alpine meadow of the higher hills of Stewart Island ; Mount
Rakiahua, P. Goyen ! D. Petrie; Frazer Peaks, F. R. Chapman! (4. M.
Thomson ! D. Petrie.

The present plant has its nearest ally in A. Traillii T. Kirk, to which
Mr. Cheeseman refers it (Manual, p. 212). The leaves of the two species
are very different, and are alone sufficient to distinguish them. The
differences are partly noted in Mr. Kirk's original description of A. Traillii.
The broad canaliculate yellow midrib, the thickened vellow margins, and

50 Transactions.

the obscure rectangular venation are characters thatftgive it a quite distinct
position. In very exposed situations the flowering-stems are greatly
reduced and almost sunk among the leaves. So far as I am aware, it has
not been collected on Mount Anglem.

-L Celmisia glabrescens sp. now

Species C. glandulosae Hk. f. aflinis ; differt foliis longioribus angusti-
oribus integris infra tenuiter tomentosis, scapis elongatis glabris, capitulis
majoribus ac radiis multo longioribus instructis.

Stems loosely tufted, slender, giving off lateral leafy stolons that fre-
quently root at the base of the leafy tips.

Leaves numerous, erect or ascending, 5-9 cm. long, 1^-2 cm. broad,
lanceolate-spathulate, acute, apiculate, shortly subulate-dentate at the
edges, glabrous and green above, below clothed with thin appressed greyish-
green tomentum, the midrib glabrous and prominent, graduallv narrowed
into an almost linear petiole J as long as the blade and expanding below
into a broad strongly-veined sheath, venation obscurely reticulate.

Scapes as many as 4 on each branch, erect, or ascending at the base,
15-25 cm. high, striate, glabrous, slightly viscid above ; bracts few, distant,
linear, acute, with prominent midribs.

Heads + 2-5 cm. across, involucral bracts in 2-3 series, linear-subulate,
viscid, the outer reflexed, the inner paler and ciliate, hairy at the tips ; rays
numerous, narrow, spreading.

Achene silky.

Hob. — Meadow near Freshwater River, Stewart Island, 100 ft. ; D. L.
Poppelwell ! I am indebted to Mr. Poppelwell for specimens of this species.

5. Celmisia Poppelwellii sp. nov.

Species C. Haastii Hk. f. aflinis ; differt foliis numerosis multo minori-
bus angustioribus integerrimis dense imbricatis, capitulis minoribus, scapis
gracilioribus, foliorum parte petiolari quam lamina ^ angustiora.

Stems moderately stout, + 10 cm. high, giving off several horizontal
or ascending branches.

Leaves closely imbricating, ± 2 cm. long, 5 mm. broad, linear-sub-
spathulate, rather coriaceous, acute or subacute, recurved at the edges,
not toothed, suddenly expanded below the petiolar part into a broad glab-
rous strongly-nerved sheath with thin brown edges, above more or less
plaited and covered with a rather loose pellicle of silvery-grey tomentum,
clothed below with loose grey tomentum ; midrib prominent below, more
or less glabrous.

Scapes 1 to 3 from each branch, 8-12 cm. long, slender, more or less
tomentose, bracts numerous, linear, sparingly or densely tomentose.

Heads 2-2'5 cm. across, involucral bracts in 2 or 3 series, linear-subulate,
somewhat viscid ; rays numerous.

Achenes glabrous.

Rah. — Subalpine meadow, on the Eyre Mountains, Central Otago ;
D. L. Poppelwell ! I have seen only three or four specimens of this plant.
Mr. J. Crosby Smith sends from Mount Cleughearn, Fiord County, what
seems to be a smaller and narrower-leaved form ; his specimens are not
in flower.

Petrie. — New Native Phanerogams. 51

6. Abrotanella filiformis sp. nov.

Minuta glabra breviter l'epens.

Folia pauca erecta v. ascendentia 8-12 mm. longa peranguste linearia
enervia basi in vaginam striatam expansa.

Scapi gracillimi solitarii (raro bini) florigeri 5 mm. fructiferi 12 mm.
longi ; bracteis 4-5 brevibus peranguste linearibus.

Capitula solitaria parva 1 mm. longa ac lata ; involueri squamae 8-1 0 ;
flores minuti 5-6, squamas baud excedentes.

Achenia anguste fusiformia squamis fere aequilonga.

A minute shortly and loosely creeping glabrous plant giving off at
intervals scattered few-leaved flowering-stems.

Leaves few, very narrow linear, 8-12 mm. long, nerveless, expanded
below into a striate sheath.

Scapes solitary (rarely in twos), very slender, 5 mm. long when in flower,
lengthening to 12 mm. in fruit ; bracts 4-5, short, very narrow linear.

Heads solitary, small, 1 mm. long, and broad ; involucral scales 8-10,
shortly oblong, obtuse or sometimes subacute, greenish at the middle, with
broad hyaline margins, obscurely 3-nerved ; flowers minute, 5-6, not ex-
ceeding the scales.

Achenes narrow, spindle-shaped, distantly but not deeply ribbed, almost
as Ions: as the scales.

Hob. — Wet peaty puddles in open lowland moor near the head of
Paterson Inlet, Stewart Island.

7. Abrotanella Christenseni sp. nov.

Folia rosulata 15-18 mm. longa 4 mm. juxta apicem lata anguste
cuneata tenuia obtusa apice ac a parte superiore breviter dentata pilis
gracillimis ex una cellularum serie constructis + vestita ; costa subtus
conspicua.

Scapi complures maequaliter provenientes erecti simplices sparse pilosi
prope basim bibracteati in fructu ad 20 mm. elongati.

Capitula solitaria parva (1J mm. in diam.) ; flores numerosi minuti
involucrum haud excedentes.

Achenia ad 20 1 mm. longa lineari-oblonga compressa margine + in-
crassata.

Leaves radical, rosulate, 15-18 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, narrow-cuneate,
thin, obtuse, shortly toothed at and near the tip, above sparsely clad with
rather long slender hairs composed of a single row of cells, under-surface
more glabrous except on the evident midrib.

Scapes several, erect, simple, slender, sparsely pilose, with 2 usually
opposite linear bracts near the base, maturing irregularly and in fruit
elongating to 15-20 mm.

Heads solitary, small (1J mm. in diameter); involucral bracts in two
series, shortly oblong, obtuse, thin, crenately wavy at the top, the inner
narrower ; flowers numerous, minute, not exceeding the involucre.

Achenes 20 or fewer, 1 mm. long, linear-oblong, compressed, slightly
thickened along the margin.

Hab. — Bare spots in dry fescue tussock steppe, Hanmer Plains. I have
great pleasure in dedicating this curious species to its discoverer, Mr. C.
Christensen, who is doing valuable work in botanical research in the Amuri
district.

52 Transactions.

8. Veronica cassinioides H. J. Matthews (in litt.) sp. nov.

V. humilis erecta ramosa, ramis fastigiatis. Caules infra afoliati cica-
tricibus foliorum delapsorum confertis circularibus notati ; rami foliosi
foliis patentibu.s v. patulis instructi; ramuli bifariam pubescentes foliis
imbricatis vestiti.

Folia decussata coriacea ± 4 mm. longa anguste lanceolata v. sub-
triangulari-lanceolata acute carinata supra + convexa basi latiusculo sessilia
vix connata subcompressa glabra integerrima, juniorum marginibus parce
ciliatis ; bracteae tenues ovatae marginibus ciliatae. *

Flores spiciformi-racemosi terminales v. subterminales albi majusculi
fere sessiles in paribus oppositis dispositi ; calycis lobi 4, obtusi tenues
ciliati, anterioribus duobus paene apicem tenus connatis ; corollae tubus
angustus subpilosus calycem excedens, limbus in lobos 4 latiusculos obtusos
tubum aequantes sectus ; stamina longe exserta ; stylo stamina sub-
aequante.

Capsula lata a dorso compressa obtusa 5-7 mm. longa calycem duplo
superans, apice late emarginata.

A rather low erect shrub with numerous fastigate leafy branches, usually
reddish when dried.

Stem and older branches leafless, marked by the prominent close circular
scars of fallen leaves ; younger branches with more or less scattered patent
or spreading leaves ; young shoots hilariously pubescent, clothed with close-
set imbricating leaves.

Leaves decussate, coriaceous, + 4 mm. long, narrow- or subtriangular-
lanceolate, acute, keeled, more or less convex above, sessile by a wide
base, entire, glabrous, subcompressed, the younger sparsely ciliate at the
edges ; bracts thin, ovate, obtuse, with ciliate margins.

Flowers in a spike-like raceme, terminal or subterminal, white, rather
large, almost sessile, arranged in opposite pairs ; calyx-lobes 4, thin
obtuse ciliate, the two anterior connate almost to the tips ; corolla-tube
narrow, subpilose, longer than the calyx, limb cut into 4 rather broad
obtuse lobes as long as the tube ; stamens long, exserted ; style nearly
equalling the stamens.

Capsule broad, dorsally compressed, glabrous, obtuse, 5-7 mm. long,
twice as long as the calyx, broadly emarginate at the top, the base of
the style generally persistent.

Rob. — Moist subalpine meadow, Takitimu Mountains, fide H. J.
Matthews ; Blue Lake, Garvie Mountains, 4,000 ft., D. L. Poppelwell and
D. Steadman ! The nearest ally of this species is V. anomala J. B.
Armstrong.

Of this plant Dr. Cockayne writes in one of his publications, " It
appears to me to be without doubt a permanent juvenile form, inter-
mediate between the early pinnatifid and adult scale-leaved stages of the
whipcord Veronicas, the adult of which is probably extinct. A closely
allied plant has recently been collected by Mr. D. L. Poppelwell on the
Garvie Mountains, but not in flower, and it may turn eventually into the
cupressoid stage."* The Garvie Mountain plant has for some time been
in cultivation at the Waikaia Public School garden, and I have well-grown
specimens from there, as well as others from Mr. Poppelwell, that clearly
establish their identity with Mr. Matthews's V. cassinioides. I know of
no valid reason for Dr. Cockayne's fanciful speculations about this plant.

* Report Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 13, p. 219.

Petrie. — New Native Phanerogams. 53

Its life-history is in the main well known ; at no stage does it show
the foliage features peculiar to the whipcord Veronicas, and its course of
development is quite normal. The adult stage of the plant has been
known for several years, if a plant that bears flowers and fruit, and main-
tains the ordinary characters of its leaves and shoots to the last unchanged,
is an adult. To postulate that the adult form is probably extinct, without
a shred of proof, except that flowering and fruiting plants were unknown
to the writer, is wholly unwarranted. Some six or seven years ago Mr.
Matthews asked me to describe this species, and supplied me with speci-
mens in flower and fruit that had been cultivated in his garden in Dunedin.
A description of it was then drawn up, but I have deferred its publication
until specimens growing wild had been secured. Mr. Steadman's and
Mr. Poppelwell's discovery of wild plants near the Blue Lake, Garvie
Mountains, has at length removed this obstacle. It gives me peculiar
pleasure to publish this species, in which my late friend took so lively an
interest.

9. Euphrasia integrifolia sp. nov.

Caules repentes et radicantes + 5 cm. longi glabri graciles ramos
complures breves edentes.

Folia in paribus oppositis disposita 3-4 mm. longa conferta glabra
integra submembranacea lineari-lanceolata acuminata basi late sessilia,
venis perobscuris.

Flores pauci in foliorum superiorum axillis laxe dispositi 8-10 mm.
longi subsessiles ; calyx corollae tubo multo brevior campanulatus glaber
in lobos 4 triangulares acutos sectus ; corollae tubus sublatus, labium
superius vix arcuatum late emarginatum, inferius in lobos 3 breves
rotundatos sectum ; antherae maturae exsertae.

Capsula (submatura) obovata calyci subaequalis compressa glabrescens
acuta v. subacuta.

Semina in cellula utraque compluria, rnatura baud visa.

A slender creeping and rooting loosely matted plant. Stems + 5 cm.
long, glabrous, rather slender, giving off several short or moderately long
branches from the axils of the lower leaves.

Leaves in opposite pairs, 3-4 mm. long, sessile by a broad base, not
connate, glabrous, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, submembranous, entire,
veins very obscure.

Flowers few in the axils of the upper leaves, 8-10 mm. long, nearly
sessile, white with a purple streak at the back of each lobe of the
corolla ; calyx J the length of the corolla, campanulate, glabrous, shortly
cut into 4 triangular acute lobes ; tube of corolla rather wide, upper lip
short, barely arched, broadly emarginate, lower divided into 3 short rounded
lobes ; anthers exserted when mature, style long.

Capsule about as long as the calyx, obovate, compressed, glabrescent,
acute or subacute.

Seeds several in each cell ; mature not seen.

Rah. — Wet alpine meadow and bogs on Mount Cleughearn, Fiord County,
Southland, about 5,000 ft. ; J. Crosby Smith !

Unfortunately, but little material of this very distinct species was
secured by Messrs. Crosby Smith and Cuthbert. In no other native species

54 Transactions.

of this genus are the leaves entire. The plant has much the same look
and habit of growth as Anagosperma, but there are certainly several young
seeds in each cell, and it is likely that most of these would mature. Fresh
or spirit-preserved specimens are needed to prepare a quite satisfactory
analysis of the flowers and fruit.

10. Atriplex Buchanani T. Kirk var. tenuicaulis var. nov.

Culmi graciles teretes erecti v. ascendentes parum rigidi a radice longo
gracili singuli v. bini v. terni v. quaterni orientes, 12-20 cm. alti, interdum
apicem versus + divisi.

Folia pauca inferne distantia superne crebriora ovato-lanceolata, quam
in typo longiora ac angustiora.

( letera ut in forma typica.

Stems slender, terete, not stiff, glabrous below, more or less farinose
above, springing singly or in twos, threes, or fours from the top of the long
slender root, 12-20 cm. high, sometimes sparingly subdivided towards the
top.

Leaves few, distant on the lower part of the stem, closer set above, ovate-
lanceolate, subacute or obtuse, usually longer and narrower than in the
type.

Flowers and fruit as in the typical form.

Hah. — Moist grassy stations by the seaside. Centre Island ; T. Kirk !
A small island off Ototara, near Oreti mouth ; J. Crosby Smith !

At first sight it is hard to realize that this form can he conspecific with
the type, but the differences, which appear to be quite constant, are con-
fined to the height, the erect slender habit of growth, and the more scattered
leaves, the floral characters showing no important deviation from the type.
An examination of fresh or spirit specimens might perhaps show that such
differences exist.

11. Uncinia uncinata (L. f.) Kiikenth. var. pedicellata (Kiikenth.) Petrie
var. nov.

The present variety is Uncinia pedicellata Kiikenth., which 1 am unable
to regard as a valid species. It is a widely spread form, marked in the
Stewart Island area by a prevalent reddish-brown colouring that is usually
absent elsewhere, and is probably attributable to the more or less peatv
soil in which it grows there. The rather long stipitate utricles do not
differ in any conspicuous way from those of U. uncinata, and the supposed
absence in the latter of the annulation at the apex of the nut, on which
Kiikenthal lays so much stress in distinguishing the species, has never
been observed by me in any specimen I have collected or had access to
in the collections of others. The variety is chiefly distinguished by the
narrow inflorescence that is frequently longer than in the typical form,
the somewhat shorter glumes, and the more decidedly stipitate utricles.
The plant has been well known to New Zealand botanical workers for
many years, all of whom referred it to U. australis Pers. (= U. uncinata).
I have it from the following localities : Kaitaia (Carse !), Tarnaki West,
Ruahine Mountains, Hokitika (T. Kirk !), Half-moon Bay, Catlin's River,
Chatham Islands (J. S. Tennant !), and Auckland Islands (Aston !).

Petrie. — New Native Phanerogams. 55

12. Uncinia strictissima (Kiikenth.) Petrie comb, now

This is the plant described by me in the " Transactions of the New
Zealand Institute."' vol. 17. p. '271. under the name U. rigida. That
name proved to be preoccupied, having been previously applied by
Boeckeler to a species from Tristan da Cunha. I am unable to regard it
as a variety of U. rubra Boott. a view that commends itself to Cheeseman
as well as to Kiikenthal. The opinions of the latter have vacillated in
a remarkable way in the course of his investigation of this genus, and at
one stage in their development he went so far as to place U. rubra Boott as
a variety of U. riparia B. Br.

The characteristics of this plant are well set out in Cheeseman's
description of his var. rigida of U. rubra Boott. The characters that
separate it from U. rubra appear to me more decided and more constant
than are those distinguishing most of the species of this difficult genus.
Of these the most important are the green colour of the subaerial parts,
the rather stout terete rigid culms that greatly elongate in fruiting, the
rigid erect deeply grooved leaves, the constantly bracteate spikes, the
bristle always shorter than the utricle, and the densely compacted rush-
like tufted habit of growth.

The range of the species is now better known. It extends from the 'base
of Jack's Pass (Amuri County) to Stewart Island, and occurs also on the
Auckland Islands, where it was collected in 1890 by Mr. F. R. Chapman.
Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., in his "Report on the Stewart Island Flora,"
recognizes the plant as a valid species.

13. Carex chathamica sp. nov.

Culmi ad 6 dcm. longi erecti leves triquetri moderate robusti.

Folia culmis breviora plana 8 mm. lata levia, supra 3-nervata. subtus
striata ac costa media conspicua, basi haud vaginante.

Spiculae plerurnque 7 simplices, summae tres masculae sessiles confertae,
reliquae femineae v. floribus paucis masculis apice instructae, pedunculatae
erectae ad 6 cm. longae distantes longe vaginatae, superioribus pedunculos
gradatim breviores praebentibus ; bracteis longis foliosis, superioribus
gradatim abbreviatis.

Glumae 6 mm. longae anguste lineari-lanceolatae acutae v. acuminatae
integrae v. apice leviter bifidae membranaceae 1-nervatae.

Utxiculi glumis breviores + 3 mm. longi turgide biconvexi conspicue
2-nervati aliter enervii brunnei politi nitentes breviter stipitati, supra in
rostrum breve glaberrimum subobscure bidentatum subito contracti.

Nux late ovata, supra obtuse trigona. Stigmata 3.

Culms 6 dcm. high or less, erect or inclined at the top, smooth, tri-
quetrous, moderately stout.

Leaves shorter than the culms, flat, 8 mm. broad, smooth, slightly
thickened at the edges and finely serrate towards the gradually narrowed
tips, 3-nerved above, below striate with conspicuous midrib, the base not
sheathing and marked off by a conspicuous oblique purplish ligule.

Spikelets usually 7 simple (very rarely with a small secondary spikelet
at the base), the 3 (rarely 4) topmost male, rather slender, sessile, and
closely placed, the others female or with a few male flowers at the top,
erect, distant, the lowermost with long peduncles, the higher with peduncles-

.">(i Transactions.

progressively shorter, the bottom spikelet 5-6 cm. long, f em. broad, the
higher progressively shorter ; bracts long, leafy, getting shorter from below
upwards, with long closed sheaths nearly equalling the peduncles.

Glumes 6 mm. long, narrow linear-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, entire
or slightly bifid at the tip, and produced into a short mucro, membranous,
1-nerved, yellowish or pale brown with a lighter midrib.

Utricles shorter than the glumes, 3 mm. long, turgidly biconvex, strongly
2-nerved (otherwise nerveless), dark brown, polished and shining, very
shortly stipitate, suddenly contracted above into a short smooth rather
obscurely bidentate beak.

Nut broadly ovate, obtusely trigonous above. Stigmata 3.

Hah. — Swampy ground at Chatham Islands.

To Mr. W. R. B. Oliver I am indebted for the few over-mature speci-
mens of this plant that have been examined. It is very distinct from the
already-known native species. Mr. Oliver has the impression that it is
not uncommon in swampy stations on the Chathams.

14. Carex kermadecensis sp. no v.

Folia radicalia baud visa.

Culmi (infra imperfecti) ad (idem, alti moderate robusti erecti pallidi
striati triquetri.

Spiculae 5-8 (forsan plures), infima longe distante simplici, superioribus
plerumque ± confertis in 2-4 spiculas secundarias sessiies confertas longi-
tudine inaequales divisis. erectae pallidae + 5 cm. longae 6 mm. latae ;
supremis 3-4 mere musculis v. noribus paucis femineis apice instructis.
reliquis femineis; bracteae longe vaginantcs foliosae, infimis culmos valde
excedentibus, superioribus cito abbreviatis.

Glumae dense confertae ovato-lanceolatae membranaceae 3-nervatae
integrae v. apice bifidae. in mucronem breyem + scabridum productae,
utriculos aequantes.

I'triculi 4 mm. longi ] mm. lati anguste elliptici breviter stipitati, supra
sensim attenuati in rostrum tenue sublongum parce scabridum dentibus
duobus longis tenuibus scabridis vix divergentibus instructum, leviter
biconvexi nervis lateralibus duobus conspicuis,ac aliis numerosis delicatulis
a latere utroque praediti.

Xux elliptica acorn- supra infraque contracta acute trigona ubique deli-
catule punctulata. Stigmata 3 (raro 2).

Radical leaves not seen.

Culms (imperfect below) 6 clem, high or less, moderately stout, pale,
smooth or slightly scabrid at the angles, striate, triquetrous.

Spikelets 5-8 or perhaps more, the lowermost long-distant and simple,
the upper more or less closely placed (usually overlapping), subdivided
into 2-4 secondary sessile crowded spikelets of unequal length, the lower
on long slender flattened peduncles, the upper sessile or nearly so, erect,
pale, 5 cm. long or less, + 6 mm. broad, a few of the uppermost purely
male or with a few female flowers at the top, the rest female ; bracts long-
sheathing, leafy, the lower greatly exceeding the culms, the upper rapidly
shortening.

Glumes densely crowded, ovate-lanceolate, membranous, 3-nerved, pale
l>i own with a lighter median stripe, acute, entire or bifid at the top, and

Pbtrie. — New Salnie. Phanerogams. 57

produced into a short thin more or less scabrid mucro, as long as the
utricles.

Utricles 4 mm. long, 1 mm. broad, narrow elliptic, shortly stipitate,
gradually narrowed above into a rather long slender slightly scabrid beak
ending in 2 long slender scarcely diverging scabrid teeth, thin, flatly bi-
convex with two prominent lateral nerves and numerous other delicate
nerves along either side.

Nut elliptic, equally narrowed above and below, sharply trigonous,
delicately puuctulate.

Style branches 3 (rarely 2), short.

Hob. — Denham Bay, Sunday Island, Kermadecs.

Mr. W. E. B. Olive]' discovered this plant, which he has kindly placed
in my hands for description. The. material is imperfect, only the culms
being represented. Freshly gathered specimens are needed to allow of a
more accurate description of the singular inflorescence, but I hope that
my account will not prove very wide of the mark. The lowermost simple
spikelet may not always be present, while the compound spikelets, that
are usually closely placed, are widely distant in one of the specimens
examined. The plant was formerly referred to C. Forsteri Wahl. as sub-
species insularis Oliver, but it does not appear to me closely related to
that species, or, indeed, to any other of the native forms.

15. Calamagrostis (Deyeuxia) Youngii (Hook, f.) Cheesm. var. Petriei

comb. nov.

Planta a forma typica differt arista a gluma florigera media oriente.

The present variety is the Deyeuxia Petriei of Cheeseman's " Manual
of the New Zealand Flora" (= Calamagrostis Petriei Hackel). Its only
important difference from the typical form is in the position of the awn.
which springs from the middle of the back of the flowering-glume. Neither
Hackel nor Cheeseman had seen Hooker's plant when their descriptions
of Calamagrostis (Deyeuxia) Petriei were made out. The figures of
Deyeuxia Youngii in Buchanan's " Indigenous Grasses of New Zealand "
probably represent a form of Deyeuxia quadriseta B. Br., though the en-
larged drawings of the spikelet may represent the real plant. Buchanan
considered it a common grass in the hilly parts of southern Otago. If
this was formerly the case, the plant must have been largely eaten out by
stock, for it is now, I believe, quite rare in these districts.

16. Poa Colensoi Hook. f. var. brevi-ligulata var. nov.

Differt a typo ligula valde brevi v. obsoleta crassiore haud vaginante,
vaginis angustioribus.

This variety differs from the typical form in possessing very short or
obsolete more coriaceous non-sheathing ligules and narrower sheaths.
The leaves are usually more erect and rigid and often more or less pungent-
pointed, while the plants frequently form firmly compacted sward-like
patches of considerable size.

In all the extant descriptions of Poa Colensoi the ligule is said to be very
long and sheathing ; as Mr. Cheeseman puts it (" Manual of New Zealand
Flora," p. 908), ': Ligules very large and long, sheathing, membranous,
hyaline." This condition is, however, very far from constant. My col-

58 Transactions.

lection contains specimens of this grass from some twenty-five widely
separated stations, and in more than half of these it is the short-liguled
form that occurs. The only North Island station for this form known
to me is Mount Egmont. In the South Island both forms are widely
spread, but the short-liguled form seems to predominate at considerable
elevations in the southern and south-western districts.

17. Poa caespitosa Forst. f. var. planifolia var. nov.

Culmi validi, florentes folia aequantes vel paullo excedentes, fructiferi
+ elongati, 5-6 dcm. alti, vaginis longis scabriusculis sulcatis ad paniculi
basim vestiti.

Folia plana + coriacea a parte media 5 mm. lata, laminis glabris
erectis v. ascendentibus, carina prominente.

Panicula 2-3 dcm. longa anguste ovata, ramorum longorum scabridorum
complurium parce divisorum fasciculis distantibus.

Spieulae subsessiles majusculae 6-7 mm. longae, glumis ubique delicate
scaberulis.

Densely tufted, forming large dark-green tussocks.

Stems stout when in flower equalling or slightly exceeding the leaves
elongating more or less later, 5-6 dcm. long, clothed to the base of the
panicle by the long scaberulous grooved sheaths.

Leaves on each culm rather few, blades flat, smooth, 5 mm. wide at the
middle, stiff, usually coriaceous, erect or ascending, with prominent keel
and numerous fine veins, edges smooth except at the tips.

Panicle 2-3 dcm. long, narrow ovate, with distant rather numerous
long little-divided scabrid branches.

Spikelets nearly sessile, rather large, 6-7 mm. long, empty and flowering
glumes everywhere finely scabrid ; palea almost equalling the flowering-
glume.

Hob. — Antipodes Island ; H. J. Matthews.

I have seen only garden-grown specimens of this grass, propagated
from the seed of a plant brought by Mr. Matthews from Antipodes Island.
It is most likely identical with the grass which Mr. T. Kirk referred to
Poa anceps Forst. f. (see vol. 3, p. 231,' of the w' Report of the Austral-
asian Association for the Advancement of Science "). To this species it
shows some approximation, but its true place seems to be in Poa caespitosa,
a species that is known to form the principal pasture grass on Campbell
Island. It is highly improbable that Poa anceps should extend to any of
the subantarctic islands of New Zealand, as it does not range as far south
as Otago, or even South Canterbury. Mr. Cheeseman has, indeed, recorded
that it extends to Foveaux Strait, but this statement is most likely in-
correct. I am pretty well acquainted with the vegetation of the Bluff
Hill, but have never seen Poa anceps there. The most southerly localities
for this grass known to me are the Broken River basin in North Canterbury,
and Fox's River, near Brighton, in south-west Nelson. The late Mr.
Buchanan at one time believed that Poa anceps was a common plant in
Otago, and on a botanical outing with me he expressed great surprise at
not meeting with it. From that time I kept a close lookout for the grass,
but I have nowhere seen it south of the limits mentioned above. Dr.
Cockavne did not observe it on Stewart Island.

Petrie. — New Native Phanerogams. 59

18. Note on Corallospartium crassicaule (Hook, f.) Armstrong.

Mr. A. W. Roberts, of the Ranfurly State Nursery, lately sent me a
packet of ripe pods of this species. Both Armstrong and Cheeseman state
that the the ripe pod contains a single seed, though the latter notes that
the ovules are 2-1 in number. An examination of some two dozen of the
pods from the Maniototo district showed that the usual number of ripe
seeds in each pod is two. three were present in a few cases, and with about
equal frequency the number was one. Mr. Armstrong is probably mistaken
in saying that the valves of the pod open. I have never seen any evidence
of this in any of the numerous specimens that have at various time come
under my notice.

19. Note on the Rediscovery of Myosotis (Exarrhena) Lyallii Hook. f.

This plant has not been collected since Dr. Lyall discovered it in the
neighbourhood of Milford Sound, during the cruise of the surveying-ship
" Acheron "' in the years 1847-51. Last January, however, Messrs. Crosbv
Smith and Cuthbert again collected it on the shingle-faces of Mount Burns,
Fiord County, at an altitude of about 5,000 ft. Their plant quite accords
with the description of M. Lyallii in the " Flora Novae-Zelandiae." Mv
Myosotis oreophila is quite unlike this species, under which Cheeseman
has suggested placing- it.

Art. V. — Some Addition* to the Flora of the Subantarctic Islands of

Neiv Zealand.

By D. Petrie, M.A.. Ph.D.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1014.]

1. Uncinia strictissima- (Kiikenthal) Petrie (ante. p. 55).

This species was collected in 1890 on the Auckland Islands by Mr. F. R.
Chapman (now Mr. Justice Chapman), from whom I have several character-
istic specimens. U. rubra Boott. has not as yet been found on our sub-
antarctic islands, but their plant population is still too incompletelv known
for us to feel sure of its absence.

2. Uncinia compacta R. Br.

Mr. B. C. Aston collected some dwarf specimens of this on Campbell
Island in January, 1909. They differ from the typical plant as it occurs
at elevated stations in New Zealand only in having nearlv sessile flowering-
spikes, a condition that is practically present in a form of the species growing
a little below the snow-line on the Sealey Range near Mount Cook, of which
I collected a number of specimens.

3. Uncinia australis Pers. var. pedicellata (Kiikenthal) Petrie comb. nov.

(ante, p. 54).

Mr. Aston collected this on the Auckland Islands, and contributed
several specimens to my collection.

4. Uncinia Hookeri Boott.

Kiikenthal and Cheeseman .refer this plant to U. riparia R. Br. This
conclusion does not commend itself to me. Mr. Aston most kindly gave

60 Transactions.

me a fine series of specimens of the plant collected on the Auckland, Camp-
bell, Disappointment, and Antipodes Islands, which appear to demonstrate
the much closer affinity of U. Hookeri to U. compacta R. Br. than to the
latter's U. riparia. I regard U. Hookeri as either a valid species or else
a form of U. rupestris Eaoul, as the late Mr. Kirk thought. What Raoul's
plant really is, is still uncertain, and its rediscovery near Akaroa, where
Raoul found it, will he necessary to settle the point. His figure is not
characteristic of any form of Uncinia known to me. Botanical workers
in Christ church would do a most useful service in hunting up this species
on Banks Peninsula, where it is likely still to grow.

5. Carex Darwinii Boott var. urolepis (Franch.) Kukenthal.

This species occurs on the Auckland Islands (F. R. Chapman !), and
also on Antipodes Island (B. C. Aston !) Mr. Chapman gave me his only
specimen in February, 1890, but it was immature and not very complete,
and I could make nothing of it. Some months ago Dr. Cockayne, F.R.S.,
gave me some pieces of C. Darwinii var. urolepis from the Chatham Islands,
and Mr. W. R. B. Oliver contributed one or two more from the same locality.
With this material before me I was at once able to recognize the plants
collected by Mr. ( lhapman and Mr. Aston. I have seen only the figure of
C. Darwinii in J. D. Hooker's " Flora Antarctica,"' but if that is typical
of the species I would regard Franchet's species as a perfectly valid one,
provided the New Zealand specimens are correctly referred there. The
antiquity of this species must be immense, as it is common to South
America, the Auckland and Antipodes Islands, and Chatham Islands. That
species should remain stable for such vast stretches of time in environments
in many respects so different may well puzzle evolutionists, and incline
one to the belief that practically identical specific forms may have originated
in more than one centre, a biological heresy no doubt, but one that can be
supported by a large body of evidence from the New Zealand flora.

6. Carex appressa R. Br. var. sectoides Kukenthal.

This form also occurs on our» subantarctic islands, having been col-
lected by Mr. F. R. Chapman in 1890, who, however, was uncertain whether
lie collected it on the Snares or on the Auckland Islands, so that the exact
habitat cannot be settled at present. I owe the recognition of this plant
to the recent gift of specimens of it from the (hat ham Islands, contributed
by Dr. Cockayne, F^R.S., and Mr. W. R. B. Oliver. The occurrence
together on the Chatham Islands of C. Darwinii var. urolepis and C. appressa
var. sectoides lends some probability to their joint occurrence on the sub-
antarctic islands.

It appears to be very doubtful if Kukenthal's reference of his var.
sectoides to C. appressa R. Br. is warranted ; the utricles differ from those
of C. appressa more widely than do those of C. secta, and the points of
resemblance are confined to habit of growth merely. When satisfactory
material is available the position of var. sectoides will call for careful recon-
sideration.

7. Poa caespitosa Forst. f. var. planifolia.

This variety was found on Antipodes Island by the late H. J. Matthews,
who brought back a live plant that grew well in his garden at Duneclin. The
specimens seen came partly from this plant and partly from others grown
from its " seed." As noted elsewhere (ante, p. 58), it is most likely iden-
tical with the Antipodes Island grass that the late Mr. Kirk referred to
Poa anceps Forst. f.

Cross, —Investigations on Phormium. 61

Art. VI. — Investigations on Phormium.

By Miss B. D. Cross, M.A.

[Rend before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.]

[Abstract. |

It is a remarkable fact that no one lias ever attempted to make a thorough
botanical study of Phormium, the so-called New Zealand flax, although
from time to time botanists have pointed out the necessity of such an in-
vestigation on a plant of so great economic importance. The present paper
is a brief abstract of a much larger thesis which records the result of my
researches in 1910-11. The complete MS. has been lodged in the Dominion
Museum, Wellington, where it may be consulted by any one who wishes
to carry on further research on Phormium. The whole paper is itself only
introductory, as a complete knowledge of Phormium can be obtained only
by means of careful observations extending over several years. It must
also be pointed out that my work on Phormium has been almost entirely
from the botanical standpoint.

The following, then, is a brief outline of the paper : —

Historical.

The first part is mainly historical, and deals with previously published
books and pamphlets relating to the subject. Some few of these are short
accounts of points of botanic interest, but for the most part they are con-
cerned only with the qualities of New Zealand flax as a fibre-bearing plant.
Although Captain Cook and Sir Joseph Banks both mention and shortly
describe the New Zealand flax, the first really scientific account of Phormium
was given by Labillardiere, one of the naturalists of the expedition (1791-92)
of the '" Recherche " and the l' Esperance " in search of the ill-fated La
Perouse. Labillardiere also grew the plant successfully in France, and
accords it the highest praise. He says, " The flax of New Zealand holds the
first place among the vegetable fibres known suitable for making rope."

Later papers deal mainly with Phormium from the economic standpoint.
The most important of these is the work of Hector (1872), who under-
took the compilation of the reports of the Commissioners who were appointed
by the Government in 1869 and 1870 wi to investigate and report on
all matters relating to the manufacture and cultivation of New Zealand
flax/' This is the largest and most comprehensive work on this subject
that has yet been published. It contains a good account of the cultivation
of the plant and of its chemical properties, but the sections in which it is
considered from a botanical standpoint must be considered very unsatis-
factory.

To this historical sketch I have added a short account of the history
of the flax industry and a brief outline of the chief processes concerned
in the preparation of Phormium fibre, with the state of the industry at
the present time.

The next section deals with the Phormium swamps and with the culti-
vation of the plant. It is enough to state here that Phormium has never-
been extensivelv cultivated in New Zealand, although it is well known

62 Transactions.

that much more fibre, and fibre of better quality, is produced from culti-
vated plants. This is due to the fact that millers will not make plantations
while the large natural Phormium swamps exist.

Discussion of Specific Characters.

There has always been a certain amount of discussion with regard to the
number of species in the genus Phormium. Hooker (1853) comes to the con-
clusion that there is but one species, but almost all later botanists recognize
two- P. tenax and P. Cookianum. In my study of various varieties 1
have found that the two species cannot be absolutely separated. After
carefully noting the characteristics of each variety, I attempted to put
these varieties in some order, and was at once struck by the remarkable
continuity of the variation. There is, indeed, a perfect chain of forms
more or less closely connected, and the chain is unbroken in passing from
" tenax " to " Cookianum '" varieties, for " passage forms " link the two
species. That this chain is real will be seen in my classification of varieties,
though, no doubt, there are yet many links to be added. However, I
decided to group my varieties under the two species now recognized, for
the following reasons : —

In the first place, it will be seen that forms at one end of the chain are
vastly different from those at the other end, and this would perhaps warrant
the retention of the two specific names, though, of course, this method
is wholly artificial. For this I have the authority of Hooker, who, in divid-
ing the genus into two species, says at the same time that he considers them
to be but " races of one plant." Then, again, 1 have made many attempts
to cross-pollinate extreme forms, and have failed to obtain any results.
This is certainly an additional reason for retaining the two specific names.
The chief differences between two forms, one from each end of my series
of varieties, may be taken as the differences between P. tenax and
P. Cookianum. These are,—

(A.) Differences in Vegetative Characters.

I. Habit. — P. tenax, on the whole, may be said to have an erect habit,
though in many varieties the leaves are more or less drooping at the tip.
The fans are generally set fairly widely apart, and the leaves clasp one
another very closely at the base, this being one of the reasons for the
more upright habit. P. Cookianum, on the other hand, has a very drooping
habit, the fans are more closely set, and the leaves do not clasp each other
closely at the base, but fall apart at a very short distance from the base.

II. The leaves of P. tenax are stiff and rigid, this being the principal
reason, for the erect habit. They are 4-14 ft. long and 2-5| in. broad.

(a.) The " butt," or clasping sheath-like lower portion of the leaf, is very
heavy and long, sometimes being as long as the blade. Its inner surface
is more or less brightly coloured, the colour varying from a faint orange-
pink to a deep orange. There is generally a fairly large quantity of gum
between the two halves of the butt. Very often there is a purple tinge
on the outer surfaces at the base.

(b.) The blade is dark green, the lower surface being glaucous.

(1.) The apex is obtuse or acute, and in mature leaves the tip is split
into two for several inches.

(2.) The keel is very much thickened on the lower surface, and is brightly
coloured with a colour corresponding to that of the margins.

Cross. — Investigations on Phormium. 63

(3.) The margins are thickened, and brightly coloured orange, red, brown,
and black, and there is a tendency for the colour to " run in '' —that is,
to extend for some distance in towards the central part of the leaf. This
occurs only on the upper surface. If this is the case, the whole tip of the
leaf then has the same coloration.

The leaves of P. Goohianum are much less rigid, and consequently are
all drooping. They are shorter, rarely being more than 5 ft. long, and are
much narrower (1-2J in.). The edges of the leaf are inclined to curl back-
wards.

(a.) The butt is not so heavy, and is shorter. The inner surface is quite
white, or, in rare cases, has a slight pinkish tinge, and there is very little
gum.

(b.) The blade is pale green, and the lower surface is rarely glaucous.

(1.) The apex is acuminate, and not so inclined to split into two
halves.

(2.) The keel is less thickened, and is of a pale-yellow colour.

(3.) The margins are not thickened, but are translucent, and are of a
very pale yellow colour. The unthickened margins probably account for
the tendency of the edges to curl outwards.

(B.) Differences in Floristic Characters.

TIL P. tendx does not flower as a general rule for many years, and then
generally sends up comparatively few flower-stalks ; while P. Goohianum
very often flowers long before the leaves have reached maturity, and its
flower-stalks are much more abundant.

IV. The inflorescence (flower-stalk) of P. tenax is erect, stout, and tall,
sometimes reaching a height of 18 ft. It is purple in colour, is glabrous,
and has abundant bloom. The bracts are very large, especially those on
the lower part of the stalk, and their inner surfaces are orange in colour.
On cutting the stalk, sap of a deep-orange colour is expressed.

The flower-stalks of P. Goohianum, on the other hand, droop in all direc-
tions. They are slender, and much shorter than those of P. tenax, for they
are rarely more than 6 ft. in height. The stalks taper much more towards
the apex than do those of P. tenax, and there is much less bloom, and, indeed,
in some it is quite absent. The bracts are smaller, and are of a yellowish-
green colour on the outside and quite white within. The sap is a pale-
yellow colour, and much less is expressed on cutting. The panicle of flowers
is much smaller.

V. The flower of P. tenax is a dull red or an orange-red in colour, and
1-2 in. long. The three outer perianth-leaves are much deeper in colour
than the three inner, which are yellow as the flower first opens, but which
afterwards become a bright orange-red. They are either quite erect or
slightly recurved at the tip.

The floivers of P. Goohianum are much narrower and slightly shorter
than those of P. tenax (1-li in.). The three outer perianth- eaves are of a
bright orange colour, and the three inner on opening are of a decided green
tint, which afterwards becomes a light greenish-yellow. The inner perianth-
leaves are much recurved at the tip, and are much less brittle than those
of P. tenax.

VI. The capsules (seed-pods) of P. tenax are erect oi slightly inclined,
stout, trigonous, 2-4 in. long, and not twisted. In P. Goohianum the}''
are long (4-7 in.), pendulous, and very much twisted.

04 Transactions.

The chief variations which have been taken into account in my classi-
fication of the varieties of Phormium are, —

Vegetative Characters.

I. Habit. — The plant may be quite erect, slightly drooping, or veiy
drooping. The fans may be closely set together or wide apart, and the
leaves of each fan again may be close together or loosely arranged.

II. The leaves may be rigid or quite flaccid. (It must be noted here
that even if the leaves are drooping they are not necessarily flaccid. One
variety, No. 9 of my list, for instance, has firm leaves, with abundant and
strong fibre, and yet the leaves are drooping.) They may be dark, bright,
pale, or yellow green.

(a.) The butt varies in length and in stoutness. There may be little
or much Ct gum," and the inner surface may be white, pink, or deep orange.

(b.) The blade varies in length, width, thickness, and colour, and its
inferior surface in amount of bloom.

(1.) Its apex may be entire, split into two along the midrib, or split
into several ribbons. It may be obtuse, acute, or acuminate (tapering
gradually to a point). It may be of the same colour as the rest of the blade,
or coloured similarly to the margins. It may be rigid or quite soft, and
may be curved inwards, straight, or curved outwards.

(2.) The keel varies in thickness and in colour.

(3.) The margins vary in thickness and in colour, the usual colours being
bright orange, red. maroon, brown, and black. The margins only may be
coloured, or the colour may " run in " on the upper surface, sometimes
to a depth of some millimetres.

Floristic Characters.

III. Time of Flowering .• — There is a great difference in the time of
flowering of the varieties, and this appears to be constant for each variety
in any one locality.

IV. Inflorescences. These vary in number, colour, height, stoutness.
They may be erect, slightly inclined, or inclined at various wide angles.
The bracts vary in size and colour. The secondary and tertiary branches
vary in length. The tip of the inflorescence may be straight or bent over.

V. The flowers vary in number, size, colour, and shape.

VI. The capsules vary perhaps more than any other part of the plant.
They may be stout or' slender, straight, slightly twisted, or very much
twisted. It must be noted here that not only the pendulous capsules are
twisted, but many which are quite erect have a decided twist.

Classification.

As I have stated above, I have retained the two specific names — P.
tenax and P. CooManum. P. tenax I have divided into five groups, which
are again subdivided into a number of varieties which I have simply num-
bered, since names might cause confusion. There are twenty-five of these
varieties included in P. tenax. Then follow five varieties which are con-
sidered as forms intermediate between the two species, and finally eight
varieties of P. CooManum which are included in one group.

The larger groups have been classified mainly according to habit, while
varieties are distinguished mainly by floristic characters, though vegetative
characters have not been neglected.

Cross. — Investigations on Phormium. 65

The following is a brief outline of the classification :-

Phormium tenax.

Group A (seven varieties).

I. Habit, erect ; fans well separated.

II. Leaves, light green, rigid ; butt only slightly reddish ; margin
narrow, distinct, and thickened.

IV. Inflorescences, erect, stout, straight.
V. Flower, dark red.

VI. Capsules, erect, stout, straight.

Group B (three varieties).

I. Habit, inner leaves erect, outer drooping.
II. Leaves, light green, rigid, very wide, shorter than those of A ; butt

very red ; margin " running in."
IV. Inflorescences, more numerous than those of A. stout, straight.
V. Floivers, darker red than in A.
VI. Capsules, very numerous, erect, stout, straight.

Group C (four varieties).
I. Habit, drooping, especially outer leaves ; fans more closely set.
HI. Leaves, dark green, not rigid ; margins narrow, distinct, and

thickened ; butt of medium redness.
IV. Inflorescences, numerous, tapering scorpioid, falling in all directions.

V. Flowers, dark red.

VI. Capsules, inclined at various angles, straight and narrow.

Group D (ten varieties).

I. Habit, erect : fans closely set.

II. Leaves, very narrow and rigid ; butt" of medium redness.
IV. Inflorescences, "few, erect, short and straight.

V. Floivers, dark red.
VI. Capsules, erect, short, straight, flattened on top.

Group E (three varieties).

I. Habit, drooping ; fans closely set.
II. Leaves, long and wide ; margins narrow, distinct, and thickened ;

butt of medium redness.
IV. Inflorescences, numerous, spreading in all directions, straight,
tapering, and somewhat slender.
V. Flowers, bright red or yellowish red.

VI. Capsules, erect, long, narrow, generally slightly twisted.

Gradation Forms.
Group F (five varieties).
I. Habit, fairly erect ; fans closely set.

II. Leaves, light green, narrow, thin, and flaccid ; margins narrow,

distinct, unthickened, and inclined to curl backwards ; butt

of medium redness.
IV. Inflorescences, numerous, short, erect, and slender.

V. Flowers, dark red.
VI. Capsules, stout, short, erect, straight or twisted.

3 — -Trans.

66 Transactions.

Phormium Cookianum.
Group G (eight varieties).

I. Habit, very drooping ; fans closely set.
II. Leaves, pale green, narrow, short, thin, flaccid ; margins translucent
pale yellow, unthickened ; leaves curl backwards ; butt white,
short, little gum.
IV. Inflorescences, numerous, short, tapering, drooping in all directions,
stalk sometimes green.
V. Flowers, short, yellow, inner perianth-leaves much recurved at tip.
VI. Capsules, long (4-7 in.), pendulous, and very twisted.

Development.

After the classification follows a fairly long account of the development
of Phormium,. This includes descriptions of the anatomy of various parts
of the young plant at successive stages in its development. It ends with
a full anatomical account of the mature leaf. This chapter is illustrated
with drawings of sections of different parts of the leaf.

Pollination.

My experiments in pollination were carried out with as much care as
possible, but it is well known that mistakes easily occur in these experi-
ments, and I hope to verify my statements at a later date. In my paper
I have stated that as the result of my investigations I have found —
(1) That Phormium is not self- fertile ; (2) extreme forms of P. tenax and
P. Cookianum cannot be crossed ; (3) cross-pollination is easily effected
between varieties which are closely related.

The Diseases of Phormium.

The main diseases are merely shortly described, as they would form a
large subject for research. I have appended a list of varieties which exhibit
ability to resist fungus diseases.

The Fibre.

This section includes a description of the fibre-content of the varieties,
with a table of the measurements of the diameter of the fibre and the cavity
for each variety. It also gives an account of experiments on the expansion
and contraction of the fibre of New Zealand flax and manila hemp.

When explaining the principles followed in the classification I have
stated that the Maori system was entirely artificial, since it was based on
one character only, and that a character of slight botanical importance — ■
namely, the quality of fibre. After I had arranged my varieties in their
groups I sent leaves of all the varieties to be milled and graded, and was
surprised to find that almost all the varieties of each group fell into the
same grade.

The remainder of the paper is concerned with general conclusions and
with a full bibliography of works dealing with Phormium. In addition to
the MS. there is a fairly large set of plates and photographs illustrating the
chief statements made in the text.

Aston. — Plant-habitats Hitherto Unrecorded. 67

Art. VII. — Plant -habitats Hitherto Unrecorded*
By B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 28th October, HH4.]

Lepidium tenuicaule T. K. Wharekahu Bay, Kapiti Island.

var. minor Cheesem. Near trig, station on Kapiti Island.

Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f. On littoral rocks, Kapiti Island, and
Motungarara Island.

- obovata T. K. On coastal crags near Toepiro Stream, Kapiti Island,

at Somes Island, and at Seatoun Heads.
Pittosporum cornifolium A. Cunn. Epiphytic on forest-trees, west side

Kapiti Island.
Eleocarpus dentatus Vahl. In forest, Wharekahu Bay, Kapiti Island.
Pelargonium australe Jacq. Motungarara Island, near Kapiti Island.
Eugenia inaire A. Cunn. In swampy parts, Wharekahu Bay, Kapiti Island.
Epilobium alsinioides A. Cunn. On cliffs, west side Kapiti Island.
Fuchsia excorticata Linn. f. Waterfall Creek, Kapiti Island.
Tetragouia trigyna Banks & Sol. Motungarara Island and Kapiti Island.
Daucus brachiatus Sieb. On coastal cliff- faces, Kapiti Island.
( '<>/>, osnta lucida Forst. Waterfall Creek, Kapiti Island.

- Cunninghainii Hook. f. Tokamapuna Island, near Kapiti Island.
rotundifolia Hook. f. Kapiti Island.

- propinqua A. Cunn. Common oh Kapiti Island.

- foetidissima Forst. On higher parts of Kapiti Island.

- Colensoi Hook. f. In bush, Waterfall Creek, Kapiti Island.
Nertera setulosa Hook. f. Highest parts of grass uplands, Kapiti Island.
Galium umbrosum Sol. On western cliffs, Kapiti Island.

Erechtites argu.ta D.C. Kapiti Island.

- scaberula Hook. f. Motungarara Island, near Kapiti Island.
Senecio Kirhii Hook, f.' In high forest, Kapiti Island.
Wahlenbergia gracilis A. D.C. Kapiti Island.

- saxicola A. D.C. Kapiti Island and Motungarara Island.
Olea lanceolata Hook. f. Waterfall Creek, Kapiti Island.
Dichondra brevifolia Buch. Motungarara Island and Kapiti Island.
Solanum nigrum Linn. Growing on beach, Kapiti Island.

Veronica tnacroura Hook. f. var. Coolciana, Cheesem. Coastal parts Kapiti
Island.
parviflora Vahl. Edge of bush on high country, Kapiti Island.

leiophylla Cheesem. Shores of Cook Strait, between Island Bay and

Terawhiti.
M uehlenbeckia ephedrioides Hook. f. Cawthron Park, Nelson ; near Seatoun

Heads, Wellington, Dr. L. Cockayne and B. C. A.
Litsaea calicaris Benth. & Hook. f. Te Kuiti, B. C. A. ; Mokau, E. P. Turner.
Knight ia excelsa R. Br. Wharekahu Bay, Kapiti Island.

* The information relating to the Kapiti Island habitats was obtained during a
three days' visit to that island with Mr. E. Phillips Turner, F.R.G.S., in January, 1912.
To him and to Mr. and Mrs. Bennett, our hosts, are my best thanks due for a most enjoy-
able excursion. Much help and enjoyment was derived on the island from a study
of the " Report on a Botanical Survey of Kapiti Island," by Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S.
(1907), who was, unfortunately, unable to visit a portion of the island for lack of a boat.
The time of his vi^it was October, and therefore rather early for recognizing many plants
with certainty. Our visit was in these respects more opportune.

3*

68 Transactions.

Urtica incisa Poir. Kapiti Island.

Parietaria debilis Forst. In damp ground, Kapiti Island.

Dendrobium Cunningham ii Lindl. On forest-trees, Kapiti Island.

Earina mucronata Lindl. Waterfall Creek, Kapiti Island.

Thelymitra aniflora Hook. f. Kapiti Island.

Pteroslylis aastralis Hook. f. Wharekahu Bay, Kapiti Island.

Caladenia minor Hook. f. On high spurs, Kapiti Island.

Chiloglottis cornuta Hook. f. In high forest, Kapiti Island.

Gastrodia Cunninghamii Hook. f. In forest, Kapiti Island.

Phormium tenax Forst. Motungarara Island, near Kapiti Island.

Juncus pallidus R. Br. Kapiti Island.

Gahnia pauciflora T. K. In forest, Kapiti Island.

Carex pumila Thunb. Motungarara Island.

Microlena stipoides R. Br. Forms a sward on the high levels, Kapiti Island.

Deyeuxia Forsteri Kunth. Kapiti Island.

Billardieri Kunth. Kapiti Island.

Poa caespitosa Forst. Wharekahu Bay, Kapiti Island, and Motungarara
Island.

imbecilla Forst. Among upland scrub, Kapiti Island.

Atropis stricta Hack. Motungarara Island and Kapiti Island.

Unrecorded Filices and Lycopodiaceae at Kapiti Island.

Hymenophyllum tnultifidum Swartz.

— subtilissimum Kunze.
Trichomanes venosum, R. Br.
Asplenium fabeUifoliinu Cav.
Nephrodium decompositum R. Br.
glabellum A. Cunn.

— hispid am Hook.
Polypodiuni australe Mett.
grammitidis R. Br.

Cunninghamii Hook.

Tmesipteris tannensis Bernh.

Indigenous Plants of the Ruahine and Kaimanawa Mountains.*

Ranunculus lappaceus Smith. Ruahine Mountains.

rivularis Banks & Sol. Ruahine Mountains.

Clematis itulivisa Willd. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.

parviflora A. Cunn. Whisker's Bush, Feilding.

Caltha novae-zealandiae Hook, f . Mount Makorako, Kaimanawa Mountains ;

5,000 ft,
Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f. On limestone country, west side of

Ruahine Mountains ; 3,000 ft.
Melicytus micranthus Hook. f. West face of Ruahine Mountains, on Rangi-

tikei River; 1,650ft.

- ramiflorxs Forst. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Pittosporum Ralphii T. Kirk. Boyd's Bush, near Kuripapanga, Kaimanawa

Mountains.

- tenuifolium Banks & Sol. Boyd's Bush.

Plagianthus betulinus A. Cunn. West face of Ruahine Range ; 1,800 ft.

* This list is supplementary to that given in my paper in Tran^. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46,
p. 43,1914.

Aston. — Plant-habitats Hitherto Unrecorded. 69

Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. Taruarau Kiver Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Geranium dissectum Linn. var. australe Benth. West face of Ruahine

Mountains.
Geum leiospermum Petrie. Reporoa bog, Ruahine Mountains ; 3,000 ft.

Now recorded for the first time in the North Island.
Drosera spathdata Labill. ' Reporoa bog, Ruahine Mountains ; 3,000 ft.
Leptospermum ericoides A. Rich. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa

Mountains.
Oreomyrrhis andicola Endl. Mount Makorako, Kaimanawa Mountains ;

5,700 ft.
Aciphylla squarrosa Forst. West face of Ruahine Mountains ; 1,500 ft.

var. minor. Reporoa swamp.

Coprosma grandifolia Hook. f. Boyd's Bush, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Panax anomalum Hook. Limestone country on Mount Aorangi, Ruahine

Mountains.
— arboream Forst. Taruarau River, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Coprosma lucida Forst. Boyd's Bush, Kaimanawa Mountains.

Cunninghamii Hook. f. West side of Ruahine Mountains; 1,800ft.

rhamnoides A. Cunn. Boyd's Bush, Kaimanawa Mountains.

crassifolia Col. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.

rotundifolia Hook. f. West side of Ruahine Mountains ; 1,800 ft.

rubra Petrie. West side of Ruahine Mountains ; 1,700 ft.
— — ■ acerosa A. Cunn. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains,

Ruahine Mountains.
Aspen/ht perpHsilla Hook. f. Reporoa bog, west side of Ruahine Mountains ;

3,000 ft.
Brachycome odorata Hook. f. Kaimanawa Mountains.
Lagenophora Forsteri D.C. West side of Ruahine Mountains.
Oleana nummula/rifolia Hook. f. Mount Otupae, Ruahine Mountains.

furfuracea Hook. f. . Mount Otupae, Ruahine Mountains.

Gnaphalium subrigidum Col. 3,800 ft. on Mount Aorangi, Ruahine Moun-
tains.
Traversii Hook. f. Kaimanawa Mountains.
Erechtites prenanthoides D.C. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.

- quadridentata D.C. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Senecio Colensoi Hook. f. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Microseris Forsteri Hook, f . Ruahine Mountains.
Taraxacum officinale Wigg. Ruahine Mountains.
Plujllachne Colensoi Berggr. Mount Makorako, Kaimanawa Mountains;

5,700 ft.
Myrsine Urvillei A. D.C. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Myosotis eximia Petrie, MS. On limestone scarps and talus slopes.

Mounts Aorangi, 3,800 ft., and Mangaohane, 3,600 ft., Ruahine

Mountains.
(Jalystegia tuguriorum R. Br. West side of Ruahine Mountains; 1,650ft.
Plantago uniflora Hook. f. Upper Taruarau River, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Scleranthus biflorus Hook. f. Mount Aorangi, Ruahine Mountains ; 3,800 ft.
Pimelea longifolia Banks & Sol. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa

Mountains.
Tupeia antarctica Cham. & Schl. On Pittosporum tenuifolium, Mount

Aorangi, Ruahine Mountains.
Australina pusilla Gaud. Mount Aorangi, Ruahine Mountains
Podocarpus ferrugineus D. Don. Boyd's Bush, Kaimanawa Mountains.

70 Transactions.

Podocarpus spicatus R. Br. Boyd's Bush, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Dacrydium cupressinum Sol. Boyd's Bush, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Earina autumnalis Hook. f. Tukutuki River, Ruahine Mountains.
Microtis porrifolia R. Br. Ruahine Mountains, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Phormium Cookianum Le Jolis. Taruarau River, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Herpolirion novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Reporoa bog, Ruahine Mountains;

3,000 ft.
Luzula Colensoi Hook. f. Mount Makorako, Kaimanawa Mountains ;

5,000 ft.
Typha angnstifolia Linn. Taruarau River.

Cladium Sinclairii Hook. f. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
— — Vauthiera C. B. Clarke. Taruarau River.

Echinopogon ovatus Beauv. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Deyeuxia Forsteri Kunth. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
setifolia Hook. f. Parke's Peak, near Makaretu, Ruahine Mountains ;

4,000 ft.
Dichelachne crinita Hook. f. Taruarau River Gorge, Kaimanawa Mountains.
Koeleria Kurtzii Hack. Mount Makorako, Kaimanawa Mountains. Now for

the first time recorded in the North Island.
Poa imbecilla Forst. Mount Makorako, Kaimanawa Mountains ; 4,000 ft.
Agropyrum scabrum Beauv. Mount Aorangi, 3,900 ft., Ruahine Mountains ;

Taruarau River, Kaimanawa Mountains.

Art. VIII. — Notes on Comparatively Recent Changes in the Vegetation of

the Taupo District.

By the Rev. H. J. Fletcher.

[Read before the Wellingtoyi Philosophical Society, 28th October, 1914.]

In separate publications, from the time of BidwilFs "Rambles in New
Zealand'" (published in 1841, although written in 1839) right up to the
present time, Taupo has had its share of notice ; but, as far as I am aware,
no one has written about the changes that have taken place in the appear-
ance of the country at the northern end of Lake Taupo during recent times.

There is a popular delusion abroad that an eruption of red-hot pumice
from some centre not specified destroyed most of the vegetation around
Taupo, with the exception of some of the isolated patches of forest such as
may be seen at Opepe, Oruanui, Tauhara, and many other places. I wish
to show in the following notes that the forest at one time covered the whole
of the country around the lake, and that the forest has been destroyed by
human agency ; and, further, to show that there has been no great change
in the configuration of the Taupo country for many centuries.

The Taupo country at the present time, with the exception of the
patches of bush mentioned above, is covered with what is pojuilarly called
scrub, tussock, and fern. The scrub is mainly composed of Leptospermum
scoparium, Leptospermum ericoides, Coriaria ruscifolia, Styphelia acerosa,
Gaultheria, and Dracophyllum. Of these, the Leptospermum scoparium. and
Leptospermum ericoides form the main growth, with the Styphelia acerosa
and Gaultheria forming thick matted growths among them. The Coriaria
ruscifolia grows in among the other scrub in clumps, and is noticeable for
miles over the landscape by its dark-green foliage showing above the lighter
green of the Leptospermum scoparium and Leptospermum ericoides. The

Fletcher. — Recent Changes in Vegetation of Tawpo District. 71

Dracophyllum has some large areas all to itself, but it is also found in single
plants among the other scrub. The tussock is fast disappearing ; it is
giving place to Leptospermum scoparium and Leptospermum ericoides. The
common fern or bracken (Pteris aquilina) grows on the edge of the patches
of forest in a thick rank growth, in gullies, and on the hillsides with
Leptospermum.

The country has changed very much in appearance during the past
few years. Thirty years ago the greater part of the land to the north and
east of the Taupo Township was covered with tussock. When fires de-
stroyed the tussock a growth of Leptospermum sprang up in its place and
increased so rapidly that now it is hard to realize that where the Lepto-
spermum now blooms the tussock once held undisputed sway.

This change is one of the cycle of changes now going on. If the Lepto-
spermum escapes the ravages of fire for any period above fifteen years,
the beginnings of forest growth are seen in the young Coprosma, Pitto-
sporum, and Nothopanax taking advantage of the shelter afforded by the
Leptospermum to obtain a start in life. These three families of plants
are the forerunners of others, and where the scrub escapes the ravages of
fire for a lengthy period nature is hastening to reclothe the country with
its ancient forest. I use the term " reclothe " because within the memory
of men still living the old forests extended over a much greater area than
at present. There is an old Maori now living at Oruanui who remembers
the time when the Oruanui Forest extended right on to the edge of the Taupo
Lake at Kangatira. The proof of this was to be seen all over that portion
of the country up to the last few years. The remains of the burnt logs,
mostlv Podocarpus totara, were collected by the European residents of
Taupo, and used as firewood. The last load, as far as I know, was brought
in in 1895 ; but in the more secluded gullies, and where they have escaped
the frequent fires, they are still to be seen. Mr. T. McKinley, who has a
pastoral lease over a portion of the country mentioned above, has used
nothing else for fencing-posts than the old charred Podocarpus totara logs.

A short time before his death, in 1900, an old Taupo Maori named
Tahau told me that in the days of his grandfather the clumps of forest
now known as Opepe, Motukino, and Tauhara were all connected, and
extended over a very large area. It extended out towards the Eangitaiki,
the source of the Pueto, the Waikato River, between the present Township
of Taupo and the Aratiatia Rapids, and on to the Taupo Lake at Whare-
waka. The evidence of this is to be found in the remains of totara logs
over all the country mentioned. The old man was between seventy-five
and eighty years of age when he died, and if we reckon the boyhood of his
grandfather at fifty years prior to his own birth it gives a period of 125
years back from 1900 to the existence of this extensive tract of forest.
On the strength of the positive evidence here given we cannot resist the
conclusion that in other parts of the Taupo country where the burnt logs
are found they must be taken as conclusive evidence of the existence of
forest there within very recent times.

The destruction of the forest came about in a very simple way. The
staple food of the Taupo Maoris in pre-pakeha days was fern-root, the
rhizome of Pteris aquilina. Great quantities of this starchy root was dug
up in its proper season every year and stored for use. The best fern-root
grew on freshly burnt bush country, and to provide this they were in the
habit of burning fresh patches of bush as required. They were accustomed
to break down the light scrub and burn it when sufficiently dry. The

72 Transactions.

fires would destroy the standing timber, and would often spread much
farther than intended. In this way the large forests of the Taupo country
have been reduced to their present dimensions. These forests can be
taken as sufficient to show that no great change has taken place in the
surface configuration of Taupo during their time of growth. And as it is
usually admitted that the New Zealand forest growth is very slow, it is not
too much to place, the beginning of the forest at over a thousand years ago.

Up to this point we are on firm ground, but how much further back
than the date given above to the beginnings of forest growth it is impossible
to determine. The Maori occupation of the country around the lake prior
to the time of Ngatoroirangi, Tia, and others of the Arawa people is
extremely doubtful ; and no other evidence beyond theirs is known to exist.

The forest gives no indication of many generations of large trees. Tiie
shallowness of the humus in the forest will not admit of the idea of the
decay of generations of the larger forest-trees, and the contours of the
country are so sharp that it is quite evident the change from one deposit
of pumice to a covering of some kind must have been very rapid. Perhaps
the order of change was the same as we have given above — fern, tussock,
scrub, forest.

Beneath the surface pumice for several miles around the Township of
Taupo there is a deposit of volcanic mud, very much like the mud from
the eruption of Tarawera in 1886. This mud can be traced in all the road-
cuttings leading out from Taupo. On the old Atiamuri Road from Taupo
via Oruanui it appears in every cutting, low down in the valleys as well
as high up on the hills. It is very noticeable on both sides of the Waikato
River near the bridge at Taupo. Beyond Oruanui, on the Mokai Road,
it is seen for only a short distance, not quite two miles from Oruanui. On
the Rotorua Road, via Wairakei, it can be found for over six miles beyond
Wairakei. On the Napier Road it can be traced from the edge of the
Taupo Lake to Opepe. The deposit is not found at more than 7 ft. below
the surface, except near the edge of the lake, and in many places it is only
a few inches. The average depth may be reckoned at 3 ft.

The existence of this stratum of mud at such a depth shows that the
surface configuration of the country was almost the same prior to the
eruption as it is now.

The source of the mud seems to have been some point near the. explosion
craters at Rotokawa, the deposit, as far as can be traced, having somewhere
about the same thickness at points equally distant from that centre-
Taupo, Wairakei, and the hills above the Aratiatia Rapids on the western
side having about the same thickness of mud ; Oruanui much less ; and
still farther away from Rotokawa it is not found for more than two miles
on the Mokai Road.

There are. other questions connected with the age and appearance of
the country that the writer does not feel competent to deal with. For
instance, the streak of mud we have mentioned appears low down near the
present level of the lake, and at least 800 ft. above it. Yet the terraces
which mark old lake-levels are formed in the pumice which is on top of
the mud. This is very noticeable in the case of the terrace at 120 ft. above
the present level. This seems to indicate that when the mud was deposited
the surface features were almost the same as at present : that a lake was
formed and rose to a considerable height above the present level — how high
we cannot at present determine ; and that the lake gradually receded, leaving
terrace formations, more or less distinct, until it reached its present level.

Holloway. — Protocorm of Lycopodium laterale. 73

Art. IX. — Preliminary Note on the Protocorm of Lycopodium laterale

R. Br. Prodr.

By J. E. Holloway. M.Sc.
[Rend before, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1014.]

It is well known that in the embryo plant of Lycopodium cernuum, and also
in those of L. inundatum and L. salakense, the development of the tuberous
organ termed the " protocorm " is an important phase in the ontogeny,
bridging over the period between the early stage in which the embryo
plant is wholly dependent upon its parent prothallus, and its subsequent
development, in which it has obtained independence through the establish-
ment of a root-system. Moreover, in the related genus, Phylloglossum, a
protocorm is present, and this plant has been spoken of as " a permanently
embryonic form of Lycopod," for the protocorm is there not a temporary
organ, but the plant-body proper.

The Lycopod protocorm is the subject of widely differing interpretations.
The first of these, and one which invests this organ with considerable interest
and importance, is that it is a highly primitive organ, and represents an
ancestral phase in the evolution of the free-living Lycopodium sporophyte,
and perhaps also in the evolution of vascular plants generally (Treub).
A second interpretation is that the protocorm is not to be regarded so
much a primitive organ as an opportunist growth, and that, even if it does
play an important part in the establishment of certain Lycopod embryos,
it is not to be regarded as representing a phylogenetic feature in the Lyco-
pod iaceae, and still less in vascular plants as a whole (Bower). A third
interpretation has more recently been put forward, which, taking into
account the great development of the stem in Palaeozoic Lycopods, and
being unwilling to regard the protocorm either as a highly primitive organ
or as a mere parenchymatous swelling, would look upon it as a modified
form of stem due to reduction (Brown, "New Phytologist," vol. 12, p. 222,
June, 1913).

In view, therefore, of the puzzling nature of this organ, it is interesting
-to note that it has been found in yet another species of Lycopodium — viz.,
L. laterale — and that it there assumes a much greater size, and plays a much
more important part in the establishment of the young plant than in the
other species of Lycopodium in which it has been recorded.

In a paper entitled " A Comparative Study of the Anatomy of Six New
Zealand Species of Lycopodium" published in the Transactions of the New
Zealand Institute, vol. 42, 1910, the writer gave a short account of the
protocorm of L. laterale, with five small figures (figs. 5-9, pi. xxxi). No
definite conclusion was there reached as to the interpretation of the proto-
corm. The present paper is a summary of the writer's further observations
upon this organ.

The prothallus of L. laterale is of the cernuum type, as is the case
also for the prothalli of each of the other species in which a protocorm
has been found, excluding the possibly doubtful case of L. phlegmaria.
At the stage at which the young plant of L. laterale consists of a basal
protocorm surrounded by two or three protophylls it is similar in appear-
ance to the voung plant of L. cernuum. The succeeding stages in its
development are, however, noteworthy. The protocorm grows sideways,
•owing to the lateral development of two new protophylls, whose swollen

74 Transactions.

bases, in the majority of young plants of this age that were examined,
show as a tuberous region separated from the first-formed protocorm proper
by a more or less marked constriction. In L. cernuum the protophylls are
all normally developed on the upper side of the small tuberous protocorm,
and not as a lateral extension of it. The writer has, however, out of a
large number of young plants of L. cernuum that he has examined, observed
that the protocorm in one or two instances showed a distinct tendency to
grow laterally, one young plant showing seven protophylls on such an
extended protocorm. In older plants of L. laterale it was observed that the
original protocorm could often be still distinguished from the later-formed
protocormous extension, and that the former easily broke away from the
latter in the process of cleaning.

The further growth of the young plant takes place by the continued
lateral development of protophylls, and the consequent extension of the
protocorm by their swollen bases, the protocorm increasing in thickness
the farther from the original end. The protophylls are more or less
arranged in two rows on its dorsal surface, this arrangement indicating
that their development, as also that of the rhizome itself, has taken place
very regularly. The protocormous rhizome thus formed bears ventrally
a mat of rhizoids. It gradually loses its green colour and semitranslucent
appearance, and in the fully developed stage has become yellowish and
opaque and firm, whilst after the differentiation of the stem-axis both the
protophvlls and the rhizoids decay away. The rhizome consists of paren-
chymatous tissue throughout, the cells of the central region being smaller
and more compact, whilst those nearer the surface are larger, and show
air-spaces. A strand of vascular tissue is present in each protophyll, and
passes down into the body of the rhizome, where it ends blindly. At the
stage at which a stem-apex is differentiated there are from eight to twelve
protophylls, and the rhizome is from 3 mm. to 5 mm. in length and from
1 mm. to 2 mm. in thickness. In one instance it was observed that the
rhizome had forked into two equal branches, and that on each of these a
stem was developing.

The stem-axis arises at some point on the dorsal surface of the rhizome
towards its growing end, or even almost at the end itself, and is indicated
by the aggregation of protophylls. At the same time, vascular tissues
are initiated from the stem-apex and extend down into the body of the
rhizome, receiving on the way strands from the neighbouring protophylls.
In the rhizome these vascular tissues bend round at a sharp angle, and,
surrounded by a slight zone of sclerenchyma, take a course through the
body of the rhizome, though nearer its dorsal surface, towards its growing-
end. The latter at the same time grows outwards and downwards to form
a finger-like protuberance into which the vascular tissues pass. Thus the
extension in length of the protocormous rhizome is brought to a close by
the initiation of this exogenously developed first root. The writer has
observed that in the young plant of L. cernuum the vascular tissues of the
stem behave in the same way as in L. laterale. They lead down bodily into
the upper region of the protocorm, and thence decline towards the finger-
like protuberance of the rhizome, which is the first root, though in this
species the angle of declination is more gradual than in L. laterale. The
course of the main vascular strand in its relation to the protocorm just
described may be compared with what obtains in the young plant of
L. clavatum and other species, where the vascular system does not extend
into the tissues of the large intraprothallial foot. All subsequently formed
roots in the young plants of both L. laterale and L. cernuum emerge

Holloway. — Protocorm of Lycopodium laterale. 75

adventitiously from the stem, and do not pass through the tissues of the
protocorm. The protocormous rhizome of L. laterale is a persistent organ,
and may be recognized in plants 2 in. or even more in height. It may
be stated that the protophylls both on the protocorm proper and on the
rhizome are essentially similar in appearance and structure to the ordinary
vegetative leaves borne on the young stem-axis. In no case either in
L. laterale or in L. cemuum was any transition between them to be observed.
L. laterale grows on damp peaty ground and around the margins of
marshes. L. cemuum and Phylloglossum also occur in New Zealand in
the Auckland Province in much the same kind of habitat, though on higher
ground rather than in the hollows. During the greater part of the year
ground of this nature is continuously wet, and holds much water, but in the
summer months it is liable to be dried up. The view taken in this paper
is that the large development of the protocorm in L. laterale is an adaptation
to carry the young plant over the dry season. This would seem to be
indicated in the continued lateral development of protophylls with swollen
bases, and by the distinction so frequently to be observed between the
original protocorm and the protocormous rhizome. The fact that the
protocorm of L. cemuum also occasionally extends laterally as a rhizome
indicates that the Lycopod protocorm is a plastic organ, and that too
much stress must not be laid from a phylogenetic point of view upon the
fact of its normally large development in L. laterale. The writer desires
rather to emphasize the fact that a well-developed protocorm, which in
its first stage is of the same nature as that so well known in L. cemuum,
has been found also in L. laterale; that it is there correlated with a
prothallus of the cemuum type; and that L. laterale belongs to the same
subgenus Rhopalostachya as do the other members of the Lycopodiaceae
(with the possible exception of L. phlegmaria) in which a protocorm has been
recorded.

Conclusions.

1. In L. laterale and occasionally also in L. cemuum (though there to
a. less extent) the protocorm is capable of considerable development, and
constitutes the plant-body proper for a lengthy period. The vascular
strand of the stem and first root takes a course through its tissues. The
rhizome of L. laterale may even branch and give rise to more than one
stem-axis.

2. There is a marked developmental distinction in L. laterale between
the original protocorm and its rhizomatous extension. This suggests that
the two portions must be interpreted apart from one another.

3. In L. laterale the manner of development of the protocormous rhizome
suggests that its large size is an adaptation to carry the young plant over
the dry season which normally always follows the wet winter season.

4. In L. laterale the protocorm is associated with the cemuum type
of prothallus, and this is the case also in the other Lycopodiaceae in which
a protocorm has been recorded. This type of prothallus has been stated
on other grounds to be primitive for the genus. The fact that these
protocormous species belong to two groups in the subgenus Rhopalostachya
suggests a certain degree of antiquity for the protocorm within the genus
Lycopodium ; and, assuming the primitive nature of the cemuum type
of prothallus, would also suggest that the subgenus Rhopalostachya com-
prises the more primitive members of the Lycopodiaceae, and that the genus
as a whole should be read as a reduction series rather than as a series which
has progressed from those forms which show the simpler type of sporophyte.

76 Transactions.

Art. X. — The Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County, with some

Notes on Abnormal Forms.

By H. Cause.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1914.]

In the New Zealand botanical area, which embraces, in addition to the
mainland, the outlying groups of the Kermadec Islands, the Chatham Islands,
and the islands lying to the south,* there are 138 species of ferns, contained
in thirty-one genera. In addition, there are twenty-seven varieties named.
But there are also a good many forms not included in these species and
varieties, in some cases, no doubt, intermediate forms, in others forms not
specially distinguished, some of which, in my opinion, are, from their con-
stancy, worthy of distinction.

Of the 138 species, there are in the Mangonui County ninety, and of
the varieties acknowledged in Cheeseman's " Manual of the New Zealand
Flora " there are fourteen.

The names used in this paper are those of the Manual, except in a few
cases where changes have been made in accordance with the rules established
by the Botanical Congress of Vienna. f

Filices.

Hymenophyllaceae.

1. Hymenophyllum Linn.

Twenty species in Manual, represented by eleven species in Mangonui
County.

2. Trichomanes Smith.

Seven species in Manual, represented by five species.

In shaded gullies Hymenophyllum scdbrum A. Rich, grows luxuriously,
especially on trees leaning over the creek. Here, too, are found H. dila-
tatum, H. demissum, H. polyanthos, and others, though by no means con-
fined to this situation.

My most recent discovery among these delicate ferns in this district
was H. Cheesemanii. For years I have searched for this tiny fern without
success, always looking for it " among moss on the upper branches of forest-
trees." When I did find it, however, it was on the stems of small trees,
hidden in a dense growth of moss, which Mr. Cheeseman informs me is a
very unusual position. I have even found it on the shady side of a kauri-
tree, and, last of all, I did find it on the upper branches of a fallen tree.

H. ferrugineum Colla. occurs plentifully in damp gullies on the stems
of Dicksonia squarrosa, not infrequently mixed with Trichomanes venosum
R. Br. T. reniforme Forst., the " kidney fern," occurs plentifully on fallen
logs as a rule.

The most interesting among these ferns in this district is T. strict-um
Menz. It is decidedly rare. Usually it occurs in damp forests, but near
Kaitaia, the only place where this fern has been noted in the county, it is
growing on deeply shaded clay banks of a creek, and also on the margins

* " Manual of the New Zealand Flora," Cheeseman, preface, p. iv.
t 'Notes on Botanical Nomenclature," Cheeseman, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40,
p. 464, 1908.

Carse. — Ferns and Fern Allien of Mangonui County. 7 7

of " potholes" from which gum has been dug on the moorlands. " A veiv
remarkable locality, as the species is almost invariably a denizen of the
deep forest. "*

Cyatheaceae.

3. Loxsoma R. Br.

One species, not uncommon in district.

4. Cyathea Smith.
Four. species, of which two occur.

5. Hemitelia R, Br.
One species, which occurs plentifully.

7: Dicksonia L'Herit.

Three species, two of which are common.

Loxsoma Cunninghamii R. Br., a unique species, occurs freely in this
county in some parts, though it is absent from large areas.

According to Professor Goebel, of Munich, to whom specimens were sent,
" Loxsoma is closely related to Cyatheaceae, and has nothing to do with
the filmy ferns Gleichenia and Polyiwdiaceae." For a full description of
the prothallus, showing its resemblance to that of cyatheaceous ferns, refer-
ence should be made to " Archegoniatenstudien ; xiv, Loxsoma und das
System der Fame," by Dr. Goebel, in " Abdruck aus Flora oder Allgemeine
Botanische Zeitung," heft i, published by Gustav Fischer, Jena.

Cyathea dealbata Swartz and C. medullaris Swartz are both plentiful,
and it is quite possible that C. Cunninghamii Hook. f. also occurs, though
I have not yet come on it.

Hemitelia Smithii Hook, is plentiful in damp forests.

Dicksonia squarrosa Swartz is a characteristic of low-lying forest, in mam-
places covering considerable areas, almost to the exclusion of other vegeta-
tion. D. Janata Col. always affects a drier habitat, occurring freely on slopes
in the forest. In the "north it usually develops a caudex, prostrate and rooting
for some distance, then rising to a height of 3-6 ft.

POLYPODIACEAE.

This suborder includes seventeen out of the thirty-one genera.

[8. Davallia Smith.

Three species, of which one only occurs here, D. novae-zealandiae, and is
apparently very rare.

10. Lindsaya Dryander.

Three species, two of which (L. ouneata C. Chr. and L. linearis Swartz)
are not uncommon.

L. linearis is distinctly a moorland plant, occurring freely on clay slopes.
The sterile fronds are always much shorter and broader than the fertile
ones, and frequently grow in a rosulate manner.

L. cuneata belongs to the forests, usually growing on the upper slopes.
This is a very variable fern. One form has the frond distinctly tripinnate
with the ultimate segments deeply pinnatfid, another is bipinnate, and a
third is simply pinnate. This last is var. Lessonii Hook. f. Not infre-
quently the two latter forms are found on the one plant.

* Cheeseman, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 43, p. 185, 1911.

78 Transactions.

1 1. Adiantum Linn.

Of the six species of maidenhairs, Adiantum formosum alone is absent.

A. aethiopicum Linn., the most delicately cut and graceful of the species
we have in New Zealand, is not uncommon in lowland situations, occurring
freely in places on ditch-banks and on margins of wet patches.

A. diaphanum Blnme is also usually to be found in damp places, both
in lowland forests and among damp rocks in the higher forests. .Some-
times it is simply pinnate, or it may have 1-2 or rarely 3 branches in
addition to the main pinna.

A. hispidulum Swartz is usually found on a rather dry slope or bank
of a dry ditch, often associated with Doodia media. In its young state the
frond has a delicate appearance, and is often bright red in colour ; in maturity
the frond is harsh and rigid in appearance, and dark green in colour.

A. affine Willd. : this, or the larger form at least, is one of our hand-
somest ferns. The best-developed specimens are to be looked for in lowland
countrv, among shaded woods. In the larger forms the frond is divided
into two or three pairs of pinnae with a long terminal one, the lower pairs
usually being branched, so that the frond is really tripinnate or occasionally
4-pinnate. Smaller forms, often not more than 1-2 in. high, at times simply
pinnate, are found on dry rocks.

A form with narrower and more acute pinnules occurs, in which the
secondary rachides are more or less pubescent. This is probably a connect-
ing-link with the next species.

A. fulvum Raoul occurs plentifully in drier parts of the forest. It is
much more branched than A. affine, the fronds frequently being 4-pinnate.

12. Hypolepis Bernh.

Two of the three species (H. tenuifolia Bernh. and H. distant Hook.)
occur, and, while they are distributed throughout the district, neither is
at all common.

H. tenuifolia is rather a puzzling plant, Owing not only to the varied
forms it assumes in different habitats, but also to its close resemblance to
Polypodium punctatum — a resemblance so close, indeed, that doubts have
been expressed as to whether the two ferns are not merely varying forms
of the one species.

Technically, the distinctions are as follows : —

Hypolepis. — Sorus placed on the sinuses between the teeth or lobes.
Indusium composed of the reflexed scale-like tip of a lobule of the frond.

Polypodium. -Sorus close to the margin of the lobes, but not absolutely
on the margin. Indusium entirely absent. Rhachis and stipes distinctly
viscid-pubescent.

When the characteristics above alluded to are well marked there is no
difficulty at all in distinguishing the two ferns ; but, except in the young
state, it is often difficult to detect the pseudo-involucre of Hypolepis.
Sometimes, however, it is but feebly developed, and occasionally it is
slightly developed in what, from the viscidity of the rhachis, is decidedly
a Poly podium.

I have noted three chief forms of Hypolepis tenn (folia. In shaded
lowland woods, often on the bank of a small creek, and always in moist
soil, occurs the largest and handsomest form of all. The stipes is 1-4 ft.
high, the frond 2-4 ft. long, and broad in proportion. This I take to be
Cheilanthes pellucida Col.

Carse. — Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County. 79

Another and smaller form occurs in the forest, usually on decaying
masses of Asteliads which have fallen from the upper branches of trees.
As this is also a favourite habitat of Polypodium punctaium, a careful
examination is necessary to make sure as to which fern it is.

A third and very distinct form, though undoubtedly connected by
intermediates, occurs in open damp land, often on the edge of a swamp, in
full sunshine. This form is less robust as a rule, almost glabrous, and
paler in colour, but usually the reflexed tip of the lobule is clearly marked.

H. distans Hook, is nowhere common, though scattered through the
forest district, often, like Polypodimn punctatum, growing on decaying
vegetable matter. In damp shady parts of the forest it often attains much
greater dimensions than are given in the Manual, which says, " Stipes,
3-9 in. long ; fronds, 6-15 in. long, 3-6 in. broad." Here it is not un-
common to find it with stipes 9-12 in. ; frond, 24—36 in. long, 9-12 in.
broad.

It is not uncommon for this handsome slender fern, when growing in
great luxuriance, to assume the habit of a climber, twining itself for support
round more robust plants among which it grows.

13. Cheilanthes Swartz.

Two species, one of which (C. Sieberi Kunze) is found here and there
on dry rocks.

14. Pellaea Link.

There are two species of this fern in New Zealand, both of which are
found in Mangonui County.

P. falcata Fee. has so far only been noticed in the vicinity of Kaitaia,
where Mr. H. B. Matthews discovered it.

P. rotundifolia Hook, is plentiful, not in dry woods, as stated in the
Manual, but chiefly in damp low-lying woods subject to inundation.

15. Pteris Linn.

The whole of the six species mentioned in the Manual occur in the
district.

P. aquilina Linn, var esculenta Hook. f. covers vast areas where forests
have been cleared and grasses have been sown insufficiently or have died
out. This fern springs up in countless thousands on neglected burns.
Probably before this country was settled by white people the area occupied
by this now almost ubiquitous pest was very much more restricted.

' Fern-root," the starchy rhizome of this plant, was at one time an
important part of the vegetable food of the Maori, but it is to be noted
that it was not all or any of the plants that were used. Certain places
became noted for " roi" the edible rhizome. Probably some difference or
peculiarity of soil or situation rendered one particular patch more suitable
than others, though I have failed to detect any structural differences in
plants from these chosen spots.

It is also worthy of note that pigs enclosed on a patch of fern per-
sistently neglect certain plants, though their rhizomes appear quite as
succulent and as well developed as those they greedily devour.

P. scaberula A. Eich. occurs plentifully in dry open woods, but more
particularly on exposed places, such as roadside cuttings and old landslips,
where it forms a dense covering, almost to the exclusion of other vegetation.

30 Transactions.

The curious scrambling, almost liane-like form occasionally assumed
by P. Uquilina when growing in the shade has been referred to by Dr.
Cockayne.*

P. i rem ula R. Br. attains its greatest luxuriance when growing in damp,
shaded, lowland woods. When well grown it stands 5-6 ft. high before
the fronds droop gracefully outward.

P. macilenta A. Rich., like the above, grows most luxuriantly in damp
lowland woods; but it occurs also in the forests, not only in shaded gullies,
but on the drier slopes, and even among comparatively dry rocks. It is
the most variable species of the genus. Two iorms only are described in
the Manual, the type and var. pendula (Col.) Oheesem., but there is another
common and distinct form, usually occurring among rocks in the higher
parts of the forest. It is much more slender than the type, with the primary
pinnae fewer and more distant, 2 4 in. long ; secondary pinnae 1-1 1 in.
long ; pinnules J-| in. less deeply incised. It often occurs associated
with the typical form, and has certainly a very distinct appearance,
though doubtless there are intermediate forms connecting it with the
type.

Some years ago I gathered in the bush on my farm a very unusual form
■rchich approaches very closely to P. comans. Referring to this in a letter,
Mr. Cheeseman writes, " P. macilenta in its ordinary or typical form is
verv distinct from P. comans; but Colenso's P. pendula is about half-way
between, and what you seno1 is still nearer."

P. comans Foist, is by no means common, occurring, as a rule, on the
coast.

P. incisa Thunb. : This beautiful fern is common throughout. It
thrives best in damp, lowland woods.

16. Lomaria Willd.

Fourteen species in New Zealand botanical area, of which nine species
occur in this district.

Ferns of this family are noticeable from the fact that the fertile fronds
differ eonsiderablv from the sterile. As a rule, the pinnae of the. fertile
fronds are narrow-linear, and frequently the entire under-surface is con-
cealed by the sori. Many species develop a more or less erect caudex.

L. discolor Willd. is plentiful in forests, preferring the shady, moist
parts. The fronds, rising obliquely from the outer edge of the upper part
of the caudex, give the plant a striking resemblance to a crown.

L. lanceolata Spreng. is essentially a fern of the shade, forming graceful
festoons on the banks of forest creeks.

L. BanJcsii Hook. f. is found only on the coast, where it thrives on
dripping rocks. I know of only two stations in this district where it occurs,
both on the west coast.

L. capensis Willd. is abundant in all situations. This fern is so variable
in form and size that at first it is difficult to believe that the small forms
found in swamps or on dry clay banks, with fronds often only a few inches
long, can belong to the same species as the huge specimens growing on
moist cliffs in shaded ravines, or on creek-banks in dark forest gullies, with
fronds 8-10 ft. long.

*"Some Noteworthy New Zealand Ferns," L. Cockayne, "The Plant World,"
vol. 15, No. .'!. p. 58, 1912.

('arse. — Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County. 81

In the Manual four varieties of this fern are given. The first three
appear to me to show very trivial differences, but var. minor Hook. f. is
so different that I have no hesitation in classing it as a distinct species,
approaching, as Mr. Cheeseman has pointed out, much nearer to L. vidcanica
Blume.

L. filiformis A. dum. is abundant in forests, draping the trunks of trees
with its dark-green pendulous fronds. This fern is " remarkable for its
long climbing rhizome and dimorphic sterile fronds." They might almost
be called trimorphic, for in the juvenile form on the ground the sterile
fronds are often only an inch or two in length, with pinnae |-J in. long.
Higher up they are 4-6 in. long, with pinnae £-f in., and still higher are
fronds 1-2^ ft. in length, with pinnae 1J-4 in. long.

The fertile fronds have quite a feathery appearance, due to the slender-
ness of the pinnae and to the fact that they are usually gracefully curved,
and curled at the ends.

L. nigra Col. is not uncommon in deep ravines in the more hilly parts
of the district. In the Manual, Whangarei is given as the northern limit
of this fern, but since its publication the occurrence of L. nigra is the far
north has been recorded.*

L. fluviatilis Spreng. is plentiful in places, but local. It is most frequent,
as its name implies, on the banks of streams in the forest, though it is by
no means confined to such spots. The gracefully drooping crown of fronds
makes this fern a welcome addition to the fernery.

L. membranacea Col. occurs frequently on creek-banks, damp forest
slopes, and in lowland woods. In its juvenile form it is remarkable for the
enlarged terminal part of the frond, closely resembling in shape small
specimens of L. nigra.

Large specimens of this fern are sometimes rather difficult to distinguish
from L. lanceolata, but, as a rule, in L. membranacea the pinnae are shorter
and more obtuse, not decurrent at the base as in L. lanceolata. and dis-
tinctly separate one from another.

L. Fraseri A. Cunn. : Abundant in forests throughout. This fern is
distinguished from all others of the family by its being the only one with
bipinnate fronds. The long slender caudex gives this handsome fern the
appearance of a miniature tree-fern. The caudex is occasionally over 3 ft.
in length, and fronds much larger than the dimensions usually given in
books occur. In the Manual the measurements given are : " Pinnae
2-3 in. long, pinnules J-J in. long." In specimens gathered in the forest
here the dimensions are : Pinnae 4-6 in. long, pinnules |-f in. long.

17. Doodia E. Br.

The two species both occur in the district.

D. media K. Br. is usually found in fairly open country, frequently
associated with Adiantum hispididum, and, like it, often red in colour in
the young state.

D. caudata R. Br. can, as a rule, be at once distinguished from D. media
by the marked difference of the sterile and fertile fronds ; but forms occur
which are difficult to place, and I think there is no doubt that the species
pass into one another, if, indeed, they are not extreme forms of one
species.

* Cheeseman, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 18.1. 1911.

82 Transactions.

18. Asplenium Linn.

Twelve species in New Zealand, of which nine occur in the Mangonui
district. Various states of this beautiful family form a very characteristic
feature of the New Zealand forest.

A. adiantoides C. Chr., perhaps better known as A. falcatum Lam., is
one of the handsomest ferns we have. It may often be seen pendent from
masses of Astdia in forest-trees ; usually the pendulous forms are more
elongated. I gathered a specimen near here which greatly exceeds the
dimensions given in the Manual. The measurements there given are :
Stipes, 6-12 in. long; fronds, 1-3 ft. long; pinnae, 12-25 pairs. The
measurements of my specimen are : Stipes, 22 in. ; frond, 5 ft. 4 in. ;
pinnae, 47 pairs. The total length of this specimen is 7 ft. 2 in.

A. obtusatum Forst. occurs sparingly on maritime rocks. This fern
reminds me closely of the northern A. marinum.

A. lucidum Forst. is undoubtedly one of the most variable ferns we
have. In addition to the type form, there are four varieties mentioned
in the Manual, but there are many forms intermediate among them, and
even forms connecting with other species.

The type form is plentiful in damp, shaded parts of the forest, and can
usually be distinguished by its long acuminate pointed pinnae.

Var. obliquum Moore is a smaller, more coriaceous plant, much blunter
in the pinnae, often, in exposed situations, hardly distinguishable from
A. obtusatum, of which it is probably a connecting-link with A. lucidum.

Var. Lyallii Hook. f. : Rare in this district. One of the forms occurring
here bears considerable resemblance to A. bulbiferum, even to bearing the
bulbils.

A. Hookerianum Col. is apparently rare and local, a small variety having
been gathered in the vicinity of Kaitaia.

A. bulbiferum Forst. is quite a characteristic fern of the shaded bush,
attaining its greatest luxuriance in deep gullies. The typical form is very
distinct, but there are many variable forms, some of which are rather
puzzling.

Var. tripinnatum Hook. f. is a clearly marked form, but I am not at
all clear as to var. laxum Hook f. In the Manual it is described as being
without bulbils. I have a form, not uncommon in places, which agrees
fairly well with the description of var. laxum, except that it as often as not
produces bulbils. There is another, and not uncommon, form which, so
far as I have seen, never produces bulbils at all. The frond is 12-18 in.
long without the stipes, simply pinnate, or barely bipinnate in the lower
part of the frond. Usually the pinnae are deeply toothed or lobed,
especially on the upper part. It usually occurs on damp clay banks. This
form is very distinct, and is, in my opinion, as worthy of varietal rank
as any of the others. Possibly it is a transitional form approaching
A. flaccid um.

A. flaccidum Forst. varies more in form, I think, than any other fern
we have. No doubt the variations are due to a great extent to the nature
of the habitat, but even among the epiphytic plants, and among plants
growing on the same tree, there are remarkable differences in the shape,
size, and angle of the lobes.

Among the terrestrial forms the differences are * much greater.
Rupestral forms are not unlike the pendent epiphytes except in size and
rigidity, but forms growing in shady forests differ widely. One not un-

Carse. — Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County. 83

common form is bulbiferous, and closely resembles some forms of A. bulbi-
ferum : another is very like a slender form of A. hiciihnn.

A. umbrosum J. Sm. is plentiful in moist shaded places. Its stout
fleshy rhizome enables it to linger for years on alluvial flats after the forest
has been cleared ; so persistent is it, in fact, that it becomes a weed. The
fronds are rather delicate, and blacken at the first frost.

A. japonicum Thunb. : This fern is plentiful in alluvial soil in the
immediate neighbourhood of Kaiaka, and occurs here and there along the
river-bank in the Kaitaia district.

It is by no means a common plant in New Zealand. It was. I believe,
first noted in the Dominion on the Okura Creek (Bay of Islands) ; later
I reported it from Kaitaia ; and since then it has been found on the
Northern Wairoa River. It grows best in low-lying alluvial woods.

*

19. Aspidium Swartz.

Seven species are listed in the Manual, two only of which grow in this
district.

A. Richardii Hook, is usually found among rocks, maritime and inland.
It varies considerably as to the extent to which the pinnae are divided,
and the shape and toothing of the pinnules. As might be expected, forms
growing on exposed rocks, maritime or inland, are more coriaceous in
texture, and have shorter and blunter pinnules, than those whose habitat
is more favourable.

A. adiantiforme (Forst.) J. Sm. is, in my opinion, one of the most hand-
some ferns we have. It occurs most freely on mounds of humus in the
forest, often climbing for some distance up the trunks of trees. Small
plants often grow on the stems of tree-ferns.

20. Nephrodium Rich.

Eight species, all of which, except the Kermadec Island N. setigerum
Bak., occur in the county.

N. Thelypteris Desv. var. squamulosum Schlect. is found in several
swampy places from the North Cape to Reef Point, rarely far from the sea.

This is one of the seven species of ferns which are common to Europe
and the Southern Hemisphere. The others are Hymenophyllum Tun-
bridgense, H. unilatemle, Aspidium aculeatum, Gymnogramme leptophylla,
Ophioglossum vidgatum, and Botrychium lunaria.

The var. squamulosum appears to be confined to New Zealand and
South Africa.

N. decomposition R. Br. is not uncommon in damp woods in rich alluvial
soil.

N. glabellum A. Cunn. occurs freely in damp shady forests. ' Botanists
are indebted to Mr. Kirk for clearing up the confusion which had arisen
regarding this and the preceding species/'*

The main differences are that N. decomposition has a creeping rhizome,
the fronds being scattered along it, while A7, glabellum has a short tufted
rhizome, with the fronds much narrower at the base and darker in colour.

N. velutinum Hook. f. is usually found in hilly forest, generally in rocky
ground. The dense velvety pubescence distinguishes it from allied plants.

;'The Ferns and Fern Allien of New Zealand," G. M. Thomson, p. 82.

84 Transactions.

N. Ins pid ii in Hook, is a most characteristic fern of damp shaded gullies
in the forest. It is one of the largest species in the family, and is easily
distinguished by the rigid bristles on the stipes and rhachis.

N. r/ongylodes Schott, probably better known as N. unitum R. Br., is
essentially a tropical fern, and was for a long time supposed to occur " only
in the immediate neighbourhood of the hot springs and lakes of the North
Island."*

This fern is, however, by no means uncommon in marshes, mostly mari-
time, from the North Cape to Rsef Point.

N. parasiticum, Desv. = N. molleDesv. : Like AT. unitum, this is a tropical
fern. According to Thomson (I.e., p. 84), " It is only known certainly from
one locality in New Zealand — viz., on the bank of the Otumakokori or Boiling
River, at the foot of the Paeroa Range, in the North Island, and there it
occurs sparingly." Since then it was found on " margins of hot springs
at Wairakei " (Taupo) (Manual, p. 1006). But more recent discoveries
have shown that this lovely fern is not quite as restricted as was thought.
Some years ago my friend Mr. H. B. Matthews, of Kaitaia, discovered a
small patch of N. parasiticum on the slopes of Pukewhau, not far from
Rangaunu Harbour, a wide opening on the north-east coast of the county.
Last year he and I were delighted to find several fair-sized clumps and
scattered plants on the bank of the Kaitaia-Awanui River, a few miles
below Kaitaia. The situation is sheltered on all sides by tall scrub, and,
judging from the size of the largest patch, the plant has been long established.

Mr. Matthews is of opinion that this fern was at one time fairly plentiful
along the river, but the advent of cattle has caused it to decrease. He
also thinks that the patch at Mangatete (Pukewhau) may have originated
from spores carried by cattle, which in the early days were pastured some-
times on the river-bank, and at others in the hilly country around Mangatete,
about ten miles distant. This is quite feasible, for a portion of a frond
bearing ripe spores might have travelled from the one station to the other
in the cleft of a bullock's hoof, or even if a beast had browsed off a part of
a frond before leaving one place some of the spores so carried to the other
might have developed in the new habitat ; but, be this as it may, this rare
fern occurs in both places.

Nepkrodium parasiticum is a fern well worth a place in every fernery,
but it requires a sheltered situation, thriving well in a glasshouse. Its pale-
green delicate fronds, with slender acuminate pinnae, ascending and droop-
ing gracefully, render the plant a ching of beauty.

Judging by the dimensions given in the Manual, our northern form is
quite as well developed as the forms which occur in the heated soil and warm
vapours of the Hot Lake district.

It is quite possible that this fern may vet be found in other parts of the
county, or even south from here. " It has been recorded from Whangarei
by Mr. Robert Mair."f This, however, has not been confirmed.

22. Polypodium Linn.

' This, the largest genus of ferns, containing over 500 species, found in
all parts of the world " (Manual, p. 1008), is represented in New Zealand by
ten species, all of which, save P. novae-zealandiae, occur in this district.

* " The Fern and Fern Allies of New Zealand," G. M. Thomson, p. 84.
f Thomson, I.e., p. 84.

Carse. — Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County. 85

P. punctatum Thunb. is, as noted under Hypolepis tenuifolia, so near
to that species as to be very difficult of distinction, especially when dry.
The technical differences between the two species are the recurved lobule
forming a pseudo-involucre in H. tenuifolia, absent in P. punctatum, and the
position of the sori — on the margins of the sinuses in Hypolepis, and farther
from the margins in Polypodia id. But in practice these are not altogether
trustworthy. In some forms of Hypolepis the spurious involucre is hardlv
or not at all developed, and sometimes it appears slightly in Pol y podium.
while the sori of the latter are frecjuently distinctly marginal. When green,
however, the viscid-pubescence of the stipes, rachides, and even of the
pinnules of P. punctatum at once identifies this species.

P. pennigerum Forst. attains its greatest luxuriance in shaded gullies
on the banks of streams, where it develops a caudex 1-4 ft. or more in length,
giving the plant the appearance of a small tree-fern.

P. australe Mett. is not uncommon. It occurs on rocks and rather drv
banks in the forest, but it is more common on the trunks of forest- trees.
Var. villosum Hook, appears to be more plentiful than the type. It is difficult
to get a good specimen, as the fronds are often attacked by some grub or
insect.

P. grammitidis R. Br. is abundant on the trunks of small and the upper
branches of large trees. Occasionally it is found among moss-covered
peaty soil where the original forest is giving place to scrub.

P. tendlum Forst. is undoubtedly one of our loveliest ferns, climbing
as it does to a considerable height up the trunks of trees, usually in damp
lowland woods, and forming a graceful drape to the dull-brown trunks.

In the. mature state this fern is simply pinnate, the pinnae " entire or
obscurely undulate-crenate " (Manual, p. 1011); but the juvenile state is
quite different — the pinnae are distinctly bipinnate, usually with 3 pairs
of stipitate pinnules, and a prolonged lobulate termination.

P. serpens Forst. occurs plentifully, climbing by its long branched rhizome
up trees or rocks. Its thick leathery fronds, dimorphous in form, render
it a curious rather than an attractive plant.

P. dictyopteris Mett., better known under its old name, P. Cunningham it
Hook., is found in most forests in the damper parts, on trunks of trees or
on rocks. It usually grows in considerable masses. It is remarkable how
retentive of life this fern is. In summer the plants, especially those on
rocks, look dry and withered, but a good shower of rain soon fills them up,,
and they look almost as fresh as ever.

P. past/datum Forst. occurs plentifully in woods and forests, clothing
the trunks of trees to a good height. It is one of the most variable, if not
the most variable, of our ferns. In the juvenile form the frond is simple,
linear-lanceolate, and in one variety this form is persistent, producing sori,
but never attaining the size of the more common form with pinnatifid fronds.

P. Billardieri R. Br. is very plentiful on trees and rocks. This species,
too, is exceedingly variable in form and size, according to the conditions
of its habitat. Its juvenile form also is simple, and in dry situations this
form is persistent. In a damper habitat the frond is deeply pinnatifid,
with sometimes as many as 12 segments on each side.

25. Gleichenia Smith.

Of the five species of Gleichenia occurring in New Zealand all but
G. dichotoma Hook., or, as it is now called, G. linearis C. B. Clarke, are
more or less common.

86 Transactions.

G. circinata Swartz and G. dicarpa R. Br. : There appear to be consider-
able differences of opinion as to whether the above are really two distinct
species, or merely forms of one species. The technical distinctions appear
to be mainly in the form of the segments of the pinnae, those of G. circinata
being flat, while those of G. dicarpa are pouch-like ; but, as Dr. Cockayne
has pointed out,* this pouching of the segments appears to be more or less
a matter of sunshine. On a shaded forest slope bordering on marshy land
I gathered what I take to be var. hecistophyUa in which the segments are
perfectly flat and the rhachis almost destitute of the woolly scales, which,
along with the pouch-like form of the segments, is quite evident in plants
a few yards away exposed to the full sunshine. In drying, however, the
plants of the shade become to a certain extent pouched. I have been in the
habit of using the number of sporangia 1-4 in G. circinata, and 1-2, rarely 3,
in G. dicarpa, but this is rather a frail support to base a distinction on.

G. Gunninghamii Heward occurs plentifully in forests, though it is
absent from large areas. It is usually found in fairly high bush. Like
the other species, it is proliferous, and a well-grown specimen showing several
tiers of umbrella-like fronds has a very striking appearance.

G. flabdlata R. Br. is not uncommon, usually in the moorland country,
on the sides of streams, or on rather damp slopes.

In the three preceding species the fronds are arranged horizontally in
an umbrella-like form ; in G. flabdlata, as indicated by the name, the frond
is several times dichotomously divided, and ascends in a fan-like form.

26. Schizaea Smith.

The three species recorded in the Manual occur freely in this district.

S. fistidosa Labill. and S. bifida Swartz are common plants of the more
barren parts of the moorlands. The simple or unbranched form of S. bifida
is much commoner than the typical plant. It is always much smaller,
but is readily distinguished from small forms of S. fistidosa by the broader
and shorter fertile section. Now and again a bifid frond occurs on one of
these plants.

S. dicltotoma Swartz is not uncommon in kauri forests, but really good
specimens are rare. I have two local ones, 14 in. and 18 in. long, but such
finds are unusual.

27. Lygodium Swartz.

L. artiodatinu A. Rich, is abundant in forests, often climbing by its slender
wiry stems to the tops of tall foiest-trees. In its juvenile form it does re-
semble a fern, though it has an unusual appearance ; but when it covers a
tall shrub with its graceful fronds, or forms a light-green curtain 50 ft. or
more long, hanging from a tall tree, it has a most unfernlike appearance.

28. Todea Willd.

Two of the three species recorded occur.

T. barbara Moore and T. hymenophylloides A. Rich. : Of these, the
former is a true Todea ; the latter is more frequently classed, as is also
T. superba Col., with the genus Leptopteris.

T. barbara is a denizen of the moorlands of the extreme north of the
North Island, extending in its habitat from the North Cape to the neigh-
bourhood of Whangaroa. It is found in considerable quantities, in open

* " Some Noteworthy New Zealand Ferns," Cockayne, p. 55.

Carse. — Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui Count)/. 87

gullies as a rule, frequently with its roots in quite wet land and its fronds
exposed to sun and wind. The best-known patch of T. barbara occurs near
Mangonui, and its surroundings are markedly different from the usual
spots occupied by it. At Mangonui this plant occurs associated with Lepto-
spermum scrub, in dry barren-looking clay soil, the remains of an ancient
landslide. In most other places where I have seen it it is closely associated
with water. Near Cape Maria van Diemen it is found in an open gully,
forming great tussocks in the middle of a morass which at the time I saw
it, though after some months of severe drought, was thoroughly saturated.
Near Kaitaia it occurs freely in sandy soil on tlie bank of a small moor-
land creek, the soil about the roots being quite wet all the year. Even at
Mangonui, dry though its surroundings are, the more robust plants invariably
occur in hollows, and no doubt the densely massed trunks, shaded by the
close-growing fronds, will be able to absorb a considerable amount of moisture.

Dr. Cockayne's remarks on Todea and Leptopteris* are well worth a
perusal.

T. hymenophylloides A. Rich, is a handsome fern, characteristic of the
deep bush, where it occurs freely in damp gullies, in which it is protected
from sun and wind. In well-matured forms the rhizome is produced into
a caudex 2—4 ft. in height, from which rises a crown of graceful fronds.

29. Marattia Smith.

The one New Zealand species (M. fraxinea Smith) occurs sparingly in
gullies of the Maungataniwha Range. At one time it was much more
plentiful, but the axe of the settler and roving cattle are rapidly rendering
this handsome species a thing of the past. The stipes of this fern is articu-
lated at the base into a part of the tuberous rhizome mass, something like
a horse's hoof in shape. In the olden days these parts of the plant, which
contain the " bud " of succeeding plants, were set in the ground by the
Natives as potatoes are now, and, when matured, the starchy rhizomes
were cooked and eaten.

30. Ophioglossum Linn.

Both the species mentioned in the Manual occur.

0. lusitanicum Linn. : iL This, so far as New Zealand is concerned, consists
of the varieties gramineum, lusitanicum, and minimum of the Flora and the
Handbook " (Manual, p. 1027). The only form of this I have noticed
occurs in sandy places near the sea ; it is a small slender form, rarelv
exceeding 4 in. in height, often under 1 in.

0. vulgatum Linn, is not uncommon in damp grassy places and lowland
scrub. It can usually be distinguished from 0. lusitanicum by its larger
size, the position of the lamina of the sterile frond, near the middle of the
petiole, and the longer fertile spike, with a greater number of sporangia.

31. Botrychium Swartz.

One of the species included in the Manual occurs sparingly in the district
— B. ternatum Swartz. It was at one time not uncommon, but the spread
of settlement has changed the face of the country, and this, with many
other interesting plants, is becoming rarer year by year.

* Cockayne, I.e., pp. 50-51.

88 Transactions.

Lycopodiaceae.

1. Phylloglossum Kunze.

"" A genus of a single species, found in New Zealand, Tasmania, Victoria,
and West Australia" (Manual, p. 1033).

P. Drummondii Kunze : This curious little plant is not uncommon on
barren clay hills, though frequently absent from large areas. It varies
considerably in size and in the number of leaves, my specimens having
3-10 leaves.

2. Lycopodium Linn.

Eleven species occur in New Zealand, of which six only are found in this
district.

L. BiMardieri Spring, is a handsome dark-green Lycopod usually pendent
from the branches or trunks of trees or from rocks, but it also occurs freely
-as a terrestrial plant among Leptospermum scrub.

L. densum Labill. occurs freely on clay hills. To the beginner it is rather
a puzzling plant, owing to the variation in form of the juvenile and mature
plants, and in mature plants to the striking differences between the sterile
and fertile branches. In the fertile branches the leaves are more or less
densely imbricating and closely appressed, while those of the young plants
are much longer and more open in their setting. This species and the
following one bear a striking resemblance to miniature pine- trees, the
similarity being borne out by the cone-like spikes at the tips of the branchlets.

L. cernuum Linn, is abundant in open clay lands, usually among scrub.
It not infrequently occurs on roadside cuttings and old landslides. It is
undoubtedly one of the most handsome plants of its class.

L. laterale R. Br. is very plentiful wherever moist peaty soil occurs in the
open. The short lateral spikes distinguish this species from its congeners.

L. Drummondii Spring. : This curious little Lycopod was first discovered
by Mr. Colenso in 1839, in some locality between Ahipara and Cape
Maria van Diemen (Manual, p. 1038). After that no botanist saw it again
in the Dominion for about sixty-seven years, when it was rediscovered
by my friend Mr. H. B. Matthews, of Kaitaia. It has only been noticed
within a limited area in the wet peaty morass at the north end of Lake
Tangonge, near Kaitaia, It is proposed to run a big drain through this
morass, and, when this is done, I greatly fear that this interesting plant
will cease to exist. It may, however, occur in similar country farther north.

L. volubile Forst., the " waewaekoukou "' of the Maori, is probably the
most widely spread species we have, and the most beautiful. It is fre-
quently used in decorations, for which its long slender branched stems
and spreading leaves, forming graceful festoons, make it very suitable.

3. Tmesipteris Bernh.

T. tannensis Bernh. is plentiful in forests, where it occurs most commonly
on the stems of tree-ferns. Occasionally it is found on rocks or in masses of
decayed vegetable matter.

4. Psilotum Swartz.
P. triquetrum Swartz is very rare in this district. It was collected by
the late Mr. R. H. Matthews on maritime rocks in Rangaunu Harbour
and at Merita Bay, the only habitats reported north of Rangitoto Island,
near Auckland. It appears to be confined to the coast and to the Hot
Springs region of the North Island.

Carse. — Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County. 89-

Abnormal Forms among Ferns.

Probably among no other class of plants are abnormal habits of growth
so common and so varied as among ferns. Many of these forms are so
persistent as to have become recognized as distinct varieties, or even
distinct species. In many cases a clear series of gradual changes can be
traced from one extreme form to another ; in others the strange forms
produced are clearly " sports," eccentricities caused by environment, an
unusual luxuriance manifested in extraordinary development of some
feature of the plant or a depauperation due to the xerophytic conditions
under which the plant has grown. In some cases these strange forms
become permanent, thus establishing a variety ; in others the plants
being removed to more favourable habitats become normal. Some of
these forms may arise from cross-fertilization in the prothallial stage.

That such intermediate forms do exist is clear to all who have studied
the various states of Doodia media and D. caudata, of Asplenium balbi/erum
and A. Hooherianum, or of Todea hymenophyUoides and T. superba, forms
of which it is almost impossible to describe as belonging to either of the
plants in the pair under consideration.

For some years I have noted and collected abnormal growths among
ferns, and I propose to set down some of my observations, not so much
to increase the knowledge on this point, but rather to elicit further infor-
mation on a point of no little interest.

Hymenophyllum.

Irregularities in this family are apparently rare; bifurcation of the frond
is all I have noticed, and that only in 11. demissum, the commonest of
them all.

Cyathea.

C. medullaris and C. dealbata, especially in the juvenile form, frequently
have the ends of one or more of the primary ferns bifurcated.

Hemitelia.

I have noticed a similar bifurcation in young fronds of this species,
but all who are interested in this subject should refer to vol. 19 of the
'; Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," where Mr. Buchanan figures
and describes a remarkable plant of this species having 16 branches.

Lindsay a.

Of L. linearis I have a very curious form, collected by the late Mr.
Andrew Thompson, of Aponga, in the Whangarei district. The fertile
frond in the lower half is distinctly bipinnate, having adventitious rhachides
bearing stipitate pinnae : higher up the pinnae are divided into 2-3 stipitate
lobes.

L. cuneata has the upper part of the frond divided into two branches
occasionally. The occurrence of bipinnate and simply pinnate fronds on
the same plant has already been referred to.

Adiantum.

Among the maidenhairs I have seen but few abnormal forms.
In A. diaphanum which is simply pinnate, or with one or two branches
at the base of the main pinna, occasionally one of these branches is again

90 Transactions.

branched, thus having 4 pinnae. Occasionally, too, the pinnae are bi-
furcated at the top. A curious form of this species collected by the late
Mr. Andrew Thompson, at Motatau, has quite a compound frond, resembling
a small form of A. affine.

A. kispidulum is usually dichotomously forked at the base of the frond,
both forks being divided into 3-7 linear secondary divisions. Occasionally
one or more of these divisions have small pinnate branches. The . most
curious form I have seen, and that only twice among hundreds of plants
examined, has, instead of simple pinnules on the main branches of the
secondary divisions, distinctly pinnate branchlets, giving to the plant quite
a different appearance from its usual form.

An unusually luxuriant specimen of A. fulvum gathered near Pukekohe
is distinctly 5-pinnate. This species is " 2-3-pinnate or rarely in large
specimens 4-pinnate at the base " (Manual, p. 964).

A form occurs which seems to be intermediate between A. affine and
A. fulvum, having some of the characteristics of each.

Pellaea.

Some time ago I collected a very curious form of Pellaea. Some of
the fronds are very similar to ordinary forms of P. rotundifolia, except that
the sori are continuous round the margin ; but other fronds from the same
plant have pinnae of very unusual shapes, with curious lobes, two at least
of them being bifidly cleft. The sori of these are all continuous. This
is perhaps an intermediate form, between P. falcata and P. rotundifolia.

Pteris.

I have not noticed many abnormal forms in this family ; still, there are
a few.

In P. aquilina there is a curious form occasionally seen in barren land.
The frond, including the stipes, is 4-12 in. high. The lower pinnae are
again pinnate for one-third of their length; the rest of them and the
whole of the upper pinnae consist of linear obtuse segments 2-4 in. long,
crenately lobed almost to the extremity. A very curious form has the
segments of the primary and secondary pinnae curved, once or twice
forked, ending abruptly or elongated beyond the others, giving the whole
plant a very eccentric appearance.

I have also a form of P. tremula showing similar aberrations in the ulti-
mate pinnae only.

Lomaria.

L. discolor: "The fronds are. frequently forked at the top, and a
beautiful sport is in cultivation in which the pinnae are greatly expanded
in the upper two-thirds of their length, and deeply pinnatified" (Manual,
p. 977). I have not seen this.

L. lanceolata is occasionally forked at the apex of the frond.

L. capensis is the species which, owing doubtless to its variety of forms,
exhibits the greatest number of abnormal forms.

The most common variations from the normal are those showing the
upper part of the frond or the tips of the pinnae dichotomously divided.

I have met with one form with the ends of the pinnae curiously toothed,
so that at first glance one would think it had been bitten by grubs or beetles,
but a closer examination shows that the curious toothed lobes are quite
natural.

Carse. — Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County. 91

In another form most of the pinnae are deeply incised or lobed in the
lower half, the upper half on each being normal.

A very unusual form shows an abnormal development of secondary
pinnae. This is from a fair -sized plant with fronds about 6 ft. long.
Several of the pinnae were again pinnate. This, I think, is very unusual.

In several of the Lomariae, especially in L. ccvpensis, there is a tendency
to irregularity in the fertile frond. In some one side of the frond is entirely
or almost entirely sterile, the other fertile ; or the fertile pinnae may be
partly fertile only, the base and extremity being sterile.

In L. Fraseri, so far as I have seen, abnormal forms are rare. About a
month ago, however, I came across two specimens showing unusual growths.
In one the frond is bifurcated at the apex ; in the other most of the pinnae
for two-thirds of the frond from the base, and usually the apex of the frond,
are divided into 2-3 narrow toothed lobes, which are often again divided,
giving the fern a crested appearance.

Doodia .

Both D. medio, and />. caudata lend themselves to an almost endless variety
of forms, some of them so strange and fantastic that one is forced to believe
that nature was suffering from nightmare when she designed them.

One very graceful form is a small variety, with stipes only about 1 in.
long, frond 4-9 hi., with pinnae |— Jin. long. In this form the lobes are
always much more sharply toothed — spinous, in fact — suggesting an
arrested juvenile form.

The most ordinary abnormality is the forking of the elongated upper
section of the frond : not uncommonly one of these forks is again forked.

In one specimen this forking is carried to an extraordinary degree, one
of the main forks being divided into 3 secondary branches, the other into 2.
On the same plant a frond has one of the forks divided into 4 branches, two
of which are again branched, but it is too much " mixed up " to show in a
drawing.

In a curious state of I), caudata. not uncommon in a lowland forest near
Kaiataia, most of the fronds are more or less forked at the apex or pinnatelv
divided at the base.

Aspleuiiiui.

Many curious forms occur among some of the species of Asplenium.

A. lucid inn is not infrequently forked at the apex of the frond or at the
extremities of the pinnae. A specimen I gathered near Kaitaia nearly
thirty years ago has a curious thumb-like projection from the upper sides
of the bases of the pinnae in the middle, of the frond.

A persistent juvenile form of variety obliquum occurs. The fronds are
simple, resembling miniature specimens of the hart's tongue of the Northern
Hemisphere (Scolopendrium)', this is probably a depauperated state, but
it lasts for years, and produces spores readily.

In a very unusual form almost every pinna is deeply lobed or
incised, often almost symmetrically. On the same plant were fronds almost
normal, but no frond was without two or three at least more or less lobed
pinnae.

From the same locality, near Ahipara, I got numerous specimens in which
in place of fairly regular lobes the pinnae are mostly deeply and irregularly
notched or lacerated, looking almost as though the cat had been at them,
but the clear margins show that this is a natural growth.

92 Transactions.

Another specimen shows a strangely lobed form ; several of the lobes are
so folded in since drying as to become hidden.

It has struck me as possible at least that some of these curious forms of
A. lucidum are states between the type and var. Lyallii, but I know too little
of the latter to do more than suggest the idea, in the hope that some one else
may come forward with an opinion on the point.

A . Hookerianum : Several very puzzling states occur which are difficult
to distinguish from A. btdbiferum. I think there is no doubt that these two
species, in some of their forms, pass into one another, so that it is practically
impossible to distinguish the form as belonging to the one or the other.

A. bulbiferum : Though so varied in form, this fern does not seem to pro-
duce much in the way of abnormalities, the most common being the forking
of the apex of the frond or of some of the pinnae.

Neph/r odium.

N. decompositum and N. glabellvm not uncommonly have the upper part
of the frond forked. The ultimate segments of the lower pinnae, too, often
show this form.

In several places about here is a crested form of N. glabellum, usually
smaller than the type, and more finely cut.

Polypodium.

In P. pennigerum it is not uncommon to find the upper part of the frond
forked. A curious form of this fern was collected in the Aponga (Whangarei)
district by the late Mr. Andrew Thompson in January, 1905, and in this
district by myself some months later. The peculiarity is that at the base of
each pinna, from the middle of the frond, or higher, downwards there are
two accessory pinnules, one on the upper and one on the lower side, the
upper one being about 2 in. and the lower 1 in. long. Mr. Cheeseman, re-
ferring to this, says, * The Poly podium pennigerum with the accessory
pinnule at the base of the primary pinnae is quite new to me. If it were con-
stant and prevalent in any particular locality it would be worth noticing as
a variety."

P. serpens occasionally show a wonderful development of rhizome. In
specimens gathered near here the creeping rhizomes are divided into 4-8 main
branches ; these branches are again and again divided, ending in from
40 to 200 growing points, the conglomerate growth thus formed being 2-4 in.
long from the branching to the growing points, and about the same width.
I have not noticed this strange growth in any other fern, and am unable to
suggest any reason for it.

A very unusual state of P. dictyopteris occurs, in which, in place of
the ordinary lanceolate or linear-lanceolate form, the frond is more or less
broadened, and the margin broken up into numerous elongated lobes, giving
the fern a general resemblance to some forms of P. Billardieri. It is twenty-
six years since I first saw this form, on Mount Maungatapere, near Whangarei,
and it was not until last year that I again met with it, in two places in this
district.

With regard to P. 'pustvUatum, it is difficult to decide which form is typical
and which abnormal. I think most of them are abnormal. Still. I sup-
pose we may take as typical the small form 3-9 in. long, quite entire and
simple, and the larger pinnatifid form. That being so, the forms with
forked fronds must be abnormal, and there seems to be no end to the curious

Carse. — Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County. 93

ways in which they fork — some a simple bifurcation, others, as in. a speci-
men I gathered near Pukekohe, with 3 branches, each branch having 2-4
tertiary branches, some of which are again divided, finally ending in 28
branch-points. In another specimen, not forked, the segments are coarselv
toothed, the teeth often being prolonged to linear processes \ in. in length.

P. Billardieri occasionally occurs in a handsome crested form. So far
I have only found sterile fronds in this state, but the fertile crested form was
collected by the late Mr. It. H. Matthews a good many years ago, and recently
by Mr. H. Bedggood, near Kaitaia. In ordinary states the sterile frond
of P. Billardieri has the segments ^-li in. wide, 1-5 in. long, in opposite or
almost opposite pairs, set, at the base at least, almost at right angles with the
rhachis, and the texture of the whole frond is very coricaeous. In the crested
form the segments are narrower where they emerge from the wing of the
rhachis, less regularly opposite, often distinctly alternate, and set at an
oblique upward angle. Most of the segments are divided into secondary
segments, which are often again and again divided, and the whole frond is
very much thinner in texture. So different, in fact, is this form that I am
inclined to fancy it a distinct species.

Schizaea.
In S. fistulosa the pinnae of the fertile segment are occasionally branched.
As I have only noticed one case of this, I conclude that it is of rare occurrence.

Lygodium.

L. articulatum sometimes develops a rather unusual form in the fertile
pinnae, in which the pinnules are distinctly leafy, f-1 in. long, having the
spikelets of sporangia at the extremities of the pinnules or on leafy branches
of them.

Marattia.

M. fraxinea is frequently bifurcately or trifurcately divided at the ends
of the pinnules. In juvenile forms the pinnae on the same frond may be
simple, pinnatifid, or pinnatifid-pinnate — that is, one side of the pinna is
pinnate, the pinnules clearly stalked, or parts of both sides may be pinnatifid,
the outer part of the pinna bearing stipitate pinnules.

Ophioglossum.
0. lusitanicum not infrequently produces 4 fronds, and very rarely the
fertile spike is double, or forked from about the middle.

Botrychium.

B. ternatum, as a rule, has but one fertile segment; rarely, however, in
luxuriant forms a second one branching from higher up the petiole of the
sterile segment occurs.

Lycopodium.

In L. Billardieri occasionally the spikes, instead of branching dichoto-
niously, are conglomerated into a mass of crowded heads with the sporangia
compacted together at the very extremity.

L. Drummondii has been gathered near Kaitaia with 2 spikes on a peduncle,
but this is very rare.

I trust that others who are interested in the subject of abnormal growths
may be induced to publish the results of their investigations.

94 Transactions.

Art. XL — The Prothallia of Three New Zealand]Lycopods.
By Miss K. V. Edgerley, M.A.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1914.]

In no group of vascular cyptogams is so much variation shown in the
gametophvte as in the genus Lycopodium. Up to the present time the
species investigated include only tropical and European forms, though
L. cernuum and L. Selago, two widely spread species, occur in New Zea-
land. The present investigation deals with the following New Zealand
species : (1) L. volubile Forst., Prodr. ; (2) L. scariosum Forst., Prodr. ;
(3) L. Billardieri Spring., Monog. Lycop.

Bibliography.

Up to recent times the prothallia of Lycopodium were quite unknown.
The process of the germination of the spore in Lycopodium was first de-
scribed by De Bary in 1858. Then Fankhauser, in 1873, described the
mature prothallium of L. annotinum. Between 1884 and 1890 Treub ob-
tained important results. He described the prothallium of L. cernuum
from the germination of the spore to the formation of the young sporophyte.
and demonstrated the presence of a protocorm in this species. He also
described the prothallia of the epiphytic species L. phlegmaria, L. carina/ urn.
L. nummularifolium, and L. Hippuris. In 1898-99 the mature prothallia of
L. clavatum, L. annotinum, L. complanatum, and L. Selago were investigated
by H. Bruchmann, and those of L. clavatum by Lang. Later, in 1910,
Bruchmann added to his results.

All the investigators mentioned above deal with European or tropical
species (except L. Selago and L. cernuum, very widely spread species).
The only mention of New Zealand species is in a paper by Mr. J. Holloway,
entitled wt A Comparative Study of the Anatomy of Six New Zealand
Species of Lycopodium,'"* where he mentions the external features of the
prothallia of L. cernuum, L. scariosum, L. laterale, and L. Billardieri.

Material and Methods.

Before going further it is advisable to say something of the material
and methods employed in this investigation.

Several prothallia of L. volubile were found on the side of a bank on
which a mature sporophyte and several young sporophytes were growing.
Six of these prothallia were found attached to young sporophytes, but
further search of the soil around revealed a single prothallium which gave
no indication of bearing a sporophyte. Later this material was supple-
mented by abundant material collected some years ago by Mr. Holloway.
The earliest stages of the prothallium, however, were not obtained ; even
the smallest examined already bore sexual organs.

The prothallia of L. scariosum was also gathered by Mr. Holloway, and
in this case again all the • younger stages were wanting, even the smallest
one sectioned showing the foot of a young sporophyte.

In the case of the epiphytic L. Billardieri, part of the material was
obtained from Professor Thomas, and some fresh material was also gathered
by the writer. These prothallia were found growing on trees, in humus

* Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 42; p. 356, 1910.

Edgerley. — Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods.

95

examined, ihey are usually _/-^
subterranean, being buried I v/

■I -i • it ,1 p r vy

1 1

4 2

in. below the surface of

an inch or two in thickness. They are filamentous, and ramify beneath
the surface of the humus. Usually the young plants are found in colonies,
and, by tracing them down from young to younger still, one can obtain
those which are still attached to prothallia.

In the case of L. Billardieri, and also of L. Billardieri var. novae-
zelandicum Colenso, spores were sown in humus in which the mature
sporophytes had been found growing. These spores were sown in April,
but up till November showed no signs of germination.

The prothallia gathered by the writer were fixed in chromo-acetic acid,
and serial sections cut.

Lycopodium volubile.

External Form.

The size and external form of the prothallium in L. volubile can be
seen from figs. 1 and 2, which represent in natural size two of the prothallia
examined. They are usually _^ _,

V y

the soil. They appear a dirty-
white colour, lighter on the
upper surface, which is desti-
tute of the long rhizoids which
clothe the rest of the pro-
thallium ; but the prothallium
depicted in fig. 1 contained
some chlorophyll in the ridge
at the upper right-hand corner,
where it had evidently pro-
jected above the surface of
the soil.

The prothallia varied some-
what in shape, but. in most Figs. 1, 2.— Prothallia of L. volubile. Natural
cases the younger ones ex- size,

amined were more or less FlGS- la> lb-~ frf-thallium represented in fig. 1,

i i i seen from two different sides,

conical below, increasing in

size higher up. Probably in an earlier stage the prothallium forms a

cylindrical body or primary tubercle,
which later expands at right angles
to its axis, so that in older prothallia
the primary tubercle can be dis-
tinguished as a small projection from
the lower surface of the mature pro-
thallium.

The outer edge of the upper sur-
face is, in most prothallia, surrounded
by a ridge, on the inner surface of
which the reproductive organs are
produced. This ridge does not pass
regularly round the whole margin,
but is interrupted in places. Thus
the upper surface is concave ; and

possibly this promotes the fertilization of the archegonia, as Lang suggests

for the parallel case of L. clavatum.

a.

Fig. 3. — Prothallia of L. volubile.
bearing archegonia. ur, arche-
gonia. X 7.

96

Transactions.

Older prothallia — e.g., that represented in fig. 3 — seemed to form a
rather flat plate, with a ridge running round the margin of the upper
surface. This flattened form was particularly noticeable in some of the
prothallia to which young sporophytes were attached.

Internal Structure.

The internal structure of the prothallium of L. volubile agrees in its main
characters with that of L. clavatum or L. annotinum. A glance at fig. 4
shows that there is a differentiation into several layers of tissues which
correspond in a general way to those of L. clavatum. The following tissues
can be distinguished : —

(a.) On the lower surface a limiting layer of cells, elongated parallel
to the surface and destitute of fungus hyphae, except certain cells which
form the basal cells of rhizoids.
These rhizoids apparently have no
fungus hyphae in their cavities,
the hyphae penetrating the wall
of the basal cell and ramifying in
the humus.

(h.) Next come several layers
of equi - dimensional cells, thin-
walled, whose cavities are densely
packed with fungus hyphae, which
stain deeply with haemalum.
Nuclei are present in these cells,
but are often somewhat obscured
by the fungus. Those cells which
border on layer (a) are often less
densely filled with fungus.

(c.) Then follows a rather wide
band of nucleated cells, elongated
at right angles to the surface of
the prothallium. The cell-walls
are thick, and many of them con-
tain fungus hyphae. which collect
especially where two or more cell-
walls meet. The presence of the
fungus filaments in the walls
renders it rather difficult to see
the exact shape of the cells. This
layer also has the fungus in the
cell-cavities.

The layers marked (b) and (c) extend not only parallel to the base but
also parallel to the sides in the younger radial prothallia. In the older,
more flattened, forms only a few rows of cells immediately below the re-
productive organs are free from the fungus. From the layer (c) starch
is absent.

(rf.) The whole of the central part of the prothallium is occupied by
large thin-walled parenchymatous storage-cells, in which starch is stored
in great abundance. The cells of this tissue bordering on (c) are often
smaller and more densely filled with starch granules.

(e.) The layer (d) passes gradually into a rather delicate layer of small-
celled tissue, which passes into more or less radial rows of small-celled

Fig. -4. — Section of young prothallium of L.
volubile. a, limiting layer ; b, cells with
intercellular fungus : c, cells with inter-
and intra -cellular fungus ; d, storage
tissue; e., generative tissue ; rh, rhizoid.
X 82.

Edgeklky. — Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods

97

tissue from which the antheridia and archegonia arise on the upper surface
of the prothallium.

In comparing the structure of this prothallium with that of L. clavatum
and of L. annotinum one or two striking differences appear. First is the
absence of a single layer of cells, elongated at right angles to the surface
of the prothallium, lying between the layers marked (b) and (c), in L. volubile,
and with the fungus intracellular. This layer of cells is represented by
Bruchmann as extremely well marked in L. annotinum, and by Lang as
quite distinct in L. clavatum. Secondly, the occurrence of the fungus in the
cell-cavities as well as in the walls of layer (c). 'Thirdly, the absence of
starch from layer (c) and its abundance in the cells of layer (d).

Meristematic Tissue.

The formation of new tissue takes place all round the margin of the
prothallium, just beneath the reproductive ridge. The meristematic cells
are found on the lower surface of a bay or indentation just below the re-
productive ridge (fig. 4, x). A section through this region shows a row of
cells with large deeply staining nuclei. These cells divide both by peri-
clinal and anticlinal walls. Towards the outer surface of the prothallium,
cells formed by anticlinal divisions gradually pass into the elongated cells
of the limiting layer ; while, within this, meristematic cells pass gradually
into the layers which contain the fungus hyphae. More internally, a layer
of secondary meristem seems to be differentiated, which gives rise towards
the upper surface of the prothallium to radial rows of small cells, and
below gradually passes into the large-celled parenchymatous storage region.

Fungus.

Mention has already been made of the fact that certain cells of the
prothallium harbour an endophyte. Not only does this fungus not injure
the prothallium, but no mature prothallium is found without it. More-
over, the cells in which the fungus is present are quite normal, and a
nucleus is always present in them, though it may be almost hidden in the
coils of the fungus. It seems quite clear that this is a case of symbiosis,
though the exact way in which the endophyte and the prothallium benefit

7\H

Fig. 5. — -Cells of L. volubile, containing skein of fungus hyphae. /./, fungal

filaments. X 900.
Figs. 6, 7, 8. — -Cells of L. volubile, showing the formation of nucleated

vesicles (nv). X 900.

is not known. Possibly, in the first place the fungus attacked the pro-
thallium of Lycopodium parasitically, but the Lycopodium prothallium was
able to use the fungus to aid its nutrition. In any case, the fungus must
obtain some advantage from the association or it would not so generally
be found in the prothallial cells. Before the exact relation between the
two organisms can be determined it is necessary to know more about the
processes of nutrition in the fungus.

4— Trans.

98 Transactions.

In L. volubile the hyphae of the fungus pass into the basal cell of the
rhizoids, penetrate the outer wall near the base of the rhizoid proper, and
so come into contact with the humus in which the prothallium grows.

In order to examine the fungus and trace its distribution, hand-cut
sections were soaked in caustic potash, washed in water, and stained with
iodine. This treatment caused the. fungus filaments to stain a red-brown
colour. In different cells the fungus presented quite, a different appearance.
In many cells, particularly those of layer (b) (fig. 4), the hyphae formed a
dense coil (fig. 5) or else a number of parallel threads. In others, again,
especially in the basal cells of the rhizoids, it formed several thick densely
staining threads. In other cells are seen what Lang terms " multinucleate,
vesicles " (figs. 6, 7, 8). These arise by the swelling-up of the hypha, and
at first each contains only one nucleus (fig. 6), which stains deeply, though
the vesicles themselves stain lightly. Several of these " multinucleate
vesicles " may be present in a single cell. In other cells were dark spore-like,
bodies, but it was impossible to trace how they arose. Possibly they arose
by the bursting of multinucleate vesicles.

Reproductive Organs.

In L. volubile the antheridia and archegonia are formed on the same
prothallium, and are both confined to the upper surface. Antheridia are
usually first formed, the youngest being nearest to the meristematic zone ;
but as soon as a number have been formed archegonia begin to form nearest
the growing-zone. Thus the central part of the upper surface of the pro-
thallium often bears spent antheridia, while the marginal ridge bears mature,
archegonia. Apparently in some cases a fresh zone of antheridia may be
formed, since on one of the prothallia which bore the foot of a young sporo-
phyte all stages of antheridia from the single cell to the spent antheridium
were found.

The antheridium arises from a single surface cell which is distinguished
by its large nucleus. This cell divides into two, the outer of which forms the
cover cells by anticlinal divisions only ; while the inner divides repeatedly
to form small-celled tissue, the spermatazoid mother cells. From the cells
of the prothallium bordering on the mass of spermatazoid mother cells,
narrow tabular cells are cut off so that the mature antheridium is surrounded
by these cells. At first the cover cells are flush with the surface, but later
they project a little in most cases. In one case an antheridium was found
which appeared to project beyond the prothallium for fully half its length.
Further examination, however, showed that only the six apical cells of the
antheridium were cover cells, those lower down which are divided by peri-
clinal walls being prothallial cells.

The archegonia also arise from a single superficial cell which contains a
large deeply staining nucleus. This cell divides into a row of three cells,
the outer of which forms the neck cells, the inner gives rise to the ovum, and
the middle cell to the neck canal cells. The outer divides by a perpendicular
wall, and these cells by further divisions form the neck, which in the mature
archegonium projects considerably below the surface. A cross-section shows
that the neck consists of four rows of cells. The mother cell of the neck
canal cells divides. In a nearly mature archegonium only a single division
wall had been formed in the neck canal mother cell ; but nuclear division
had^continued so that in the outer cell there were six nuclei arranged in
pairs, each pair surrounded by a little cytoplasm. A still later stage shows
the ovum below containing a large deeply staining nucleus with a single

Edgbrley. — Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods.

99

10

nucleolus, and, above, two cells each with a single nucleus ; then a cell con-
taining seven nuclei, the lowest four of which are arranged in pairs. The
lower part of the archegonium is buried in the tissue of the prothallium,
and a layer of tabular cells is cut off round the ovum from the neighbouring
prothallial cells.

The Young Sporophyte.

Unfortunately, the writer was not able to trace the different stages in
the development of the young sporophyte. The prothallia persist for a long
time, and may be found still at-
tached to a young plant which has
reached a height of If in. or 2 in.
(fig. 9). It is quite common to
find two, or even three, sporo-
phytes attached to the same pro-
thallium (figs. 10 and 11). As
in all species of Lycopodium, the
first root appears relatively late,
some sporophytes an inch in height
showing no trace of it.

Sections of two embryos were
obtained which had not yet broken
through the prothallium. The
youngest was an oval parenchy-
matous mass, whose cells were very
rich in starch (fig. 12). The sus-
pensor consisted of one or two cells,
and the stem and foot were quite
undifferentiated. The other (fig.
13) was slightly older, and quite
spherical, owing to the rapid growth
of the cells of the foot segment.

Fig. 9. — Prothallium of L. volubile, bearing
a single sporophyte. s, stem; pr, pro-
thallium ; rt, root. Natural size.

Figs. 10, 11. — Prothallia of L. volubile,
bearing two and three young sporophytes
respectively. Natural size.

The cells of the stem tier were rather

smaller, while the outer limiting layer of the foot consisted of large cells.

Figs. 12, 13. — Sections of two young embryos of L. volubile.
st, stem segment ; ft, foot segment. X 267.

A section of a basal part of a young sporophyte still attached to!the
prothallium revealed the presence of a massive foot, the outer cells of which
form an absorptive layer (fig. 14). The cells of this absorptive layer have
much-thickened outer and side walls, which stain very deeply with haemalum.

100

Transaction)

They have also relatively larger nuclei and more abundant cell-contents.
There was no sign of a protocorm. The tissue of the prothallium below the
foot consists of rather flattened cells, in which starch is present. Examina-

Fig. 14. — Foot of same, more highly magnified,
showing the limiting layer of cells. X 267.

tion of several voung sporophytes proved that the vascular bundle does not
extend into the foot. It is quite clear that the embryo of L. volubile is of
the L. clavatum-annotinum type.

Lycopodium scariosum.

The prothallia of L. scariosum are, according to Mr. Holloway, always
subterranean, being deeply buried (4-6 cm.). Like L. volubile, the pro-
thallium of L. scariosum resembles that of L. clavatum, but it is even larger
than that of L. volubile. The largest specimen cut was 14 mm. by 9 mm. The
prothallia were conical below, becoming cylindrical above (figs. 15 and 16).
The upper surface of the prothallium is concave, lighter in colour, devoid

Figs. 15, 16. — Prothallia of L. scariosum. X 3.
Fig. 17. — View from above of prothallium. rd, reproductive
ridge. X 6.

of rhizoids, and with a ridge running round the margin, on the inner surface
of which the sexual organs are found. In other cases— e.g., fig. 17- — two
ridges have been formed, one towards the centre of the prothallium and the
other round the margin. The prothallium mentioned above as the largest
was quite differ nt in shape (fig. 15). it was obtuse-angled below, and the
whole surface very much lobed and wrinkled.

Edgeeley. — Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods.

101

Internal Structure.

The general arrangement of tissues in L. scariosum is like that of
L. volubile, or still more that of L. clavatum ; but a striking point in
which L. scariosum differs from both is in the small proportion of its cells

Fig. 18. — Section of prothallium of L. scariosum, showing
proportion of cells occupied by the fungus.

occupied by the fungus hyphae. A glance at figs. 18 and 19 will show
that the tissue infected by the fungus occupies only something like a
quarter or a fifth of the whole prothallium, while in L. volubile and also
in L. clavatum it occupies half. Fig. 18 shows that the tissue infected by
the fungus extends also, in parts, to the lobes of the upper surface.

Fig. 19. — Section of lower part of prothallium of L. scariosum.
a, limiting layer ; b, c, and d, the layers occupied by the
fungus ; e, storage layer. X 80.

The tissues of the prothallium of L. scariosum are, —

(a.) A limiting layer o. elongated cells, from some of which rhizoids
spring. These rhizoids may be merely prolongations of an epidermal cell
or may be cut off from a basal cell by a cell-wall. They show the presence
of fungus hyphae inside their cavities.

102 Transactions.

(b.) Several layers of ceils, the lower two or three elongated parallel
to the surface, and containing only a few thickened filaments of the
fungus ; the upper equi-dimensional, and containing a dense skein of
fungus filaments.

(c.) Then a single layer of cells elongated at right angles to the surface,
with the endophyte intracellular. This is a fairly definite layer, and cor-
responds to the similar one described by Lang and Bruchmann in L. clavatum
and by Bruchmann in L. annotinum.

(d.) Then several layers of cells elongated at right angles to the surface,
thick-walled, especially at the angles, and with the fungus in their walls
but not in the cell-cavities. In this it differs from L. volubile, but agrees
with L. clavatum. When sections were tested with iodine to demonstrate
the presence of starch the cell-walls of this lave.' showed a faint blue colour,
though no starch grains could be detected. The question arises whether
starch was present in small quantities in the filaments of the fungus which
spread in the cell-walls.

(e.) Above (d) was the storage layer of parenchymatous cells as in
L. volubile.

The meristematic tissue and the fungus were exactly as in L. volubile.

Reproductive Organs.

The position of the reproductive organs is similar to that of L. volubile.
Unfortunately, all the prothallia examined were rather old, even the smallest
showing the presence of a foot of a young plant when cut.

It was not, therefore, possible to trace the development of the antheridium
in detail, but the mature antheridium is quite sunk beneath the surface
of the prothallium, and probably opens by a single cap cell. In one
antheridium some mature spermatazoids were found, and these were of
the usual Lycopodiaceous type.

The earliest stages of archegonia found showed a neck of two cells,
while the central row of cells consisted of ovum and three canal cells. In
one instance the end cell of the central series showed two nuclei. A
later stage shows an ovum and six cells in the central series, in three of
which the nuclei are paired. The difficulty of counting the neck canal
nuclei is increased by the fact that the cells of the neck contain deeply
staining nuclei, which often lie against the wall separating the neck cells
from the axial row of cells. In the mature archegonium the cell-walls of
the axial row of cells have disappeared, and there remain the ovum and
nine nuclei, the six lowest of which are in pairs. The neck cells split apart,
and the four rows of cells diverge.

In Lycopodium the number of cells in the axial row varies widely. In
L. clavatum and L. annotinum there are 6-10 or more, especially in
L. annotinum ; L. phlegmaria has 3-5, according to Treub ; whereas in L.
cernuum and L. inundatum the number may be reduced to one. Further,
it is very common for some of the nuclear divisions not to be followed by
cell division, so that the nuclei are associated in pairs.

The Young Sporopliyte.

The fertilization of one archegonium of a prothallium of L. scariosum
does not prevent the fertilization of others. There may be only /one
sporophyte to a prothallium (fig. 20), but it is quite common to find two
young sporophytes attached to the same prothallium, and in one case

Edgbrlet. — ProtJuzllia of Three New Zealand Lycopods. 1 3

(fig. 21) three young sporophytes had reached practically the same height.

Although they were all about 1| in. high, the prothallium showed no signs

of decay.

Unfortunately, it was not possible to obtain sufficient stages to trace

the development of the em-
bryo, but it is probably of
the L. clavatuin] type. The
foot is large and persistent,
a fact which is in relation
to the depth of the pro-
thallium below the surface
of the soil, and the,' late
appearance of the first root.
The foot may be recognized
as a small projection at the
base of a young sporophyte
which has become detached
from the prothallium. The
first-formed leaves are scale-
like.

A longitudinal section of
the base of a young plant
still attached to a prothallium
passing through the foot
shows essentially the same
structure as in L. volubile.

Figs. 20, 21. — Prothallia of L. scariosum, bearing
one and three young sporophytes respectively.
Natural size.

There is a limiting layer of cells with more abundant contents and large nuclei.

Fig. 22. — Section through foot of young plant of L. scariomm
still attached to prothallium. xy, xylem ; pr.l, prothallial
tissue ; l.l, limiting layer of foot X 267.

The cells of the foot are large, and though there is no prolongation
of the vascular tissue into the foot the central cells are elongated to
assist conduction (fig. 22).

104

Transact ions.

Lycopodium Billardieri.

The early stages of development of the prothallium in L. Billardieri
were not found. The mature prothallium is quite devoid of chlorophyll,
and consists of filaments which branch
rather sparingly, the formation of
vegetative branches taking place in
acropetal succession. The prothallium
is thickly covered with rhizoids, in-
clined to the axis of the branch at an
angle of 60 or 70 degrees (figs. 23-31).
The branches are cylindrical in form,
and growth is terminal ; but the
young branches are usually obovate,
being thicker at the distal end. The extreme ends of the branches also appear
lighter in colour, owing to the absence of the fungus hyphae from their cells.

23

Fig. 23. — Prothallium of L. Billardieri,
bearing young sporophyte. X 6.

Fig. 24. — Prothallium of L. Billardieri, surrounded by detached branches. X fi.
Fig. 25.— Reproductive branch of L. Billardieri, bearing vegetative branches radiating

out in all directions. X 6.
Fig. 20. — Prothallium of L. Billardieri, bearing young sporophyte.
Figs. 27, 28.— Reproductive branch of L. Billardieri, bearing young sporophyte.

Natural size.

The vegetative branches may grow to some length, but some become
thicker at their growing end and bear antheridia. After the formation of
antheridia has continued some time the same branch may form archegonia.
As soon as a branch begins to form sexual organs it gives off branches much

Edgbrley. — PPQthallia of Three Neic 'Zealand Lycopods.

105

more freely, several branches often arising side by side, which never occurs
in'a vegetative branch. (Figs. 24, 25, and 26.)

|The branches may die off behind and form new prothallia. The same
would happen if a branch were accidentally detached. In some cases
prothallia are found surrounded by numerous detached branches, whose

30 31

Fig. 29. — Young sporophyte detached from prothallium but still showing foot. X 2.
Fie.s. 30, 31. — Prothallia of L. Bilkirdieri, bearing young sporophyte with first root
developed, r, root. X 2.

rhizoids are interlaced with those of the parent prothallium. In this way
prothallia are able to increase rapidly when circumstances are favourable,
a power which is no doubt of great value, since the initial difficulty in the
germination of the spore is so great.

Minute Structure of. Vegetative Brunches.

A longitudinal section of a vegetative branch shows a certain differenti-
ation of tissues. A mature branch (fig. 32) shows, —

(a.) In the centre several rows of elongated cells with scanty contents.

\b.) Then two rows of cells, the region infected by the fungus. These
cells are equi-dimensional and contain a distinct nucleus. In many of
these cells the fungus hyphae form a dense skein, and in others there were
several bodies which stain very deeply with haemalum. Further search
showed that these dark bodies arose from the fungus, and are probably
spores. The fungus was also intercellular.

(c.) A single row of elongated cells.

(d.) The peripheral layer, usually a single row of cells, elongated
parallel to the axis of the branch, and covered with a thin cuticle. At
intervals are cells rather shorter, which give rise to rhizoids. These cells
are the only ones of the peripheral layer to contain fungus filaments.
A branch treated with caustic potash and stained with iodine showed the
presence of numerous pits on the cell- walls lying between any two of the
cells of the peripheral layer. The external wall and the wall opposite
to it were not pitted. Careful search failed to reveal similar pits in the
transverse walls of the central tissue which Treub describes as present,
in L. phlegmaria.

Growing-point.

A longitudinal section of the growing end of a branch revealed the
presence of two initial cells (fig. 33) which are characterized by large

106

Transactions.

nuclei. Apparently the mode of growth is exactly the same as in L. phleg-
masia. Both transverse and longitudinal divisions are formed so that the
cells at the apex of a branch are equi-dimensional. A short distance
behind the apex differentiation of the tissues takes place. Few transverse
divisions take place in the central cells, so that elongated cells are formed.
Those outside the central cells divide by transverse walls and form ecpii-
dimensional cells, which soon become infected with the fungus. Some of

Fig. 32. — Longitudinal section of vegetative branch of L. Billardieri. a, central cells ;
b, fungus-infected cells ; c, single row of cells ; d. peripheral layer :
b.c, basal cell of rhizoid ; no, nucleus. X 267.
Fig. 33. — Longitudinal section of apex of vegetative branch, a, central cells; b, fungus-
infected cells; c, single row of cells; d, peripheral layer; nc. nucleus;
i, ii itial ell. X 3(>7.

the cells of the peripheral layer divide by a periclinal wall (fig. 33, x), and
the outer wall of the external cell forms a thick cuticle. The external
cell grows out and forms a rhizoid, which may grow out to a great length.
The wall which separates the rhizoid from the basal cell is extremely
thickened and cuticularized.

The development of young branches was not followed in detail, but
a young stage showed a few projecting cells of the peripheral layer, and
below them a few small parenchymatous cells.

Repeated attempts were made to demonstrate the presence of starch
in the cells of the branch, but only the slightest traces of it were found.

Sexual Organs.

The sexual branches of L. Billardieri are always dorsiventral, the sexual
organs being borne on the upper surface. The presence of sexual organs
on any part of the thallus can readily be detected by means of the para-
physes which are always present on the reproductive region (fig. 34). The

Edgerley. — Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods. 107

reproductive brandies differ from the ordinary vegetative branches also
in being thicker. Antheridia and archegonia are developed on the same
branch, but the antheridia are first formed. A branch about to bear
antheridia becomes club-shaped, and the antheridia are formed near the
apex, though the apical cell is not used up in their formation (fig. 35).
Owing to the rapid division of cells, the antheridia come to lie on the
upper surface. The formation of
antheridia may continue for some
time, but eventually archegonia are
formed at the apical end. In
the antheridial branch the lower
vegetative portion is infected with
the fungus, only a few cells im-
mediately below the antheridia
being free from it. From the cells
of the lower surface rhizoids
spring, as in the ordinary vege-
tative branches.

The paraphyses in L. Billardieri
consist of three cells, each con-
taining a nucleus and rather
scanty protoplasm. The basal cell
is often smaller than the others,
and the apical cell usually becomes
narrower at its distal end. Each
arises by the division of a surface
cell into two, the outer of which
divides again. In only one para-
physis was a tendency to branching
seen, where a small protuberance
had been formed on one side of the
lowest cell. In the small number
of cells of which the paraphyses
are composed, and in their in-
frequent branching, they differ
strikingly from L. phlegmaria and
L. Selago, in both of which branch-
ing of paraphyses is common, and
the number of cells may reach
nine or twelve.

Antheridia arise, as in other
species of Lycopodium, from single
cells which divide into an outer
and inner cell ; the outer cell gives rise to the cover cell, and the inner
to the mass of spermatazoid mother cells.

Development is the same as in other species, and the mature antheridium
does not project above the surface. The antheridia may arise so close
to one another that they are separated only by a single plate of tabular
cells. There is no doubt that in this case the spermatazoids escape
by the disintegration of a single cap cell, since when the spermatazoids
have escaped the remaining portion of the wall of the cap cell becomes
vellow. The development of the spermatazoids was not followed in
•detail.

Fig. 34. — Young reproductive branch of
L. Billardieri, bearing antheridia and
young vegetative branches, v.br, vege-
tative branch ; an, antheridia ; p,
paraphyses. X 82.

108

Transactions .

Archegonia apparently only develop on branches which have already
borne antheridia. As is the case in the formation of antheridia, the meri-

stematic region of the branch
is towards the lower surface.
The cells of the growing
region are distinguished by
their large deeply staining
nuclei.

As in other species, the
archegonia can each be traced
to a single cell which divides
into three, the outer giving
rise to the neck, the middle
to the neck canal cells, and
the innermost to the ovum.
The nucleus of the ovum
stains deeply, and often
shows two deeply staining
nucleoli. In the central row
of cells only two walls ap-
parently are formed. In a
mature archegonium readv

Fig. 35. — Longitudinal section of a young
antheridial branch, showing initial cell (i)
pushed to the lower surface ; an, an-
theridum ; rh, rhizoid. x 267.

for fertilization there appeared a large ovum with a small nucleus close
to it, then a large nucleus and three pair of smaller nuclei separated
from the ovum bv a wall.

Fig. 36. — Longitudinal section of foot of young plant of L. Billardieri, showing sus-
pensor (susjj). ar, remains of archegonium; /./, limiting layer X 267.

Fig. 37. — Prothallium of L. Billardieri, bearing young sporophyte, showing only one
leaf, I. ft, foot; a, stem; par, paraphysis; veg.br, vegetative branch.
X 82.

Edgerley. — Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods. 109

The Young Sporophyte.

A glance at figs. 23 to 31 will show that the young sporophyte may
remain attached to the prothallium for a long time. Thus sporophytes
with four or five leaves and a young root may still be attached to a
prothallium. The first-formed leaves are never scaly, since they are pro-
duced above the surface of the humus. Even after the young plant has
become detached from the prothallium the foot may be distinguished on
it (fig. 29). In no case was more than one sporophyte developed on a
single branch of the prothallium.

A section through the basal part of a young sporophyte still attached
to a prothallium shows a fairly large foot composed of parenchymatous
cells, with its outer row of cells characterized by thick walls and more
abundant contents. In fig. 36 the suspensor is seen, which consists of only
a few cells. No trace of a protocorm was found. Fig. 37 shows a young
sporophyte with only a single leaf developed.

Fungus.

Apparentlv similar to that of L. volubile, but no nucleated vesicles
were observed. On the other hand, cells with dark spore-like bodies were
very common (fig. 32).

Summary.

The results obtained in this investigation may be summarized as
follows : — .

(1.) The spores of L. Billardieri and L. novae-zelandicum Colenso, like
those of many other species of Lycopodium, do not germinate readily-
After a period of five months there was no sign of germination.

(2.) The prothallia of L. volubile and L. scariosum resemble one another
externally, but that of L. scariosum is larger. Both are usually colourless
and saprophytic, but prothallia of L. volubile may come above the surface.

The prothallia of L. Billardieri, like those of other epiphytic species,
closely resemble those of L. phlegmaria.

(3.) Internal Form of Prothallia. — In a general way, both L. volubile
and L. scariosum resemble L. clavatum, but L. scariosum, differs, from both
L. volubile and L. clavatum in the small proportion of its cells in which
the fungus is found, the infected tissue being only about a sixth of the
whole prothallium in L. scariosum, while about a half in L. volubile and
L. clavatum. L. scariosum resembles both L. clavatum and L. annotinum
in having a single row of cells elongated at right angles to the surface on
the prothallium, and having the fungus intracellular. This layer is absent
in L. volubile. Again, in the layer of cells marked (c) in L. volubile and
(d) in L. scariosum the fungus is intercellular only in L. scariosum, and
both inter- and intra-cellular in L. volubile.

The internal structure of L. Billardieri closely resembles that of L.
phlegmaria, but in L. Billardieri no pits were seen in the walls of the
elongated central cells as described by Treub in L. phlegmaria, though the
pits in the walls of the peripheral layer were very conspicuous.

(4.) Starch was abundant in both L. volubile and L. scariosum in the
parenchymatous storage layer. In L. volubile it was quite absent from
the layer below this ; but in L. scariosum the walls of the cells showed
a light-blue colour when treated with iodine, showing possibly that the
fungus filaments in the wall contain starch.

(5.) Fungus was present in all three species. In L. volubile the fungus
does not enter the rhizoids, but pierces the wall of the basal cell of the

110 Transactions.

rhizoid, and so comes into contact with the humus ; while in L. scariosum
the filaments of the fungus are found also in the cavities of the rhizoids.

(6.) Reproductive Organs. — Antheridia in all three species were of the
usual Lycopodiaceous type, those in L. volubile projecting a little above
the surface, while those in L. scariosum and L. Billardieri were completely
sunk in the prothallium.

The development of the archegonia is the same as in other species of
Lycopodium, the only point of variation being in the neck canal cells, which
number four to seven in L. volubile, six in L. scariosum, and five in L.
Billardieri.

The paraphyses of L. Billardieri are composed of fewer cells than in
L. Selago and L. phlegmaria, and are usually unbranched.

(7.) Young Sporophyte. — Though the embryology was not traced in
detail, the embryos of L. volubile and L. scariosum are undoubtedly of the
L. clavatum type. There is a large persistent foot and no sign of a proto-
corm. In L. Billardieri the foot is fairly large and persistent.

General Remarks.

In the gametophyte of Lycopodium there is much greater variation
than in any other vascular cyptogams. Thus, H. Bruchmann describes
five different types of prothallia — (1) L. clavatum, (2) L. complanatum, (3) L.
Selago, (4) L. inundatum, and (5) L. phlegmaria. After carefully examining
these different types he comes to the following conclusion : "It follows
from the above facts that the groups of Lycopodium characterized especiallv
by means of their sexual generation do not stand in close relation to one
another ; especially not such as one would expect in species of plants
which have found their position together in one genus. The knowledge
leads to a separation of the Lycopodiums into groups, or, still better, into
genera, to which it would be quite in place to give new names. There
arise as many groups as the sexual generation allows to be distinguished."
Thus, Bruchmann regards the species of Lycopodium as derived from several
stocks of Lycopodiaceous plants. This is essentially the same conclusion
as that arrived at by Dr. Treub in 1886, when, after remarking on the
great difference between the prothallia, embryos, and young plants of
L. cernuum and L. phlegmaria, he proceeds to say, " This is one of the
reasons why I believe I may offer the opinion that the profound differences
between the prothallia of the Lycopods are of very ancient date, and that
they are not the result of very recent adaptations."

But another view of the variations in the prothallia of different species
of Lycopodium has been given by Lang in 1899, and by Goebel in his
'' Organography of Plants " in 1905, and it is this view that the facts
obtained in the present investigation seem to support. Lang's view is that
many of the differences between the different types of Lycopodium pro-
thallia are physiologically adaptive in character, and so are not of generic
value ; and similarly Goebel sees no valid ground for regarding the gap
between the several forms of the prothallia of the Lycopodia to be so great
as Treub and Bruchmann will have it.

With regard to external form, the differences are not so great as they
appear, for L. Selago may be regarded as intermediate between the radial
green prothallia of L. cernuum and the filamentous saprophytic L. phleg-
maria. Again, in regard to internal structure Lang points out that the
differences are in the tissues infected by the fungus, and this has been seen
also to be the case in L. volubile and L. scariosum. Thus they are due to

Edgerley. — Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods. Ill

>

the physiological relation between the fungus and the cells it inhabits
and. so cannot be used for classification.

In the same way, the differences between the embryo and young plants
are closely related to the position of the prothallium, whether at the surface
of the soil or some distance below the surface. Again, the appearance
of chlorophyll in the tissues is not constant. Thus, in L. Selago, when the
prothallium grows at the surface of the soil, chlorophyll appears in its
subaerial part ; and this is also the case in L. volubile.

In other characters which are not adaptive the different species of
Lycopodium agree closely. Thus all species of Lycopodium usually show
biciliate spermatazoids, archegonia with no basal cell, and a suspensor in
the embryo. In all but the epiphytic forms of prothallia growth is essentially
intercalary, and in the epiphytic forms the apical growth is in relation to
the branched filamentous form.

Thus it appears that in Lycopodium the gametophyte and the young
stages of the sporophyte are peculiarly adaptive. The experience of botanists
proves that the mature sporophyte of plants form a better basis for the
interpretation of affinities than does the more plastic embryonal stages,
and this is especially the case in Lycopodium.

In conclusion, I wish to record my grateful thanks to Professor A. P. W.
Thomas for his ever-ready interest in my work, and also to Mr. J. Holloway
for permitting me to use material gathered by him.

Bibliography.

1. De Bary. :' Sur la germination des Lycopodes." Ann. de Sci. nat.,

ser. 4, vol. ix, p. 30, 1858.

2. Fankhauser. " Ueber der Vorkeim von Lycopodium." Botanische

Zeitung, 1873.

3. Treub. " Etudes sur les Lycopodiacees." Annales du Jardin botanique

de Buitenzorg, vols. iv. v, vii, and viii.

4. Bruchmann. " Ueber die Prothallien und die Keimpflanze von mehrerer

Europaischer Lycopodien." 1898.

5. Bruchmann. " Prothallium of L. complanatum." Bot. Zeitung, vol. lxvi.

pp. 168-81.

6. Lang. " Prothallus of Lycopodium clavatum." Annals of Botany, 1899.

Art. XII. — Some New Species of Neiv Zealand Floivering -plants.
By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.B.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd December, 1913.]

Urtica linearifolia (Hook, f.) Cockayne sp. nov.

This is U. incisa Poir. var. linearifolia Hook. f. in the " Flora Novae-
Zelandiae," i, 225. The differences between U. incisa and U. linearifolia
are succinctly stated by Cheeseman in the " Manual of the New Zealand
Flora," p. 636. In addition, it may be pointed out that U. linearifolia
is a far taller plant than any form of U. incisa; indeed, in places it is a
semi-liane.

Pittosporum divaricatum Cockayne sp. nov.

Frutex + 1-5 m. altus, dense divaricato-ramosus, ramis rigidis, saepe
valde crassis, intertextis, flexuosis. Folia polymorpha : folia in statu

112 Transactions.

plantae juvenili, oblonga, obovata, lineari-lanceolata vel lanceolata, ad
16 mm. longa sed saepissime minora, inaequaliter pinnatifida, lobata
vel. dentata, segmentis magnitudine eaepe dissimilibus integerrimis vel
lobatis vel dentatis ; folia in statu plantae adulto lineari-obovata, oblonga
vel ovata, ± 6 mm. longa, crassa, coriacea, glabra, atro-viridia, integer-
rima, crenata, dentata vel lobata, obtusa. Flores parvi, solitarii, ter-
minales ad apicem ramulorum perabreviatorum ; sepala ovata vel ovato-
oblonga, 1-75-2 mm. longa, 3-nervosa, pallide viridia, caduca, leve ciliata ;
petala lineari-spathulata, apice recurvata, 5 mm. longa, atro-purpurea.
fere nigra ; ovarium nonnih.il hirsutum ; eapsula subglobosa, circ. 7 mm.
diam., rugosa, apice mucronata ; semina 2-5.

North Island : Growing in subalpine Nothojagus forest, subalpine scrub,
and shrub steppe on the volcanic plateau. South Island : Common in
montane and subalpine .scrubs, and to a lesser degree in subalpine forests
throughout the Island, irrespective of rainfall.

P. divarication as defined above was. in the " Handbook of the New
Zealand Flora," p. 20, included by Hooker along with another quite distinct
plant, common on the dividing range of the North Island, in the conception
of the aggregate species P. rigidum. In their descriptions of this latter both
Kirk and Cheeeeman have followed Hooker. In 1899 (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 31, p. 363) I called attention to the fact that a specimen of P. rigidum,
collected by Mr. D. Petrie on Mount Hikurangi, differed, so far as its leaves
were concerned, from the common South Island shrub, but closely resembled
the figure of P. rigidum, pi. x, in vol. i of the " Flora Novae-Zelandiae.'"
I also suggested that probably the common South Island plant was a distinct
species. When on the Tararua Mountains in 1906, in company with Pro-
fessor Easterfield, Mr. B. C. Aston, and some others, plenty of P. rigidum
of the "Flora Novae-Zelandiae " was encountered, but so different was it
in appearance from the South Island shrub that at first I thought we had
found something " new." Further study of the two plants led me to give
the MS. name of P. divarication to the common South Island form, but until
recently I had not sufficient material on which to base a diagnosis.

I am, then, excluding P. divaricatum from the conception of P. rigidum,
so that this latter species, for those who agree with me, will include only
the broad-leaved shrub of the North Island dividing range, the volcanic
plateau, and the mountains of western Nelson.

P. rigidum as thus limited differs from P. divaricatum in the following
important particulars : —

1. The branches are not rigid, divaricating, and interlaced, but slender,
more or less erect, and branch at a comparatively narrow angle.

2. The leaves are oblong or obovate, and may reach more than 2-5 cm.
in length and 1 cm. in breadth.

3. A leaf may be occasionally more or less deeply toothed, but such semi-
juvenile leaves are an exception, and never abundantly mixed with the
adult, as is not infrequently the case in full-grown shrubs of P. divaricatum.
Indeed, in a moist forest the actual juvenile form of the latter may be
maintained, whereas under identical conditions P. rigidum. remains purely
an adult.

4. Young leaves and young stems of adult P. rigidum are densely covered
on both surfaces with almost a tomentum of ferruginous hairs, whereas
such a covering is quite absent in the young leaves, &c, of P. divarication .

5. The flowers appear to be axillary, and not on reduced branchlets
as in the case of P. divaricatum.

Cockayne. — New Species of New Zealand Flowering-plants. 113

Carmichaelia paludosa Cockayne sp. nov.

Frutex erectus, afoliatus, multiramosus, fastigiatus, circ. 1-2 m. altus
Ramuli stricti, filiformi, flavido-virides, striati. Racemi vel fasciculi, 2 6-flori
floribus minutis breviter pedicellatis. Calyx campanulatus, sparse pilosus,
dentibus ciliatis brevissime dentatus. Legumen ellipticum, 9 mm. longum3
valide compressum. rostratum rostro stricto 5 mm. longo ; semina 2 3,
nigro-maculosa.

South Island : Westland — Abundant in lowland swamps. L. C.

Possibly a plant collected many years ago by Mr. D. Petrie in the Clinton
Valley, south-west Otago, should be referred to this species.

C. paludosa is evidently closely related to C. corytnbosa Col., but it appears
to differ in its erect, fastigiate, non-drooping habit, somewhat pilose calyx,
and larger 2-4-seeded pod. The long straight beak is very characteristic.
Colenso describes the beak in C. corytnbosa as short. By some both species
will be included as varieties in the aggregate C. flagelliformis.

Gentiana serotina Cockayne sp. nov.

Herba biennis (?) circ. 15 cm. alta. Caulia gracilis, simplex, teres,
stiictus, purpurascens, 2-striatus. Folia radicalia rosulata, pauca, spathu-
lata, + 2 cm. longa, apice obtusa ; folia caulina in paribus oppositis remotis
disposita, sessilia, basi connata, anguste triangularia, + 1-5 cm. longa, apice
acuta, margine integerrima fusco-purpurea. Flores 3 5, circ. 15 mm. diam.,
in umbellis dispositi vel terminales solitariique ; calyx + 8 mm. longus,
lobis 4 subulatis acuminatis |-f-partitus ; corolla calycis 2|-plo longiora,
alba, alte secta lobis obovatis obtusis sed apice brevissime mucronata.

South Island : Canterbury — Growing in tussock steppe of upper part
of the Canterbury Plain and the Malvern Hills. L. C.

This well-marked species perhaps comes nearest to G. patula, but is at
once separated by its much more slender habit, smaller flowers, narrow
acute cauline leaves and acuminate calyx-lobes, which more resemble
those of G. corymbifera Kirk. Also it only flowers in April or the end of
March, whereas G. patula blossoms throughout the summer.

Ourisia Crosbyi Cockayne sp. nov.

Herba perennis, gracillima, pubescens, 12-20 cm. alta. Rhizoma longa,
1-1-5 mm. diam., internodiis 1-2 cm. longis. Folia radicalia, pilis brevissimis
pubescentia ; lamina oblonga vel raro ovata, circ. 3 cm. longa, tenuis,
apice obtusa vel subacuta, margine serrata, subtus venis haud reticulatis ;
petiolus angustissimus, ad 4 cm. longus. Pedunculi gracillimi ; bractae
paribus oppositis, foliis simules sed minores, sessiles vel breve petiolatae.
Flores 3-4, circ. 10 mm. diam.; pedicelli circ. 2-3 mm. longi, gracillimi;
calycis-lobi usque ad basin 5-partiti lobis linearis, corollae tubum exce-
dentes; corolla alba, in faucem lutea, tubis brevis ; capsula non visi.

South Island: Southland — On floor of subalpine scrub, Longwood
Range. Stewart Island — In forest, Mount Anglem. Named in honour of
Mr. J. Crosby Smith, F.L.S.

This species is somewhat closely related to 0. Colensoi Hook, f., but it
differs greatly in its very slender habit and its thin, long-petioled, oblong,
serrate not crenate leaves, which on the under-surface do not show the
reticulating venation so marked in 0. Colensoi.

Wahlenbergia Matthewsii Cockayne sp. nov.

Herba glabra, perennis, circ. 24 cm. alta. Caules simplices vel pauci
ramosi, teretes. obscure striati, purpurascentes, 12-18 cm. longi. Folia

114 Transactions.

numerosa, conferta, linearia, + 3-5 cm. longa, 3 mm. lata, pallide viridia
aliquanto crassa, coriacea, glabra, sessilia, apice acuta vel subacuta, apicem
versus remote dentata. Pedunculi terminales, circ. 10 mm. longi, graciles,
erecti, 2-4-ramosi ; bractae paucae, breves ; calycis-lobi corollam-tubum
aequantes, subulati, acuti, circ. 5 mm. longi ; corollae-lobi circ. 10 mm.
longi, pallide lilacini, ovati, apice acuti ; capsula obconica, circ. 6 mm.
longa.

South Island : Marlborough — Clarence Valley, near the coast. Named
in honour of the late Mr. H. J. Matthews, the discoverer of the plant.

W . Matihewsii is related to W. vincaefiora Dene. (= W. gracilis A.D.G.),
but is amply distinct in the. numerous, close-set, linear leaves, invariable
in form, the purplish erect, simple or sparingly branching stems given off
closely together from a woody rootstock, and the large pale-lilac flowers.

Celmisia angustifolia Cockayne sp. nov.

Suffrutex C. discolori Hook. f. peraffinis sed foliis linearibus differt.

Folia linearia vel angustissime lineari-spathulata, sessilia, numerosa,
+ 3 cm. longa, 5 mm. lata, integerrima vel remote brevissime dentata, obtusa
vel subacuta, coriacea, supra glabra viscida, subtus dense tomentosa pilie
adpressis sericeis albis. Scapus gracilis, viscosus, + 10 cm. longus ; bracteae
remotae, lineari-subulatae Capitulum 2-3 cm. diam. ; involucri bractae
lineares, acutae, glanduloso-pubescentes, viscidae, apice recurvatae ; radii
ligulae angustae. albae, circ. 1-5 cm. longae, obtusae ; achenia sericea.

South Island : Canterbury — In fellfield or steppe from the lower sub-
alpine to the alpine belts on mountains drained by the River Waimakariri.
but not where the rainfall is excessive. L. C.

This rather critical species was included by Cheeseman in C. discolor
Hook, f., an aggregate species containing a most diverse set of plants. This
the description clearly shows — e.g., " Leaves very variable in size and shape.
1-2J in. long, j— \ in. wide, oblong-spathulate to linear, obtuse or acute,
entire or serrulate, very coriaceous to almost membranous, viscid, glabrouf.
or hoary above " ; " broad or narrow at the base, sometimes almost
petiolate." (Manual, p. 304.)

A .study, however, of the " species " in the field shows that certain forms
are constant over considerable areas, and that the prevailing form of one
locality is quite absent in others. There are, in fact, various groups of
individuals with constant and distinct characters which, in time, will
undoubtedly receive distinct names, either specific or varietal ; and this
does not apply to C. discolor merely, but to C. inca.na, C. longi folia, and
other aggregate species.

C. angustifolia, as here defined, is an exceedingly common plant in the
drier mountains drained by the River Waimakariri, where, so far as I know,
there are no transitions to the forms of C. discolor with oblong-spathulate
leaves, so common farther to the south. Such variation as does occur is
solely environmental and exhibited for the most part in reduction in size
of the aereal organs.

The only doubt I feel in publishing the species is not whether it is well
to split up the aggregate C. discolor either into species or varieties, but
whether Erigeron novae-zealandiae Buch. is not the same plant. The re-
semblance between the two was pointed out to me by Mr. D. Petrie ; con-
sequently I have carefully compared Buchanan's drawing and description
with my specimens of the Waimakariri plant, and have come to the con-
clusion that the two are not the same. If, however, plants matching

Cockayne. — New Species of New Zealand Flowering-plants. 115

C. angustifolia are found in the mountains near Collingwood, the habitat of
Buchanan's species, the name would be C. novae-zealandiae (Buch.), and
C. an<i>istifolia be a synonym.

B. L. Robinson, of Harvard University, in Proc. Am. Acad., xl, 1913,
has changed the name Cehnisia to Elcismia and applied this latter to all
the species considered valid in Cheeseman's Manual. The reason for this
change, according to Robinson, is that Cehnisia Cass, in Diet. Sc. Nat., vii,
356 (1817), is distinct from Cehnisia Cass, in Diet. Sc. Nat., xxxvii, 259
(1825), and that the New Zealand species fall into the latter, while into the
former go Cehnisia tabularis, syn. Arnica tabularis Thunb. and Cel. tomen-
tosa, syn. Conyza tomentosa Burm. f. According to the " Index Kewensis,"
fasc. i, p. 476, Cehnisia Cass. (1817) = Alciope D.C. (1836), which includes
the two species referred by Robinson to Cehnisia, while Cehnisia Cass. (1825)
is the genus as known in Australasia. The above facts seem to strongly
support Robinson's change of name. All the same, it would be a matter
for deep regret if a name so universally recognized as Cehnisia had to be
abandoned. It seems to me that New Zealand botanists would do well
to wait until the next Botanical Congress, so as to see if Cehnisia cannot be
placed in the list of nomina conservanda.

Celmisia Hookeri Cockayne nom. nov.

This is C. verbascijolia as defined by Cheeseman in the " Manual of the
New Zealand Flora," p. 309, that author being in grave doubt as to whether
the material he was dealing with really represented C. verbascijolia Hook. f.
Nothing needs adding to Cheeseman's admirable description.

. C. Hookeri, so far as is known, is confined to north-east Otago, where the
climate is comparatively dry. On the other hand, C. verbascijolia Hook. f.
was based on specimens collected by Lyall near Milford Sound and Preserva-
tion Inlet, where the rainfall is excessive. As defined by its author, it is
evidently a quite different plant to C. Hookeri, being smaller in all its parts
and with heads only 5 cm. diameter, as opposed to those of C. Hookeri, which
are more than 8 cm. diameter.

I think there is little doubt that C. Brownii Chapm., a widespread plant
in the south-west of Otago, is identical with C. verbascijolia Hook. f. Kirk
was the first *to identify the north-east Otago plant as C. verbascijolia, and
it is curious that in his " Students' Flora " the original habitat is not cited.

X Celmisia Christensenii Cockayne nov. typ. hybrid. (C. spectabilis
Hook. f. x C. Traversii Hook, f.)

Folia vaginam includens + 16 cm. longa, 3 cm. lata, flexibilia ; lamina
oblonga, basi subcuneata vel in petiolum brevem sensim attenuata, + 10 cm.
longa, supra viridis irregulariter sulcata glabra nisi nervi medii baso, subtus
fcomentis pallide fuscis mollibus aliquanto laxis circ. 1 mm. altis vestita.
nervo medio breve carinato purpureo sed pilis occulto, margine integerrima
pilosa pilis sordide albis sed basin versus fuscis ; petiolus brevis, carnosus,
circ. 10 mm. latus, tenue canaliculars, basi in vaginam purpurascentem
laxe sericeo-tomentosarn 4-5 cm. longam 18 mm. latam dilatatus. Scapus
duplo folia excedens, rigidus, crassus, pilis sericeis albis adpressis vestitus ;
bractae circ. 6, lineares, spathulatae vel vix subulatae, supra virides pilosae
pilis sericeis albis sed subtus apiceque pallide fusco-tomentosae. Capitula
circ. 4 cm. diam. ; involucri bractae lineares, pilis albis pilosae sed apice
brunneo-scariosae vel pilis pallido-fuscis vestitae ; ligulae 4-nervae, albae,
c re. 2-4 cm. longae.

lib' Transactions.

South Island : Fairly common <>n Mount Charon, near Hanmer. Named
in honour of Mr. C. E. Christensen, who is adding so greatly to the know-
ledge of the botany of Hanmer and its vicinity.

The plant here dealt with is almost certainly a hybrid between
G. spectabilis Hook. f. and C. Traversii Hook. f. It strongly resembles
G. mollis Cockayne, as may be seen by comparing the above description
with that of the latter in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 31, pp. 423-24. But
0. mollis is undoubtedly a hybrid between C. spectabilis Hook. f. and
0. petiolata Hook, f., the latter a species closely allied to C. Traversii.

x C. Ckristensenii is at once distinguished from G. spectabilis by the
softer slightly rust-coloured tomentum, the purple midrib and petiole, and
matted rather dirty-white hairs somewhat rusty-coloured at their bases,
which form a fringe round the margin of the leaf.

X Celmisia Morrisonii Cockayne nov. typ. hybrid. (C. coriacea, Hook f.
X C. Traversii Hook f.)

Folia vaginam includens 21 cm. longa, subflaccida ; lamina oblonga.
circ. 12 cm. longa, 3-5 cm. lata, subcoriacea, supra pallide viridis sed pilo-
rum tenuissimorum pellicula tenue ex parte occulta, subtus tomentosa
pilis sericeis albis adpressis dilute flavido tinctis, inaequaliter sulcata,
margine remote dentata mucronibus brevissimis purpureis et indistincte
marginata pilis albis sericeis intextis, apice obtusa vel subacuta, nervo
medio basi 10 mm. lato carinato et purpureo sed tomento occulto ; petiolus
carnosus, 2 cm. longus, 1-4 cm. latus, tomentosus, in vaginam 4 cm. longam
2-5 cm. latam lanuginosam lana alba dilatatus. Scapus vix duplo folia
excedens, rigidus, crassus, purpureus, pilis albis sericeis adpressis vestitus ;
bractae numerosae, lineares vel lineari-spathulatae, ad 7-5 mm. longae,
ut foliis tomentosae. Capitulum 6 cm. diam. ; involucri bractae lineares,
ut scapo pilosae, apice scariosae brunneae ; ligulae albae, 3 cm. longae.
apice obtusae vel 3-dentatae.

South Island : Mount Miromiro, near Hanmer. C. E. Christensen !
Named in honour of Mr. W. G. Morrison, who is industriously collecting
the high-mountain plants in the neighbourhood of Hanmer.

The more open tomentum, which is not parchment -like, and the
flexible leaves with purple midribs, at once separate X C. Morrisonii from
C. coriacea Hook, f., which it resembles in the silvery pellicle of the upper
leaf -surf ace and to a considerable degree in the scape and flower-head.
The relationship to C. Traversii Hook. f. is more obscure, but it is visible
in the purple midrib and petiole, the shape of the leaf and its texture, and
in the faint brown tinge of the tomentum.

The purple colour in C. Traversii is evidently a distinct unit character.
Hybrids between C. coriacea and C. spectabilis are without a trace of
purple.

Eegarding the hybrid forms of Celmisia on the Hanmer mountains,
Mr. Christensen sends me the following interesting particulars : " The
peculiar part about the hybrid forms of Celmisia at Hanmer is that
X C Christensenii only grows where C. Traversii and C. spectabilis grow
near one another ; while X C. Morrisonii only grows where C. coriacea and
C. Traversii are very plentiful — namely, on Mounts Charon and Miromiro.
I have not met with it on Mount Captain. There is one gully on Miro-
miro occupied almost exclusively by X C. Morrisonii. Further, C. Traversii
does not occur on Mount Perceval, so that the hybrids on that mountain
must all be between C. coriacea and C. spectabilis. " Specimens of this

Cockayne. — New Species of New Zealand Flowering -plants. 117

latter cross were sent to me by Mr. Christensen, but 1 await more material
before drawing up a diagnosis.

Since writing the above I have been informed that specimens of what
is here called x C. Morrisonii were some time ago received by Kew from
Mr. H. H. Travers, he having in his turn got them from Mr. McEvov, who
had, however, been made acquainted with the plant by Mr. Christensen.
Later on, Mr. Travers heard from Kew that the plant would be named
C. insignis. I am under the impression that this is merely a nonien nudum,
and, as I do not know who is the authority for the name, I am not substi-
tuting insignis for Morrisonii, as I would otherwise have done. The hybrid
has been known to me since 1899, when I found one plant in the vicinity
of Jack's Pass.

Helichrysum (() dimorphum Cockayne sp. nov.

Frutex scandens circ. 6-8 m. altus. Caulis circ. 2 cm. diam., flexilis,
primo non-ramosus denique dense rainosus ; rarnuli ultimi valde gracillimi,
foliis parvis imbricatis adpressis obsiti. Folia in planta juvenili et etiam
in planta adulti in umbra crescenta, subpatentes, elliptica vel ovato-oblonga,
circ. 3-5-5 mm. longa, 2 mm. lata, brevissime petiolata petiolo 1 mm. lato,
coriacea, supra glabra et conspicue nervosa, subtus tomentosa pilis sericeis
albidis, margine incrassata glaberrima, apice acuta apiculo brevissimo
ornata ; folia in planta adulti arete adpressa, imbricata, squamiformia,
lineari-lanceolata, obtusa, 3 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata, supra concava, pilosa
pilis albidis sericeis. subtus convexa, glabra. Capitula terminalia, parva,
subcylindriea, 9 mm. longa, 3-5 mm. diam. vel minora ; involucri squamae
multiseriatae, exterioribus oblongis vel obovatis, pilosis, marginibus scariosis
apicibus brunneis, interioribus lineari-oblongis, scariosis, obtusis ; flosculi
circ. 18, omnes hermaphroditi (?) ; pappi setae numerosae, graciles ; achenium
glabrum.

South Island : Canterbury — Climbing through and over river-terrace
scrub on the banks of the River Poulter, near the Mount White Bridge, and
at Puffer's Creek, 'Waimakariri River basin. L. C.

H. dimorphum is not only one of the rarest species in the flora, only
two plants being known so far, but, what is more important, it is a remark-
able addition to the lianes of New Zealand.

It can be recognized at a glance by its scrambling habit, slender branch-
lets with very small, adpressed, scale-like leaves, something after the manner
of HeUchrysam microphyllum, its semi-patent, flat leaves of the reversion-
shoots which are glabrous above with the anastomosing raised veins clearlv
evident, tomentose beneath and with thickened glabrous margins. The
heads are very small, long and narrow, and their involucral scales in several
series, the outer being much smaller than the inner ; the florets are about
18 in number, and are perhaps homogamous ; the achene is glabrous. The
main stem is stout below, unbranched and flexible. When the tops of the
shrubs are gained the plant branches abundantly, forming dense masses
of the slender cupressoid twigs.

I am not at all sure as to the genus of the plant, as my material was
scanty so far as flower-heads were concerned. However, the main reason
for publication is to call attention to this remarkable plant in the hope that
some one may be induced to visit the locality where the species is growing
and collect more material, or to look for other examples in river-terrace
scrub of the Waimakariri or its tributaries.

118 Transactions.

Cotula Dendyi Cockayne sp. nov.

C. atratae affinis seel robustiora capitulis majoribus, fiosculis luteis ve\
fulvis et involucri bracteis fiosculis aequilongis vel excedentibus.

Soutli Island : Common on subalpine and alpine shingle-slips of the
drier mountains where there is a steppe climate.

Although this species is extremely close to C. atrata Hook, f., it may
be at once recognized by the colour of the florets, which are never black,
but vary from quite pale yellow to brown, and the involucral bracts equal-
ling or rather longer than the florets. The plant frequently grows in com-
pany with C. atrata. It is quite possible that the brown-flowered form
is a hybrid between the yellow form and the black C. atrata.

Senecio southlandicus Cockayne sp. nov.

Herba perennis S. lagopo affinis. Folia radicalia suberecta, rosulata ;
lamina ovato-oblonga, oblonga vel fere rotundata, obtusa, 6-11 cm. longa.
membranacea vel subcoriacea, supra aliquando setosa sed plerumque glabra,
subtus saepe purpurascens, glabrescentia vel sparse tomentosa pilis sericeis,
basi rotundata vel cordata vel truncata ; petiolus nonnumquam strictus,
2-12 cm. longus valde glanduloso-pilosus. Scapus 12-30 cm. altus, ramosus,
pilosus pilis sericeis adpressis. Capitula saepe 9, 3-4 cm. diam. ; involucri
bracteae pilosae, apice ferruginosae ; radii ligulae 16 mm. longae, patentes,
luteae ; achenia lineares, glabra.

South Island : Otago — Common in tussock steppe and in the shade
of Leptos penman scoparimn in the neighbourhood of Balclutha, Gore,
Tapanui, &c. ; but the actual distribution cannot be denned. It has not
been noted in North Otago or Canterbury. D. L. Poppelwell ! L. ( !.

The plant here described is, in part, the S. bellidioides of Petrie's list of
Otago plants.* Also by Kirk and Cheeseman it was similarly placed. But
from S. bellidioides it differs in its usually much larger size ; in the absence
of bristles in the greater number of its individual plants, or, if bristles
are present, they occur in extremely small numbers ; in the purplish under-
surface of the leaf, the much-branched scapes, and the numerous heads.
From S. lagopus Eaoul the thin leaves without bristles and the non-
glandular scape at once separate it.

The species is, indeed, far more distinct from S. bellidioides and S. lagopus
than are these from one another. The classification of the whole series,
including those already mentioned, together with *S'. saxifragoides Hook. f.
and >S'. Haastii Hook, f., is in a most unsatisfactory position. Specimens
are constantly coming to me from various correspondents which it is im-
possible to place with any degree of satisfaction. There are undoubtedly
a number of well-marked forms, which demand, at the least, varietal names.
Even one fixed character may serve quite well as a specific mark. This
is illustrated in the case of S. saxifragoides and S. lagopus (the type from
Akaroa), where the presence of numerous bristles, or their absence, on the
upper surface of the leaf is the sole distinguishing character, so that, so far
as large plants of the two are concerned, if this character were not present,
no one could consider them in any degree different.

I must record my thanks to Mr. D. L. Poppelwell. of Gore, who most
kindly sent me abundant living material of S. southlandicus and extremely
valuable ecological notes regarding its sun and shade forms.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, 1896, p. 564.

Cockayne. — Undescribed Species of Cotula from Chatham Island*. ] 19

Art. XIII. — An Undescribed Species of Cotula front the Chatham Islands.

By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Communicated by Dr. Charles Chilton.

{.Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.]

Cotula Renwickii sp. nov.

Herba perennis, erecta, circ. 1-2 m. alta. Caules stricti, sublignosi,
viridi, cicatricibus foliorum annulati. Folia obovato-spathulata, + 4 cm.
longa et + 14 mm. lata, glabra, membranaeea, 5-nervosa, basi aliquanto
dilatata, apice 3-5-crenata. Capitula 11 mm. diam., flavida ; pedunculi
11 mm. longi, vix pilosi pilis brevissimis albis ; involucri bracteae, 2-seriatae,
circ. 12, oblongae, 4 mm. longae, glabrae, apicibus scariosis. Radii flores.
multiseriati ; corolla ^ovoidea, basi dilatata obscure dentata ; disci flores
numerosi, 4-dentati.

Hab. — Chatham Islands : Growing on the cliffs of the small islets known
as the Forty Fours. Named after Mr. Renwick, of Ouwenga, Chatham
Islands.

C. Renwickii is evidently closely related to C. Featherstonii, but easilv
recognized by its greater stature, its stems ringed with old leaf-scars, its
thin glabrous leaves, those of C. Featherstonii being thickly covered with
brownish hairs and somewhat succulent, its shorter peduncle and its much
larger flower-heads, which, according to Mr. Renwick. are of considerablv
greater size than as given in the above description.

I only possess one small scrap of the plant,* so the diagnosis will probably
need considerable modification and amplification. The specimen was kindly
sent to me by my friend Mr. F. A. D. Cox, who had received it from Mr.
Renwick, he in hia turn having got it from certain fishermen. These latter,
while in the vicinity of the Forty Fours, managed one day to effect a
landing — a by no means easy matter — and, while climbing the cliff, some
of the plants were broken off. These, falling into the sea, were picked
up by those in the boats and taken to Ouwenga, where they came into
the possession of Mr. Renwick, who managed for a time to cultivate one
plant.

The species is of more than common interest, since, on the one hand,
it is so closely related to C. Featherstonii, a species hitherto supposed to be
quite unlike any other member of the genus, and, on the other hand, it is
possibly restricted to the small area where it was discovered, or, at most,
it may eventually be found on one or other of the islets of the Chatham
Group.

The station, as given above, tells little about the actual habitat. Tin
growth-form is not in the least that of a true rock-plant. The closely related
C. Featherstonii is supposed to grow only on peat, where mutton-birds nest,
and perhaps this new species is restricted to some definite habitat. Mr. Cox
is endeavouring to procure more specimens, so that before long something
more should be known regarding this interesting species.

* Since writing the above description Mr. D. Petrie has most kindly lent me another
specimen, a portion of the same gathering.

120 Transactions.

Art. XIV. — Notes on the Plant Covering of the Garoie Mountains, with a

List of Species.

By D. L. Poppelwell.

\Rettd before the Otago Institute. 4th August. ]!)]4.]

General.

The Garvie Mountains are those which lie on the north side of the Mataura
River, and stretch from the East Dome in a north-easterly direction for
a distance of about twenty-five miles, where they join the Carrick Range.
They have a width of about fifteen miles, and drain to the Waikaia River
on the south-east, to the Mataura River on the south-west, and to the Nevis
Valley on the north-west.

So far as I am aware, nothing has been published concerning the plant
covering of this range except some mention of species by Dr. Cockayne
from specimens sent him by me. The botany of these mountains is of con-
siderable importance from a phytogeographical point of view, owing to the
area mentioned forming the connecting-link between the wet mountains
of the west and the drier east of Otago. Furthermore, this area lies as far
inland as is possible in Otago, it being practically equidistant from the
east, west, and south coasts — namely, between seventy-five and eighty miles.

History of Botanical Investigation.

I first visited the East Dome about five years ago, in March, spending a
couple of days there, collecting a number of living plants and taking some
notes of the vegetation.

In February, 1910, I spent two days in the vicinity of the Remarkable
Gap, reaching the mountain-tops and noting the plant-growth, upon which
occasion I also collected a large number of living plants, many of which I
sent to Dr. Cockayne, F.R.S., to whom I also supplied notes of the plant
associations. During the Christmas holidays of 1910 I again visited these
mountains, accompanied by Messrs. G. Biggar and J. Speden, of Gore, and
W. A. Thomson and 0. Davies, of Dunedin. This visit was from the Nevis
Valley, and we went right over Mount Tennyson, down the Nokomai Valley
and the Mataura River, to East Dome, where we further investigated the
plant formations. In all, about four days were occupied in this way, and
the information obtained was communicated to Dr. Cockayne and others.

Lastly, during the Christmas holidays of 1913, in company with Messrs.
Biggar, Speden, and Thomson above mentioned, I spent about ten days
inspecting the forest in the Upper Waikaia and the mountain flora of the
heights in the vicinity, adding considerably to the list of plants previously
noted and to my knowledge of the various plant associations, which I now
propose to describe. In these investigations I was considerably helped
by my companions, all of whom are enthusiastic and skilful collectors,
and to whom I am much indebted for assistance given. I would here also
like to record my indebtedness to Dr. Cockayne and Mr. D. Petrie for
kindly assistance given in identifying doubtful specimens and for useful
advice regarding the compilation of these notes.

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Carrie Mountains. 121

Topography.

The Garvie Mountains consist of an elevated range running to a height
in places of over 6,000 ft. Most of the range is over 4,000 ft. high, the
principal peaks being East Dome (4,350 ft,), The Steeple (4,796 ft,), Mount
Tennyson (5,014 ft,), Mount Cameron (5,959 ft,), The Gap (5,925 ft,), and
Rocky Mount (6,086 ft,). The rocks are mostly schistose, and on the tops
are weathered in many places into strange and grotesque forms. Here and
there huge shafts or pillars stand up against the sky-line, while in other
places great areas of smooth flat-topped rocks give shelter to an interesting
and varied plant-life.

Near the Remarkable Gap some five or six lakes have been formed
at a height of over 4,000 ft. The principal lakes are Blue Lake and Gow's
Lake. From these natural reservoirs rocky and in some cases almost pre-
cipitous torrents dash down to the lower valleys. Most of the ridges are
rounded on the tops, and many of them are covered with extensive peat
bogs, dotted over with numerous lagoons. These bogs are difficult to
travel over, but rich in flora. The ascent of the mountains is for the most
part comparatively easy, and a good deal of it could be accomplished on
horseback. Many of the tops, however, can only be negotiated by strenuous
climbing on foot.

Ecological Conditions.

The rounded tops of many of these mountains result in the water-
content of the soil at the upper levels being generally greater than might be
expected. The average rainfall is not very great, nor do I think the number
of rainy days excessive, the area being, in fact, just on the border of the dry
district of Central Otago. The elevated nature of the country means that
it is frequently snowing here when rain is falling in the lower valleys.* The
flattened ridges swept by the westerly gales result in a greater degree of
snow-drift than would be found on rougher ground. The heads of the gullies
and lee slopes of the ridges where these drifts accumulate become great
reservoirs, from which melting snow-water percolates through the soil and
keeps it moist, In many places these snow-streams become blocked, and,
spreading out, produce large areas of peat bog, the sour, wet soil in parts
being too sodden for any but the scantiest vegetation. On the other hand,
during the summer months the rocky areas are subject to drying winds
and extreme insolation, especially those with a northerly aspect, Strong
south-west winds also leave their mark upon the vegetation, the exposed
heights being covered with a complete mantle of various cushion plants,
particulars of which are noted later.

Numerous deep' gorges result in a lessened light, and provide suitable
situations for shade-loving species. The lower altitudes, of course, have
less snow and more rainfall, the latter soon running off and leaving dry
hillsides and a consequently reduced list of species. In the lower gullies
beech forest prevails, some of the trees being very tall, especially on the
mountain-slopes, where the sun strikes less directly. Both sheep and
cattle graze plentifully on these mountains in the summer months, and these
have naturally somewhat affected the plant associations, but not yet to
such a marked extent as to be very important. Fire, on the other hand,
has materially changed the association in some cases, but in others there is a
tendency for the burnt spots to reclothe themselves with their lost covering.

* The average annual recorded rainfall at Lumsden for the last seven years is only
33-01 in., and the number of rainy days 172.

122 Transactions.

THE PLANT ASSOCIATIONS.

In dealing with these it will be necessary to make the distinctions of
(1) forest, (2) subalpine scrub, (3) steppe, (4) alpine meadow, (5) rocks and
cliffs, (6) bogs and swamps.

(1.) Forest.

The principal forests are those in the head of the Waikaia Valley, in
Gow's Creek, and on East Dome. These will be treated separately.

Waikaia Valley Forest.

This is a beech forest, but contains perhaps a larger admixture of other
species than is usual in such forests. The beeches noted by me consist
of Nothofagus Menziesii and N. Solanderi at the lower levels, the height
above sea-level being about 700 ft. On the higher ground near at hand
Nothofagus fusca is also growing. The latter species is in places of great
height, many trees measuring over 40 metres and some probably over
45 metres tall, the lowest branches being perhaps 20 metres from the base.
The trees vary from 1 to 1-5 metres in diameter, and have fine straight
boles, although covered in some instances with mosses and lichens. The
physiognomy of the forest is sombre, as is usual, although the lighter green
colour and more open branches of N .fusca at once mark out where it is domi-
nant. On the bank of the Waikaia River in this locality a somewhat mixed
association of shrubs was noted, consisting of Olearia nummularifolia, Car-
michaelia robusta, C. subulata, Veronica salicifolia, Olearia aborescens, Senecio
elaeagnifolius, Gaultheria erecta, Pittosporum Buchanani, Nothopanax Edger-
leyi, N. Colensoi, Fuchsia excorticata, Phylocladus alpinus, Gaya Lyallii,
Coprosma crassifolia, Olearia ilicifolia, and Podocarpus Hallii. The creepers
Muehlenbeckia complexa and Rubus australis are also fairly common ; while
the parasites Elytranthe Colensoi, E. tetrapeiala, and E. flavida are abundant
on the beech-trees, and light up the dark forest with blazes of red and orange.
< 'uriously enough, E. Colensoi and E. tetrapetala were only noted on Notho-
fagus Menziesii, although a close lookout was kept on the other beeches for
them.

The plants of the ground layer consist of Astelia nervosa, Poa Colensoi,
Helichrysum bellidioides, Rumex flexuosus, Acaena sanguisorbae, A. pilosa,
Senecio bellidioides, Lagenophora petiolata, Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae,
Raoulia glabra. Uncinia riparia, Cardamine heterophylla, Ranunculus lappa-
ceus, Chrysobactron Hookeri, Juncus planifolius, Viola Lyallii, Microlaena
avenacea, and the ferns Blechnum penna marina, Polystichuni vestitum,
Asplenium flaccidum, A. Hookerianum, A. flabellijolium, and Hymenophyllum
uiultifidum. Close to the river Lycopodiutu, Billardieri was also noted,
epiphytic on Nothofagus Menziesii. Farther up, as we approach the denser
forest, the following make their appearance : Rubus australis, R. sub-
pauperatus, Carpodetus serratus, Coriaria tliyutifolia, Coprosma areolata.
Corokia cotoneaster, Suttonia divaricata, Coriaria angustissima, Wahloi-
bergia saxicola, and Uncinia rubra, with Juncus effusus and J. plani-
folius in the damp places. In open spots I also noted Nertera setulosa,
Blechnum capense, Helichrysum- filicaide, Geranium microphyllum, Pteridium
esculentum, Epilobium pubens, and Hypolepis tenuifolium. On the edge
of the forest the following are found : Muehlenbeckia australis, Drimys
colorata, Dracophyllum longifolium, and Griselinia littoralis. Here and
there under the beech-trees are patches of Histiopteris incisa, Nertera dichou-
draefolia, with the orchids Pterostylis australis, P. Banksii, Cory sunt lies

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of tlu Garvie Mountains. 123

triloba, and Chiloglottis comuta. A few specimens of Elaeocarpus Hooker-
ianus and Blechnum fluviatile are also seen. In more or less open spots,
where old mine-workings once existed, the association consists of Ranunculus
hirtus, Erectites prenanthoides, Gnaphalium luteo -album, Epilobium alsinoides,
E. rotundifolium, Lagenophora petiolata, Celmisia longifolia, Blechnum
penna marina, Gaultheria depressa, Geranium microphyllum, Poa Colensoi,
Gunnera mixta, and Leptospermum scoparium, with patches of Raoulia
glabra and the moss Racromitrium lanuginosum. Scattered throughout
this association the following introduced species were noted : Holcus lanatus.
Prunella vulgaris, Cnicus lanceolatus, Veronica serpylifolia, V. arvensis, Tri-
folium repens, and the common Gryptostemma calendulaceum. In ponds
the following association is common : Callitriche verna, Cladium Vauthiera,
and Potamogeton Cheesemanii.

At a greater altitude Nothofagus fusca becomes more plentiful, and a
few specimens of N. cliffortioides put in appearance. Podocarpus Hallii
is fairly plentiful, and here and there specimens of Nothopanax simplex
and Coprosma foetidissima are found, especially in the damper places. On
the decaying logs and among the humus of the forest floor there is a wealth
of the orchids Caledenia bifolia, Gastrodia Cunninghamii, and Adeno-
chilus gracilis. The following ferns are also found : Polypodium australe,
P. diversifolium, Asplenium bulbiferum, Hymenophyllum multifidum, H. Tun-
bridgense, Blechnum capense, and B. membranacea. On dry banks Arthro-
podium candidum, Lycopodium volnbile, and L. ramulosum are sparingly
found. Dotted along the tracks patches of Helichrysum bellidioides, TJrtica
incisa, and Oxalis magellanica are common. At 1,400 ft. altitude Pratia
angulata makes its appearance, while the principal floor-covering is Histio-
pteris incisa and Hypolepis tenuifolia. Carpodetus serratus at this elevation
becomes more abundant and of larger dimensions. As we emerged from the
forest my notes record Senecio Lyallii in full bloom on the bank of a creek,
and the stones covered with Raoulia, lutescens.

Goiv's Creek.

The associations of this forest are practically the same as that of the
Waikaia forest.

East Dome Forest.

The forest here is not of great dimensions. It commences at an elevation
of about 700 ft. above sea-level, and skirts the base of East Dome. The
beech-trees are similar to those in Waikaia Valley, but variation in the form
and particularly in the size of the leaf is perhaps more marked. On the
margin of the forest the following mixed association is found : Podocarpus
totara, P. Hallii, Cordyline australis, Discaria toumatou, Dracophyllum
longijolium, Carpodetus serratus, Pittosporum tenuifolium, Griseliuia litto-
ralis, Drimys colorata, Corokia cotoneaster, Olearia virgata, Suttonia divari-
cata, Fuchsia excorticata, Sophora rnicrophylla, Leptospermum scoparium,
Coprosma linariifolia, C. crassifolia, Olearia avicenniaefolia, Aristotelia
racemosa, A. Colensoi, Podocarpus spicata, Pseudopanax crassifolium, Notho-
panax simplex, Gaya Lyallii, and Nothopanax Edgerleyi. The following
creepers are fairly common : Rubus australis, R. subpauperatus, Calystegia
tuguriorum (abundant), Muehlenheckia australis, Parsonsia heterophylla,
P. capsular is, and Clematis indivisa.

Among the smaller plants along the edge of the forest and in open parti
the following are typical : Hypolepis tenuifolia, Potentilla anserinoides,
Aspleniuni bulbiferum, Polystichuni vestitum, Pteridium esculentum, Acaena

124 Transactions

sanguisoxbae, A. novae-zelandiae, A. pilosa, J uncus effusus, Lagenophora
petiolata, Geranium microphyllum, Epilobium (several species), Oxalis corni-
culata, Mentha Cunninghamii, Acaena microphylla, Blechnum capen.se,
Geranium sessiliflorum, Pratia angulata, Coriaria ruscifolia, Phormium
tenax, Blechnum fluviatile, Blechnum penna marina, Polypodium diversi-
folium, Astelia nervosa, Carex lucida, Gastrodia Cunninghamii, Olearia
arborescens, Polypodium australe, Pteridium esculentum, Astelia montana,
Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae, and Senecio Haastii. Of parasites I noted
Elytra uthe jlavida on Nothofagus fusca and N. Solanderi, and Loranthus
micranthus. On a rocky face near the river I also saw Veronica salicifolia,
Cyclophorus serpens, Helichrysum glonieratum, Asplenium flabellifolium,
Prasophyllum Colensoi, Wahlenbergia saxicola, Anisotome Haastii, Senecio
bellidioides, and Celmisia petiolata.

In an address delivered in Gore some years ago I drew attention to the
way in which Leptospermum scopariuni thickets formed a nursery for young
Nothofagus seedlings, which ultimately destroyed their hosts and took
their places. When speaking, I had the East Dome in my mind. Here
this succession is also marked, as young Nothofagus fusca seedlings are
plentiful where the Leptospermum is dominant, but where the beech once
outgrows its shelter the latter is destroyed by it. This process is plainly
evidenced here, where the young beech forest is full of dead Leptospermum
scoparium of full growth.

Here we have a succession similar to that mentioned by Dr. C. B.
Crampton in his l' Vegetation of Caithness, considered in Relation to its
Geology."* In that paper he states (at page 98), in regard to Calluna
vulgaris and Betula alba, " The heather forms a nursery for the seedling
birch, but the latter on maturing into trees exterminate the heather beneath
them."

(2.) Subalpine Scrub.

Upper Waikaia Valley.

The subalpine scrub is curiously distributed on the Garvies. In the
Upper Waikaia Valley there is hardly any subalpine scrub properly so
called, the formation beyond the bush-line being a loose collection of shrubs,
fairly open and with none of that characteristic interwoven closeness of
high-altitude shrubberies. The dominant plant in this formation appears
to be Phyllocladus alpinus, which is plentiful and in full bloom in December.
Olearia virgata is also abundant with 0. nummularifolia, Veronica Traversii,
Olearia Hectori, Aristotelia fruticosa, Aciphylla squarrosa, Dracophylluui
longifolium, Pentachondra pumila, Styphelia Fraseri, Anisotome Haastii,
Scleranthus biflorus, Fuchsia Colensoi, Senecio elaeagnifolius (not plentiful),
and Angelica Gingidium. I also noted one large specimen of Senecio cassini-
oides, in full bloom, its brilliant yellow colour making it conspicuous at a
distance of nearly a mile.

On the spur leading to the Titan rocks, at a height of 2,700 ft., there is
a large quantity of Veronica buxifolia associated with V . propinqua, Cassinia
Vauvilliersii, Gaultheria depressa, Senecio revolutus, Gaultheria rupestris,
Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium, while the ground plants are Helichrysum
bellidioides, Chrysobactron Hookeri, and Acaena pilosa. Apparently a good
deal of this ground has been burnt at one time. The Veronica buxifolia
is only about 6dcm. high, although in patches where the fire has missed

* Published under the auspices of the Committee for the Survey and Study of
British Vegetation.

Poppet. well. — Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains. 125

the plants are from 1 to 1*5 metres high. Farther up on the same spur
the association varies between Ver&nica-Cassinia and Cassinia-Veronica,
those different genera being dominant in turn, the carpet association being
much as before mentioned.

Gow's Creek.

The physiognomy of the subalpine scrub near the beech forest here is
marked by an uneven surface with great brownish-green patches in parts
and a light-grey colour over considerable areas when seen at a distance.
Upon closer acquaintance these colours are explained by the presence of
Dacrydium BidwiUii. the rounded tops and bright colour of which easily
give it first place in physiognomic importance. In other parts Veronica
buxifolia in bloom accounts for the lighter shades. The associations
which show the different colours above mentioned might be termed the
" Dacrydium " and " Veronica " associations respectively. They consist of
the same species, but the relative abundance of the different dominant
species completely accounts for the changed appearance. The general
association is as follows : Veronica buxifolia (abundant), V. propinqua,
Dracophyllum longifolium,, Cassinia Vauvilliersii, Dacrydium BidwiUii
(dominant over considerable areas), Caladenia bifolia, Blechnum pinna
marina, Styphelia Fraseri, GauUheria perplexa, Euphrasia zealandica, Oreo-
stylidium subulatum, Pitnelea prostrata, Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium,
Wahlenbergia gracilis, and GauUheria depressa. Near a creek Senecio Lyallii
showed in yellow patches, with occasional specimens of Veronica Traversii (?).*
In places also the following species appeared : Aristotelia fruticosa, Forstera
Colensoi, and Senecio revolutus, with occasional specimens of Danthonia
Raoulii and Poa Colensoi. until the scrub gave place to tussock meadow.

East Dome.

The scrub here is much more closely interwoven than in any of the
other places examined. It forms a close association on the edge of the
beech forest, and is "very hard to negotiate. The chief species consist of
Veronica Traversii (?),* which is plentiful, Olearia avicenniaefolia, 0. nummu-
larifolia, Coriaria ruscifolia. Cassinia Vauvilliersii, Dracophyllum longifolium,
Phormium tenax, P. Cookianum, Leptospermum scoparium, Pittosporum
tenuifolium, Nothopanax Colensoi, Clematis indivisa, Veronica buxifolia,
Astelia moutana, and Senecio Haastii. Of these, the Dracophyllum, Pitto-
sporum, and Veronica are dominant.

(3.) Steppe.

Under this heading I am including those portions of the elevated parts
which are covered with tussock meadow. It is impossible to draw a hard-
and-fast line between " steppe " and " alpine meadow,'' although the
abundance or not of Celmisia makes in these regions a fair test of what
constitutes alpine meadow. The land under this head lies between the
altitudes of 1,000 ft. and 3,500 ft., although there is necessarily a good deal
of overlapping between the different zones, especially as regards Danthonia
Raoulii, D. flavescens, and D. crassiuscula.

The plant associations of these steppes beginning at about 1,000 ft.
altitude on the east side of the Garvies has Leptospermum scoparium as its
dominant plant. Frequently this is found as a pure formation where it
is closed, but where it is open a mixed association is found. This consists

* Perhaps a form of T\ monticola.

12G Transactions.

of Acaena sanguisorbae, A. microphylla (both plentiful), Festuca rubra,
Coriaria thymifolia, Poa australis, Celmisia longijolia, Ranunculus lappaceus,
Wahlenbergia saxicola, Geranium sessiliflorum var. glabrum, Chrysobactron
Hookeri, Blechnum penna marina, Plantago Browni, Acaena pilosa, Uncinia
rubra, Oxalis corniculata, Drapetes Dieffenbachii, Lagenophora petiolata,
Gnaphaliutn Traversii, G. paludosum, and Styphelia Fraseri. At 2,200 ft.
the first patch of Veronica buxifolia is met. The plants are stunted in
form, and associated with Pratia angulata and Phormium Cookianum, the
latter, however, being a rare plant in this locality. Here and there patches
of Herpolirion novae-zealandiae and Gentiana corymbijera are also added to
the general association.

At about 2,700 ft. a further patch of shrubby plants was also met with,
but I have dealt with the association under the heading of subalpine scrub.
Danthonia Raoulii is plentiful everywhere, and in soft places Oreobolus
pectinatus cushions are common, with Colobanthus acicularis, Celmisia
glandulosa, and patches of Raoulia glabra. In portions of the meadow
seedling plants of Celmisia coriacea without any adults were noted, but
as this ridge forms part of Mr. G. Pinckney's Glenary Run, and is the road
leading to the station, no doubt the general association is affected some-
what by the traffic of sheep affecting not only the plants themselves, but
also by the carrying of seed in the wool, &c. From a height of about
3,000 ft. the tussock association changes, Danthonia Raoulii gradually
giving way to D. crassiuscula. There is also a tendency for many of the
alpine-meadow plants to sparingly put in an appearance. Of these, I
noted in " steppe " formations Celmisia densiflora, Senecio revolutus, Aniso-
tome aromaticum, Ourisia caespitosa, Geum parviflorum, Senecio Lyallii,
Celmisia coriacea, Cardamine heterophylla, and Forstera Colensoi. There
are also a few other plants near the limit of the beech forest, such as
Aristotelia fruticosa, Clematis marata, Chrysobactron Hookeri, Lyco podium
fastigiatum, Pimelea Gnidia, P. prostrata, and Polystichum vestitum, together
with Poa Colensoi, Agropyron scabrum, and Aciphylla Colensoi. At the
head of a gully in which the beech forest creeps up to over 3,000 ft. there
is a patch of several acres covered with Senecio revolutus. It is seldom
one sees much bloom on this species, but this season (1913-14) must have
been an exceptional one, as the area referred to, and also several similar
patches on other parts, were such a blaze of yellow with the bloom of this
plant at the time of our visit as to completely dominate the physiognomy
of the mountain-side, the brilliant colour being visible for miles. The
" steppe " continues to nearly 4,000 ft., when it gradually breaks into
'' alpine meadow," although the latter, of course, still contains much of the
steppe association.

On the lower parts of the northern side of Mount Tennyson there is also
a formation which would come under the heading of tw steppe." The tussock
grasses here consist almost exclusively of Danthonia flavescens and Poa
Colensoi, with its variety Poa intermedium. Growing among these some
Agropyron scabrum is found. A good deal of this face of the mountain
had apparently been burnt about twelve months prior to our visit, and
this possibly affected the association. The Nevis Valley was about 2,600 ft.
above sea-level at the point where we commenced our ascent of the moun-
tain, and consequently much of the usual lowland steppe association was
missing. The commonest plants outside those mentioned were Aciphylla
Colensoi, which was very abundant, although the plants were apparently
just getting over the effects of the fire, and were consequently small. In

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Gar vie Mountains. 127

*
the damper places Ranunculus lappaceus, R. Poppelwellii (sp. nov. Petrie),
and Geum parviflorum were tolerably plentiful.

On the other '" steppe " situations of the Garvie Mountains the associa-
tion is much the same as that described in speaking of the eastern slopes.

(4.) Alpine Meadow.

Under this heading most of the meadow above 3,500 ft. may be described,
although, of course, specialization under " rocks and cliffs " and " bogs and
swamps " will be necessary as regards a good deal of it. Over a large
part of the meadow Danthonia flavescens is found, and also D. crassi-
ascula. The presence of either of these "tussocks " is evidence of relative
dryness. The places where these are missing are almost invariably either
damp or very wind-swept. Perhaps more time was spent by me on the
portions around the Remarkable Gap than elsewhere, near which I camped
for several days at an elevation of about 4,200 ft. Most of this country
consists of rolling tussock ridges which contain immense bogs, and the tops
are covered with great patches of schistose rocks, many of which are weather-
worn into wonderful forms, and all of which give shelter to an interesting
plant association. A little below the " Boggy Saddle," on the southern face
of the Titans, there is a great field of Celmisia coriacea, the leaves being
rather narrow and almost bronze in colour. This form is characteristic
of the locality, although here and there plants with white tomentum are
seen. The other plants in the association are Senecio revolutus, S. Lyallii,
Danthonia crassiuscula, Poa Colensoi, and Carpha alpina. A considerable
area has been burnt, but the above plants seemed at the time of our visit
to be taking complete possession. Another form of Celmisia is also common
both here and farther up the ridge. This has tolerably stiff leaves, but the
tomentum on the upper side is loose and woolly, and varies in colour from
a pure white to a bright bronze. Possibly this is a form of Celmisia verbasci-
folia, but the common form of that plant is also plentiful. Other plants
in this locality are Senecio bellidioides and Claytonia australasica, the latter
in great patches. As the saddle is approached the' ground becomes wetter,
and the following are added : Phyllackne Colensoi, Drosera Arcturi, Carpha
alpina, Oreobolus pectinatus, Drapetes Dieffenbachii, Anisotome sp. (?), Dacry-
dium Bidwillii, Dracophylhon uniflorum, Pentachondra pumila, Suttonia
nunimularia, and Coprosma repens. At about 4,500 ft. there is an immense
field of Celmisia among the tussocks. This is sufficient to completely
dominate the association, giving a greyish-white appearance to the whole
hillside. The principal species are C. coriacea, C. verbascifolia, and C. petio-
lata. Growing among these we discovered several forms which suggest
possible hybridism between some of these larger forms and C. longijolia.
These intermediate forms partook of the nature of the larger plants, but had
narrow leaves, in some cases not more than 1-5 cm. in width and from 25
to 30 cm. in length. Celmisia Lyallii is also a very common plant, and in
places forms great patches many acres in extent. Dotted throughout this
association, especially where the ground is damper, are numerous specimens
of an Aciphylla, about 6 in. high, peculiarly marked with transverse lines.
This is the plant referred to A. Traillii by Cheeseman, but is, I think,
distinct from the latter, which probably does not occur on the mainland.
Celmisia longijolia var. alpina is also plentiful in the damp ground with
Plantago triandra, Uncinia pauciflora, and Carex pterocarpa (?).

On a patch where the tussocks had been burnt an almost pure associa-
tion of Celmisia coriacea was in possession, with a patch of Aciphylla Colensoi.
■On a dry open patch on the summit of a ridge I noted the following :

] 28 Transactions.

Celmisia linearis, Veronica uniflora, Brachycome Sinclairii, Cotuh dioica,
Veronica Thomsoni, V. ciliolata, and Hectorella caespitosa.

Near the Blue Lake there is a great quantity of Aciphylla Monro i in full
bloom (29th December), with Ranunculus gracilipes, R.foliosa, and R. novae-
zealandiae, including a form of the latter with 8 to 10 petals. The ground
here is also carpeted in places with Geum leiospermum, while Geum parvi-
florum, G. uniflorum, and G. pusilum are also common.

Looking at the mountain-side near the Blue Lake, the association is
dominated by Celmisia verbascifolia, which is so plentiful among the tussocks
of Danthonia crass iuscula as to strongly mark the physiognomy. Other
Celmisias are also common, the principal being C. coriacea, C. densiflora,
and C. subalpina (plentiful). At this point the Danthonia crassiuscula
begins to thin out, and its place is taken by Poa Golensoi, P. intermedia,
and a form of the former which has very stiff leaves with pungent points
and which Mr. Petrie distinguishes as var. pungens. Agropyron scabrum
and Festuca rubra are also common, while Danthonia pilosa is fairly abundant.

Here and there patches of Ourisia caespitosa are also seen with Senecio
revolutus, Aciphylla Monroi, A. Golensoi (rare), Acaena microphylla, Poly-
stichum cystostegia, Cardamine depressa, Gotula pyrethrifolia, Brachycome
Sinclairii, Senecio bellidioides (?), Gentiana corymbifera, Veronica uniflora,
Lycopodium fastigiatum, Dracophyllum prostratum, D. politmn, Phyllachne
Golensoi, Raoulia graudi flora, Lycopodium Selago, Celmisia laricijolia, Oreo-
bolus pectinatus, and Gnaphalium Traversii.

At the time of our visit in December, 1913, snow-patches were plentiful
at 4,300 ft. in this locality. The association near the melting snow con-
sisted chiefly of Caltha novae-zealandiae, which was abundant and in full
bloom in several places almost under the snow, the flowers completely starring
the ground, and being in many cases over 2 in. in diameter. Celmisia
subalpina (?), crushed and damaged by the weight of the slipping snow-
drift, was nevertheless putting forth buds, and in a week or two would be in
full bloom.

At 4,700 ft. Senecio bellidioides (?) was to be seen in close round patches
from 16 cm. to 36 cm. in diameter. This form has an almost glabrous small
leaf, and may be a " new " species. On the sunny faces at this elevation
there are only occasional tussocks of low stature, and the principal plants
are Aciphylla Monroi (dominant), Craspedia uniflora var. with woolly leaves,
Gaimardia ciliata, Racromitrium lanuginosum, Veronica pulvinaris, Hymen-
anthera dentata var. alpina, Veronica Buchanani, V. ciliolata, Aciphylla
Kirkii, Leucogenes grandiceps, and Hectorella caespitosa. The top of the
mountain above the Remarkable Gap, at about 6,000 ft., consists of a flatfish
meadow exposed to the south-west winds. It contains a remarkable associa-
tion of close-growing wind-swept plants, in which I noted the following :
Aciphylla simplex, whose round brownish cushions, from 18 cm. to 50 cm.
in diameter, were dotted everywhere, and predominated, contrasting strongly
with the grey schistose rocks ; Myosotis pulvinaris, Phyllachne Golensoi,
P. clavigera, Raoulia Parhii, Donatia novae-zealandiae, Dracophyllum pro-
stratum, Veronica Thomsoni, Haastia Sinclair)')', Abrotanella inconspicua,
Celmisia viscosa, Aciphylla Monroi, Veronica, lycopodioides, Viola Cun-
ninghamii, Celmisia laricifolia, and Ourisia gland ulosa, with a Celmisia which
may have been a small form cf C. discolor or an undescribed species.

Mount Tennyson.

On Mount Tennyson, at a height of about 4,350 ft., an open association
is found, the principal plants being Celmisia Lyallii, C. longifolia var. alpina,

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains. 129

Claytonia australasica, Gentiana corymbifera, Epilobium chloraefolium,
Aciphylla Kirkii, Geum leiospermum, Celmisia prorepens, C. argentea,
Angelicum decipiens, and the small Aciphylla like A. Traillii, mentioned
above as being probably new. In damper situations Phyllachne cushions are
also plentiful. There is also an extensive area of Veronica lycopodioides, the
plants being stunted in form and only about 30 cm. to 35 cm. high. Growing
among these Veronicas are numerous specimens of V. propinqua, Celmisia
petiolata, C. subalpina, C. discolor, C. Lyallii, and here and there patches of
C. coriacea. In the wetter places Aciphylla pinnatifida is common. At
4,500 ft. great patches of Celmisia viscosa and C. Lyallii are found, together
with Veronica buxifolia and V. Buchanani, and a form of whipcord Veronica
which may be " new," but which was not in bloom at the time of our visit.
In the damp and boggy places I noted Pentachondra pumila, Drosera Arcturi,
Chrysobactron Hookeri, Celmisia Sinclairii, and Ranunculus lappaceus :
while on drier ground Brachycome Sinclairii, Epilobium chloraefolium, Senecio
revolutus, S. southlandica, Helichrysum bellidioides, Leucogenes grandiceps.
and Dracophyllum prostratum are growing in abundance.

The association of the summit of Mount Tennyson is generally similar
to that described above, except that the Veronicas mentioned are not growing
at the higher levels. In a damp rocky situation near the summit the following
association was, however, noted : Ranunculus lappaceus (abundant), Ourisia
sessilifolia, 0. glandulosa, Celmisia laricifolia, C. argentea, C. petiolata,
C. discolor, and a Veronica which was either V. Muelleri or an undescribed
species. On the south-west slopes the principal association is Poa caes-
pitosa, P. Colensoi, and Chrysobactron Hookeri, with an occasional patch
of Celmisia coriacea. On the damper hillside lower still there is an abund-
ance of Veronica buxifolia and Dracophyllum prostratum, with Senecio Lyallii
plentiful on the creek-banks.

East Dome.

On the East Dome, after emerging from the subalpine scrub, the principal
vegetation consists of low Pteridium esculentum, Coriaria ruscifolia, Gaul-
theria antipoda, and G. rupestris, scattered through which are numerous
specimens of Gentiana Grisebachii, Celmisia Sinclairii, C. petiolata, Lyco-
podium fasligiatum, Veronica buxifolia, V. Traversii{1), Coprosma crassifolia,
Olearia nummularifolia, Brachycome Sinclairii, and Veronica propinqua.
Farther up the following appear : Celmisia verbascifolia, C. coriacea, Poa
caespitosa, C. colensoi, Danthonia crassiuscula, Veronica Buchanani, Pimelea
sericeo-villosa (?), with Phormium Cookianum and in rocky situations Aniso-
tome Haastii and Senecio Haastii, the latter being particularly abundant,
and having exceptionally large leaves, in one case noted the measurement
being 27 cm. by 21 cm. without the petiole. The above association continues
up the mountain, and may be taken to be typical.

(5.) Rocks and Cliffs.

Much of this range of mountains consists of great patches of wind-swept
rocks and precipitous cliffs, and as these situations have their peculiar plant-
growths, some care was taken in noting their principal associations.

At an elevation of 2,000 ft. on the ridge leading from Glenary Station
there is a rocky patch subject to much wind, the plant association being
as follows : Festuca rubra, Blechnum penna marina, Senecio bellidioides,
Leptospermum scoparium, Rubus australis, Hypolepis tenuifolia, Coriaria
angustissima, Ranunculus lappaceus, Wahlenbergia saxicola, Lagenophora
petiolata, Acaena microphylla, Chrysobactron Hookeri, Poa australis, Holcus

5 — -Trans.

130 Transactions.

lanatus, Senecio Haastii, Olearia arborescens, Griselinia littoralis, Blechnum.
capense, Cychphorus serpens, Coprosma brunnea, Senecio bellidioides, Notho-
panax Edgerleyi, Stypkelia Fraseri, Anisotome Haastii, Polystichum vestitum,
Asplenium flabellijolium, Geranium microphyllum, Pimelea prostrata, Raoulia
glabra, Pteridium esculentum, Aciphylla Colensoi, Lycopodium Billardieri,
Gaultheria antipoda var. erecta, Polypodium diversifolium, Coprosma crassi-
folia, Asplenium bulbiferum, and A. Richardn. Many of these are in shel-
tered crevices of the rocks, but in exposed places the foliage is clipped close
and the plants are stunted in form.

In many places the rock association is the result of the shelter from
wind afforded by the overhanging rocks, while no doubt the windy moun-
tain-tops where many of the rocks are found prove to be too severe a habitat
for the plants less equipped to stand xerophytic conditions, and the associa-
tions are therefore specially selected ones. This is illustrated at the Titan
rocks, at 4,100 ft., where the association is Anisotome intermedium, Forstera
sedifolia, Claytonia australasica, Aciphylla Monroi, Polystichum cystostegia,
P. vestitum, Leucogenes grandiceps, Helichrysum bellidioides, Acaena novae-
zelandiae, A. sanguisorbae, Poa Colensoi, and Celmisia ramulosa. All of these
plants possess more or less adaptation to xerophytic conditions. In rocky
places, at an elevation of about 4,700 ft., there is a change, and the following
plants were added : Celmisia prorepens, C. discolor (?), C. viscosa, C. sessili-
flora, C. argentea, and Raoulia grandiflora. A marked instance was noted
of the manner in which Celmisia prorepens recovers from the effect of snow.
Last season was a severe one, and much snow fell on these mountains.
The drifts in the rocky situations now under notice were very deep, and
the " slipping " of the mass of melting snow in many places apparently
ground off the tops of the plants, leaving nothing but the rootstock. Celmisia
prorepens grows in great patches several metres in diameter on the sloping-
sheltered sides of rocky situations, and was one of the chief sufferers. A
strong new growth of leaves had sprung up on every plant with such formal
precision that many large patches looked like so-many gardener's lined-out
beds, the plants being quite regular in symmetrical rows about 6 in. apart.
Buds were forming, and in a short time the whole patch would apparently
be in full flower. On the cliff-faces and rocky plateaux near Blue Lake
Celmisia ramulosa is tolerably plentiful, and associated with it are Carda-
mine fastigiata, Celmisia discolor (?), Senecio revolutus, Lycopodium, Selago,
Hectorella caespitosa, Anisotome Haastii, Veronica uniflora, V. Thomsoni,
V. ciliolata, Drapetes Dieffenbachii, Ourisia glandulosa, and O. caespitosa.

On rocky ridges at an elevation of about 5,000 ft. the following are the
common plants : Cardamine depressa, Asperula perpusila, Aciphylla sim-
plex, Celmisia. discolor (?), C. densiflora, C. viscosa (abundant), C. Lyallii
(in groups), Taraxacum magellanicum, Raoulia Parhii, Senecio revolutus,
and Danthonia crassiuscula. At 5,300 ft. great patches of Celmisia viscosa
and C. Hectori appear, and Aciphylla simplex becomes very plentiful, and
here and there are patches of Ourisia glandulosa. The following plants are
also fairly plentiful : Raoidia Buchanani, Dracophyllum prostratum, Senecio
bellidioides (?), Myosotis pulvinaris, Phyllachne Colensoi, Veronica uniflora,
V. Thomsoni, and V. dasyphylla.

On the north side of the Remarkable Gap is the nearest approach to a
shingle-slip in this locality. The loose schist is covered with snow all the
winter, and the moving mass as the snow melts carries the shingle slowly
with it. The principal plants are Celmisia coriacea, C. subalpina, C. Hectori,
C. sessiliflora, Senecio bellidioides (?), Angelica decipiens, Aciphylla Monroi,

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains. 131

with occasional A. Kirkii. On the rock-faces and in the clefts near the
top Ranunculus Buchanan), R. pachyrrhizus, Veronica Petriei, and V. pingui-
folia are seen.

An association worth noting is that of an exposed hilltop near Gow"s
Lake. The cushion form is of a most marked order, no plant protruding
a fraction beyond its neighbours, although the association is a mixed one.
A close examination was made of a patch 1-3 metres square, and no less
than twenty-four species were noted, the list being as follows : Aciphylla
Kirkii, Cotula pectinata, Veronica uniflora. V. lycopodioides, Ranunculus
novae-zeal a i uliae. R. lappaceus, Taraxacum magellanicum, Claytonia austral-
asica, Viola Cunninghamii, Phyllachne Colensci, Colobanthus Billardieri,
Raoulia Parkii, Celmisia argentea, C. linearis, C. subalpina, C. Lyallii,
C. laricifolia, Abrotanella inconspicua, Drapetes Dieffenbachii, Myosotis sp.,
Gnaphaliurn paludosum, Craspedia uniflora, Brachycome Sinclairii, and
EpilobiuDi sp. The surrounding plants were principally Celmisia Lyallii.

The Nokomai Gorge, lying to the west of Mount Tennyson, at an eleva-
tion of 1.000 ft., is bounded by cliffs of possibly 300 ft. in height in places,
succeeded by steep mountain-slopes above them. Over these rocks Muehlen-
beckia complexa hangs in green masses, with here and there Corokia
cotoneaster and Nothofagus trees, apparently clinging to the bare rock.
Among the smaller plants the following are fairly plentiful.: Senecio
Haastii, Anisotome Haastii, Celmisia petiolata, C. petiolata var. membranacea,
Polystichum vestitum, Blechnum fluviatile, Aciphylla squarrosa, Veronica
salici folia, V. Traversii {I), Poa caespitosa, Wahlenbergia saxicola, Coriaria
ruscifolia, Dantlionia flavescens, Senecio bellidioides, Hypolepis tenuifolia,
Chrysobactron Hookeri, Ranunculus lappaceus, Coprosma crassifolia, Car-
michaelia subulata, Acaena pilosa, Clematis indivisa, Rubus australis, Olearia
virgata, and Arundo conspicua.

Here and there are patches of Pteridium esculentiou and Acaena sanguis-
orbae, while near the stream Muehlenbeckia axillaris grows commonly among
the tussocks, with Oxalis cornicnlata, Rumex flexuosus, and Gnaphaliurn
Traversii. At a lower elevation in the valley there is a considerable increase
in Corokia cotoneaster, which climbs up the rocky faces, giving a grey appear-
ance to the landscape. Farther down still, Griselinia littoralis and Carpo-
detus serratus make their appearance among the rock-covering, along with
Aciphylla squarrosa, Celmisia discolor, and Blechnum penna marina.

(6.) Bogs and Swamps.

I have mentioned earlier in this paper that extensive bogs and swamps
exist on the Garvie Mountains. It is in these wet peaty places that much
of the most interesting flora is found. It is hard, of course, to define the
point at which a swamp ends and a bog commences, and consequently
many of the typical bog-plants are found in the much drier swamps, and in
some cases even on the alpine meadow adjoining. Notwithstanding this
fact, the water-content of the ground is the chief factor in the distribution
of the wet-ground vegetation. A typical bog association is that in the
peaty ground near the hut at Blue Lake. Round the drier edge of the bog
there is a belt of Celmisia lougifolia var. alpina, this being dotted over with
the round hard cushion of Gaimardia setacea and Phyllachne Colensoi, the
latter about 40 cm. in diameter and bright green in colour. Surrounding
the bog there is almost invariably a meadow association of Danthonia cras-
siuscula. Gentiana corymbifera and G. bellidioides are usually dotted about,
while Gnaphaliurn Traversii and G. paludosum are common. Irregular

5*

132 Transactions.

cushions of Oreobolus pectinatus of varying size up to 1 metre in diameter
are plentiful, and through these a small swamp-grass grows. Drapetes
Lyallii is common. On the drier patches Ranunculus gracilipes paints the
surface yellow with its bright blossoms. In very wet places Sphagnum
moss abounds, and in situations like these great irregular patches show the
rosettes of Aciphylla pinnatifida. This species differs from all other members
of the genus in its habit of sending out underground stolons and springing
from these. It thus increases rapidly by vegetative process. Patches
from 1 to 2 metres in diameter will frequently be found, all connected under-
ground, although the surface rosettes are well apart. In the wetter parts
the bogs are almost black in colour, but here and there the dark ground is
starred with the dwarf rosettes of Gnaphalium paludosum and covered with
small patches of Carpha alpina. Celmisia glandulosa in a stunted form is
also common, and where a Danthonia island appears Celmisia coriacea, or
C. Lyallii, or both, will be found. Luzula campestris in one or other of its
forms, Juncus planifolius, and Viola Cunninghamii are also plentiful, as also
are Drosera Arcturi and the xerophytic moss Racomitrium lanuginosum.

In some places the drier edges of the bogs are dotted with small plants
of Brachycome Sinclarii, Epilobium rotundifolium, and Cotula pectinata.
In the drier part of the bog — which may be called swamp — the association
is confined to Celmisia longifolia var. alpina, Carpha alpina, Brachycome
Sinclairii, Ranunculus gracilipes, Gentiana cor,ymbifera, Gnaphalium Tra-
der sii, Oreobolus pectinatus, Plantago lanigera var. Petriei, and a small form
of Craspedia uniflora. Frequently this latter plant covers many square
metres.

On what is known as Boggy Saddle there'is a patch of dwarf Dacrydium
Bidwillii, associated with Draco phyllum, uniflorum, Pentachondra pumila,
Pimelea prostrata, Styphelia pumila, Dracophylluni prostratum, and Suttonia
nummularia. In some places Euphrasia Dyeri and E. zealandica are common,
and the margins of bog-pools are brightened with the pretty blue flowers
of Utricularia nionanthos. Veronicas are sparingly found along the margins
of the swamps, the following having been noted : V. lycopodioides and
V. buxifolia, including the var. prostrata. A peculiar form of Veronica like
V. loganioides is also plentiful, but it may be only a juvenile form of
V. lycopodioides, although it has kept its open-leaved form in cultivation
in my garden for about four years. The swamp and bog associations on
Mount Tennyson do not differ materially from those above described, which
are typical of these mountains.

Conclusion.

The investigation of the flora of these mountains has so far resulted in
the listing of no less than 360 species, spread over 151 genera and sixty
orders.

Several new or comparatively rare species and forms have been found,
such as, —

Ranunculus Poppelwellii n.s. Petrie. Closely related to R. Berggreni, but,
according to Petrie, quite distinct.
- novae-zealandiae Petrie. Reported from only two localities in Cheese-
man's Manual.

Aciphylla sp. Near to A. Traillii, but considered distinct by Cockayne.

pinnatifida Petrie. Discovered here by me about the same time as it

was found by Mr. Crosby Smith on Princess Range.

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains. 133

Anisotome sp. Probably an undescribed species; related to A. aromatica.

Celmisia subalpina Cockayne. Related to C. Haastii.

Veronica Muelleri Buck., or an allied species. The flowers were nearly

an inch in diameter. V. Muelleri has hitherto been reported oniv

from Mount Aspiring.
Armstrongii T. Kirk, or an allied species. Petrie considered it his var.

gracilior of V. Hectori, but now thinks it distinct.
lycopodioides Hook. f. With persistent juvenile form. Probably

V. cassinioides of H. J. Matthews.
Geum uniflorum Buch. The most easterly habitat so far reported in Otago.
Several forms of Celmisia which have not yet been satisfactorily placed,
including one whose leaves turn a dark reddish-purple in winter-time. The
mountain-tops are covered with a great variety of xerophytic cushion plants,
wind being the dominant factor in determining the association.

On the whole, the Garvie Mountains possess a rich flora, and further
investigation will probably disclose many new forms and species.

LIST OF INDIGENOUS SPECIES NOTED.
(1.) Pteridophyta

Hymenophyllaceae.

Hymenophyllum T ' unbridgense Smith. Waikaia forest ; rare.
■ multifidum (Forst. f.) Sw. Forest ; not uncommon.

Cyatheaceae.
Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f. Forest ; rare.

Polypodiaceae.

Polystichum vestitam (Forst. f.) Presl. Not uncommon.

— - cystostegia (Hook.) J. B. Armstrong. Not uncommon on rocks.
Asplenium bulbiferum Forst. f. Not uncommon in forest.
flaccidum Forst. f. Not uncommon in forest.

■ flabellifolium Cav. Rocks, East Dome ; forest ; rare.

HooTcerianum Col. Waikaia forest.

Richardii Hook f. Forest, and in clefts of rocks.

Blechnum penna marina (Poir.) Kuhn. Common; forest and steppe.

capense (L.) Schlecht. Common ; forest and steppe.

fluviatile (R. Br.) Lowe. Not uncommon ; forest.

membranaceum Mett. Forest ; rare.

Hypolepis tenuifolia (Forst. f.) Bernh. Common in forest.
Histiopteris incisa (Thbg.) J. Sm. In open forest.

Pteridium escidentum (Forst. f.) Cockayne. Open heath ; not common.
Polypodium, Billardieri (Willd.) C. Chr. Tree-trunks and logs in forest.

diversifolium Willd. Tree-trunks ; not plentiful.

Cyclophorus serpens (Forst. f.) C. Chr. Rocky situations, in Waikaia forest
and East Dome.

Gleicheniaceae.

Gleichenia Cunninghamii Hew. In beech forest ; rare.

Osmundaceae.
Leptopteris hymenophylloides (A. Rich.) Pr. Beech forest ; rare.

134 Transactions.

Oph ioglossaceae .
Ophioglossum coriaceum A. Cunn. Dry hillside.

Lycopodiaceae.

Lycopodium Selago L. Rocky plateaux, above 4,000 ft.
Billardieri Spring. Beech forest ; epiphytic.
fastigiatum R. Br. Dry heath.
— scariosum Forst. f. Waikaia ; open forest.

— volubile Forst. f. Waikaia; open forest.

(2.) Spermophyta.

Taxaceae.

Podocarpus Hallii T. Kirk. Beech forest ; not common.

— spicatus R. Br. East Dome forest.

— totara D. Don. Beech forest, East Dome ; rare.
Dacrydium Bidivillii Hook. f. Subalpine scrub and boggy saddle.
Phyllocladns alpinus Hook. f. Common in alpine scrub.

Potaiuogetoiiaceae.
Potamogeton Cheesemanii A. Benn. Tools ; not common.

Graminaceae.

Microlaena avenacea (Raoul) Hook. f. Common in forests.
Hierochloe redolens (Forst. f.) R. Br. Common in forests.

Fraseri Hook. f. Not common ; in meadow.

Danthonia Cunninghamii Hook. f. Steppe above 2,000 ft.

Raoulii Steud. Common below 3,500 ft.

flavescens Hook. f. Steppe ; not uncommon.

- crassiuscula T. Kirk. Abundant above 3,500 ft.

— pilosa R. Br. Fairly common in meadow.

- semiannularis R. Br. Fairly common in meadow.
Arundo conspicua Forst. f. East Dome, near river.
Poa caespitosa Forst. f. Abundant in lower steppe.

imbecilla Forst. f. Not common.

Colensoi Hook. f. Common in meadow.

— — var. pungens Petrie. Common at high elevations.

var. intermedia Cheesem. Common in meadows.

Festuca rubra L. Lower steppe ; common.

Agropyron scabnim (R. Br.) Beauv. Throughout meadows.

Cyperaceae.
ticirpus aucklandicus (Hook, f.) Boeck. Swamps.
Garpha alpina R. Br. Common in swamps.
Schoenus pauciflorus Hook. f. Common in swamps.
Cladium Vauthiera C. B. Clarke. Swampy, wet places, Waikaia Valley
Gahnia procera Forst. Wet places.

Oreobolus pectinatus Hook. f. Common in bogs and swamps.
Uncinia compacta R. Br.

Sinclairii Boott. Common in forest.

riparia R. Br. Common in forest.

rubra Boott. In forest and in meadows.

filiformis Boott. In forest; not uncommon.

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains. 135

Carex secta Boott. Lowland swamps.

acicularis Boott. Boggy places.

ternaria Forst. f. Damp lowland swamps.

pterocarpa (?) Petrie. Alpine bogs.

dissita Sol. Forest.

lucida Boott. Swampy places.
Hypolaena lateriflora Benth. Mountain swamps.

Centrolep idaceae .

Gaimardia ciliata Hook. f. Alpine bogs.
setacea Hook. Alpine bogs.

J uncaceae.
J uncus effusus L. Damp places.

planifolius R. Br. Damp places.

pauciflorus R. Br. Alpine swamps.
Luzula campestris D.C. Several varieties. Common in meadows.

— pumila Hook. f. Common in meadows.

Liliaceae.

Enargea parviflora Kunth. Wakaia Valley forest ; not plentiful.
Cordyline australis (Forst. f.) Hook. East Dome.
Astelia linearis Hook. f. Alpine bog meadow, Blue Lake.

nervosa Banks & Sol. Common in forest.

— — montana (Kirk) Cockayne. Alpine meadow ; plentiful
Phormium teneix Forst. East Dome.

Coohianum Le Jolis. East Dome and (rare) in Waikaia Valley.

Chrysobactron Hookeri Col. Common in damp situation.
Herpolirion novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Damp patches in meadows
Arthropodium candidum Raoul. Not uncommon, Waikaia forest.

Iridaceae.
Libertia ixioides Spreng. East Dome.

Orchidaceae.
Th lymitra longifolia Forst. Common in open forest.

uniflora Hook. f. Common in open forest.
Microtis unifolia (Forst f.) Rchl. Common in steppe meadow.
Prasophyllum Colensoi Hook. f. Common in steppe meadow.
Pterostylis Banksii R. Br. Not common ; in damp forest

— australis Hook. f. Not common ; iD damp forest.

( ' ihidenia bifolia Hook. f. Abundant in Waikaia Valley forest.

Chiloglottis cornuta Hook. f. In forest; not plentiful.

Corysanthes rotundifolia Hook. f. Common in forest.

— — triloba Hook. f. Common in forest.

Gastrodia Gunninghamii Hook. f. Fairly common in forest.

Adenochilus gracilis Hook. f. Fairly common in forest.

Fagaceae.

Nothofagus fusca Oerst. Abundant in upper forest.
Menziesii Oerst. Abundant throughout.
Solanderi Oerst. A bundant in upper forest.
cliffortioides Oerst. Abundant in upper forest.

136 Transactions.

Urticaceae.
Urtica incisa Poir. In beech forest ; common.

Loranthaceae.

Elytranthe Colensoi Engl. Common ; epiphytic on Notkofagus Menziesii.

tetrapetala Engl. Common ; epiphytic on Notkofagus Menziesii.

■ flavida Engl. Common ; epiphytic on various beeches.

Lorantlms micranihus Hook. f. East Dome forest.

Polygonaceae.

Rumexflexuosus Sol. Not uncommon ; lowland.
Mnehlenheckia australis (Forst. f.) Meissn. East Dome forest.
■ — — complexa (A. Cunn.) Meissn. Common on border of forest.
■ axillaris Walp. Nokomai Valley ; not uncommon.

Portulacaceae.
Claytonia australasica Hook. f. Common in alpine meadow above 3,500 ft.

Caryophyllaceae.

Colobanthus acicularis Hook. f. Plentiful in bogs.

Billardieri Fenzl. Not uncommon.

Hectorella caespitosa Hook. f. Common on rocky places.

Rauuuculaceae.
Clematis indivisa VVilld. In forests ; not plentiful.

marata Armstr. Alpine scrub ; rare.
Ranunculus gracilipes Hook, f . Abundant in swampy ground.
■ — — hirtus Banks & Sol. Not uncommon in forest.

rivularis Banks & Sol. Damp places ; common.

lappaceus Sm. Common throughout.

niidtiscapus Cockayne. Not uncommon.

novae-zealandiae Petrie. Blue lake, 4,000 ft. ; common.

var. with 10 petals. Blue lake, 4,000 ft. ; common.

Buchanani Hook. f. Damp rocks above 5,000 ft.

■ pachyrrhizus Hook. f. Damp rocks above 5,000 ft.

■ Poppelivellii Petrie n.s. Mount Tennyson ; swampy places.

foliosus T. Kirk. Not common.

tenuicaulis Cheesem. Not common.

Caltha novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Abundant near snow above 4.000 ft.

Magnoliaceae .
Drimys colorata Raoul. Comparatively rare in open forest.

Cmciferaceae.
Cardamine heterophylla (Forst. f.) Schultz. Abundant.

depressa Hook. f. Abundant above 3,500 ft.

fastigiata Hook. f. Rocky places above 4,500 ft. ; rare.

Droseraceae.
Drosera Arcturi Hook. f. Common in alpine swamps.

Saxifragaceae .
Carpodetus serratus Forst, Not uncommon in forests.

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains. 137

Pittosporaceae.
Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. Tolerably common in forest.

Rosaceae.
Rub) is australis Forst. f. Common.
— — subpauperatus Cockayne. Common.
Geum parviflorum Smith. Abundant above 3,500 ft.

uniflorum Buch. Abundant at Blue Lake, 4,200 ft.

leiospermum Petrie. Very abundant, but local above 4,000 ft.

pusillum Petrie. Rare ; near Blue Lake.

Potentilla anserina var. anserinoides (Raoul) T. Kirk. East Dome.
Acaena sanguisorbae Vahl. Common throughout.
var. pilosa T. Kirk. Common throughout.

novae-zealandiae T. Kirk. Common throughout. -

— micro phjlla Hook. f. Common throughout.

jissistipula Bitter. Above 4,000 ft. ; rare.

Geraniaceae.
Geranium microphyllum Hook. f. Common throughout.

sessiliflorum Cav. var. glabrum R. Kunth. Common in steppe.

Oxalis magellanica Forst. Abundant above 4,000 ft.

corniculata L. Common up to 3,500 ft.

Callitrichaceae.
t ■allitriche verna L. In wet ditches, Waikaia Valley.

Coriariaceae.
Coriaria ruscifolia L. Common in subalpine scrub.

thymifolia Humb. & Bonpl. Common on creek-banks.

angustissima Hook. f. Not uncommon.

Legundnosae.
Sopkora microphylla J. Mull. Rare in Waikaia Valley ; more common East

Dome.
Carmichaelia robusta T. Kirk. Common.
T. Kirk. Common on creek-banks.

Elaeocarpaceae.
Aristotelia racemosa (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. Forest ; not plentiful.

fruficosa Hook, f . Subalpine scrub ; rare.

Elaeocarpiis Hooherianus Raoul. Waikaia Valley forest ; rare.

RJiautnaceae.
Discaria toumatou Raoul. Dry places ; common.

Malvaceae.
Gaya Lyallii J. E. Baker. Damp gullies ; abundant.

Violaceae.
Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f. Common up to 6,000 ft.
filicaulis Hook. f. Not uncommon.

Lyallii Hook. f. In Waikaia Valley forest ; rare.

Melicytus lanceolatus Hook. f. East Dome ; not common.

Hymenanthera clentata (R. Br.) var. alpina T. Kirk. Alpine meadow ; rare*

138 Transactions.

Thymdaceae.

Pimelea prostrata Willd. (one or more of its varieties). Very common above
2,000 ft,

— Gnidia Willd. Rare ; one plant only, 3,500 ft,

- sericeo-villosa Hook. f. Not uncommon. (Perhaps this should be
P. Lyallii Hook. f. var.)
Drapetes Dieffenbachii Hook. f. Alpine bogs : common.

Lyallii Hook. f. Alpine bogs ; common.

Myrtaceae.

Leptospermum scoparium Forst, Abundant in lowland situations.
Myrtus pedunculated Hook. f. East Dome ; not common.

Onagraceae.

Epilobium tasmanicum Haussk. (by this is meant the species hitherto referred

to E. cotiferti folia). Meadow ; common.
alsinoides A. Cunn. Forest,

— pubens A. Rich. Damp forest : common.

pictum Petrie. Dry situations ; common.

Epilobium insulare Haussk. Not uncommon.

rotundifolium Forst. f. Alpine bogs.

Fuchsia excorticata L. f. Common in forest,
Colensoi Hook. f. Forest : rare.

Halorrhagaceae.
Halorrhagis depressa Walp. Not uncommon in alpine meadow.

uniflora T. Kirk. Not uncommon in alpine meadow.

Myriophyllum elatinoides Gaud. Pools; not uncommon.
Gunnera prorepens Hook. f. Swamps.

■ mixta T. Kirk. On damp banks, &c,

Araliaceae.

Noihopanax simplex Forst, f. Forests throughout,
Edgerleyi Hook. f. Forests throughout.

Colensoi (Hook, f.) Seem. Forests throughout.

Pseudopanax crassifolium (Sol.) C. Koch. Forest ; not abundant.

Umbelliferae.

Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae D.(\ Abundant in damp places.

asiatica. L. Abundant in damp places.

Apium filiforme (A. Rich.) Hook. Rare; open forest.
Oreomynhis andicola Endl. Swampy places ; common.
Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f. Fairly abundant, but local.
■ squarrosa Forst, Lowland-meadow association.

— Lyallii Hook. f. Mount Tennyson ; not common.

Monroi Hook. f. Abundant above 4,000 ft,

— simplex Petrie. Abundant in rocky places above 5,000 ft,
— K'nkii Buch. Not uncommon above 4,000 ft.

pinnatifida Petrie. Abundant in swamps above 4,000 ft.

sp. (probably undescribed species) ; referred in Cheeseman to A. Traillii.

Abundant in wet places.
Angelica deoipiens Hook. f. Not uncommon at high altitudes.
Gingidium Hook. f. Lowland ; protected banks.

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains. 139

Anisotome Haastii F. Muell. Common on damp rocks.

- aromatica Hook. f. Common in swampy places above 4,000 ft.

- brevistylis Hook. f. Rocks above 4,000 ft.
pilifera Hook. f. Not common.

sp. Probably new ; related to A. aromatica. Boggy Saddle.

( 'ornaceae.

Griselinia littoralis Raoul. Common in forest.
Corokia cotoneaster Raoul. Abundant, Nokomai Valley.

Ericaceae.
Gaidtheria antipoda Forst. f. var. erecta Cheesem. Plentiful.

- depressa Hook. f. Plentiful.

perplexa Kirk. Not common ; subalpine scrub.

- rupestris R. Br. Comparatively rare ; Mount Tennyson.

Epacridaceae.
Pentachondra pumila (Forst.) R. Br. Common; alpine boggy situation.
Styphelia pumila Hook. f. Alpine meadow ; not plentiful.

Eraser i (A. Cunn.) F. Muell. Common throughout.

DracophyUum longifolium (Forst. f.) R. Br. Not uncommon.

- UrviUeanum var. montanum (?) A. Rich. Subalpine scrub.
uniflorum Hook. f. Rare.

prostratum T. Kirk. Common in bogs.

politum (Cheesm.) Cockayne. Common in bogs.

Myrsinaceae.

Rapanea Urvillei (A. D.C.) Mez. Forest ; rare.
Suttonia divaricata (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. Beech forest : rare.
nummvlaria Hook. f. Dry peaty places, 4,000 ft.

Gentianaceae.

Gentiana Grisebachii Hook. f. Not uncommon; East Dome.

corymbifera T. Kirk. Common ; alpine meadow.

lineata T. Kirk. Above 4,000 ft, ; rare.

- bellidioides Hook. f. Damp peat ; common.

Apocynaceae.
Parsonsia heterophylla A. Cunn. East Dome ; common.
capsularis R, Br. East Dome ; common.

Conrolfidaceae.
Calystegia tuguriorum (Forst, f.) R. Br. East Dome ; abundant,

Boraginaceae.

Myosotis macrantha Hook. f. Rare.

pulvinaris Hook. f. Not uncommon in rocky places.

Labiatae.
Mentha Cunningliamii Benth. Common in meadow

Illecebraceae.
Scleranthus biflorus Hook. f. Not uncommon in mead ws.

140 Transactions.

Scrophularinaceae.

Veronica salicifolia Foist, f. Creek-banks ; common.

buxifolia Benth. Abundant in meadows.

- — ■ — var. odora T. Kirk. Abundant in meadows.

var. prostratum Cockayne. In boggy places above 4,000 ft.

Traversii (?) Hook. f. Subalpine scrub. (This may be a form of

V. monticola.)

monticola Armst. Subalpine scrub ; rare.

— ■ — lycopodioides Hook. f. Common above 4,000 ft.

propinqua Ckeesem. From 2,500 ft. ; common in subalpine-scrub

association.
epacridea Hook. f. Above 4,000 ft. ; rare.

— Buchanani Hook. f. Rocky situations ; not common.
Petriei T. Kirk. Rocky situations ; rare.

Thomsoni Cheesem. Common ; rocky meadow.

- pulvinaris Benth. & Hook. Common ; rocky meadow.

ciliolata Benth. & Hook. Common ; rocky meadow.

uniflora T. Kirk. Common ; rocky meadow.

dasypkylla T. Kirk. Rocky meadow ; rare.

Muelleri (?) Buch. or n. sp. Mount Tennyson ; not common.

- sp. (a var. related to F. lycopodioides, but remaining more or less

persistent in juvenile form): perhaps V. cassinioides Matthews (?).
Swampy place, Blue Lake.
Armstrongii T. Kirk. Mount Tennyson ; abundant.

Hectori Hook. f. var. gracilior Petrie. Mount Tennyson ; fairly

plentiful.

pinguifolia Hook. f. Rocky situation, " Gap."

Ourisia glandulosa Hook. f. Common in moist places and swamps.

- sessilifolia Hook. f. Alpine meadow, Mount Tennyson.

- caespitosa Hook. f. Common ; alpine meadow, above 4,000 ft.
Euphrasia zealandica Wettst. Wet places on creek-bank at 4,000 ft.

Dyeri Wettst. Wet places on creek-bank at 4.000 ft.

Lentib 1 1 lariaceae.
Utricular iu monanthos Hook. f. Margins of bog-pools. Blue Lake.

Plantaginaceae.

Plantago Brownii Rapin. Damp places ; not uncommon.

triandra Berggr. Boggy places ; common.

- lanigera Hook. f. var. Petriei Cheesem. Boggy places ; common.

Rubiaceae.

Coprosma rotundifolia A. Cunn. Forest ; not plentiful.

areolata Cheesem. Forest ; not plentiful.

parviflora Hook. f. Creek-banks.

cuneata Hook. f. Alpine meadow ; rocky places.

crassifolia Col. Margins of forest.

repens Hook. f. Alpine meadow ; rare.

■ foetidissiiua Forst. Forest ; not plentiful.

Nertera dichondraefolia Hook. f. Forest ; rare.

depressa Banks & Sol. Forest ; common.

setulosa Hook. f. Damp forest, Waikaia Valley.

Galium umbrosum Sol. Meadows thiouchout.

■->■

Asperula perpusilla Hook. f. Meadows throughout.

Poppelwell. — Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains. 141

Campanidaceae.

Pratia angnlata (Foist, f.) Hook. f. Meadows ; not uncommon.
Wahlenbergia saxicola (R. Br.) A. D.C. Abundant throughout.
gracilis (Forst. f.) A. D.C. Not plentiful.

Sfylidiaceae.

Phyllachne clavigera (Hook, f.) Muell. Common in mountain bogs.

Colensoi (Hook, f.) Berggr. Common in mountain bogs.

Donatio, novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Common in mountain bogs.
Oreostylidium subalatum (Hook, f.) Berggr. Boggy places ; common.
Forstera sedifolia L. f. Fairly common above 3,500 ft.

Bidwillii Hook. f. Fairly common above 3,500 ft.

Compositae.

Lagenophora pumila (Forst. f.) Cheesem. Abundant in meadows.

petiolata Hook. f. Abundant in meadows.

Brachycome Sinclairii Hook. f. Common from 3,000 ft. upwards.
Olearia virgata Hook, f . Subalpine scrub, Waikaia Valley.

ilicifolia Hook. f. Subalpine scrub. AVaikaia Valley.

arborescens (Forst. f.) Cockayne and Laing. Common on creek-banks.

nummular if alia Hook. f. Subalpine scrub, East Dome and Waikaia

Valley.
— avicenniaefolia Hook. f. East Dome ; not common.

odorata Petrie. Waikaia Valley ; not uncommon.

Hectori Hook. f. Waikaia Valley ; not uncommon.

Celmisia Sinclairii Hook. f. East Dome.

longifolia Cass. Common.

var. Blue Lake ; meadow.

var. alpina T. Kirk. Blue Lake ; bog meadow.

linearis J. B. Armstr. Near Blue Lake ; not common.

var.

sessiliflora Hook. f. Common above 4,000 ft.

argentea T. Kirk. Near Gow's Lake, 4,500 ft.

ramulosa Hook. f. Abundant on rock-faces above 4,000 ft.

densiflora Hook. f. Not uncommon ; alpine meadow.

discolor Hook. f. Mount Tennyson.

subalpina Cockayne. Common above 4,000 ft.

incana Hook. f. Not common.

intermedia (Petrie) T. Kirk. Not common ; 4,500 ft.

petiolata Hook. f. Common on alpine meadow.

var. membranacea T. Kirk. Common on alpine meadow.
verbascifolia Hook. f. Common on alpine meadow.
coriacea Hook. f. Common above 3,500 ft.
Lyallii Hook. f. Abundant above 3,500 ft.
viscosa Hook. f. Abundant from 5,000 ft. upwards.
laricifolia Hook. f. Alpine meadow ; not uncommon.
glandrdosa Hook. f. Moist places ; common.
Petriei Cheesem. (?). Alpine meadow (perhaps a hybrid).
lanceolata Cockayne. Alpine meadow.

var. intermediate between coriacea and Lyallii. Alpine meadow.
prorepens Petrie. Rocky situations ; abundant.
Hectori Hook. f. Abundant above 5,000 ft.

142 Transactions.

Gnaphalium luteo-album L. Common.

coJMnum Lab. Common.

- trinerve Forst. f. Not common.

- Traversii Hook. f. Boggy places ; abundant.

— paludosum Petrie. Boggy places ; abundant.
Raoulia australis Hook. f. Common.

lutescens Beauv. Common, gravelly places.

glabra Hook. f. Abundant.

Parkii Buck. Common above 4,500 ft.

grandijiora Hook. f. Common above 4,500 ft.

Buchanani Hook. f. Rare ; near Gow's Lake.

Hdichrysum bellidioides (Forst.) Willd. Common.

filicaide Hook. f. Common in meadows.

glomeratum Benth. & Hook. East Dome ; rare.

Leucogenes grandiceps (Hook, f.) Beauv. Common on rocks above 4,000 ft.
Abrotanella inconspicua Hook. f. Swampy places.
Cassinia Vanvilliersii Hook. f. Common up to 2,700 ft.

var. rubra T. Kirk. Common up to 2,700 ft.

Craspedia uniflora Forst. f. Common in alpine damp places.

- var. with woolly leaves. Common in alpine dry meadow.
Cotula Goyeni Petrie. Alpine meadow.
pectinata Hook. f. Abundant, alpine meadow.

pyrethrifolia Hook. f. Not uncommon.

dioica Hook. f. Not uncommon.

Erechtites prenanthoides (A. Rich.) D.C. Forest ; plentiful.

scaberula Hook. f. Forest, plentiful ; not common.

Senecio southlandica Cockayne. Common.
Lyallii Hook. f. Creek-banks ; common.

elaeagnifolius Hook. f. Waikaia Valley ; subalpine scrub.

- cassinioides Hook. f. Waikaia Valley ; subalpine scrub.

— Haastii Hook. f. Abundant, East Dome.

— revolutus T. Kirk. Abundant above 3,500 ft.
Taraxacum magellanicum Comm. Common.
Microseris Forsteri Hook. f. Not uncommon in steppe.
Crepis novae-zealandiae Hook. f. Alpine dry meadow.

Art. XV. — Notes of a Botanical Visit to Herekopere Island, Stewart Island.

By D. L. Poppelwell.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 4th August, ]'J14.]

On the 27th November, 1913, I visited this island, which lies in Foveaux
Strait, about five or six miles from Half-moon Bay. As it is one of the
few islands upon which Senecio Stewartiae grows, and is, moreover, the
most northerly known habitat of both that plant and Poa foliosa, a few
notes on the plant formations may prove interesting.

We approached the island from the south-west, and thus had an oppor-
tunity of viewing its physiognomy from the weather quarter. The coast
from this side presents a series of rocky faces, only here and there traversable.

Poppelwell. — Botanical Visit to Herekopere Island. 143

Just above high-water mark the rocks were covered with a white limy
substance, but bare of plant covering. Above this white hue, which is
washed by waves during high tides, the roc*ks were clothed with a grey-
green mantle, composed principally of Veronica elliptica and Olearia
angustifolia, both in full bloom. Here and there a patch of light green
betokened the presence of Histiopteris incisa, which forms the main floor-
covering of this isolated spot. Where the wind struck less directly a yellow
spot or two revealed the existence of Senecio Stewartiae in the formation,
the large yellow corymbose heads and dark-green leaves crowded at the ends
of the branches contrast ng strongly with the less-marked Veronica elliptica,
which formed the basis of the association.

On a nearer approach the beautiful white bloom of Olearia angnstifolia
irresistibly caught the eye, the great abundance of blooms and the rounded
form of the shrubs rendering the plant conspicuous. On this face neither
Olearia Colensoi nor Senecio rotundifolius, although abundant elsewhere,
were seen, a further evidence of the high wind to which these islands are
subject.

Upon landing, a scramble up the steep slopes revealed a dark peaty
soil undermined everywhere with burrows of the mutton-birds (Puffin us
griseus) and other petrels,* and possessing a damp pungent odour, reminding
one of a domestic fowlvard on a wet day. Growing under the Veronica
and Olearia bushes were seen numerous isolated plants of Carex trifida,
Asplenia in obtusatum, and Muehlenbeckia australis, the latter with exception-
ally large and succulent leaves but somewhat straggling form. On the
rocky faces Poa Astoni was abundant, while here and there in the peatv
crevices Senecio lautus, Stellaria parviflora, Tetragonia trigyna, Blechnum
durum, and Poa Poppelivellii were noted. A few stunted plants of Rapanea
Urvillei were also seen. Farther up some exceptionally strong plants of
Asplenium lucidum and A. lanceolatnm and Poa Astoni appeared, the two
latter growing on a raised mound of their own dead leaves, both plants
having the appearance of growing on caudices, the spaces between being
bare and peaty and deeply marked with bird-tracks.

Once the top of the slope is reached the island presents a somewhat
flat surface, traversed by comparatively open tracks, no doubt made by the
thousands of sea-birds which annually breed on the island.

The ground-covering here was chiefly Histiopteris incisa, which grew
plentifully but was somewhat stunted in form, the leaves showing evidence
in their brown tips of their struggle with the wind.

The taller covering was almost entirely Senecio Stewartiae and Veronica
elliptica. while here and there were patches of Rubus australis and
Muehlenbeckia australis, with occasional plants of the large-leaved Stilbocarpa
Lyallii.

Senecio Steivartiae is an open-branched shrub from 2 to 3-| metres high.
Its lanceolate leaves are from 12 cm. to 18 cm. in length, thick and sticky,
crowded towards the ends of the branches, and covered beneath with white
tomentum.

The plants were in full bloom, and the large handsome flowers made
the shrubs very conspicuous objects. This species seems to be the domi-
nating one among the shrubby species on the higher parts of the island.
A marked feature of the Veronica elliptica was that the great majority of
the plants had white flowers, instead of the usual bluish ones which charac-

Pelecanoides urinatrix, Prion vittatus, and Prion tartur.

144 Transactions.

terize it. In certain individual specimens, however, especially in sheltered
situations, I noted deep-blue flowers. Here and there near the tracks I
noted dull weather-worn patches of Asplenium falcatum, with patches of
Muehlenbeckia complexa, Hierochloe redolens, Pteridium esculentum, and Poa
foliosa, with the imported grass Holcus lanatus.

A few specimens of stunted Weinmannia racemosa and Rapanea Urvillei
were also noted, along with Dracophyllum longifolium and Coprosma areolata.

At the eastern end of the island, which is the highest part, there appears
to have been a fire some time ago. This apparently destroyed the scrub
over an area of from 2 to 3 acres. A most interesting result has followed.
The whole of the burnt part is now covered with a close and almost pure
association of Poa foliosa, the tussocks being close together and about
1 metre in height, making progress a difficult matter. The grass is growing
very strongly, and the flowering-heads are exceedingly numerous and of
immense size.

Upon climbing through this grass I discovered numerous young plants
of Veronica elliptica and Muehlenbeckia australis, with a few of Rapanea
Urvillei and Lepidimn oleraceum var. acutidentatum, while the ground was
full of the burrows of the petrels. It would appear, therefore, as time
goes on, the original plant association of the island will regain possession,
and that the Poa foliosa is merely a temporary occupant of the ground.

The extraordinary spreading of this grass, which elsewhere on the island
is only found in isolated " tussocks," suggests the possibility of its having
an economical value, which might be worth investigating. At present
practically nothing is known of its value as a fodder plant.

Conclusion.

The existence of the plant covering depends in the first place upon the
high rainfall, the soft peaty soil being very spongy and damp for a con-
siderable depth. On the other hand, there is little doubt that the traffic
of the birds materially affects the plant-growth. The ground is everywhere
drained and aerated by thousands of tunnels made by the nesting birds,
while the soil is richly manured by the constant deposits of these petrels.
Most of the plants have large masses of surface roots only, and the loose
soil enabled even fairly large specimens to be lifted out of the ground with
ease.

The distribution of the species depends chiefly on the wind factor, the
only plants that can get a hold on the steep exposed sides being those
specially adapted to resist transpiration, notably Olearia angustifolia,
Veronica elliptica, and Poa Astoni.

The extraordinary spread of Poa foliosa I attribute to its abundant
seeding habit, the rich soil, and the unimpeded light gained by the destruc-
tion of the scrub by fire. Its wind-resisting qualities are evident from the
manner in which it grows on exposed subantarctic habitats.

Poppelwell. — A Pure-white Form of Anas superciliosa. 145

Art. XVI. — On a Pure-white Form of Anas superciliosa Grnel.
By D. L. Poppelwell.

[Read before the Gtago Institute, 4th August, 1914.]

Albinism in a greater or less degree is a not uncommon phenomenon among
New Zealand birds. The occurrence, however, of a pure-white form of
the common grey duck (Anas superciliosa) is of sufficient interest to justify
its being put on record.

Already several specimens of this species showing partial albinism and
other variations have been recorded. Dr. Buller, in vol. 7 of the "Trans-
actions of the New Zealand Institute," at p. 224, mentions a case of partial
albinism, but seems to think that the specimen was possibly a cross with the
common domestic duck. He has also, in the second edition of " Birds of
New Zealand," mentioned several cases of partial albinism, and states that
his son reported having seen a pure albino in a wild state. The specimen
was not, however, procured. Mr. W. W. Smith* also describes several
aberrant forms of variation tending to albinism. Mr. T. W. Kirkf records a
similar instance in the case of the brown duck (Elasmonefta chlorotis).

The specimen that I have now set out to describe was shot by Mr. George
Moffatt on the 21st June, 1914, at Cattle Flat, on the Mataura River. From
what he tells me, it was associated with a flock of grey ducks, and had been
seen several times by him. It was a good flier, and, except for colour, was
not distinguishable from its associates, its flight and habits being the same.
Immediately on its receipt by me I sent it to Dr. Benham, who agreed
that it seemed to be an albino form of Anas superciliosa. He has since
kindly sent me formal measurements of the bird, which are sufficientlv
near to those recorded by Buller to make identification practically certain.
The following are the measurements taken : —

Inches.
Total length from tip of beak to base of tail-feathers. . 20
Length of wirig-quills . . . . . . . . 10

Length of bill along edge of upper mandible . . 2-25

Length of bill along edge of lower mandible . . 2-375

Length of tarsus . . . . . . . . 1-75

Length of mid toe and claw . . . . . . 2-5

The bird, on dissection, has proved to be a male. Its plumage through-
out is pure white ; eye, dark brown ; legs and bill, yellow. In point of
size and shape it differs in no way from the typical wild grey duck. This
interesting specimen is in good condition, and has been stuffed and mounted.
The owner has generously decided to present it to one of the public museums
of New Zealand. For some time at least, if not permanently, it will be
deposited in the Otago Museum.

Note.

Shortly after the above paper was read Dr. Benham kindly sent me
the following communication which he had received from Mr. W. 0. Kemp-
thorne, of " Redmount," Key, via Lumsden. As the letter affords a

* " On New Zealand Ducks," Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 29, 1897, p. 252.
t " On some Additions to Birds in the Colonial Museum," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 13,
p. 235, 1881.

146 Transactions.

plausible explanation of the occurrence of the above-described albino
duck, I gladly publish it as received : —

Writing on the 16th August, 1914, Mr. Kempthorne says, " I have just
noticed a paragraph on page 9 of Otago Witness of the 12th August about
an albino wild duck having been shot. I dare say you will be interested
in a very probable explanation of this curiosity. At my mother's place
(" Parkdale." Heriot) there is a large pond which for twenty years has
been a sanctuary for the wild duck (it being on private property, and my
mother's wishes that no shooting shall be allowed, have made, it such). In
wet weather hundreds of ducks gather there, and the ducks bred there
make it their home. For years there were white tame ducks also, but
they dwindled in number until only one drake remained. This drake mated
with a wild grey duck that was unable to fly (or could fly very little) and
necessarily had to live entirely at the pond. I remember four or five years
ago coming on a mixed clutch of ducklings (whites and greys), but after
seeing them two or three times I never saw them again, and concluded
that a weasel had accounted for them. On a recent visit to " Parkdale "
(three weeks ago) I saw an albino wild duck, and my brother said there
were more than one. It could fly, as I made it my business to frighten
it and see. Evidently the tame white drake and the crippled wild duck
had mated again, and their progeny had lived. The distance between
Heriot and Mataura in a direct line would be thirty-odd miles, and this
would not be an excessive distance for the flight of a wild duck. The tame
Indian runner duck and the wild grey duck mate without trouble, but
this is the only case I have heard of a white tame duck mating with a wild
grey duck. It would be interesting to test the case again on the wild grev
ducks in the Botanical Gardens. The two ducks would have to be shut
together continuously for a lengthened period to ensure a satisfactorv
result."'

Art. XVII. — On Ascidioclava, a New Genus of Gi/ninoblastic Hydroids.

By Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A., Victoria University College, Wellington.

[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 26th October, 1914.]

Plate I.

Characters of the Genus.
Trophosome. — A creeping hydrorhiza, branching freely, gives rise to
unbranching hydrocauli, each terminating in a hydranth. Hydranths
with filiform tentacles not in definite whorls, but tending to be arranged
in three or four whorls. Perisarc entirely wanting.

Gonosome. — Medusa buds produced in clusters near the base of the
hydranth, whether becoming free or not at present uncertain ; tentacles
rounded.

Ascidioclava parasitica n. sp. Plate I.

Height of hydrocaulus and hydranth together, 2-3 mm. Tentacles of
adult hydranth, 20 or more in number ; average length of tentacles, 0-4 mm. ;
the widest part of the tentacle a little above the base, the tentacle then
tapering to the tip, where the diameter is about half that of the widest
part. Hydrorhiza branching freely and anastomozing, the branches becoming
concrescent, with absorption of ectoderm and mesogloea at the points of
contact, giving a continuous coenosarcal sheet. Endoderm of hydrorhizal

Kirk. — On Ascidioclava. 147

portion greatly developed, and cavities completely obliterated. Medusa
buds shortly pedunculate, the hollow peduncle containing a prolongation
of the gastro-vascular cavity. Gonads at present unobserved.
. Ascidioclava parasitica presents in both trophosome and gonosome
anatomical characters that seem to me of interest. I note here the most
striking of these.

Tiop/tosome. — The ectoderm shows great differences in the different
parts. On the tentacles and the hypostome it is cellular, and presents no
special features. Below the tentacles the ectoderm of the hydranth shows
nuclei and fragments of nuclei arranged indiscriminately, often three or
four deep. Cell-outlines have quite disappeared (fig. 2). In this part the
ectoderm somewhat resembles that of Clam squamata as figured by Allman.*

Towards the base of the hydranth this thickened ectoderm thins out
to form the thin non-cellular membranous ectoderm of the hvdrocaulus.
Through this membrane the outline of the bases of the endoderm cells,
changed as noted below, can be seen, giving the appearance of a fine irregular
network. The ectoderm of the upper surface of the hydrorhiza is thin
and nuclei are sparse. On the lower surface, where it is in contact with the
epithelium of the host, the ectoderm consists of columnar cells with very
clearly marked outline (fig. 4). In no part of the organism have I been able
to discover any trace of a chitinous secretion.

The mesogloea is everywhere thin, and almost membranous.

The endoderm of the hypostome comprises a large number of glandular
cells, and these decrease in number towards the lower part of the hydranth
(fig. 2). In the hydrocaulus the endoderm cells are reduced to large thin-
walled vacuoles. Only occasionally can a shrivelled nucleus be found ad-
hering to the cell-membrane. Towards the base of the hydrocaulus these
gradually give place to living cells with highly granular protoplasm. These
encroach upon the cavity until, at the very base of the hydrocaulus, it is
completely obliterated. This obliteration of the cavity marks the hydrorhiza
also, and when the dividing walls become absorbed there is a continuous sheet
of endoderm surrounded by the thin mesogloea and the ectoderm (fig. 4).

The large vacuolated endodermal core of the tentacles is very well de-
veloped. These cells, like the clear endoderm cells of the hydrocaulus,
usually contain each a single vacuole. Allmant says with regard to the
central endoderm of tentacles, " It would seem that the solid axial tissue
of the tentacles is in every instance separated by the mesosarc, not only
from the ectodermal layer of the tentacles, but, by a duplicature of the
mesosarc, from the endoderm which lines the body-cavity of the hydranth,
as was first pointed" out by von Koch in Tubularia." I can find no trace
of such an arrangement here. The axial endoderm of the tentacles appears
to me to rest unmistakably on the endoderm of the gastro-vascular cavity
of the hydranth (fig. 2).

Gonosome. — Medusa buds are produced singly, or more often in groups
of from two to four, near the base of the hydranth. I have not found more
than one group on any hydranth. Material collected from October to
December does not enable me to say with certainty whether the medusa
becomes free. A single medusa better developed than the rest was found
unattached, but it is possible that it became detached in the removal of the
hydroid from its host. It still showed the scar at the point at which it had
been attached.

* "A Monograph of the Gymnoblastic or Tubularian Hydroids," pt. i, pi. i, 1871.
t " Report on the Hydroida dredged by H.M.S. ' Challenger,' " p. x, 1888.

148 Transactions.

The medusa buds are shortly stalked, and the stalk contains a stomo-
chord. There are four very short, blunt tentacles, one opposite the end
of each radial canal. The medusa bud (fig. 5) is campanulate. The manu-
brium is pear-shaped, with the mouth at the narrow end. Scattered
sparingly are enormous nematocysts, which are seen in section to project
downwards into the mesogloea (fig. 6). Cross-section shows on the surface
of the ex-umbrella four interradial grooves. In the detached specimen men-
tioned above small bodies are developing on the margin of the bell opposite
the ends of these grooves. These bodies will probably prove to be statocysts.

The ectoderm of the ex-umbrella consists of flattened cells. At the
extremity of the tentacles these give place to columnar cells, many of which
are nematoblasts. The inner ends of these cells are dark with granules,
but are not pigmented. There is probably no reason to regard these ex-
tremities of the tentacles as ocelli. Longitudinal section shows that the
tentacle contains a central mass of cells that look much like nerve-cells ;
but these are cut off from the ectoderm by mesogloea. They are large
vacuolated cells of the endoderm, with well-developed nuclei. The nuclei
are surrounded by an envelope of protoplasm, from which envelope strands
cross the vacuole to the opposite wall. The mass is in direct continuation
with the endoderm that lines the radial canal, and is a specialized portion
of the endoderm lamella. It is possible that the condition of these cells
is preparatory to the hollow state of the tentacles that characterizes the
Clavidae ; but if a hollow were to be developed on lines at present suggested
by the appearance of the section the result would be a hollow lined by
mesogloea, which is not at all likely to occur. Longitudinal section taken
between the radials shows no circular canal, which probably develops later.

The ectoderm of the sub-umbrella consists of columnar cells, differing in
length. The result is an epithelium somewhat resembling in appearance
the endoderm of the gastro- vascular cavity of the hydranth. The ectoderm
cells about the mouth and the lower portion of the manubrium are columnar
cells of great size, many of them nematoblasts.

None of the specimens sectioned show gonads, and it may be presumed
that they are immature.

Ascidioclava para silica is found in the peripharyngeal groove of an
Ascidian (a species of Polycarpa) that occurs below low-water mark in
Wellington Harbour. It, or an allied form, occurs sometimes, at all events,
in the stalked Ascidian Boltenia pachydermatina. It is sometimes present
in such abundance as almost to fill the peripharyngeal groove of the host.
Attachment is very slight. I have frequently found small masses or de-
tached portions in the pharynx of the host or in the stomach ; but these
were always dead and more or less macerated, or partially digested.

The infrequency of parasitism among the members of the class adds to
the interest of this form.

All drawings made with Abbe apparatus.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Ascidioclava parasitica, enlarged.

Fig. 2. Section of body-wall of hydranth. gl., gland-cell of endoderm.

Fig. 3. Section of body-wall of lower part of hydranth and upper part of hydrocaulus.

Fig. 4. Section of base of hydrocaulus and adjacent portion of coenosarc. end., endo-
derm ; m., mesogloea ; ect., ectoderm.

Fig. 5. Medusa buds.

Fig. 6. Section of tentacle and part of umbrella, m., mesogloea ; nb., nematoblast :
v., velum ; ex.n., cx-umbral nerve ring ; r.c, radial canal.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. \L\ I I.

I'l \TE I.

end

m.

J 1-lr.,,

Scale ibr figures 2.,3,4;6.

ASCIDIOCLAVA PARASITICA.

face p. IIS. ]

Brittin. — Some Nexu Coccidae. 149

Art. XVIII. — Some New Coccidae.
By G. Brittin.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st July, 1914.]

In the following paper are the descriptions of nine new species of Coccidae.
With the exception of two species forwarded to me by my friend Mr. R. W.
Raithby, from Crushington, near Reefton, they are the result of about
eighteen months' consistent search in and around Oamaru. I have been
reluctantly compelled to hold over several doubtful species, owing to the
fact that the late Mr. Maskell's type collection is at present not available
for reference, having been for the last six years in the United States, and
also to his diagnosis and drawings of some species not being full enough
for identification.

During the last few years the classification of the Coccidae has under-
gone a complete revision, and in accordance with the law of priority
manv long-standing names have been changed and new genera erected.
For instance, the subfamily Lecaniinae has now been altered to Coccinae,
and the genus Dactylopius to Pseudococcus. With numerous alterations of
a similar nature, and the scarcity of good literature on the subject, a study
of the New Zealand species is rather a difficult task. Apart from the late
Mr. Maskell's work on the subject, apparently nothing is known of the
New Zealand Coccidae, and that a thorough investigation into this im-
portant group of the Hemiptera will have to be made sooner or later there
can be little doubt. Mr. R. Newstead, F.R.S., who is an authority on the
English Coccidae, in a letter recently, says that " the whole question of
redescribing the New Zealand species will have to be gone into again."
This is becoming more necessary as new species make their appearance,
and it is now known that some of the Australian species have, since Maskell's
time, permanently established themselves in the Dominion.

The illustrations accompanying this paper have, as far as possible, been
done on a uniform scale, and the approximate magnification has been given.

In conclusion, I beg to tender my thanks to Mr. C. B. Morris, F.R.M.K.,
of Oamaru, for the great assistance he has given me in my work ; to
Mr. R. W. Raithby, for the loan of some of the late Mr. Maskell's slides
in his collection, and also for collecting ; to Professor T. D. A. Cockerell,
of Boulder, Colorado, and Dr. L. 0. Howard, United States Entomo-
logist, for literature on the subject ; also to Professor R. Newstead, F.R.S.,
of" Liverpool, England, and Mr. C. French, Victorian Entomologist, for
much useful information.

Fam. COCCIDAE.
Subfam. Diaspixae.
Gen. Fiorixia.
1. Fiorinia Morrisii sp. nov. Fig. 1.

Puparium of adult female consisting entirely of the second exuvia ;
elongate-ovate ; generally straight, sometimes slightly curved ; convex ;
colour light brown. Secretion white, felted ;• larval exuvia white.

Puparium of male felted, white, not carinated.

Adult female white, elongated, widest at cephalic extremity, convex.
Rudimentary antennae with 4 strong hairs. Rostrum medium size, mentum
almost circular, rostral setae short. Anterior spiracles, set very close to

150

Transactions.

rostrum, with group of 12-14 parastigmatic glands. Pygidium, broader
than long, is very square across the lower extremity ; 5 groups of circum-
genital glands, the three upper groups forming a complete arch over the
anal orifice ; anterior group 20-24 glands ; anterior laterals 25-30 ; pos-
terior laterals 25-30 ; margin with 3 pairs of highly chitinized subequal

«oa?o0o

Fig. 1. — Fiorinia morrisii. Pygidium; x 200.

lobes, set equidistance apart ; batween each pair of lobes there are 2 long
and 2 short spine-like hairs, with 3 more beyond the outer lobes. Several
short spiny hairs scattered over the pygidium. Length, 1-30 mm.

Adult male unknown.

Rah. — On Nothopanax sp. and Griselinia littoralis, Oamaru.

Genus Poliaspis.

2. Poliaspis argentosis sp. nov. Fig. 2.

Puparium of adult female elongate-ovate, convex. Secretion white, and
closely felted ; exuviae light yellow.
Puparium of male unknown.

r^

3>

€j*

oo°0

<*

,n '

v

o

X

Fig. 2. — Poliaspis argentosis. Pygidium ; x 200.

Adult female elongated, yellow, convex above, flat beneath. Rudi-
mentary antennae with 2 long curved hairs at apex. Rostrum long, mentum

Brittin. — Some New Coccidae.

151

short and broad. Anterior spiracles with group of 6- 1 0 parastigmatic glands ;
posterior spiracles with group of 4-6 glands. Last five free abdominal seg-
ments with short tubular spinnerets at side. Pygidium large and well
defined, with 8 groups of circumgenital glands, the three anterior groups
each consisting of 2-5 glands ; subanterior group 2-4 ; anterior laterals
14-20 ; posterior laterals 21-25. Dorsal tubular spinnerets, in 8 dis-
tinct series, are short and cylindrical, and contain 4-6 spinnerets in each
series ; on the preceding segment there are 4 more series. The median
lobes are narrow and widely divergent, with serrated edge ; second pair
long and narrow, and finely serrate : marginal spinnerets 6 on each side
of median lobes, the four middle ones being in pairs. Plates, 4 on each
side of median lobes, are simple and spine-like ; the first three being situated
between the median lobes and the first series of dorsal spinnerets, and one
beyond. Spines 4, very short, one at the base of each plate. Anal orifice
immediately below subanterior group of glands ; vaginal opening centrally
between posterior groups. Length, 1-22 mm.

Adidt male unknown.

Hab. — On Coprosma sp., Crushington, near Reefton ; found by Mr. R, W.
Raithby.

This species is. closely allied to P. cycadis, but differs in the shape and
texture of the puparium, and also in the spinnerets on the pygidium.

Genus Pinnaspis Cockerell.'

3. Pinnaspis nitidus sp. nov. Fig. 3.

Puparium of female elongate-ovate, convex, brown ; exuviae terminal.
Adult female elongated, distinctly segmented, white. Rudimentary
antennae bearing 4 fine hairs. Rostrum long and narrow, mentum short

Fig. 3. — Pinnaspis nitidus. Pygidium ; X 200.

and broad, rostral setae long. Anterior spiracles with group of from 4 to
6 parastigmatic glands. Last six free abdominal segments with numerous
short tubular spinnerets at side. Pygidium medium size, with 3 pairs of
lobes ; median pair broad, widely separated, and with crenulated extremity :
second and outer pair small and narrow. Between the lobes are 2 plates,
which are short, thick, pointed processes, with 2 more beyond the outer

152

Transactions.

lobes. Spines, 4 on each side of, and 2 between, the median lobes. Marginal
tubular spinnerets 6. Five groups of circumgenital glands, forming an
almost complete arch ; the number of orifices seem to vary a great deal,
and the formula given here are for two specimens, that on Pittosporum —
anterior group 6 orifices ; anterior laterals 24, 19 ; posterior laterals 13, 13 :
and that on Astelia — anterior group 13 ; anterior laterals 24, 19 ; pos-
terior laterals 14, 15. A few small oval spinnerets are scattered over
the pygidium. Anal orifice and vaginal opening opposite, and situated
centrally between the grouped glands. Last three free abdominal seg-
ments with group of 3 spiny hairs ; cephalic extremity smooth and hair-
less. Length, 1-55 mm.

Hab. — On bark of Pittosporum sp. and on Astelia, at present only from
Oamaru.

This species is very like Lepidosaphes, but, owing to the large second
exuvia, must be placed in the genus Pinnaspis. I found on Astelia what
is evidently the supposed male puparium, which agrees with Signoret's
description ; but, as the insect enclosed was not in the pupa stage, it was
impossible to be sure of its true character.

Note. — The genus Pinnaspis has not hitherto been recorded as occur-
ring in New Zealand.

Subfam. Coccinae.

4. Lecanium armatus

Genus Lecanium.
sp. nov. Figs. 4, 4a, 4&.

Adult female ovate, dark-red, convex, with a distinct carina ; margin
with a row of strong spines ; 2 irregular rows of slightly smaller spines
along dorsum. Antennae of 7 joints, tapering towards apex, 4th joint
longest ; formula 4 (3, 2), 7, 6 (5, 1) ; all joints hairy, last joint with 2 very

^ \

I , l ° '

a

Fig. 4. — Lecanium armatus. Last abdominal segment, showing anal cleft and
lobes with marginal and dorsal spines; X 120. 4a. Antennae of
adult female ; X 200. 46. Leg of adult female ; X 200.

long hairs and 8 short ones. Eostrum short, rostral setae short. Spiracles
very thick, and barrel-shaped ; anterior spiracles with several spinnerets
immediately above, which, with others, form a band which slopes upwards
towards the margin ; posterior spiracles with a scattered group of the same
immediately below. Legs small ; coxa short and broad ; trochanter large,
and appears fused to the femur, which is short and broad ; tibia narrow,
dilated towards the tibio-tarsal joint ; tarsus tapering towards claw, and
slightly longer than tibia. Upper digitules long fine knobbed hairs ; lower
digitules broad. The coxa on the posterior pair of legs is abnormally

Brittin. — Some New Coccidae.

153

enlarged ; all joints with several hairs. Anal cleft very broad, widening
towards the lobes, which are highly chitinized, and shaped like two half-
circles, between which is the anal ring, with 8 hairs ; on the lower half of
each lobe is 1 strong spine and several short hairs. Dermis covered with
numerous short fine hairs and tubular spines. Length, 3-14 mm.

Adult male unknown.

Hah. — On Maehlenbeckia australis , Oamaru.

Subfam. Dactylopinae.
Gen. Pseudococcus.
5. Pseudococcus oamaruensis sp. nov. Figs. 5, ha, 56.

Adidt female active, elongated, distinct segmented, convex above, flat
beneath ; colour brick-red ; covered with a thin yellow meal. Antennae
8 joints, last joint longest; formula 8, 2 (3, 5), 1 (6, 7), 4; all joints with
numerous long hairs. Mentum rather large, with hairs at tip ; rostral setae
medium length. Legs large and strong ; coxa broad and short ; trochanter
narrow; femora long and thick; tibia long and slender, and about same
thickness at both extremities; tarsus slender and about half length of tibia,
narrowing towards the claw, which is long and thin ; upper digitules long
fine hairs, lower digitules slightly longer than claw, and club-shaped.
Spiracles short and thick. Anal ring large, with 6 long hairs. Anal lobes

'.:L>;ii- '•/;>

Fig. 5. — Pseudococcus oamaruensis. Abdominal segment with lobes and anal
ring, dermis marked with spinnerets and hairs ; x 120. 5a. An-
tennae of adult female ; X 200. 56. Leg of adult female ; X 200.

inconspicuous, with 2 strong spines, several short fine hairs and 1 very long
one. Dermis covered with numerous short fine hairs and spinnerets. The
spinnerets are of two kinds — large simple, and the small multilocular. On
the last few segments the small spinnerets appear as short tubes. Length,
1-6 mm.

Adult male unknown.

Hob. — Subterranean, on roots of Aquilegia, 3 in. to 6 in. beneath the
surface.

6. Pseudococcus cockayneii sp. nov. Figs. 6, 6a, 66, 6c.

Adult female active, very elongated; colour pink; covered with a large
quantity of white mealy secretion. Antennae of 8 joints, last joints longest ;
formula 8, 1, 2 (3, 7), (4, 5, 6); all joints hairy. Mentum very short and
broad, with a few short hairs at tip ; rostral setae short. Legs slender ;
tibia nearly twice as long as tarsus ; digitules all fine hairs. Spiracles
medium size, constricted in the middle ; numerous large round spinnerets
are grouped around spiracles. Anal ring very large, with 6 long hairs. Anal

154

Transactions.

lobes rather more* conspicuous than usual, with 2 short thick spines and
several long hairs, one hair being twice the length of the rest. On each
segment are bands of long fine hairs, and spinnerets of two sizes, the large
spinnerets being most numerous, small spinnerets being mostly on the

Fig. 6. — Pseudococcus cockayneil. Abdominal segment, showing lobes, anal ring
with hairs, spines, and spinnerets ; X 120. 6a. Antennae of adult
female; X 200. 66. Leg of adult female; X 200. 6c. Large circular
markings on dermis ; X 200.

ventral surface. Down the centre of the ventral surface, situated on the
articulations between the segments, and starting on the third articulation
from the posterior end, are 6 large circular markings, the first and last
being smallest, the third and fourth the largest. Length, 2-93 mm.

Adult male unknown.

Hab. — On Adphylla, around Oamaru.

7. Pseudococcus sexaspinus sp. uov. Figs. 7, la, 76.

Adult female elongated, segmented, pale pink, enclosed in a test of white
cottony secretion. Antennae of 8 joints, last joint longest ; formula 8, 1. 2

.11 ,l»o f

0 1=

7

Fig. 7. — Pseudococcus sexaspinus. Abdominal segment with lobes ; X 120.
la. Antennae of adult female ; X 200. 76. Leg of adult female ; X 200.

( 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) ; all joints with several hairs. Eyes rather prominent.
Rostrum normal; mentum long, timorous. Legs strong and thick: tarsus

Brittix. — Some New Coccidae.

155

shorter than tibia; all joints hairy; digitules all fine hairs. Anal lobes
inconspicuous, with 6 short conical spines and several hairs, one hair being
very thick and long; the two next preceding segments with 2 spines
each, in pairs near edge of body, and the next segment with 1 spine ;
all segments marked out with bands of rather long hairs : cephalic
extremitv with numerous hairs between antennae ; anal orifice with
6 long stout hairs. Dermis covered with numerous spinnerets. Length,
about 3 mm.

Adult male unknown.

Hab. — Subterranean, on roots of sedge, at present only from Crushington,
near Reefton ; found by Mr. R. W. Raithby.

Genus Ripersia.
8. Ripersia occultum sp. nov. Figs. 8, 8a, 86.

Adult female active, elongate-ovate : colour dark purple ; covered
with a thick coating of yellow meal. Antennae medium length, of 6 joints,
last joint longest ; formula 6, 3, 1, 2, 5, 4 ; all joints hairy ; articulations
of antennae very pronounced. Rostrum short : mentum large and long,
with hairs at tip ; rostral setae short. Legs normal ; tibia with 2 short
spines at apex ; digitules all fine hairs. Spiracles short and broad. Anal

Fig. 8. — Ripersia occultum. Abdominal segment with lobes; X 120. 8a. Antennae
of adult female ; X 200. 86. Leg of adult female ; X 200.

ring with 6 long stout hairs ; anal lobes inconspicuous, with 2 short thick
spines and several hairs, one of which is very thick and long. Dermis
covered with long fine hairs, which are especially noticeable between the
antennae. There are also numerous small circular spinnerets scattered
over the body. On the abdominal portion, just above the anal ring, there
are 9 large circular spinnerets arranged in the form of a circle Length,
1-59 mm.

Adult male unknown.

Hab. — Subterranean, on roots of grass, 3 in. to 9 in. beneath the surface,
Oamaru.

9. Ripersia globatus sp. nov. Figs. 9, 9«, 96.

Adult female pink, globular, segmentation very indistinct, covered with
a test of white cottony secretion. Antennae short, of 6 joints, last joint

156

Transactions.

longest; formula 6, 3 (2, 1), (4, 5); all joints except first with several hairs
Mentum fairly long and pointed, with a few hairs at tip. Spiracles widely-
dilated at both extremities. Legs, like the antennae, very short ; coxa short
and broad ; trochanter very large, with a single long fine hair ; femora thick,
with a few hairs on under- surface ; tibia short and thick, with 2 short

Fig. 9. — Ripersia globulus. Abdominal segment with lobes ; X 120. 9a. Antennae
of adult female ; X 200. 96. Leg of adult female ; X 200.

spines near tibio- tarsal joint; tarsus slightly shorter than tibia, and
more slender; upper digitules fine knobbed hairs, lower digitules fine
hairs slightly longer than claw. The coxa on the posterior pair of legs
is abnormally enlarged. Anal ring with 6 hairs, anal lobes imperceptible,
represented merely by 2 short conical spines and a single long fine hair.
Dermis covered with short fine hairs, interspersed with small round spin-
nerets. Length, 2-07 mm.

Adult male unknown.

Rob. — Subterranean, on grass-roots, moss, also in ants' nests ; Oamaru.

Art. XIX. — New Coccidae.
By G. Brittin.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.]

The following paper contains the descriptions of one new genus and three
new species of the New Zealand Coccidae.

The new genus Scutare will make a most interesting addition to the list
of the New Zealand Coccidae, and has been placed temporarily in the sub-
family Conchaspinae, to which it evidently belongs ; and if it should ulti-
mately be permanently placed in that subfamily a material alteration will
have to be made in the diagnosis of the Conchaspinae. The species fimbria ta
varies in several important points from all the species belonging to the
genus Conchaspis Cockerell. There is one genus of the Conchaspinae of
which I am at present unable to get any information, that is the mono-
typic genus Fagisuga* Lindinger. It may happen that my species belongs
to that genus, but until I have received word from England and America
I will leave it as at present placed.

* " Catalogue of Coccidae;' vol. ii, U.S. Dept. Agric., 1 909, p. 35.

Brittin. — New Coccidae.

157

With regard to the species Nudata, this is placed in the genus Crypto-
coccus, which up to the present time has been a monotypic genus, the type
being C. jagi Barensprung, and to include the present species a material
alteration will have to be made. In C. Jagi the insect is covered with a
loose cottony secretion, while C. nudata is, so far as I have been able to make
out, entirely naked, and has 6 hairs on the anal ring, instead of 4 as in
C.Jagi. Both species have the distinguishing feature of the minute rudi-
mentary antennae, and the equally small tuberculate processes which are
mere vestiges of the posterior legs. Up to the present I have only been
able to examine the adult female, but I hcpe .shortly to hatch out some of
the larvae.

The new species of Fiorinia I have much pleasure in naming after the
late Mr. W. M. Maskell, who was the pioneer worker on the New Zealand
Coccidae, and at the same time one of the leading men of his day on this
subject.

Genus Pinnaspis Cockerell.

Figs.

1 and 2.

clult female,
then I have

Pinnaspis nitidus mihi

In my last paper to the Institute I gave a description of the a
and also stated that I was not certain of the male scale. Since
been fortunate enough to get the
male in the pupa stage, but, owing to
moving to Christchurch shortly after,
I was not successful in hatching any
of the adult males. This is rather to
be regretted, as I believe that the male
of this genus has not yet been found.
In figs. 1 and 2 will be found an
illustration of both the male and
female scales, and the difference be-
tween them can easily be seen.

The following is the description of
the male scale : Puparium of male
elongated, with straight narrow sides ;
colour slightly lighter than that of
the female; convex; closely felted; not carinated ; exuvia rather large.
Length, about 1-2 mm.

Subfam. Diaspinae.
Genus Fiorinia.

Fiorinia maskelli sp. nov. Fig. 3.

Female puparium white ; elongated ; generally straight, sometimes
curved ; convex ; first exuvia yellow, second exuvia brown, and entirely
enclosing the insect.

Male puparium white ; convex ; elongated, with straight narrow sides ;
slightly shorter than that of the female.

Adult female white ; at first elongate, but during gestation shrinking
up until it has the appearance of an Aspidiotus ; very convex ; rudimentary
antennae with 5 long hairs ; cephalic extremity large, with a few short
spiny hah's ; anterior spiracles set very close to the rostrum, with a group

Fig. 1. — Pinnaspia nitidus.
o

Female scale-
Male scale.

158 Transactions.

of from 18 to 20 parastigmatic glands; slightly above, and between the
anterior spiracles and the edge of the body, are a group of short tubular
spinnerets. Pygidium rather small and pointed, slightly chitinized, with

5 distinct groups of circumgenital glands ;
anterior group 15 glands; anterior laterals
23-34 ; posterior laterals 23-26 ; 2 pairs of
lobes, the median pair being bilobed, the
outer lobule being the smallest, the second
pair of lobes very minute. Immediately
above each lobe is a long spine-like hair,
with 2 more beyond the outer lobes ; there
are several short hairs along the edge of the
Fig. 3.— i^ma maskelli. pygidium, 2 being between the median pair

and 3 between the median and outer pair
of lobes. There are no marginal tubular spinnerets, but 6 large scar-like
markings appear on the lower end of the pygiduim, which has also a
stirated appearance. Anal orifice situated well above the middle of the
pygidium. Length, about 1-67 mm.

Female of second instar very similar to that of the second instar of
F. stricta, but the dorsal tubular spinnerets are rather more numerous than
ill F. stricta.

Larva normal of the genus.
Adult male unknown.

Hub.— -On Plagianihus, Oamaru ; Veronica sp.. Bluff; Pittosporum sp..
Bluff, Oamaru. and Christchurch.

Subfam. Conchaspinae.
Genus Scutare gen. nov.

Puparium of female flat ; more or less circular ; fringed ; ventral scale
complete. Adult female retaining feet and antennae ; anal ring setiferous ;
mentum biarticulate ; terminal segments of the body somewhat resembling
that of the Diaspvnac.

Scutare fimbriata sp. nov. Figs. 4-10.

Puparium of adult female very thin ; semi-opaque ; appears to be of a
dark-red colour, but is really white ; glassy ; ovate ; surrounded by a
broad white fringe ; ventral scale complete.

Puparium of male pupa oblong ; white ; rather flat ; loosely felted ;
completely enveloping pupa.

Adult female dark red ; elongated ; widest at cephalic extremity, and
tapering towards the abdominal lobes. Eyes prominent, and situated at
the inner base of the antennae. Antennae of 6 joints, tapering towards
apex, third joint longest; formula 3, 6 (4, 5), (1, 2); apical joint with
several hairs. Mentum biarticulate. Spiracles, in 2 pairs, are fairly large
and ovate. Legs normal ; coxa short and broad ; femora thick ; with 1
short hair at the junction of the trochanter ; tibia short and thin, with
small spine at the tibio-tarsal joint ; tarsus almost twice as long as tibia ;
claw long and thin ; digitules, two upper only observed. Abdominal por-
tion of body very distinctly segmented, highly chitinized, and tapering
towards the lobes, which are rather large and prominent. From the outer
side of each lobe a narrow hyaline band converges towards the middle, and
then runs directly upwards through the middle of the next four segments,

Brittin. — New Coccidae.

159

which it divides in halves, and which thus appear like 8 distinct plates,
4 on each side ; the next immediate segment above is entire. Immediately
above the lobes is a triangular segment left by the converging hyaline bands.
The lobes are broad at the base, and chitinized, tapering sharply to the
extremity ; on each lobe there is 1 very long seta, and 3 long tubular spines ;

Fig. 4. — Insect on bark, showing fringe.
„ 5. — Insect after treatment with potash.
,, 6. — Abdominal segments, showing plates and spines.

between the lobes is the anal ring, with 6 long fine hairs. On each
free abdominal segments, and somewhat within the margin, on the
surface, are 4 long tubular spines similar to those on the lobes, and
of these spines continue also round the edge of the thoracic portion

of the
dorsal
a row

of the

8

/

a=

!0

Fig. 7. — Abdominal lobes, showing anal ring.
,, 8. — Antennae of adult female.
„ 9. — Leg of adult female.
„ 10. — Marginal spines.

insect, but are longest towards the abdominal region ; a double row of
similar but smaller spines extends up the centre of the dorsal surface from
the lobes to the fifth free abdominal segment. Numerous minute hairs
and spines are scattered over the dorsal surface, also a few small circular
spinnerets. Length, about 1-36 mm.

Larva short and ovate ; colour light-red. Antennae of 6 joints, third
and sixth joints equal and longest ; formula (3, 6), (1, 2), (4, 5). Mentum
biarticulate Legs normal ; tarsus twice length of tibia. Anal lobes con-
spicuous, with 1 long seta and 3 long tubular spines. Anal ring large, with
6 hairs. Round margin of body is a row of long tubular spines, with 4 more
rows extending up the centre of the dorusm.

160

Transactions.

This insect, differs so much from all the known species of the genus
Conchaspis that I have thought it best to place it under an entirely new
genus for the present. Mr. Green,* in his book " Coccidae of Ceylon,"
diagnoses the genus Conchaspis as follows : " Scale elevated, more or less
circular ; adult female retaining feet and antennae, the latter of few joints ;
genital aperture without setiferous ring ; mentum biarticulate ; terminal
segments of body united into a piece somewhat resembling the pygidium
of the Diaspinae." Out of these seven characteristics of the genus Con-
chaspis two very important ones do not agree, and these are the elevated
scale and the non-setiferous ring. In S. fimbriata the scale is flat and glassy,
and appears like a Ctenochiton ; the anal ring has 6 hairs, and the antennae
have 6 joints, instead of 4 as in the genus Conchaspis, In fact, the insect
appears to have a connection with the Diaspinae, with its definite pygidium ;
the Ctenochiton, with its glassy fringed scale ; and the Dactylopinae, with
its prominent anal lobes and setiferous ring.

Subfam. Dactylopinae.

Genus Cryptococcus Douglas.

Cryptococcus nudata sp. nov. Figs. 11-14.

Adult female naked ; globular ; colour light yellow ; rostrum small,
mentum biarticulate, rostral setae medium length ; spiracles 4, large and
oval, with a circular ring of glands round opening ; rudimentary antennae
with 2 or 3 short hairs ; anterior and intermediate pair of legs absent,
posterior pair atrophied and represented merely by a short protuberance ;
anal ring large, compound, with 6 short hairs, and surrounded by what
appears to be a broad chitinous plate, on which there are 6 short hairs

12

13

Fig. 11. — Abdominal segment, showing anal ring and chitinous plate.

„ 12. — Spiracle of adult female.

„ 13. — Rudimentary antennae of adult female.

„ 14. — Rudimentary leg of adult female.

— three on each side of the anal ring ; abdominal lobes absent ; dermis
with a few minute hairs scattered over it. The dorsal surface of the
abdomen appears to be more chitinized than the rest of the body. Length,
about 0*7 mm.

Larva and adult male unknown.

Hab.- — On Hoheria sp., Cashmere Hills, Christchurch.

" Coccidae of Ceylon,' vol. 1, p. 19.

Benham. — Some New Zealand Polychaetes. 161

Art. XX. — -Notes on some Neiv Zealand Polychaetes.

By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 1st December, 1914.]

The identification and description of the marine Annelids from our shores
was undertaken by the veteran zoologist Dr. E. Ehlers,* of Gottingen
University, some years ago, and for that purpose I sent him representatives
of all the species that I had collected up to that date. To this list I added
a few more species as a result of the study of material obtained during the
trawling expedition of the s.s. " Nora Niven "f and during the expedition
to the subantarctic islands. J I hope to add to our knowledge of the group
from time to time as I work out the large amount of material which I have
accumulated in recent years.

On the present occasion I wish to make some remarks on three of the
species described by Ehlers, for, as a result of an examination of more
abundant material than was available to him, I have come to a somewhat
different conclusion on certain points which affect the nomenclature.

After having found that I was unable to agree with Dr. Ehlers in regard
to these points I wrote to him on the subject ; and he was good enough to
reply to me to the effect that, as I had at my disposal a more extensive
series of specimens than he had, he was prepared to accept most of my
conclusions.

Fam. Syllidae.
Odontosyllis suteri sp. nov.

Eurymedusa picta Ehlers partim (Neuseeland. Anneliden, 1904, p. 21);
nee Eurymedusa picta Kinberg, 1865.

I have examined specimens of a worm which agrees closely with the
account given by Ehlers of Eurymedusa picta of Kinberg. § The present
specimens were collected by me at Portobello, in the Otago Harbour, and
at Port Pegasus, in Stewart Island, and they are similar to that I sent
to Ehlers from Tasman Bay. These agree precisely in their external features
with Ehlers' description and figures, so that it came as a surprise to me
to find that the pharynx is armed with a row of teeth which is characteristic
of the genus Odontosyllis.

The long gizzard which extends from the 10th to 25th segment is pre-
ceded by a thick-walled pharyngeal tube (reddish in specimens preserved
in formalin), the entrance to which is provided with a thick band of chitin
stretching across the ventral margin, which bears 6 backwardly directed
teeth. This band is rounded on its free surface, and on each side, beyond
the row of teeth, is bent abruptly on itself, forming a rounded knob, from
which there projects into the cavity a process which I at first took for a
tooth in accordance with Ehlers' account, but further examination showed
that it is merely the free end of the elastic band. Of the six teeth, the

* Ehlers. NeuseelancUsche Anneliden in Abhndl. Kgl. Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen,
1904, and pt. ii, 1907.

f Benham. Annelida, Sci. Results N.Z. Govt. Trawling Exped., 1907, in the
"Records Canterbury Museum," vol. 1, 1909, p. 71.

J Benham. " Report on the Polychaeta, Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand,"
1909, p. 236.

§ Kinberg. Annulata nova in Ofversigt af k. Vet. Akad. Forhandl., 1865, p. 249.

6— Trans.

162

Transactions.

central four are similar to one another ; the rectangular base of each is
produced into a sharp narrow conical tooth ; the lateral tooth on either
side has a longer base, which is produced outwards towards the bay formed
by the reflexed end of the chitinous band.

In one individual (preserved in formalin) the pharyngeal tube is widely
open at its anterior end, and these teeth were fully exposed to view ; but
in another (preserved in alcohol) the entrance to the pharyngeal tube was

~a

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. — The pharynx of Odontosyllis suteri (enlarged), a, the
chitinous band along the ventral margin of the
entrance ; b, the teeth ; c, the junction with the
gizzard.

Fig. 2. — -The band, with its teeth, a, the reflected end.

closed, the anterior margin was reflected over it, and, owing to a right and
left compression, the entrance was reduced to a narrow vertical cleft, so
that the teeth were only rendered evident when the tube was slit open and
the walls spread out.

Now, in Kinberg's diagnosis of his genus Eurymedusa we find the
passage, " Maxilla unica, margine pyriformi, lateribus dilatatis, medio
carinata," &c. There is, then, only a single tooth. It is true that Ehlers,
in his account, speaks with some diffidence about the matter, for he says,
" At the entrance to the pharyngeal tube is a long non-denticulated ring
with a large tooth which appears as a pigmented fold projecting from the
wall. Probably, however, this is only the swelling from which the true
chitinous tooth has dropped away." His figure (pi. iii, fig. 9) is certainly
not very convincing. I suspect that Ehlers mistook for a tooth the
reflected end of the chitinous band. He was able to examine Kinberg's
type specimen, and though he found certain differences in the character
of the chaetae, and though Kinberg does not give a clear account of the
peristomial flap which covers the prostomium, and though the state of
preservation of the type did not allow him to study the everted pharynx,
yet, in spite of these discrepancies, Ehlers identified our worm with
Kinberg's.

It may be that the specimen from Laysan collected by Schauinsland
and examined by Ehlers is really Kinberg's species ; but those from the
coast of New Zealand (one of which he received from Mr. Suter, from
Christchurch, and others from me, collected at Tasman Bay) are, I have
no doubt, identical with those which I have studied from other parts of
our coast and from the Kermadec Islands.

Hence, as we have Ehlers' statement that his specimens are identical
with Kinberg's, it is necessary to give a new specific name to this New
Zealand species. I name it after Mr. H. Suter, who has done so much
for New Zealand natural history, not only by his monumental monograph
as a culmination to his extended work on our Mollusca, but also by his
generosity in giving specimens of various animals collected by him to those
engaged in the investigation of special groups.

Benhasi. — Some Xew Zealand Polychaetes. 163

Fam. Chlorhaemidae.

Flabelligera bicolor Schmarda.

Pherusa bicolor Schmarda, Neue Wirbellose Thiere, 1861, p. 21,
pi. xx, fig. 169. Flabelligera lingulata Ehlers, Neuseelandische
Annelideu, 1904, p. 47. F. semiannulata Ehlers, loc. cit., p. 150.

I received nine specimens of this species, and am able to add one or
two notes to the account of Ehlers.

The two more carefully examined are 30 mm. and 50 mm. in length,
with 55 and 58 segments respectively.

The body-wall is pale brown in the preserved state (in formalin), which
is distinctly segmented in those specimens which are not distended with
food. When this, however, is the case the anterior five or six segments
show the segmentation as a prominent ridge at the anterior margin. Then
the body commences to enlarge, and from the 8th to 16th the wall, hitherto
thick and opaque, is thin and transparent, owing to the great amount of
distension allowing the contained viscera to be seen and the muscular
fibrillae to be distinguished in the wall itself. From this point the body
gradually decreases in diameter towards the anal segment. In such a
specimen, which resembles that described by Ehlers under F. lingulata,
the dimensions of a specimen of 50 mm. in length are : the peristomium is
1*5 mm. wide ; the 7th segment about 2-5 mm. ; and the greatest breadth
is 6 mm., at about the 10th or 12th segment. At the 18th it is 3 mm.,
and at about four segments from the end 1 mm. wide. It is thus spindle-
shaped.

But in those cases in which the gut is not distended the differences are
much less ; in a 30 mm. individual its width over the greater part is 2 mm.,
rather less at the peristomium and towards the hinder end.

In the distended state, also, the colour differs, for it loses its brown
tint, and becomes, owing to the stretching of the wall, very dark bluish
or black in the anterior half, excluding the first 4-5 segments, and, as
the gut is loaded with sand, this may be mottled.

In one case in which this distension had attained probably its maximum
the segmentation of the body-wall was still indicated by white transverse
lines on the dorsal surface in the middle region, while at the anterior and
extreme posterior ends the ventral ridges at the anterior end of the segments
persist.

The body-wall is enclosed in a jelly of considerable thickness, which,
however, diminishes when the specimen is placed in alcohol and left for a
time. But the amount of jelly seems to vary in different individuals ;
in one specimen from Denham Bay the notopodial chaetae do not, or only
just, project beyond it. It is traversed by very numerous thread-like papillae,
which terminate in a swollen apex. These spring from the entire surface
of the body-wall, and are especially abundant and long around the noto-
podial chaetae.

The dorsal surface of the body is rounded, the ventral flat.

The head is concealed by a nearly complete circle of long capillary
chaetae, which constitute the cephalic crown, which is itself hidden by the
jelly and papillae.

The chaetae project for a distance of 5 mm., equal to the length of the
peristomium and five or six following segments. These chaetae, which agree
in structure with the notopodials, are rooted in a narrow, upstanding, nearly
vertical fold of the anterior wall of the peristomium, which forms a con-

6*

164

Transactions.

tinuous collar (fig. 3) ; but the chaetae are in reality in four distinct fan-
shaped groups, two on each side, which touch one another ; though the two
dorsal and two ventral groups are separated slightly in the median lines.
Each group is contained in its own chaetophore, the lips of which project
slightly beyond the collar, as a dorso-ventrally extended fold, parallel with
its margin. The bases or roots of each of the four bundles of chaetae can
be seen converging as golden lines within the collar to a point deeply
removed from the margin.

These chaetae are not of uniform length, those on the sides being longest,
those on the ventral being shorter than the dorsal ones. The chaetae are

d—

Fig. 4.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. — JSide view of the anterior end of F. bicolor (enlarged). The surrounding
jelly is not indicated, a, the tip of the palp (or subtentacle of Ehlers) ;

b, tips of a few of the tentacles ; c, dorsal bundle of peristomial
chaetae; d, ventral bundle; e, median dorsal tentacle, or "lingula";
/, peristomium (the " chaetigerous lamella" projects beyond its edge);
g, the 1st chaetigerous segment ; h, the 3rd chaetigerous segment,
bearing the hook in the ventral lobe of the parapodium.

Fig.' 4. — View of the head from above, after the removal of the cephalic crown
of bristles ; the palps are cut across, and on the right side of the figure
the groove along its ventral surface is represented, a, the palp ; b, the
tentacular platform from which the tentacles have been removed ;

c, the peristomial chaetigerous lamella bearing the bases of the bristles ;

d, the median dorsal tentacle, or " lingula " ; e, the cerebral region of the
prostomium, with pigment spots.

so closely placed at their origin from the chaetophores that they touch
one another, and form a palisade through which it is almost impossible to
see the enclosed tentacles and palps. The dorsal gap is wider than the
ventral, except in very much contracted specimens, when the right and
left groups overlap ; but in less contracted condition the dorsal median
tentacle projects through this gap as a tongue-shaped organ, or " lingula."
At other times it may be found upright within the crown of chaetae. When
this cephalic crown is pressed aside or cut away the organs of the head
are exposed.

The tentacles, or branchiae, are numerous delicate filaments, densely
crowded together in two dorsal groups, one on each side of the middle
line. They are shorter than the palps, which are about three-quarters
the length of the cephalic crown. Each group contains about 50 tentacles,

Benham. Somt New Zealand Polychaetes. 165

and when these are removed — they only too readily fall away when touched
-it is found that they spring from a crescentic platform, which passes round
within the collar from one lateral line to the other, outside the palp (fig. 4).
In some cases the upper surface of the platform is nearly flat ; at others
this surface is directed inwards,' and lies nearly in a vertical plane, due to
the retraction of the apparatus. In one case in which the platform was flat
I counted the bases of the tentacles : these are arranged in 4 concentric
rows ; the outermost, longest, presented about 20 attachment-spots ; the
next row 15 ; then 8 ; and the innermost 5. All these rows commence
close to the dorsal mid-line, but only the two outer rows extend laterally
outside the palp.

The dorsal median tentacle, or " lingula," is a greyish structure, grooved
on its upper surface (really its inner face when not projecting outwards) ;
it is a median thickening of the tentacular platform, beyond which it
projects as a tongue-shaped organ, and is much wider than a branchial
tentacle, and, unlike that, not readily detached.

The extent to which the " lingula " is visible depends on the state of
preservation and consequent degree of contraction of the head organs.
When these are strongly contracted and the whole head retracted it is
almost impossible to detect the " lingula " without recourse to dissection.

Traced inwards this " lingula " is seen to pass on to the central or
cerebral region of the prostomium, on which are two large pigment patches
(? eyes) of variable size and irregular form. Beyond this again, towards
the ventral surface, spring the pair of palps, which are longer than the
tentacles, grooved on the ventral surface, with the lateral margins crinkled
and overhanging. This groove leads into the mouth.

Following the peristomium, with its crown of chaetae, is a couple of
chaetigerous lobes on each side, notopodium and neuropodium, directed
forwards ; these carry long capillary chaetae, which lie close alongside the
crown. In the following segments the notopodium carries similar chaetae,
but the neuropodium carries a hook.

The next two bundles of capillaries are also directed forwards. The
notopodial and neuropodial lobes are short but distinct columns, the
former provided with chaetophoral lips.

The notopodial chaetae are usually about 5 or 6 in number, which may
be increased to 9 in the anterior bundles, but all are not of equal length
or thickness ; in the more posterior feet about four longer and one or two
shorter. These chaetae are long, slender, and beautifully iridescent, rather
brownish in colour when seen under the microscope, but on the body (seen
by reflected light) are of a pale yellow, or silvery brass colour. They are
finely and closely striated longitudinally, and crossed at intervals by distinct
lines. Towards the apex these intervals are very long, but as the base is
approached the lines become very close together.

The peristomial chaetae have the same appearance and structure, but
differ in that the joint-lines are farther apart at the apex ; the longest of
them are about twice the length of the notopodial chaetae of the body-

The neuropodial hooks are solitary ; only here and there in any of the
worms do I find a second hook, either of equal length or only just protrud-
ing beyond the surface.

Viewed under a lens they are shining silvery yellow, with a dark-brown
hook-shaped end, bent at nearly a right angle to the shaft, which projects
far out of the body in all the specimens.

166

Transactions,

The plane of the hook is not in that of the shaft ; it is " warped,'" as
it were. ; the axis of the hook is itself bent, so that the tip lies in a different
plane from the rest ; hence when it is mounted and covered some distor-
tion is almost sure to occur, if not even a slight rupture at the angle where
the hook passes into the shaft.

The shaft is crossed by transverse lines or grooves at fairly regular and
close intervals in the distal region, but lower down they are more widely
distant. It is also densely striated in a longitudinal but slightly oblique

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig.

5. — Portions of two hooks which were lying close together
in a preparation (very highly magnified). The direction
of the striations of the substance of the chaeta is dis-
turbed in A, and at the margins the material is slightly
ruptured, giving the impression of an articulation when
seen under a lower magnification. The delicacy of
these lines can scarcely be reproduced, a, shaft ; 6, the
claw of the hook.
Fig. 6. — One of the ventral hooks from a Kermadec specimen,
with the minute capillary bristles at its base. The
" sheath " has been omitted. (All the figures of hooks
were drawn by aid of the camera lucida.) This hook
resembles Elders' fig. 5, pi. vii, of 'L F. lingulata."

direction ; these striae do not reach the surface of the chaeta. The claw-
like end is similarly obliquely striated, and at the angle of bending a
disturbance of the direction of these striations occurs (fig. 5). Sometimes
there is a small notch on one or on both sides at this point ; in other cases
this is absent.

Each hook is accompanied by 4 very fine short capillaries, usually two
above and two below it (as if it were an aciculum in an errant Polychaete).
The free ends of these are curved, and lie close to the chaeta, and some-
times they may be concealed by the hook if one happens to cut off too much
of the body- wall (fig. 6).

The hook and its satellites are enclosed in a transparent sheath of a
cuticle-like structure. This is more readily seen in freshly mounted hooks
than in those that have been long in glycerine. The sheath exhibits a
corrugation at the surface of the chaeta, but is externally smooth : probably

Hexham. — Some New Zealand Polychaetes. 167

it is purely cuticular. In one case at least I note that it surrounds the apex
of the hook.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Chatham Islands, Kermadec Islands.

Remarks. — I have described this worm at some length, in spite of the clear
account given by Ehlers, because in one or two points that account seems
to me to require extension. He described two species — F. lingulata and
F. semiannulata — both from the Chatham Islands, and the latter founded
on a single individual. And the differences between these two seem to me
from a comparison of a large series of specimens from various localities
to be individual rather than specific. In the first place, though he does
not refer to this explicitly, the presence of the median dorsal tentacle, or
Ll lingula,"' is not denied for F. semiannulata ; no mention is made of it,
and one may therefore presume its absence. The slight differences that
lie notes between the general form of the body and the condition of the
head are, in my opinion, due to differences in the state of contraction —
that is, the head as described for F. semiannulata is retracted to such an
extent that in fig. 7 the bases of the peristomial chaetae are apparently
within the projecting margin of the next segment, and the body as de-
scribed for F. lingulata is much distended with food. I have shown above
that this naturally makes a considerable difference in shape and in the
clarity of the segmentation. But in his summary at the end of his account
of F. semiannulata on p. 50 Ehlers lays more stress on the difference in the
ventral chaetae, for he found two in each bundle in F. lingulata, and onlv
one in the other species. In the latter it is accompanied by capillaries,
which he did not find in F. semiannulata, and there is some difference in the
angle formed by the claw on the shaft; the hook is said to be " far pro-
jecting," and the specific name apparently refers to the pseudo-articulation
of the hook.

In addition to these specimens from the Kermadec Islands, I have a
large number collected from various parts of the coast of New Zealand
and from the Chatham Islands (whence a ...

Professor Ehlers obtained both his \\ -^ ., „ „ ///

species). Now, all these agree in VA ^\m\\\\\\\\\ lllliliflflf}/! /
possessing a single hook (except occa- ^^\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\ I III //////////// III

sionally here and there in a worm, \V ^^^^mJ\\uMlu\uM- HI

when two may be present) enclosed in \\ p^^^^ fu]

a sheath and of the form figured for — --\i Villi 1/1

F . semiannulata, but accompanied by <£- — ^[j^^k ill/f /

capillary bristles ; and also in the >| ^%r ut^^ /

presence of a median dorsal tentacle, \ ^P^ /

or " lingula." w, f

Some specimens from Auckland
are particularly instructive : they are FlG- 1-~ A specimen from Auckland.

i - .j t, i " The peristomium has been slit

much contracted, having been pre- ' . ^ +„„

p r up, so as to expose the ten-

served in strong alcohol; the head fcacular platform and the "lingula."

is withdrawn, and the gut protrudes a, tentacles ; b, peristomial chaetae

through the mouth. At first I was (cut short) "> , \ peristomium ;

ii , n j ,-i j- i d, tentacular platform ; e, lin-

unable to find the median tentacle, ' ,„ „

•itt • • i gula.

until 1 slit up the peristomium and re-
flected the chaetae of the crown ; then it is recognizable, though relatively
shorter than in uncontracted specimens (fig. 7). These Auckland specimens
I had originally labelled " F. semiannulata, ," as they agreed so closely with
the general account of that species given by Ehlers ; but I find here, too,

168 Transactions.

that the single hook, which is far projecting and has the form characteristic
for that species, is accompanied by the capillaries which are characteristic
for F. lingulata.

In F. semiannulata, Ehlers says that the dorsal bristles are 5 or 6 in the
mid and hind segments of the body, but more numerous in the anterior
segments. On the other hand, he is less definite for F. lingulata ; all he savs
is that they number 10, without any reference to the region of the body.

In these specimens from the Kermadec Islands I find the following

numbers : —

Specimen from Specimen from

Kermadec Auckland (apparently

(F. lingulata). F. semiannulata).

Parapodium 1 . . 8 long and 1 short. 8 long and 1 short.

2

3

15

40

7 >> • >> 8 ,, 1

7 „ 1 „ 6 1

4 „ J or 2 short. 6 „ 1

4 „ 1 or 2 „ 4 2

Examination under a dissecting-lens will reveal only the long ones, since the
shorter ones are also much finer.

Ehlers had only a single individual of F. semiannulata on which to
found his diagnostic characters, and it appears to me that he had before
him merely a much contracted individual of F. lingulata.

When examining mounted preparations of the hooks of the Kermadec
specimens I was puzzled to find that in some instances they resembled
Ehlers' figure (pi. vii, fig. 5) of those of F. lingulata, and in other cases from
the same specimen they recall those of F. semiannulata (Ehlers' fig. 9). It
occurred to me that perhaps the act of covering, and the consequent pressure,
might explain this difference. So I examined and drew under camera lucida
some hooks mounted in water without a cover-slip ; these exactly resemble
those of F. semiannulata. When the cover was put on, and excess of water
drained away, they recall Ehlers' fig. 4 — that is, F. lingulata. I made several
such preparations ; in some cases the change was less obvious. I also drew
the outlines, under the camera, of hooks from various individuals from the
Kermadec and from the Chathams and from New Zealand, with rather sur-
prising results, for sometimes on one and the same preparation (in glycerin e-
jelly) I found one hook like fig. 5 and another like fig. 9 of Ehlers'
memoir. Sometimes the form is intermediate ; that is, the angle — which for
semiannulata is so marked, and for lingulata a very open one — is midway
between them.

Another interesting case wras a mount of a foot of a Kermadec specimen
in which there are two hooks — a far-projecting one, and one that only just
cuts through (text fig. 9). The longer one resembles Ehlers' fig. 5, the shorter
approaches his fig. 9, though, as the hook was not flattened out as in other
mounts, owing to the presence of the thick foot, the angle which the claw
makes with the shaft is less marked than in Ehlers' fig. 9. Another apparent
difference lies in the detailed outline of the claw — in his fig. 9 (of semi-
annulata) there is a slight swelling just above its union with the shaft, as
in fig. 5 (for lingulata) ; it is absent in both his fig. 10 (semiannulata) and
fig. 4 (lingulata).

Ehlers, in his second paper on our Annelids (1907, p. 21), quotes my note
to him that accompanied the specimens of F. lingulata sent to him — that
" in life it is partly greenish-blue and partly brown." This agrees with the
coloured figure of Schmarda's Pherusa bicolor. And he also puts on record

Benham. — Some New Zealand Polychaetes.

169

the suggestion that I then made tliat I was " inclined to regard it as identical
with that species." The renewed examination of this series of specimens
from various localities and in various states of preser-
vation confirms me in this opinion, so that both
Ehlers' specific names must disappear and the older
name replace them.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 8. — The end of a hook from the individual represented :n Fig. 7;
it resembles Ehlers' fig. 9, of " F. semiannulata."

Fig. 9. — A ventral lobe of another segment of the same individual, with
two hooks. The shorter has a swelling at the base of the
claw, and resembles Ehlers' fig. 5, representing F. lingulata ;
the longer one has a " pseudo-articulation," as in his F. semi-
annulata.

Fig. 10. — One and the same hook under different conditions, a was drawn
mounted in water without a cover-slip ; the tip of the claw is
recurved, and lies in a different plane from the rest of the
claw. 6 was drawn after being covered and some of the water
drawn off by blotting-paper, so as to allow the cover-slip to
press on the bristle ; the apex is now pushed into the same
plane as the rest ; there is a slight swelling at the base, and a
pseudo-articulation has appeared.

I may add that the following considerations have influenced me in
arriving at this conclusion : It was the only Chlorhaemid that Schmarda
obtained on the coast of New Zealand. He made his collections mainly
in the neighbourhood of Auckland Harbour and the Thames. The only
Chlorhaemid that I have obtained from that region (and, indeed, from else
where on our shores) is identical with those received from the Kermadec
Islands. I have three different lots from that neighbourhood, and it would
be against the law of chance that Schmarda should have collected any other
than this common species and that I should not have received any of his
species. Moreover, the dimensions and general form of body agree with
F. lingulata. He gives 50 segments, with a length of 50 mm. and diameter
of 8 mm. (which evidently includes the jelly). The anterior part of the body
he describes as dark blue, the hinder as yellow-grey, and when the body
is distended that is the coloration of our common species. He represents
three bundles of long chaetae as directed forwards, and shows no tentacles
or palps (which are drawn in the figures of the other two species on the
same plate). This again is in agreement, for the cephalic crown conceals
the tentacles, which are stated to be numerous and filamentous ; and there
are two, if not three, forwardly directed post-peristomial bundles of long

170 Transactions.

chaetae., He states that the chaetae surrounding the end of the body
measured 6 mm. in length and are ' blassgelb " in colour; the dorsal
bundle of chaetae has rarely more than four (which is true when examined
under a lens only); there is but a single ventral hook, the figure of which,
crude as it is, is sufficiently like that of the present species. The few details
that he gives, then, might well refer to our specimens. There is, however,
one in which it appears to differ. Schmarda says that the dorsal chaetae
are thicker than those of the cephalic crown, and have a greater number
of transverse striations, since these are closer together in the former than
in the latter. His figure shows no such difference in size, but his account
of the striations agrees with what I find.

On the grounds, then, of probability, and of agreement in the general
structure, it seems to me we must revive Schmarda's specific name for our
common Chlorhaemid.*

Art. XXL— Prelim inary Report on the Polychaetous Annelids from the

Kermadec Islands.

By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 8th July. 1914.]

Although a few deep-water Annelids were obtained by the " Challenger "
in the neighbourhood of the Kermadec Group, no littoral forms have hitherto
been recorded. Mr. Oliver's collection contains nineteen species belonging
to thirteen genera, none of which agree with the species described by Mcintosh
in the " Report of the ' Challenger ' Expedition."

Of these nineteen, only two species occur on the seashores of New
Zealand — viz., Odontosyllis picta and Flabelligera bicolor. Two others have
hitherto been found only in the Australian waters — namely, Lepidonotus
simplicipes and Amphinome nitida. Five are widely distributed through-
out the Indo-Pacific oceans — Eunice aphroditois, Lysidice collaris, Eurythoe
complanata, Phyllodoce macrolepidota, and Lepidonotus glaucus. There are
two others with even a wider distribution — namely, Eunice sicilieusis,
which occurs in the Mediterranean as well as in the Indo-Pacific area ; and
Hipjionoe gaudichaudi, originally obtained from the coast of Australia, has
been met with as far away as the eastern coast of America. It is a rare
species, and there are only three other records since its discovery.

I have found it necessary to found eight new species and one new varietv.
all of which, however, are more or less closely allied to Indo-Pacific forms.

I have not yet had the time to finish the drawings in illustration of these
new species, so that in this preliminary note I refrain from naming them ;
for I hope to publish a detailed account of this interesting collection else-
where, with full synonymv and references to literature.

* I had hoped that before this article was published I should have been able to
convince Professor Ehlers of the justice of my conclusion, and while preparing the manu-
script I posted a packet, containing samples from various localities, to Ehlers, and a
letter asking him to compare them with the types of his two species. Unfortunately, war
was declared before the packages reached England, and they were returned to me as
" undeliverable."

Benham. — Polychaetous Annelid* from Kermadec Island®. 171

LIST OF THE SPECIES.
Fam. Amphinomidae.

Amphinome nitida Haswell, 1879.

Locality. — Sunday Island : (a.) In husk of coconut cast ashore on Denham
Bay beach, 25/6/08 (Oliver), thirteen individuals, of which Oliver writes :
" Colour is slate, lighter below ; bristles white ; gills slate, tips reddish-
brown." (b.) One specimen (R. S. Bell).

Distribution. — Cape Grenville, Queensland (Haswell).

It seems to be closely allied to, if not identical with, A. jukesi Baird,
1868.

Eurythoe complanata Pallas, 1766.

Locality. — (a.) Coral Bay, Sunday Island, one. (b.) Meyer Island, in
rock-pools, three (2/2/08 and 19/5/08). Oliver states that it is " delicate
pinkish white."

Distribution. — Very wide, in tropical and sub-tropical seas, where coral
reefs occur. Indo-Pacific ; West Indies ; also Mediterranean.

Hipponoe gaudichaudi Audouin and Milne-Edwards, 1830.

Locality. — Sunday Island : " Cast up on Denham Bay beach, 19/10/08."
Three individuals.*

Distribution. — Port Jackson (type); north of Bermuda; also in north
Pacific ("Challenger"); at Woods' Hole, Massachusetts (Moore, 1903).

Fam. Aphroditidae.

Lepidonotus glaucus Peters, 1854. f

Localiti/. — Coral Bav. Sunday Island (Oliver) ; one female and one male
(R. S. Bell).

Distribution. — Red Sea ; Philippines; Ceylon; Samoa; Fiji; Maldives;
Zanzibar.

Lepidonotus simplicipes Haswell, 1883.

Locality. — (a.) Coral Bay, Sunday Island (Oliver), eight, (b.) Sunday
Island (R. S. Bell), five, (c.) Meyer Island (Oliver), five, " under stones
amongst gravel."

Distribution. — Griffith's Point, Western Port, Australia (Haswell).

Sigalion sp. nov. ; affin. S. ainboinenis Grube, 1877.

Locality. — Denham Bay, Sunday Island, " dredged in 20 fathoms, on
sandy bottom, 5/2/08 " (Oliver) ; a single individual.

Fam. Phyllodocidae.

Phyllodoce macrolepidota Schmarda, 1861.

Locality. — Crater Rocks, Sunday Island (Oliver) ; ' under stones near
low water, 25/7/08." He notes that it is " green in life."

Distribution. — Philippines (Grube) ; Ceylon (Schmarda), (Willey).

Phyllodoce sp. nov. ; affin. P. foliosopapillata Hornell, 1903.
Locality. — Meyer Island ; one specimen.

* See " Addendum " on p. 173.

tEhlers (Z. Kenntniss d. Ostafrickan. Borstenw., 1897) has established the
identity of the well-known L. trissochaetus Grube, 1869, with Peters's species.

172 Transactions.

Fam. Syllidae.

Odontosyllis picta (Ehlers, 1904). Eurymedusa picta Ehlers.

This species does not belong to Kinberg's genus Eurymedusa, as Ehlers
supposed ; he compared it with the type, but the state of preservation of
that did not allow him to study the protruded pharynx. An examination
of duplicates of the specimen which I sent to Ehlers shows quite clearly
the row of denticles characteristic of Odontosyllis*

Whether the specimen received by him from Schauinsland from Laysan
is identical with our New Zealand species, of course I cannot say.

Locality. — Meyer Island, " amongst coralline algae, 24/4/08 " (Oliver).

Distribution. — New Zealand (Ehlers).

Fam. Lycoridae.

Nereis sp. nov. (A) ; affin. N. melanocephala Mcintosh, 1885.

Locality. — Sunday Island, Denham Bay beach ; " washed ashore in husk
of coconut, with A. nitida, 25/6/08 " ; three specimens.

Nereis sp. nov. (B) ; affin. N. tongatabuensis Mcintosh, 1885.

Locality. — Meyer Island ; :' amongst coralline algae, 24/4/08 " ; four
individuals in the " atokous " and two in the " epitokous " stage.

Nereis sp. nov. (C) ; affin. N. masalacensis Grube, 1878.
Locality — Coral Bay, Sunday Island ; five specimens.

Fam. Eunicidae.

Eunice aphroditois Pallas, 1788.

Locality. — Sunday Island (R. S. Bell). A fragment consisting of head
and 40 segments »

Distribution. — Bed Sea ; Ceylon ; Fiji ; Philippines ; Cape of Good
Hope ; Australia.

For synonymy see my report on the Annelids in " Scientific Results of
the New Zealand Government Trawling Expedition " in " Records Canter-
bury Museum," vol. 1, No. 2, 1909.

Eunice siciliensis Grube, 1840.

Locality. — (a.) Coral Bay, Sunday Island ; three specimens, (b.) Denham
Bay beach ; one. (c.) Meyer Island ; one.

Distribution. — Mediterranean ; Red Sea ; East Africa : Seychelles :
Maldives ; Ceylon ; Philippines ; Juan Fernandez.

Eunice sp. nov. ; affin. E. medicina Moore, 1903.

Locality. — Coral Bay, Sunday Island ; three specimens.

Paramarphysa sp. nov. ; affin. P. longula Ehlers, 1887.
Locality. — Sunday Island, Coral Bay ; a fragment.

Lysidice collaris Grube, 1878. Var. kermadecensis var. nov.

Locality. — Coral Bay, Sunday Island ; two complete individuals and
four cephalic fragments ; it is tl green in life."

Distribution. — Red Sea ; Ceylon ; Philippines ; Japan ; Zanzibar.

Aracoda sp. nov.

Locality. — Coral Bay, Sunday Island ; one specimen.

*See article by myself in this volume (ante, p. 161).

Besham. — Polychaetous Annelids from Kermadec Islands. 173

Farn. Chlorhaemidae.

Flabelligera bicolor Sehmarda, 1861. (F. lingulata Ehlers and F. semi-
annulata Ehlers, 1904.)

Locality. — (a.) Coral Bay, Sunday Island ; six specimens, (b.) Denham
Bay, Sunday Island ; one. (c.) Meyer Island, rock-pools ; two.

Distribution. — New Zealand (Elders).

I have re-examined duplicates of those which I sent to Professor Ehlers,
and have arrived at the conclusion that his two species are identical, but
the individuals which he had at his disposal were in different states of pre-
servation. I have written to him, and have received a reply in which he
allows me, as having had abundant material to compare, to unite them.
In my opinion Ehlers' name must give way to Schmarda's, who found onlv
one species of Flabelligera, and as I have received specimens from the same
locality as he found it — namely, Auckland Harbour — it is practically certain,
in spite of the imperfect account given by him, that we are dealing with
Schmarda's species, for I have received from all parts of our coasts only
the one species of Flabelligera.*

ADDENDUM.
Note on the Young of Hipponoe gaudichaudi.

After writing the above summary I received from Dr. Chilton five small
specimens of Hipponoe gaudichaudi which had been found by Mr. L. S.
Jennings within the mantle-cavity of Lepas anatifera, from the Kermadec
Islands. The worm has previously been found in association with barnacles.
Thus Bairdf (1868) refers to specimens then in the British Museum as having
been found " amongst barnacles on a log of timber (? Madeira)," and to
others from the neighbourhood of St. Helena as having been " concealed
in the valves of Lepas fascicularis.:i'' Mcintosh, also, in the "Challenger"
Report (1885) records, an individual "found adherent to Lepas fascicular is
on the surface of North Pacific " ; and MooreJ (1903) found specimens on
the under-surface of a log covered with Lepas anatifera which came ashore
at Vineyard Sound, Woods' Hole. The worm, then, appears to have always
been found on floating objects, to which they cling evidently by means of
their powerful ventral hooks.

The interest of the present small specimens, which measure from 7 mm.
to 14 mm. in length, lies in the fact that on most of them I noted some
small brown bodies behind the dorsal chaetae, which I at first took for the
gills filled with blood, till on touching them they fell away, and were then
seen to be small annelids. They are a little more or a little less than 1 mm.
in length by about 0'4 mm. across the middle part of the body, tapering
to a blunt rounded end anteriorly and posteriorly. These spindle-shaped
annelids are the young Hipponoe, which evidently cling to the body of
the parent, and possibly wander over the body, for I found them some-
times between the bristles and the gill, more usually just behind the latter
in the intersegmental furrow, sometimes more dorsally than the chaetae, at
others rather more laterally ; usually a single one at any spot, occasion-
ally a couple together.

* See article by myself in this volume (ante, p. 163).

t Baird, Linn. Soc. Journ., x, 1868, p. 239.

% Moore, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1903, p. 793.

174 Transactions.

The young one consists of a rounded prostomium, followed by 6 chae-
tigerous segments, and a rounded anal segment, which is nearly as large
as the prostomium.

The mouth lies between this and the 1st segment, which is not ventrally
perforated by it as in the adult. The 1st segment bears only the dorsal
bristles; the rest have the ventral hooks in addition. The dorsal chaetae,
as in the adult, are long capilliforms, 3-6 in a bundle ; the four ventral
hooks, which are precisely like those of the adult, are sunk in a pit, but
are capable of being protruded, as a slight pressure on these soft-bodied
young ones readily demonstrates.

There are no gills, and the dorsal cirrus is at present represented by
only a small spherical bladder-like structure just behind the ventral limit
of the dorsal bundle of bristles.

It may be noted that Baird records that amongst his specimens several
had " attached to their under-surface animals which are doubtless parasitic
on them." It seems, however, to be likely that he had before him the
young ones.

It is perhaps remarkable that all those Hipponoe gaudichaudi that have
been examined microscopically have proved to be females. I found that to
be the case ; Mcintosh and Moore both described their specimens as being
distended with eggs. It seems, then, that the male is yet to be discovered,
and no doubt the worm would repay anatomical study if we could get well-
preserved material.

Art. XXII. — Oligochaeta from the Kermadec Islands.
By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.K.S.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 7th July, 1914.]

The only species of earthworm hitherto recorded from the Kermadecs is
Rhododrilus kermadecensis, described by myself* in 1904, and this species
was founded on a single specimen collected by Captain Bollons. It was
therefore with feelings of interest that I received from Mr. Oliver a con-
siderable number of earthworms which I expected would afford further
material for determining the faunistic relations of the group of islands.
Some of the smaller worms appeared on a first inspection to agree in general
size and colour with Rhododrilus, and, owing to various calls on my time,
I set the tubes aside till I was at liberty to examine them thoroughly.
When, however, I came to investigate them it was with great disappoint-
ment that I found that all the earthworms belong to the family Luwbricidae,
characteristic of the Northern Hemisphere, and to species which have been
widely disseminated by human agency. This is the more surprising as
but little cultivation has been carried on, for the only inhabitants have
been Mr. Bell and his family. But while it is certain that these Lumbricids
have been introduced, the exact means by which this introduction has been
effected is not in all cases evident. It may be that the cocoons were amongst
seeds imported for grass or vegetables or other plants, or perhaps they were
in the material used for packing, or, if living plants have been imported into
the Kermadecs from New Zealand with a fair amount of soil at the roots,

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 298.

Benham. — Oligochaeta from Kermadec Islands. 175

then it is possible that living worms were also present, provided that these
were of small or moderate size. But similar importations have been recorded
in manv parts of the world — see Michaelsen (11)* — and there is no doubt
that it has occurred in this case.

In addition to the earthworms, or " megadrilous Oligochaets," Mr.
Oliver also collected two species of " microdrilous " genera, and on a previous
occasion I received another species from Captain Bollons. These belong
to the two families Enchytraeidae and Tnbificidae. The Microdrili are
small in size, and the majority are aquatic in habit, and, owing to the fact
that very little is known of the Microdrili outside North America and Europe,
and of recent years India, it is impossible to use the facts in any discussion
as to geographical relations of the islands. For instance, three species of
Enchvtraeids, all introduced northern forms, have been recorded from New
Zealand by Beddard (5) and myself (1); and three species from the sub-
antarctic islands described by myself (2, 4) as new. From Australia, in
addition to two introduced species, Michaelsen (12) has described two species
from south-west Australia.

Of the family Tnbificidae, two species were described by me from the
lakes of New Zealand (1) and two from the subantarctic islands (4), while
one species described by me as new is identified by Michaelsen as being
in realitv an introduced European form. From Australia one species of
Clitellio has been recorded by Michaelsen (12), while I described two species
(a Tnbifex and a Branchiura) from Mount Kosciusko (3). We are thus
in need of verv much further work on these smaller worms before they can
be employed as evidence for geographical purposes. So far as is known,
however, the " home " of the Enchytraeidae is, like that of the Lnmbricidae,
the Northern Hemisphere ; and though I describe these as new species
I am quite prepared to admit that they may have been introduced into
the Kermadecs.

Since it is known that a single cocoon formed by such a worm as an
Enchvtraeid may contain several eggs or embryos, the arrival of such a
cocoon, by whatever means it may be transported, in an island such as
Sundav Island is sufficient to start a new colony of that species. For
instance, Michaelsen (9, p. 11) records for Lumbricilliis maximus that in
one cocoon he opened there were as many as 33 eggs ; in others, from 20 to
30 embryos.

Fam. Enchytraeidae.
Fredericia bollonsi sp. n.

Three well-preserved specimens were received from Captain Bollons in
1904, without any definite information as to the conditions under which
they were collected. One of these was stained and
mounted as an entire object, and later cut into sagittal
sections ; another was similarly studied, and then cut
into a series of transverse sections. pIG_ i p bollonsi.

As the specimens are all more or less curved or A chaeta.

curled, it is only possible to give approximate measure-
ments; they measure from about 12 mm. to 16 mm., and in a shorter one
I counted 56 segments.

The chaetae are two in each of the dorsal and ventral bundles, and this
number is retained throughout the worm ; only here and there in a verv

* These numbers refer to the list of works given in the bibliography at the end of
the paper.

176 Transactions.

few segments was a third chaeta present in a bundle. The chaetae are
straight and of equal lengths.

The clitellum covers segments xii and xiii, and about half xi.
The head pore lies between the prostomium and peristomium ; the
first dorsal pore occurs in segment vii. These dorsal pores, as Eisen has
pointed out in his account of some American species of the genus, do not
lie in the intersegmental furrows, but at a little distance from the anterior
septum of the segments, at about one-quarter the distance between the
two septa.

The brain is convex posteriorly.

The pharynx lies in segment iii, and has the usual bisym metrical, non-
ciliated pad of long columnar cells on its dorsal wall, through which the
ducts of the septal glands open.

The oesophagus passes through the following segments as a straight
narrow tube lined with low ciliated cells, outside which is a rich vascular

plexus. In segment xiv the gut enlarges, and this
enlarged region, which traverses segments xiv, xv,
and xvi, is constricted at the septa. In these seg-
ments the epithelial cells assume a very characteristic
form and arrangement, which has been utilized by
Eisen (7) as one of the diagnostic features of the

„ „ , „ genus. The cells are very tall, and bear long cilia,

Fig. 2.—F. bollonsu ° -, . ,, A , ' , , , 8

and amongst them, as that author has shown in

A coelomic corpuscle, a series 0f beautiful drawings, are found other

face tfroT'cira cells' eacn of which is llollowed out by a canalicule

outline). which at its base curves at right angles to the

axis of the cell. These cells, which were studied
years ago by Michaelsen, who termed them " chylus cells," are not all of
the same height, so that the surface of the epithelium is very irregular.

In segment xvii this region of the chylus cells passes into the ordinary
intestine, in the cavity of which dirt accumulates. The epithelium is lower,
the cells being only about one-quarter the height of those in the preceding
region, and the cilia shorter. There are here no chylus cells.

The dorsal vessel becomes evident at about the 20th segment : in one
case I noted it in the 19th ; in another in the 21st. I did not attempt to
trace out the vascular system.

Septal glands lie in segments iv, v, and vi.

There is on each side a simple peptonephridium, lying below the
oesophagus in segments iii to vi ; at its hinder end it branches or rather
bifurcates, one branch being narrow and short.

The nephridia have a large ante-septal region, consisting of the usual
mass of connective tissue traversed by a fine canal which winds about
therein. After passing through the septum it enters and traverses the
post-septal region, which is distinctly less in extent than the ante-septal.
It is difficult to trace out the details or to reconstruct the outlines from
the study of sections, but in the series of transverse sections I counted
13 sections through the ante-septal and 9 sections through the post-septal
regions respectively. The duct leaves the latter near its commencement,
close behind the septum.

The Genital Apparatus. — The testes are lobulated. The sperm-funnel
has the usual massive form ; it is apparently somewhat p3^riform in shape,
though it is abruptly bent on itself, and it appears to be rather broader
than long, unless it has shrunk unequally. This region is made up of

Bknham. — Oligochaeta from Kermadec Islands.

i t

glandular cells radiating from the narrow sperm-duct which traverses it
in an eccentric course, for in sections, both longitudinal and transverse,
it is seen to lie nearer the mesial than
the lateral, nearer the ventral than
the dorsal surface. At its anterior
free end the gland carries a plate of
low ciliated cells, which surrounds
the entrance to the duct — the true
" funnel." This plate has only a
slight elevation above the gland-cells.
After leaving the funnel the sperm-
duct passes through the septum as
a narrow tube which is fairly convo-
luted before it enters and traverses
the glandular " prostate." The pro-
state, or " atrium " as it is usually
termed, is a hemispherical mass of
gland-cells surrounded by a thin sheath
of muscle, and resembles the organ
figured by Eisen for several of the
American species. The male pore,
situated in segment xii, in line with the ventral chaetae, which, of course,
are absent in this segment, lies in a slight depression of the surface,
surrounded by a distinct folded lip, as seen in the entire worm.

Fig. 3. — F. bollonsi. Longitudinal sec-
tion through the sperm -funnel.
a, ciliated cells ; b, glandular (pro-
state) cells ; b', the same cut
transversely and obliquely ; c, por
tion of the sperm-duct traver.-ini;
the glandular region ; c', the same
outside.

Fig. 4. — F. bollonsi. Diagrammatic reconstruction oi the reproductive
organs in side view. The extent of the clitellum is indicated by
the thicker body-wall dorsally ; the segments are numbered.
a, sperm-sac ; b, testis ; c, funnel of the sperm-duct ; d, ovary ;
e, atrium and male pore ; /, ovum in ovisac ; g, nephridium.

This is but a single sperm-sac, which occupies segment x, and com-
municates with segment xi, itself filled with developing spermatozoa.
There is no posterior sac.

The egg-sac contains a large ovum, lying in segments xii, xiii, pushing
the septum backwards so that it rests against the hinder end of xiii. Other
eggs of less size lie free in xii, and the ovary has the usual position on the
anterior septum of this segment.

The spermatheca is a nearly spherical but somewhat pyriform sac,
which communicates with the oesophagus at the hinder end of segment v
by a narrow duct. The wall of the " ampulla " is differentiated by the
character of its epithelium into two moieties — that moiety nearer the
oesophagus is lined by gland-cells which are of small height over about half
the circumference of the ampulla, as seen in longitudinal section ; but at
about the equator the cells rather suddenly increase in height, forming a
ring-shaped diaphragm projecting into the cavity. Below this, nearer

178

Transactions .

the exit of the duct to the exterior, the epithelium again becomes low, and
the cells have lost the glandular character. It is in this moiety that the
spermatozoa are found ; it corresponds to the diverticula, which in most
species of Fredericia form prominent outgrowths round the exit of the
duct ; but in this species, as in a few others, this " storage-chamber " does

Fig. 5. — F. bollonsi. A spermatheca, drawn from a cleared specimen, a, duct ;
b, sperm-reservoir ; c, furrow ; d, ampulla ; e, opening into the oesophagus ;
/, opening to the exterior.

Fig. <i. — F. bollonsi. Longitudinal section through the spermatheca, but not in its
median plane, a, duct; b, sperm-reservoir; c, " diaphragm-cells " ; d, am-
pulla; e, -the dotted lines indicate the position of the oesophageal com-
munication, which is present in the neighbouring sections ; /, circular muscles
of duct. The position of the nuclei in the cells is diagrammatic.

not project beyond the outline of the ampulla. As seen in transverse section
it is single, it is not a double rudiment ; it surrounds the ampulla con-
tinuously, and in the entire specimen it can be seen, too, to be separated
from the ampulla by only a slight constriction, which I dfd not observe
in the sections.

The duct of the spermatheca takes its origin at the apex of a conical
group of cells which project far into the cavity of the ampulla ; hence in
longitudinal sections the cavity is divided into three chambers — a pair of
smaller and one median larger, the vi pair " being really continuous round
the circumference.

The duct, after leaving the ampulla, remains as a narrow tube, which
passes obliquely downwards and forwards to its pore at the anterior end
of segment v ; here it opens directly to the exterior without any glandular
annexe. The wall of the duct consists of an epithelium surrounded by a
coat of muscle. The duct is about twice the length of the ampulla.

Remarks. — So far as my acquaintance with the literature enables me
to compare this worm with those previously described, it must be regarded
as new, for amongst those species of the genus in which the spermatheca
is without diverticula, as enumerated by Michaelsen (10), Eisen (7),
Bretscher (6), and others, I find none that agrees in all points with the
present one.

From a superficial examination it seemed likely that it would fall into
the species F. bisetosa Levinsen, with which it agrees in the limited number
of chaetae per bundle, and in one or two other features ; but, as Michaelsen
states that the spermathecae are provided with " zwei siclt gegenuberstehenden,
kugeligen frei abstehenden DivertiJceln," it is impossible to bring it within
that species ; moreover, it disagrees on other grounds.

All the species hitherto described in which the diverticula are absent
differ from the present in one or more other characters, such as the number
of chaetae in the bundle, the presence of glands at the external opening

Benham. — Oligochaeta from Kermadec Islands. 179

of the spermathecal duet, the distribution of the chylus cells, relative .size
of ante- and post-septal portions of nephridium, and so forth.

Tlie species without diverticula to the spermathecal ampulla are :
F alba Moore, F. bulbosa Rosa, F. striata Levinsen, F. harrimani Eisen,
F. joknsoni Eisen, F. fuehsi Eisen, and F. sonorae Eisen. All these have
more than 2 chaetae in each bundle. F. alba has, moreover, the first
dorsal pore on segment vi, instead of in the usual segment vii ; F. bulbosa
has generally 4 chaetae per bundle, though this number is reduced to 2 in
the posterior segments.

Hence the present worm does not fall into any of the above species ; hut
how far the number of chaetae may be relied on as diagnostic when certain
other structures agree in two species I do not attempt to decide (see below) ;
there may be a certain range of variation, and it is also to be noted that in
F. bulbosa glands may (according to Ude and Moore) or may not (fide
Rosa) be present at the exit of the spermatheca.

The species in which the number of chaetae is limited to 2 per bundle
are : F. bisetosa Levinsen, F. leydigi Veydovsky, F. oligosetosa Nusbaum,
F. monopera de Martiis, F. diachaeta Bretscher, and F. clitellaris Bretscher ;
but each of these differs from the species under discussion in various other
anatomical features.

As to the extent of the chylus cells, it is only by Eisen that this is used
as one of the specific characters.

The majority of the species of Enchytraeids has, it seems, only been
studied in the fresh state on the entire or dissected specimens, hence such
a matter has been overlooked ; moreover, it is only of recent years that
these chylus cells have been investigated outside one or two common
European species. Certain features can only be properly and accurately
noted in fresh specimens which can be teased out : such things as the
relative lengths of the spermathecal duct, the funnel of the sperm-duct,
the exact form of the nephridium — these cannot be well noted in sectionized
worms. It thus comes about that when one is limited to preserved material
it is difficult to compare one's observations with those recorded by other
observers who had fresh and perhaps an abundant supply of such worms ;
and it is therefore with some hesitation that I bestow a new name on this
worm, for I feel that it is by no means unlikely that it is already known,
for Michaelsen (9, p. 19) writes of a species found at St. Paul and New
Amsterdam in the Subantarctic region : " Whether this Fredericia is
F. bisetosa or some other species doubtless it has been introduced into these
islands of the Southern Hemisphere. The ' home ' of Fredericia is the
north temperate region. The species of Fredericia of the Southern Hemi-
sphere are, so far as can be decided, all wanderers."

The only species of the genus that has been recorded from New Zealand
is a widely distributed form — F. galba (or F. antarctica of Beddard), from
which the present one differs in several respects.

Fredericia bollonsi var. oliveri.

A collection of five specimens of this variety was forwarded to me by
Mr. W. R. B. Oliver with the other material. They were found " under
nikau-palm leaves, on damp ground, on the terraces, Sunday Island,
July, 1908."

They measure from 10 mm. to 15 mm. in length, and have from 48 to 50
segments. From a study of entire specimens I supposed that this was a
different species from the above, but after examination of sections, both

180 Transactions.

transverse and longitudinal, I can find no difference from it except in the
chaetal formula.

The chaetae are straight rods, arranged in a fan-shaped manner ; the
dorsal bundles contain usually 6 anteriorly to the clitellum, and 4-6

posteriorly. The ventrals have 6 or 7 anteriorly,
and posteriorly may have but 4. though usually
the number is greater. The number in both
bundles occasionally drops to 3 in some of the
segments. The chaetae are not all alike in length,
those in the middle being shorter than those on
the outside.

Fig. 7. — F. bollousi var. All the specimens collected by Captain Bollons
oliveri. A group of agreed in having, practically throughout the bodv,
lateral chaetae from the j 2 chaeta ftU tnege in Oliver's collection

10th segment (camera) ; J .

the tips are restored. have the above arrangement. Had 1 found the

numbers mixed in the two lots, there would be
no doubt as to the validity of placing them in one and the same species ;
but I am faced with a doubt as to whether this marked difference in the
chaetal formula warrants one in forming even a new variety, for it does
not appear that any study has been made as to the extent to which
variation in this feature may go. Usually the number of chaetae forms
one of the diagnostic features ; but it seems to me preferable to make
this a variety under the circumstances of their collection.

Fam. Tubificidae.
Rhizodrilus kermadecensis sp. no v.

Four specimens were found in a " waterhole, on Meyer Island, 24/4/08."
They are a good deal curled and twisted, so that it is difficult to give actual
measurements, but approximately they Avould, I think, be about 40 mm.
in length.

The prostomium is somewhat bluntly pointed — a rounded cone.

The chaetae are all alike, bifurcated hooks
similar to those of Tubificids generally. The
upper or distal prong is longer and slenderer
than the lower prong, which is about twice its
thickness.

In the dorsal bundle there are 5 or 6 in the
ante-clitellar segments and 2 in the rest of the
body. The ventral bundles contain 4-6 in the

ante-clitellar segments and 3-2 posteriorly. _ 0 ' D , ,

m, ,. ,, ° . r J . .. Iig. 8. — K. kermadecensis.

1 he clitellum occupies segments £x, xi, xn, The free end of thechaeta.
and |xiii — that is to say, that in the case of the
first and last the glandular thickening ceases at the level of the chaetal ring.

The male genital pore is median, in segment xi ; as is also that of the
spermatheca, in x. The pore in each case is longitudinal, with somewhat
overhanging lateral lips. These are especially noticeable in the case of
the male pore.

The Male Apparatus (fig. 9). — The testes occupy the usual position.

The sperm-funnel is very wide, flattened, and lies in the hinder wall of
segment x. From it issues the sperm-duct, which takes a nearly straight
course to the hinder end of segment xi. This first portion of the duct is
clothed with a continuous covering of tall club-shaped coelomic epithelial

Benham. — Oligochaeta from Kermadec Islands.

181

cells, which constitute a diffuse " prostate," as in other species of the genus.

When it enters segment xi it lies low down, close to the nerve-cord; but

it gradually passes outwards and up.
wards to lie at the side of the oeso-
phagus at about the middle of the
segment. It continues to rise till at
the hinder end it is on the level of
the roof of the oesophagus, or even
higher. At this point the prostate
cells cease, the sperm-duct bends
abruptly downwards, and passes some-
what forwards and outwards to open
into a suddenly enlarged terminal
" atrium," or " penial sac " as
Moore (13) calls it.* The atrium, in
its turn, communicates with the
posterior extremity of the invagi-
nated body - wall, which encloses a
chamber to which Goodrich has
given the name " spermiducal cham-
ber." a median structure which opens
by a longitudinal slit-like aperture to
the exterior.

The sperm-duct, from funnel to
its opening into the atrium, is lined
with ciliated epithelium, outside which
is a laver of circular muscles, as
Goodrich has figured. At its entrance
into the atrium the duct traverses a
group of large (? gland) cells which
project into the wide lumen of the
atrium, the wall of which is muscular.
The anatomical relations suggest that
this region is eversible, or is a part of
the " chamber " : the muscular duct
would then act as a " ductus ejacu-
latorius."

In some species of the genus this
region has rather tall gland-cells form-
ing the epithelium, but in the present
case the cells are low, and not ap-
parently glandular. However, it may
be that in certain phases of sexual
maturity they do become higher, and
take on a definitely glandular structure.
The " spermiducal chamber " (or
"atrium" as Moore, unfortunately,
calls it) is a hemispherical sac pro-
jecting into the cavity of the segment,
occupying nearly half its extent. It
is, as Goodrich (8) has shown, merely

* it seems to me that^thisjregion corresponds to what is usually called " atrium "
in the other Tubificids ; the term " penial sac " is used in another sense.

182

Transactions.

Fig.

a depression of the body-wall, formed during the growth of the worm. It

is very muscular, and is provided with muscles which connect it with the

body-wall. It receives the two sperm-
ducts on its posterior face, close on each
side to the nerve-cord.

Segment x is filled with developing
spermatozoa ; and there are two median
sperm-sacs — an anterior sac, which passes
into segment ix, communicating with seg-
ment x around the dorsal vessel ; and a
posterior sperm-sac entering segment xii,
and, in another individual, into segment
xiv. and lying below the ovisac, from
which, however, it is quite distinct ; it
does not project into it, as it does in
R. pilosus, for instance.

The ovary has the normal position
attached above the sperm-duct, and
there is a large ovisac occupying segment
xii. in which are 2 large ova, filled with
yolk-spherules. In the individual cut
transversely, the sac extends into at
least the 13th segment.

The spermatheca is paired in seg-
ment x ; each is a large ovoidal sac,
from which the duct is not distinctly
marked off from the ampulla externally.
The ampulla lies obliquely across the
segment, and reaches from near the
lateral to the median line. The duct is
indicated in section by the glandular
and muscular thickening of the wall ;
its diameter decreases gradually till it
is very slender, where it enters the
body-wall. The right and left sperma-
thecae open into a shallow, wide,

median depression corresponding to the median spermiducal chamber.
In the individual sectionized sagittally, I find that the duct of

spermatheca crosses over the median line below the nerve-cord to

externally on the opposite side of the body.

Other Viscera. — There is a complex system of capillary blood-vessels

on the inner surface of the body-wall, as has been described for other

species. The dorsal vessel lies laterally on the right side in the genital

segments. I noted the peculiar unicellular valves in the main vessels, as

described originally by Goodrich.

The pharynx is surrounded by glands which fill segments iii, iv, and v,

and the necks of these can be traced through the dorsal ciliated pad on the

roof of the pharynx to open into its cavity.

I have found it impossible to make out details of the nephridial

structure, but it recalls a Tubificid rather than an Enchytraeid organ.

The canal coils loosely, and is surrounded by enlarged coelomic epithelial cells.
In the body-cavity I noted a good number of round granular vacuolate

cells, the coelomic corpuscles, which in some segments, as in those immedi-

]0. — R. kermadecensis. Plan
of the male ducts, supposed
to be seen from above with
the roof of the .spermiducal
chamber removed. The pro-
portions are not accurate. The
organs on the right side are
shown in section, a, prostate ;
b, transverse duct; c, atrium;
d, cut wall of spermiducal
chamber; e, its external open-
ing.

each
open

Benham. — Oligochaeta from Kermadec Islands.

183

Fig

ately behind the pharynx, are so densely massed as to look like a gland ;
hut they occur less packed elsewhere.*

Remarks. — There is still some doubt whether the genus Monopylephorus
of Levinsen is or is not identical with RMzodrihts of Smith (14), as 1 have
pointed out in my account of R. aucklandicus (1. p. 260). Although
Moore (13) retains the former title, I still
prefer to use the name Rhizodrilus, asso-
ciated as it is with the careful illustrated
articles by Smith and Goodrich. Seven
species of the genus have been described,
the description of one of which (R.
fluviatilis of Ferronniere) I have not
seen.

The only species to which the pre-
sent one exhibits close resemblances
are R. pilosus Goodrich and R. (M.)
glaber Moore.

With R. glaber the Kermadec worm
agrees, and therein differs from R. pilosus
in the following : (1) The arrangement
of the chaetae, their number and struc-
ture ; (2) in the arrangement of the
sperm-sacs, especially in that the pos-
terior sac does not enter the ovisac.
On the other hand, the form and struc-
ture of the spermiducal apparatus is
distinctly more like that in R. pilosus —
namely, in the proportion of the post-
prostatic region, in the relative size of
the transverse duct, and other details.
But in the present species the prostatic
region is more extensive, and the mus-
cular prostatic portion is shorter and takes a definitely transverse course,
with a distinct enlarged atrium and without the sigmoid undulations
shown in Goodrich's figure.

It seems, therefore, to deserve recognition as a distinct species. At
the same time, one has to bear in mind that the two methods of study —
that by sections and that by examining and dissecting fresh specimens —
may account for some of the differences. For instance, while it is compara-
tivelv easy to dissect out in a fresh specimen the complete sperm apparatus,,
and thus determine accurately the proportions of the various regions, it
is next to impossible to determine these proportions by means of sections
unless one makes models of the sections and then reconstitutes the organ
in an enlarged condition — a matter for which I have not sufficient
time.

Again, whereas Goodrich was working on the worm from a more or less
morphological point of view, and therefore failed perhaps to pay particular
attention to such things as the exact number of chaetae per bundle — as

. 11. — R. kermadec en sis. Trans-
verse section (camera outline)
through the body in the region
of the male pore, a, dorsal
blood - vessel ; b, oesophagus ;
c, sperm -duct with pro-
state ; d, spermiducal chamber
(the dots in its wall indicate
the circular muscles) ; e, radial
muscles to body-wall. The
ventral blood-vessel is in black,
and the nerve-cord is dotted.

* In these sections 1 find that the intestine, posterior to the sperm-sacs, is filled
with developing spermatozoa. I see no evidence of injury during sectionization, such
as the dragging of the cells by the razor, to account for their presence here ; but, as the
worm is bent in this region, it may be that they entered as a consequence of injury to-
the gut owing to a strong contraction on being killed.

184 Transactions.

one may judge from the wording of his statement with regard to them —
later authors having his memoir before them are concerned rather witli
systematic aspect of their worms, and are on the lookout for points of
difference. It may therefore turn out that the present species is identical
with Goodrich's, hut it must, on the evidence before us, ! be regarded as
distinct.

Fam. Lumbricidae.
Eisenia foetida Savigny.

Two specimens found " under leaves, &c, forest terrace, Sundav
Island." This worm, which is about 2§-3| in. in length, is familiar
to people in New Zealand, where it is fairly common in manure-heaps and
accumulations of rotting and fermenting vegetable matter. Its red body
is marked with a yellow band round each ring, which band, however, does
not completely encircle the body.

The species, like the following members of this family, is a native of
Europe, North America, and Asia, but it has been carried by man in his
agricultural and commercial intercourse into nearly every part of the world,
so that it is now almost cosmopolitan.

These northern worms are evidently capable of existing wherever climatic
conditions are suitable, and they can adapt themselves to new conditions
readily. Wherever cultivation of the soil has been carried on, there one
finds sooner or later these " introduced " earthworms supplanting those
native to the country.

Helodrilus (Allolobophora) caliginosus Savigny.

This is an extremely variable species, as all authors who have studied
the European worms have pointed out, from Hoffmeister (1845) to Michaelsen
(1900). The variation affects the size and coloration chiefly, and it is pro
bably associated in some way with differences in habitat and mode of life.
So great is this variability that one can at first scarcely suppose them to
belong to the same species till the anatomical features are examined ;
but in these features there is a fair amount of constancy, accompanied,
however, by small variations in such matters as the extent of the cli-
tellum.

In this collection we have two very marked variations : (A) A larger
very dark-grey form, possibly with a bluish tinge when alive, attaining a
length of 3-4 in. ; and (B) a smaller and slenderer form, pale-coloured, flesh-
tinted or pinkish in life, attaining a length of 2J- 3£ in.

Variety A. — Four very dark-coloured worms, anteriorly brownish-grey ;
the clitellum paler brown. Length, 75 mm. by 5 mm., with 167 segments.
These were found " under dead leaves, forest terrace, Sunday Island,"
July, 1908. Oliver's number, 25.

Variety B. — This is numbered by Oliver 14, and it is said to be
" abundant in top soil, Denham Bay." They are in the preserved con-
dition pale, almost colourless, apparently flesh-coloured in life, with a pale-
brown clitellum. They measure about 50-70 mm., with a diameter of
2-3 mm.

Hab. — (a.) In the soil, Denham Bay (8/3/08), 32 individuals, mostly
immature, (b.) " Under leaves, forest terrace, Sunday Island " ; one imma-
ture individual, (c.) " Under nikau-palm leaves," Expedition Hill (16/10/08).
Number, 29. Two specimens, mature.

Benham. — Oligochaeta from Kermodec hi and*. 185

Helodrilus (Bimastus) constrictus Rosa.

This is a worm of small size, about 1 in. in length. Pinkish in life.
" Common everywhere — in forest, on damp ground ; under dead nikau-
palm leaves and tree-fern fronds." It is numbered by Oliver 29.

Hab.— (a.) " Under dead nikau-palm leaves," Exhibition Hill (16/10/08).
Number, 29. There are fourteen specimens, all under 25 mm. in length,
with the clitellum about midway along the body. Many are immature.
(b.) '"From rotten food, Denham Bay" (17/6/08). Eight immature forms,
from 6mm. to 16mm. (c.) '"Under leaves, forest terrace" (1/7/08).
Numbered 3 in Oliver's list of stations or gatherings. Twenty -two
specimens, some of which are immature, from 12 mm. to 30 mm. in length.
(d.) "Under leaves, Denham Bay" (13/6/08)." Number, 20. Colour
pinkish. Three specimens immature.

Bibliography.

1. Benham. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1903, vol. 2, p. 202.

2. Benham. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 285, 1905.

3. Benham. Records Austral. Museum, vi, 1907, p. 251.

4. Benham. " Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand: Oligochaeta.'' 1909,

p. 251.

5. Beddard. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc, 1893, p. 4.

6. Bretscher. Rev. Suisse Zool., 1900.

7. Eisen. '" Enchytraeidae of North-west Coast of North America "

(Harriman Alaska Expedition), 1905.

8. Goodrich. Q.J. Micr. Sci., 1895, p. 37.

9. Michaelsen. Deutsche Sud-polar Exped. : Oligochaeta .

10. Michaelsen. Oligochaeta (Das Tierreich), 1900.

11. Michaelsen. Geograph. Verbreit. Oligochaet., 1903.

12. Michaelsen. Fauna Sud-west Austral., Oligochaeta, 1907.

13. Moore. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1905.

14. Smith. Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat, Hist,, v, 1900.

15. Ude. Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool., 1895, vol. 41.

Art. XXIII. — A Remarkable Case of Bifurcation in Lumbricus rubellus.

By W. B. Bexham, D.Sc, F.R.S.

[Read before the Otago Institute^lst December, 1914.^

I. Early in the ^present year I received from Mr. James Jefterys a
specimen of Lumbricus rubellus (an introduced European earthworm) which
bears on its right side a short narrow branch or outgrowth.

The worm is adult, in that the clitellum is well developed, and the
peculiarity about this particular example of what is not a very rare occur-
rence is that the branch is developed in this clitellar region. This anterior
situation of the bifurcation is, so far as I can gather, unique, as it is usually
much farther back.

The clitellum commences on the 27th segment, and occupies seven
segments. The first of these segments is distinct from the 2nd over the

186

Trans-net / on s.

ventral surface and on the right side, but on the dorsal surface and on the
left side it is merged into the 2nd. The 3rd segment as seen from above
is unsymmetrical, but owing to a wound in the skin on the dorsal surface
the exact course of the intersegmental furrow cannot be traced. It is
from the hinder face of this segment that the branch arises, on the right side
and nearer to the dorsal than the ventral surface. As seen from below,
this segment has the form usually seen in bifurcated worms — that is, its
posterior boundary on the right side is oblique, forming an angle of nearly
45° with the long axis of the body. Consequently a backwardly directed

Fig. 1. — Outline of Lumbricus rubellus, with a branch on its right side springing

from the clitellum. Natural size.
Fig. 2. — Dorsal view of the clitellar region : the dotted area represents a damaged

portion of the skin. > 4.
Fig. 3. — Ventral view of the same, x 4.

angular projection exists between the branch and the body. This angle,
or " axilla,"' is clearly seen ventrally, but is merged into the next segment-
on the dorsal surface.

The 4th segment of the clitellum, again, is unsymmetrical, as seen from
above, being wider on the left and narrow on the right side, just below
the axilla.

The remaining segments, 5, 6, and 7, are normal. It is usually the case
in these bifurcated worms that some segments are abnormally and irregu-
larly developed.

Traces of the tubercula pubertatis are present in the form of a slight
ridge on each side of the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th segments, at the line where
the glandular epidermis ceases latero-ventrallv.

The branch thus springs from the 3rd clitellar segment ; and the following
three segments that form its base are also glandular — that is to say, the
clitellum is continued on to the branch, and the ridge (or tubercula puber-
tatis) is continued along the outer side of these three segments.

The body is 73 mm. in length, with a diameter of about 4 mm. just
behind the clitellum ; the branch measures 14 mm. by 1-75 mm., and arises,
as the figure shows, at a point about 18 mm. from the anterior end. It
contains 15 segments, mostly biannulate, as on the body of the worm.

The chaetae on the body are, of course, in four couples, the individuals
of a couple being close together ; but the only chaetae that I can detect

Benham . — Bifurcation in Lumbricus rubellus. 187

on the branch occui on the inner side of the 3rd segment (corresponding
to the 6th clitellar segment). Possibly they are also present on the pre-
ceding segments, embedded in the skin ; but there are none on the rest of
the branch.

At the end of the branch is a slight pit, which suggests that an anus is
present here ; it is, however, imperforate ; and on opening the branch
at two places I find that the intestine does not enter it, but the nerve-cord
and the nephridia are continued to the end of it.

It is, of course, difficult, if not impossible, to say how this bifurcation
or branching has come about in the free state. It may be that the worm was
injured at the commencement of the clitellar region, and that a lateral
outgrowth developed instead of a mere healing of that wound.

The specimen is remarkable not only on account of the forward situation
of the bifurcation, but also on account of the great inequality in size between
the two forks, and finally on account of the absence of the intestine in the
smaller branch.

II. In 1886 Mr. T. W. Kirk described and figured a " Curious Double
Worm.'** This specimen remained in the Dominion Museum till about
two years ago, when the late Director, Mr. A. Hamilton, was good enough
to send it to me for examination. When it reached me it was glued to a
piece of card. It was evident that at some time it had become dry, owing
to the evaporation of the alcohol, for the tails are shrunken and the skin
a good deal shrivelled. However, it is in sufficiently fair preservation for
me to add something to Mr. Kirk's account.

A re-examination of this specimen seemed desirable, for Mr. Kirk was
one of the first to place on record the occurrence of a bifurcated worm, the
only previous accounts being those of Asa Fitch in America in 1865 (in a
report on insects in the State of New York), C. Robertson in England in
1867, and Bell in 1885. It is evident that Kirk did not know of either of
these. A fair number of similar cases have been recorded since that time,
but Kirk's paper has been overlooked bv all these writers, even by the most
recent, Korschelt (1914).

The worm is a species of the genus Octochaetus, though, as it is immature,
it is impossible to define its specific position. Kirk recognized that it was
not a Lumbricid, but a native, though he figures the prostomium as being
like that of L/nnbricns— " tanylobic," whereas it is " epilobic," without
the prolongation into the 1st segment. The chaetae are all on the ventral
surface, small in size and close together, so close that each couple looks
at first like a single bristle. The lines are approximately equidistant, though
the two ventral rows are rather farther apart than the lateral row is from
the ventral of its own side.

Kirk's measurements may be given in his own words : * The anterior
] Million is about 1 in. in length and ^ in. in diameter. . . . From the
posterior end of the thick part, which terminates abruptly, spring two limbs,
each 2| in. in length and of an average diameter of ^ in."

At present the " body " measures 14 mm. in length by 6 mm. in diameter ;
the two tu tails " are unequal, one measuring 33 mm., the other 40 mm.,
each with a diameter of about 2-5 mm. These two tails are curved and
undulating, a good deal shrunken, and one came away from the body on
the specimen being removed from the card.

* Trans. X.Z. hist., vol. 19, p. 64.

] 88 Transactions.

The ' body " contains about 40 segments, biannulated, and much
compressed. I did not count the segments in the tails, but they are very
much more numerous, and are about the length of one annulus, and are
uni-annulated. The two tails are symmetrically placed, as Kirk's figures
show, and are separated by a narrow area at the hinder end of the body.
The two rows of chaetae of the right and the two rows of the left side are
continued on to the two tails respectively ; while on the inner side of each
tail two additional rows of chaetae make their appearance, though exactly
at what point they commence it is impossible now to say, owing to injuries
at their bases.

Kirk states that " the anal aperture is situated immediately at the
posterior end of the thick portion, and between these two limbs or tails."'
I am unable to confirm or to refute this statement, though from analogy
with other cases I doubt whether it is the case here. At any rate, I must
correct the statement that follows : ' ' There is no aperture in the end of either
limb, though there is a spot which at first sight gives the impression that an
opening is present." In this instance " first thoughts " would have been
best, for there is an actual perforation at each end, and an incision into the
tail shows that the intestine is continued into it. This is quite what is to
be expected, for in all cases which have been dissected, as Robertson was the
first to show, the internal organs are, like the body- wall, bifurcated.

In short, this specimen is very similar to most of those that have been
described, except that the body is much shorter than the tails, for generally
the bifurcation occurs nearer to the hinder end.

Korschelt has suggested that in these cases, with approximately equal
tails, the bifurcation is due to an embryonic process — a kind of twinning.
He refers to a young individual of Allolobophora subrubicunda, which he
removed from the cocoon, being bifurcated, and was therefore not the
result of injury, but was probably due to the partial division of the ovum
or embryo. It is known that in some species of Lumbricus the ovum does
divide into two embryos at an early stage of its history ; in these instances
of bifurcation, then, the division has been incomplete.

III. Mr. T. W. Kirk was good enough to send me a water-coloured drawing
of a living bifid worm with two approximately equal " tails " and very similar
to that described by Robertson, Bell, Williamson, and others. Unfortu-
nately, it has not been identified, but it looks to me like L. rubelhis. It
was found in Rangitikei.

References.

Andrews, E. A. American Naturalist, vol. 26, 1892.

Bell, F. J. Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 16, 1886.

Korschelt, E. Zoolog. Anzeig., vol. 43, 1914.

Robertson, C. Quart, Journ. Micro. Sci., vol. 7, 1867.

Williamson, H. C. Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol. 13, 1894.

Benham. — On Lumbricillus macquariensis. 189

Art. XXIV. — On Lumbricillus macquariensis Benkam.
By W. B. Bbnham, D.Sc, F.E.S.

[Read before the Otago Institute, Itf December, 1914.]

In 1904 I described a species of Enchytraeid from the Macquarie Islands
under the name of Lumbricillus macquariensis (1, p. 295). Later, in 1909,
I gave an account of a worm from the Campbell and Auckland Islands,
to which I gave the name L. intermedins (2, p. 261). Recently I have
received from Mr. Harold Hamilton additional specimens from the Mac-
quaries, where he was collecting during his stay there as a member of the
Mawson Antarctic Expedition ; and I have been entrusted with the large
series of Annelids, both marine and terrestrial, which was collected by that
expedition. While studying the Enchytraeids I was led to re-examine
my preparations of the specimens received at the earlier dates, and have
arrived at the conclusion that the species " L. intermedins " is identical with
L. macquariensis.

A comparison of the two accounts shows that the points of difference
affect the following organs : (a) The nature of the spermathecal opening
into the oesophagus ; (b) the number of chaetae in each bundle ; (c) the
segment in which the dorsal vessel becomes free from the intestinal blood
sinus ; (d) the number of the subneural copulatory glands ; (e) the size
and proportions of the spermiducal funnel, j

A. The re-examination of the type of L. macquariensis, and of sections
made of other specimens received at that time, shows that I made an error
in affirming and figuring the existence of " a narrow duct " putting the.
spermatheca into communication with the oesophagus. And to this error
I added some confusion in a note at the end of my account of
" L. intermedins " by stating (p. 261), " It is quite distinct from L. mac-
quariensis, which belongs to another group of the genus in which the
spermathecal duct is strongly marked off from the ampulla." The
latter statement is clearly a lapsus calami, for what was intended is
evidently a contrast with the " narrow communicating-duct,'"' and not with
the external opening.

But it is difficult now to understand how I came to make the original
statement as to the existence of the " narrow communicating-duct." The
series of transverse sections show quite distinctly that there is no such
" duct " — -the ampulla communicates with the oesophagus by a small pore
due to the sudden contraction of the ampulla, as I have described and
figured for " L. intermedins " (pi. x, fig. 8).

In order to convince myself further I opened a specimen from the same
lot, and it is certain that no such " duct " exists. The mounted specimen
which served as the type, when studied without the knowledge derived
from the other studies, does suggest a short duct, as the spermatheca is
bent at a point close to its entrance into the oesophagus ; but with the
other evidence before me I recognize that the statement was due to faulty
observation. (It is worth noting that Michaelsen made a similar error in
his first account of L. maximus.)

J 90 Transactions.

Having discovered this mistake I proceeded to examine each of the
other characters more carefully.

B. As to the chaetae, I find from a study of eight individuals that there
is a considerable range of variation, as may be seen by a study of the annexed
table, in which I have summarized the number of chaetae in the dorsal
and ventral bundles in the pre-clitellar and in the post-clitellar region of
the body of specimens from the Macquaries and from the Campbell and
Auckland Islands. It will be noted that the difference between extremes
such as No. 2 and No. 5 amongst specimens from the Macquaries is greater
than the difference between No. 2 and No. 8 from two distant islands, and
it is impossible to include in the diagnosis of a species a character with such
a wide margin of variation.

C. It will be noted, too, that the segment in which the dorsal vessel
originates shows a similar variation. It is true that in the type it com-
mences at the hinder end of the 13th or 14th segment, while in the type of

inter wed ins," as I can confirm from renewed examination, this point is
in segment 17 ; but even amongst those from the Macquaries the position
varies, being in two cases in the 15th, in a third in the 16th, while in one
that was sectionized it lies in the 17th segment.

D. The number of the subneural glands, which are characteristic of
this genus, exhibits the same instability, for though usually there are 3
glands in segments 14, 15, and 16, there is one individual from the Mac-
quaries in which there are 6 glands, and in two " intermedins " there
are 4.

E. Finally, I made a point of the proportion of length to breadth of
the funnel of the sperm-duct, for in the type of L. macquariensis I stated
that the length is twice the breadth, whereas in " L. intermedins " I gave
it as about five times the breadth. I have measured it in three funnels of

intermedins " whose outlines I drew with the camera, two in a series of
longitudinal sections, and one in a bisected specimen mounted as a trans-
parent object. From these measurements I find that the length is
respectively five, five and a half, and six times the breadth.

I am unable to give measurements for the funnel of macquariensis, as
it is bent in all the preparations, but the proportions given in the original
statement seem to be borne out. But the state of preservation of the type
is bad ; the worm was soft, and it is possible that the gland-cells around
the funnel are much swollen, just as those of the subneural glands are. In
my figure of the latter (1, pi. xiv, fig. 8) they are represented as much too
broad and too high. Without at that time having well-hardened specimens
for study, I did not recognize the effect of this bad preservation on the
gland-cells ; but a comparison of the sections with well-preserved material
shows at once the fact that the gland-cells are swollen, so that the whole
gland appears larger than it would be in life. Hence again the difference
between the figure of macquariensis referred to and that given for
ik intermedins ;" (pi. x, fig. 9).

So I think we may take it that in the case of the funnel gland-cells the
same explanation may be given ; their swollen condition increases the
width of the funnel, and led me to give proportions which are no doubt
untrue in life. It is not improbable, however, that the size of the gland-
cells in both glands may vary according to the sexual condition of the worm,
and it is likely that when fully mature in the breeding season the glands
would be larger. I conclude, then, as a result of this comparison, that

Benham. — On Lumbricillus macquariensis.

191

'' L. intermedins " is synonymous with L. macquariensis, so that this species
has a distribution over the three subantarctic islands. The figures of the
spermatheca, subneural glands, and sperm-funnel as given for "inter-
medins " must replace those given in the article on L. macquariensis.

Moreover, it is, it seems to me, closely allied to L. natriums Michaelsen
(3, p. 10), from which it differs in its smaller size, for that is stated to
measure 40 mm. in length, whereas our species does not exceed 25 mm..
and some of the mature individuals are less : and the variety of L. maximus
termed " robinson " is but 12-16 mm. in length, but the clitellum is inter-
rupted on the ventral surface.

References.

1. Benham. " On the Oligochaeta from the Southern Islands of the
New Zealand Region:1 Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, 1905.

2. Benham. l Report on the Oligochaeta " in '* Subantarctic Islands
of New Zealand."

3. Michaelsen. Die Oligochaeten : Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition,
1901-3."

Table showing the Numbers of Chaetae, etc.

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

L. macquariensis (type)
(cotype)
(H.H.)
(H. H.)
(H. H.)

" L. intermedin* "

Chaetae.

Pre-clitellar.

1'n-t-clitellar.

D.

V.

D.

6(5)
6(7)
5(6)
6(7)

4
5

6(5)

V.

Subueural
Glands.

i Origin of
D. Vessel.

5 (4, 6)a

4(5)

5

6 (5)b

5(4)

6(5)

6 (5)a

4

a

7 (6. 5)

?

1

5(6)

3

4

6

4

o

6 (7)

4

3(4)

i

5(4)

6 (5)

14, 15, 16

14, 15, 16

14, 15, 16

d

14, 15, \U

14,15,16,17

14, 15, 16
14,15,16,17

13 or 14

1

16c
15
15
17
16
•?

Notes to the Table.

The numbers enclosed in brackets occur less frequently along the body.

a. In one segment there are 7 chaetae.

b. There is considerable irregularity throughout the body in this individual, the
number in each bundle often differing in successive segments, and on the two sides of the
body ; thus each of the segments ii and iii has 8 chaetae on one side and 6 on the other.

c. In one individual sectionized the dorsal vessel occurs in the 17th segment.

d. In one individual there are 6 glands in segments 13-18, the largest being in
the 15th ; but in two other specimens only 3 glands exist, but I did not correlate
them with the chaetal formula.

? The fact was not observed in these specimens.
II. H. Specimens collected by Mi-. H. Hamilton.

192 Transactions.

Art. XXV. — Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera.

By Alfred Philpott.

Communicated by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 6th October, 1914.]

Caradrinidae.
Aletia (?) lata sp. no v.

<J $. 40-45 mm. Head and thorax brownish-grey, in $ more whitish.
Antennae in <$ (broken). Abdomen pale brownish-grey. Forewings broad,
costa slightly arched at base, almost straight, apex rounded, terrnen evenly
rounded, oblique ; fuscous-grey, densely intermixed with white ; lines
black ; an interrupted irregular basal line, margined outwardly with white ;
first line irregularly dentate, from ^ costa to | dorsum ; second line strongly
dentate, margined outwardly with white, commencing at \ and running obliquely
beneath costa to about f , thence strongly rounded to vein 2 ; orbicular and
claviform almost obsolete ; reniform somewhat narrow, white-ringed, grey
within, anteriorly margined with a suffused dark blotch ; an obscure subter-
minal serrate whitish line ; a similar terminal line : cilia grey. Hindwings
fuscous-grey : cilia grey with whitish tips.

Apart from the broader forewings, the strongly dentate second line
sufficiently distinguishes this species from the other grey Aletias.

Vanguard Peak, in January ; a <$ and $, taken by Messrs. H. Hamilton
and F. S. Oliver, in the Dominion Museum collection. Bold Peak, in
December ; a $ taken by Mr. C. C. Fenwick. Types ($ and $) in coll.
Dominion Museum. The <$ is in poor condition, and it is consequently
difficult to pronounce with certainty as to the genus.

Hydriomenidae.
Chloroclystis luminosa sp. nov.

<$. 22 mm. Head and palpi dark green. Palpi 2. Antennae in <$
ciliate-fasciculate, dilations f . Thorax dark green with some black and white
markings posteriorly. Abdomen green with broad greenish-black ante-
median band and median black dot on margin of each segment. Fore-
wings triangular, costa slightly sinuate at middle, termen bowed, oblique ;
dark green ; basal f dark greenish-fuscous with fasciae obscurely indicated ;
median band white with several waved green striae rather suffused and
bluish except near costa, outer edge marked by prominent irregular black
line broadly margined posteriorly with white ; praesubterminal, costal,
and supramedian blotches greenish-black ; a suffused dark tornal blotch ;
subterminal line faint, waved, pale bluish-green ; a black faintly waved
line round termen : cilia grey-green with triangular fuscous bars. Hind-
wings grey, faintly greenish round dorsum and termen ; numerous alternate
light and dark striae ; a dark discal dot ; a blackish line round termen :
cilia grey with obscure dark bars.

$. 25 mm. As £, but median band wholly green except small white
blotch in middle of disc, thus rendering the bluish-green striae very obscure.

From any other species of the group with fasciculate antennae in the $
the present from can be distinguished by the very short ciliations, these

Philpott. — New Species of Lepidoptera. 193

being under 1. It is probable that when further examples are secured
the white markings will be found to be subject to much variation.
Ben Lomond, in December. One of each sex at 2,000 ft., in bush.

Chloroclystis magnimaculata sp. nov.

<$ 9- 19-21 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax greyish-green, in $ ochreous.
Palpi 2. Antennae in $ ciliate-fasciculate, ciliations 4. Abdomen greenish-
grey, in $ ochreous, with a reddish-fuscous antemedian band. Forewings
triangular, costa gently arched, termen subsinuate, moderately oblique ;
greyish-green ; costa narrowly reddish to \ ; numerous reddish-fuscous
waved lines from base to f , forming curved fascia at J ; outer edge of
median band broadly and obtusely projecting at middle ; a large apical
blotch of bright reddish-fuscous ; a smaller and paler tornal blotch with a
minute white dot near centre ; subterminal line serrate, grey-green ; a
reddish-fuscous line round termen : cilia greyish-green, suffused with
reddish-fuscous except at middle of termen. Hindwings unevenly rounded ;
pale greenish-grey ; a reddish-fuscous discal dot and numerous obscure
waved reddish-fuscous striae, more prominent on dorsum : cilia greenish-
grey with faint reddish-fuscous bars.

Nearest to Chloroclystis maculata Hdsn., from which it is easily known
by the prominent apical blotch.

Queenstown, in November. I am indebted to Mr. M. 0. Pasco for
examples of this well-marked species.

Chloroclystis modesta sp. nov.

<$ $. 26-29 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen dark brownish-fuscous,
sparsely mixed with grey. Palpi reddish-tinged, 2|. Antennae in <$ ciliate-
fasciculate, ciliations 4|. Forewings rather narrow, costa subsinuate,
slightly arched, termen sinuate on lower half, moderately oblique ; fuscous-
brown ; markings obscure, grey-whitish ; veins interruptedly marked
with blackish ; many irregularly serrate or waved transverse striae ; a more
distinct pair at \, and 3 or 4 similar ones defining outer edge of median band
at f ; an obscure blackish discal dot ; a faintly greenish-tinged serrate
subterminal line : cilia fuscous with paler median line, sometimes indis-
tinctly barred with darker. Hindwings, termen irregularly rounded, pro-
minent at veins 3 and 4 ; fuscous-grey, darker dorsally ; a dark discal dot ;
some lighter striae obscurely indicated on dorsum : cilia as in forewings.

Differs from Chloroclystis halianthes Meyr. in the irregular termen of
the hindwings. It is also much darker in colour, and the cilia are not
distinctly barred.

Ben Lomond, in January, and Bold Peak, in December. Taken bv
Messrs. C. C. Fenwick and F. S. Oliver, at altitudes of from 3,000 ft. to
4,000 ft. Mr. Fenwick has kindly supplied me with material for the
description of the species. Types (^ and $) in coll. C. C. Fenwick.

Chloroclystis rubella sp. nov.

c? $. 28-29 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen dark greenish-
fuscous with some admixture of greyisb-pink and white scales. Palpi 2.
Antennae in S ciliate-fasciculate, ciliations 4. Forewings triangular, broad,
costa in <$ rather strongly arched on apical fourth, termen obliquely bowed ;
dark greenish-fuscous mixed with black and tinted, especially round tornus,
u ith pink ; veins interruptedly marked with black ; lines very obscure :

7— Trans.

194: Transactions.

a double, outwardly somewhat dentate, line at J ; a hardly traceable similar
basal line ; median band moderate, inward margin curved, subdentate ;
outer margin irregular, followed by 4 or 5 alternate lighter and darker lines,
most distinct on costal half ; subterminal line bluish-green, serrate : cilia,
basal half and suffused bars fuscous-greenish, apical half grey, flushed with
pink. Hindwings, termen rounded ; fuscous grey, darker and fashed with
pink towards dorsum and termen ; numerous obscure lighter and darker
waved lines : cilia as in forewings.

Larger and darker than any other member of the section to which it

belongs.

This species was also brought to light by Messrs. Fenwick and Oliver,
they having secured several on Bold Peak, Humboldt Range, in December.
Mr. M. 0. Pasco has also taken it on Ben Lomond.

Xanthorhoe albalineata sp. no v.

<J. 26-30 mm. Head ochreous, face whitish. Palpi rather elongate,
white. Antennae moderately bipectinated, stalk white basally. Thorax
brownish-ochreous. Abdomen pale ochreous with paired linear black marks
on the dorsal surface of each segment. Forewings triangular, elongate,
costa slightly sinuate, hardly arched, apex obtuse, termen bowed, rather
oblique ; pale whitish - ochreous ; markings greyish-fuscous ; basal line
obscurely indicated, angled above middle ; first line from \ costa to ^ dorsum,
irregular, sharply angled inwards above middle ; a roundish discal dot ;
second line from § costa to \ dorsum, bluntly projecting at middle, inwardly
oblique at dorsum ; median band slightly suffused with fuscous in disc
and anteriorly to second line ; an irregular patch of fuscous suffusion between
upper third of second line and termen ; a series of paired dots on termen.
the apical ones tending to be inwardly produced as paired lines : cilia pale
whitish -ochreous with a few dark scales opposite paired dots. Hindwings
elongate, termen obliquely rounded ; pale whitish-ochreous ; a terminal
series of paired fuscous dots : cilia pale whitish-ochreous. Undersides :
Forewings ochreous, disc broadly fuscous ; hindwings ochreous ; a straight
white streak above middle from base to near termen, attenuated posteriorly,
margined beneath with brownish-fuscous ; a similar streak above dorsum.

Nearest to Xanthorhoe oraria Philp., but distinguished from that species,
as from all others of the genus, by the peculiar markings of the underside
of the hindwings.

Stewart Island. Two males taken on the bare top of Table Hill (2,000 ft,),
in December.

Xanthorhoe plumbea sp. nov.

<J. 18-20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax grey mixed with black.
Antennae fuscous, pectinations moderate. Abdomen grey, each segment
bearing dorsally a pair of cuneate black marks. Forewings rather elongate,
costa sinuate, moderately arched, apex subacute, termen almost straight,
oblique ; bluish-grey with some reddish -ochreous on veins and posterior to
second line ; lines formed of bluish-grey irregular paired striae ; basal line
obscure, curved : first line rather angulated at middle, margined anteriorly
with white, angle marked with reddish-ochreous ; a rather prominent spot
of reddish-ochreous between basal and first lines at middle ; a suffused
reddish-ochreous discal spot ; second line irregularly curved, its outer
margin marked by a series of white points which are sometimes more or
less connected by a thin white line ; an obscure reddish-ochreous subterminal
line ; veins beyond second line marked with blackish interrupted by some

Philpott. — -New Species of Lepidoptera. 195

white dots ; an obscure black waved line round termen : cilia white, mixed
with grey and with obscure darker bars. Hindwings rather elongate,
termen strongly rounded ; fuscous-grey ; discal dot and some striae on
terminal portion obscurely indicated ; an obscure waved black line round
termen : cilia white, mixed with grey and with suffused darker bars.

The bluish ground-colour and longer antennal pectinations remove this
species from Xanthorhoe cineraria Walk., which appears to be its nearest ally.

Queenstown, in November. Four specimens.

Xanthorhoe stricta sp. nov.

o. 38-39 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen pale greyish-
ochreous. Antennal pectinations moderately long. Forewings triangular,
costa almost straight, rather strongly arched apically, termen subsinuate,
oblique ; pale greyish-ochreous ; markings fuscous-brown ; numerous thin
waved more or less parallel transverse lines, forming more distinct bands
near base, before middle, at f and J ; an obscure discal dot ; outer margin
of third band sinuate inwards above and below middle ; an inwardly oblique
thin subapical streak ; a terminal series of black dots, connected by a very
faint waved line. Hindwings pale ochreous-grey with markings similar to
forewings but suffused and obscure : cilia as in forewings.

In one specimen the ground-colour is darker and the lines very obscure,
the approximation into bands being hardly noticeable.

Nearest to Xanthorhoe cataphracta Meyr., but distinguished from that
species by the absence of the white fasciae and the somewhat longer antennal
pectinations.

This and the following species, together with Selidosema terrena, S. alba-

fasciata, and Aletia lata, were included in some moths submitted to me for

identification by the Director of the Dominion Museum. Two males were

taken on Bold Peak, Humboldt Range, in February, by Mr. W. G. Howes.

Type (<$) in coll. Dominion Museum.

Dasyuris (l.) fulminea sp. nov.

cJ. 24 mm. Head black. Palpi densely haired, dark yellowish-brown.
Antennae (broken). Thorax black with some yellow -brown scales.
Abdomen black with yellow and grey scales, anal tuft yellowish. Forewings
short, costa somewhat arched at base, very slightly deflexed at apex, termen
rather strongly rounded ; deep blackish-fuscous finely irrorated with yellow ;
fasciae pale yellowish-white (probably bright yellow in fresh specimens) ;
basal fascia distinct, curved ; first fascia from \, broadest on costal half,
with a sharp deep serration inwards below middle; second fascia broad, very
slightly sinuate and becoming narrow near dorsum ; traces of a narrow orange
fascia on costa at middle and before apex : cilia orange. Hindwings dark
fuscous irrorated with yellow ; a prominent median yellow fascia, becoming
narrow and bending inwardly on dorsum ; an obscure irregular yellow
subterminal line : cilia orange. Undersides : Forewings brownish-orange ;
upper lines partially reproduced and suffusedly margined with fuscous ;
several bright orange-brown blotches on costa : hindwings brownish-orange ;
an outwardly oblique irregular white median fascia ; a pale subterminal line.

Nearest to Dasyuris callicrena Meyr., but differing in the form of the
lines and the unicolourous cilia. It is possible that the species is a
Notoreas, the absence of the antennae making the point difficult to decide.

A single <$ taken on Bold Peak in February by Mr. W. G. Howes. Type
in coll. Dominion Museum.

7*

196 Transactions.

Notoreas opipara sp. nov.

cJ $. 18-21 mm. Head and palpi black, in 9 with some admixture
of white, palpal hairs long and dense. Antennae black, moderatelv
bipectinated. Thorax black with some white scales, sometimes mixed
with reddish. Abdomen black, segmental divisions whitish-ochreous, anal
tuft mixed with brownish-ochreous. Forewings rather short, costa strongly
arched at base, subsinuate, very slightly arched on apical half, termen bowed,
oblique ; black with a slight sprinkling of white scales ; basal line white,
obscure, angled at middle ; first line from \ costa to \ dorsum, white,
irregular, outwardly oblique to middle, thence almost straight to dorsum ;
space between basal and first line orange-reddish, in darker specimens very
faintly indicated ; an orange-red line parallel to and near first line and a
similar line before second line, both often obsolete ; a black discal dot,
usually suffusedly margined with white which sometimes continues as an
obscure median line ; second line from, § costa, white, roundly projecting
above and at middle, inwardly oblique below middle, thence obliquely to dorsum
at f ; second line followed by a broad orange-red line, often obscure or
obsolete ; in some specimens a thin interrupted whitish, subterminal line :
cilia whitish-ochreous, basal half and a series of bars blackish. Hind wings
fuscous-black ; a black discal dot ; a suffused pale-ochreous second line,
bent outwardly at middle ; an obscure pale subterminal line : cilia as in
forewings. Undersides : Forewings fuscous, basal half of costa broadly
ochreous ; second line broad, ochreous ; several alternate fuscous and
ochreous striae between discal dot and second line : hindwings fuscous ;
some obscure ochreous striae before second line ; second line broadly and
suffusedly ochreous ; a dentate ochreous subterminal line, in dark specimens
obscure.

A very distinct form, probably nearest to Notoreas orphnaea Meyr., but
little more than half the size of that species. From N. anthracias Meyr.,
to which it also shows some affinity, it is distinguished by the darker colour,
presence of reddish striae, and longer palpal hairs.

Table Hill and Rakiahua, Stewart Island, in December. Eight speci-
mens, on the open hilltops at about 2,000 ft.

Selidosemidae.
Selidosema terrena sp. nov.

<$. 49 mm. Head grey mixed with brown. Antennae dull brown,
ciliations long. Thorax brown mixed with grey. Abdomen grey. Legs
grey, sprinkled and annulated with fuscous-brown. Forewings triangular,
costa straight, termen evenly rounded, oblique ; whitish-grey, densely
irrorated with, brownish-fuscous which forms indistinct basal, first, second, and
subterminal fasciae; a rather large inwardly oblique discal dot: cilia
(incomplete) grey mixed with brown. Hindwings greyish-white, minutely
sprinkled with brownish-fuscous : cilia grey.

In form of wing and antennal structure nearest to Selidosema productata
Walk. ; the grey hindwings, however, at once separate it from that species.

Bold Peak, in February. A single $ taken by Mr. H. Hamilton.
Type ($) in coll. Dominion Museum.

Selidosema albafasciata sp. nov.

3 ?. 32-34 mm. Head and thorax ochreous mixed with brown.
Antennae brown, annulated with ochreous, filiations rather short.
Abdomen ochreous. Forewings moderate, triangular, costa subsinuate,

Philpott. — New Species of Lepidoptera. 197

termen evenly rounded, not strongly oblique ; dark greenish-fuscous with
some admixture of yellowish ; markings white tinted with yellow and
sparsely sprinkled with brown; a broad band at J slightly curved; median
and second fasciae broad, coalescing at middle and enclosing a triangular blotch
of ground-colour on costa ; sometimes throwing out a projection to middle of
termen, thus interrupting the broad dark terminal area ; a terminal series
of irregular blackish dots : cilia ochreous mixed with brown. Hind wings
pale yellow sprinkled with fuscous ; a more or less interrupted brown
terminal line: cilia yellow obscurely barred with brown.

I The 2 differs in having much of the dark ground-colour replaced by the
lighter shade of the markings. The basal patch and median band are much
reduced, and the terminal dark area is represented only by a triangular
subapical patch and some small marks on the lower half. Possibly, however,
the specimen is a variety, and the markings of the normal female may more
closely resemble those of the male.

The species has some affinity with Selidosema melinata Feld., but differs
strikingly in the presence of the broad white first line.

Taihape, in February, and Feilding, in March. A <$ taken in each
locality by the late Mr. A. Hamilton. The 2 was secured by Mr. J. H.
Lewis, locality uncertain.

Types {3 and 2) in coll. Dominion Museum.

Declana^sinuosa sp. nov.

($ $. 35-36 mm. Head and thorax reddish-brown, more or less
sprinkled with white. Thorax with small posterior crest. Antennae in
; shortly bipeetinate, in 2 dentate. Abdomen grey. Forewings, costa
strongly arched at base, widely sinuate to apex, termen shortly sinuate
beneath apex, strongly rounded, hardly oblique ; purplish-grey, sometimes
mixed with ochreous ; a series of inwardly oblique dark strigulae along
costa ; first line about J, usually almost obsolete, inwardly oblique, some-
times preceded by a purplish shade ; second line at f, slightly outwardly
oblique, indented above and below middle and followed by suffused purple shade ;
a suffused white interrupted fascia from apex to near tornus : cilia dark
grey. Hindwings fuscous-grey : cilia grey-whitish with darker median band.

Nearest to Declana griseata Hdsn., but with shorter antennal pectinations
and termen of forewings much less oblique.

Ben Lomond, in bush, to 3,000 ft. November to March. I am indebted
to Mr. M. 0. Pasco for several good examples.

Crambidae.
Crambus oppositus sp. nov.

3 2- 28-32 mm. Head dark ochreous-brown, crown whitish, more
pronounced in $. Palpi moderate, ochreous-brown, whitish above and
beneath in 2. Thorax dark ochreous-brown with narrow central white
stripe, broader in 2. Abdomen fuscous-grey in o, grey-whitish in 2. Fore-
wings moderate, dilated posteriori}', costa hardly arched, apex almost
rectangular, faintly sinuate ; dark ochreous-brown with brassy reflections,
slightly paler in 2 ', costal edge usually narrowly whitish (in J ochreous-
whitish) throughout, a little dilated at f ; a rather broad straight white
central stripe, sometimes margined above and beneath with blackish ;
dorsum narrowly white throughout : cilia in ,£ brown with basal half white
from apex to middle, in 2 white with grey median line. Hindwings, in 3
dark fuscous ; in 2 white, irregularly suffused with pale fuscous : ^cilia in J
fuscous-grey with two or more fuscous lines, in 2 shining white.

198 Transact ion*.

Allied to Grambus dicrenellus Meyr., from which it differs chiefly in the
darker tints. The deep-fuscous colouring of the hindwings of the $ dis-
tinguishes that sex from any other species of the genus at present known
in New Zealand.

Hunter Mountains, from 3,000 ft. to 4,000 ft., in January. I have also
a single $ from The Hump, taken at about 3,000 ft., in January.

Pyraustidae.
Scoparia fumata sp. nov.

c?. 20-23 mm. Head ochreous-brown. Palpi 3, brown, greyish above,
white at base beneath. Antennae ochreous, obscurely annulated with
brown, ciliations §. Thorax brown. Abdomen brownish-grey, paler
towards base. Forewings moderate, costa almost straight, apex subacute,
termen faintly sinuate, slightly oblique ; pale fuscous-brown ; markings (lurk
fuscous ; first line obscure, strongly oblique outwardly to middle, thence
inward to beneath fold and again outward to dorsum, often obsolete ;
orbicular linear, sometimes dot-like ; claviform more or less elongate ; reni-
form subquadrate, usually with a projection inwards on lower margin ;
second line finely dentate, gently curved, parallel to termen, obscurely
white-margined posteriorly ; a chain of dots on termen : cilia ochreous-
brown with 2 darker lines. Hindwings grey, ochreous-tinged : a darker
subterminal line, most pronounced on costal portion : cilia ochreous-grey
with an obscure darker line.

Distinguished from Scoparia chalara Meyr. by the darker colour and the
distinct dash-like claviform. The unindented second line at once separates
it from Scoparia octop/iora Meyr.

Longwood Range, in December. Five specimens in the open country,
at 2,800 ft.

TORTRICIDAE.

Capua arcuata sp. nov.

$. 15-16 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax ochreous-whitish
sprinkled with reddish. Abdomen ochreous-grey. Forewings oblong,
termen sinuate, dorsum straight ; whitish, irregularly mixed with pale
ochreous ; fasciae reddish-ochreous, becoming blackish on margins ; basal
patch indicated by obscure irregular fascia, almost obsolete on costa and
dorsum ; median fascia broad, from costa at J outwardly oblique to below
middle, thence bent upwards again to costa at f enclosing semi-oval area
much mixed with white; one or two costal blotches of reddish-black- within
this enclosed area ; a broad fascia from tornus, parallel to termen and
touching median fascia at apex ; a narrow white interrupted space between
these fasciae ; two or three irregular white blotches on costa near apex
and a series of obscure dark strigulae along dorsum : cilia white mixed
with reddish-brown. Hindwings whitish-grey, suffused and spotted with
pale fuscous : cilia greyish-white with a darker basal line.

Distinguished from Capua plinthoglypta Meyr. by the shape of the basal
patch and the deeper and narrower pale median costal space.

Invercargill, in January. Two specimens.

Eurythecta trimaculata sp. nov.

3 $. 9^—11 mm. Head and palpi grey. Thorax grey, with a posterior
curved black band sometimes interrupted at middle. Abdomen dark grey.
Forewings moderate, costa slightly arched at base, straight, apex obtuse,
termen faintly rounded, oblique ; whitish-grey, irrorated with black ;

Philpott. — New Species of Lepidoptera. 199

markings black or dark fuscous with bronzy reflections : some spots and
st rig ulations near base ; a broad inwardly oblique fascia at ^, often interrupted
or obscure on upper half : three equidistant triangular dots on costa between
^ and apex ; a broad irregular fascia from tornus, its apex sometimes touching
central costal dot ; a terminal suffusion beneath apex, sometimes extending
to near tornus : cilia usually grey with a darker line, sometimes wholly
greyish-fuscous. Hindwings fuscous-grey, darker round apex : cilia fuscous-
grey with a darker line, tips paler.

Near Eurythecta robusta Butl., but in that species the fascia are outwardly
oblique.

Queenstown, in December, on open hillsides from 1,000 ft. to 2,500 ft.

Karmologa sanguinea sp. nov.

o. 17-18i mm. Head fuscous mixed with grey. Palpi reddish-brown.
Antennae fuscous ringed with oclireous, filiations 1|. Thorax brownish-
red mixed with grey. Abdomen pale fuscous, segmental margins grey.
Forewings elongate, costa moderately arched, apex subacute, termen rounded,
slightly oblique ; dark purplish-red ; margin of basal patch oblique, almost
straight, from i to \ ; followed by a shining silvery fascia much intermixed
with yellow or orange, its outer margin from just beyond costal patch, very
oblique to f , thence less oblique to dorsum at \ ; a similarly coloured median
fascia, rather broad, narrowest on costa, usually becoming obsolete at middle ;
a similar fascia from tornus, rather oblique inwardly to middle, thence
bent acutely downwards and inwards, sometimes obscurely touching median
fascia ; an obscure subiermi Hal fascia from before apex obliquely to termen at
middle : cilia greyish-fuscous mixed with some reddish and with two darker
lines. Hindwings dark fuscous : cilia grey with a darker line.

Easily distinguished from the following form by the differences in the
tornal and subterminal fasciae.

Mount Cleughearn, Hunter Mountains, in January. Five males amongst
Veronica and Cassinia bushes, at an elevation of about 3,000 ft.

Harmologa festiva sp. nov.

cJ. 16 mm. Head grey. Palpi ferruginous. Antennae fuscous, ob-
scurely ringed with paler, ciliations 1. Thorax fuscous mixed with ochreous-
reddish and grey. Abdomen fuscous, segmental divisions grey. Fore-
wings moderate, rather oblong, costa strongly arched, apex obtuse, termen
bowed, hardly oblique ; bright ochreous-red ; fasciae white ; first fascia,
defining basal patch, outwardly oblique, almost straight, narrowest towards
costa, its edges suffusedly margined with blackish, clouded above and
below middle with ochreous ; median fascia broad, dilated in disc, lower
half almost filled with ochreous blotch ; subterminal fascia straight, blackish-
margined, from | costa to tornus : cilia pale ochreous with darker basal line.
Hindwings fuscous : cilia as in forewTings but paler.

A shorter-winged species than the preceding ; the antennal ciliations
are also shorter.

Hunter Mountains, in January. Four males taken amongst Veronica
and other shrubs, at about 3,000 ft.

Harmologa reticularis sp. nov.

$. 16|— 17J mm. Head greyish-fuscous. Palpi dark brownish- ochre-
ous. Antennae fuscous ringed with whitish, ciliations lj. Thorax fuscous
mixed with orange and white. Abdomen fuscous-grey. Forewines rather

200 Transactions.

elongate, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;
pale orange ; some irregular leaden-coloured markings within basal patch ;
first fascia narrow, outwardly oblique, bifid from middle to dorsum, white ;
median fascia narrow, outwardly oblique, irregular, costal portion white
and the lower half breaking up into a network of leaden-coloured fasciae ; a
narrow fascia from § costa, bifid from middle, anterior limb to £ dorsum and
posterior limb to tornus, white, leaden-coloured beneath costa and on anterior
limb ; a white dot, margined beneath with leaden colour, on costa between
this fascia and the preceding one ; a narrow white subterminal striga, touch-
ing termen before tornus : cilia grey mixed with white, tips yellowish.
Hiudwings greyish-fuscous : cilia greyish-white with darker basal line.

Allied to the two preceding forms, but abundantly distinct in colour
and markings. In one specimen the markings are almost wholly leaden-
coloured.

Longwood Range, in December. Two males on the bare tops, at about
2.S00 ft.

Oecophoridae.

Gymnobathra squamea sp. no v.

cJ. 12 mm. Head dark fuscous with a few yellow scales. Palpi bright
yellow, fuscous beneath. Antennae fuscous. Thorax dark fuscous mixed
with yellow. Abdomen fuscous broadly annulated with grey. Forewings
moderate, costa moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen almost straight,
somewhat oblique ; bright (/olden-yellow irrorated and suffused, especially
near base, with fuscous : cilia dark fuscous. Hiudwings dark fuscous :
cilia grey-whitish with fuscous basal line.

Not closely related to any other Gymnobathra.

Hunter Mountains, in January. Three examples, at 3,500 ft.

Cremnogenes robiginosa sp. now

cJ ?. 18-19 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, thorax, and abdomen dark
fuscous : patagiae tipped with whitish or ochreous ; antennal ciliations
whorled, 3|. Forewings elongate, costa moderately arched, apex rounded,
termen slightly rounded, oblique : dark shining ferruginous with some
ochreous admixture : a reddish-ochreous patch on dorsum at base ; a semi-oval
ochreous patch, tinged with reddish and margined with white above, on dorsum
at middle : cilia dark ferruginous. Hindwings dark fuscous : cilia dark
fuscous with darker basal line.

The single $ taken has the forewings entirely pale ochreous except that
the median dorsal patch is indicated by a broad margin of ferruginous.

Distinguished from Cremnogenes nigra Philp. by the ground-colour and
shorter antennal ciliations, and from Cremnogenes monodonta Meyr. by the
character of the markings at dorsum.

Longwood Range, on the open tops at about 2,700ft., in December;
and Mount Cleughearn, Hunter Mountains, at 3,000 ft. to 3,500 ft., amongst
Veronica, in January. Five males and one female.

CtELECHIADAE.

Orthenches semifasciata sp. no v.

S ?• 16-18 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax white mixed with brown.
Abdomen grey. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex subacute,
termen rounded, oblique ; white, irrorated with shining dark brown, especi-
ally on dorsal half ;] markings shining dark in-own ; basal fascia indicated

Philpott. — New Species of Lepidoptera. 201

by outwardly oblique mark in disc ; median fascia rather narrow, irregular,
outwardly strongly oblique, obsolete on lower half ; a blotch on costa at f
and one or two smaller ones between this and apex ; termen broadly dark
brown, indented by apical white area : cilia dark brown, paler round tornus.
Hindwings light fuscous-grey : cilia grey with darker basal shade.

Near Orthenches porphyritis Meyr., but longer-winged and with less
metallic lustre. The hindwings are distinctly paler.

I am indebted to Mr. C. C. Fenwick for the loan of a fine specimen for
description. It was taken at Queenstown, in January. I met with a few
worn examples at Hakapoua, Fiord County, in March. Type in coll. C. C.
Fenwick.

TlXEIDAE.

Dryadaula castanea sp. nov.

3- 9-10 mm. Head and palpi white mixed with pale brownish-vellow.
Antennae white annulated with ochreous and with three broad darker
bands on apical half. Thorax bright ochreous. Abdomen ochreous-fuscous,
anal tuft ochreous. Forewings, costa gently arched, apex subacute, termen
very oblique; bright brownish-yellow; a thin white line from base along
fold to ^ ; a narrow white straight fascia front costa at J to dorsum at § ; a
similar fascia from costa at § to tornus, slightly outwards-curved, rather suffused
beneath costa and sending out one or two white streaks towards termen ; a
white fascia from dorsum near base to extremity of basal line ; a second dorsal
fascia from J, touching first costal fascia beneath middle; a chain of black
spots round apex and along termen, anteriorly margined with white : cilia
reddish-brown. Hindwings and cilia fuscous-grey.

A much darker species than Dryadaula myrrhina Meyr. ; the distinct
white lines are also good distinguishing characters.

In bush at the Bluff and Invercargill during November and December.
Not common.

Art. XXVI. — Descriptions oj New Zealand Lepidoptera.

By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.B.S.

Communicated by Dr. Charles Chilton.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.']

I am once more indebted to Messrs. G. V. Hudson and A. Philpott for
interesting consignments of Lepidoptera, amongst which were included
the following species.

Hydriomenidae.

Hydriomena subrectaria Guen.

(Coremia subrectaria Guen., Phal. x, 411 ; Cidaria responsata Walk., Cat.
xxv, 1409 ; Melanthia casta But!., Cist. Ent. ii, 553 ; Hydriomena subrectaria
Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1890, 829.)

Queenstown, in December (Philpott). I am not aware that this species
has been recorded previously from New Zealand ; it is common in south-
east Australia.

202 Transactions.

Xanthorhoe sericodes n. sp.

o. 33-34 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax pale greyish-ochreous. An-
tennal pectinations 6. Abdomen pale, ochreous, sometimes with double
dorsal series of small cloudy dark-fuscous dots. Forewings triangular,
costa hardly arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded, rather oblique ; pale
greyish-ochreous ; in one specimen a transverse dark-fuscous discal dot,
and some faint paired fuscous dots on termen, in the other these are wholly
absent: cilia whitish - ochreous. Hind wings and cilia whitish - oclireous
tinged with grey ; in one specimen a faint grey discal dot.

Mount Earnslaw, 4,000 ft., in January (Hudson) ; two specimens.

Selidosemidae.
Selidosema scariphota n. sp.

$. 32 mm. Head pale oclireous. Palpi pale oclireous mixed with
fuscous. Antennal pectinations 8. Thorax pale oclireous, anteriorly
suffused with fuscous. Abdomen whitish-ochreous mixed with fuscous.
Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded,
rather oblique ; pale yellow-ochreous, strewn with fine scattered dark-
fuscous strigulae, with a patch of longer and thicker strigulae in middle
of disc ; costa marked with small blackish spots and strigulae, costal area
tinged with fuscous ; first and second lines slender, even, dark fuscous,
nearly parallel to termen, not nearly reaching costa. first double in lower
part of disc, not reaching dorsum, second somewhat curved, thickest towards
dorsum ; a transverse-linear blackish discal mark on end of cell ; a light
fuscous terminal fascia, terminated abruptly above by a short rather oblique
dark-fuscous streak from beneath apex ; a terminal series of short black
marks or dots : cilia whitish-ochreous with a fuscous subbasal line, basal
area slenderly barred with fuscous, with a longer dark-fuscous bar on
subapical streak. Hindwings light ochreous-vellowish ; terminal line
partially marked with dark fuscous : cilia ochreous- whitish, with a
grey line.

One specimen, bred by Mr. Sunley from a larva on " New Zealand broom "
(presumably Carmichaelia), communicated by Mr. Hudson. A very distinct
species.

Phycitidae.
Plodia interpunctella Hiib.

An introduced domestic species, taken by Mr. Hudson in the General
Post Office at Wellington ; easily recognized by the dark ferruginous-
fuscous forewings with basal area wholly whitish-ochreous. The larva
feeds on grain (especially maize), figs, &c, and the moths may sometimes
be found plentifully in corn-bins. The species is widely" spread by artificial
means in Europe, North America, and Australia.

Pyraustidae.

Scoparia atmogramma n. sp.

$. 23-24 mm. Head and thorax light grey more or less mixed with,
whitish. Palpi 3, light grey, white towards base beneath. Ant una!
ciliations §. Abdomen pale greyish-ochreous. Forewings elongate, very
narrow towards base, gradually dilated posteriorly, apex obtuse, termen
slightly rounded, rather oblique ; ochreous-grey, usually more or less suffused
with whitish on veins, interneural spaces more or less suffusedly sprinkled

Methick. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 203

with dark fuscous ; elaviform indicated by a small spot of dark-fuscous
suffusion : cilia white, with a grey line. Hindwings 1|, without long hairs
in cell ; light grey, paler towards base : cilia white or in one specimen whitish -
ochreous, with faint grey line.

Tisbury and West Plains, Invercargill, in September (Philpott) ; Lake
Wakatipu (Hudson) ; four specimens. Nearest psammitis.

TORTRICIDAE.

Harmologa allogama Meyr.

Mr. Hudson has sent me a curious variety of the female, in which the
whole forewing is suffused with whitish-ochreous, the pale costal blotch
thus becoming obsolete.

GrLYPHIPTERYGIDAE.

Simaethis barbigera n. sp.

9. 19 mm. Head bronzy irrorated with white and dark fuscous.
Palpi white, mixed with dark fuscous, second joint with long rough pro-
jecting tuft beneath, terminal joint loosely scaled. Thorax greyish-bronze
sprinkled with white. Abdomen bronzy-grey, segmental margins white.
Forewings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa gently arched, apex obtuse,
termen bowed, oblique ; greyish-bronze, irregularly irrorated with white,
especially towards costa and on a terminal band ; a white transverse dot
on end of cell ; second line formed of white irroration, strongly curved
outwards : cilia pale greyish-ochreous, with dark-grey subbasal line, with
patches of whitish suffusion above and below middle of termen. Hindwings
light grey ; a terminal fascia of irregular white irroration, most pronounced
towards middle, obsolete towards apex : cilia pale greyish-ochreous, with
dark-grey subbasal line, tips white.

Mount ( 'leughearn, Hunter Mountains, in January (Philpott) ; one
specimen. A very distinct and interesting new form.

Glyphipteryx rugata n. sp.

9- 9 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-grey-whitish. Palpi with ap-
pressed scales, whitish, with four rings and anterior edge of terminal joint
dark fuscous. Abdomen elongate, grey, segmental margins whitish. Fore-
wings elongate, costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen very obliquely
rounded ; dark fuscous, with about ten very irregular broken and partially
confluent silvery-whitish transverse striae, towards apex becoming confused
dots : cilia whitish, basal area tinged with fuscous within a black line
interrupted with white beneath apex. Hindwings short, narrow, pointed,
light grey : cilia whitish.

Tisbury. in January (Philpott) ; one specimen, beaten with others from
Weinmannia racemosa. Wings somewhat reduced in proportion to body,
the male probably longer-winged.

Plutellipae.
Plutella megalynta n. sp.

o . 34 mm. Head ochreous-whitish, sides of crown dark brown, hairs
projecting on forehead. Palpi ochreous-whitish, second joint brownish-
ochreous except apical edge, tuft long, rough, terminal joint much shorter
than second. Antennae whitish-ochreous, ciliation 1 , basal joint dark brown,
without flap of scales. Thorax brown, with broad ochreous-whitish dorsal

201 Transactions.

stripe and dark- fuscous stripe on each side of it. Abdomen whitish -grey-
ochreous. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, posteriorly slightly dilated,
costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen nearly straight, rather oblique ;
pale brownish-ochreous, more brownish-tinged in disc and towards dorsum,
obscurely streaked with ochreous-whitish suffusion between veins ; a narrow
ochreous- white dorsal streak from base to f, edged above with dark-fuscous
suffusion anteriorly ; an irregular brownish median longitudinal streak
from middle of disc to termen, with some blackish scales in longitudinal
lines ; some dark-brown dots round posterior part of costa and termen :
cilia light-brownish, at apex and on costa ochreous-whitish. Hindwings
with 3 and i approximated at base ; ochreous - grey - whitish : cilia
concolorous.

- Wellington, in November (Philpott) ; one specimen. This remarkable
species is the largest of the genus.

TlNEIDAE.

Archyala pentazyga n. sp.

<$. 13 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi fuscous mixed with darker, rough
scales of second joint longer than in paraghjpta. Thorax and abdomen
rather dark fuscous. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa slightly arched,
apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, rather strongly oblique ; fuscous,
with fine rather oblique transverse striae of dark-fuscous scales ; five rather
narrow oblique transverse dark-fuscous fasciae, first from A of costa,
interrupted in disc and not reaching dorsum, second and third connected
by a suffused patch in disc, third interrupted beneath this, fourth not
reaching tornus, fifth curved beneath to termen above tornus : cilia fuscous,
with blackish subbasal line. Hindwings rather dark fuscous, lighter and
rather thinly scaled towards base : cilia fuscous, with dark-fuscous subbasal
line.

Day's Bay, Wellington, in January (Hudson) ; one specimen.

Tinea argodelta n. sp.

S- 10 mm. Head and thorax dark purple-fuscous, face whitish-fuscous.
Palpi dark fuscous, tip whitish. Abdomen dark fuscous. Forewings elon-
gate, narrow, costa gently arched, apex obtuse-pointed, termen extremely
obliquely rounded ; dark purple-fuscous ; two or three minute whitish
strigulae on costa towards \, a spot of white strigulation in middle of costa,
a smaller spot at f , and three dots between this and apex ; a clear white
triangular spot on dorsum before middle, reaching nearly half across
wing ; a spot of whitish strigulation on dorsum before tornus, and two or
three whitish scales towards termen : cilia purplish-fuscous with two darker
shades, with a white mark towards tips on middle of termen. Hindwings
with 5 and 6 separate ; dark purple-grey : cilia rather dark grey.

Bluff, in February (Philpott) : one specimen. Allied to margaritis,
but apparently distinct by the character of antemedian dorsal spot, and
the separation of veins 5 and 6 of hindwings (in margaritis always stalked).

Metrick. — -Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 205

Art. XXVII. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina.
By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S.

Communicated by Dr. Charles Chilton.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. '2nd December, lfljj.]

In pursuance of the series of papers revising the classification of groups
of the T^epidoptera, I now deal with the Tineina. This is in New Zealand,
as elsewhere, the largest group, the most interesting for study, and also,
on account of the relatively small size of the species, the least studied ;
doubtless, therefore, there still remain a large number of additional species
to be discovered. Expert search by entomologists possessed of good eye-
sight and acumen, together with careful breeding of larvae, is needed to
fill up the list ; and special exploration should be made of mountain regions
at other times than midsummer ; under such circumstances few species
would be found, but it is not improbable that they might be of a specially
interesting character.

The Tineina usually constitute more than a third of the whole
Lepidoptera of any given region, and this proportion is apparently main-
tained in New Zealand. Of the 327 species of the group, 119 belong to the
Oecophoridae, or 36 per cent. ; only in Australia does a similar proportion
prevail, the usual ratio being about 9 per cent. It is curious that in the
Hawaiian Islands, which have some faunal analogy with New Zealand
(e.g., the great preponderance of the genus Scoparia in both), the
Oecophoridae are entirely absent. It is remarkable also that whilst New
Zealand agrees with Australia in the numerical prevalence of the
Oecophoridae, there is little near relationship between the representatives of
the two regions, the chief Australian genera (such as Philobota and Eulechria)
being only represented"in New Zealand by one or two casual stragglers ; the
only genus well established in both regions, Borkhausenia, is cosmopolitan.

Other marked features are the scanty representation of the usually
preponderating family Gelechiadae, the considerable development of the
Glyphipterygidae (especially Ghjphipteryx itself), and the absence of the
Adelidae, which is an ancient family and present in all other continental
regions (for I consider New Zealand as a continent, or rather the remains
of one). These features are difficult to explain on any theory, and at
present too little is known of the Tineina of the southern parts of South
America to estimate accurately the amount of relationship with that region.
Certain Glyphipterygid genera (Heliostibes, and allies) are undoubtedly of
South American origin ; so also is the Gelechiad genus Anisoplaca. The
genera of Heliodinidae are all evidently connected with Queensland ; the
Cosmoptenjgidae, Gracilariadae, and Lyonetiadae seem also all to have come
from the same region.

On a general consideration of the facts it seems that the native fauna
is composed of three elements introduced at different periods of time —
viz. (1) a South American element, which is the oldest, yet of a geological
age not very remote, perhaps the Eocene, previous to which the region
was entirely devoid of insects or flowering-plants ; to this belong all the
larger genera, Borkhausenia, Gyinnobathra, Trachypepla, Izatha, Simaethis,
Glyphipteryx (in part), and the Micropterygidae (which for convenience I

20(3 Transactions.

also deal with now), and a very few of the smaller genera, this fauna having
been of a very limited character, and further restricted by the nature of the
Antarctic lands through which the transmission was effected : (2) a mingled
Australian and Indo-Malayan element derived from Queensland and the
South Pacific by way of New Caledonia at a later period, conjectural] v the
Miocene, and including most of the smaller genera ; at the same time a
slight cross-immigration of the earlier element into Queensland took place
(Trachypepla, Sabatinca) : (3) a small Tasmanian element, which has made
its way (wind-borne) into New Zealand in quite recent times, the species
being identical and unmodified (e.g., Cateristis). A fourth element of arti-
ficially introduced species is now being superadded.

The generic and family characters given only hold good for the New
Zealand species, and synonymy and references are restricted to those of
local use.

1. Gelechiadae.

Head with appressed scales. Labial palpi long, recurved, pointed,
usually acute. Maxillary palpi very short, appressed. Forewings with 2
usually from near angle, 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to costa. Hindwings more or
less trapezoidal, termen sinuate or emarginate ; 6 and 7 usually approxi-
mated or stalked.

An immense family, abundant in all the main regions, but less prominent
in Australia, and only scantily represented in New Zealand. The species
are often inconspicuous and of retired habits, but are undoubtedly really
scarce here.

1. Epiphthora Meyr.

Epiphthora Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx, 77 (1888) ; type, mdanombra
Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Labial palpi with scales of second
joint rough beneath towards apex, terminal joint much shorter, roughened
anteriorly. Hindwings under 1, termen abruptly emarginate beneath
acutely produced apex ; 3 and 4 rather approximated, 5 nearly parallel,
6 and 7 rather approximated towards base.

A genus of some extent in Australia, and occurring also in the Indian
and African regions, but easily overlooked. The structural particulars
originally given by me are in part inaccurate.

1. E. mdanombra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 77.

Christchurch. Larva mining in leaves of Olearia avicenniaefolia.

2. Megacraspedus Zell.
Megacraspedus Zell., Isis 1839, 189 (1839) ; type, dolosellus Zell.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Labial palpi with second joint
tufted towards apex beneath, terminal joint as long as second. Hindwings
with termen emarginate beneath produced apex ; 3 and 4 remote, 5 nearer
6, 6 and 7 remote.

A genus of wide distribution, more developed in Australia than else-
where.

2. M. calamogona Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1885, 163.

Christchurch, Invercargill. Larva in seed - heads of Arundo
conspicaa.

Mkyiuck. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 207

3. Aristotelia Hub.

Aristotelia Rub., Verz. 4 2 1 (1826) ; type, decurtella Hiib. Isockasta

Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 163 (1886) ; type, par'adesma Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Labial palpi with second joint

roughened beneath, terminal joint nearly as long, somewhat thickened.

Forewings with 6 and 7 out of 8. Hindwings with termen emarginate

beneath acute apex ; 3 and 4 remote, 5 nearer 6 than 4, 6 and 7 remote.

A large genus of general distribution.

3. A. paradesma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 163.

Invercargill.

4. Thiotricha Meyr.

Thwtricha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 164 (1886); type,
thorybodes Meyr.

Antennae in <$ with long fine ciliations, basal joint without pecten.
Labial palpi with second joint smooth, terminal joint as long as second.
Forewings with 4 absent, 6 out of 7 or separate, 8 absent. Hindwings
wjth termen sinuate beneath pointed apex ; 3 and 4 connate, 5 rather
approximated, 6 and 7 stalked.

Fairlv well developed in the Indian and Australian regions.

4. T. tetraphala Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 164.

Whangarei, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu.

5. T. thorybodes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 164.

Wellington, ( Ihristchurch.

5. Phthorimaea Meyr.

Phthorimaea Meyr., Ent. M. Mag. xxxviii, 103 (1902); type,
operculella Zell.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Labial palpi with second joint
expanded with rough -projecting scales beneath, terminal joint as long as
second or shorter. Hindwings 1 or hardly over, with termen sinuate
beneath acute apex ; 3 and 4 connate, 5 somewhat approximated, 6 and 7
remote or approximated at base, posteriorly parallel.

A very extensive genus of wide distribution.

6. P. operculella Zell., Zoo!. Bot. Ver. 1873, 262 : terrella Walk., Cat. xxx,

1024 (praeocc.) : solaneUa Boisd., J.B. Soc. Centr. Hort. 1874, 713 ;
Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 166.

Taranaki, Napier, Nelson, Christchurch : a native of North
America, now widely spread in Australia, Africa, and Europe. Larva
in tubers of potato {Solatia in nigrum) ; very destructive.

7. P. thyraula Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1885, 167.

Christchurch, Castle Hill.

8. P. brontophora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1885, 168.

Christchurch, Invercargill.

9. P. cheradias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1908, 12.

Invercargill.

10. P. glaucoterma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 63.

Invercargill.

11. P. Hppeis Meyr., Trans. Ent Soc, Lond. 1901, 573.

Christchurch.

208 Transactions.

6. Gelechia Hub.
Gelechia Hub., Verz. 415 (1826) ; type, rhombella Schiff.
Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Labial palpi with second
joint expanded, with rough projecting scales beneath, terminal joint as
long as second or shorter. Hind wings over 1, termen somewhat sinuate
beneath apex ; 3 and 4 connate, 5 rather approximated, 6 and 7 approxi-
mated at base or stalked, posteriorly diverging..

A very large genus, principally characteristic of Europe, Africa, and
America.

12. G. schematica Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1885, 168.

Castle Hill, Bealey Biver.

13. G. parapleura Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1885, 168.

Bealey Biver.

14. G. pharetria Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 169.

Castle Hill", Arthur's Bass, Mount Arthur ; 2,500-4,000 ft.

15. G. monophragma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 169.

Hamilton, Napier, Wellington, Invercargill.

16. G. lithodes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 170.

Castle Hill, Bealey Biver, Arthur's Bass, Lake Wakatipu.

7. Anisoplaca Meyr.

Anisoplaca Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 171 (1886) ; type,
ptyoptera Meyr.
Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Labial palpi with second joint
densely scaled, with rough projecting scales beneath towards apex, promi-
nent below apex, terminal joint as long as second or longer, stout. Hind-
wings over 1, termen hardly sinuate beneath obtuse apex ; 3 and 4 connate,
5 approximated, 6 and 7 near and parallel on basal half, diverging
posteriorly.

Occurs also in South America and South Africa.

17. A. acrodactyla Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1906, 118.

Invercargill.

18. A. achyrota Meyr., Trans. N.Z, Inst, 1885, 170.

Christchurch, Dunedin. Lake Wakatipu.

19. A. ptyoptera Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 171.

Christchurch.

2. COSMOPTERYGIDAE.

Head smooth. Labial palpi long, recurved, acute. Maxillary palpi very
short, appressed. Forewings with 16 furcate, 2 from near angle, 7 and 8
stalked, 7 to costa. Hindwings lanceolate, 2-4 remote, parallel, 6 and 7
basally approximated or stalked.

A considerable family of general distribution, little represented in New
Zealand.

8. Pyroderces Herr.-Schaff.

Pyroderces Herr.-Schaff., Schmett. Eur. v, 47 (1854) ; type, argyro-
gramma Zell.

Labial palpi very long, slender, terminal joint longer than second. Fore-
wings without tufts ; 6 and 7 out of 8.

Principally characteristic of the Indian and Australian regions.

Meyrick. — Revisio7i of New Zealand Tineina. 209

20. P. apparitella Walk., Cat. xxx, 1027 ; Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888,

174.

Auckland, Wellington.

21. P. aellotricha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 175.

Hamilton ; also Kermadec Islands.

22. P. anarithma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 175.

Taranaki, Napier. Palmerston, Masterton, Wanganui, Wellington ;
also common in Australia.

9. Limnoecia Staint.

Limnoecia Staint., Cat. Brit. Tin. Suppl. 4 (1851) ; type, phragmitella
Staint.

Labial palpi very long, slender, terminal joint longer than second. Fore-
wings without tufts, 6 separate.

A genus of some extent, with the same distribution as Pyiotlerces.

23. L. pkragmitella Staint., Cat. Brit. Tin. Suppl. 4 ; Mevr., Trans. N.Z.

Inst. 1888, 173.

Hamilton ; also in Australia, Africa, and Europe. Probably of
wide natural distribution, but it is very retired in habit and rarelv
captured, though easily bred in plenty. Larva in seed-heads of Typhi.

10. Zapyrastra Meyr.

Zapyrastra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxi, 171 (1889) ; type, calliphana
Meyr.

Labial palpi moderate, slender, terminal joint shorter than second.
Forewings with slight tufts of scales ; 6 separate, 9 absent. Hindwings
with 5 and 6 stalked.

The single species is perhaps Australian by origin.

24. Z. calliphana Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 172.

Wellington, Christchurch. Bealev River.

11. Microcolona Meyr.

Microcolona Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1897, 370 (1897) ;
type, characta Meyr.

Labial palpi long, loosely scaled, terminal joint shorter than second.
Forewings with tufts of scales ; 4 absent, 6 out of 7 or absent. Hindwings
with 3 absent, 4 usually absent.

Fairly developed in Australian and Indian regions, but the species are
easily overlooked.

25. M. characta Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1897, 374.

Wellington, Nelson ; also in Australia.

26. M. limodes Meyr., Proc, Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales 1897, 372.

Christchurch.

210 Transactions.

12. Syntomactis Meyr.

Syntomactis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxi, 173 (1889) ; type, deama-
tella Walk.

Labial palpi long, second joint with projecting whorls of scales, terminal
joint as long as second, roughened anteriorly. Forewings with tufts of
scales ; 7 and 8 out of 6.

A considerable genus, characteristic of Australia.

27. S. deamatella Walk., Cat. xxix, 654 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 173.

Christchurch, Invercargill.

3. Elachistidae.

Head smooth. Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Labia! palpi
moderate, curved, pointed. Maxillary palpi very short, appressed. Fore-
wings with 16 simple, 6 and 7 stalked 7 to costa, 8 out of 7 or absent.
Hindwings lanceolate, 2-4 nearly parallel, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked.

13. Elachista Treitsch.

Elachista Treitsch., Schmett. Eur. ix (2), 177 (1833) ; type, bifasciella

Treitsch.

An extensive genus, widely distributed but principally known from
Europe ; the species are often overlooked. Larvae mining in grasses.

28. E. archaeonoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 179.

Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, Dunedin.

29. E. ombrodoca Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 179.

Christchurch, Dunedin. Invercargill.

30. E. exaula Meyr... Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 178.

Mount Arthur (4,000 ft,), Mataura River.

31. E. helonoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 178.

Christchurch.

32. E. thallophora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 178.

Christchurch (Kaiapoi), Mount Arthur (4,000 ft.).

33. E. gerasmia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 177.

Hamilton. Makatoku, Invercargill ; also common in Australia,

31. E. melanura Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 177.
Hamilton ; also in Australia.

1. SC'YTHRIDAE.

Head smooth. Labial palpi moderate, curved, pointed. Maxillary palpi
very short, appressed. Forewings with 16 simple or short-furcate, 2 from
angle, 6 and 7 stalked, 7 to costa, 8 absent, Hindwings lanceolate ; veins
all separate, nearly parallel.

14. Scythris Hub.
Scythris Hub., Verz. 414 (1826) ; type, chevopodiella Hub.
A large genus, of general distribution, but more especiallv European.

35. S. epistrota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 161.
Christchurch, Mount Arthur (4,500 ft,).

Metrics. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 211

5. Oecophoridae.

Head with appressed hairs. Labial palpi long, recurved, acute. Maxil-
lary palpi very short, appressed. Fore wings with 16 furcate, 2 from near
angle, 7 and 8 stalked. Hindwings from trapezoidal-ovate, elongate-ovate,
or ovate-lanceolate ; 3 and 4 connate, seldom approximated, 5-7 nearlv
parallel, rarely 6 and 7 stalked.

A very large family, but especially characteristic of Australia and New
Zealand; it is also well developed elsewhere, but does not form nearlv so
large a proportion of the whole fauna as it does in these two regions. It is
very remarkable that under these circumstances the Australian and Xew
Zealand representatives of the family are not at all nearly related together,
and evidently do not proceed from an immediate common origin.

Group A. Oecophorides.

Antennae in $ regularly ciliated ; 7 of forewings to costa.

15. Endrosis Hub.

Endrosis Hub., Verz. 401 (1826) ; type, lacteella ScnifE.

Hindwings ovate-lanceolate ; 5 absent.

The single species is domestic and artificially introduced in many parts
of the world, its origin being uncertain.

36. E. lacteella Schifi'.. Syst. Verz. 139 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888,

160 ; subditella Walk., Cat. xxix, 657.

North and South Islands ; common in houses. Larva on seeds
and dry refuse.

16. Schiffermuelleria Hub.

Schiffermuelleria Hiib., Verz. 421 (1826) : type, schaefferella Linn.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate.
Moderately numerous ; chiefly confined to the Northern Hemisphere

37. S. ortho pinnies Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1905, 243.

Auckland, Nelson.

17. Borkhausenia Hiib.

Borkhausenia Hiib., Verz. 420 (1826) ; type, minutella Linn. Crem-
nogenes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xvi, 45 (1884) ; type, oxyina
Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Hindwings elongate-ovate or
ovate-lanceolate.

A large genus of general distribution, but proportionately more numerous
in New Zealand than anywhere else. The larvae probably feed on dry
vegetable matter (bark, dead wood, dry leaves, &c.) rather than on growing
plants ; many of the species are common, and the larvae should not be
difficult to find in spring.

38. B. chrysogramma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 44.

Wellington, Mount Arthur, Lake Wakatipu.

39. B. loxotis Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1905, 241.

Wellington.

212 Transactions.

40. B. hoplodesma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 44 ; Trans. Ent Soc

Lond. 1901, 574.

Rakaia, Ben Lomond.

41. B. paratrimma Mew., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1909, 65.

Invercargill.

42. B. siderodeta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 43.

Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu,
Invercargill.

43. B. melanamma Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond. 1905, 240.

Dunedin, Invercargill.

44. B. maranta Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1885, 791.

Dunedin, Mount Earnslaw, Invercargill.

45. B. thmnias Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond. 1905, 240.

Whangarei.

46. B. horaea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 40.

Castle Hill, Bealey River.

47. B. macarella Meyr., Trans. N.Z, Inst. 1883, 43.

Wellington. ( 'hristchurch.

48. B. anaema Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 42.

Lake Wakatipu.

49. B. apanthes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 41.

Hamilton, Cambridge.

50. B. armigerella Walk., Cat, xxix; 698 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883,

41 : actinias Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond. 1901, 574.

Wellington, Greymoutli, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

51. B. phannactis Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc, Lond. 1905, 241.

Mount Arthur.

52. B. apertella Walk.. Cat, xxix, 698 ; bifaciella ibid. 810 ; oporaea Meyr.,

Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 40.

Wellington, Mount Arthur, Castle Hill, Lake Wakatipu, Inver-
cargill.

53. B. eripkaea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1913, 107.

Ben Lomond.

54. B. phegophylla Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 39.

Lake Wakatipu.

55. B. perichtora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1906, 119.

Invercargill.

56. B. basella Walk., Cat, xxviii, 492 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1906, 119 :

adeniptella Walk., Cat, xxix, 698.
Wellington.

57. B. politis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 81.

Wellington.

58. B. pronephela Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1906, 120.

Invercargill.

59. B. cMoradelpha Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc, Lond. 1905, 239.

Wellington.

Meyiuck. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 213

60. B. siderota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 82.

Mount Arthur, 4,000-4,500 ft.

61. B. epichalca Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1885, 7'.>:>>.

Arthur's Pass.

62. B. aphrontis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883. 46.

Arthur's Pass, Mount Arthur.

63. B. oxyina Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 45.

Lake Wakatipu.

64. B. monodonta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1910, 75 ; nigra Philp., Trans.

N.Z. Inst. 1913,' 120.

Mount Holdsworth, Lake Wakatipu.

65. B. nycteris Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1889. 219: ibid. 1910, 63.

Wellington, Otira River, Invereargill.

66. B. homodoxa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 43.

Lake Wakatipu.

67. B. griseata But!., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1877, 405.

I am now doubtful whether this is identical with any species
known to me.

68. B. innotella Walk., Cat. xxix, 652 : griseata Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.

1883, 39.

Whangarei, Auckland, Napier. Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch.
Castle Hill, Dunedin, Invereargill.

69. B. brachyacma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1908, 13.

Invereargill.

70. B. pentlialea Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1905, 239.

Wellington.

71.5. cenchrias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1908, 13.
Invereargill.

72. B. hemimocJila Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 38.

Hamilton, Cambridge, Napier, Wellington.

73. B. amnopis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1909, 65 ; ibid. 1910, 65.

Invereargill.

74. B. plagiatella Walk., Cat. xxviii, 485 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910,

64 : contextella Walk., Cat. xxix, 656.
Wellington, Nelson, Otira River.

75. B. crotala n. sp. ; contextella Mevr. (nee Walk.), Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883,

37 ; ibid. 1910, 64.

Christchurch, Dunedin, Invereargill, Lake Wakatipu.

76. B. epimylia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 36.

Nelson, Bealey River, Castle Hill.

77. B. ehloritis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 36.

Wellington, Lake Wakatipu.

78. B. letharga Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 35.

Dunedin.

79. B. asphaltis Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 65.

Central Otago(').

214 Transactions.

80. B. scholaea Meyr., Trans N.Z. Inst. 1883, 35.

Whangarei, Wellington. Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin, Inver-
cargill. Larva in a subterranean tube on roots of trees.

81. B. pseudospretella Staint., Cat. Brit. Tin. 14; Meyr.. Trans. NZ

Inst. 1883, 34.

North and South Islands, Chatham Islands; common in houses;
introduced from Europe, but of doubtful origin. Larva on seeds
and dry refuse.

18. Compsistis Meyr.

Compsistis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx, 89 (1888) ; tvpe, bifaciella
Walk.

Antennae as long as forewings, basal joint without peeten. Hindwings

igate-ovai

Endemic.

elongate-ovate

82. C. bifaciella Walk., Cat. xxix, (557 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 90.

Whangarei, Auckland, Wellington.

19. Thamnosara Meyr.

Thamnosara Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xvi, 27 (1884) ; tvpe, sublitella
Walk.

Basal joint of antennae without peeten. Second joint of labial palpi
with projecting tuft of scales beneath. Hindwings elongate-ovate.
Also endemic.

83. T. sublitella Walk.. Cat. xxix, 654 ; chirista Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.

1883, 27.

Whangarei, Wellington, Christchurcli, Mount Arthur (to 4,000 ft.).

t

20. Gymnobathra Meyr.

Gymnobathra Meyr.. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii, 425 (1883):
type> flavidella Walk.

Basal joint of antennae without peeten. Forewings with 2 rather
remote from angle, rlindwings elongate-ovate.
Endemic.

84. G. philadelpha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 33.

Mount Hutt,

85. G. hyetodes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 32.

Kaeo, Wellington.

86. G. habropis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 80.

Nelson.

87. G. hamatelU Walk., Cat, xxix, 700; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 31.

Nelson, Christchurcli, Akaroa.

88. G. flavidella Walk., Cat. xxix, 655 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 31 :

ntuella Feld., Reis, Nov. pi. cxl, 46.

Whangarei, Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurcli.

89. (i. sareoxantha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 29.

Christchurcli, Dunedin.

Mbtrick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 215

90. G. coarctatella Walk.. Cat. xxix. 768 ; Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 28.

Wellington, Nelson, Castle Hill.

91. G. parca Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1877, 105; Mevr., Trans. N.Z.

Inst, 1883, 29; limbata Butl.. Cist. Ent. ii. 560 (1880).
Wellington, Christchurch, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

92. G. calliploca Meyi., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 30.

Wellington, Dunedin.

93. G. bryauh Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. L905, 238.

Wellington.

94. G. thetodes Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soe. Lond. 1901, 574.

Akaroa, Oakley.

95. G. tholodella Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883. 30.

Hamilton, Palmerston, Christchurch, Dunedin.

96. G. ompkalota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 81.

Wellington. Christchurch, Lake Wakatipu.

21. Aochleta Mevr.

Aochleta Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii, 425 (1883); type,
psychra Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Second joint of labial palpi
with rough projecting scales towards apex beneath. Forewings with 2
remote from angle. Hindwings trapezoidal-ovate.

Endemic.

97. A. psychra Mevr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 21.

Castle Hill.

22. Izatha Walk.

Izaf/ia Walk., Cat. xxix, 786 (1864) ; type, attactellu Walk. Semio-
cosma Meyr., Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii, 424 (1883) ; type,
peroneanella Walk.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Terminal joint of labial palpi
with median scale-projection posteriorly. Forewings with tufts of scales ;
2 remote from angle. Hindwings trapezoidal-ovate, 5 bent and approxi-
mated to 4 at base.

Endemic.

98. /. peroneanella Walk., Cat. xxix, 658; Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883,

22 : Uchenella Walk.. Cat. xxix, 769 : (?) adapertella ibid. 653: huttonii
Butl., Cist. Ent. ii, 51 1 : mystis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 79.

Auckland, Hamilton, Napier. Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch,
Dunedin.

99. /. picarella Walk., Cat. xxix, 699; Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 23:

teras Feld., Reis. Nov. pi. cxl, 28.
Wellington, Dunedin. Invercargill.

100. /. balanophora Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1897, 389.

Wellington.

101. /. apodoxa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 79.

Wellington.

216 Transactions.

102 /. caustopa Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1891, 219.
Wellington.

103. I. aMactella Walk., Cat. xxix, 787; platyptera Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.

1887, 80.

Wellington. Larva under bark of Elaeocarpus dentatus.

104. I. copiosella Walk., Cat. xxx, 1028.

Ohakune.

105. /. metadella Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1905, 238 ; percnitis Meyr.,

Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1908, 14.
Wellington.

106. /. epiphanes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 24.

Wellington.

107. /. prasophyta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 25.

Taranaki, Wellington.

108. /. austera Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 25.

Whangarei, Wellington .

109. /. convulsdla Walk.. Cat. xxix, 656 ; paraneura Meyr., Trans. N.Z.

Inst, 1891, 219.
Wellington.

Group B. Eulechriades.

Antennae in S regularly ciliated ; 7 of forewings to apex.

23. Trachypepla Meyr.

Trachypepla Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii, 423 (1883) ;
type, euryleucota Meyr. Zirosaris Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xlii,
66 (1910) ; type, amorbas Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Thorax crested or smooth. Fore-
wings with tufts of scales. Hindwings elongate-ovate.

Besides the following, there are several Australian species.

110. T. leucoplanetis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 14.

Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, Mount Arthur (to 3,000 ft.),
Otira River.

111. T. euryleucota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 14.

Kaeo, Auckland, Cambridge, Wellington, Dunedin.

112. T. conspicuella Walk., Cat. xxix, 651 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883,

15 : taongella Feld., Reis. Nov. pi. cxl, 45.
Wellington, Christchurch.

113. T. amphileuca Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1913, 107.

Wainuiomata.

114. I. hieropis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1891, 218.

Wellington.

115. T. galaxias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 17.

Whangarei, Hamilton, Wellington, Bealey River.

116. T. spartodeta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 16.

Wellington.

117. T. ingenua Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 65.

Otira River.

Meyrick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 217

118. T. coHtriteUa Walk.. Cat. xxix, 657; nyctopis Meyr., Trans. x\T.Z. Inst.

1883, 16.

Auckland, Wellington. Nelson. Christchurch, Dunedin, Lake
Wakatipu.

119. T. protochlora Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883. 18.

Palmerston, Wellington, Otira River, Invercargill.

120. T. aspidephora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 19.

Wellington, Nelson. Mount Arthur (to 3,200 ft,). Christchurch,
Dunedin.

121. T. importuna Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 108.

Wellington, Ohakune.

122. T. vinaria Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 108.

Greymouth, Otira River.

123. T. lichenodes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 20 ; ibid. 1910, 66.

Wellington. Nelson. Otira River, Bealey River.

124. T. anastrella Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1883, 19.

Wellington, Nelson, Otira River, Christchurcli, Dunedin, Inver-
cargill.

125. T. amorbas Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1909, 66 ; ibid. 1910, 66.

Broken River, Lake Wakatipu.

126. T. phaeoptila Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond. 1905, 236.

Manga tere re River.

127. T. lathnopa Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc, Lond. 1905, 237.

Wellington, Nelson, Mount Arthur.

24. Atomotricha Meyr.

Atomotricha Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii, 423 (1883) ; type,
ommatias Meyr. Brachysara Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales
vii, 424 (1883) ; type, sordida Butl.

Antennae in $ with whorls of long cilia, basal joint with pecten. Thorax
smooth. Forewings with small tufts of scales. Hindwings elongate-ovate.
Wings in ? usually abbreviated or aborted.

Endemic.

128. A. sordida Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1877, 405 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z.

Inst. 1883, 11 ; ibid. 1913, 110.
Christchurch.

129. A. oeconoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 110.

Wellington.

130. A. versuta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 109.

Wellington.

131. A. chloronota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1913, 110.

Invercargill.

132. A. ommatias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883. 10 ; ibid. 1913, 109.

Christchurch.

133. A. exsomnis Meyr., Trans, N.Z. Inst. 1912, 26.

Ohakune.

218 Transactions.

134. A. colligatella Walk.. Cat. xxix, 768.

North Island (0-

135. A. isogama Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1908, 13; ibid. 1913, 109.

Wellington, Greymouth .

25. Barea Walk.

Barea Walk., Cat. xxix, 819 (1864) ; type, consignatella Walk.
Phloeopola Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales v'ii, 423 (1883) ;
type, confusella Walk.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Thorax with strong crest.
Forewings without tufts. Hindwings elongate-ovate.

A considerable Australian genus. The larvae probably feed in bark of
trees.

136. B. dinocosma Meyr., Proc Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1883, 349 ; Trans.

N.Z. Inst. 1883," 12.
Wellington.

137. B. confusella Walk., Cat. xxix, 682; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.

Wales 1883, 354.

Wellington, Levin. Probably a recent introduction from south-
east Australia, where it is common, attached to Eucalyptus.

26. Eulechria Meyr.

Eulechria Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii, 508 (1883) ; type,
exanimis Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Thorax smooth. Forewings with-
out tufts. Hindwings elongate-ovate.
A very large Australian genus.

138. E. photinella Meyr.. Proc, Linn.' Soc N.S. Wales 1882, 541; Trans.

N.Z. Inst, 1883, 9.

Wellington, Mount Arthur (to 4,000 ft,), Otira River.

139. E. zop/ioessa Meyr., Proc Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1882, 515; Trans.

N.Z. Inst. 1883, 8.
Wellington.

Group C. Philobotides.

Antennae in £ regularly ciliated ; 7 of forewings to termen.

27. Oxythecta Meyr.

Oxythecta Meyr., Proc Linn. Soc. N.S. Whales vii, 422 (1883) ; type,
acceptella Walk.

Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Second joint of labial palpi ex-
panded, with scales beneath on posterior half and rough towards apex,
terminal joint as long as second. Hindwings elongate-ovate or ovate-
lanceolate.

An Australian genus of a few species.

140. 0. austrina Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 107.

Ben Lomond.

Metrick. — Revision of Neu Zealand Tineina. 219

28. Philobota Mow.

Philobota Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii. 422 (1883) ; type,
arabella, Newni.

Basal joint of antennae with pecten. .Second joint of labial palpi with
appressed scales, somewhat loose towards apex beneath, terminal joint
shorter than second. Hindwings elongate-ovate.

A very large Australian genus, already including about 250 species.

141. P. aletis Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1905. 235.

Arthur's Pass.

142. P. ainenena Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 78.

Arthur's Pass (4,700 ft.), Mount Arthur (4,000 ft,).

Group D. Depressariades.
Antennae in £ simple or shortly and irregularly ciliated.

29. Nymphostola Meyr.

Nymphostola Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii. 491 (1883);
type, galactina Feld.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Second joint of labial palpi
with short triangular tuft of scales at apex beneath. Fore wings with 7 to
apex. Hindwings ovate, 5 bent and approximated to 4 at base.

Endemic.

143. N. galactina Feld., Eeis. Nov. pi. cxl. 34 ; Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.

1883, 6.

Hamilton, Wellington, Greymouth. Otira River. Dunedin. Larva
on My Has.

30. Proteodes Meyr.

Proteodcs Meyr., Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales vii, 492 (1883) ; type,
carnifex Butl.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Second joint of labial palpi
with appressed scales, somewhat rough beneath. Forewings with 7 to apex.
Hindwings ovate, 5 bent and approximated to 4 at base.

Endemic.

144. P. carnifex Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc Lond. 1877, 406 ; Mevr., Trans.

N.Z. Inst. 1883, 7 : rujosparsa Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond". 1877. 406.
Christchurch, Mount Hutt, Castle Hill, Arthur's Pass, Lake Waka-
tipu. Larva on Fagus solandri and probably other trees or shrubs.

145. P. profunda Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1905, 236.

Mount Holdsworth (2,000 ft,).

31. Lathicrossa Meyr.

Lathicrossa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xvi, 26 (1884) ; type, leaco-
centra Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Second joint of labial palpi
thickened with appressed scales. Thorax crested. Forewings with 7 to
costa, Hindwings trapezoidal-ovate.

Endemic.

220 Transactions.

146. L. leucocentra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1883, 26.

Whangarei, Auckland. Wellington, Dunedin.

32. Cryptolechia Zell.

Cryptolechia Zell., Lep. Micr. Caffr. 106 (1852) ; type, straminella

Zell. Phaeosaces Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 171 (1886) ;

type, apocrypta Meyr. Leptosaces Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx,

77 (1888) ; type, callixyla Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Second joint of labial palpi

with appressed scales. Thorax smooth. Fore wings with 7 to costa or apex.

Hindwings trapezoidal-ovate.

A considerable genus of wide distribution.

147. C. caUixyla Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 78.

Whangarei, Nelson.

148. C. semnodes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1910, 75.

Mount Arthur (4,200 ft,).

149. C. apocrypta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885. 172.

Christchurch, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

150. C. liochroa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1890, 98.

Wellington, Otira River, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

151. C. compsotypa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 172.

Whangarei, Auckland, Hamilton.

33. Symmoca Hub.

Symmoca Hub., Verz. 403 (1826) ; type, signella Hub. Oegoconia
Staint,, Ins. Brit. Tin. 163 (1854) ; type, quadripuncta Haw.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Second joint of labial palpi
with appressed scales. Thorax smooth. Forewings with 7 to costa. Hind-
wings elongate-ovate, 6 and 7 stalked.

A genus of some extent, chiefly Etiropean. The following species must
be an accidental introduction.

152. S. quadripuncta Haw., Lep. Brit. 557 ; Meyr., Handb. Brit. Lep. 61 1.

Nelson. Widely distributed in Europe, attached to neighbour-
hood of houses, but larval habits not known.

34. Eutorna Meyr.

Eutorna Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxi, 157 (1889) ; type, caryochroa
Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Second joint of labial palpi
thickened with dense appressed scales. Thorax smooth. Forewings with
6 to apex. Hindwings elongate-ovate ; 3 and 4 separate, 5 bent,

Contains about a dozen Australian species and one Indian.

153. E. caryochroa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 158.

Castle Hill, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

154. E. symmorpha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 158.

Whangarei, Hamilton, Palmerston, Napier, Christchurch, Dun-
edin, Invercargill.

Metrics:. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 221

6. Xyloryctidae.

Head with loosely appressed scales. Labial palpi long, recurved, acute.
Maxillary palpi very short, appressed. Forewings with 2 remote from
angle, 7 and 8 stalked or separate. Hindwings broadly trapezoidal, apex
obtuse, terrnen faintly sinuate ; 3 and 4 connate, 5 rather approximated,
6 and 7 approximated or stalked.

A large family, chiefly found in the Southern Hemisphere and Indian
regions ; most numerous in South America.

35. Scieropepla Meyr.

Scieropepla Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 165 (1886) ; type, typhicola
Meyr.
Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to costa.
A small Australian genus.

155. S. typhicola Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1885, 165.

Christchurch ; also occurs in south-east Australia, which is
probably its home. Larva in seed-heads and stems of Typha.

36. Agriophara Ros.

Agriophara Ros., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5) xvi, 439 (1885) ; type,
cinerosa Ros. Hypeuryniis Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc, Lond. 1897,
389 ; type, coricopa Meyr.

Forewings with 7 and 8 separate, 7 to apex.

Includes a moderate number of Australian and Indian species.

156. A. coricopa Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1897, 389.

Wellington, Greymouth.

7. Heliodinidae.

Head smooth. Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Labial palpi
long, recurved, slender, acute. Maxillary palpi rudimentary or obsolete.
Posterior legs raised from surface in repose, tarsi with whorls of bristles
at apex of basal joints. Forewings with 7 and 8 separate or stalked. Hind-
wings lanceolate, 2-5 remote.

A considerable family, chiefly tropical.

37. Calicotis Meyr.

Galicotis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxi, 170 (1889) ; type, crucijera
Meyr.

Basal joint of antennae dilated to form an eye-cap. Hindwings with 4
absent.

Also occurs in Australia and the Seychelles (probably the Malavan
region).

157. C. crucijera Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 170.

Taranaki, Palmerston ; occurs also in eastern Australia. Larva
in fructification of staghorn fern (Platy cerium).

222 Transactions.

38. Vanicela Walk.

Vanicela Walk.. Cat. xxx, 1039 (1864) ; type, disjunctella Walk.

Antennae in <$ with long ciliations, basal joint dilated to form an eye-cap.
Anterior legs thickened with scales. Hindwings with 4 present.
There are three other species in eastern Australia.

158. V. disjunctella Walk., Cat, xxx, 1039 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888,

166.

Wbangarei, Auckland, Taranaki, Palmerston, Masterton, Wel-
lington, Nelson.

39. Stathmopoda Staint.

StatJunopoda Staint., Ins. Brit, Tin. 227 (1854) ; type, pedella Linn.
Boocara Butl., Cist. Ent. ii, 562 (1880) ; type, shelloni Butl.

Antennae in <$ with long ciliations. Hindwings with 4 present.
A large genus, especially characteristic of the Indian and Australian
regions.

159. S. caminora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1889, 219.

Wellington.

160. S. campi/locJta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 168.

Wellington, Dunedin.

161. S. holochra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 168.

Wellington.

162. S.jusilis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 111.

Wellington.

163. S. phlegyra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 168.

Kaeo, Auckland, Taranaki, Palmerston, Wanganui, Wellington.

164. S. shelloni Butl., Cist. Ent, ii, 562 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 169.

Taranaki, Palmerston, Wellington, Blenheim, Nelson. Christchurch,
Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

165. S. aposema Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond. 1901, 575.

Auckland.

166. S. plumbiflua Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 75.

Invercargill.

167. S. mysteriastis Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc, Lond. 1901, 575.

Auckland, Wellington.

40. Pachyrhabda Meyr.

Pachi/rhabda Meyr., Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales xxii, 312 (1897) ;
type, steropodes Meyr.

Antennae in £ stout, simple. Hindwings with 4 absent.
Includes a few species from India, Australia, and Africa.

168. P. epichlora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 169.

Auckland, Wellington, Otira River.

169. P. antinoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1909. 72.

Kermadec Islands. This widely distributed species, which ranges
from India to eastern Australia, may perhaps occur in the North
Island.

Meybick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 223

41. Thylacosceles Meyr.

Thylacosceles Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. xxi. 171 (1889); type, acri-
domima Meyr.

Antennae in $ stout, simple. Posterior tibiae with triangular tuft of
scales on posterior half. Hind wings with 4 present.

Besides the following there are two species from Ceylon.

170. T. acridomiHta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 17 L.

Wellington.

8. Aegeriadae.

Head with appressed scales. Antennae dilated on apical half. Labial
palpi moderately long, curved, ascending, terminal joint short, pointed.
Maxillary palpi rudimentary. Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked. Hindwings
elongate-ovate, 5 absent, 6 and 7 nearly parallel, 8 concealed in rolled costa.

A rather considerable family, principally inhabiting the Northern
Hemisphere.

42. Trochilium Scop.

Authorities disagree as to the proper name for this genus ; many use
Sesia Fab., but, as this is employed by others in quite a different sense, it
seems better to use the name Trochilium as less liable to misinterpretation.

171. T. tipuliforme Clerck, Icon. pi. ix, 1 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1889,

214.

Nelson. Christchurch, Dunedin ; introduced artificially from
Europe. Larva in stems of garden currant (Ribes).

9. Glyphipterygidae.

Head with appressed scales. Basal joint of antennae without pecten.
Labial palpi moderate, curved, ascending, terminal joint compressed,
pointed or obtuse. Maxillary palpi rudimentary. Forewings with 7 and 8
separate or stalked. Hindwings ovate or elongate-ovate ; 3 and 4 connate,
5-7 somewhat approximated towards base or nearly parallel.

A considerable family, more especially characteristic of the equatorial
region and Southern Hemisphere, except Africa.

43. Coridomorpha Meyr.

Coridomorpha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xlvi, 111 (1914) ; type, Stella
Meyr.
Basal half of antennae thickened with dense scales. Labial palpi long,
second joint with appressed scales, terminal joint shorter, aciite. Forewings
with 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to costa.
Endemic.

172. C. stella Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1913, 111.

Auckland, Wellington.

44. Hierodoris Meyr.
Hierodoris Meyr., Exot, Micr. i, 41 (1912) ; type, iophanes Meyr.
Labial palpi with appressed scales, terminal joint shorter than second,
pointed. Forewings with 7 absent.
Endemic,

173. H. iophanes Meyr., Exot. Micr. i, 42 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1912, 27.

Wellington.

224 '' Transactions.

45. Heliostibes Zell.

Heliostibes Zell., Verh. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien xxiv, 434 (1874) ;
type, maihewi Zell.

Labial palpi with appressed scales, terminal joint shorter than second,
acute. Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to apex.

Besides the following only one Chilian species is known.

174. H. callispora Meyr., Exot. Micr. i, 41 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1912, 27.

Wellington.

175. H. electrica Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 157.

Nelson, Mount Arthur (4,700 ft.), Invercargill, Lake Tekapo.

176. H. atychioides Butl., Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1877, 405, pi. xliii, 14 ;

Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 83.

Whangarei, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch.

177. H. illita Feld., Eeis. Nov. pi. cxl, 32 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 83.

Nelson, Dunedin.

46. Simaethis Leach.
Simaethis Leach, Edin. Encycl. ix, 135 (1815) ; type, jabriciana Linn.
Labial palpi with second joint more or less roughly scaled, terminal
joint shorter, thickened with scales, obtuse. Forewings with 7 to termen.
A considerable genus, most numerous within the tropics.

178. S. exocha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1906, 121.

Lake Wakatipu.

179. S. zomeuta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1911, 121.

Mount Arthur (4,600 ft.).

180. S. combinatana Walk., Cat. xxviii, 456 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.

Wales 1880, 213 ; Huds., Ent. M. Mag. 1890, 22 : abstitella Walk.,
Cat, xxx, 997.

Wellington. Larva on Senecio bellidioides.

181. S. coif ota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 67.

Invercargill.

182. S. iochondra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 77.

Mount Holdsworth (3,000 ft.).

183. S. symbolaea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 85.

Arthur's Pass.

184. S. ministra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1911, 121.

Mount Holdsworth.

185. S. marmarea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 85.

Lake Wakatipu.

186. S. analoga Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1911, 122.

Mount Arthur (4,000 ft.).

187. S. mdcrolitha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 84 ; ibid. 1911, 122.

Castle Hill, Arthur's Pass.

188. S. antigrapha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 76.

Wellington.

189. 8. barbigera Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1914, 203.

Hunter Mountains.

Meyrick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 225

47. Choreutis Hub.
Choreutis Hub., Verz. 373 (1826) ; type, myllerana Fab.
Labial palpi with second joint roughly tufted, terminal joint slender,
pointed. Forewings with 7 to termen.

Chiefly American and Indo-Malayan, ranging into Australia and Europe.

190. C. bjerkandrella Thunb., Diss. Ent. i, 36, pi. iii, 23. 24 ; Meyr., Proc,

Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 215.
Kaeo, Whangarei, Hamilton, Taranaki, Palmerston, Napier, Nelson. A
cosmopolitan species. Larva on thistle (Carduus) and other Compositae.

48. Pantosperma Meyr.

Pantosperma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx, 89 (1888) ; type, holochalca
Meyr.

Antennae almost as long as forewings. Labial palpi with appressed
scales, slightly rough anteriorly, terminal joint as long as second, pointed.
Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked, 7 to termen. Hindwings lanceolate.

Endemic.

191. P. holochalca Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 89.

Makatoku, Wellington.

49. Glyphipteryx Hub.

Glyphipteryx Hub., Verz. 421 (1826) ; type, thrasoneUa Scop. Phry-
ganostola Meyr.. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 248 ; type,
drosophaes Meyr. Circica Meyr.. Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx, 88 (1888) ;
type, cionophora Meyr.

Labial palpi with second joint loosely or roughly scaled in whorls, some-
times tufted, terminal joint compressed, roughened, pointed. Forewings
with 7 to termen, 7 and 8 sometimes stalked.

A large cosmopolitan genus, but especially well represented in Australia
and New Zealand, very scantily in Europe, Africa, and North America.

192. G. cionophora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 88.

Christchurch, Dunedin.

193. G. xestobela Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 89.

Arthur's Pass.

194. G. rugata Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1914, 203.

Tisbury.

195. G. ataracta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 88.

Mount Arthur (4,600 ft,).

196. G. achlyoessa Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales 1880, 252.

Auckland, Wellington, Invercargill.

197. G. bactrias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 67.

Invercargill.

198. G. metasticta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1906, 120.

Invercargill.

199. G. aulogramma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1907, 121.

Invercargill.

8— Trans.

226 Transactions.

200. G. codonias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1908, 15.

Invercargill.

201. G. transversella Walk., Cat. xxx, 849 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S

Wales 1880, 246 : (?) morangella Feld., Reis. Nov. pi. cxl, 39.
Auckland, Napier.

202. G. astrapaea Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales 1880, 245.

Cambridge, Christchurch, Mount Arthur (to 4,500 ft.), Bealey
River, Invercargill.

203. G. aerifera Meyr., Exot. Micr. i, 57 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1912, 28.

Mount Ruapehu (4,500 ft.).

204. G. oxymachaera Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales 1880, 251.

Auckland, Wellington, Christcnurch, Castle Hill, Lake Wakatipu
(to 4,000 ft.), Invercargill.

205. G. scolias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1909, 73.

Kermadec Islands.

206. G. calliactis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 112.

Kaitoke. Larva in flower-stems of Gahnia.

207. G. iocheaera Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales 1880, 243.

Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Castle Hill, Dunedin, Lake
Wakatipu, Invercargill. Larva on Juncus.

208. G. leptosema Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 87 ; ibid. 1910, 75.

Auckland, Wellington. Larva in flower-stems of Gahnia setifolia.

209. G. dichorda Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 76.

Whangarei, Wellington.

210. G. asteronota Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 240; (?) tungeUa

Feld.; Reis. Nov. pi. cxl, 40.

Whangarei, Auckland, Napier.

211. G. euastera Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 236.

Christchurch.

212. G. acrothecta Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S. Wales 1880, 244.

Christchurch, Castle Hill.

213. G. nephoptera Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 87.

Christchurch.

214. G. zelota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 86.

Whangarei, Waitakere Range.

215. G. acronoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 86.

Mount Arthur (4,000 ft.).

216. G. erastis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 76.

Christchurch, Castle Hill, Lake Wakatipu.

217. G. triselena Meyr., Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 234 ; ibid. 1882,

188.

Christchurch, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

10. Hyponomeutidae.

Head with appressed scales or rough on crown. Labial palpi moderate,
ascending, rather pointed. Maxillary palpi rudimentary or obsolete. Fore-

Meyrick.— Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 227

wings with costal stigmatium between 11 and 12,V7 and Separate or stalked,
7 to termen. Hindwings elongate-ovate or lanceolate ; 4 absent.

A considerable family, generally distributed, but almost absent from
New Zealand.

50. Zelleria Staint.

Zelleria Staint., Cat. Brit. Tin. 22 (1849) ; type, hepariella Staint.
Hofmannia Wocke, Hein. Scbmett. Deutscb. ii (2), 644 (1877) ;
type, saxifragae Staint. Gircostola Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxi,
163 (1889) ; type, copidota Meyr.

Head rough on crown. Hindwings lanceolate.
Of moderate extent and generally distributed.

218. Z. copidota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 163.

Wellington, Nelson, Otira Eiver, Lake Wakatipu.

219. Z. sphenota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 162.

Cbristcburcb.

51. Hyponomeuta Latr.
Hyponomeuta Latr., Gen. Crust. Ins. iv, 222 (1796).

Head with appressed scales. Hindwings elongate-ovate.
Includes about fifty species, generally distributed.

220. H. cuprea Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc, Lond. 1901, 575.

Wellington, Lake Wakatipu.

11. Gracilariadae.

Head with appressed scales. Antennae 1 or over 1. Labial palpi
slender, ascending, tolerably pointed. Maxillary palpi moderate, filiform,
porrected. Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked or separate. Hindwings lanceo-
late or linear.

An extensive family of general distribution.

52. Acrocercops Wall.

Acrocercops Wall., Ent, Tidskr. ii, 95 (1881) ; type, brongniardella
Fab. Conopomorpha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 183 (1886) ;
type, cyanospila Meyr.

Middle tibiae not thickened ; posterior tibiae with series of projecting
bristly scales above.

A large genus, principally developed in the Indo-Australian region. The
larvae usually mine blotches in leaves.

221. A. cyanospila Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1885, 183.

Taranaki, Palmerston, Masterton, Makatoku, Wellington.

53. Parectopa Clem.

Parectopa Clem., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad. 1860, 210 ; type,
lespedezifoliella Clem.

Middle tibiae not thickened ; posterior tibiae without bristly scales.
Of considerable extent and generally distributed.

8*

228 Transactions.

222. P. aethalota Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 143 ; Trans.

N.Z. Inst. 1888, 185.
Dunedin.

223. P. leucocyma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 184.

Auckland.

224. P. aellomacha Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 158.

Wellington, Christchurch.

225. P. miniella Feld., Keis. Nov. pi. cxl, 42 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.

1888, 185; Gen. Ins. 128, f. 3; ethela Meyr.,' Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.
Wales 1880, 152.

Kaeo, Waitakere Ranges, Hamilton, Palmerston, Taranaki,
Wellington.

54. Gracilaria Haw.
Gracilaria Haw., Lep. Brit. 527 (1828) ; type, syringella Fab.
Middle tibiae thickened with dense scales ; posterior tibiae without
bristly scales.

A large genus, universally distributed.

226. G. octopunctata Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr. 1894, 123.

Kermadec Islands ; also in India, Australia, and Africa. Larva
on Dalbergia sissu.

227. G. linearis Butl, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1877, 406 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z.

Inst. 1888, 183 ; ibid. 1910, 67.

Napier, Wellington, Christchurch, Arthur's Pass, Invercargill.

228. G. elaeas Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 66.

Castle Hill. Larva on Coriaria.

229. G. selenitis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1908, 15.

Mount Holdsworth (3,000 ft.).

230- G. clmjsitis Feld., Reis. Nov. pi. cxl, 43; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst,
1888^ 183 : adelina Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 142 :
rutilans Butl., Cist. Ent. ii, 561.

Kaeo, Hamilton, Palmerston, Wellington, Christchurch.

231. G. chalcodelta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 183.

Whangarei, Auckland, Taranaki, Masterton, Makatoku, Wellington.

12. COLEOPHORIDAE.

Head with appressed scales. Labial palpi bent, ascending, pointed, with
scales of second joint somewhat angularly projecting beneath at apex.
Maxillary palpi rudimentary. Forewings with 5 absent, 7 to costa, 8 absent,
Hindwings linear-lanceolate.

A considerable family of wide distribution.

55. Batrachedra Staint.

Batrachedra Staint., Ins. Brit. Tin. 230 (1854) ; type, praeangusta
Haw.
A genus of some extent, principally Indo-Australian.

Metrick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 229

232. B. psithyra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 181.

Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, Nelson, Invercargill.

233. B. tristicta Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond. 1901, 579.

Makatoku.

234. B. arenosella Walk., Cat. xxx, 857 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 181.

Palmerston, Wellington, Christchurch ; also common and widely
distributed in Australia. Larva on seeds of Juncus.

235. B. eucola Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 180.

Bealey River.

236. B. agaura Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, 579.

Whangarei, Wellington, Nelson, Mount Arthur, Invercargill.

13. Plutellidae.

Head usually with appressed scales. Labial palpi bent, ascending,
pointed, terminal joint as long as second or longer. Maxillary palpi rather
short, filiform, porrected. Forewings with 7 and 8 separate or stalked.
Hind wings trapezoidal-ovate or elongate-ovate.

A small family of considerable antiquity.

56. Dolichernis Meyr.

Dolichernis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxiii, 99 (1891) ; type,
chloroleuca Meyr.
Head rough on crown. Antennae over 1, basal joint with pecten.
Forewings with 4 absent. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate.
Endemic.

237. D. chloroleuca Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1890, 99.

Wellington.

57. Doxophyrtis Meyr.

Doxophyrtis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xlvi, 112 (1914) ; type,
hydrocosma Meyr.
Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Hindwings with 3 and 4
connate.
Endemic.

238. D. hydrocosma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 113.

Kaeo, Waitakere Ranges.

58. Protosynaema Meyr.

Protosynaema Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 173 (1886) ; type,
eratopis Meyr.

Antennae thickened with scales towards base, basal joint without pecten.
Forewings with 7 and 8 separate. Hindwings with 3 and 4 remote.
Endemic.

239. P. steropucha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 174; ibid. 1913, 112.

Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch.

240. P. eratopis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 174.

Mount Arthur, Otira River.

230 Transactions.

59. Phylacodes Me^yr.

Phylacodes Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1905, 241 ; type, cauta
Meyr.
Antennae thickened with scales on basal half, basal joint without pecten.
Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked. Hind wings with 3 and 4 rather approxi-
mated.

Endemic.

241. P. cauta Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond. 1905, 242.

Dunedin.

60. Orthenches Meyr.

Orthenches Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 175 (1886) ; type,
chlorocoma Meyr.
Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Forewings with 7 and 8 separate.
Hind wings with 3 and 4 remote.

Besides the following there are at present known only one Australian
and one Indian species.

242. 0. saleuta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1912, 28.

Waiouru.

243. 0. drosochalca Meyr., Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond. 1905, 242.

Wellington, Otira River.

244. O. porphyritis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 176.

Otira River, Dunedin, Invercargill. Larva on Podocarpus totara.

245. O. chlorocoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 175.

Christchurch. Larva on Carmichaelia australis.

246. O. prasinodes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 176.

Christchurch, Wainuiomata, Greymouth.

61. Plutella Schranck.

Plutella Schranck, Faun. Boic. ii, 169 (1802) ; type, porrectella Linn.

Basal joint of antennae with dense pecten. Labial palpi with second
joint tufted beneath. Forewings with 7 and 8 separate. Hindwings with
3 and 4 connate or somewhat approximated.

A small cosmopolitan genus.

247. P. megalynta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1914, 203.

Wellington.

248. P. sera Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1885, 178.

Whangarei, Taranaki, Palmerston, Makatoku, Christchurch ;
also common in Australia and India, Probably artificially intro-
duced.

249. P. antiphona Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, 576.

Wellington.

250. P. psammochroa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 179.

Otira River; also occurs in Australia.

251. P. maculipennis Curt., Brit. Ent. pi. 420 ; cruciferarum Zell., Meyr.

Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 177.

Cambridge, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, Bealey
River, Lake Wakatipu, doubtless universal ; Kermadec Islands.
Occurs throughout the world, being the most cosmopolitan of the
Lepidoptera. Larva on cabbage, turnip, and other Cruciferae.

Meyrick. — Revision of Jew Zealand Tineina. 231

14. Nepticulidae.

r^| Head roughly tufted. Basal joint of antennae forming an eye-cap.
Labial palpi short, drooping. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings
with cell open, 3-5 absent, 9 absent. Hindwings lanceolate, cell open,
3-5 absent ; frenulum multiple in both sexes.

These minute insects are so generally overlooked that their distribution
is little known, but they occur in all regions.

62. Nepticula Heyd.
Nepticula Heyd., Ber. Ver. Nat, Mainz. 1842, 201.

252. N. ogygia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 187.

Dunedin.

253. N. tricentra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 187.

Christchurch.

254. N. propalaea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 187.

Arthur's Pass.

15. Lyonettadae.

Head usually tufted on crown, sometimes smooth. Antennae with basal
joint often forming an eye-cap. Labial palpi porrected or subascending,
more or less obtuse. Maxillary palpi usually long, folded. Forewings with
apex bent up or down. Hindwings lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate.

A considerable family, generally distributed.

63. Bedellia Staint.

Bedellia Staint., Cat. Brit. Tin. 23 (1849) ; type, somnulentella Zell.

Head rough on crown, face smooth. Basal joint of antennae rather
stout, with large dense pecten. Labial palpi short, porrected. Maxillary
palpi rudimentary. Forewings with 4 and 5 absent. Hindwings linear-
lanceolate ; 3 and 4 absent.

A small genus of scattered species.

255. B. somnulentella Zell., Isis 1847, 894 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888,

164.

Dunedin. Nearly cosmopolitan in suitable localities, but pro-
bably artificially introduced. Larva mining in leaves of Convoloulus
and Ipomoea.

256. B. psamminella Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 165.

Taranaki, Christchurch, Dunedin.

64. Cateristis Meyr.

Cateristis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxi, 163 (1889) ; type, eustyla
Meyr.

ead rough on crown, face smooth. Basal joint of antennae enlarged,
with dense pecten forming an eye-cap. Labial palpi short, drooping.

232 Transactions.

Maxillary palpi rudimentary. Forewings with 3 and 4 absent, 9 absent.
Hindwings lanceolate ; 3 and 4 absent.
Contains only the following species.

257. C. eustyla Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 164.

Christchurch ; also occurs in Tasmania.

65. Opogona Zell.

Opogona Zell., Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. xxvi, 507 (1853) ; type,
dimidiatella Zell. Lozoslonia Staint., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. (2)
v, 124 (1860) ; type, flavqfasciata Staint.

Head smooth, with raised fillet between antennae. Basal joint of
antennae very long, flattened, concave beneath. Labial palpi moderately
long, porrected, diverging. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings with
6-8 stalked. Hindwings lanceolate.

A considerable genus, widely distributed in warm regions. The larvae
feed on dry vegetable matter.

258. 0. comptella Walk., Cat. xxx, 1007 ; Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales

1897, 416.

Nelson. Common in south-east Australia, whence it must have
been accidentally introduced.

259. 0. aurisquamosa Butl., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5) vii, 403.

Kermadec Islands ; also in Hawaiian, Marquesas, and Society
Islands. Bred from sugar-cane, &c.

66. Hieroxestis Meyr.

Hieroxestis Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1892, 567 ; type,
omoscopa Meyr. Amphixystis Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.
1901, 576 ; type, hapsimacha Meyr.

Head smooth, with raised fillet between antennae and tuft of hairs
behind it. Basal joint of antennae very long, flattened, concave beneath.
Labial palpi moderately long, subascending, diverging. Maxillary palpi
long, folded. Forewings with 6-8 stalked. Hindwings lanceolate.

Attains some development in Indian and African regions.

260. H. omoscopa Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1892, 567.

Kaeo, Waikino ; also in Australia and South Africa, the latter
country being apparently its home. Has been bred from cork, with
which it is probably introduced.

261. H. hapsimacha Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, 577.

Kaeo, Wellington.

67. Eugennaea n.g.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae somewhat dilated. Labial palpi
moderately long, porrected, second joint with projecting scales beneath
towards apex, terminal joint shorter than second, loosely scaled, somewhat
pointed. Maxillary palpi long, folded, filiform. Posterior tibiae clothed
with hairs. Forewings with 4 absent, 6 almost to apex, 7 absent. Hind-
wings elongate-ovate ; 2-4 parallel, 5 and 6 stalked, 6 to termen, 7 parallel.

Endemic. Differs from Decadarchis by 6 of hindwings running]|to
termen.

Meyrick. — Revision of Xew Zealand Tineina. 233

•

262. E. laquearia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1913, 113.

Kaeo, Porirua.

68. Erechthias Meyr.

Erechthias Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales v, 261 (1880) ; type,
charadrota Meyr.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae moderate. Labial palpi
moderately long, more or less loosely scaled. Maxillary palpi long,
folded. Forewings with 4 absent, 7 separate or stalked with 8. Hindwings
lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate ; 5 and 6 stalked, 6 to costa.

A genus of some extent, most developed in the Indo-Malayan and Aus-
tralian regions. I regret when restricting the genus Erechthias to have
misapplied the name to the following genus, overlooking the fact that the
neural characters originally assigned to it only agree with this one. For this
genus I have hitherto used the name Ereunetis, but I now consider that
Ereunetis (type iidoptera Meyr.) must be maintained as a distinct genus,
characterized by having the cell of hindwings open between 3 and 4, and
not represented in New Zealand. Decadarchis also does not occur in New
Zealand.

263. E. monastra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1890, 100.

Wellington.

264. E. externella Walk., Cat. xxx, 841 ; erebistis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.

1891, 220.
Wellington.

265. E. acrodina Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1911, 122.

Wellington.

266. E. melanotricha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 93.

Whangarei, Auckland.

267. E. terminella Walk., Cat. xxviii, 548: subpavonella ibid, xxx, 898;

Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 269.
Auckland, Taranaki.

268. E. charadrota Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 268.

Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Christchurch.

269. E . flavistriata Wals., Faun. Haw. i, 716, pi. xxv, 18.

Kermadec Islands ; also occurs in the Hawaiian Islands.

-270. E. exospila Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, 577.
Whangarei, Kaeo.

271. E. hemiclistra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 77.

Wellington, Makara, Invercargill. Larva in flower-stems of
Arundo conspicua.

272. E.fidguritfUa Walk., Cat. xxviii, 548.

Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

69. Hectacma n.g.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae elongate. Labial palpi moderately
long, terminal joint enlarged with scales projecting at apex, longer than

234 Transactions.

second. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings with all veins present,
7 separate. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate ; 5 and 6 stalked, 6 to apex or
costa (chionodira) .

Type chasmatias Meyr. Endemic.

273. H. chionodira Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 268.

Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington.

274. H. stilbella Doubl, Dieff. N. Zeal, ii, 289 ; Walk., Cat, xxx, 849 ; Meyr.,

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 265.

Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Lower Hutt Eiver.

275. H. chasmatias Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 264.

Whangarei, Wellington.

70. Tephrosara n.g.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae flattened, excavated beneath.
Labial palpi moderately long, with rough projecting scales beneath through-
out. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings with all veins present,
7 and 8 stalked. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate ; 5 and 6 stalked. 6 to termen..

Endemic.

276. T. cimmeria Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 113.

Waitakere Ranges.

71. Petasactis n.g.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae flattened, excavated beneath.
Labial palpi moderately long, second joint with projecting scales towards
apex beneath. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings with all veins
present, 7 and 8 stalked. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate ; 5 and 6 stalked,.

6 to costa.

Endemic.

277. P. technica Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 92.

Whangarei.

72. Dryadaula Meyr.

Dryadaula Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales xvii, 559 (1892) ;
type, glycinopa Meyr.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae moderate. Labial palpi mode-
rately long. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings with all veins present,

7 and 8 stalked. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate ; 6 absent.

Besides the following there are several Australian species.

278. D. myrrhina Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1905, 243.

Kaeo, Kaitoke, Wellington.

279. D. pactolia Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1901, 577.

Wellington, Nelson, Bealey River.

73. Eschatotypa Meyr.

Eschatotypa Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales v, 256 (1880) ; type,
melichrysa Meyr.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae moderate, excavated beneath.
Labial palpi moderately long, second joint with projecting scales towards

Metrick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 235

apex beneath. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings with all veins
present, 7 separate. Hind wings ovate-lanceolate ; 5 and 6 stalked, 6 to
termen.

Endemic.

280. E. melichrysa Mevr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1880, 257 ; Trans.

N.Z. Inst, 1908/16.

Whangarei, Auckland, Kaeo, Nelson, Dunedin, Invercargill.

281. E. derogatella Walk., Cat. xxviii, 485.

Auckland, Masterton, Wellington, Christchurch, Invercargill.

16. TlNEIDAE.

Head usually rough ; tongue usually absent, Labial palpi porrected
or subascending, more or less obtuse. Maxillary palpi often long, folded.
Forewings with 7 usually to costa, separate. Hind wings elongate-ovate
or lanceolate ; 2—4 usually remote, parallel, 5 and 6 sometimes stalked,
7 separate.

A very large family of universal distribution, but relatively most numerous
in Africa. The larvae usually feed on dead wood, lichens, refuse, &c.

74. Endophthora Meyr.

Endophthora Meyr., Trans. X.Z. Inst, xx, 93 (1888) ; type, omo-
gramma Meyr.

Head rough. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings with 2 and 3
connate from angle, 4 absent. Hindwings lanceolate ; cell open between
3 and 4, 5 and 6 stalked.

Endemic, as now restricted.

282. E. omogramma Meyr., Trans. X.Z. Inst. 1887, 94.

Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, Mount Arthur.

75. Crypsitricha n.g.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae rather dilated, with pecten. Labial
palpi rather long, subascending, second joint with appressed scales, terminal
joint shorter than second, slender. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings
with all veins present ; on lower surface with fringe of short hairs on vein 16
in disc, Hindwings lanceolate.

Type, mesotypa Meyr. Besides the following there is one Australian
species.

283. C. stereota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 114.

Auckland.

284. C. pharotoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 94.

Whangarei, Palmerston, Christchurch.

285. C. agriopa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 95.

Wellington.

286. C. mesotypa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 94.

Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

287. C. roseata Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1912, 28.

Wadestown, Wainuiomata.

236 Transactions.

76. Habrophila Meyr.

Habrophila Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxi, 161 (1889) ; type, compsevla
Meyr.

Head shortly rough - haired. Basal joint of antennae with pecten.
Labial palpi with second joint shortly tufted beneath. Maxillary palpi long,
folded. Forewings with discal tuft ; all veins present. Hindwings lanceo-
late ; 5 and 6 stalked.

Endemic.

288. H. compseuta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, 161.

Mount Arthur (4,000 ft,).

77. Bascantis Meyr.

Bascantis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xlvi, 114 (1914) ; type, sirenica
Meyr.

Head shortly rough-haired. Basal joint of antennae without pecten.
Labial palpi with second joint tufted beneath. Maxillary palpi long, folded.
Forewings with all veins present. Hindwings trapezoidal-ovate, 2-7 separate.

Endemic,

289. B. sirenica Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 115.

Kaeo, Waitakere Banges.

78. Archyala Meyr.

Archyala Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xxi, 159 (1889) ; type, paraglypta
Meyr.

Head loosely haired. Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Labial palpi
with second joint rough-scaled towards apex beneath, with some apical
bristles, terminal joint flatly compressed. Maxillary palpi long, folded.
Forewings with all veins present. Hindwings elongate-ovate, 5 and 6.
stalked.

Endemic.

290. A. paraghjpta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1888, 159.

Wellington, Christchurch, Invercargill.

291. A. pentazyga Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1914, 204.

Wellington.

292. A. terranea Butl., Cist. Ent. ii, 510 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 100.

Wellington, Christchurch, Castle Hill, Lake Wakatipu, Dunedin,
Chatham Islands. Larva on moss.

79. Sagephora Meyr.

Sagephora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx, 95 (1888) ; type, phortegella
Meyr.

Head shortly rough-haired. Basal joint of antennae without pecten.
Labial palpi with second joint rough-scaled beneath, with some long bristles.
Maxillary palpi long, folded. Forewings with all veins present. Hindwings.
elongate-ovate ; 4 absent.

Endemic.

Meyeick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 237

293. S.felix Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 114.

Kaeo, Wellington.

294. 8. phortegetta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1887, 96.

Taranaki, Makatoku, Wellington, Nelson, Otira River, Christ-
church, Dunedin, Lake Wakatipu.

295. S. steropastis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1890, 100.

Wellington.

80. Thallostoma Meyr.

Thallostoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xlv, 28 (1913) ; type, eurygrapha
Meyr.

Head rough. Basal joint of antennae with pecten. Labial palpi with
second joint slightly rough-scaled beneath. Maxillary palpi moderate,
curved, ascending. Forewings with cell very long ; all veins present. Hind-
wings elongate-ovate ; 5 and 6 short-stalked.

Endemic.

296. T. eurygrapha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1912, 29.

Ohakune, Wadestown.

81. Trichophaga Rag.

Trichophaga Rag., Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. lxiii, 123 (1894) ; type, swin-
hoei Butl.

Head rough. Labial palpi moderate, porrected. Maxillary palpi long,
folded. Forewings with 10-12 successively running each into vein follow-
ing it, not reaching costa. Hindwings elongate-ovate ; 2-7 separate.

A genus of one African species and two others now widely distributed by
artificial introduction, but probably originating round the Mediterranean.

297. T. tapetiella Linn., Syst. Nat. 536 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 98 ;

palaestrica Butl., Proc, Zool. Soc. Lond. 1877, 404.

Wellington, Nelson ; occurs also in Europe, North America, and
Australia, being replaced by another species, abruptella Woll., in
warmer intermediate regions. Larva on furs and woollen stuffs.

82. Monopis Hb.

Monopis Hb., Verz. 401 (1826) ; type, rusticella Hb. Blabophanes
Zell., Linn. Ent. vi, 100 (1852) ; type, rusticella Hb.

Head rough. Labial palpi moderate, porrected. Maxillary palpi long,
folded. Forewings with more or less developed subhy aline spot in cell ;
3 and 4 stalked. Hindwings elongate-ovate.

Not very numerous, but of general distribution. Larvae feed on refuse.

298. M. omithias Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 97.

Christchurch.

299. M. ethelella Newm., Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. (2) iii, 288 ; Meyr., Trans.

N.Z. Inst. 1887, 97 ; rectella Walk., Cat. xxviii, 482 ; nanmella Feld.,
Reis. Nov. pi. cxl, 44.

Auckland, Palmerston, Nelson, Mount Arthur (to 4,000 ft.), Christ-
church, Dunedin ; also common in Australia.

238 Transactions.

300. M. crocicapitella Clem., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. 1859, 257 ; ferru-

ginella Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 97 {nee Hb.).

Taranaki, Napier, Wellington, Mount Arthur (to 4,000 ft.), Nel-
son, Christchurch ; also occurs in Europe, Africa, North America,
and Australia. The true ferruginetta is much more restricted in
distribution.

83. Tineola Herr.-Schaff.

Tineola Herr.-Schaff., Schmett. Eur. v, 23 (1853) ; type, biselliella
Hum.

Head rough. Labial palpi moderate, porrected. Maxillary palpi short,
simple, porrected. Forewings with all veins present. Hindwings elongate-
ovate.

Principally developed in Africa.

301. T. biselliella Hum., Ess. Ent, iii, 13 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887,

101.

Christchurch, Lake Wakatipu ; also in Europe, North Africa,
North America, and Australia. Larva on hair and wool, often destruc-
tive in furniture-linings.

84. Tinea Linn.
Tinea Linn., Syst, Nat. 534 (1758)'; type, pellionella L.

Head rough. Labial palpi moderate, porrected. Maxillary palpi long,
folded. Forewings with all veins present. Hindwings elongate-ovate.
A large and cosmopolitan genus.

302. T. margaritis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1913, 116.

Wellington, Tisbury.

303. T. argodelta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1914, 204.

Bluff.

304. T. astraea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1910, 68.

Invercargill.

305. T. dicharacta Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales 1892, 536.

Wellington ; also occurs in east Australia, but scarce.

306. T. fuscipunctella Haw., Lep. Brit. 562 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.

1887, 100.

Whangarei, Palmerston, Wellington, Nelson, Dunedin ; also
common in Europe, Africa, North America, and Australia. Arti-
ficially introduced, being a domestic species. Larva on dry refuse.

307. T. mochlota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 100.

Christchurch, Lake Wakatipu.

308. T. conferta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1913, 115.

Wellington, Otira Eiver.

309. T. belonota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 99.

Palmerston.

310. T. mysticopa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 115.

Greymouth, Invercargill.

Meyrick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 239

85. Prothinodes Meyr.

Prothinodes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xlvi, 116 (1914) ; type, lutata
Meyr.
Head rough. Labial palpi long, curved, second joint shortly tufted,
terminal joint compressed, furrowed. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Fore-
wings with all veins present. Hindwings elongate-ovate.
Endemic.

311. P. grammocosma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 98.

Wellington, Nelson.

312. P. lutata Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1913, 116.

Kaeo.

86. Proterodesma Meyr.

Proterodesma Meyr., Subantarct. Islands N.Z. 74 (1909) ; type,
byrsopola Meyr.

Head rough. Labial palpi long, curved, second joint rough-scaled
beneath, with numerous bristles. Maxillary palpi long, drooping. Fore-
wings with 8-11 becoming obsolete near costa and connected by an
indistinct subcostal bar. Hindwings ovate-lanceolate ; 6 to costa.

Endemic.

313. P. byrsopola Meyr., Subantarct. Islands N.Z. 74.

Auckland Island.

87. Trithamnora Meyr.

Trithamnora Mevr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xlv, 29 (1913) ; type, certella
Walk.

Head rough. Labial palpi moderate, porrected, second joint rough-
scaled beneath. "Maxillary palpi long, drooping. Forewings with sub-
dorsal tufts ; all veins present. Hindwings elongate-ovate.

Endemic.

314. T. certella Walk., Cat. xxviii, 484 ; improba Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst.

1912, 29.

Wellington.

88. Lysiphragma Meyr.

Lysiphragma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx, 104 (1888) ; type,
mixochlora Meyr.

Head loosely scaled. Labial palpi curved, ascending, second joint with
rough projecting scales beneath, terminal joint broadly flattened. Maxillary
palpi long, drooping. Forewings with subdorsal tufts ; all veins present.
Hindwings elongate-ovate, transverse vein sometimes absent between 3
and 4.

Endemic.

315. L. mixochlora Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 105.

Auckland, Makatoku, Wellington.

316. L. epixyla Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 105.

Wellington, Greymouth, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

2 40 Transactions .

89. Titanomis Meyr.

Titanomis Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx, 104 (1888) ; type, sisyrota
Meyr.

Head shortly rough-haired ; tongue well developed. Labial palpi
moderate, subascending, second joint shortly rough-scaled beneath, terminal
joint short, stout. Maxillary palpi long, folded. Thorax with slight crest,
densely short-haired beneath. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked, 7 to termen.
Hindwings over 1, oblong-ovate.

Endemic.

317. T. sisyrota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 104.

Otaki, Nelson.

90. Taleporia Hub.

Taleporia Hub., Verz. 400 (1826) ; type, pseudobombycella Hub.

Head rough. Labial palpi moderate, porrected. Maxillary palpi
obsolete. Forewings with 7 to termen, 7 and 8 sometimes stalked. Hind-
wings elongate-ovate, 2-7 separate. Female apterous.

A small European genus. Larvae feed on lichens.

318. T. scoriota Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1908, 16.

Wellington, Invercargill.

319. T. aphrosticha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, 1911, 123.

Hump Ridge (3,500 ft.).

91. Mallobathra Meyr.

Mallobathra Meyr., Trans. [N.Z. Inst, xx, 102 (1888) ; type,
crataea Meyr.

Head loosely haired. Labial palpi moderate or. short, porrected.
Maxillary palpi obsolete. Forewings, with 6 seldom absent, 7 to termen,
7 and 8 stalked. Hindwings elongate-ovate, 6 sometimes stalked with 7
or absent. Female winged.

Endemic.

320. M. microphanes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 103.

Christchurch, Dunedin.

321. M. araneosa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. .1913, 117.

Ben Lomond and The Hump, 2,000-3,000 ft.

322. M. globulosa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 117.

Invercargill.

323. M. metrosema Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 103.

Christchurch.

324. M. lapidosa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 117.

Wellington.

325. M. crataea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 102.

Mount Arthur (4,000 ft.), Invercargill.

326. M. homalopa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1890, 100.

Wellington.

\

Meyrick. — Revision of New Zealand Tineina. 241

92. Scoriodyta Meyr.

Scoriodyta Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xx, 101 (1888) ; type, conisalia
Meyr.

Head loosely haired. Labial palpi moderate, porrected. Maxillary
palpi obsolete. Forewings with 7 to costa. Hindwings elongate-ovate,
2-7 separate. Female apterous.

Endemic.

327. 8. conisalia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 102.

Wellington.

MICROPTERYGINA.

Passing over the Hepialidae, I give here the Micropterygidae only, whose
small size causes them to be neglected except by collectors of the Tineina.

17. Micropterygidae.

Head rough. Maxillary palpi developed. Posterior tibiae with four
spurs. Forewings with jugum. Hindwings without frenulum, with 10 or
more veins, neuration resembling that of forewings.

The most primitive family of Lepidoptera, including about 60 known
species, of which 11 are from New Zealand, but they are probably often
overlooked. More forms of this highly interesting and important group
probably remain to be discovered in New Zealand, and search is recommended
in damp places or margins of brooks in forests at considerable elevations
in early spring, before other insects are common. In Europe most of the
family occur in very early spring.

93. Mnesarchaea Meyr.

Mnesarchaea Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 180 (1886) ; type,
paracosma Meyr.

No mandibles. Tongue short. Labial palpi well developed. Maxillary
palpi terminating in a porrected brush. Middle tibiae with two apical spurs.
Endemic. A highly interesting and instructive form.

328. M. paracosma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 180.

Nelson, Lake Wakatipu, Invercargill.

329. M. loxoscia Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 90.

Auckland, Wellington.

330. M. hamadelpha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 91.

Wellington, Nelson, Mount Arthur (to 4,000 ft.).

94. Micropardalis Meyr.

Micropardalis Meyr., Gen. Ins. cxxxii, 7 (1912) ; type, doroxena
Meyr.

Mandibles developed. No tongue. Labial palpi rudimentary. Maxil-
lary palpi long, folded. Middle tibiae with apical bristles, without spurs.
Forewings with 7 and 8 separate.

Endemic.

331. M. doroxena Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 92 ; Gen. Ins. cxxxii, f. 2.

Auckland, Gisborne.

242

Transactions.

95. Sabatinca Walk.
Sabatinca Walk., Cat. xxviii, 511 (1863) ; type, incongruella Walk.
Palaeomicra .Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst, xviii, 180 (1886) ; type,
eh rysargyra Meyr.
Mandibles developed. No tongue. Labial palpi rudimentary. Maxil-
lary palpi long, folded. Middle tibiae with apical bristles, without spurs.
Forewings with 7 and 8 stalked.

Besides the following, there is one species in Queensland.

332. S. rosicoma Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1913, 118.

Kaeo.

333. S. zonodoxa Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1887, 91 ; Gen. Ins. cxxxii, f. 3.

Auckland.

334. S. qaadrijuga Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1911, 126.

Invercargill.

335. S. camtica Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1911. 124.

Seaward Moss.

336. S. chrysargyra Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 182.

Lake Wakatipu.

337. S. incongruella Walk., Cat. xxviii, 511 ; Meyr., Gen. Ins. cxxxii, f. 4 :

chalcophanes Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, 182.
, Makatoku, Ohakune, Wellington, Nelson.

338. S. calliarcha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1911, 124.

Bluecliff.

Acrocercops Wall. . . 52

Agriophara Ros. . . 36

Amphixystis Meyr. . . 66

Anisoplaca Meyr. . . 7

Aochleta Meyr. . . 21

Archyala Meyr. . . 78

Aristotelia Hub. .. 3

Atomotricha Meyr. . . 24

Barea Walk. . . 25

Bascantis Meyr. . . 77

Batrachedra Staint. . . 55

Bedellia Staint. . . 63

Blabophanes Zell. . . 82

Boocara Butl. . . 39

Borkkausenia Hub. .. 17

Brachysara Meyr. . . 24

Calicotis Meyr' . . 37

Cateristis Meyr. . . 64

Choreutis Hiib. ' .. 47

Circica Meyr. . . 49

Circostola Meyr. . . 50

Compsistis Meyr. . . 18

Conopomorpha Meyr. 52

Coridomorpha Meyr. 43

Cremnogenes Meyr. . . 17

Crypsitricha Meyr. . . 75

Cryptolechia Zell. . . 32

Dolichernis Meyr. . . 56

Doxophyrtis Meyr. . . 57

Dryadaula Meyr. . . 72

Elachista Treitseh .. 13

Endophthora Meyr. . . 74

Endrosis Hiib. . . 15

Epiphthora Meyr. . . 1

Index of Genera.

Erechthias Meyr. . . 68

Eschatotypa Meyr. . . 73

Eugennaea Meyr. . . 67

Eulechria Meyr. . . 26

Eutorna Meyr. . . 34

Gelechia Hiib. . . 6

Glyphipteryx Hub. . . 49

Gracilaria Hair. . . 54

Gymnobathra Meyr. 20

Habrophila Meyr. . . 76

Hectacma Meyr. . . 69

Heliostibes Zell. . . 45

Hierodoris Meyr. . . 44

Hieroxestis Meyr. . . 66

Hofmannia Wocke . . 50

Hypeuryntxs Meyr. . . 36

Hyponomenta Lair. . . 51

Isochasta, Meyr. . . 3

Izatha Walk. . . 22

Lathicrossa Meyr. . . 31

Leptosaces Meyr. . . 32

Limnoecia Staint. . . 9

Lozostoma Staint. . . 65

Lysiphragma Meyr. . . 88

Mallobathra Meyr. . . 91

Megacraspedus Zell. . . 2

Microcolona Meyr. . . 11

Micropardalis Meyr. . . 94

Mnesarchaea Meyr. . . 93

Monopis Hiib. . . 82

Nepticula Heyd. . . 62

Nymphostola Meyr. . . 29

Oegoconia Staint. . . 33

Opogona Zell. . . 65

Orthenches Meyr. . . 60

Oxythecta Meyr. . . 27

Pachyrhabda Meyr. . . 40

Palaeomicra Meyr. . . 95

Pantosperrua Meyr. . . 48

Parectopa Clem. . . 53

Petasactis Meyr. . . 71

Phaeosaces Meyr. . . 32

Philobota Meyr. . . 28

Phloeopola Meyr. . . 25

Phryganostola Meyr. . . 49

Phtliorimaea Meyr. . . 5

Phylacodes Meyr. . . 59

Plutella Schranck . . 21

Proteodes Meyr. . . 30

Proterodesma Meyr.. . 86

Prothinodes Meyr. . . 85

Protosynaema Meyr. 58
Pyroderces Herr.-

Schiijf 8

Sabatinca Walk. . . 95

Sagephora Meyr. . . 79

Schiffermuelleria Hiib. 16

Scieropepla Meyr. . . 35

Scoriodyta M r. . . 92

Scythris Hi .. 14

Semiocosma Meyr. . . 22

Simaethis Leach . . 46

Stathmopoda Staint. 39

Symmoca Hub. . . 33

Syntomactis Meyr. . . 12

Taleporia Hiib. . . 90

Tephrosara Meyr. . . 70

Thallostoma Meyr. . . 80

Meyrick. —

Revision of New Z<

lalan

d Tineina.

243

Thamnosara Meyr. . .

19

Titanomis Meyr.

89

Vanicela Walk.

38

Thiotricha Meyr.

4

Trachypepla Meyr. . .

23

Zapyrastra Meyr.

10

Thylacosceles Meyr. . .

41

Trichophaga Rag.

81

Zelleria Sin int.

50

Tinea Linn .

84

Trithamnora Meyr. . .

87

Zirosaris Meyr.

23

Tineola Herr.-Schaff.

83

Trochilium Scoj).

Index of Species

42

abstitella Walk.

180 |

belonota Meyr.

309

copidota Meyr.

218

achlyoessa Meyr.

196

bifaciella Walk.

82

copiosella Walk.

104

achyrota Meyr.

18

bifaciella Walk.

52

coricopa Meyr.

156

at-ridomima Meyr. . .

170

biselliella Hi'im.

301

crataea Meyr.

325

acrodactyla Meyr. . .

17

bjerkandrella Thanh.

190

crocicapitella Clem. . .

300

acrcdina Meyr.

265

brachyacma Meyr. . .

69

crotala Meyr.

75

acronoma Meyr.

215

brontophora Meyr. . .

8

crucifera Meyr.

157

acrothecta Meyr.

212 i

bryaula Meyr.

93

criiciferarum Zell.

251

actinias Meyr.

50

byrsopola Meyr.

313

cuprea Meyr.

220

adapertella Walk.

98

calamogona Meyr. . .

2

cyanospila Meyr.

221

adelina Meyr.

230

calliactis Meyr.

206

deamatella Walk.

27

ademptella Walk.

56 j

calliarcha Meyr.

338

derogatella Walk.

281

aellomacba Meyr.

224

calliphana Meyr.

24

dicharacta Meyr.

305

aellotricha Meyr.

21

calliploca Meyr.

92

dichorda Meyr.

209

aerifera Meyr.

203

callispora Meyr.

174

dinocosma Meyr.

136

aethalota Meyr.

222

callixyla Meyr.

147

disjunctella Walk. . .

158

agaura Meyr.

236

caminora Meyr.

159

doroxena Meyr.

331

agriopa Meyr.

285

campylocha Meyr. . .

160

drosochalca Meyr. . .

243

aletis Meyr.

141

carnifex Butt.

144

elaeas Meyr.

228

amenena Meyr.

142

caryochroa Meyr.

153

electrica Meyr.

175

amnopis Meyr.

73

caustica Meyr.

335

epichalca Meyr.

61

amorbas Meyr.

125

caustopa Meyr.

102

epichlora Meyr.

168

amphileuca Meyr.

113

cauta Meyr.

241

epimylia Meyr.

76

anaenia Meyr.

48

cenchrias Meyr.

71

epiphanes Meyr.

106

analoga Meyr.

186

certella Walk.

314

epistrota Meyr.

35

anarithma Meyr.

22

chalcodelta Meyr.

231

epixyla Meyr.

316

anastrella Meyr.

124

chalcophanes Meyr. . .

337

erastis Meyr.

216

antigrapha Meyr.

188

characta Meyr.

25

eratopis Meyr.

240

antinoma Meyr.

169

cbaradrota Meyr.

268

erebistis Meyr.

264

antiphona Meyr.

249

chasmatias Meyr.

275

eriphaea Meyr.

53

apanthes Meyr.

49

cheradias Meyr.

9

ethela Meyr.

225

apertella Walk.

52

ckionodira Meyr.

273

etkelella Newm.

299

aphrontis Meyr.

62

chirista Meyr.

83

euastera Meyr.

211

aphrosticha Meyr. . .

319

chloradelpha Meyr. . .

59

eucola Meyr.

235

apocrypta Meyr.

149

chloritis Meyr.

77

eurygrapha Meyr.

296

apodoxa Meyr.

101

chlorocoma Meyr.

245

euryleucota Meyr. . .

111

aposema Meyr.

165

chloroleuca Meyr.

237

eustyla Meyr.

257

apparitella Walk.

20

chloronota Meyr.

131

exaula Meyr.

30

archaeonoma Meyr. . .

28

cbrysargyra Meyr. . .

336

exocha Meyr.

178

araneosa Meyr.

321

chrysitis Fehl.

230

exospila Meyr.

270

arenosella Walk.

234

chrysogramma Meyr.

38

exsomnis Meyr.

133

argodelta Meyr.

303

cimmeria Meyr.

276

externella Walk.

264

armigerella Walk.

50

cionophora Meyr.

192

felix Meyr.

293

asphaltis Meyr.

79

coarctatella Walk. . .

90

ferruginella Meyr.

300

aspidephora Meyr. . .

120

codonias Meyr.

200

flavidella Walk.

88

asteronota Meyr.

210

colligatella Walk.

134

flavistriata Wals.

269

astraea Meyr.

304

colpota Meyr.

181

fulguritella Walk.

272

astrapaea Meyr.

202

combinatana Walk. . .

180

fuscipunctella Haw.. .

306

ataracta Meyr.

195

compseuta Meyr.

288

fusiUs Meyr.

162

attactella Walk.

103

compsotypa Meyr. . .

151

galactina Feld.

143

atychioides Butl.

176

comptella Walk.

258

j galaxias Meyr.

115

aulogramma Meyr. . .

199

conferta Meyr.

308

, gerasmia Meyr.

33

aurisquamosa Butl. . .

259

confusella Walk.

137

j glaucoterma Meyr. . .

10

austera Meyr.

108

conisaba Meyr.

327

' globulosa Meyr.

322

austrina Meyr.

140

conspicuella Walk. . .

112

grammocosma Meyr.

311

bactrias Meyr.

197

i contextella Meyr.

75

griseata Butl.

67

balanophora Meyr. . .

100

contextella Walk.

74

griseata Meyr.

68

barbigera Meyr.

189

contritella Walk.

118

habropis Meyr.

86

basella Walk.

56

convulsella Walk.

109

hamadelpha Meyr. . .

330

244

Transactions .

hainatella Walk.

87

monodonta Meyr.

64

1 ptyoptera Meyr.

19

hapsimacha Meyr.

. . 261

monophragrna Meyr.

15

; quadrijuga Meyr.

. 334

helonoma Meyr.

. . 31

morangella Feld.

201

1 quadripuncta Hair. .

. 152

hemiclistra Meyr.

. 271

myrrhina Meyr.

278

rectella Walk.

. 299

hemimochla Meyr.

72

mysteriastis Meyr. . .

167

roseata Meyr.

. 287

hieropis Meyr.

. 114

mysticopa Meyr.

310

rosicoma Meyr.

. 332

hippeis Meyr.

11

mystis Meyr.

98

rufosparsa Butl.

. 144

holochalca Meyr.

. 191

namuella Feld.

299

rugata Meyr.

. 194

holoclira Meyr.

. 161

nephoptera Meyr.

213

rutilans Butl.

. 230

homalopa Meyr.

. 326

nigra Philp.

64

saleuta Meyr.

. 242

homodoxa Meyr.

66

nycteris Meyr.

65

sarcoxantha Meyr. .

89

hoplodesma Meyr.

40

nyctopis Meyr.

118

: schematica Meyr.

12

horaea Meyr.

. 46

octopunctata Turn. . .

226

scbolaea Meyr.

80

huttonii Butl.

98

i oeconoma Meyr.

129

scolias Meyr.

. 205

hydrocosma Meyr. .

. 238

ogygia Meyr.

252

scoriota Meyr.

. 318

hyetodes Meyr.

85

onibrodoca Meyr.

29

selenitis Meyr.

. 229

illita Feld.

. 177

ommatias Meyr.

132

semnodes Meyr.

148

importuna Meyr.

. 121

omogramma Meyr. . .

282

sera Meyr.

. 248

improba Meyr.

. 314

onioscopa Meyr.

260

siderodeta Meyr.

42

incongruella Walk. .

. 337

oniphalota Meyr.

96

siderota Meyr.

60

ingenua Meyr.

. 117

operculella Zell.

6

sirenica Meyr.

289

innotella Walk.

68

oporaea Meyr.

52

sisyrota Meyr.

317

iocheaera Meyr.

. 207

ornithias Meyr.

298

skelloni Butl.

164

iochondra Meyr.

. 182

orthophanes Meyr. . .

37

solanella Boisd.

6

iophanes Meyr.

. 173

oxyina Meyr.

63

somnulentella Zell. .

255

isogama Meyr.

. 135

oxymachaera Meyr. . .

204

sordida Butl.

128

lacteella Srhiff.

. 36

pactolia Meyr.

279

spartodeta Meyr.

116

lapidosa Meyr.

. 324

palaestrica Butl.

297

sphenota Meyr.

219

laquearia Meyr.

. 262

paracosma Meyr.

328

Stella Meyr.

172

lathriopa Meyr.

. 127

paradesma Meyr.

3

stereota Meyr.

283

leptosema Meyr.

. 208

paraglypta Meyr.

290

steropastis Meyr.

295

letharga Meyr.

78

paraneural Meyr.

109

steropucha Meyr.

239

leucocentra Meyr.

. 146

parapleura Meyr.

13

stilbella Doubl.

274

leucocyma Meyr.

. 223

paratrimma Meyr. . .

41

subditella Walk.

36

leucoplanetis Meyr. .

. 110

parca But].

91

sublitella Walk.

83

lichenella Walk.

98

pentazyga Meyr.

291

subpavonella Walk. . .

267

Iichenodes Meyr.

. 123

penthalea Meyr.

70

syrnbolaea Meyr.

183

limbata Butl.

91

percnitis Meyr.

105

symmorpha Meyr. . .

154

limodes Meyr.

26

perichlora Meyr.

55

taongella Feld.

112

linearis Butl.

. 227

peroneanella Walk. . .

98

tapetiella Linn.

297

liochroa Meyr.

. 150

phaeoptila Meyr.

126

technica Meyr.

277

lithodes Meyr.

16

pharetria Meyr.

14

teras Feld.

99

loxoscia Meyr.

. 329

pharmactis Meyr.

51

terminella Walk.

267

loxotis Meyr.

39

pharotoma Meyr.

284

terranea Butl.

292

lutata Meyr.

. 312

phegophylla Meyr. . .

54

terrella Walk.

6

macarella Meyr.

. 47

philadelpha Meyr. . .

84

tetraphala Meyr.

4

maculipennis Curt. .

. 251

phlegyra Meyr.

163

thallophora Meyr. . .

32

maranta Meyr.

44

phortegella Meyr.

294

thetodes Meyr.

94

margaritis Meyr.

. 302

photinella Meyr.

138

tholodella Meyr.

95

marmarea Meyr.

. 185

phragmitella Staint.. .

23

thory bodes Meyr.

5

megalynta Meyr.

. 247

picarella Walk.

99

thranias Meyr.

45

melanamma Meyr. .

. 43

plagiatella Walk.

74

thyraula Meyr.

7

melanombra Meyr. .

1

platyptera Meyr.

103

tipuliforme Clerck . .

171

melanotricha Meyr. .

. 266

plumbiflua Meyr.

166

transversella Walk. . .

201

melanura Meyr.

. 34

politis Meyr.

57

tricentra Meyr.

253

melichrysa Meyr.

. 280

porphyritis Meyr.

244

triselena Meyr.

217

mesotypa Meyr.

. 286

prasinodes Meyr.

246

tristicta Meyr.

233

metadelta Meyr.

. 105

prasophyta Meyr.

107

lungella Feld.

210

metasticta Meyr.

. 198

profunda Meyr.

145

typbicola Meyr.

155

metrosema Meyr.

. 323 !

pronephela Meyr.

58

utuella Feld.

88

microlitha Meyr.

187

propalaea Meyr.

254

versuta Meyr.

130

rnicrophanes Meyr. .

320

protochlo-' a Meyr. . .

119

vinaria Meyr.

122

rniniella Feld.

225

psamminella Zell.

256

xestobela Meyr.

193

ministra Meyr.

184

psammochroa Meyr.

250

zelota Meyr.

214

mixochlora Meyr.

315

pseudospretella Staint.

81

zomeuta Meyr.

179

mochlota Meyr.

307

psithyra Meyr.

232

zonodoxa Meyr.

333

monastra Meyr.

263 '

psychra Meyr.

97

zophoessa Meyr.

139

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology. 24.")

Art. XXVIII. — Contributions to the Study of New Zealand Entomology,
from an Economical and Biological Standpoint : No. 1 — Plusia chalcites
Esp. ; No. 2 — Nyctemera annulata Boisd. ; No. 3 — Venusia verriculata
Feld. (Lepidoptera).

By Morris X. Watt, F.E.S.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 23rd November, 1914.]

Introduction.

It is my aim in these and future contributions to bring together as complete
a knowledge of each species as is possible. It is of great economic
importance that we should know the range or distribution and full par-
ticulars of the habits of our native insects. The life-histories may at first
sight appear too elaborate, but they are the minimum demanded by the
present-day biologist in his researches on the relationship and classification
of the Lepidoptera and other families. My excuse is that science demands
that these details should be known. The bibliographical and synonymic
lists appended to each species are as complete as it has been possible to
make them. All the more important information gleaned from these has
been made use of in the contributions, but where it would have been
necessary to make long extracts reference to the original work has been
made in the text. I should like to gratefully tender my sincerest thanks
to Mr. W. G. Howes, of Dunedin, and Mr. G. V. Hudson, of Wellington, for
the kindly help they have given me.

The following keys for the description of the ovum, larva, and pupa
in the Lepidoptera, showing the minimum of information required, are
useful to workers who desire to further our knowledge in this branch.
The bibliography below, though not exhaustive, includes works known to
the author to be of real assistance to any desiring a sound working know-
ledge of the subject.

For describing ova : — ■

(1.) Class (flat or upright).

(2.) Shape (if necessary, transverse and longitudinal sections).
(3.) Dimensions (length, breadth, height).
(4.) Sculpture (smooth, cellular, or otherwise).
(5.) Micropyle (arrangement, number, and size of cells).
(6.) Shell (strong, glossy, transparent, smooth, or otherwise).
(7.) Colour (at laying and subsequent changes).
(8.) Period of incubation; dates of hatching, &c; manner of laying;
other notes of interest.
For describing larvae, the following details should at least be included
for each stage — -i.e., after each successive moult (Tutt, " Hints for the
Field Lepidopterist," pt. iii) : —

(1.) Colour and markings; detailed measurements of head, thoracic
and abdominal segments ; appearance of same ; the position
of a lateral flange, swellings, &c. ; the number and position
of prolegs.
(2.) The number of subsegments to each segment, and the variation
in their character on different segments.

246 Transactions.

(3.) The position of the spiracles with regard to these subsegments.

(4.) The character of the hooks on the prolegs ; how arranged—
whether in complete ring or only on a longitudinal flange, &c.

(5.) The position of the primary tubercles i-vii, and their variation
in position on the different segments.

(6.) The structure of the primary tubercles i-vii, and the position of
the primary seta (hair) with regard to secondary setae (if
any of the latter are present), and the variation in structure
according to the different segments on which they are placed.

(7.) The presence of any secondary tubercles other than those already
noted as primary i-vii.

(8.) The character of the skin, and the presence or absence of
secondary hairs not connected with definite tubercular struc-
tures.
Description of Lepidopterous pupae (Tutt, L* Hints for the Field Lepi-
dopterist ") : —

(1.) The general appearance, especially noting any particular and
striking features of the coloration, &c.

(2.) The general structure, especially any particularly striking points
of development.

(3.) The exact measurements.

(4.) The general characters of the head, thorax, and abdomen.

(5.) The number of movable abdominal segments.

(6.) Peculiarities of the cremaster.

(7.) Detailed description of the dorsal view : Head (if any visible),
pro-, meso-, and meta-thorax (and wings), abdominal seg-
ments, traces of tubercular scars, subsegmentation, &c.

(8.) Detailed description of the lateral view : Head, antennae, thoracic
segments, and wings, abdominal segments, spiracles, traces
of tubercular scars, lateral flanges, &c.

(9.) Detailed description of- the ventral view: Mouth parts, antennae,
legs, maxillae, wings (with comparative lengths, &c, of these
three last-named parts), abdominal segments, proleg- scars,
genital organs, &c.

Bibliography.
The Ovum.

Tutt. Nat. Hist, of British Lepidoptera, vol. 1, ch. ii, iii, and iv.
Tutt. " Hints for the Field Lepidopterist," pt. 3, ch. ii and iii.
Chapman. " The Phylogeny and Evolution of the Lepidoptera from a

Pupal and Oval Standpoint," Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1896, p. 567

et seq.
Quail. " Embryology of Lepidoptera of New Zealand,"' Trans. N.Z. Inst.,

xxxiii, p. 159 ; xxxiv, p. 226.
Watt. • " Descriptions of the Ova of some of the Lepidoptera of New

Zealand," Trans. N.Z. Inst., xlvi, p. 65 et seq (introduction only).

The Larva.
Dyar. " Classification of Lepidopterous Larvae," Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.,

viii, pp. 194 et seq.
Dyar. " Additional Notes on the Classification of Lepidopterous Larvae,"

Trans. N.Y. Acad. Sci., xiv, pp. 49 et seq.

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology. 247

Dvar. " A Combination of Two Classifications of Lepidoptera," Jour.

* N.Y. Ent. Soc, 1895, pp. 17 et seq.
Dvar. " Kelationship of Pyralidae and Pterophoridae from the Larvae,"

Entom. News, Feb., 1895.
Dvar. " Larvae of the Higher Bombyces," Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist..

xxvii, pp. 127 et seq.
Chapman. " Observations on Larval Prolegs," Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond..

1893, pp. 97 et seq.
Chapman. " Notes on Micro-Lepidoptera whose Larvae are External

Feeders," Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.. 1894, pp. 335 et seq.
Poulton. '" On the Ontogeny of Sphinx convolvuli and Aglia tau," Trans.

Ent. Soc. Lond., 1888, pp. 515 et seq.
Tutt. Nat. Hist. Brit. Lep., vol. 1, ch. v, vi, and viii : vol. 2, ch. i.
Tutt. " Hints for the Field Lepidopterist," ch. iv.

The Pupa.

Chapman. " On a Lepidopterous Pupa with Functionallv Active Man-
dibles," Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.. 1893, pp. 255 et seq.

Tutt. Nat. Hist. Brit. Lep., vol. 2, ch. iii, iv, and v.

Tutt. '" Hints for the Field Lepidopterist," pt. iii. ch. v.

Chapman. " Notes on Pupae," Trans. Ent, Soc. Lond., 1896, pp. 129
et seq.

Chapman. " On some Neglected Points in the Heterocerous Pupa," Trans.
Ent. Soc. Lond., 1893, pp. 118 et seq.

Chapman. "' The Phylogeny and Evolution of the Lepidoptera from a
Pupal and Oval Standpoint." Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1896, pp. 567
et seq.

Packard. " A New Classification of the Lepidoptera," " Bombycine Moths
of America.^" 1895.

No. 1. Plusia chalcites Esp.

Plusia chalcites Esp., Schmitt., 447, pi. 141, 3. P. verticillata Guen.,
Noct., 2, 344. P. rogationis, ib., 344. P. argentifera Guen.,
ib., vi, 352. P. eriosoma Dbld.. Dieff. N.Z., 285 ; Butl., Voy.
Ereb., pi. x, figs. 1, 2 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst,, xix, p. 36 ; Feredav.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxx, p.* 336 ; Butl., Cat. Lep. N.Z., p. 9, tab. 3,
figs. 1,2; Hudson, N.Z. Entomology, p. 82, pi. 10, figs. 8, 8a ;
Buller, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, xiii, p. 237 ; Fereday, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vi, p. 175. P. chalcites, Hudson, N.Z. Moths and Butterflies, p. 35,
pi. vi, fig. 3 ; Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., xliv, p. 104 ; Lewis, ib.,
xxxiii, p. 187 ; Meyr., ib., xlii, p. 69 ; Hamilton, ib., xliii, p. 122 ;
Longstaff, ib., xliv, p. 113 ; Watt, ib., xlvi, p. 69 ; Hudson, ib.,
xxxiii, p. 187.
The above bibliography refers only to the native species.

The Ovum.

This I have already described in detail elsewhere (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
xlvi, p. 69, pi. i, fig. 10).

Egg-laying.

The eggs are laid singly on the underside of the leaves of the food plant.
The moth rarely lays more than one egg to a leaf. They are well attached,

248

Transactions.

and in most cases cannot be removed without damage. The moths lay
throughout the summer right up till the end of autumn. The period of
incubation differs considerably : in 1912 a batch laid on 20th May hatched
on 18th June — that is, twenty-nine days ; while this year (1914) a batch
was laid on 26th March and hatched on 2nd April— only seven days. The
weather during the incubation of this last lot was exceptionally hot, and
this no doubt accounts for the shortness of the period. Eggs laid at the
end of autumn would, in the case of a cold winter, remain unhatched till
the following spring. The moth has a large egg-laying capacity, one in
captivity laying over 500 ova within a space of thirty hours. Egg-deposting
is carried on during the day as well as at night, though just at dusk is
preferred.

The Larva.

1st stadium : Duration, 27th March to 1st April, five days. Length
immediately after hatching, ^ in. Newly hatched : Colourless ; head, pro-
thoracic shield, and tubercles black. A day later the legs become black.

Fig. A. — Larva: 1st instar. 1, prothorax (note position of iii, v, and vi ; iv absent);
2, metathorax (iv absent ; sp, snbprimary) ; 3, 1st abdominal segment
(note iii and absence of vi) ; 4, 2nd abdominal segment ; 5, 3rd abdominal
segment ; 6, 5th abdominal segment ; 7, 7th abdominal segment (a, pos-
terior subsegment).

Note. — Here and in subsequent figures the segments are not drawn to scale, but
are lengthened in order to include all the tubercles. The whole importance has been
placed in the positions of the various tubercles.

and, owing to the assimilation of food, the body is green. The thoracic
segments are darker than the rest of the body, while the last two abdominal
segments are blackish owing to the collection of undigested material

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology. 249

within the intestine. The alimentary canal is dark on account of the
foodstuff within, and gives the larva the appearance of possessing a dark
medio-dorsal stripe. The body is cylindrical, the 5th, 6th, and 10th
abdominal segments bearing prolegs which are well developed ; the crochets
in each are arranged in an almost complete circle. Spiracles small,
circular, brown, very inconspicuous. Trachial tubes white and easily seen.
The body is clothed with a minute pile, the individual hairs of which
are short and bristle-like, and appear to be black-tipped, but require a
quarter-inch objective to be distinguished. It appears as though the
membrane between the segments were more thinly clothed than the rest
of the body, if not entirely smooth. The tubercles are all very conspicuous,
and bear simple hairs. The head is well rounded and of medium size.
The clypeus and portion between it and the cheeks seems slightly lighter
in colour. Mouth parts brownish. Eyes conspicuous. Four fairly long
hairs are placed on either cheek between the eyes and clypeus, the two
uppermost being situated just below and at either end of the central facial
suture, the remaining two are below and slightly anterior to these ; the
area within the eyes bears 3 smaller hairs in triangular formation, and
an 8th verv minute one is situated directly beneath the 5th eye. There
appears to be ontogenetic relationship existing between these and the
primary tubercles on the thoracic and abdominal segments. A black
chitinous dorsal shield is present on the prothorax ; it is trapezoidal in
form, the anterior margin being of greater width than the posterior one.
The front portion of the shield carries 4 long hairs directed out over the
head, and 4 smaller similarly directed hairs rise from the hinder portion.
Excepting a slight swelling of the dorsal portions of the last two thoracic
segments above the general surface of the skin, there is no evidence of any
meso- or meta-thoracic shield. The 3rd thoracic and 1st, 5th, and 7th
abdominal segments are each divided into two subsegments, the posterior
subsegment in the last thoracic and 1st abdominal segments being the
greater and bearing the primary tubercles. The subsegments of the 5th
abdominal are separated by a diagonal suture directed from above
anteriorly, the anterior subsegment being the greater and bearing the
tubercles. The posterior subsegment of the 7th abdominal is very narrow,
but bears tubercles i and iv. The spiracles are situated laterally, slightly
below and slightly anterior to the central portion of the segments, but
in the 1st thoracic near the hind margin. Tubercle i is included in the
prothoracic shield, but is placed beneath ii in the meso- and meta-thorax,
being shifted above in the abdominal segments. In the 2nd and 3rd
thoracic segments ii is very minute, more so in the meta- than in the meso-
thorax, and is also included in the dorsal scutum of the prothorax. A
small subprimary tubercle is situated between i and iii in the meso- and
meta-thorax. Tubercle iii is well developed, and surrounded by a pigmented
area, greatest in the 1st abdominal. It bears a single stout hair, except
in the prothorax, where it consists of 2 hairs, fairly minute. Tubercle iii
is pre-spiracular, except in the 1st abdominal, where it is post-spiracular ;
in the other abdominal segments is immediately beneath i, and in the
prothorax beneath the posterior margin of the scutum, v is a small single-
haired tubercle, subspiracular but anterior . to iii; in the prothorax it is
greatly enlarged, is supraspiracular, anterior to iii, and bears a minute
secondary hair at its base, iv is absent in the thoracic segments, but is
post-spiracular in the abdominals and above v, and slightly subspiracular.
vi is a large two-haired tubercle on the prothorax, but on the meso- and

250

Transactions .

meta-thorax consists of a single hair only ; is situated beneath v and between
v and vii ; is absent in the abdominal segments, vii consists of two separate
tubercles on the thoracic segments, one on either side of the upper and
outer margin of the leg, and seemingly forming the ends of a black semi-
circular band that extends around the inner margin of the leg. On the
5th and 6th abdominals vii is absent, but on the rest it consists of a single
minute tubercle beneath and slightly in front of iv. viii is extremely minute,
and is beneath but anterior to vii. A minute subprimary tubercle appears
in the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th abdominals, and is posterior to vii and beneath
viii. In the 3rd and 4th abdominals tubercle viii and the subprimary are

Fig. B. — Larva: 2nd instar. 1, prothorax (note iii and vi) ; 2, ruetathorax (iv is now
present; a, anterior subsegment) ; 3, 1st abdominal segment (vi present;
a, anterior subsegment) ; 4, 2nd abdominal segment (compare with 1st in-
star) ; 5, 3rd abdominal segment (compare with ] st instar) ; 6, 5th abdominal
segment (a, posterior subsegment) ; 7, 7th abdominal segment (a, posterior
subsegment).

moved up to and form a single connected triangular group with vii. The
last two abdominal segments are much aborted. The 10th bears the two
large ana] prolegs, which are directed posterioj^^nd the suranal plate,
which is large, fleshy, and triangular in shape^^earing a comb of short
stout bristles directed posteriorly. 2nd stadium : Duration, 2nd April
to|6th April, five days. Length immediately after the first moult, ^ in.
Head light green, mouth parts brownish, eyes black, legs grey. Body
green, darker on dorsal surface ; tapering towards head from the 8th
abdominal segment. Tubercles bearing single simple hairs, black. The
intestine forms a dark-green dorsal stripe, darker anteriorly. The clypeus
is margined by a fine black line, which extends also along the central facial

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology.

251

suture. The posterior portion of the cheek bears a conspicuous black
streak extending from the top of the head to just above the eyes. In the
and meta-thorax the scutellum is not at all distinct, the surface

meso-

and colouring practically same as rest of body, neither chitinous nor horny.
Spiracles as in stadium 1. In the prothorax tubercle i is beneath but a
good way in front of ii. A subprimary tubercle is situated above and
in front of ii, and a second in front and above i. hi consists now of a
small single-hair-bearing tubercle, the second hair having separated and
become a subprimary posterior to and slightly below iii. vi has also got
rid of its second seta, which is subprimary and immediately in front. In
the 2nd and 3rd thoracic segments a very minute subprimary tubercle
appears immediately beneath and close to v. Tubercle iv has now made
its appearance in the meso- and meta-thorax, and is situated behind v
and iii, immediately below i. In the first four abdominals a second small
subprimary has appeared anterior to viii and above vii. Tubercles vii
and viii are now separated in the 3rd and 4th abdominals, and no longer
form the single triangular group with the subprimary. vii is now present
as a single small tubercle on the upper anterior portion of the proleg in
the 5th and 6th abdominal segments, vi appears in the abdominals,
being placed between iv and vii, but below v. 3rd stadium : Duration,
7th April to 12th April, six days. Length immediately after second moult,
in. The 8th abdominal segment bears a posterior dorsal hump. Body

16

tapering from 8th abdominal segment to the head ; colour green. \ In
addition to the dark-green medio-dorsal stripe, 2 subdorsal stripes appear,
one on either side of the dorsal one, and
each consisting of two narrow white lines,
the upper one slightly the broader. There
is an exceedingly fine white spiracular line.
The ventral surface of the body, together with
the prolegs, is a light green. The true legs,
eyes, and tubercles remain black. In the
prothorax tubercle v has got rid of the second
hair, which now forms a small subprimary
tubercle immediately beneath it. Crochets
on prolegs arranged in semicircle. 4th sta-
dium : Duration, 13th April to 17th April,
five days. Length after third moult, ^ in.
Spiracles oval. The lower belt of the double -pIG j) .prothorax : 3rd instar

(note tubercle v, and com-
pare with 2nd instar).

subdorsal stripes runs below tubercle ii, while
t lie other and broader belt runs level with
it, but is indented so as not to enclose

tubercle i. 5th stadium : Duration, 18th April to 22nd April, five days.
Length after the fourth moult, f in. A third narrow white stripe is now
added to the subdorsal lines and runs above tubercle i, so that now
tubercles i and ii are situated in the intervals between the three sub-
dorsal lines. There is a broad supraspiracular line of dark-green fading
to the natural body-colour towards the anal end. Tubercle ii is white
in the last nine abdominal segments, vi is white in the 3rd to the 9th
abdominals inclusive, and v is white in the last abdominal. The tubercles
on the suranal plate are white. There is a certain amount of slight
variation in the colouring at this stage, but this is dealt with in full in a
later pargraph. The sexes can now for the first time be distinguished,
but this is also dealt with in the paragraph above referred to. Numerous

252

Transactions .

. C. — Mesothorax of male
larva in 5th instar (note
coalescence of i and ii,
and increased size of other
tubercles).

minute irregular white areas are scattered over the body, especially on the
ventral and lateral surfaces. During the last four stadiums the pile on
the body has been getting not larger or more distinct, but much denser,

and covering the whole surface of the body.
6th stadium : Duration, 23rd April to 4th
May, twelve days. Length immediately after
fifth moult, 1 in. ; full-grown, 1| in. The black
line along the central facial suture and the
black margin to the clypeus are now missing.
Black cheek-stripe very conspicuous, some-
times consisting of two separate short stripes
end to end. Head small, non-retractile, light
green in colour. The labrum is large, white,
and conspicuous. Mandibles serrated. True
legs and prolegs light green. Medio-dorsal
and subdorsal stripes as in last stadium.
Supraspiracular line ditto. Spiracular line
white, broad, very distinct. Numerous small
white areas on ventral and lateral surfaces,
as in last stadium. Prolegs furnished with
semicircle of crochets. Spiracles placed later-
ally, situated a little beneath and in front of the central portion of
the abdominal segments, near the hind margin in the prothorax, oval,
brown with dark margin, inconspicuous, those in the 1st thoracic and 8th
abdominal segments greatly enlarged. Tubercles all bearing single simple
dark-coloured hairs. Pile very dense, extremely minute, seemingly com-
posed of short thick black-tipped bristles. 8th abdominal segment bearing
large posterior dorsal hump, the body being much attenuated from it towards
the head. Body cylindrical, slightly flattened ventrally. Tubercle iii is
well developed, and is surrounded by a large pigmented area, greatest in
the 1st abdominal segment, and diminishing in the 2nd, 3rd, and other
abdominals. Arrangement of subsegments same as in 1st stadium ; tubercles
as in stadium 3. The hairs, which can be no decided protection to the
body, are set in a peculiar manner, each one having a direction opposite
to that of those immediately above and below it : for instance, i is directed
up and forward ; ii posteriorly and up ; iii outwards, forward, and up ;
iv outwards, downwards, and back ; v downwards, forward, and out ;
vi downwards, backwards, and out. This must surely be the beginning
of a more elaborate protective system. Concerning the coloration of the
tubercles, i is white, iv and v are white in the 3rd thoracic segment and
abdominals ; in the first nine abdominal segments all the tubercles are
white except iii ; there are no black tubercles on the last abdominal.
Prior to spinning, the body becomes much lighter in colour, and the dark-
green supraspiracular stripe becomes most conspicuous. The spinning of
the cocoon takes place some six or more days prior to the final moult. A
considerable amount of variation occurs in this stadium, details of which
are given in the following paragraph. 7th stadium (extra moulter) : All
tubercles white, excepting those on the caput. The black cheek-stripe is
very inconspicuous, and sometimes entirely absent.

Variation.

Larva. — -In the 5th and 6th stadiums there is a certain amount of
individual variation in the colouring of the tubercles. The most important

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology. 253

feature to be recorded is the difference between the sexes, which is to be
found for the first time in larvae during the fifth instar. At this period in
their life-history certain larvae (the males) have tubercles i and ii coalesced
in the 2nd thoracic segment, while all the tubercles excepting i in the 9th
and those on the -suranal plate in the 10th abdominal segment are black,
slightly enlarged, and most conspicuous. There is also a form very similar
to this, the onlv difference being that tubercles i and ii in the mesothorax
are not coalesced ; these larvae appear, however, to be only a variety of the
female form. In the next, the 6th, stadium it is far more difficult to dis-
tinguish the sexes. It appears that the tubercles i and ii in the mesothorax
separate again, the only difference between the male and female larvae
being that in the male all the tubercles of the thoracic segments are black,
whereas in the female tubercles i, iv, and v are white in the mesothorax.
There is room for much more work and observation here.

Imago. — -Meyrick records a variety in which the golden-white discal
spots are wholly absent. This variety appears to be extremely rare. The
European species, according to Meyrick, differs very slightly from our
species in having the hindwings yellowish anteriority.

Habits.

Larva. — The young larva emerges at the micropylar end of the ovum,
and generally makes its first meal off the empty shell. During the first
day its movements are sluggish ; later it becomes fairly active, but during
the latter stadiums is again very sluggish. Throughout its larval existence
it feeds on the underside of the leaves of its food plant, and stretches at
full length, the ventral prolegs clasping the stem or midrib of the leaf on
which it is feeding. The presence of larvae is plainly betrayed by the large
irregular holes eaten in the leaves of whatever food plants they may be on.
During the last few seasons the larvae of this moth have evidenced a decided
taste for cultivated flower-plants, and in the case of dahlias and asters have
acquired the habit of eating right into the heart of the expanding buds ;
in this way many flowers in full bloom hold a large fat caterpillar, which has
absolutely ruined the flower from a marketable point of view. Strange to
say, only a very close inspection of the flowers will reveal the true state of
affairs, since the larva eats into them from below. It is during the first three
stadiums only that the young caterpillars utilize a silken thread for de-
scending from one leaf to another, and as a means of returning to the food
plant when forced to drop from harm's way. The methods of defence
differ somewhat according to age : during the primary stadiums the larva
will at once drop to the ground on being disturbed, but as it grows older
will content itself with throwing the fore part of the body sharply from side
to side, even making striking movements with the head at the object dis-
turbing it ; if forced to drop, it will rapidly curl and uncurl itself with a
flicking motion during its drop, and on striking the ground will hurriedly
make off to hide among the leaves and rubbish, or, on the other hand, it
may roll itself into a ball and remain motionless. Of course, its green colour,
its markings and shape, and its habit of remaining on the underside of the
leaves, and also of remaining, while eating, stretched out, and thus resembling
a portion of a branch of the food plant, afford it great natural protection.
A day or so previous to moulting the larva will seek a safe position beneath
some leaf, and there stretches itself at full length. The prolegs are firmly
attached to the cuticle of the leaf, but the true legs take no hold whatever,
being held close against the bodv. During the next twenty-four hours

254: Transactions.

the colour gets much lighter, the whole body assuming a light yellowish-
green tint. Prior to moulting the new head can be seen occupying the
space between the old head and the prothorax, which space is thereby greatly
extended. The eyes are plain, and the tubercles and hairs on the new skiu
can also be seen. The mouth parts of the new head are covered by the old
mask. At intervals the fore part of the body lifts slightly, as though the
larva were trying to stretch itself. Later these motions become more fre-
quent, and the whole fore part of the body is allowed to hang some distance
from the leaf; evidently the muscular effort that before held it straight
with the rest of the body has been relaxed. The stretching movements
become convulsive, the head meanwhile being thrown from side to side.
At last the rear segments appear to swell slightly, the ones in front remaining
in their former state ; then each segment in turn, from the last abdominal
to the first thoracic, is slightly inflated, the whole appearing as an undula-
tory movement towards the head as if the inner body were gliding within
the old skin ; having reached the head, the motion begins anew at the anal
end and proceeds as before towards the head. Several times this pumping-
like action occurs, each new motion commencing on the completion of the
previous one, and after each the segments gain in size. Then shortly these
motions follow with shorter intervals between, till with one supreme effort
the old skin is parted round the neck and the new body appears to be forced
out of the old skin segment by segment ; in reality the old skin is being forced
back. When the prolegs are reached the larva helps free itself by pulling
forward. The larva, now free of its old skin, still retains the mask covering
the mouth parts ; this it rids itself of by rubbing against the leaf, and then,
that accomplished, curls itself up to rest. Almost invariably the freshly
emerged larva will consume its discarded skin. In the last two or three
stadiums the larva spins a light carpet of silk on the surface of the leaf
previous to moulting, in order to securely attach the prolegs during
the operation of casting its skin. From the time the larva takes up its
position previous to moulting till some hours after the moult, the whole
period extending sometimes into two or three days, it takes nothing to
eat ; it is on account of this, and the total removal of all undigested food
from the alimentary system, that it becomes so much lighter in colour
at these periods. An interesting point connected with the feeding of
these larvae is that they can change from one food plant to another —
for instance, specimens under observation which had been fed up till the
4th stadium on S. nigrum, took readily to dahlia, salvia, and potato ; and
vice versa. Temperature and other climatic conditions have a great deal
to do with extending or shortening the duration of the stadiums. A cold
spell may greatly lengthen them, or even increase the number of stadiums
beyond the normal, and also has the effect of dwarfing the larvae ; such
larvae may hybernate through the winter months.

Recapitulation.

1st stadium: Body green; head black ; spiracles circular. 2nd stadium :
Body and head green ; clypeus black-margined. 3rd stadium : Double
white subdorsal stripe appears. 4th stadium : Spiracles oval. 5th sta-
dium : Triple subdorsal stripe ; tubercles ii in segments 2 to 10 (abdominals)
inclusive white ; vi white in abdominals 3 to 9 inclusive. 6th stadium :
Black margin to clypeus missing ; tubercles on abdominals white, except-
ing iii. 7th stadium : Extra moulter ; tubercles all white.

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology. 255

Periods.

Period of incubation, seven days ; weather hot. 1st stadium: March 27
to April 1, five days; length, ^ in. ; mild. 2nd stadium: April 2-6,
five days ; length, -^ in. ; mild. 3rd stadium : April 7-12, six davs ;
length, -^ in. ; colder. 4th stadium : April 13-17, five days ; length,
■^ in. ; mild. 5th stadium : April 18-22, five days ; length, f in. ; mild.
6th stadium: April 23 to May 4, twelve days; length, 1-1 J- in. ; cold.
Duration of pupal stage, eighty-five days ; cold weather.

Notice the comparatively equal duration of the stadiums, and the in-
fluence of the weather upon these. As mentioned in a former paragraph,
temperature may be the cause of lengthening or shortening these periods,
or even of increasing the normal number of stadiums. By separating one
batch into two lots, and treating one of the lots to artificial temperature
a few degrees higher than that prevailing in the open, the 3rd stadium was
shortened from five to two days only.

Food Plants.
Solatium aviculare. S. nigrum. These were, in all probability, the
original food plants, but the larvae have now taken almost exclusively
to introduced plants, and are in consequence becoming a dangerous pest
to the flower-gardener. The larvae are now seldom found on S. aviculire,
and then only in parts where introduced plants are still scarce ; they still,
however, favour S. nigrum even in richly cultivated districts. The follow-
ing introduced plants are eagerly eaten : Dahlia, salvia, geranium, potato,
tomato, nettle (introduced), beans, Scotch thistle, mint, horseradish.

Parasites.
# The larva is often attacked by a small Hymenopteron belonging to the
family Braconidae. These parasites, to the number of thirty or more,
emerge from their host just prior to its pupating, and spin their small cream-
coloured cocoons on the leaves of the plant on which the host has been
feeding. The victim. may be found later lying upon the ground, its sides
scarred by large open circular black-edged wounds from which parasitic
larvae have emerged. Prior some days to the exit of the parasites the larva
becomes very torpid, moving but little, and eating nothing ; externallv
nothing appears to be the matter with it. The cocoons of the parasite are
short, cylindrical, and very flufl'y, and are collected in small heaps upon
the leaves. One unacquainted with the life-history of these little creatures
would often be puzzled to account for the presence of small masses of the
cocoons on the leaves of many garden plants. The duration of the pupal
existence is about forty-six days. At present this Hymenopteron is
unidentified.

The Cocoon.

The favourite situation for the cocoon is between two or more leaves
some little distance from the ground. The silk is white and strong, and
the cocoon rather fluffy externally, and is never so thick but what the en-
closed pupa can be easily distinguished. It often happens that the larvae
will forsake their food plant to spin in vegetation yards away. The con-
struction occupies from two to three days.

The Pupa.
At first the pupa is considerably active if disturbed, twirling its abdo-
men with a circular motion ; later, however, it becomes much less active.

256

Transactions.

The newly formed pupa is bright green in colour, the dorsum shortly be-
coming, dark brown to black. In a week's time the general colouring is
black, the ventral parts being lighter in colour. Till shortly before emerg-
ing, the base, dorsum, and termen of the forewings retain a considerable
amount of the original green. The intersegmental membrane is reddish
brown. Laterally the apex of the head is in front of the axial line, the

Fig. ] .—Pupa : Ventral view, a, female genital organs ; b, Poulton's line : c, 2nd
legs ; d, 1st legs ; e, femur of 1st legs ; /, maxilla ; g, labial palpi ; h, antenna ;
i, eye.

Note.- — All illustrations of pupae are to scale.

dorsal line sloping forwards at the prothorax. The dorsal outline of the
abdominal segments is practically straight, the individual movable seg-
ments, of course, being somewhat rounded when extended. The posterior
margin of each movable abdominal overlaps the anterior portion of tb«e
segment behind it when the body is contacted, and when in this position
the dorsal line is straight. From the 8th abdominal both dorsal and ventral
margins rapidly converge towards the cremaster. The anterior convexity
of the head terminates laterally in a small prominence above the eye, bend-
ing round here and slightly curving downwards and outwards to the end
of the first legs. The ventral line continues straight from here to the
extremity of the wings, where it is abruptly terminated by the extremity
of the maxillae, which protrude from the abdomen for a distance of 0*75 mm.
The ventral margin of the abdominal segments below this is straight as
far as the 8th abdominal. The anterior extremity of the pupa is about
the front portion of the epicranium ; from this point it slopes forwards
about 2 mm. The labrum is somewhat triangular in shape, rounded be-
tween the eyes, and bears 2 small tubercles near its upper margin. The
clypeus is marked off by a fine suture. The frontal headpiece is almost
square in outline, slightly longer than broad, and forms a prominence
above the eyes ; it is almost smooth, the only sculpture being a slight-
network of fine lines, sometimes slightly depressed centrally. There is
no dorsal headpiece. The proboscis is prominent, standing out as a
rounded keel till about 6 mm. from its origin ; throughout this distance
it is the most prominent part of the front of the pupa : at first narrow
between the cheeks, it then widens out and forms an angle where the
1st leg meets the eye ; either side measures 1-70 mm. from middle line to
angle ; it proceeds, gradually narrowing, to wing-apex, 14-11 mm. The
greater part of the maxillae is smooth, though fine lines may be seen with
a lens ; the basal portion, however, for about 3 mm. is marked with strong

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology.

257

transverse rugae. This rough area varies a good deal in its extent. The
central line is divided at the base of the maxillae, and encloses a small
triangular portion, the base of which adjoins the labrum ; a little farther
down, on a line with the base of the eyes, the central line again divides,
and encloses a long narrow strip 4 mm. long and about 0-25 mm. across
at its greatest width. This area is a portion of the labial palpi, and is
divided by a central suture. The antennae show every joint very distinctly,
and are somewhat roughened. The scape of each antenna is square in

Fig. 2. — Pupa : Lateral view.

outline and plainly marked out. The prothorax lias a slight central suture
and a sculpturing of fine lines ; the posterio-lateral extremities are elongated,
forming 2 narrow tongues extending down alongside the antennae for
0*54 mm., the 1st spiracle being imprisoned in the angle so formed, the
posterior margin of the prothorax projecting over it like a lid just raised
from the aperture. The 1st legs have a narrow margin against the eyes
and antennae, are wide and large, the greatest width being 1-25 mm.
Between them and the maxillae is a small strip 1-74 mm. long, the 1st femur.

Fig. 3. — Pupa: Dorsal view, a, lower or hind wing; b, metathorax : c, upper or fore
wing ; d, mesothorax ; e prothorax ; /, scape of antenna ; g, frontal headpiece.

The 2nd leg is somewhat narrower than the 1st, both legs having a slight
transverse sculpturing. The mesothorax has an appreciable sculpturing
in labyrinthine wrinkling, and there is a well-marked central suture. The
wings are finely sculptured, and the nervures are easily seen. Poulton's
line is gracefully curved, and cuts oft* a fairly large triangular area. The
metathorax has a deep central suture, and is covered with fine labyrinthine
wrinkling. The narrow strip of the hindwing has its greatest width at the

9— Trans.

258

Transactions.

juncture of the metathorax and 1st abdominal segment, and disappears
opposite the spiracle of the 3rd segment. The abdominals are smoother
than the thoracic segments, the 1 st abdominal possessing a strong central
suture, which is sometimes also traceable on the 2nd segment. Subseg-
, mentation is not apparent. The movable incisions are between 4-5, 5-6,
and 6-7. The 5th. 6th. and 7th segments possess a flange on their anterior
margin ; the surface of the segment, instead of being curved down to the
incision, continues directly forwards and then outwards at a sharp angle
on the dorsum, but with a little final curve on the sides, to the sharp
margin of the flange ; the portion of the segment anterior to the flange is
furnished with a series of curved transverse rugae, greatest dorsally. When
the segments are flexed the anterior surface of the flange comes against the
soft flexible posterior margin of the segment in front, which is full and
rounded in such a way that the flange fits against it. The spiracles lie
laterally behind the flange, forcing it back slightly in the 6th and 7th seg-
ments, are oval with raised lips, large and conspicuous ; those of the 8th
abdominal are abortive. There is no evidence of the larval prolegs. The
cremaster (fig. 4) bears 2 large hooks, the extremities of which are whorled
and project ventrally and laterally ; 4 smaller flattened hooks, arranged
one above the other, are situated above tiles-', there being 2 on either side

Fig. 4. — The cremaster.

Fig. •). — Pupa: Frontal view, a, maxilla: 6, eye ; c, frontal headpiece; d, scape

antenna ; e, antenna ; /, prothorax.
»

Fig. (5. — Head portion of male pupa (note labial palpi).

Fig. 7.- — Genital organs of male pupa.

of the cremaster, and 2 others on the dorsal surface just above the large
posterior hooks. The tubercles are nearly all present, but are very minute,
and bear very short single simple setae ; they occupy the same positions
as in the larva, but ii, vii, and viii appeal" to be absent. The female genital
organ is situated on the ventral surface of the 8th abdominal, towards the
anterior margin ; is represented by a short longitudinal line surrounded
by an oval and slightly raised area, and on either side of this the sur-
face of the segment is somewhat elevated anteriorly. The male pupa is
distinguished by two very marked differences of structure. The labial
palpi occupy almost the whole margin of the labrum between the eyes, and
are but slightly constricted between the maxillae (fig. 6). The male genital
organs are represented by a very well defined depression guarded by two
lips, one right, the other left, and are confined to the 9th abdominal segment
(fig. 7). The 8th segment is free from any structure excepting the lateral
flattened tubercles mentioned above. The male is slightly more robust
than the female pupa.

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology.

259

This pupa has been described much fuller than is necessary, in order to-
show all the points that must be considered when studying pupae in general.
The following table of measurements is valuable and more luminous
than anv verbal description. The plan is that adopted by Tutt in his
"; British Lepidoptera.'' In the pupa the length will vary slightly accord-
ing to the amount of extension of the free incisions. In the present table
the measurements are from a typical specimen with incisions slightly ex-
tended.

Table of Measurements.

Measurement at

Length from
Front.

Transverse
Diameter.

Anterior-posterior
Diameter.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Top glazed eye

. .

0-50

1-31

1-76

Outer angle maxilla

. .

1-74

402

4-51

Prominence at base of forewinu .

. . .

4-00

5-26

6-53

End of 1st legs

7-61

5-20

6-01

End of 2nd legs

1310

510

5-77

End of maxillae

.. : 14-11

4-74

5-43

Spiracle. 5th abdominal

14-86

400

4-51

7th

17-63

3-80

3-66

9-10 incision

20-23

2-00

1-53

Base of cremaster

21-71

0-66

0-61

Extreme length

22-46

Dehiscence.

The maxillae-cases, leg-cases, and antenna-cases separate in one piece as
far as the end of the 1st legs. The headpiece and prothorax are separated
in one piece, and are liable to be lost. The eye-covers also appear to
separate and to be removed from between the proboscis and the antennae,
these latter standing out as a central and two lateral projections to the
appendage-cases piece. Dorsally there may be a slight central fracture of
the meso-thorax.

The Imago.

This has already been ably described by Meyrick (Trans. X.Z. Inst., xix,
p. 36), and by Mr. Hudson in his " New Zealand Moths and Butterflies,"
p. 35, pi. vi, fig. 3. to which the reader is referred.

Habits of Imago.

The moth is both nocturnal and diurnal, and may frequently be seen
during the summer flying swiftly from flower to flower in the hot sunshine.
It is common from September till the beginning of June, and specimens
may be found during the winter months, provided the cold is not too severe.

Distribution.

Is common in the North Island, but appears to be rare in the southern
portions of the South Island, if not quite absent. Has been recorded from
Auckland, New Plymouth, Wanganui (March to June), Napier, Wellington,
Nelson, Blenheim, and Kamo. Also Australia, Pacific islands. India.
Madagascar, South Africa, southern Europe, southern England, and North
and South America.

9*

260

Transactions .

No. 2. Nyctemera annulata Boisd.

Leptosoma annulatum Boisd., Voy. de l'Astr., Ent., v, p. 197, pi. 5,
fig. 9 (1853) ; Doubl, Dieff. N.Z., 2, p. 284. Nyctemera double-
dayi Walk., Cat. Lep. Brit. Mus., 2, p. 392. N.^ annulata Butl.,
Cat. Lep. N.Z.. p. 4. Leptosoma annulatum Bates, Ent. Mo.
Mag., 5, p. 2. Nyctemera annulata Meyr., Proe, Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
1886, p. 760; Trans. N.Z. Inst,, xxii, p. 218; ib., xlii, p. 67;
ib., xliv. p. 93 : Fereday, List N.Z. Lep., Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxx,
p. 331 ; ib., vi, p. 172 (as Leptosoma annulatum) : Hudson,
Man. N.Z. Ent,, p. 73, pi. 9, figs. 3, 3a, 3b: N.Z. Moths and
Butterflies, p. 2. pi. 4, figs. 1, 2, pi. 3, fig. 9 ; Trans. N.Z. Inst..
xlv, p. 65 ; ib., xxxvii. p. 337 : Smith, Entom., 26, p. 220; ib.,
34, p. 141 : Thompson. N.Z. Naturalist's Calendar, p. 7 : Buller,
Trans. N.Z. Inst,, xiii. p. 238 : Quail, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, xxxiii,
p. 164 : ib., xxxiv. p. 228: Entom., 1901, p. 143 et seq. : Howes,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii, p. 188: Philpott, ib., xxxix, p. 213:
ib., xxxiii. p. 167: Watt. Trans. N.Z. Inst,, xlvi, p. 69:
Hamilton, ib., xli. p. 44 : ib., xliii, p. 116 : Longstaff, ib., xliv,
p. 110 (as Deilem-era annulata): Hutton. Trans. N.Z. Inst., ix.
p. 355.

The Ovum.
This I have fully described elsewhere (Trans. N.Z. Inst,, xlvi. p. 69).

Egg-laying.

The ova are invariably laid on the underside of the leaves of the food
plant, are lightly attached, and are generally arranged in small regular
batches of from 10 to 30 or more ; occasionally they are laid loosely. The
eggs are deposited from September to June, but it seems improbable that
the winter is spent in this form.

The Larva.
. Although Mr. Quail has already (Entomologist, 1901, p. 141) described
the larva, it has been found necessary to correct some slight mistakes and
omissions. The short summary below is supplementary to Mr. Quail's
paper, and should be read in conjunction with it, since it is not intended
that it should replace the original description.

Fig. 8. — Larval tubercles : 2nd and subsequent stadiums.

Tubercle i consists of a small tubercle bearing a single spinulose seta ;
unlike the other tubercles, it remains in this primitive form throughout
the larval life ; in the prothorax it is included in the dorsal scutum, and
conjoins with ii and iii in the meso- and meta-thorax to form a large

Watt.-5— Study of New Zealand Entomology. 261

anterior trapezoidal tubercle or wart, ii is beneath and behind i, and is
also included in the prothoracic shield, iii is immediately beneath i, and
is supraspiracular in the prothorax : it is below and posterior to the
scutellum, pre-spiracular, and bears 2 Hulit-eoloured setae ; it retains this
position and primitive form in the prothorax throughout the larval exist-
ence. In every stadium there is a minute secondary tubercle bearing a
single seta situated below and posterior to the large anterior trapezoidal
in tiie meso- and meta-thorax. v is beneath the spiracle and below iv.
is pre-spiracular in the prothorax and immediately beneath the scutum,
and in the abdominal segments is inclined to be post-spiracular. iv is
absent in the thoracic segments, but is close below and behind the spiracle
in the abdominals, vi is present in the thoracic segments above the base
of the legs, and posterior to v; in the 1st stadium is absent in the
abdominals, appearing, however, in the 2nd and subsequent stadiums in
the 3rd to the 7th abdominal segments inclusive, being situated in the
7th abdominal between v and vii but posterior to both ; in the other
-' gments mentioned is above the base of the legs, below 'mt posterior to v.
vii consists of a small group, one on either side of the upper margin of the
thoracic legs : is present directly beneath v in the 1st and 2nd abdominals ;
is absent in abdominals 3 to 6 inclusive : is below and slightly posterior to
v and beneath and anterior to vi in the 7th abdominal, viii is immediately
beneath vii — if anything, slightly anterior. There is no alteration in the
position of. addition to. or removal of tubercles after the 2nd stadium.
The spiracles are circular, with dark rims : small and light in colour dimng
the first two stadiums, but becoming oval and still less conspicuous in the
3rd and subsequent ones. A thick pile covers the body throughout the
larval period, becoming thicker and darker after each successive moult.
The setae, excepting those of the head, are at all stages spinulose. In the
latter stadiums the body tapers towards the head from the 7th abdominal
segment.

Development of Larval Markings.

Immediately after hatching, very pale ; hairs black, tubercles light-
coloured. Second day : General colour a dirty grey to the naked eve. but
of a green tint when examined under the microscope. Tubercles, scu-
tellum. and head black, mouth parts and central portion of the cheeks
brownish. Towards the end of this period two reddish-brown subdorsal
bands extend the whole length of the body, and include tubercles ii and
iii, each band being produced ventrally in order to include iii. In the
abdominal segments the posterio-dorsal margin of the stripes converge and
sometimes unite, forming a narrow transverse belt across the dorsum of
each segment. Reddish areas surround the tubercles. 2nd stadium : Head,
legs, and spiracles black. Subdorsal bands as in last stadium. Between
the subdorsal bands each segment has an anterior and posterior area of light
yellow, the intervening space being white. Body generally light yellow.
There is a narrow subspiracular line of reddish brown and a reddish area
surrounding tubercle iii. 3rd stadium : Narrow yellow medio-dorsal stripe.
Subdorsal stripes broad, black. Yellow spiracular line interrupted by a
large white area on each segment beneath the spiracle. Subspiracular line
narrow, very dark brown to black ; below this is a very narrow white line
with a narrow dark-brown line separating it from the ventral surface,
which is of a light-slate colour. 4th stadium : Dorsal line yellow with a
distinct reddish tinge. Subdorsal lines black and very broad. Spiracular
lines narrow and broken, reddish yellow. Beneath the spiracular line the

262

Transactions .

skin is mottled with brown, the ventral surface brownish. 5th stadium (full-
grown) : Dorsal line narrow, reddish. Subdorsal stripes black, tubercles
blue. Frequently the subdorsal stripes are connected by narrow black
transverse bands about the middle of the segments. Spiracular line
interrupted by alternate areas of red and yellow. Subspiracular line black.

Variation.

Larva. — There is no marked variation among the larvae, though there
may be some slight variation in colour, and also in the comparative lengths,
numbers, and coloration of the tubercular setae. It appears that corre-
sponding tubercles on many larvae, and even on the same specimen, do not
always bear the same number of setae. In many cases the tubercles
bear a certain number of white hairs intermixed with the black ones,
but this does not seem to be of any physiological importance, since
some larvae possess many more white setae than others do. As a rule,
such coloration is symmetrical — that is to say, if certain hairs are white
on one tubercle the corresponding hairs on the same tubercles of all the
other segments will be white also.

The Imago. — Mr. Hudson records that the species varies a good deal
in the extent of the cream-coloured markings.

Table of Main Protect ice Setae.

The figures in the following table, though as accurate as possible, are
only approximate, owing to the difficulty of correctly counting the setae :
but they are of interest since they show various phases of growth which
will be dealt with fully in the paragraph on habits.

Period.

Length of Length of Number of

Longest Hairs on Longest Hairs on; Hairs on Dorsal

Dorsal Tubercle I'^st-trapezoidal ; Tubercle Meso-

of the Mesothorax of Abdominals. | thorax.

X umber of

Hairs on

Post-trapezoidal

Abdominals.

Mm.

Mm.

1st .stadium

1-17

0-47

3

1

2nd stadium

1-75

0-82

14

8

3rd stadium

410

1-51

36

19

4th stadium

5-53

1-76

38

27

oth stadium . .

7-57

2-53

40

30

Periods.

Period of incubation, about fifteen
1914. 1st stadium: February 15-19,

days. Hatched, loth
four davs ; length.

February,

2nd

in.

stadium : February 20-23, four davs :
ruary 24-28, five days ; length. ^ in.
5th stadium : March 7-
14 in. Duration of

&""■> 16

3rd stadium : Feb

Length

_9l
16

grown,

length, ^.- in.

4th stadium : March 1-6, six days ;
16, ten days ; length, fin. Length
pupal period, March 17 to April 3.

when full

eighteen days. Total, forty-seven days.

Table published by Mr. Quail : 1st stadium, seven days ; 2nd stadium,
six days ; 3rd stadium, seven days ; 4th stadium, ten days ; 5th stadium,
fifteen days ; 6th stadium, 145 days (hybernated) : 7th stadium, twelve
davs ; 8th stadium, fourteen davs. Duration of pupal period, thirty -two
days. Total, 248 days.

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology. 263

The above table gives a total period, exclusive of the egg state, of forty
seven days. Another batch under observation made a total of seventy-
seven days. Contrast these with Mr. Quail's table, with a total of 248 dars.
Here the normal number of five stadiums has been extended into eight
on account of the season, on which account also the larvae hybernated
in the 6th stadium for 145 days.

Habits of Larva and Imago.

The Larva- -On hatching, the young larva makes its first meal off the
empty shell. During the first three stadiums it keeps to the underside
of the leaves of the food plant, seldom exposing itself on the upper surface,
except perhaps during hot sunshine, and eats only the under portion of the
leaf, not eating right through and thereby leaving conspicuous signs of
its presence. During this time also it utilizes a silken thread in order to
reach fresh feeding-grounds on leaves below, or to regain the food plant
if forced to drop to the ground for defensive purposes. The slightest dis-
turbance during these three periods is generally sufficient to make the larva
hurriedly drop from the leaves, and on reaching the ground it will curl
itself up. the long hairs of the 2nd thoracic and anal abdominal segments
intermingling and so protecting the head. The larvae dislike overcrowd-
ing, and on coming into contact with one another will rear up the fore part
of the body and strike from side to side, even making attempts as though
to bite. In the last two stadiums the habits undergo important changes :
the larva will freely expose itself while feeding, and, in fact, feeds almost
exclusively on the upper portion of the leaves ; as a rule, they are not so
liable to drop from the food plant when disturbed : they do not use the
silken thread if so forced to drop ; instead of a life of seclusiveness, they
become nomads, often ranging great distances in search of fresh food ; and,
lastly, they eat large holes out of the leaves of their food plants, thereby
making their presence most apparent. In short, their life after the 3rd
stadium changes from one of retirement to one of self-advertisement. Turn
now to the table of the' main protective setae and to the paragraph on the
development of the larval markings. You will note in the latter paragraph
that the markings during the first half of the larval existence are mainlv
protective, as distinguished from aggressive, which form they assume during
the two latter stadiums. From the table of the main protective setae we
find that the number of the hairs increases rapidly during the first three
instars. increasing but slightly during the last two : whereas their length
increases almost uniformly in each of the five stadiums. Turning now to
the period table, one cannot help noticing the similarity in length of time
of each of the first three stadiums, and the shortness of their duration as
compared with the rest. In the batch mentioned the 1st stadiums occupied
only thirteen days out of the total of twenty-nine, and in Mr. Quail's table
these three stadiums occupied but twenty days out of a total of 216. The
first three stadiums, during which the larva is to a certain extent unpro-
tected and therefore leads a seclusive life, are, on that account, greatly
shortened, while the protective development proceeds rapidly. It is in the
latter two. during which the protective devices, being almost perfect, change
but little, that the greatest amount of growth is attained, and in which the
caterpillar spends the greatest portion of its larval life-period. It is un-
necessary to dwell further on the above fait-.

I have tried many experiments in order to test the sight and sense of
direction of these larvae, but no very definite assertions can vet be made

264 Transactions.

on these points. From my experiments it appears that their sight is poor,
and that the larvae are influenced more by large objects, even at a distance,
than by much smaller and closer things. Larvae placed in the open on
bare ground were seemingly attracted by high trees in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, but failed to observe or direct their way to small food plants and
other objects of 2 in. or 3 in. in height placed within a few inches of their
path ; tney even seemed quite unaware of such objects placed right in
their way till the long hairs of the thoracic segments, which project out over
the head, came in contact with them. This seems rather curious, since a
larva will frequently, while crawling on the ground or elsewhere, halt and
rear the head as high as possible, as though to take a very comprehensive
view of all the surroundings. When they are travelling in the open they
always appear to have some definite object in view, and to be going straight
to it. and it generally needs an insurmountable obstacle to force them to
make a definite change of direction. Larvae crawling over large sheets of
cardboard would more or less change their course on the sheet being turned,
though they would rarely hit exactly on their original direction ; but many
more experiments are necessary. Regarding sound and hearing, it seems as
though this larva were quite deaf ; apparently no amount of noise produces
the slightest effect, yet it is appreciable of the minutest vibration imparted
to the object on which it may be feeding.

During the summer months they are often to be found crawling over
the paths, and can travel at a fair speed ; one that was timed traversed
4 ft. in a minute. T am told by several reliable authorities that these larvae
are a serious pest to cereal crops, and a few years ago caused a great amount
of devastation in the Wangaehu district, ruining field after field of oats :
on one occasion numbers of them crossing the railway-line on a steep grade
from one field to another caused the stoppage of the express.*

Prior to moulting, the body becomes dark in colour, and the hairs of
the coming instar — or, rather, of the new skin- can be plainly seen. The
larva seeks a secluded position on the underside of a leaf, and will spin a
light silken carpet in which to firmly wedge the crochets of the prolegs.
It seems as though this habit of carpet-laying is not acquired till after the
third moult. The anterior portion of the prothorax gets greatly extended,
and on the sides the eyes of the new head can be distinguished under the
overlying layer of skin ; the new mandibles can be seen occupying the
cheek-spaces of the old head. These characteristics are peculiar to the
period just prior to the moult in all lepidopterous larvae. Actual moulting
operations are exactly similar to those of P. ckalcites. The true legs through-
out the operation are held close to the leaf, but are not fixed on it in any
way. The skin eventually breaks behind the head, and is gradually worked
back off the body, the last few abdominal segments, however, being pulled
out by the larva itself. During the next hour or two it will remain quiet,
occasionally making convulsive movements in order to expedite the drying
and setting of the setae. The actual process of moulting may occupy only
a minute or less.

The Imago. — The imago is diurnal, and is a rather lazy flyer, except
during the early hours of the morning soon after sunrise and in the early
evening, when it may be seen flying very high and around the tops of the

* Since writing the above I have communicated with Mr. G. V. Hudson on this
subject. He says he has never heard of the larva feeding on oats. Probably my
informants may have made a mistake in identity.

Watt. — Stud// of New Zealand Entomology. 265

highest trees. This peculiarity has been recorded by several observers.
While resting, the wings are held flat, the dorsal margins of the upper wings
being parallel, thus giving the moth its characteristic triangular appearance.

The Cocoon.

Prior to spinning, the larva becomes very restless if disturbed, wandering
hastily and aimlessly about the food plant, and feeds but little, if at all.
Later it forsakes the food plant, those in captivity having a tendency to
crawl to the top of their breeding-cage. The cocoon is constructed amongst
neighbouring rubbish on or near the ground, a favourite place being under
the loose bark of near-by trees. Actual spinning operations last about
two days. The cocoon appears to be constructed in two portions — an
outer and somewhat fluffy case, after the construction of which the larva
rests some hours : and an inner and more close and compact lining, sticky.
and containing a large number of the long spinulose hairs of the larva ;
these, being but loosely set in the larval epidermis, become caught in the
lining of the cocoon during spinning and become detached, and so help to
strengthen it. When all is finished the larva rests in an inverted position,
and about two days later undergoes the final moult, appearing as a pale-
white-coloured pupa. It rapidly attains its black and yellow coloration,
which it retains till just prior to the emergence of the imago, when the
yellow areas become almost entirely obscured, the general appearance
being black. Hutton records (Trans. N.Z. Inst., ix, p. 355) that the pupa
is hung to trees, palings, grass. &c. : this must undoubtedly be a mistake.

Food Plants.

Xew Zealand groundsel (Senecio bellidioides), Senecio scandens, S. vul-
garis: Cineraria maritima ; also responsible for the large holes so often
to be seen in the rangiora-leaves (Brack yglottis repanda) ; has been found
feeding on Senecio Turneri, S. Hectori. S. sylvaticus, S. latifolius, Erechtites
<n> pita, and cereals.

Parasites.

Nemorea nyctemerianus. Mr. Hudson records (" Manual of New Zea-
land Entomology," p. 59, pi. 7. fig. 6) that the eggs are deposited on the
moth-larva at an early age. The maggot eats its way out during the
pupal stage of the moth, and changes into a dark-brown pupa, being pro-
tected by the cocoon of its host. I have not come across any of these
parasites in the Wanganui district.

The Pupa.

It has been found necessary to rewrite Mr. Quail's description, owing to
several omissions concerning important structural details which if included
here by themselves would be valueless for want of further information.

Length, § in. ; greatest width, about J in. The general colour is black,
but there may be a slight brownish tinge in some ; the nervures of the wing-
cases are yellow. Mr. Quail records one specimen having the wing-cases
almost entirely yellow. Yellow areas on the abdominal segments form
4 longitudinal lateral series, 1 large mid-ventral, and a large mid-dorsal.
The shape is robust, thickest near the posterior margin of the 3rd abdominal
segment. The head is ventral ; mesothorax swollen anteriorly, and a
waist is formed dorsally at the juncture of the metathorax and the 1st
abdominal segment. The wing-cases extend to the ventral posterior edge

266

T I fl)l sticl !'>:;

of the 1th abdominal : a narrow strip of the hindwing extends to the pos-
terior edge of the 3rd abdominal : Poulton's line cuts off a very narrow strip
only. The spiracles are conspicuously elevated, position on 2nd abdominal
almost dorsal, on other segments placed rather high ; colour black ; shape
oval. The abdominal incisions are distinct and sharp ; the anterior edge
of the segments has a flat sloping rim. and all are covered with innumerable
minute pits, which Quail considers are probably associated with the fine
larval hairs. The pupa has no power of movement. Quail writes that he
could find no trace of setae corresponding to the tubercle-setae- of the larva,
but this is a mistake. During an early period of the pupal existence—
that is to say, before the yellow abdominal areas become obliterated — groups
of minute hairs may be found on the black areas, and these correspond with

Fig.

11. — Pupa

Fig. 9. — Pupa : Ventral view.
Fig. 10. — Pupa: Dorsal view.
Lateral view. (The shaded areas on the 5th abdominal
segment represent the yellow areas on all abdominal segments.
The positions of the groups of hairs representing the larval
tubercles aie shown.)

the larval tubercles, as I have shown on the 5th abdominal segment only in
the figure. Further than this, the larval prolegs are represented by slight
depressions on the ventral surface of the segments ; these depressions bear
groups of minute bristle-like hairs. The terminal segment is round and
blunt ; the anal armature consists of 2 sets of hooks, 12 each, at either side
of the dorsal posterior extremity. The prothorax bears a central strong
longitudinal ridge, which extends into the frontal headpiece and mesothorax.
The antennae extend as far as Poulton's line, and form a slight prominence
on the ventral surface, as can be seen when the pupa is viewed from a lateral
aspect. Segmentation is very plain. The maxillae are comparatively

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology.

267

narrow, and extend to the end of the wing-cases. Small scars representing
the mandibles are to be found on either side of the clypeus. The 1st legs
are stout, and the margin against the eye is equal in length to the correspond-
ing margin against the maxillae. The 2nd pair of legs are long and narrow.
The frontal headpiece is triangular in shape. On the female pupa the

Fig. 12. — Pupa: Male genital organs.

Fig. 13. — Pupa: Frontal view, a, eye ; b, antenna; c, epicranium :
d, prothorax.

genital organs are confined to the 8th abdominal segment, which is greatly
encroached upon on the ventral surface by the 9th abdominal. The anal
scar in the 10th abdominal in both male and female pupae is raised and
prominent. Duration of pupal stage, three to five weeks, and longer; many
probably pass the winter in this stage.

Dehiscence.

" Dorsally split down middle of meso- and meta-thorax, and trans-
versely at suture of same ; the headpiece, with eyes, legs, and antennae
intact, separates from costal edge of wing-cases, except at their tips " (Quail,

ibid.).

Measurements of Pupa.

Length from Front.

Measurement at

Male. female.

Transverse Diameter.
Male. Female.

Anterior-posterior
Diameter.

Male.

Female.

Outer angle of maxilla
Posterior margin of mesothorax
Dorsal depression . .
End of 1st legs
End of 2nd legs
End of maxillae
Posterior margin of 7th abdo-
minal segment
Ditto, 10th abdominal segment
Extreme length

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

1-76

1-41

4-00

3-75

4-50

3-81

3-76

5-46

5-15

4-90

4-30

4-30

5-57

5-36

4-87

7-25

7-25

5-76

5-76

5-50

10-00

8-75

6-00

6-00

6-05

11-25

10-00

5-00

5-00

4-76

15-35

14-20

3-76

3-76

300

17-26

16-00

115

1-15

0-60

17-50

16-25

Mm.
4-50
4-70
4-66
5-00
5-50
4-67
2-75

0-50

The Imago. — See Meyrick (Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxii, p. 218) and Hudson
(N.Z. Moths and Butterflies, p. 2, pi. 4, figs. 1 and 2 ; pi. 3, fig. 9).

Distribution. — North and South Islands, Stewart Island. Confined to
New Zealand, but two closely allied species belonging to the same genus
are found in Australia. Has only been recorded from Waiouru (rare),
New Plymouth, Wanganui (common), Lumsden (common), Mount Holds-
worth, Kermadec Islands (apparently common).

268 Transaction*.

No. 3. Venusia verriculata Feld.

Cidaria verriculata Feld., Eeise der Nov., 5. pi. cxxxi, fig. 20. Phiba-
lapteryx verriculata Butl.. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.; 1877. p. 396.
Panopoea verriculata Mew.. Trans. N.Z. Inst., xvi. p. 62. Pane/pun
verriculata Fereday. Trans. X.Z. Inst., xxx. p. 338. Venusia
verriculata Hudson, N.Z. Moths and Butterflies, p. 53, pi. 6,
figs. 30. 31. Pancyma verriculata Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., xviii.
p. 184. Venusia verriculata Philpott, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii,
p. 175: ib., xxxix. p. 216: Hamilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xliii.
p. 121 : Watt, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xlvi, p. 80.

The Egg.
For detailed description, see Trans. N.Z. Inst., xlvi. p. 80.

Egg-laying.

The ova are deposited in small regular hatches of a dozen, more or less.
The parent moth is careless as to the spot where she lays her ova, for they
may be found on both dead and green leaves alike. It would appear from
the rapid colour-changes in the egg and the extreme activity of the newly
hatched larvae that the correct place for the ova is ou the dead leaves, and
thev are often to be found there on the under-surface near the base of the
leaf, where they are greatly protected by their colour. Those eggs laid on
the green leaves only gain protection on account of their colour for a couple
of days or so, and for the remainder of the oval period are startlingly con-
spicuous : in consequence the collector is bound to come across them in
such positions, and, as they are well-nigh invisible on the dead leaves, his
opinion is likely to be prejudiced as to the natural place of deposition.
Personally, I have found more ova on the dead leaves, where they have
invariably been placed on the under-surface, near the butt, than on the fresh
leaves, on which they appear to have no fixed position. One female reared
in captivity laid a total of 393 eggs in three days. Oviposition was carried
on during the night. In most of the batches the eggs are laid in neat rows,
being placed end on end. but occasionally they are to be found in a rather
scattered condition.

The Larva.

1st stadium : Head of medium size, non-retractile. Abdominal seg-
ments 1 to 6 inclusive are largest and equal in size: the 7th abdominal
and the thoracic segments about equal. Body cylindrical ; prolegs on
abdominal segments 6 and 10 only, situated posteriorily, well developed,
crochets on lateral flange. A very minute and scattered pile may be observed
on the body with a high-power objective. The 6th abdominal segment
is divided centrally into two subsegments ; on the other segments sub-
segmentation is not apparent. Spiracles small, circular, rims brown, in-
conspicuous. The prothoracic shield is slightly raised and light in colour,
with a well-marked medio-dorsal suture ; each half of the scutum bears
4 minute tubercles and setae arranged in diamond formation. All setae
are simple. Tubercle i is contained in the scutum on the prothorax : in
the remaining two thoracic segments is above ii, slightly anterior ; in the
abdominals i and ii are some distance apart, i being anterior to and above ii.
ii is also included in the prothoracic shield, iii consists in the thoracic
segments of two minute tubercles, sometimes free, sometimes coalesced ;
in the prothorax they are situated just beneath the scutum, the upper one

Watt. — Study of Xeiv Zealand Entomology.

269

being slightly posterior ; in the meso- and meta-thorax the position is some
distance beneath but anterior to i and ii, and the position of the two tubercles
reversed — that is to say, the upper one is anterior, instead of posterior as in
the prothorax. In the abdominal segments iii is pre-spiracular, below but
anterior to i ; appears to be absent in the 9th abdominal, iv is absent in
the thoracic segments, but in the abdominals is post-spiracular, immediately
beneath ii, and slightly subspiracular. v is a large tubercle in the pro-
thorax having one large and one small seta, is pre-spiracular and beneath
iii ; consists of a single-hair-bearing tubercle beneath iii in the meso- and
meta-thorax ; in the abdominals is subspiracular beneath iii, and in the
9th abdominal immediately beneath iv. vi and vii are coalesced in the 1st
thoracic segment, situated above the leg, vi anterior to vii ; in the 2nd and
3rd thoracics vii is situated above the outer posterior margin of the leg,
posterior to v ; is absent in the abdominals, vi is also absent in the abdominal

Fig. 14. — Larval tubercles : 1st iustar.
Fig. 15. — Larval tubercles : 2nd instar.

segments, viii is a very minute tubercle on the ventral surface anterior
to vii, immediately beneath v in the 9th abdominal. Two secondary setae
are situated on the ventral surface anterior to viii. 2nd stadium : The
thoracic plate is not distinguishable on the prothorax. Tubercles i, ii,
iii, v, and viii as in 1st stadium, iv now appears in the 2nd and 3rd thoracic
segments above and posterior to v. A small secondary tubercle is situated
just beneath and slightly in front of v in the meso- and meta-thorax.
vi appears in the first seven abdominal segments immediately beneath the
spiracle and beneath but posterior to v. vii in the abdominals is beneath
iv, immediately posterior to vi, except in the 6th segment, where it is
situated on the upper and outer margin of the leg. This is the final arrange-
ment of the tubercles, and remains constant throughout the 3rd, 4th, and
5th instars. 3rd stadium : Abdominal segments 6 and 7 are divided medially
into two equal subsegments. Pile exceedingly minute. 4th stadium : As
in stadium 3. Spiracles circular, excepting those on the first thoracic
and 7th and 8th abdominal segments, where they are inclined to be oval.

270 Transactions.

■5th stadium : Spiracles oval, brown. Subsegmentation on abdominal seg-
ments. 1 to 7. Pile thick but very minute. Body of equal width through-
out, slightly flattened dorsally and ventrally. The head is medium-sized,
somewhat square in shape ; clypeus small and distinct, possessing 4 minute
setae ; either cheek has 7 setae, the area included by the eyes bears 4 with
a 5th more remote ; mandibles serrate, with 5 points.

Development of Larval Markings.

1st stadium : General colour light green. Head light green with light-
brown mouth parts ; eyes black. Has a conspicuous brown spiracular
line. Tubercles light-coloured. 2nd stadium : Broad medio-dorsal stripe
of dark green. Spiracular stripe dark brown to black. 3rd stadium : A
light-brown stripe extends from either side of the base of the clypeus to
the top of the head, but they are some distance from the central facial
suture. 4th stadium : A very narrow white subdorsal line appears on either
side of the broad medio-dorsal stripe. Cheek-stripes ochreous and very
conspicuous ; while a third short thick stripe occupies the central portion
of the clypeus. The tubercles are still light in colour, excepting iv, which
is included in and is of the same colour as the spiracular band. 5th stadium,
(full-grown) : General colour green, ventral surface light. The narrow
white subdorsal stripes are margined on either side by a pinky area.
Tubercles black. Head-markings very strong, as in last stadium, the facial
markings extending across the prothorax, where they are black. Suranal
plate and upper portion of anal prolegs black. Before spinning the whole
body assumes a rosy hue.

Variation in Larva and Imago.

The Larva. — Here there is not much variation, chief instances being the
absence of the spiracular lines and cheek-stripes, and in the coloration of
the tubercles. There appears to be a variety which is, when full-grown,
larger (1^-in. to \\'m. in length), greener in colour, and not having such
marked subdorsal lines. This may be explained sexually.

The Imago. — A certain amount of variation occurs in size and colour,
some specimens being brighter in the shades of brown than others.

Table of Periods.

Period of incubation from fifteen to twenty-two days, or longer.
1st stadium: fifteen days; length on hatching, ^ in. 2nd stadium : thirteen
days ; length after 1st moult, -jfe in. 3rd stadium : thirteen days ; length
after 2nd moult, -jfc in. 4th stadium : twelve days ; length after 3rd moult,
^r in. 5th stadium : twenty-one days ; length after 4th moult, -^ in.
Larva, full-grown, fin. to ljin. in length; length before pupating, h in.
only ; duration of spinning, about two days ; duration of larval life within
the cocoon, four to five or more days ; duration of pupal existence, fifty
days (winter months).

Habits.

The young larvae on hatching do not eat the empty shells, but almost
immediately start climbing. At first they are very active, and able to crawl
long distances, betaking themselves to the innermost leaves of the cabbage-
tree, where they are wont to congregate together on the upper but inner
surface of the loose outer leaves forming the heart spike of the tree. Through-
out the first four stadiums their method of feeding is to scoop long channels

Watt. — Study of Neu> Zealand Entomology. 271

out of the surface of the leaves parallel to the fibres ; later, however, in their
5th stadium, they attack the edges, eating out great lumps, which, as the
leaves grow and begin to droop outwards, give to them a very notched
and serrated appearance. It is unfortunate that the larvae attack the
youngest leaves, for it is not till these grow up that the tree shows any sign
of the presence of caterpillars, and then it is nearly always too late to do
any good, unless there be a second or third brood, for the larvae will in all
probability have retreated to the mass of dead leaves hanging around the
tree, or among the rubbish on the ground, to pupate. On care full v pulling
apart the outer leaves of the inner spike one is almost certain to find numbers
of larvae in all stages of growth, the younger ones being generallv found
in groups. No sooner, however, are the leaves opened than the larvae
will immediately drop into the crevices, many being crushed to death when
the leaves resume their former position on being released. One would
think that in extremely wet weather many would stand a good chance of
being drowned in the water that collects round the base of the leaves, but
they may frequently be found wallowing in this, seemingly without the
slightest harm. Specimens in captivity invariably kept to the underside
of the leaves of the food plant, but in a state of nature they are frequently
to be found feeding fully exposed on the more mature leaves : here they
probably enjoy the warmth of the sun. Full-grown larvae are never to
be found in such exposed situations unless searching for a suitable place
in which to pupate. Throughout all the stadiums the larvae make use of
a silken thread. When disturbed they do not throw the head from side to
side or curl up, as most caterpillars, but either drop or hurriedly seek to
hide themselves in the spaces between the leaves. The young utilize the
thread for dropping from leaf to leaf in search of food. The silk is exceed-
ingly strong and elastic. Trees that have been badly infected will be found
to be almost destitute of the inner compact and succulent heart, while great
quantities of the coarse frass will be piled up around the base of the leaves.
The larvae during the last stadium have enormous appetites, and it is at
this period that most of the damage to the tree is done. Many appear to
suffer from a wasting disease ; they quit feeding, and the segments gradually
wither up till the head is out of all proportion to the rest of the bodv. Such
larvae invariably die. death in all probability being caused by Ichneumons
attacking vital internal organs.

The Imago. — As has been recorded by Fereday and others, the moth
frequents the dead leaves hanging from the head of the tree, and invariably
sits across the leaf with wings fully spread, which accounts for the peculiar
markings of the upper and lower wings, these corresponding to similar
lines on the leaves. It is the underside of the dead leaves, where these
markings are most distinct, that forms the chief resting-place of the moths.
It is in this way that the species is wonderfully protected and almost in-
visible to an untrained eye. Flight is rather slow, and the moth is nocturnal.
Season. September to May.

Food Plants.
Cabbage-tree (Cordyline australis; Maori, ti-kouka) ; Cordyline Banksii.

Parasites.
Phorocera ncjaria : The larva of this large blue Dipteron is an internal
parasite, emerging to pupate when its host is in the pupa state. Syrphus
ropalvs Walk. : The larvae of this fly scour the cabbage-tree heads and

272 Transactions.

boldly attack and devour all the V. verriculata larvae they come across.
, Further information on the above two species will be given in future con-
tributions. Cermatulus nasalis has also been found attacking the larvae.

The Cocoon.

The cocoon is thin and scanty, and is composed of a rather coarse brown
silk, which is extremely viscid. When viewed through the microscope the
individual threads are bespangled at regular intervals with globules of
sticky matter, very similar to the web of a spider. Favourite places for
spinning are at the base of the leaves up against the trunk of the tree, in
the crevices of the bark, and amongst the dead leaves hanging around the
stem.

The Pupa.

Immediately after the last moult the wings, head, and limbs of the pupa
are green ; the anal segments are light pink, with a strong reddish medio-
dorsal stripe ; the prothorax is pink or rather reddish, and at the juncture
of the segments the pink coloration is very marked. Within twenty-four
hours the pupa passes through several shades of brown till it is very dark,

almost black ; the intersegmental membrane
between the movable segments is much lighter
in colour. The frontal headpiece has three
slight prominences, one on either side at the
base of the antennae, the 3rd ventral, above
the labrum. The thoracic segments bear no
very marked dorsal hump, while the abdomen
is inclined to be short and stout. Abdominals

j, l6 pupa. Frontal 5 and 6 alone are movable. The cremaster

view, a, prothorax ; is short and stumpy, bearing 4 whorled
b, 1st spiracle ; c, an- hooks, two on either side, and slightlv dorsal,
tenna ; d, epicranium ; ])ormi vjew - The head is slightly depressed
e' eye' between the antennae, and not visible. The

prothorax is narrow, with a central suture, and is somewhat pitted and
wrinkled. The 1st spiracle has a long narrow opening, and is very con-
spicuous. Both the meso- and meta-thorax bear a strong central suture,
and are wrinkled. The abdominal segments are strongly pitted, and bear
minute hairs that correspond in position with the larval tubercles, but are
verv hard to distinguish. There is no trace of subsegmentation. The 5th,
6th, and subsequent abdominal segments are swollen anteriorly ; this is
very marked on the sides and dorsum. The hindwings show a very narrow
strip, widest at the 1st abdominal, rapidly narrowing in the 2nd, and again
widening slightly in the 3rd and 4th abdominals. Lateral view : The apex
of the head is in front of the axial line. There is a deep depression in the
maxillae some little distance from their origin ; from this depression they
slope outwards to their extremities near the posterior margin of the 4th
abdominal segment ; from here the abdominals taper uniformly and rapidly
to the cremaster. The whole length of the antenna is visible, the base being
level with the top of the eye ; it rapidly widens out till on a line with the
bottom of the eye, and then gradually narrows towards the tip ; every
joint is plainly visible. A very slight margin of the hindwing can be seen
at the 1st and 4th abdominals. In the forewing Poulton's line is absent,
though slight venation can be distinguished. The spiracles are very pro-
minent on raised bases, and are dorso-lateral, oval. Ventral view :■ The

Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology.

273

maxillae have their greatest width on a line with the bottom of the eyes.
Here they form an angle with the eye, and rapidly converge to the end
of the 1st legs, where they are extremely narrow, widening out again club-
like beyond these again to the end of the wings. The antennae and 2nd legs
also reach to the end of the wings. Both legs and maxillae are covered

Fig. 17. — Pupa
Fig. 18.— Pupa:
Fig. 19.— Pupa:

Lateral view.
Ventral view.
Dorsal view.

with minute transverse rugae, while the wings are sculptured with laby-
rinthine wrinkling, and the abdominal segments are pitted most anteriorly.
The 2nd legs bear an equal width their whole length. Anal scar very pro-
minent. Genital organs inconspicuous, but restricted to their respective

segments.

Chief Measurements of Pupa.

Measurement at

Distance from
Front.

Transverse
Diameter.

Anterior-
posterior
Diameter.

Depression in maxillae

End of maxillae

Spiracle, 5th abdominal segment

6th

8th
Extreme length

Mm.

1-80

8-70

9-50

10-55

12-00

14-00

Mm.
400
3-85
3-70
3-30
2-25

Mm.
2-90
3-80
3-35
2-90
1-75

Dehiscence.
The headpiece, with the eyes and the thoracic and abdominal appendages
intact, separates in one piece from the wing-cases except at their tips ; the
pro-thorax splits down the central dorsal suture; the meso- and meta-
thorax remain intact.

274 Transactions.

Imago.

The imago has already been completely described by Meyrick (Trans.
N.Z. Inst., xvi, p. 62) and by Hudson (N.Z. Moths and' Butterflies, p. 53.
pi. 6, figs. 30 and 31).

Distribution.

Waitakarei Ranges (Auckland) ; Wanganui. very common from August
to May; Wellington; Christchurch and Duhedin, from October to Mav ;
Ashburton ; West Plains : Invercargill. taken at light in April.

Art. XXIX. — Contributions to the Study of New Zealand Entomology, from
an Economical and Biological Standpoint : No. 4 — Phorocera nefaria
Hutton ; No. 5 — Psychoda conspicillata Hudson ; No. 6 — Syrphus
ropalus Walk. ; No. 7 — Phytomyza albiceps Mg. (Diptera).

By David Miller and Morris N. Watt, F.E.S.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 23rd November, 1914.]

Plates II. III.

No. 4. Phorocera nefaria Hutton.

For the original description of this fly see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33,
p. 59, and vol. 36, p. 151.

Since nothing has yet been published concerning the habits and life-
historv of this Dipteron. which belongs to the parasitic family Tachinidae,
the following note may be not uninteresting. The larva is an internal
parasite of the larva and pupa of the common cabbage-tree moth, Venusia
verriculata (see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 271). The larvae of this
moth feed in the crevices between the innermost leaves of the cabbage-tree
(Cordyline australis), and so it is difficult to see how they become attacked.
It is quite possible that the fly deposits its ova on the leaves, and the
young maggots on hatching seek out and penetrate their host. But this is
only speculation. Only actual observation will reveal the secret, and so it
is likely that some little time will elapse before we can complete this very
interesting life- history.* The larva, when full-grown, emerges from the
pupa of its host, and pupates, being protected by the light cocoon spun
by the moth-caterpillar just prior to its final moult and for its own protection.

The pupa is dark red in colour ; cylindrical, and smooth ; the anterior
end slightly smaller than its nadir, which is somewhat pointed. Length
of case, -^ in. ; greatest diameter, T3g in. In the specimen described the
pupal stage lasted from the 10th August till the 1st October — that is to
say, sixty-one days. Only one was obtained, and its puparium was almost
as large as the pupa of its host, from which it had emerged by bursting
through the head. On one occasion at least fifteen imagines were reared

In all other cases observed a single host has reared but one parasite.

Millkk and Watt. — Study of .\(ir Zealand Entomology. 275

from a single pupa of Oesctirn.s omnicorus* From this it appears likely
that the fly may attack other lepidopterous larvae besides, and also tends
to confirm the remarks above regarding oviposition.

Rah. — Christchurch (Hutton) ; Wanganui. October (M. X. W.).

No. 5. Psychoda conspicillata Hudson.
Psychoda conspicillata Hudson, Man. N.Z. Ent., p. 46, pi. iv, fig. 6.

This species may be the Psychoda phalaenoides Linn, described by
Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 34, p. 179.

As the adult fly has already been fully described and figured, it is un-
necessary to do so again here. The following notes are new : During the
last few years this beautiful little fly has been found breeding throughout
the year in tins of disused liquid horse-manure. The family Psychodidae
is represented by only a few species in New Zealand. Mr. Marshall (Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 28. p. 222) says that the larvae live in fungi and rotten
wood. Our New Zealand species are, however, very little known.

Ova and details of oviposition not yet known.

The larva is aquatic, of an elongate form ; yellowish- white in colour
(description from specimens preserved in 3-per-cent. formol solution) ;
length when full grown, about | in., but variable ; number of segments,
about 25 (?) (fig. 1).

The terminations consist of a downturned anterior and an upturned
posterior chitinous-like process, the former very short and stout when
compared with the latter, which is elongate, narrowing apically. On the

Fig. 1. — Larva of Psychoda conspicillata. ds, ventral
hair* ; prv, respiratory vesicle.

dorsal surface — exclusive of the first five segments — extending on each
side to the medio-lateral line is a vestiture of short reclinate hooked
bristles, which, below this lateral line, merge into indistinct and minute
delicate hairs, except on the two apical segments, where the bristles form
a complete covering. The medio-lateral line is a distinct fold of the cuticle,
extending from the anterior margin of the 6th to the terminal segment.
This fold is thrown into a series of wrinkles by the contractions of the
body-wall.

The respiratory vesicle — the posterior process (fig. 1, prv) — is an elongate
brownish structure, darker at the apex, and broadened toward the base.

* Since writing the above some larvae of the moth Melanchra insignia were being
reared from ova sent t< me from Dunedin by Mr. W. G. Howes. At no time during the
oval, larval, or pupal stage was it at all possible for flies or other insects to attack the
specimens, which were kept in glass dishes with flat glass lids. A fortnight after the
pupal stage had been assumed a single larva of P. nefaria emerged from one of the pupae
by bursting through the 4th abdominal segment, near the dorsum, and pupated. The
only possible way in which the victim could have become infected was by means of an
egg, or very young larva, of the fly being conveyed into the breeding-glass along
with the leaves of the food plant, in this case the common plantain, on which the
egg must have been deposited. It is well known that other Diptera of similar parasitic
habits lay their eggs in this way.

270

Transactions.

When viewed from the side a swelling is seen upon the ventral surface,
from which, at its base, arise numerous short and stiff bristle-like hairs

(fig. 1, ds). Within the vesicle,
and completely filling it apically,
are a pair of large tracheae
(fig. 2). Arising from the trun-
cated apex, and apparently con-
nected with the tracheae are
a number — at least 3 — of tri-
angular structures bearing nu-
merous long and sinuated hair-
like appendages, each of which is broad and hollow (?) on the basal half
but terminates distally in a whip-like filament.

The head — anterior process — is roughly triangular in profile, and bears
at the downcurved apex a rounded process beset with small hooked bristles
(fig. 3, a). When viewed from beneath, the head is dome-shaped (fig. 4),

Fig. 2. — Apical tracheae.

Fig. 3. — -Profile of head.
Fig. 4. — Head of larva, ventral view.

with a large square notch on the anterior middle half, in which is seen the
apical process already referred to (fig. 3, a). This notched cavity is bounded
by a distinct ridge (fig. 4, r). The apical process (fig. 3, a) is now seen to
be more or less almond-shaped, its centre being occupied by a similarly
shaped cavity lined with delicate hairs (fig. 4, o). Separating this apical
structure from the margin of the square cavity is, on each side, a row of
3 contiguous cup-like depressions, the posterior ones being more or less
elongate (fig. 4, p).

These larvae feed immersed, but for their posterior process, in the slush,
and are continually on the move. If disturbed they curl around any small
obstacle that may be handy, and remain quiescent till the disturbing
element is removed. The larval period extends into several weeks, but
the total number of moults is uncertain.

The pupa rests embedded in the semi-liquid material on the surface of
the slush, its two spiracles free to the air. Its power of movement is
restricted, being able only to twist and twirl its abdomen to a slight
extent, and it is quite unable to swim or otherwise care for itself.
Like the larva, it varies in length, the longest being about \ in. In
colour it is yellowish-white ; in shape elongate, but broad and rounded
anteriorly, and narrowing considerably toward the terminal segment (fig. 5).
There are 9 segments, each connected by a membranous intersegmental
membrane, visible only when the bodv is fullv extended. Anteriorly is

ra

-tf

Miller and Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology. 277

a pair of well-separated club-shaped two-jointed respiratory appendages

(fig. 5, ra). One of these is shown greatly enlarged (fig. 6). Each one.

excepting the first short joint, consists of a

roughly ridged sheath (fig. 6, sh), the ridges

extending over the whole surface, exclusive

of the proximal ventral area, which is smooth.

Along the ventral surface, and occupying the

whole of the apex, are rows of numerous pits.

the margins of which are raised above the

level of the sheath. Within the sheath is a

tracheal- like structure (fig. 6, tr).

Ventrally the folds of the 1st segment
terminate in sharp convergent points at the
centre of the posterior margin of the 3rd seg-
ment (fig. 5. tf). The inner margins of these
folds — the wings — are ridged and separated
by a set of 3 lobe-like structures — the limbs,
i.e., the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd pairs of legs —
notched on the posterior margins, and pos-
sessing a rnedio-longitudinal fissure (fig. 5. Is).
More anterior still, about the middle line of the
first pair of ridges (the antennae) (fig. 5/7), Fia. 5._Pupa of Psychoda con.
are a pair of ovate discs (fig. 5, sp), beset
with numerous pits and short delicate hairs.
The body segments from the 3rd to the pen-
ultimate are thrown into hollows and ridges,
the posterior margins carrying an armature of
stout reclinate spines (fig. 5), three of which
(a central and two laterals) are considerably enlarged, and are borne upon
protuberances. There are also 4 large and similarly formed discal spines.
Dorsally the spines are less stout, less numerous, proclinate, the discal set
being absent.

The apical segment has no discal or
dorsal spines, but a half-whorl of stout
claws.* Arising from this segment is the
terminal appendage, consisting of 4 dorsally
curved massive claws (figs. 7 and 8). The

spicillata. 1, 2, 3, 1st,
2nd, and 3rd pair of legs ;
tf, ventral extremity of
wing - case ; //', antenna ;
ra, respiratory appendage ;
sp, ovate discs.

Fig. 6. — Respiratory appendage (greatly enlarged), tr, trachea ; sh, sheath.

Figs. 7, 8. — Terminal claws.

ventral pair are the smaller, and do not extend as far as the dorsal.
Both the anterior and posterior appendages are dark brown.

The duration of the pupal stage is four days.

The emergence of the adult fly is a most beautiful sight to watch
through the low powers of a microscope. The pupa-case splits anterio-

* In fig. 8 these claws have been drawn on the dorsaj instead of the ventral side.

278 Transactions.

dorsally, and a second later the perfect fly is outside and standing upon
it, The wings begin to expand with a kind of uncurling movement,
' gradually extending outwards and up till they are held straight above the
abdomen, their upper surfaces turned inward and together ; then with
a sudden relaxing motion they fall to their natural position across and
on either side of the dorsum. The whole operation of emerging and dry-
ing the wings takes less than a minute. The fly is rather a sluggish insect,
but quick of flight, and is often to be met with indoors. It is, however,
harmless to man and beast, and probably destroys a great amount of
unhealthy and decaying matter.

Hob. — Wellington (Hudson), Wanganui (M. N. W.) ; probably to be
found in most parts of New Zealand.

" P. phalaenoides, Christchurch (Hutton), Auckland (Suter) ; intro-
duced from Europe."

No. 6. Syrphus ropalus Walk.

Syrphus ropalus Walker, Cat, Dipt, Brit, Mus.. p. 593 (1849):
Hutton, Cat, Dipt. N.Z., p. 44: Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 33,
p. 41.

The family to which this fly belongs is a very common one — Syrphide,
or hover-flies — and of great value from an economic point of view. As
far as can be .seen, nothing has been published concerning the habits and
life-history of the present species. The egg stage is. unfortunately, still
unknown, but may not differ very much from that of other flies of the
same family, several of which are quite well known.

The larva is of a light-green colour, and attains a length of about 4 in.
when full grown, and is greatly attenuated towards the head ; it is soft-
skinned and moist ; the skin transparent, displaying clearly the whole
alimentary system. Specimens were invariably found in the narrow spaces
between the outer leaves of the heart of the cabbage-tree (Cordyline aus-
tralis). The larva dislikes the light, and, when exposed, quickly makes off
into the dark crevices between the leaves. The mode of progression is
the same as in all other arboreal larvae of this family. It is a mystery how
the blind larva finds his way, and is able to hunt out his prey, which in the
present cases consists of the larvae of a Lepidopteron (Venusia verriculata)
which also breed in the cabbage-tree. The reader is referred to No. 3 of
this series of contributions for full notes on the breeding of this moth (Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 268). It seems hardly likely that the prey is captured
fortuitously. When a caterpillar is discovered, the larva, with a lightning
toss of the head, plunges his beak into its body. The caterpillar will not
submit quietly to this, but writhes and twists and twirls its body about,
and even frequently attempts to bite its antagonist, sometimes in this way
forcing the maggot to beat a hasty retreat. It is wonderful to see the way
in which the larva sticks to his prey in spite of all the heaving convulsions ;
this he manages by ejecting a quantity of sticky mucus which practically
cements him to the caterpillar. In the meantime, while the prey is still
living, the maggot is rooting luxuriously amid its entrails, till nothing but
the empty skin remains. The larval stage exists some length of time, pro-
bably several months. They feed on the larvae of Venusia verriculata,
but in captivity also took readily to the larvae of another moth, Tortrix
postvittana, which also feed in the head of the cabbage-tree, curling the tips
of the leaves.

Miller and Watt. — Study of Jew Zealand Entomology. 279

The pupa is tear-shaped ; the posterior end. bearing the two respiratory
tubes, is much flattened and constricted. Anteriorly it is much swollen,
well rounded, and corpulent.

The colour is light brown, with a broad conspicuous dark medio-dorsal
stripe extending the whole length of the pupa. On the sides arc several
(about 4) very faint narrow lines, much broken and interrupted, running

9
Fig. 9.

-Pupa of S. ropalus.

parallel with the medio-dorsal. The integument is hard and roughened

in. : breadth

bv numerous minute transverse rugae

at posterior extremity, rV ln-

Length of pupa,
at anterior end. A in.

The pupa is to be found, as a rule, near the butts of the leaves, on the
underside. The duration of this stage is about three weeks.

Hab. — Auckland (Dr. Sinclair) ; Kekerangu, 3.000 ft. (Hudson) : Dun-
edin (Hutton) : Wanganui, October (M. N. W.); Marlborough. December
(D.M.).

No. 7. Phytomyza albiceps Mg. Plates II and III.

As far as it has been possible to ascertain, this little flv has not till now
been recorded from Xew Zealand. It is necessary, therefore, that a detailed
description be included in the present paper.

The adult fly (Plate III. fig. 6) is small, black in ground-colour, bur
with a covering of minute silvery -grey
pubescence. Length of imago, $, 1 mm. :
wing. 1-25 mm. Length of imago, $, 1 -5 mm. ;
wing, 2 mm.

Eves reddish-brown, broadly dichoptic.
with minute scattered silvery hairs ; ver-
tex and front broad and yellowish, this
colour (absent on the darker frontal lunule)
being due to the presence of a dense and
minute pubescence. On the front are a
pair of parallel longitudinal depressions,
assuming in certain lights an orange colour.
Ocellar triangle dark reddish brown, more
or less circular, the ocelli shiny dark orange
and well separated. A pair of strong
parallel proclinate ocellar bristles, one on
each side of the anterior ocellus (fig. 10, ob) :
a pair of strong reclinate divergent post-
ocellar bristles (fig. 10, pob) placed more
closely than ocellar pair. Inner and outer
vertical bristles strong, the latter diver-
gent (o), the former convergent (i). A
row of strong shorter post-orbital bristles
(fig. 11, po) extending to lower margin
of head; 3 strong reclinate upper fronto-

orbital bristles (fig. 1". ufo) : a single strong convergent frontal bristle
(fig. 10,/) ; a row of smaller orbital bristles (fig. 10, or). Antennae inserted

Fig. 10. — Dorsal portion of head
of P. albiceps. ob, ocellar
bristles ; pob, post - ocellar
bristles ; o, outer vertical
i, inner vertical ; /. frontal ,
ufo, upper fronto - orbital ;
or, orbital bristles.

280

Transactions.

at middle line of eye, three-jointed, slightly separated at the origin, not
elongated, almost black, and covered with a short dense pubescence ; 1st joint
short ; 2nd about half as long as 3rd, and bearing on the anterior margin
a number of short bristle-like hairs, with a single strong bristle on upper
anterior angle ; 3rd joint orbicular in profile, but laterally flattened ; arista
dorsal, of moderate length, its 2nd joint short, the whole pubescent.

Face and cheeks yellow, the former depressed in front view but sinuated
in profile (fig. 11) ; facial grooves extending well under the eye, are angulated
before reaching the posterior orbital margin ; vibrissae and vibrissa! angles

Fig. 11. — Lateral view of caput,
and vibrissa! angles.

po, post-orbital bristles ; v, vibrissae

Fig. 12. — Chaetotaxy. Ku, humeral bristles; phu, post-humeral ; dc, dorso-
centrals ; prs, pre-suturals ; sa, supra-alars ; pa, post-alars ;
j)s, post-suturals ; sip, scutellar lateral ; sap, small apicals.

distinct (fig. 11, v) ; oral margin bristly, angulated, yellow, but darker in
certain lights at the vibrissal angles ; posterior orbits yellow, sinuated,
broad, but narrower above ; occiput rounded, piceous in certain lights.
Proboscis withdrawn, yellow, and with a few yellowish hairs.

Thorax not elongate,

black in ground-colour, with a minute grey

pubescence ; dorsum anteriority humped in profile. Chaetotaxy (fig. 12)
Dorso-centrals (dc) 3 in number, the 2 anterior small, the 3rd (towards the
suture) large and distinct ; a large humeral bristle (hu) and a few smaller
ones ; 2 small post-humerals (phu) ; 2 pre-suturals (prs), the outer large,
the inner small ; 3 large post-suturals (ps) ; 2 supra-alars (sa), the anterior
small, the posterior large ; 2 post-alars (pa), the anterior large, the posterior
small. Scutellum with margin constricted, giving a sinuated and trilobed
appearance ; a large lateral bristle on anterior lobe near the suture (si? ),
and a pair of small apicals (sap). Four meso-pleural bristles, of which

2 smaller ones arise posteriorly along the dorso-pleural suture, a single
large one at the upper posterior angle — that is, at the angle of the meso-
and dorso-pleural sutures ; just beneath this large one, on the meso-pleural
suture, is situated the 4th smaller bristle ; a single pro-pleural bristle ;

3 small sterno-pleural bristles along the sterno -pleural suture, and a number
of small ones upon the apex of this pleura.

Milleb and Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomology . 281

Wings (fig. 13) moderately broad, colourless except for pale yellow at
the articulation ; when closed, extending considerably beyond the abdomen ;
costa (c) ending some distance from tip of wing ; auxiliary vein (aux) indis-
tinct, well separated from the 1st longitudinal vein, but evanescent distally ;

13

FlG. 13. — Wing- venation. P. albiceps. 1. 1st longitudinal;
2, 2nd vein; 3, 3rd vein; c, costa; aux, auxiliary
vein ; acv, anterior cross-vein.

1st longitudinal (1) sinuated upward toward the costa; 2nd vein (2) only
slightly sinuated ; 3rd vein (3) uniting with the distal extremity of the costa ;
anterior cross-vein (acv) situated well before the middle of the wing and the
end of the 1st longitudinal vein : posterior veins and basal cells indistinct.
Halteres pale yellow.

Legs bristly, black with pale-yellow knees ; femora comparatively thick-
ened : tibiae shorter than the femora : tarsi considerably longer than either
the femora or tibiae, the metatarsi being about one-third the length of the
whole tarsal joint ; 2nd tarsal joint about one-half the length of the meta-
tarsus : claws small, pale yellow on proximal half, but black distally, the
inner proximal angle of each protruding knob-like ; pulvilli pale yellow,
with a vestiture of delicate hairs : empodium a strong bristle ; a small
apical bristle on inner angle of middle tibiae : anterior femora with longer
bristles on the lower side.

Abdomen about as long as the thorax, but not as broad, narrowing toward
a rounded apex ; black in ground-colour, but with a minute greyish pubes-
cence. When ventrally examined the genital cavity is heart-shaped, the
margin being beset with short bristles, from among which protrude the pale-
yellow copulatory organs.

The female fly appears to deposit her ova on both surfaces of the leaves
of the food plant. Close observations show that the upper side is almost
invariably preferred, the majority of eggs being laid on the outer margin
of the leaf. Having selected a suitable spot for oviposition. the fly lowers
her ovipositor till it is at right angles to the surface of the leaf, having to
stand on tip-toe for the purpose : with several downward jerks of the abdo-
men the ovipositor is thrust through the cuticle and pushed beneath its
surface, pushing at first directly backwards and later laterally, in this way
prizing up the cuticle so as to form a minute semicircular pocket in the
leaf (Plate III, fig. 1). After a moment's rest the ovipositor is withdrawn,
leaving a single egg within the pocket. Some- little time after the cavity
has been made the separated cuticle dries, and the whole becomes visible
to the naked eye as a minute white .spot on the leaf.

While engaged in laying, the fly is very sluggish, and can be closely
observed with a magnifying-glass without taking to flight, and can even

282 Transactions.

be gently transferred from one leaf to another ; it is. however, extremely
rapid oi flight. Almost invariably on the withdrawal of the ovipositor
from the leaf the fly will immediaetly turn and eagerly lap the exuding
sap. Whether this is merely to satisfy her own immediate wants or is in
some war connected with the welfare of the egg is from data in hand a
debatable point. Before continuing the process of laying the ovipositor
and body generally are subjected to a thorough cleansing ; all extraneous
matter is removed. The egg-laying capacity of any individual probably
reaches about 200 ova.

Often cavities that have been carefully probed will be left without an
egg. This is hard to explain; probably at the moment the ovum was not
ripe within the ovaries. Pockets might be begun in tough portions of
the leaves, but in such places they are hardly ever completed, and no eggs
are deposited in them. The time taken in probing a cavity and depositing
the egg rarely exceeds a minute. During the proceedings the back legs
are at times violently stamped upon the leaf. Occasionally leaves are
found crowded with these pockets, but in such cases only a few of them
will contain eggs.

The ovum is cylindrical, pearly- white, glossy, ends rounded : the shell
is very delicate, and devoid of any kind of sculpturing. The micropylar (?)
end is slightly broader than its nadir. Length. 0-32 mm. : greatest
diameter, 0-15 mm.

The larva (Plate III. fig. 2) hatches on the sixth day after the laying
of the egg. It at once begins burrowing in the soft inner substance of
the leaf, keeping close against the upper cuticle. Burrowing now goes
on unceasingly for the next nine days. The mine often assumes fantastic
forms, sometimes crossing and recrossing itself many times ; as the larva
grows, the mine, of course, gradually widens and becomes very conspicuous
as a white figure upon the green leaf. A thin line of minute frass granules
occupies the middle portion of the floor of all mines. During the last three
days the larva pushes ahead with great rapidity, as a glance at Plate II
will show. The following figures are from another mine that was kept
under careful observation : Distance pierced by larva during the first day
of its larval existence. \ in. ; second day. \ in. in all ; third day, \ in. ;
fourth, f in. ; fifth, 1| in. : sixth. 2 in. : seventh. 3 in. ; eighth, 5 in. : ninth,
7f in. — total length of mine.

The larva (Plate III, fig. 2) is a minute cylindrical grub, broadest near
the head ; white in colour, inclining to light green on account of the
assimilated food within the intestines and the transparency of the skin.
The head is to a certain extent retractile. The following measurements
are from a full-grown larva : Length, 3-0 mm. ; greatest breadth, 0-9 mm.
Posteriorly there are two minute black respiratory processes ; a second
pair, situated anteriorly on the head, are slightly longer, and white.

The mouth-armature of the adult larva differs sufficiently, on account
of the mode of feeding, from that of other dipterous larvae to warrant a
detailed description. It consists of two horizontal plates connected by
a slender cross-bar ; these are the cephalo-pharyngeal apophyses. Each
consists of three processes — an anterior (fig. 14, a), narrowing towards the
great hooks ; a posterior (p). broadening slightly towards the extremity :
and a mid-lateral process (ml), which is spinular, and directed posteriorly.
The two great hooks, placed side by side, present three processes — -a large
anterior curved sickle-like process, a like but smaller mid process, and
a broad blunt triangular heel. The whole cephalo-pharynx is deeply

Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. XI. VII.

Plate II.

Egg pockei and Track of Mine made by Larva.

PHYTOMYZA AI.BTCEPri

Face /'. %fi% .

Milleb and Watt. — Study of New Zealand Entomolo

'.Hi ■

283

Fig. 14. — Mouth- armature of larva, P. albiceps.
<i. anterior process : p. posterior process ;
ml, mid -lateral process.

pigmented, Mack, excepting the mid-lateral processes, which are lighter

in colour. The hooks are directly connected with the mouth, and are

used horizontally to scoop the

inner substance of the leaf. In

all carnivorous larvae, on the

other hand, the great hooks

are utilized merely as a means

of travelling, and are not in

direct communication with the

mouth.

A day prior to pupating the
larva forsakes the upper surface
and commences burrowing against the lower cuticle of the leaf, scooping
out a chamber for itself. The following observations are of interest : Out
of a total of 659 mines observed, ninety-one larvae had hatched, mined,
and pupated in the upper portion of the leaf, while no less than 521 had
descended to the lower surface to pupate. Still more significant is the
fact that thirty-six that had been laid on the under-surface had remained

to pupate there, while six had come to the
upper surface to mine but had descended
to the lower cuticle to pupate. Five only
hatched on the lower portion of the leaf
and pupated on the upper. This clearly
demonstrates the presence of some special
sense in the larvae unknown to us.*

The pupa (fig. 15) is destitute of hairs
or bristles : is dark-brown : not elongate
and narrow, but moderately stout; com-
posed of 10 segments, exclusive of the
light-brown tubercles bearing the anterior
and posterior appendages. In most
healthy pupae the colour is light brown,
with a darker medio-dorsal line. The
hairs and limbs of the fly within can be
clearly distinguished a few days before
emergence. The dorsal surface is more
or less flat, the ventral slightly convex,
while the anterior end is rounded and
the posterior pointed when viewed dor-
sally. Anteriorly the dorsal and ventral lines run about parallel —
lateral view — but posteriorly the ventral line is distinctly upturned
toward the posterior procesess, which, unlike the anterior, arise toward
the dorsal line. When the pupa is at rest beneath the lower leaf-

* Several experiments have been carried out since writing the above. Leaves of
the food plant containing nearly full-grown larvae burrowing beneath the upper cuticle
were placed the right and the wrong way up on damp blotting-paper in shallow glass
petri dishes. When the leaves were kept exposed to the ordinary light of the room the
larvae pupated in the lower portion of the leaf, whether that happened to be the natural
under-surface or not. In complete darkness they, almost without exception, pupated
on whatever surface they were burrowing at the commencement of the experiment,
oblivious of the fact that the leaves were in many cases the wrong way up. One niay
safely say, then, that these larvae are influenced by light, and pupate in that portion of
the leaf where they will get the most shade. How they are influenced by light remains
to be seen.

Fig. 15. — Pupa of P. albiceps.
Fie;. 16. — Anterior process.

284 Transactions.

membrane of the food plant the posterior processes (Plate III, fig. 5)
are extruded through the cuticle of the leaf, while the anterior pair,
situated as they are toward the ventral line, are embedded in the tissues
of the leaf. When viewed laterally under the microscope an anterior
process (fig. 16) is seen to consist of a dome-shaped body terminating
in a black knob-like head, the lower margin of which is drawn out to a
point. Immediately above the anterior process is a pair of contiguous
lobes distinguished by a central fissure. Each posterior process consists
of a light-brown stalk terminating in a rounded dark-brown head. The
pupa, when at rest beneath the leaf- membrane, is easily seen with the
unaided eye, but under the microscope presents a unique appearance, due
to the cellular structure of the leaf (Plate III, fig. 3). A photograph of
the exposed pupa is shown in Plate III, fig. 4. Length of pupa, 2 mm.

Two minute hymenopterous parasites attack this fly, and are very
common. They belong to the Ghrysocharis sp., but neither are as yet
further identified. The larger of the two was seen ovipositing in a newly
hatched larva of P. albiceps. the membrane of the leaf evidently being
pierced in the process. Apparently the larva of this parasite lives in the
larva and pupa of its host, for specimens were always obtained from
infected pupae of the fly. One can tell at a glance whether a pupa is
infected or not, since those containing parasites are black and opaque, and
are a great contrast to the rich brown and semi-transparent pupae of
healthy flies. It appears that not more than one Hymenopteron is reared
from any one host.

The smaller of the two parasites has now several times been seen
ovipositing in the pupae of P. albiceps, often walking over and com-
pletely ignoring living larvae. As such pupae were in each case observed
infested with the larger parasite, it may be quite possible that this smaller
species is in reality a true hyperparasite. A full account of the lives, habits,
and life-histories of these two Hymenoptera will form the subject of some
future contribution.

Food Plants oj Phytomyza albiceps.

The common sow-thistle (Sonchus as per) is the favourite food plant.
Also found plentifully on S. oh raceus, and S. arvensis. Has been found
burrowing in dahlia, dandelion (Taraxacum officinale var. glabratus (?) ),
large nettle (Urtica ferox), Cape-weed (Cryptostemma calendulacea), common
groundsel (Senecio vulgaris).

Rah. — -Wanganui. October to April (M. N. W.). ; Whakamaiina. Decem-
ber (D. M.).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate II. — Phytomyza albiceps Mg.

Showing egg-pocket and track of mine made by the larva during the nine days of
its larval period. (Note the progress during the last three days.)

Plate III. — Phytomyza albiceps Mg.

Fig. 1. Egg-pocket in leaf. The egg is visible under the thin cuticle of the leaf.

(Note the empty pocket above.) x 18.
Fig. 2. Larva, full-grown, uncovered. X 14.
Fig. 3. Pupa beneath cuticle of leaf. X 14.
Fig. 4. Pupa exposed (lateral view). X 14.
Fig. 5. Posterior respiratory processes of pupa pushed through the cuticle of the

leaf, x 56.
Fig. 6. Phytomyza albiceps. Photographed from life, x 2.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLVII.

Plate III

Phytomyza albiceps.

Face p. 984.]

Jennings. — Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand. 285

Art. XXX.- — Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand and Neighbouring

I shot ds.

By L. 8. Jennings, M.Sc.

[Rend before the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, 2nd December, 1914.]

The objects of this paper are— (1) to give a reliable list of stalked barnacles
collected from the New Zealand region ; (2) to discuss the characters which
are at present regarded as specific in the cases of Lepas anatifera and
Pollicipes darwin i .

The specimens the work is based on belong to the only two important
existing collections in Xew Zealand that I am aware of- viz.. that of the
Otago Museum, which includes Captain F. W. Hutton's original collection,
and mv own collection at the Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College,
which includes a large amount of material collected and in some cases
already described by Dr. Charles Chilton.

The works of reference I have made most use of are — (1) Darwin,
C. (1851), "Monograph on the Cirripedia: Lepadidae" ; (2) Hutton,
F. W. (1879), "List of Xew Zealand Cirripedia," Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 11. p. 329; (3) Gravel, A. (1905), " Cirrhipedes " ; (4) Pilsbrv. (1907),
"' Barnacles of the United States National Museum " ; (5) Chilton. C.
(1911), " Crustacea, Trawling Expedition, 'Nora Niven,'" Records Canter-
bury Museum, vol. 1, No. 3, p. 311; (6) Chilton, C. (1911), "Dispersal
of Marine Crustacea by Means of Ships,'" Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43. p. 132 ;
(7) Chilton, C. (1911), "Crustacea of the Kermadec Islands,'' Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 43. p. 571.

I. List of Pedunculate Cirripedia.

[Those marked * are to be found in the Otago Museum ; the rest are in my col-
lection at the Biological Laboratory. Canterbury College, Christchurch.]

The following is a complete list of pedunculate Cirripedia gathered
from the region of New Zealand and the surrounding islands (Auckland,
Campbell, Chatham, and Kermadec Groups) up till December. 1914.
In this list I have included only those species of which I have been
able to examine specimens definitely known to occur at the localities
mentioned.

1. Lepas anatifera Linnaeus.

General type : Kermadec Islands ; collected by Oliver, 1908. Var. (b)
dentata Darwin : Kermadec Islands ; Oliver, 1908. Var. (c), new variety :
Kermadec Islands ; Oliver, 1908, and Bell, 1909-10 : Chatham Islands :
Miss Stand, 1910: "Terra Nova" hull. Lyttelton. November, 1910.

2. Lepas australis Darwin.

New Brighton and Sumner, New Zealand ; common. *"\Yaikouaiti. Otago :
attached to penguin's foot. " Terra Nova " hull, Lyttelton, November,
1910.

2«^(j Transactions.

I

3. Lepas fascicularis Ellis and Solander.

New Brighton, New Zealand; Dr. Dendy, 1895. Kermadec Islands;
Oliver. 19081 *The Nuggets, Otago; and North Cape, Auckland.

4. Lepas pectinata Darwin.

General type: Chatham Islands; Dr. Dendy, 1901. Var. (a) Darwin:
Kermadec Islands ; Oliver, 1908. *North Island, New Zealand (dry).

5. Lepas denticulata Gravel.

Kermadec Islands; Captain Bollons, 1907.

6. Pollicipes sertus Darwin.

Kaikoura, New Zealand, 1898 ; Port Pegasus. Stewart Island, 1907 ;
Oamaru, 1914.

7. Pollicipes spinosus Quoy and Gaimard.

Kaikoura, New Zealand, 1898 ; Taylor's Mistake Bav, Lvttelton, New
Zealand: *Wellington ; F. W. Hutton (dry).

8. Pollicipes darwini Hutton.

*Dunedin A. Montgomery (type), (dry). *St. Clair. Dunedin ; F. W.
Hutton. Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, 1907 ; Kaikoura. Oamaru. Dunedin,
1914.

9. Scalpellum (Smilium) spinosum Annandale.

*Farewell Spit, Nelson, Annandale. ' Nora Niven " Expedition,
Station 5, 1907.

10. Scalpellum villosum Leach.

P

edin.

Port Robinson, Marlborough, 1910; Oamaru, 1914: *St. Clair. Dun-

The above list is as complete as I can make it, and contains all that
can be considered absolutely reliable material as regards identity and locality
so far collected. Except in the three cases noted, the specimens are all well-
preserved spirit ones, and located in the Otago University Museum, Dunedin,
or in the Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College, Christchurch. I have
carefully dissected several specimens of each of the species given, and
examined all the main points of identification, including the mouth parts,
and have repeated my work at intervals of several months. I am reason-
ably certain, therefore, that the specimens handled should be referred to
these species as at present constituted, and described by Darwin (1851)
and Gruvel (1905).

There is a huge amount of material which should be recorded here,
but which must be kept out of the reliable list for this region. Thus, I
have examined well-preserved spirit specimens belonging to the following
species, but have not included them in the list given above, as the locality
is doubtful and it is not certain that they are indigenous to the New
Zealand region :• —

Jennings. — Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand. ->s7

1. Lepas anatijera Linnaeus.

General type: Canterbury Museum; locality unknown. *Otago

Museum, " Ship's bottom, 1905.'"

As noted in the list above, this species has been collected at the Ker-
madecs and at Chatham Islands, but it is not certainly known to occur in
New Zealand proper.

2. Lepas hillii Leach.

" Terra Nova '" hull. Lyttelton, 1910.

3. Conchoderma aurita Linnaeus.

"• Terra Nova " hull, Lyttelton. 1910. *Otago Museum and Auckland
Museum, attached to whale.

4. Conchoderma virgata Spengler.

" Terra Nova " hull. Lyttelton. L910. *Ship's hull, Dunedin.

5. Lithotrya dorsalis Sowerby.

Canterbury Museum : locality unknown.

6. Ibla quadrivalvis Cuvier.

Canterbury Museum : locality unknown.

I have included specimens obtained from the " Terra Nova in my
reliable list only when the species from other information is definitely known
to occur in the New Zealand region. The " Terra Nova " was Captain
Scott's Antarctic exploring vessel, with a wooden hull. Her route from
England to New Zealand was via Cape Town, Hobart, and Melbourne, and
the specimens were gathered shortly after her arrival in Lyttelton in
October, 1910.

In addition to the above well-preserved material, there are dry specimens,
mounted on cardboard, in my collection and in the museums throughout
New Zealand. They are not of much value in this connection, and do
not add to the list. Hutton's type specimen for his new species Pollicipes
darwini is unfortunately in this condition. It was briefly described on
external characters only, and never figured.

It is hoped that this list will form a reliable foundation for addi-
tions to the group, which are certainly to be found in this region.
So far it has been very imperfectly explored, and the material already
collected has often been wrongly named, owing to the difficulty of the
classification.

Note.— Hutton"s list of New Zealand pedunculate Cirripedia (1879) is
as follows : Lepas hillii, Lepas pectinata, Lepas australis, Lepas fasdcularis,
Scalpel] inn villosum, Pollicipes spinosus, Pollicipes darwini.

The identity of the specimens identified by Hutton as L. hillii is not
certain now. They are dry, rather small, with no umbonal teeth, and a
carina not strongly forked. As will be seen in the following section, this is
not sufficient to distinguish them from certain forms of L. anatijera and
L. australis. The filaments would decide the matter, but these cannot
be made out from the shrivelled animals. There is no certain evidence
of L. hillii yet having been collected from the New Zealand region.

288

Transactions.

II. A Discussion of the Specific Characters of Lepas anatifera

Linnaeus.

Lepas anatifera Linnaeus, 1758.

1851. Darwin, " Monograph Cirripedia: Lepadidae" p. 73.
1905. Gravel, " Cirrhipedes," p. 108.

1907. Pilsbury, " The Barnacles of the United States National
Museum," p. 79.

This species includes— (1) the general type ; (2) var. (a) punctata
Darwin ; (3) var. (b) dentata Darwin ; (4) var. (c), new variety.

The general type has— (1) a distinct umbonal tooth on the right scutum
only ; (2) two well-developed filaments on each side of the body.

Fig. i. — Lepas anatifera var. (c), new variety. Kermadec Islands (Bell), 1909-10.

External view, right side. Length of capitulum. 33 mm. ; width of

capitulum, 21 mm. ; length of peduncle, over 100 mm.
Fig. 1". — Maxilla of same specimen, sp., two prominent spines. Length (from top

to bottom), 2 mm.
Fig. \l>. — Mandible of same specimen. Length (from top to bottom) 3 mm
Fro. \r, — Opercular valves of same specimen, viewed along occludent margin.

1 Right scutum; 2 left scutum.

Var. (a) punctata has, in addition, square patches across the capitulum.
Var. (b) dentata has, in addition to the characters of the general type, a
strongly barbed carina. Var. (a) has not been collected in the New Zea
land region. Th others have

The main characters of var. (c) need setting down. They are quite
definitely as follows : (1) No trace of an umbonal tooth on either scutum ;

Jennings. — Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand.

289

(2) two well-developed filaments on each side of the body. The carina is
not barbed, and square patches on the capitulum are not visible. In
size and remaining characters it is indistinguishable from the general
type.

The numerous specimens of this variety, collected as mentioned in the
first part of this paper, all agree distinctly with L. anatifera Linn., general
type, of which excellent specimens were also obtained from the Marine
Biological Laboratory, Plymouth, England, for purposes of comparison,
with this uniformly exceptional character : that there is no trace of an
umbonal tooth on either scutum. The umbonal angles may be slightly
incurved, their apices may sometimes slightly overlap, but there is no
more definite tooth than in L. hillii, and nothing approaching the distinct
tooth of the genera] type of L. anatifera nor the distinct teeth of L. australis.

Possible confusion of L. australis and L. anatifera : The wide forking
of the carina below the basal margin of the scuta, and the umbonal tooth,
on each scutum, would ordinarily allow one
to recognize L. australis from this new
variety. Bui I have specimens among
others undoubtedly L. australis in which
the prongs of the carinal fork are scarce!}'
developed, and no more than an incurving
occurs at the umbo of either scutum. I
have decided that these are immature speci-
mens of L. australis : the carina] fork is
undeveloped and the penis does not project
through the cirri. They were collected alive
in midsummer, were apparently full size, and
contained ova. I have specimens from the
same lot showing in gradation just one
small tooth on the right scutum, and then ,;
the two small teeth accompanied by a wider
forking of the carina and lengthening of the
penis. I think the view of immaturity is FlG# 2._ Lepas anatifera Linnaeus

general type. Marine Bio-
logical Laboratory, Plymouth.
Opercular valves. 1, Right
scutum ; 2, left scutum ; 3,
umbonal tooth. Length of
capitulum, 34 mm.

therefore a correct one. All have the two
distinct filaments on each side of the body.

One can easily see that a slightly im-
mature specimen of L. australis could be
selected which the specific characters as at
present given in the standard works quoted
would fail to distinguish from L. anatifera general type or L. anatifera
var. (c) new var. Only a collector familiar with general appearances
rould distinguish them, and he would have a difficulty in basing his dis-
tinction on constant characters. He would have to fall back on the
curvature of the occludent margin, the thinness of the valves, and pos-
session of 3 prominent spines at the upper angle of the maxilla, which seem
fairly constant.* The adult L. australis is, however, apparently the certain
possessor of 2 distinct umbonal teeth and a specially wide carinal fork, and
therefore can be readily identified. The point is, can L. anatifera var. (c)

* ( 1.) Most maxillae of L. antifera and L. hillii have 1 or 2 prominent spines at the
upper angle. (2.) Further, without dissection, or if the specimen were dry, it appears
impossible to state definitely whether certain forms are L. australis, L. hillii, or L. anatifera.
The dry specimens of these in the museums are, therefore, scarcely reliable.

10— Trans.

290 Transactions.

new var. be immature forms of the general type, and the non-development
of the umbonal teeth be thus accounted for ? It seems certainly not pos-
sible. The umbonal teeth are uniformly absent in fully developed forms
down to the smallest. And in L. anatifera general type the tooth is
uniformlv present from the smallest to the best-developed specimens. This
ensures that the new variety is not an immature form of L. anatifera
general type nor of L. australis.

This new variety of L. anatifera next affects the present classification
and distinction of L. anatifera and L. killii. The latter is known by — ■
(1) no umbonal teeth on either scutum ; (2) 3 filaments on each side of
the body.

In other respects, including the mouth parts, it is closely similar to the
general type of L. anatifera. The maxillae and mandibles in all the varieties
of L. anatifera and in L. hillii are practically indistinguishable. I have put
my new variety under L. anatifera, rather than under L. hillii, because the
former is a most widely distributed species, and because an external um-
bonal tooth seems more likely to vary than a filament. The calling of
this new variety a new species would have certainly nothing to justify it.
What is left is to regard the following specific characters now as certainly
distinctive :—

L. anatifera : 2 filaments ; umbonal teeth absent or on right scutum

only.

L. hillii : 3 filaments ; umbonal teeth absent.

L. australis: 2 filaments: umbonal teeth on each scutum in adult;
and the following small, fairly reliable characters : wide carinal fork,
brittle valves showing curved occludent margin, and 3 spines on maxilla.

Any one can then distinguish the known specimens of these without
the confusion and difficulty at present attending their classification.

When preserved in spirit, certainly all three species are very similar in
size and general appearance.

The other members of the genus will give little difficult v.

As for other characters often given, I know of no others certainly dis-
tinctive. I have specimens from each of the three species which show that
(a) radiating lines on the valves, (b) proximity of carina to the other valves,
(c) apex of carina being rounded or acuminate, {d) the distance the carina
extends up between the terga, and (e) the curvature of the occludent margin,
cannot be used as accurate guides in distinction. The great variability
of all these characters in specimens I have examined belonging to L.
anatifera alone makes them of little use in distinguishing L. hillii and
L. australis.

It will be seen, then, that such statements as the following now require
modification :—

(1.) "The smoothness of the valves, together with the presence of a
tooth on the right-hand scutum, and its entire absence on the left-hand
side, is an unfailing diagnostic mark " of L. anatifera. (Darwin, " Mono-
graph Cirripedia : Lepadidae," p. 77.)

(2.) L. anatifera " Carene separee des autres j>l<iq<ies par un espece mem-
braneux tres etroit on nul." (Gruvel, " Cirrhipedes,'' p. 108, 1905.)

(3.) L. anatifera : " It resembles L. hillii, but may be distinguished by
the faintly striated valves, the presence of an umbonal tooth in the right
scutum, none in the left, and the proximity of the base of the carina to the
scutum." (Pilsbrv, " Barnacles of United States National Museum, 1907.)

Jennings . — Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand. 291

III. The New Zealand Species of Pollicipes.

The species of this genus recorded for New Zealand are : —

1. Pollicipes spinosus Quoy and Gaimard, 1834.

1851. Darwin. "Monograph Cirripedia: Lepadidae," p. 324.

1879. Hutton, " List of New Zealand Cirripedia" Trans. N.Z. Inst.,

vol. 11, p. 329.
1905. Gravel. " Cirrhipedes," p. 20.

2. Pollicipes sertus Darwin, 1851.

1905. Gravel, " Cirrhipedes," p. 22.

3. Pollicipes darwini Hutton, 1878.

1905. Gravel. " Cirrhipedes;'' p. 21.

These three species belong entirely to New Zealand. Just as the bulk
of Lepas forms met with in New Zealand will come under the three species
alreadv treated, so the bulk of New Zealand Pollicipes will be referred to
these three ; and, with the present descriptions of them also, the classifica-
tion of the forms is a complicated puzzle.

The distinct characters, taken from Darwin and Gravel, are : For P.
spinosus — (1) yellow membrane covering the valves ; (2) rostrum short,
wide, and. curled inwards ; (3) apex of carina not projecting, and terga not
rising much above the scuta : for P. sertus — (1) dark red-brown membrane ;
(2) rostrum longer and more projecting ; (3) apex of carina projecting, and
terga not rising much above the scuta.

Then, according to Hutton's description, P. darwini is " easily dis-
tinguished from P. spinosus by the projection of the terga beyond the
scuta, and from P. sertus by the short rostrum and apex of carina not
projecting."

The history of these species is briefly this : Darwin (1851) recognized
from New Zealand specimens P. sertus and P. spinosus. Hutton (1878),
when living in New Zealand, added P. darwini ; it appears in his list of
New Zealand Cirripedia. with a brief description of external characters,
not accompanied by drawings. Gravel (1905) described P. sertus and
P. spinosus, and includes P. darwini, but questions it, suggesting it to be
a variety of P. sertus : " Cette espece semble tres etroitement unie a P. spinosus
et surtout a P. sertus .... Nous avons rencontre un Pollicipes, re-
pondant a tons ces caracteres provenant de V ''Astrolabe ' et nous n'avons pu-
le distinguer de certaines formes de P. sertus. Pollicipes darwini ne serait-il
qu'une variete de forme de P. sertus ? ' (" Cirrhipedes," p. 21.)

I have examined carefully hundreds of forms of these species. They
occur by the thousand in the dark crevices of rocks between high-tide and
half-tide mark. I have gathered them from Kaikoura, from Oamaru, and
from St. Clair, Dunedin, the last place being the locality from which Hutton
obtained his specimens. They are very common, but are easily overlooked,
since the black and white of the rocks exactly matches the black peduncle
and the white worn valves. No explanation has been offered of this as a
protective resemblance. I have also examined the specimens labelled by
Dr. Dendy, Canterbury College, as P. spinosus, and those labelled by Captain
Hutton as P. spinosus and as P. darwini '.

The great majority have the valves much worn and variously worn.
These are the forms which have been classified as P. spinosus and P. darwini

10*

292

Transactions.

the distinction being in the height the terga rises above the scuta. But
from the wearing received, not only will this character be found highly
variable, but also other external characters relied on in the classification,
including (a) the size of the rostrum and its projection, (b) the projection
of the carinal apex, (c) the size of the valves and the number of lateral plates
developed. Taking this into account, I could see no valid distinction be-
tween the specimens labelled by Hutton P. spinosus and P. darwini, when
placed side by side.

But there were in my original collection, and I found others by careful
search in the rocks, a few specimens from sheltered positions with the

Fig. 3a. — Pollicipes darwini Hutton. Type specimen, dry and worn. Diagram

showing shape and position of plates. Height of specimen, 27 mm. ;

width, 19 mm.
Fig. 36. — Pollicipes sp. Well-preserved immature form, with the characters of

P. sertus. Height, 19mm.; width, 13mm. 1, Rostrum; 2, left

scutum ; 3, left tergum ; 4, carina ; 5, subcarina.

points of the valves and plates sharp and the surfaces uncorroded. They
are mostly immature, but there is an occasional full-sized one. If these
were examined independently they would certain be classed as P. sertus.
They have the distinctly projecting rostrum and carinal apex. I have
figured one in fig. 3b. They are found amongst the very common worn
specimens which, I have not the slightest hesitation in stating, after
examining his type and visiting the locality where he obtained them, are
what Hutton meant to distinguish as P. darwini.

Yet, beginning with these well-preserved forms, can be found practically
all stages leading by growth and wearing into the common form.

I am practically convinced that there is only one species in all these
New Zealand Pollicipes, whose external characters get highy modified by
wearing ; that it is the young and well-preserved forms of it which have
been called P. sertus ; that the somewhat worn specimens, with therefore a
shorter and wider rostrum, apex of carina not projecting, apex of terga
not rising much above apex of scuta, and a good showing of lateral plates
and spines, are those which have been called P. spinosus ; and that the

Jennings. — Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand. 29

q

average worn specimens, at the most distinguished from the last by the
prominence of the terga, have been called P. darwini.

I could readily find specimens, I believe, from the same bunch, certainly
from the same locality, to match each of these species. However, since these
species are at present accepted, I have included all three in my list.

In addition, I have examined the mouth parts from a number of repre-
sentative specimens. So far I have found the mandibles and maxillae
rather variable, and not uniformly so.

As for the colour on the membrane covering the peduncle and valves,
those that have been some years in spirits are yellow ; fresh specimens
are blackish ; dried ones grade from black to dark brown to yellow. All
varieties when first put into methylated spirits turn quickly red. The
colour differences given by Darwin and Gravel would scarcely, then, seem
to afford any valid distinction of species.

To conclude, I am practically certain that the New Zealand Pollicipes
so far recorded come under one species only, which, by priority, should be
called Pollicipes spinosus Quoy and Gaimard.

Art. XXXI. — The Occurrence in New Zealand oj Myriapoda oj the Genus

Seutigerella, Order Symphyla.

By Gilbert Archey. M.A., Assistant Curator, Canterbury Museum.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.]

The group Symphyla is of considerable interest and importance, for, as its
name, given so appropriately by Ryder.* implies, it forms a connecting-
link between two classes of animals — the Insecta and the remainder of the
Myriapoda. The characters which indicate insectan affinities are the num-
ber and arrangement of the mouth-parts, and the presence, at the base of
the legs, of small processes called exopods. The insects which show these
characters are the simplest and most primitive groups — Thysanura and
Collembola — a significant fact for similarity of structure in primitive,
unspecialized forms of two groups is more likely to indicate affinity than
resemblances in highly specialized and otherwise extremely differentiated
forms.

The Symphyla contain two genera. ScolopendreUa and Seutigerella, the
species of which have been found in most parts of the world, but not hitherto
from either Australia or Xew Zealand. Dr. H. J. Hansen, of Copenhagen,
who has written a monograph on the Symphyla,^ stated in a letter, dated
2nd November, 1903, to Dr. Chilton that he had had no specimens from
New Zealand or Australia, and suggested that search would show that
several forms of Symphyla would certainly be found in both of these countries.
Dr. Hansen's opinion has now been confirmed as far as New Zealand is
concerned.

The specimen I am describing in this paper was among some Myriapoda
from Ben Lomond, Lake Wakatipu, collected by Mr. T. Hall, and forwarded

* Ryder, F. A. Amer. Naturalist, vol. 14. pp. 821. 822, 1880.
f Hansen, H. J. Q.J.M.S., vol. 47. pp. 1-101, pi. 1-7, 1904.

294

?"/ ansactions.

to me by Dr. Chilton. It agrees very closely with the description given
by Hansen (loc. cit.) of Scutigerella caldaria Hansen, but differs in the number
of joints of the antenna. This will be referred to in the description given
below.

Scutigerella caldaria was described from specimens found in hothouses
in Copenhagen and Paris. Dr. Hansen had specimens of this species from
South America also, and he states (loc. cit.) that the South American speci-
mens very probably belong to the original form from which the specimens
in the European hothouses have descended.

The presence of the same species in New Zealand also is another of the
now fairly numerous examples of an animal whose means of distribution
are limited being found in New Zealand and South America, and is further
contributory evidence of the former existence of a land connection, probably
by way of the Antarctic Continent, between these two countries.

Scutigerella caldaria Hansen. (Figs. 1-6.)

Scutigerella caldaria Hansen, Q.J. M.S.. vol. 47, p. 36. pi. 2, fia;s. 3a-3g.
1904.

Head. — Seen from above broad, anterior margin straight, postero-lateral
angles rounded

Fig. 4.

Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

Fig. 1. — Scutigerella caldaria Hansen.

Fig. 2. — Terminal joint of antenna.
Fig. 3. — 36th segment of antenna.
Fig. 4. — Claw of 1st leg, left side.

Antennae (figs. 2 and 3). — Segments 44 in number. The setae on the
inner side of the proximal whorls not longer than those on the outer side.
The secondary whorl beginning on the 11th joint, the upper whorl com-
mencing on the 25th segment. The terminal segment with one large and
one small striped organ, both on low protuberances. Hansen states that
there are from 23 to 28 antennal segments, and that the secondary whorl
commences on the 7th segment. The specimen I have described is much
larger than those Hansen described — his were from 2-8 mm. to 4 mm., mine
is 6-25 mm. — and, taking this into consideration, I do not think that the

Archet. — Occurrena in New Zealand of the '■'inns Scutigerella. 295

number of the antennal segments alone would be a sufficient reason for
making a new species. Further, the secondary whorl of setae commences
at one-quarter of the length of the antennae in each case.

Legs.— The last pair (fig. 6) with tarsus five times longer than deep. The
metatarsus with 5 or 6 and the tarsus with 7 spines on the outer dorsal row ;
the setae increase gradually a little in length from the base to the end of each
joint, but the longest setae are shorter than half the depth of the meta-

Fig. 5.— 1st leg, left side ; 88.
Fig. 6. — Last leg, left side ; 75.

tarsus. The first pair of legs (fig. 5) with the anterior claw (fig. 4) elongate,
moderately slender, and a little curved ; the other claw moderately slender
and a little more than half as long as the anterior one.

Cerci with numerous short setae, of which the distal ones are not half
as long as the depth of the cerci.

Hob. — South America, New Zealand, and Europe (? introduced).

Locality of New Zealand specimen, Ben Lomond, Lake Wakatipu, Central
Otago.

Length, 6 "25 mm.

Art. XXXII. — The Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand.

By Gilbert Archey, M.A., Assistant Curator, Canterbury Museum.

[Read before the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, 2nd December, 1914.]

Plate IV.

In the following pages an account is given of the species and varieties of the
New Zealand fresh-water crayfish, and of their distribution. This subject
had previously been worked at, but had not been definitely settled, some
doubt existing as to whether the crayfish found in Canterbury and Otago
were to be considered as distinct species or only as varieties.

This paper contains, first, a summary of the work hitherto published
on the subject ; this is followed by a description of the crayfish found in
the different parts of New Zealand, and an account of the distribution of
the species and varieties. Some notes on the habits and mode of life of the
crayfish are then given, diagnoses of the species, and a bibliography.

296 Transactions.

Both in collecting material and in the arrangement of this paper I was
given much valuable assistance by Dr. Chilton, to whom I wish now to
tender my sincere thanks. I have also to thank Dr. Benham, who offered
many helpful suggestions.

Historical.

The genus Paranephrops was created in 1842 by Adam White, who
described as the type species Paranephrops planifrons. " Dieft'enbach's
Travels," published during the following year, also contained a descrip-
tion of P. planifrons White, in which reference was made to supposed
resemblances to Nephrops. White again, in 1847. described a specimen,
collected by Mr. Percy Earl, under the name Astacus zealandicus. In this
paper he made no reference to Paranephrops planifrons, which he had
described five years previously. The species described as A. zealandicus
is clearly that now known as Paranephrops zealandicus. This description
of White's was republished in the following year in the ;' Annals and
Magazine of Natural History."

In 1852 J. D. Dana described a crayfish obtained from the Bay of
Islands, under the name Paranephrops tenuicornis. It had, on the squame
of the antenna, an inner apex not far from the end, " mostly concealed
by the fringe of plumose setae, which extends along the inner margin."
This feature is figured in his Atlas ; it will be referred to later in this paper.
In his " Classification of the Crustacea " (1859) Dana includes Paranephrops
under the Nephropinae, family Astacidae.

In 1873 Captain F. W. Hutton described a new species of Para nephrops
which he named P. setosus. This species had a thorny-sided carapace, a
slight median ridge on its upper surface, the hand bearing spines and
numerous long hairs on its outer surface, and a broad flattened rostrum.
The habitat given was " stream near Invercargill, Province of Otago ; and
Biver Avon, near Christchurch, Canterbury." The specimen from Inver
cargill would probably belong to the species now known as P. zealandicus.

Miers (1874), in the list of Crustacea of the " Erebus " and " Terror "
expedition, mentions P. planifrons and P. zealandicus. He thought that
P. tenuicornis Dana and P. planifrons White were identical, and that the
form described by White (1847) under the name of 'Astacus zealandicus
should be referred to Paranephrops.

J. Wood-Mason (1875), in a note on Temnocephala, an external parasite
found on these fresh-water crayfish, remarked that he had received from
Captain Hutton a series of specimens of the fresh-water crayfish lately
described by him in the " Annals and Magazine of Natural History " under
the name of Paranephrops setosus. He continues, " I have since received
from my friend Mr. W. Guise Brittan, of Christchurch, an abundant supply
of each of two species of crayfish from the Rivers Avon and Waimakariri
respectively ." The italics here are mine ; the question as to there being
distinct species in the Bivers Avon and Waimakariri will be discussed later.
In 1876 Wood-Mason exhibited before the Boyal Society of Bengal some
specimens of New Zealand crayfish to which he gave the name Astacoides
tridentatus, " from the presence of three spines on the inferior edge of the
rostrum." These specimens are now in the Indian Museum.

In the same year he published a note on the " Mode of Attachment
of the Young of Astacoides zealandicus," which species, he said, was the
same as Paranephrops setosus Hutton; but Miers (1876) considered it to
be P. zealandicus.

Archbt. — Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand. 297

In 1876 E. J. Miers published a " Catalogue of the Crustacea of New
Zealand," in which he recognizes the three species — P. planifrons, P. zea-
landicus, and P. setosus — quoting White's original description for P.plani-
frons (1842) and for P. zealandicus (1847), and that of Hutton for P. setosus

(1873).

Dr. Chilton, in his first paper on the fresh-water crayfish (1883), definitely
described the differences between the English crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis)
and a New Zealand one {Paranephrops setosus). P. planifrons he recognized
as a species quite distinct from the South Island form ; but he agreed with
Professor Hutton that P. zealandicus, which was described by White in
1847, and had not since then been recognized in New Zealand, was probably
,: nothing more than a young specimen of P. setosus Hutton.""

In 1885 Filhol recorded the three species, P. planifrons White, P. zea-
landicus (White), and P. setosus Hutton.

In 1889 Dr. Chilton published a second paper on the subject, entitled
" The Distribution and Varieties of the Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zea-
land." The investigation was undertaken with a view to settling the
question raised in his first paper (1883) of the identity of the two species
P. setosus Hutton and P. Zealand ions (White). He remarked that the
characters in which they differ varied to a large extent, owing to size and
age, even in specimens taken from the same stream, and such a complete
series of transitions was found that it would, he thought, be found necessary
to combine the two species. The name then given to the South Island
species was P. neo-zelanicus. P. planifrons, too, exhibited a wide range of
variable characters, sometimes approaching the South Island form. An
important point was the distribution of P. planifrons, commonly called the
North Island species, but found also all over the north- western part of the
South Island. Dr. Chilton's conclusion was : *' It would hence appear that
Cook Strait has not proved so great, or, rather, so old a barrier to these
crayfish as the mountains in Nelson forming the northern continuation of
the Southern Alps."

Walter Faxon (1898)' gave a detailed description of the three species
from material supplied by Dr. Chilton. He considered P. tenuicornis
Dana to be the same as P. planifrons White. With regard to P. zealandicus
(White) and P. setosus Hutton, which Dr. Chilton (1889) had combined
under the name P. neo-zelanicus, he considered that " the two species are
perfectly distinct, even young, very small specimens being easilv dis-
tinguishable."

Dr. H. Lenz (1901) recorded the occurrence of "P. setosus" from
D'Urville Island, but as the specimens I have received from this locality
and from Nelson and Blenheim are all distinctly P. planifrons I have
concluded that his identification is incorrect. There is nothing in the
description given to indicate definitely to which species it belongs.

It will be seen from the foregoing that there has been some difference
of opinion as to whether P. zealandicus and P. setosus are to be regarded
as distinct species or not. In the latter part of the following description
of the species this subject will be discussed.

General Account of the Species of Paranephrops and their Dis-
tribution.

The method adopted of working out the variations with a view to
determining the distribution of the different species or varieties was that
of comparative measurement for proportion. A series of measurements

298

Transactions.

was made, and certain proportions calculated for each specimen ; and, in
addition, the details of the spinulation or of the shape of different parts were
recorded. From the tables thus compiled could be obtained more definite
evidence of the existence of different local varieties than by mere obser-
vation.

In arranging the spines on the carapace into groups I have followed
the system given by Dr. Chilton (1889, p. 243), and the " group letters "
used here refer to the same sets of spines as they do in Dr. Chilton's paper.
I have added group K, consisting of 3 or 4 small spines situated above
the branchio-cardiac groove, and group L, found only in P. setosus and
P. zealandicus, placed on the posterior portion of the gastric area, level with
group B.

A. General Description of Paranephrops planifrons. (See Plate IV,
fig. 1. and text fig. 1 ; also measurements, Table 1, p. 313.)

I. Carapace, Length -r Breadth (column 2).

There is a slight indication here that the crayfish grow a little stouter,
comparatively, as they increase in size ; but the difference is very much

Pic 1. — P. planifrons White. .Specimen from Ross, Westland.

less than in P. setosus. There are no local variations with regard to this
proportion.

II. Bulging of the Sides of the Cacapace.

The sides of the carapace are, in moderate-sized individuals, practically
straight, or, at most, with only a slight bulge ; in the larger specimens,
however, from Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Napier, there is a distinctly
oval carapace, further emphasizing the fact that the animals grow com-
paratively stouter as they increase in length.

Archey. — Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand.

299

III. Nature and Arrangement of the Spines on the Carapace (fig. 2).

A. Two sharp spines always present.

B. Average number 5, present in specimens 60min,. or more in length.

C. Increase in number according to the size of the specimen, up to 5

or 6.

D. Varv in number with the size of the specimen ; they are sometimes

situated on a slight ridge on the carapace.

E. One or 2 (very rarely 3), on a distinct ridge.

F. Present only in large crayfish ; usually 3 in number.

G. These spines vary in number from 0 to 6, in accordance with the

size of the specimens. Specimens about 80 mm. long have either
3 or 4.

Fig. 2. — Carapace of P. planifrons, showing arrangement of opines.

H. This group varies in number from 4 to 13, independently of size, sex,

or locality : 7 and 9 are most commonly found.
J. The anterior portion of this region is armed with spines, merging

into small rounded tubercles posteriorly.
K. Present in the larger specimens only ; usually 3 or 4 in number,

but 11 have been found here.

IV. Total Body Length -r- Rostrum Length (column 4).

The usual specific proportion is 6*5. The Hawke's Bay and Napier
specimens have a slightly longer rostrum (average proportion, 5-96), and
the Wellington and north-east Marlborough specimens have a very short
rostrum (proportion, 7-1) — shorter, indeed, than in P. setosus.

V. Rostrum Length -r- Rostrum Breadth (column 3).

There is not much definite variation correlated with definite localities,
but the rostrum of crayfish from south of Wellington (inclusive) is con-
siderably wider than that of those in the north. There are individual
exceptions to this rule — e.g., D'Urville Island and Spring Creek specimens
have a narrow rostrum, while the Rotorua specimens have a wide one ;
but generally the proportion is the same.

300

Transactions .

VI. Carina on Rostrum.

There is a median keel extending forward from the cervical groove as
far as the anterior of the post-orbital spines (group A) in all specimens
of P. planifrons. This keel is continued anteriorly to about half-way
along the rostrum in specimens from Richmond, Murchison, and Peloids.

VII. Spines on Rostrum (column 5).
The most usual number of spines on the rostrum is 4 on each side, with
1 or 2 below (occasionally 0 or 4). Specimens from the Eastern Cook Strait
district have often 5 spines on each side, and this shows an approach to
P. zealandicus. The northern specimens (Puriri and Manukau) have only 3
on each side.

VIII. Rostrum Length in Proportion to the Length of the Peduncle of the

Antenna.

The rostrum terminates level with or slightly beyond the peduncle of
the antenna in all but the Western South Island group, where it reaches
onlv to half-way along the last segment of the peduncle.

IX. Antenna! Scale.

(a.) Length' in Proportion to the Total Body Length (column 6). — The
length of the antennal scale varies in accordance with the locality. It is
shortest in the Eastern Cook Strait group (8-4 average proportion), longer
in the Western South Island group (7-8), considerably longer in the ordinary
North Island group (6-6), and exceptionally long in the Manukau speci-
mens. The proportionate length of
the squame in the Eastern Cook Strait
group is less than m P. setosas.

(b.) Squame 4- Peduncle (column 7).
-The figures here show that the
squame is shorter than the peduncle
in the Western South Island and the
Eastern Cook Strait groups, while in
the ordinary North Island forms the
squame is slightly longer.

(c.) Shape (fig. 3). — The squame is
normally long and narrow, tapering
from the posterior third. The varia-
tions found are that the Eoss speci-
mens were slightly broader (they
Fig. 4. were very large crayfish); these from
Murchison were very distinctly short
Fig. 3.— Antennal scale of P. planifrons ; and broad, two small specimens hav-

x 3- ing an almost semicircular squame.

Fig. 4.-Antennal .scale of P tenuicornis mth th e tion of the g m

Dana (after JJana). ~. , r i -n n , i °

Creek forms, the Eastern Cook Strait

group showed a slightly broader squame, in which the broad appearance
was somewhat accentuated by the tapering not commencing till nearly
half-way along its length. The Manukau and Puriri crayfish had excep-
tionally long antennal scales.

The opportunity is taken here to refer to Dana's (1855) drawing and
description of the squame of P. tenuicornis {=P. planifrons), said to have

Fig. 3.

Archey. — Fresh-water Crayfish of :\'ew Zealand.

301

a tooth placed anteriorly on the inner edge. In all the crayfish I] have
examined I have never seen this tooth as pictured by Dana. There is,
however, in some of the specimens a rather sharp turn in the sweep of the
edge of the squame, which, if exaggerated, might suggest a spine or tooth.
The specimen examined by Dana was obtained from Bay of Islands.
I have not seen any crayfish from this locality (the most northern ''forms
I have examined are from Manukau Harbour), and therefore cannot sav
whether a variety with this character actually exists, or whether the artist
has exaggerated the " corner " on the inner edge of the squame.

X. Length of Carapace in Proportion to

The measurement was taken from the tip
of the posterior edge of the carapace. Th
groups with regard to this character is that
the Rotoiti and Thames specimens have a
somewhat shorter carapace ; but in each
locality where male and female specimens
were obtained the female has a shorter
carapace than the male.

XI. Chelae ; Propod Length -r- Propod

Breadth.

The average proportion for S is 3-36,
that for $ is 3-16, indicating that the
propod of the female is slightly broader
than that of the male.

XII. Spinulation of the Chelae (fig. 5,

a and 6).

There is usually a single spine on the
lower surface of the basis, though there
may be 2 or 3 in large individuals. In
small specimens the upper surface of the
ischium is smooth, but in moderate-sized
individuals it becomes toothed with from
3 to 5 edentations. From its lower surface
2 sharp spines project, with from 1 to 6
smaller spines or tubercles lying between
them.

On the upper edge of the merus there
are 2 rows of irregularly placed spines, the
outer row consisting of 2 or 3 small
tubercles posteriorly, and 3 or 4 spines
anteriorly. The lower surface has 2 rows
of either 5, 6, or 7 spines. A sharp spine
is present on each side of the anterior end
of this joint, and sometimes there is a
complete ring of about 7 spines here. This
ring is particularly noticeable in Napier,
Hawke's Bay, Wanganui, and New Ply-
mouth specimens, and in some Ross and
Nelson specimens.

the Length of the Body.

of the rostrum to the middle
e only indication of localitv

Fig. 5. — Chela of P. planifrons :
a, from above ; 6, from below.

302 Transactions.

The inner margin of the carpus has 3 or 4 large sharp spines ; its upper
surface is provided with 2 irregular rows of blunt spines ; on some small
specimens 5 or 6 blunt spines are found on the outer surface of the carpus ;
in larger specimens these spines are sharp ; there are usually 4 spines on
the lower surface.

The inner margin of the propod is armed with 2 rows of large sharp spines,
which are continued on to the corresponding margin of the dactyl. The
upper surface of the propod has 2 median parallel rows of spines, and
smaller irregularly arranged tubercles on the outer region ; the outer
margin has 2 parallel rows of short close-set spines. The spinulation of the
lower surface is very similar to that of the upper surface, except that there
is a tendency for the outer small tubercles to run in either 2 or 3 irregular
rows.

There is always a large spine situated centrally on the posterior margin
of the dactyl, and also one in a corresponding position on the lower surface.

Both the carapace and chelae are singularly free from hairs; when
present, they occur on the anterior side of the base of the tubercles, and
are not observed at a casual glance.

Distribution of P. planifrons.

P. planifrons can be divided into four rather ill-distinguished groups,
the tendency throughout being towards more slender crayfish as we go
farther north.

The first group, which may be regarded as the normal, extends over
the central part of the North Island— the district bounded by Masterton,
Wanganui, New Plymouth, Whangarata, Kotorua, and Napier. The fore-
going description will, in general, apply to this group.

The second, or Northern group, found north of Whangarata, is charac-
terized bv a greater slenderness of form, both in the bodv and in the chelae.

The East Cook Strait group, which includes specimens from Wellington
(city), Marlborough, and Pelorus Valley, is marked by an approach in the
proportion of certain parts to P. setosus— that is, the crayfish have a short,
broad rostrum with 5 spines on either side, and a shorter and broader squame.
It is to be noted, however, that the Spring Creek and D'Urville Island speci-
mens have the characteristic long narrow squame and rostrum of the normal
North Island form.

The last group, the Western South Island group, differs only slightly
from the normal group, having a slightly shorter squame, tapering from
half-way, and a shorter, though not comparatively broader, rostrum. In
some specimens of this group there is a median rostral carina.*

Although the last two groups show an approach in certain proportions
to P. setosus, there is no doubt whatever that they are P. planifrons, the
arrangement of the spines on the carapace and chelae, and the shape of the
carapace and chelae, being distinctly that typical of P. planifrons.

* When this was written I had examined specimens of P. planifrons only from
as far south as Ross, but had heard that crayfish, presumably P. planifrons, were to
be found in the Wanganui River, about twenty-five miles farther south. Recently,
however, I received a specimen, unmistakably P. planifrons, from Cromarty, near
Preservation Inlet. So we now have P. planifrons extending all along the west coast
of the South Island, evidently separated from P. zealandicus by the main watershed of
the Island. At Clifden, to the east, distant fifty miles direct from Cromarty, the
crayfish are the most perfectly definite forms of P. zealandicus.

Arciiey. — Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand .

303

The following table shows the average proportions of the parts measured
in each of the above groups. Only those proportions which show differences
between the groups are given.

Body Length

Squame
Length.

t> i t a Rostrum
Body Length, L h

Rostrum
Length.

Rostrum
Breadth.

Rostrum
Spines.

Normal group
Northern group . .
East Cook Strait group
West South Island group

4-4

1-5

3-3

5-5

1
4-4

B. General Description of Paranephrops setosus. (See Plate IV,
fig. 2, and text fig. 6; also measurements, Table 2, p. 314.)

Paranephrops setosus is found in the rivers of Canterbury as far south
as "Winchester. Specimens were examined from Omihi, Rangiora, Wai-
makariri River. Styx River. Avon River, Heathcote River, Leeston, Peel
Forest, and Winchester.

I. Carapace.

P. setosus is distinguished by a distinctly oval carapace, narrowing
towards the anterior end. Specimens from Winchester and Peel Forest,

Fig. 6. — P. setosus. Specimen from River Avon.

however, have a less oval carapace. By comparing column 1 with column 2
in Table 2 it will be seen that the animals become comparativelv stouter
as they increase in length.

304 Transactions.

II. Nature of the Spines of the Carapace.

The carapace of P. setosus is covered with sharp, forwardly directed
spines, which can he arranged in the same reference groups as in P. plani-
frons. The arrangement of the spines is exactly the same in P. zealandicus
as in P. setosus, but in P. zealandicus rounded tubercles take the place of
the sharp spines. The following account of the arrangement of the spines
will be equally applicable to the two species.

III. Arrangement of the Spines on the Carapace, P. setosus and P. zealandicus.

A. Constantly 2 in number.

B. Increasing in number according to the size of the specimen. In

moderate-sized individuals the number is from 6 to 8.

C. Usually 4 or 5, appearing first in specimens of 50 mm. length.

G F J K

Fig. 7. — Carapace of P. setosus, showing arrangement of spines.

D. There are generally from 10 to 12 spines here ; they are first de-

veloped in specimens 50 mm. long.

E. A ridge on the carapace in this region bears 1 or 2 spines ; occasion-

ally a third is developed.

F. Five or 6 is the greatest number found here ; they appear only in

the large specimens.

G. This group is constant in specimens of 50 mm. or more in length.

The spines, which are very distinct, are usually 3 or 4 in

number.
H. Five or 6 spines appear here in specimens 40 mm. long ; the usual

number in ordinary-sized individuals is 8.
J. These are quite distinct and fairly numerous just behind the cervical

groove, but become fewer and less distinct posteriorly.
K. These spines are not often present, and do not appear in specimens

under 90 mm. long. When present, there are only 4 or 5 de-
veloped.
L. This is a large group, varying considerably in number. The usual

number for moderate-sized specimens is 10-12.

Abchet. — Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand.

305

IV. Rostrum (columns 3, 4, and 5).

The rostrum is shorter in proportion to the body length than in P. plani-
fruits, and it is also shorter in proportion to its own width. Specimens
from Rangiora and Peel Forest have a rostrum still shorter than is usual for
the species. There is also a distinct median keel on the anterior portion of
the upper surface of the rostrum ; it is not so distinct in the Peel Forest
specimens. There are usually 4 sharp distinct spines on each side of the
rostrum, and 1 or 2 below.

V. A ate una} Scale (columns 6 and 7 ; fig. 8).

The antennal scale is fairly long and narrow, though not so long as in
P. plan if i oiis ; it is nearly as long as the peduncle of the antenna ; it tapers
from the posterior third.

Fig.- 8. — Antemial scale of P. setosus: X3.

VI. Chelae (fig. 9).

The upper surface of the ischium is slightly serrated in moderate-sized
individuals, but large specimens have distinct, forwardly directed teeth ;
on the lower surface are 2 sharp spines, with 1 or 2 small tubercles between
them in large specimens.

On the posterior portion of the upper margin of the merus is a single
row of spines leading forward on the anterior part to 2 rows ; there are
2 irregular rows on the lower margin, and on each side of th.e anterior
margin is a single forwardly directed spine.

The inner surface of the carpus has usually 3 large spines ; the upper
surface has 2 irregular rows of small spines, separated by a shallow groove ;
there are small tubercles on the outer surface, and 3 or 4 large sharp spines
on the lower surface.

On the inner margin of the propod there is a row of sharp spines, con-
tinued, with smaller spines, along the corresponding edge of the dactyl.
Above this row there is, on the dactyl, another row of smaller spines, com-
mencing usually with 1 spine on the anterior portion of the propod. The
outer edge of the propod has 2 rows of close-set, short spines. On the pos-

306

Transactions.

terior part of the upper surface there are long spines arranged irregularly ;
these merge anteriorly into 2 rows. Two median rows are present on the
lower surface of the propocl.

s

Nf V

At*

/;

'A

\ ■ u

^

\

V

rt

;M

•s

y

./I

Pig. 9. — Chela of P. setosus : a, from above ; 6, from below.

There are abundant tufts of hair on the propod, but they do not hide
the spines.

C. General Description of Paranephrops zealandicus. (See Plate jIV,
fig. 3. and text fig. 10 ; also measurements. Table 3. p. 314.)

Specimens of P. zealandicus were obtained from Tinwald, Waimate,
Grlenavy, Oamaru. Waitati, Dunedin, Wyndham. Clifden, and Stewart
Island.

The carapace is nearly cylindrical in shape, and does not bulge, as ia
P. setosus. This does not mean that P. zealandicus is more slender than

Ahchey. — Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand .

307

P. setosus, for the shape of the latter is due to the narrowing of the anterior
part of the carapace. In fact, the measurements indicate that P. zea-

Fig. 10. — P. zealandicus (White). Specimen from Waimate.

landicus has a very slightly wider carapace than P. setosus. As mentioned
above, rounded tubercles replace the spines on the sides of the carapace
of P. setosus.

The rostrum (columns 3, 4, and 5) is considerably shorter and broader
in P. zealandicus than in P. setosus ; there is no
median keel on its anterior portion, and there are
5 blunt tubercles on either side, and none or 1
on the under-surface.

The antennal scale (columns 6 and 7 ; fig. 11)
also is shorter and broader in P. zealandicus than
in P. setosus ; the broad appearance is enhanced
by the fact that it tapers abruptly from half-way.

Chelae. — The spinulation of the chelae differs
in certain points from that in P. setosus. On
the upper surface of the carpus small rounded
tubercles are found instead of spines ; the upper
surface of the propod is provided with a few

tubercles, completely hidden by dense tufts of pIG \\ Antennal .scale of

hair ; these tubercles are arranged irregularly P. zealandicus ; x 3.
posteriorly, merging to one median row an-
teriorly. In other respects the arrangement of the tubercles is similar
to that of the spines on the chelae of P. setosus (cf. fig. 9).

Distribution op P. setosus and P. zealandicus.

P. setosus is found only on the eastern side of the South Island, from
Omihi in the north to Winchester in the south. I have not obtained them
from among the mountains, but only from the lower parts near the coast,
and then not from the rapid shingle-bed rivers themselves, but from creeks
or pools leading into them. The results of observations by tourist parties
and the mountain guides, to whom application was made, as to their occur-
rence high above the sea-level or in the cold rapid mountain torrents are
entirely negative. It is to be noted that, although the Winchester speci-

308 Transactions.

mens are distinctly P. setosus, north of this— at Peel Forest and Tinwald —
are found crayfish which it is difficult to place definitely in either species.
They have some of the characters of P. setosus and some of P. zealandicus.
They have been assigned to the species of which they have the most cha-
racters. The Peel Forest specimens are, therefore, named P. setosus, and
the Tinwald specimens P. zealandicus. South of Winchester the crayfish
found are all distinctly P. zealandicus. which extends right to the south of
the Island and to Stewart Island, and has been traced in the south-west
as far as Clifden. Here, also, there is no definite record of their occurring
far up the rivers, although a gentleman writing from Gore, in Central Otago,
states that they used to be common in the district, and a correspondent
from Lawrence reports that they are found there.

In the historical portion of this paper mention was made of the occur-
rence recorded by J. Wood-Mason (1875) of " two species of crayfish from
the rivers Avon and Waimakariri respectively.'" Through the kindness
of Mr. S. Kemp, of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, the specimens which
formed the subject of Wood-Mason's paper were obtained for examination.
They were entered in the Indian Museum Register as follows :—

" 900. Astacoides setosus, Hutton. R. Waimakariri. N.Z., a few

miles within influence of tide. W. Guyse Brittan."
1 901 . Astacoides tridentatus, Wood-Mason. Types. R. Avon, N.Z.
Several miles above tidal influence. W. Guyse Brittan."

Of these, No. 901 belong to Paranephrops setosus Hutton, of which
Astacoides tridentatus Wood-Mason is a synonym, and no doubt reallv came
from the River Avon. But No. 900 reallv belong to P. zealandicus White,
and probably came not from the River Waimakariri, but from the
Bluff, the localitv label having been interchanged with other specimens,
"No. 890/7," which are labelled as coming "from "The Bluff, S. Is.
N. Zealand, A. V. Hugel " ; these, however, are undoubtedly specimens
of P. setosus Hutton, and doubtless came from the Waimakariri.

Bionomics.

(A.) Mode of Life.

It has been seen that crayfish are to be found in most parts of New
Zealand, but their number and size vary in the different districts, seeminglv
in accordance with the type of stream or pool in which they are found.
Soft, muddy river-beds seem to be their favourite homes, while they are
often found in holes in a sunken log or burrowing among the roots of trees
growing on the river-banks. An example of their restriction to this type
of locality is seen in their occurrence in the Waimakariri River. This
stream divides into two branches about twenty miles above its mouth ; of
these, the south branch is the typical rapid shingle-bed river, while the
north branch flows comparatively slowly between soft banks. Crayfish
have been obtained from the north branch, but I have never heard of

ir having been found in the south branch.

Two other localities where they are said to occur in great numbers, and
to grow to a large size, are the plains of Southland and the holes and pools
in the basins lying among the hills of South Canterbury. They are also
plentiful in the streams draining the low-lying somewhat swampy land
around Christchurch. In parts of Southland the water-races are said to be
" simply swarming with crayfish," which sometimes do an immense amount
of damage by burrowing into the banks.

Archet. — Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand. 309

Since this paper was read before the Canterbury Philosophical Institute
Mr. A. Dudley Dobson has informed me that some years ago, when water-
races were first constructed from the Murray River in Australia, the cray-
fish did so much damage to them that the races had to be lined with concrete.

Amongst the hills around Waimate are main- deep pools, known as
the " Crayfish Holes," from which the crayfish can be taken in any quantity.
Faxon (1898, p. 681), quoting from a letter received from Dr. Chilton
with regard to specimens obtained near Dunedin, observed that the speci-
mens taken from small streams were of very small size, though sexually
mature, and had few spines, while those taken from a reservoir formed
by damming up one of the small streams attained a length of 158 mm.
and were heavily tuberculated. This is also the case with the specimens
I have used, and it seems that fairly dee}, slow-moving waters provide
the best conditions for their growth.

A similar example of the connection between the size of an animal and
the volume of water in which it lives appears in Sempers volume on
"Animal Life*' (1899, pp. 160-61) in the International Scientific Series,
which contains an account of two series of experiments connected with
the growth of a gastropod mollusc- — Limnaea stagnalis—\xv'mg in different
volumes of water, but otherwise in equally favourable conditions for growth.
The results were that " the smaller the volume of water which fell to I
share of each animal, the shorter its shell remained."

The abundance of crayfish in special localities suggests that it would
be possible to breed the animals for use as articles of food, for the^- are
said to be excellent eating ; but it would be necessary, before this could
be done successfully, to ascertain the number of years they require to grow
to a full size, as well as to obtain more definite information with regard
to their breeding and life-history. The frequent floods to which so main'
of our rivers are subject are the cause of the destruction of large numbers
of crayfish, which may be washed out of the small streams into the deep
rapid rivers. A correspondent from Southland has stated that he has
seen hundreds washed up on the lower beaches of the large rivers after a
flood. It is also evident that, in common with other members of our native
fresh-water fauna, the crayfish are being destroyed by eels and the introduced
fishes. Trout have been caught with partly digested crayfish in their
stomachs, and it is probable that the restriction of crayfish to such places
as cannot be inhabited by these fish is only a matter of time.

(B.) Food.

Some specimens were kept for a time in large glass battery- jars, into
which was thrown a certain amount of river-weed, mainly for the aeration
of the water. The crayfish were never actually seen eating any of this,
but at evening it was noted that the bottom of the jar was quite clean,
while in the morning there would be seen lying around chopped-up pieces
of the plant. Small worms or pieces of meat placed in the jar were in-
variably left untouched, though crayfish are often caught by using meat as
bait. An examination of the contents of the stomach of several individuals
showed the presence of the roots and stems of plants, pieces of such
fresh-water algae as Spirogyra.smd Vauckeria, together with broken frag-
ments of the different kinds of small aninnls generally found amongst
the river-weed. A fairly large piece of the flesh of some animal was
found in the stomach of one individual.

310

Transactions .

(C.) Colour.

The colour is usually a mottling of green and grey, which harmonizes
well with the beds of streams ; some, however, are of a yellowish or a light-
brown colour. Those taken from the ponds of the New Plymouth Public
Gardens are almost black in colour, and this is no doubt correlated with the
colour of the mud on the bottom of the ponds, which Mr. W. W. Smith,
the curator, tells me is quite black. Some specimens from the Wanganui
Kiver were also very dark.

It is an interesting fact that now and then a crayfish is met with that
is of a bright-red colour, similar to that of a boiled lobster.

Dr. Marion Newbigin (1898, pp. 117, 129), in her book "Colour in
Nature," divides the colours of 'Crustacea into two series, the first series
containing the red lipochromes and a yellow pigment, while the second
series contains soluble blue pigments. She further shows that there is
reason to believe that " when mixed with the yellow pigment, or with the
red lipochrome, this blue pigment gives rise respectively to green and brown
colours " (p. 129).

A possible explanation, then, of the occurrence of red crayfish might
be that the pigment representing the soluble blue series is absent in these
forms. That the blue pigment is the less stable is seen in its disappearance
when crayfish are boiled or placed in alcohol. In connection with this, Dr.
Newbigin states that in the living animal " the blue or cyanic series occur
. . . in solution, while the reds occur in fixed anatomical elements-^the
c hromatophores. ' '

(D.) Eggs.

The fresh-water crayfish become sexually mature a considerable time
before they attain to their full size. Several ovigerous females were ob-
tained which were only 52-5 mm. in length ; but these were from the
Khandallah Stream, Wellington, from which no specimens greater than
77 mm. were taken. Many of the ovigerous females, however, taken from
other districts were not equal in size to the largest specimens from their
district. As is to be expected, the number of eggs carried increases in
proportion to the size of the crayfish. The accompanying table shows the

number of eggs carried on some different- sized females :—

Length of

Animal.

Mm.

57-0
66-0
71-0
76-0
90-0
96-0

Number
of Eggs.

23

26

56

60

72
120
160

(E.) Difference noted between Males, Ordinary Females, and Ova/emus

Females.

With regard to the relative width of the abdomen in males and females,
I found that when trying to pick out the males from the females by looking
at them from above I was as often wrong as right. Ovigerous females,
however, could usually be detected. Below are given the average propor-

Archet. — Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand. 311

tion (" total length 4- breadth of abdomen :") for five ovigerous females, six
females without eggs, and ten males, all collected around Wellington :■ —

Males . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-95

Females without eggs . . . . . . . . 5-03 .

Ovigerous females . . . . . . . . 4-58

It can be seen, then, that the females usually have an abdomen no
broader than that of the males, but that when they are bearing eggs their
abdomen is slightly broader. This is due not to anv actual increase in size
of the abdomen, but to its being slightly flattened, the pleura projecting
outwards to a slight extent.

(F.) Relative Abundance of Males and Females.

The males and females seem to be present in fairly equal numbers. Of
those I have examined, fifty-eight are males and forty-three females; but
large collections from the different localities will be necessary before any
significance can be attached to these numbers. In comparing the relative
sizes of the males and females it was noticed that in specimens from the
different localities the male was more frequently the larger. It is to be
noted, further, that the largest specimens obtained were three males from
Dunedin. Further information, however, is required on this point also.

Diagnoses of the Species of Paranephrops.
Genus Paranephrops White.

Paranephrops White, Gray's Zoolog. Miscell., No. 2. p. 79, 1842.
Type : Paranephrops planijrons White.

Paranephrops planifrons White.

Paranephrops planijrons White. Gray's Zoolog. Miscell., No. 2, p. 79,
1842. P. tenuicornis Dana, Crust., Classif. and Geograp. Distrib.,
p. 1433, 1853. P. planijrons Filhol, Institut de France, iii,
2nd part, No. 1, p. 429, 1885 ; Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21,
pp. 242-49, pi. x, figs. 1-3, 1889 ; Faxon, Proc. U.S. Nat, Mus..
vol. 20, p. 678, 1898 (with references); Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst,,
vol. 32, p. 14, 1900. P. setosus Lenz, Zool. Jahrb., vol. 14,
p. 441, 1901.

Carapace nearly cylindrical, of the same width throughout whole length
of the branchiostegites, smooth, or with small tubercles or spines on the
sides. Rostrum elongate, triangular, somewhat depressed, margins raised
and usually with 4 teeth on each side, under-surface keeled and usually
with 2 teeth. Basal scale of antenna long and narrow, tapering from
posterior third, with further abrupt narrowing near the end, reaching as far
as or beyond extremities of rostrum and penduncle of antenna, Median
keel on the carapace extending from the cervical groove to the level of the
anterior of the post-orbital spines. Chelae long and narrow, propod more
than three times as long as broad, whole appendage densely spined, with
spines arranged in rows on the propod, inner margin of propod armed with
2 rows of spines, hairs few or absent, Pleura of abdominal segments rather
pointed at the infero-posterior angle, anterior edge longer and more convex
than the posterior, and fringed with setae, posterior edge sinuous and
scarcelv curving forward.

312 Transactions.

Size.- — From 49 mm. to 125 mm.

//«&.— Streams in North Island, and northern and western part of South
Island, D'Urville, and Kapiti Islands.

Paranephrops zealandicus (White).

Astacus zealandicus White, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pt. 15, p. 123,
1847. Paranephrops zealandicus Filhol, Institut de France, iii,
2nd part. No. 1, p. 429, 1885. P. neo-zelanicus Chilton (in part).
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 249, 1889. P. zealandicus Faxon.
Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 20. p. 680, 1898 (with references) ;
Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32. p. 15, 1900.

Cephalothorax cylindrical ; carapace nearly smooth in small specimens,
but in larger forms with rounded tubercles on the branchiostegite, along
the cervical groove, and on the gastric area ; a median carina runs over
the gastric area, ceasing abreast of the anterior of the post-orbital spines ;
rostrum one-eighth as long as the body, and more than half as broad as
long, slightly depressed, the edge thickened, with usually 5 small denticula-
tions on each side ; under-surface either unarmed or with 2 small spines.
No median keel on the upper surface of the rostrum. Basal scale of antenna
short and broad, tapering from half-way and projecting not quite as far
as the peduncle. Chelae shorter and broader than in P. planifrons ; propod
two and a half times as long as broad, hand provided with spines on outer
and inner margins, with rounded tubercles on the upper and lower surfaces,
hidden by dense tufts of fine silky hair, arranged in longitudinal rows ;
inner margin of propod has only one row of spines.

Size. — 54 mm. to 130 mm.

Rah. —Streams in South Canterbury, Otago, and Stewart Island.

Paranephrops setosus Hutton.

Paranephrops setosus Hutton, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th ser., xii.
p. 402, 1873. Astacoides tridentatus Wood-Mason, Proc. Asiatic
Soc. Bengal, 1876, p. 4. A. zealandicus Wood-Mason, Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., 4th ser., xviii, p. 306, 1876; Filhol. Institut cle France,
iii. 2nd part, No. 1, p. 429. 1885. Paranephrops neo-zelanicus
Chilton (in part), Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 21, pp. 246-49, pi. x,
figs, la, 2a, 1889. P. setosus Faxon, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.. vol. 20,
]». 681, 1898 (with references) : Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst..' vol. 32,
p. 16, 1900.

Carapace oval, bulging behind the cervical groove, armed with distinct,
forwardly directed, sharp spines along tin c< rvical groove, and on the
branchiostegite and gastric area, A median carina runs over the gastric
area, and is continued less distinctly over the rostrum. Rostrum one-
sixth of the total length of the body and twice as long as broad, depressed,
edges raised and armed with usually 4 sharp, forwardly directed spines
on each side, lower surface with a downwardly projecting median keel,
armed with 1 or 2 spines. Basal scale of antenna longer than in
P. zealandicus, tapering from the posterior third, projecting as far as or
Ivvond peduncle. Chelae of the same proportions as in P. zealandicus,
but with hairs less dense, and armed with prominent spines projecting
above the hairs, but otherwise with the same arrangement as P. zealandicus.

Size.- — 35 mm. to 103 mm.

Flab.- — Streams in North and Central Canterbury.

Archey. — Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand.

313

Table 1.— Average Measurements of Specimens of Paranephrops planifrons

from each Locality.

Column No.

Specimen.

Ross

Greymouth . .
Murchison
Aorere River
Wakefield . .
Brightwater
Richmond
D'Urville Island
Pelorus River
Kenepuru
Spring Creek
Ocean Bay . .
Wellington . .
Kapiti Island
Masterton
Wanganui
New Plymouth
Hawke's Bay
Napier
Rotorua
Rotoiti
Puriri
Manukau

].

2

3

4.

r>.

-d

ft

+3

TO

o

'Eh

bo

S

6£

^5

bD

,d

<D SO

hI

tl

Tf

J

T3

OQ

i.

"~ -1

53

s -i

X

s

if.

-

t-i

^

= >:

~

e3

■-

W

—

P4

« ,2

DO

>

c

o pq

o

<

a

rt .

P3

P3

Antennal Scale.

6.

MO fl

a

eS

Ph

Mm.
125

1-90

90

2-19

50-4

2-44

64

2-19

62

1-94

71

2-11

99

2-24

62

2-08

65-5

2-48

49-5

2-26

89

2-21

83-7

2-11

58-7

2-13

76

1-94

49-2

2-21

88-6

2-19

82-6

2-08

87

2-02

125

1-91

66-2

2-02

92-7

1-98

65-2

2-26

77-5

2-16

1-80
2-29
1-74
2-08
2-15
2-35
2-12
2-70
1-79
1-66
2-80
2-10
1-95
2-30
2-37
2-60
2-32
2-44
2-22
1-95
2-25
2-00
2-67

7-70

4-4

0

6-08

4-4
2

6-90

4-5 - 4-5
0

6-60

4-5 — 4-5

1

6-60

4-4

6-10

4-4
1-5

6-80

4-4
1

6-01

5-4-5
2-6

7-50

5-5

~6~

8-30

5-3
0

8-50

4-4
2

7-30

4-5 - 4-5

3

6-90

5-5 -4
~"l—

6-60

4-4
1

5-70

4 -4

6-40

2
4-4
~2~

6-30

4-4

~~ 1

5-90

3-5 - 3-5

6-02

2
4-4

6-62

2
4 -3-5

6-30

4 -4
1-5

6-52

3 -3

1

5-10

3-3
1

8-8
7-5
9-7
7-3
7-1
7-0
7-7
5-4
9-3
9-7
6-5
8-2
8-4
8-0
6-8
7-0
7-1
6-1
5-1
7-7
7-1
6-7
5-8 I

0-85
0-98
0-73
0-98
0-89
0-91
1-30
1-30
0-80
0-77
1-08
0-90
0-93
1-00
1-07
1-14
1-00
1-02
1-00
1-02
0-96
1-00
1-12

314 Transactions.

Table 2.— Average Measurements of Specimens of P. setosus.

Column No.

Specimen.

1.

2

3

4.

5.

A

,4

4

4

Antenn

+3

-w

*i

©

S

■ — <

60

a

60

a

-4

6o
a

CD

4

60 J

6.

i-h"

h-1

hH

I-H S

03

« ^3 60

so o a

<D

© .1.

O 1

©

a •'

©

g.SJ

a

60

eg
ft

ce

Fh

cS

a

H->

1 t

6 M

IH

©
>

o

71

o

C -0 ©
CD i_3
I-H

<i

O

Ph

PI

2h

© ©

cS

3

CD

Ph

Rangiora

Waimakariri River
Styx River . .
Avon River . .
Peel Forest . .
Winchester . .

Mm.

86-5

2-03

1-90

7-0

4-5 - 4
1

79-7

2-03

2-16

6-2

5-5 - 5-51
1-5

35

2-25

2-03

5-9

4-4
2

109-1

1-72

2-07

6-7

4-4
2

78

2-02

1-92

7-0

4-4 -4-5
1

103

1-95

2-00

6-0

5-4
1

8-3 i 0-98

7-3 1-03

6-3 1-20

7-6 0-98

8-6 0-91

7-0 0-99

Table 3.— Average Measurements of Specimens of P. zealandicus.

Column No.

Specimen.

1.

2.

3

4.

p4

-a

4

4

-*—

-p

bo

bO

60 -C

£

a
©

©

-

a •**

S 60

►H

- ,

^~

I-H

i-H a

!- ' CO

cc

gj "I

cd
©

a-i

©

60

cS

(H

a

S-l

3 >>

eg

©
>

Ph
g3

PQ

-P
CO

o

PA

J T3

o pq

<l

o

Ph

Ph

©

.a

Ph
CO

a

o

Ph

Antennal Scale.

6.

a
-a >>"

~ Ti 60
60 O S

a 02 ©

7.

©

a

&
r/3

a

Ph

Tinwald

Waimate

Glenavy

Oamaru

Waitati

Dune din

Clifden

Wyndham

Mm.
138

1-82

1-70

100

1-89

1-68

100-7

1-94

1-71

59-7

2-00

1-54

54-5

2-14

1-79

120

1-99

1-85

130

1-94

1-84

97-6

1-98

1-62

7-5
7-6

8-1
7-0
7-6
7-7
7-4
7-6

5-5

2

8-6

3-6 -3-8

8-8 !

1

4-5 -4

0

8-4

5-5
2

7-8

5-5
0

8-1

5 -4
0

9-2

5-4
2

8-7

5-5
1-2

13

0-85
0-85
0-87
1-00
0-96
0-83
0-90
0-78

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLVII.

Plate TV

fa

<

w

K

«

fa

G

<

z;

Face p, 314.]

Archet. — Fresh-water Crayfish of Xe/r Zealand. 315

Bibliography.

Chilton. C. 1883. " On some Points of Difference between the English
Crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis) and a New Zealand one (Paranephrops
setosus)." Trans., N.Z. Inst., vol. 15. pp. 150-65, pi. 19-21.

. — 1889. "The Distribution and Varieties of the Fresh- water Cray-
fish of New Zealand.'' Trans. X.Z. hist., vol. 21, pp. 237-52, pi. 10.

- - - 1900. " Note on the Fresh-water Crayfishes of New Zealand." Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 32. pp. 13-17.

Dana. .J. D. L852. U.S. Explor. Exped., xiii, (Just., pt. 1, p. 527.

1853. U.S. Explor. Exped.. Crust.. Classification and Geographical

Distribution, p. 1433.

1855. U.S. Explor. Exped., Atlas, pi. 33. iig. 4.

Faxon. W. 1898. "Observations on the Astacidae in the United States
National Museum and in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, with
Descriptions of New Species." Proc. U.S. National Museum, vol. 20,
pp. 643-94, pi. 62-70.

Filhol. 1885. 'Mission de l'ile Campbell: Passage de 'Venus' sur le
Soleil," 9th Dec, 1874. Institut de France, iii, 2nd part, Xo. 1, p. 429.

Hutton, F. W. 1873. 'Description of a Xew Species of Fresh-watc
Cravfish from Xew Zealand." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 4th ser., vol. 12.
p. 402.

Lenz, H. 1901. " Ergebnisse erner Reise nach dem Pacific (Schauinsland,
1896-97), Crustaceen." Zoolog. Jahrb., vol. 14, 1901, p. 441.

Miers, E. J. 1874. Zool. "Erebus" and "Terror." Crust., p. 4, pi. 3,
fig. 1, and pi. 2, fig. 2.

1876. " Catalogue of the Stalk- and Sessile-eyed Crustacea of Xew

Zealand." pp. 72-74.

Xewbigin. Marion I. 1898. " Colour in Nature," pp. 117-2'C

Semper, K. 1899. " The Natural Conditions of Existence as they affect
Animal Life." 5th ed. The International Scientific Series, vol. 31,
pp. 160-61.

White. 1842. Gray's Zoolog. Miscellany, No. 2, p. 79.

■ ■■ ■ 1843. " Appendix on the Fauna of Xew Zealand, in Dieffenbach's
Travels in Xew Zealand," ii, p. 267.

1847. Proc. Zool. Soc, London, pt. 15. p. 123.

— — 1847. " List Crustacea, British Museum."

■ 1848. " Descriptions of Xew or Little-known Crustacea in the Col-
lection at the British Museum." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd ser., vol. 1.
p. 225.

Wood-Mason, J. 1875. " Note on the Geographical Distribution of the
TeniHoccjthfflo <-hilensis of Blanchard." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.. 4th sei\,
vol. 15, p. 336.

1876. Proc. Asiatic Soc Bengal, p. 4.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. Paranephrops planifrons White. Lake Rotoiti. Auckland.
Filt. 2. Paranephrops setosus Hutton. River Avon, Christchurch.
Fig. ?,. Paranephrops zealandicus (White). Dunedin.

316 Transactions.

Art. XXXIII. — A Fresh-water Crab, and its Distribution in Australia and

New Zealand.

By Charles Chilton, M.A.. D.Sc, M.B., CM., LL.D., F.L.S., Professor

of Biology, Canterbury College, New Zealand.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd November, 1914.}

In a small collection of Crustacea made towards the end of 1913 by Mr.
W. R. B. Oliver on Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands there is one specimen
of a small fresh-water crab, Hyiueiiosouia lacustris (Chilton), which was
obtained under a stone in a fresh -water stream on the top of Mount Gower,
about 3,000 ft. above sea-level, in Lord Howe Island.

This crab is already known from some northern parts of New Zealand,
from Norfolk Island, and from localities in Victoria, and its occurrence
in Lord Howe Island is therefore of considerable importance, and affords
another link in the chain of evidence that will finally lead to the explanation
of its geographical distribution. A brief account of the history of tins
crab seems, therefore, desirable.

It was described by myself in 1882 under the name Elamena (?) lacustris,
from Lake Takapuna (also called Pupuke), North Shore, Auckland. The
waters in Lake Takapuna are fresh ; but as the lake is only a very
short distance from the seashore, and there was no similar crab then
known from other fresh waters in New Zealand, I did not for some time
attach particular importance to its fresh-water habitat, but considered it
as being possibly a " relict '" form that had only recently adapted itself
to life in fresh water. A fuller knowledge of Lake Takapuna would, in
itself, have shown that this view was erroneous, as will be seen from the
account I give below ; but at that time little was known of the fauna of
the lake.

In the next year (1883), having obtained further specimens, I re-
described the species and placed it under the genus Hymenosoma as defined
by Haswell in his catalogue of the Australian Crustacea published in 1882.

Nothing more was added to our knowledge of this form till the year
1901, when. I received, through the kindness of Messrs. W. and R. M. Laing,
specimens from fresh-water streams in Norfolk Island which appeared to
me to be practically identical with the New Zealand species. About the
same time Mr. S. W. Fulton, of Melbourne, obtained specimens from Norfolk
Island, and also from Lake Colac, Victoria, and these, together with a
single specimen collected some years previously by Dr. T. S. Hall in the
Moorabool River, Victoria, also appeared to belong to the same species.

I sent New Zealand specimens to Mr. Fulton for comparison with those
from the other localities, and, although he detected some slight local
variations, he found that they were all so much alike that in the account
published by himself and the late F. E. Grant in 1902,* he referred them
all to Hymenosoma lacustris (Chilton).

About a year later Messrs. Lucas and Hodgkin. in their investigation
of some of the fresh-water lakes of New Zealand, obtained one male and
one female specimen from Lake Waikare, Auckland. These were after-
wards submitted to me for examination, and in my report published in
1906f were assigned to the same species, which was therefore evident!}" more
widely distributed in the northern part of New Zealand than I bad originally

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vol. 15 (n.s.), p. 59.
fP.Z.S., 1906, p. 702.

Chilton. — A Fresh-water Crab and its Distribution. 317

thought. Its area of distribution was afterwards still more extended by
its discovery in the River AYaipa, specimens having been sent to me from
that locality by Mr. Cheeseman, and recorded by me in Trans. X.Z. Inst.,
1912, p. 128.

To this must be added its occurrence in Lord Howe Island, as mentioned
at the beginning of this paper. Mr. Oliver has, however, called my atten-
tion to the fact that in 1889 Mr. R. Ethei'idge recorded a fresh-water crab
in Lord Howe Island. In his account of " The General Zoology of Lord
Howe Island " (Australian Museum, Memoir No. 2, p. 34) he says. " By
far the most important member of the Decapoda was Mr. Whitelegge's dis-
covery of a fresh-water crab, plentifully distributed in the water-carrying
gullies of the North Ridge, behind the Old Settlement, at a height of from
200 ft. to 300 ft. above high-water mark. It is a species of Hymenicus."
This crab is recorded in the list of species on p. 36 as " Hymenicus sp."
There can be little doubt that it is the same species as the single specimen
obtained by Mr. Oliver — i.e.. Hymenosoma lacustris (Chilton).

It will thus be seen that this crab, Hymenosoma lacustris, is known
from three localities in the north of New Zealand, from Norfolk Island,
Lord Howe Island, and from two localities in Victoria. Australia, and that
it is therefore a fresh-water species widely distributed in localities now
separated by broad tracts of ocean.

Its true fresh-water character was not at .first recognized owing to
ignorance of the nature of Lake Takapuna, in which it was first found.
This lake is situated very near to the sea, its eastern edge being not more
than 200 ft, from the high-tide mark in Rangitoto Channel, while its western
edge is within 400 yards of Waitemata Harbour : the deepest part is stated
to be 168 ft., which is about 100 ft. below the bottom of the neighbouring
Rangitoto Channel. It was formerly thought that there might possibly be
some connection between the lake and the neighbouring sea, and it was
doubted whether there was not a substratum of sea-water in the lake at
depths below that of the channel. In 1899 Mr. J. A. Pond undertook the
investigation of the waters of the lake, and the following facts, together
with those already given, are taken from his paper published in 1900.* He
took samples of the water from the surface at various distances from the
margin, and also one from the pump-well at the pumping-station which
supplies the suburb of Devonport. These samples were submitted to
analysis, and "yielded chlorine 2-87 gr. per gallon in each instance, while
the total solids at 105° C. were 8-68 gr. per gallon from the lake and Devon-
port samples, the pump-well 8-96 gr. per gallon." He also obtained samples
from different depths— viz., 50 ft., 100 ft,, 157 ft,, 160 ft., and 163 ft. " The
results of analysis gave chloiine 2-87 gr. per gallon, equal to chloride of
sodium 4-73 gr. in each sample, while the total of solids gave 8-68 gr. per
gallon in each instance, the water from the bottom of the lake being de-
canted from the precipitated matter. There is, therefore, not the slightest
difference in these two factors of the waters at varying depths, and these
agree with our analysis of samples taken at various periods.""

Mr. Pond's results show the Takapuna is a genuine fresh-water lake
without any connection with the neighbouring sea. This character is also
confirmed by the fauna of the lake, for Mr. H. Suter, to whom I applied
for information, informs me that the general fauna of the lake is decidedly

* Pond, J. A., "On the Percentage of Chlorine in Lake Takapuna," Trans. X.Z.
Inst., vol. 32, pp. 241, 242.

318 Transactions.

fresh-water, no marine or relict forms being known to him. Of fresh-
water Mollusca he has collected the following : Potamopyrgus corolla Gould,
Potamopyrgus corolla salleana Fisher, Isodora *tabulata moesta H. Adams,
Latia neritoides Gray, Corneocyclas novae-zelandiae Prime, Diplodon menziesi
depauperatus Hutton ; the small fresh-water leech Glossiphonia novae-
zealandiae Dendy was discovered in the lake by Mr. Suter, and he has
several times seen in it specimens of the fresh-water crayfish Paranephrops.

It is therefore evident that this little crab is a genuine fresh-water
species, and judging from its distribution it must be of very considerable
antiquity. Owing to the difficulties of its dispersal across wide tracts of
sea by ordinary means, it seems almost certain that the localities at which
it is nowT found were formerly connected by land, though, of course, the
land connections need not have been continuous throughout the whole
length of its area of distribution at any one time. Nothing is yet known
of the animal's life-history. Presumably it has a free-swimming zoea stage,
but even if this could reach the sea from the lakes and rivers in which the
adults live it is difficult to imagine how it could cross the seas and ascend
other fresh waters so as to account for its present distribution. In one
female from Lake Takapuna there are about twenty zoeae lying free under
the abdomen of the female. They are of rather a large size for such a
small crab ; the abdomen is still folded under the thorax, which is fully
I mm. in length, and they appear to have been only recently hatched from
the eggs ; the appendages are short and do not look as if they could be. of
much use for locomotion, and it is possible that in this species, as in many
fresh-water forms, the young are carried about by the female for a longer
time than in the case of corresponding marine species.

Its distribution is an important addition to the evidence showing con-
nection between the north of New Zealand and lands lying farther north.
A full explanation of the phenomena would involve discussion of the origin
of the whole fauna and flora of New Zealand so far as the northern element
is concerned, and this would be quite out of place in a paper such as this.
It may, however, be desirable briefly to recapitulate what is known with
regard to the distribution of other fresh-water Malacostracous Crustacea
from New Zealand.

The New Zealand fresh-water crayfishes belong to the genus Paranephrops,
which is confined to New Zealand, its reported occurrence in Fiji being
probably due to an error in the locality labels. Three species are usually
recognized, of which the one generally known as the northern form,
P. planifrons White, is found throughout the whole of the North Island,
and also from the north-western and western portions of the South Island
— i.e., the north of the great chain of mountains formed by the Southern
Alps and their northern continuations. From the discussion of these species
of crayfish as given in Mr. Archey's paper in this volume (p. 295) it will be seen
that the North Island species, Paranephrops planifrons (White), is composed
of two or three varieties, one of which is found only to the north of the
parallel of latitude passing through Tauranga, its area of distribution,
therefore, corresponding fairly well with the New Zealand area in which the
crab Hymenosoma lacustris is found. The fresh-water crayfish of Australia
belong to different genera — viz., Astacopsis, Ghaeraps, and Parachaeraps .
(See Geoffrev Smith, " The Fresh-water Cravfishes of Australia," P.Z.S.,
1912, p. 144.')

The small New Zealand fresh-water prawn, Xiphocaridina curvirostris
(Heller), is found in practically all suitable fresh- water streams throughout

Chilton. — A Fresh-water Grab and it* Distribution.

31 U

the whole of New Zealand, and also occurs in fresh waters at the Chatham
Islands. It is not known from any part of Australia, but, curiously enough,
appears to occur again in Asfsam, specimens from this locality being in the
collections of the Indian Museum, and, according to Mr. S. Kemp,* prov-
ing to be indistinguishable from those obtained in New Zealand. On the
other hand, the fresh-water prawn known in Australia as X. compressa
(De Haan) extends as far as Norfolk Island, and though it is placed by
Bouvier in the same genus as X. curvirostris it differs markedly from that
species in the character of the rostrum. X. compressa is a species of wide
distribution, and extends from Australia right up to Japan.

The former northern extension of New Zealand which seems necessary
to account for the distribution of the crab Hymenosoma lacustris seems
also indicated by the range of the large land-shell Placostylus,^ a genus
which is represented by two species in the north of New Zealand, and by
others in Lord Howe Island, New Caledonia, New Guinea, Fiji Islands,
New Hebrides, and Solomon Islands, and by the fact that the predominant
earth-worms in the North Island belong to the subfamily Megascolecinae,
which is characteristic of Australia and Tasmania, and is also represented
in Norfolk Island. J

I append the following brief description : —

Hymenosoma lacustris (Chilton).

Elamena (?) lacustris Chilton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 14, p. 172.

Hymenosoma lacustris Chilton, I.e., vol. 44, p. 128 (with synonymy).

The chief points in the description of this crab may be given as follows : — ■

Carapace nearly circular, rather broader than long ; flat, naked, or with

a few scattered hairs. Rostrum broad, strongly depressed, its upper surface

Fig. 1. — Eymmosoma lacustris (Chilton), s ■ Drawn from Norfolk Island specimen.

concave from side to side, extremity in form of an obtuse angle. Antero-
lateral margins of the carapace with 2 obscure teeth. Cheliped of male
small, propod only slightly broader than the carpus, hairy. Ambulatory

*Kemp, S., "Notes on Decapoda in the Indian Museum, No. 4," Records Indian
Museum, vol. 7, p. 113.

fSuter, H., "Manual of the New Zealand Moliusca," p. 763.

t Benham, W. B., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 282, and vol. 35, p. 273.

320 Transactions.

legs somewhat densely covered with long hairs, tarsi long, slender, com-
pressed, densely haired. Last pair of legs somewhat shorter than the
preceding. Abdomen of male of 5 joints swbequal in length, 3rd rather
narrower than the 1st and 2nd, 4th nearly as wide as the 3rd, last broadly
rounded at the end ; margin fringed with very short hairs, some longer
ones being scattered on the surface. Abdomen of female with slight median
ridge along its whole length.

Fulton and Grant have pointed out that the specimens from different
localities differ slightly as to the prominence of the obscure teeth on the
margin of the carapace, the hairiness of its surface, and the small teeth or
tubercles on the wrist and hand of the cheliped of the male. These features
were, however, found not to be constant, and I agree with them in con-
sidering all the forms as belonging to one species. Even if it should be
necessarv for systematic purposes to distinguish local varieties, it would not
affect the importance of the fact that the same fresh-water crab is found
in several lands now widely separated by sea.

Art. XXXIV. - - The New Zealand Species of the Amphipodan Genus

Elasmopus.

By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, M.B., CM., LL.D., F.L.S.. Professor
of Biology, Canterbury College, New Zealand.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.]

In "Das Tierreich " Amphipoda Gammaridea Mr. Stebbing describes nine
accepted species of the genus Elasmopus and four doubtful ones. Of these,
two are recorded as having been found in New Zealand seas — viz., E. sub-
carinatus (Haswell) and E. viridis (Haswell) — both of which were also known
from Australia, and were originally described in 1879 from Australian speci-
mens. In the case of the first species, which had been redescribed by Mr.
G. M. Thomson in 1882 under the name of Maera petriei, I pointed out many
years ago that there were two forms of male apparently both belonging to
this species, but no fuller investigation of the matter has yet been made,
although in the meantime the species has been recorded from the shores
of Ceylon and other places in the Indian Ocean. In the endeavour to work
out an Australian species of Elasmopus I have been led to look into the New
Zealand species, and the following notes are the result.

The genus appears to be closely allied to Maera, and in some cases it
will probably be difficult to decide in which of the two genera a particular
species should be placed. The species E. subcarinatus and those allied
to it appear to be distinguishable from Maera by the small accessory
flagellum, the robust peraeopoda, and by the third uropod not reaching
far beyond the others.

I have not included Maera viridis (Haswell), which Stebbing has placed
under Elasmopus, as it differs in several respects from the other species,
and appears to me to be very close to Maera inaequipes (A. Costa) and best
left under Maera.

Chilton. — The New Zealand Species of Elasmopu*. 321

So far as the New Zealand forms are concerned, the characters which
seem most useful for distinguishing the species are whether the pleon is
carinated or not, the character of the carination when present, and the
shape of the second gnathopods in the male. The second gnathopoda are
usuallv much more largely developed in the males than in the females,
and their distinctive characters appear to be attained only in fully deve-
loped males, so that the particular form of gnathopoda may vary consider-
ablv owing to the age and development of the animal ; and from what
has been stated below it seems probable that in one species there are two
forms of gnathopoda in the adult males, apparently similar to what has been
described by Mrs. E. W. Sexton in the case of Jassa falcata (Montagu).
In these cases it is, of course, difficult to decide whether we are dealing
with one species with two forms of male, or with two different species in
which the females are practically indistinguishable although the males are
different. In the following list I have treated the forms as belonging to
separate species, except in the one case where the differences between the
males are confined to the second gnathopoda.

Elasmopus subcarinatus (Haswell). Figs. 1-6.

Megamoera subcarinatus Haswell, 1879, p. 335, pi. 21, fig. 4. Moera
petrieiG. M. Thomson, 1882, p. 236, pi. 18, fig. 3; Chilton, 1883,
p. 82, pi. 2, fig. 4a. Moera subcarinata Chilton, 1884, p. 230 ;
1884a, p. 1039 ; and 1885. p. 368. Elasmopus subcarinatus
Stebbing, 1906, p. 441 (with synonymv) ; 1910a, pp. 602 and
643; 1910b, p. 457: Walker, 1904, p. 275, pi. 5, fig. 34; 1909,
p. 335.

The history of this species is briefly as follows : It was described in
1879 by Haswell from specimens obtained at Port Jackson, where it is
common. He described only the male, and says the pleon is " dorsally
carinate, the carina projecting posteriorly in the form of a compressed tooth."'
though it is really bicarinate, each carina ending in a tooth. In 1882 Thom-
son independently described the species under the name Moera petriei from
two specimens from Stewart Island, New Zealand, correctly describing the
" fourth segment of the pleon produced into two acute spines [teeth]
on its postero-dorsal border " ; his description applies to the male only.
Shortly afterwards I obtained specimens in Lyttelton Harbour that I
identified with Maera petriei Thomson, and in 1883 I described and figured
the second gnathopod of the female, and at the same time pointed out that
the males from Lyttelton differed from the description given by Thomson
in the shape and hairiness of the second gnathopoda. A little later I col-
lected in Port Jackson specimens that I had no hesitation in identifying
with Megamoera subcarinata Haswell, the type of which came from that
locality. The females were quite like those from Lyttelton which I had
assigned to Maera petriei, and the males agreed with the description given
by Thomson, thus differing slightly from those I had obtained at Lyttelton.
Accordingly I united the two species, and drew attention to the fact that
there appeared to be two forms of the male (1884a, p. 1039, and 1885, p. 368).
The ''Challenger" Expedition obtained two specimens from Station 168.
off New Zealand, and in 1888 Mr. Stebbing, after comparing these with
specimens of Maera petriei sent by me from Lyttelton and with Thomson's
description, withdrew the specific name persetosus, under which he had
commenced to describe them as a new species, and assigned the " Challenger "'

11— Trans.

322 Transactions.

specimens to Haswell's species, accepting the view that the males presented
some, variety of form in the second, gnathopoda. The form described and
figured by him closely corresponds with that of my Port Jackson specimens.
He placed the species under the genus Elasmopus Costa.

In 1904 Walker referred specimens from Ceylon to Elasmopus sub-
carinatus (Haswell). drawing attention to differences among them in
the second gnathopoda of the male, all of them having the hind margin
densely setose, but none being quite like the one figured by Stebbing in the
" Challenger " Report. In 1909 he assigned specimens from Cargados, in
the Indian Ocean, to the same species; in these he savs the wrist and hand
of the second gnathopoda of the male " have an inflated appearance, and
are almost naked. It appears to be the form described by Chilton (Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. ix, part J) under Moera petriei, which he unites
with this species ; it is probably a condition of immaturity." In 1910
Stebbing recorded the species from Cape Colonv, and says that a small
male has the second gnathopod agreeing with that described and figured
by Walker in 1901 from a Ceylon specimen.

If the specimens from these different localities are all rightly referred to
Elasmopus subcarinatus, the species is a widely distributed one in Indian
and Southern Oceans, and presents considerable differences in the form of
the second gnathopoda of the male. I have never felt quite certain whether
these differences were merely stages of growth in the development of the
mature form, or whether we were dealing with a species with dimorphic
males, or, again, with two different species with similar females but different
males. Caution is necessary in coming to a conclusion, for there are other
closely allied species of Elasmopus with male gnathopoda not unlike the
setose form described by Thomson, Stebbing, and Walker ; thus New Zealand
specimens that I at first sight thought belonged here prove to differ also
in the carination of the pleon, and to belong to the species E. neglectus,
described below. Nearly all the forms I have personally collected in
New Zealand have the male gnathopoda like that described by me under
Maera petriei — i.e., not densely fringed with long slender hairs. Thomson's
Stewart Island specimens, on the other hand, have the gnathopoda densely
fringed, as in the Port Jackson and " Challenger " specimens, and I have
a similar specimen from Moko Hinou ; so that the two forms do occur in
New Zealand, and if Walker's identification of the Cargados specimen is
correct the two forms also occur in the Indian Ocean, though they apparently
have not been taken together. In the typical adult male second gnathopod
as figured by Stebbing in the " Challenger " Report the palm shows distinct
teeth and the hind margin in densely setose ; in adult forms like this the
posterior peraeopoda are particularly stout, and their terminal joints very
setose. In younger specimens transitional stages in the development of these
two characters are to be found, and the forms described by Walker, Stebbing,
and Thomson are, I think, males of this form, some of them not yet fully
developed, in which the teeth on the palm are less prominent, though the
long slender setae are already present. In the gnathopod of the males de-
scribed by me under Maera petriei the palm is differently toothed, and the
long slender setae are entirely absent, though a few ordinary setae are present.
This form occurs in specimens quite as large and apparently as fully deve-
loped as those with the setose gnathopoda, and from their difference in shape
it is, I think, impossible to look upon them as stages leading up to the fully
developed setose form. I consider them to be a different form of the male,

Chilton. — The New Zealand Species of Elasmopus.

323

but, as in the carination of the pleon and in all other characters they are so
closely similar, I consider them as belonging to the same species (Elasmopus
suhcarinatus). It is possible, as I pointed out in 1885, that the two forms
are alternating forms of the male, the setose one assumed during the pairing
season and the other during the periods between the pairing seasons—
in this respect resembling the alternating forms described by Faxon in some
species of Cambarus. I suggest the setose form as the one assumed during
the pairing season, because similar long slender setae are found as a dis-
tinctive male character in many Amphipoda, Isopoda, and other Crustacea,
and it is possible that they are sensory and of special use during the pairing
season. This explanation would perhaps also account for the fact that all
the males collected at any one time appear to belong either to one form or
the other, and that the two are not taken together, though, of course, this
and the fact that the non-setose form has not yet been recorded from
Australia would be more easily accounted for on the supposition that we have
two distinct species to deal with. However, Mrs. Sexton's results, which
prove that in Jassa fahata (Montagu) two forms of male occur, changing at
certain moults, induce me to think that we have only one species here also.
This species has been very fully described by Stebbing in his report on
the '* Challenger " Amphipoda, and the following brief description, based
upon his shorter diagnosis in " Das Tierreich,*' Gammwidea, will be suffi-
cient here.

Spec ific D lag nos is .

Female with, fourth pleon segment bicarinate behind the dorsal depression,
each carina ending in an acute tooth : third pleon segment with postero-
lateral corner acutely produced. First antennae elongate, sometimes as
long as the body, first joint about as long as the second but stouter and

Fig. 1. — -Elasmopus suhcarinatus, male. Terminal portion of pleon
with uropoda and telson.

bearing stout setae on the lower margin, third joint half as long as the
second, flagellum longer than the peduncle, markedly setose, accessory
flagellum well developed with six joints or less. Second antennae not much
longer than the peduncle of the first, ultimate joint of peduncle shorter
than the penultimate, flagellum shorter than peduncle.

11

324

7 r ansae! "nit

Fig. 2. — Elasmopus subcarinatus. First gnathopod.

Fig. 3. — Elasmopus subcarinatus, male, form 1. Second gnathopod of

fully developed male.
Fig. 4. — Elasmopus subcarinatus, male, form I. Second gnathopod of

immature male.

Chilton.— <-The New Zealand Species of Elasmopus.

325

Mandible with third joint of palp slender, its liind margin straight,
front margin sparsely setose, not pectinate. First gnathopoda setose ;
ischium ending acutely ; carpus not much shorter than propod, with nume
rous tufts of slender setae on its inferior margin and lower surface ; propod
oblong with palm slightly oblique, inner surface bearing a well-marked
oblique comb-like row of short stout setae increasing in length towards the
distal end of the row and numerous transverse rows or tufts on the hind
margin and adjoining inner surface, also three similar transverse rows on
the distal half of the anterior border, the third being at the base of the
dactyl. Second gnathopoda similar in general form to the first, but larger;
carpus longer than broad, fully half as long as the propod, both with
numerous tufts of setae arranged on the whole as in the first gnathopod but
without the charactertistic comb-like row on the inner surface of the propod.

Peraeopoda rather stout, basal joint rounded-oblong and well expanded,
posterior margin simply serrate. Telson about as long as peduncle of third
uropod, each lobe bearing three or four long setae at extremity and having
the outer angle acutely produced.

Male differing from female in the second gnatho-
poda and the peraeopoda. The peraeopoda, espe-
cially the fifth, are stouter and more setose, but
the posterior margin of the basal joints is only
slightly serrate with long flat serrations ; merus,
carpus, and propod broadened and densely setose.

In the gnathopoda there are two forms. In form 1
the basal and ischial joints have the outer margins
produced into a thin flat flange, especially at the
distal end. and the anterior surface hollowed to
received the greatly enlarged propod when it is bent
back on them ; ischium produced distally into an
acute point ; carpus very short, cup-shaped, its
posterior border forming a densely setose lobe ;
propod very large, broader than the carpus, fringed
behind with long slender setae partially arranged in

Fig. 5. — Elasmopus subcarinatus, male, form 2. Second gnathopod.
Fig. 6. — Elasmopus subcarinatus. Fifth peraeopod.

transverse rows, palm in fully developed individuals with a broad spinulose
process near the finger-hinge followed by a deep cavity, a strong tooth, a
feeble oblique emargination, and a defining denticle ; dactyl stout, strongly
bent, minutely dentate near the base, with a large triangular process
opposite the central palmar tooth, apex subacute reaching the palmar denticle.

326

Transactions.

Form 2 is similar to form I except in the propocl and dactyl. The propod
is quite devoid of long slender setae, and has only a few small tufts of setae
of the usual kind on the posterior margin ; the palm bears three prominent
teeth, between which are some smaller denticles, with a few scattered setae ;
dactvl broad with bluntly rounded apex, its inner margin slightly uneven
but without denticles or processes.

Colour whitish.

Length, up to 15mm.

Distribution. — Shores of New Zealand, Australia, Ceylon, South Africa,
and Indian Ocean. Usually found at or below low-water mark.

In New Zealand this species occurs at moderate depths in all suitable
localities from the Three Kings to Stewart Island. I recently obtained it
with the dredge at a depth of 60 fathoms at the Three Kings and at another
station about half-way between the Three Kings and Cape Maria van Diemen.

Remarks. — Immature males are more like the females, the characters of
the gnathopoda and the broadened setose peraepoda being fully acquired
only in adult males. In immature specimens of form 1 the propod of the
second gnathopod may be densely haired, but the teeth and processes on
the palm much less developed or even absent, and the dactyl without the
denticles and process.

In addition to New Zealand specimens. I have been able to examine
others from Sydney Harbour (collected by myself in 1884) ; from St. Vincent
Gulf, South Australia (S. W. Fulton) ; and from Tasmania and Bass Strait
(F.I.S. '" Endeavour ""). In all of these the males are of form 1. The
'' Endeavour " specimens are a little more slender than some of the others,
and rather more setose, bearing a few long scattered setae on the dorsal
surface of the peraeon and pleon. In the Sydney and New Zealand speci-
mens the setae on the dorsal are scanty and small.

Elasmopus neglectus sp. now Figs. 7-l<>.
Male. — Third pleon segment with postero-lateral corner acutely pro-
duced ; fourth segment with a single dorsal carina, ending posteriorly in

Fig. 7. — -Elasmopus neglectus, male. Terminal portion of pleon, with nropoda and telson.

an acute point. Mandible with third joint of palp slender, its hind margin
slightly convex, front margin pectinate. First gnathopod with side-plate
produced anteriorly into a rounded lobe, the terminal joints densely setose

Chilton. — The New Zealand Species of Elasmopus.

327

as in E. subcarinatus. Second gnathopod very large, ischium ending acutely,
carpus short cup-shaped with densely setose posterior lobe, propod very

Fig. 8. — Elasmopus neglectus, male. First gnathopod.
Fig. 9. — -Elasmopus neglectus, male. Sec aid gnathopod.
Fig. 10. — -Elasmopus neglectus, male. Fifth peraeopod.

large, broadest proximally narrowing towards the distal end, palm long
oblique not defined and with only a poorly marked spinose lobe near the

328 Transaction*.

finger-hinge, whole lower margin and greater part of the propod densely
fringed with long slender setae mostly arranged in transverse tufts and
rows : dactyl stout, its inner margin smooth, with a broad triangular process
towards the subacute apex. Peraeopoda stout and broad and very denselv
setose, especially the fifth, posterior margin of basal joint regularly pectinate
the pectinations longest towards proximal end.

In other characters closely resembling E. subcarinatus.

Female. — Fourth segment of pleon with single dorsal carina as in the
male. First gnathopod similar to that of male, but with side-plate not
appreciably produced anteriorly. Second gnathopod considerably larger
than the first but similar in general shape, merus ending acutely, carpus
about one-third as long as propod, which is only slightly broader than
carpus, whole propod densely setose, the long setae being arranged in
transverse tufts and rows, other long slender setae are present apparently
similar to those found in the male, palm very oblique defined by
one or two stout spinules and with a small spinose process near the
finger-hinge : dactyl normal, its inner margin smooth and without pro-
tuberance, apex acute. Peraeopoda with posterior margin of basal joints
simply serrate.

Colour whitish.

Length, up to 15mm.

Distribution. — Blueskin Bay; Otago (G. M. Thomson) : Moko Hinou
(('. R. Gow). Probably widely distributed on New Zealand coasts.

Remarks. — The description of the second gnathopod of the female is
taken from an ovigerous specimen. It is interesting to note that it shows
more resemblance to the corresponding appendage in the male than is the
case in E. subcarinatus. The special characters of the second gnathopods
and the peraepods in the males are fully marked only in mature specimens ;
immature males are more like the females.

Elasmopus bollonsi sp. nov. Figs. 11. 12.

Male. — Third segment of pleon with posterior corner rectangular, not
produced, lower portion of posterior margin with small serrations. Fourth
segment of pleon smooth and without dorsal carina. First antenna
elongate, second antenna with peduncle shorter than that of first, both
with numerous long setae and in general resembling the antennae of
E. subcarinatus. Mandible with third joint of palp not very slender, hind
margin convex, front margin pectinate. First gnathopod shorter than in
E. subca inatus and much less setose but with the oblique pectinate row
on, the inner surface of the propod and with the other setae arranged on
the whole as in that species, basal joint stout, merus not ending acutely,
carpus as long as the ovate propod. Second gnathopoda unequal, the
right one similar to the first but larger, propod nearly twice as long as
carpus, setae normal, left gnathopod with basal joint, ischium, and merus
all small, carpus : mall triangular fitting into the outline of the propod
which is very large, longer than the rest of the appendage, and abnormally
shaped forming with the dactyl an irregular oval, setae few short and
scattered, anterior margin sinuous, palm oblique defined by a bluntly
rounded lobe and forming a depression on the inner side of the propod,
near the finger-hinge is a small flat-topped tooth followed by a larger one
of similar shape and then a low convex swelling, dactyl broad with blunt

Chilton — Th». New Zealand Species of Elasmopus.

329

extremity. Peraepoda fairly stout, with long setae, posterior border of
basal joint serrate. Third uropoda short, not much longer than the telson.

it

Fig. 11. — Elasmopus bollonsi, male. Right second gnathopod, seen from inner side.
Fig. 12.- — Elasmopus bollonsi, male Left second gnathopod, *Keen from inner side. (The
teeth on the palm are concealed by the dactyl.)

Female resembling the male, except in the second gnathopoda, which are
of normal form.

Colour whitish.

Length of male. 8 mm.

Habitat. — Dredged off the Three Kings Islands, north of Xew Zealand,
at a depth of 60 fathoms

330 Transactions.

Remarks. — This specimen was obtained when the present paper was
almost completed. I have only one male and two small female specimens,
and have not had time to make a full examination of them. It appears
to be a true Elasmopus, coming fairly close to the three species described
above, but readily distinguished from them by the absence of carination
on the fourth pleon segment and by the very peculiar left second gnathopod
in the male.

References.

Chevreux, E. 1908. ;' Amphipodes recueillis dans less possessions fran-
chises de l'Oceanie par M. le Dr. Seurat, 1902-3." Mem. Soc.
Zool. de France, vol. 20, pp. 470-527.

Chilton, C. 1883. ''Further Additions to our Knowledge of the New
Zealand Crustacea." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 15, pp. 69-86.

1884. " Moera petriei (G. M. Thomson)." " New Zealand Journal
of Science," vol. 2, pp. 230-31.

1884a. ' Notes on a Few Australian Edriophihalmata." Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 9, pp. 1033-44.

1885. " On an Example of Polymorphism in the Amphipoda." Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist,, ser. 5, vol.' 16, pp. 368-76.

Hasweh, W. A. 1879. ;' On some Additional New Genera and Species
of Amphipodous Crustacea.'''' Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 4,
pp. 319-50.

Stebbing, T. R. R. 1906. Amphipoda, 1 Gammaridea. Das Tierreich,

21 Lieferung.
1910a. " Crustacea of the Thetis Trawling Expedition." Australian

Museum Memoir, 4, pp. 567-658.
1910b. " General Catalogue of South African Crustacea.'''' Annals

South African Museum, vol. 6, pp. 281-593.

Thomson, G. M. 1882. " Additions to the Crustacean Fauna of New
Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 14, pp. 230-38.

Walker, A. O. 1904. " On the Amphipoda ; Pearl Oyster Fisheries,"
Part 2. Supplementary Report 13, pp. 239-300.

— ■ — 1909. " Amphipoda Gammaridea from the Indian Ocean." Trans.
Linn. Soc, vol. 12, pp. 323-44.

Chilton. — Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station. 331

Art. XXXV. — Xotes from the Cnntei-lnh-g College Mountain Biological

Station, Cass.

No. 1. — Introduction and General Description of Station.

By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, M.B., CM., LL.D., F.L.S., Professor
of Biology, Canterbury College, New Zealand.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.]

Plates V, VI.

The time when it was thought that the work of the university both in
teaching and in research could be adequately carried out within the four
walls of a lecture-room has long since passed. For science subjects, and
especially for those generally known as the natural sciences — i.e.. zoology,
botany, and geology— the work has already extended far beyond the uni-
versity buildings, and, in addition to the ordinary laboratories, advantage
has been taken of excursions to points of interest for the particular science
concerned. Gradually, however, it has been found that such short visits
are insufficient for the full prosecution of many lines of research, and that
even for teaching purposes it is desirable to have stations situated far from
the ordinary university buildings, at places where the animals, or plants,
or rocks can be readily studied under the actual conditions in which they
occur in nature. Some of these biological stations were originally established
independents of any university, as, for example, the first one at Naples,
and for a time thev were confined almost entirely to marine biological
stations, and these still form the great majority. The advantages of such
stations to the universities were, however, soon appreciated, and most of the
leading universities now either have biological stations of their own or have
made arrangements to secure accommodation whenever it may be recpiired
for their students at stations controlled by other authorities.

Soon, too, stations other than marine began to be established : one
of the first of these, perhaps, was the pioneer fresh-water station, esta-
blished by Professor Zacharias at Plon, in East Holstein, Germany.
Mountain stations, more particularly designed for the study of alpine plants
and the comparison of them with those of the lowlands, have also been
established by the Universities of Munich, Zurich, and many others ; while
in America, in addition to mountain stations, there is at least one special
station for the study of the botanical and other features presented by a
desert locality.

The credit of first suggesting a mountain biological station in connection
with Canterbury College is due to Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S. From his
residence for a time on the West Coast Road on the borders of Westland,
and from his frequent visits to these mountainous and alpine regions, the
facilities that thev offered for extending the work and the research connected
with the biological laboratory impressed itself upon him, and in the year
1908 he suggested to the Board of Governors of the College the desirability
of reserving an area as a botanical reserve, and erecting on it a suitable
building for the accommodation of students and others engaged in natural-
history research.

At first he suggested a locality on the Craigieburn Run. one of the
educational reserves belonging to the College, about a mile and a half from
the railway-station that then existed near the railway-bridge across the
Broken River. The suggestion for a biological station was strongly sup-
ported by myself, to whom it was referred by the Board of Governors, and

352

Transactions.

it also received very cordial approval from the Board. Before anything
definite was done, however, the railway was extended considerably beyond
Broken River and the temporary station was removed, and early in 3 910,
on the suggestion of Mr. R. Speight, now Curator of the Canterbury Museum,
who was well acquainted with the neighbourhood in question, it was thouuht

Cook -S + r-o t 1

Province ot Canterbury
South Island °> New Zealand

^Sc.a/a of /flf/tss

Map of South Island of New Zealand, showing Position of the Canterbury
College Mountain Biological Station. (Prepared by Mr. W. F. Robinson.)

that it would be better to select an area farther along the railway, nearer
the Cass River and railway-station. Accordingly, in 1910, the district was
visited by Mr. C. H. Opie (member of the Board of Governors), Mr. G. H.
Mason (Registrar), Mr. R. Speight, and myself, and we were fortunate in
finding an area on the Grasmeie Run, another educational reserve in the
possession of the College, quite close to the Cass Station, which included

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XLVII.

Plate V.

Fig. 1. — Station Building seen from the North-east.

•

/'

'■-■At:

i

.

■^

ajpiii •

#S

'-. " :?**** '

SaF-"* 1

■

IWlInEi

■ "^

.7**

l$$fc

irsft a!

Fig. 2. — General View.
Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass.

Face p. 332.

Chilton. — Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station. 333

two or three patches of beech forest, a rocky knoll, hill slopes, a creek and
swamp, and also a portion of a large shingle-fan now well covered with
vegetation. On our recommendation the governing body of the College,
with great liberality, arranged for the reservation of an area of approxi-
mately 200 acres to include these features, and also set apart a sum of £200
for the erection of the necessary building. In due time plans and speci-
fications were drawn up, and the building was erected under the super-
intendence of the officers of the Public Works Department, who were then
engaged in forming the railwav between the Cass Station and the foot of
Arthur's Pass. The building was completed towards the end of 1912, and
has since been fitted up with the necessary furniture and equipment, and
at the beginning of 1914 was first definitely used for the purpose for which
it was erected. During this year I visited it and spent some time at
it on several occasions, sometimes with students, and sometimes without,
and it is now completely ready for use in connection with the work of the
biological laboratory.

The boundaries of the botanical reserve at the station have not yet been
actuallv defined and surveyed, but this will be done later, and a botanical
map of the district prepared. In the meantime the following notes will
perhaps be sufficient to give an idea of the station and of its suitability
for the work for which it is intended.

The reserve is situated quite close to the Cass Railway-station, the
building being only about 200 yards from the station. The height above
sea-level is 1,850 ft. The area included in the reserve comprises a portion
of a swamp with a fresh-water stream, a rocky knoll with hilly slopes, two
or three small patches of beech forest in one of the valleys, and several
fine native shrubberies in some of the gullies. There is also included the
greater part of a large shingle-fan about a mile and a half across and a mile
wide, formed by the detritus from a neighbouring mountain known locally
as the "Sugarloaf"; and access is provided to Lake Sarah, one of the
numerous mountain lakes in the district, Lake Sarah itself being only a
mile and a half from the station.

The shingle-fan is an old- one, and is now well covered with vegetation
of the usual tussock-meadow formation, containing among the tussocks a
very large variety of cushion plants, such as Scleranthus biflorus, various
species of Raoulia, cushion forms of Carmichaelia, Coprosma, &c. The
cushion plants are very abundant both on the shingle-fan and in the
neighbouring river-beds ; two of the most striking of them are perhaps
two species of Coprosma, C. repens and C. Petriei, both forming extensive
mats on the surface, which in autumn are thickly studded with the large
translucent berries, port- wine-coloured in the first, pale blue in the second.
Observations and experiments on these cushion plants open up a fascinating
line of study for the ecologist.

Quite near to the building are many large plants of the " wild-irishman ':
(Discaria toumatou), which has already become well known through Dr.
Cockayne's classic experiment, proving that the spines on it are not de-
veloped if the plant is grown in a moist, damp, still atmosphere. The
peculiar umbelliferous plant Aciphylla squarrosa is also abundant, and there
is a large variety of shrubs belonging to the genera Aristotelia, Corokia.
Coprosma, Hymenanthera, &c. In the autumn the berries on these attract
the visits of numerous native and introduced birds.

The flora of Lake Sarah and of its shores is well worthy of being fully
investigated. In the lake is an abundance of Isoetes, Pilularia, Potamogelov,
and a Nitella which grows in the deeper waters of the lake at some little

334 Transactions.

distance from the margin. Besides the old shingle-fan on which the station
building is erected, there are at short distances in the neighbourhood various
other fans of different ages, some only recently formed and still quite bare,
others in different stages of being covered with vegetation. Near by, also,
are the large river-beds of the Cass and the Waimakariri Rivers, affording
ample opportunity for investigation of their peculiar vegetation. Several
mountains from 3,000 ft. to 5,000 ft. high are accessible at short distances
from the station, while a little farther off are many others of greater
height with their summits almost constantly snow-clad. On these moun
tains are numerous " shingle-slips," with their characteristic vegetation.
Arthur's Pass, with its rich profusion of alpine plants, can be readily
reached by a short train journey, and its vegetation could be studied
with the greatest ease, using the Mountain Biological Station as the base.
Across the Waimakariri River, only a few miles from the station, is the
great Waimakariri National Park, with its extensive beech forests, steep
valleys and snow-clad hills kept moist with the constant rainfall, and pro-
viding a wonderful variety of mosses, liver-worts, and lichens.

Altogether it will be seen that the mountain station at the Cass pro-
vides opportunity for a more varied and extensive study of different kinds
of vegetation than is likely to be met with in a similar area in any part
of the world.

The fauna of the district is less conspicuous, and appears to be little
varied ; but, although they are not very prominent, there are numerous
insects on the open country, and in the neighbouring bush a considerable
variety of insects, spiders, Myriapods, and other invertebrata ; while Lake
Sarah and the other lakes that are within easy reach will afford plenty
of material for the study of their plankton forms.

The whole of the reserve has been used as part of a sheep-run, sheep
being still pastured on it, and in accordance with the. usual custom the
tussocks have been periodically burnt off in some areas. When portions
of the reserve are fenced off and the tussocks allowred to grow undisturbed
it will be possible to see how far the vegetation has been affected by the
treatment it has received in the past, and to make definite experiments
as to the best methods of preserving the natural pasture of the runs or
of improving it. A number of the introduced plants that usually spread
rapidly in New Zealand have made their appearance on the shingle-fan
and in the river-beds, but they are for the most part small and incon-
spicuous, and fortunately no gorse, broom, or other obnoxious shrubs have
as yet established themselves on the reserve.

No definite records are yet available with regard to the meteorology
of the Cass Station. It lies at an altitude of 1,850 ft. above sea-level, in
one of the intermontane basins of Canterbury, and is surrounded at
a distance of from three to six miles by several peaks rising to a height
of 4,000 ft. to 5,000 ft. On the north and north-west, at no great distance,
lie the mountains forming the main chain of the Southern Alps, separated
from the station, however, by the broad valley of the Waimakariri ; to
the south and south-east, beyond Castle Hill, Mount Torlesse, and other
outliers of the main range, lie the extensive treeless plains of Canterbury
at a considerably greater distance.

The air is bright and clear, and on fine days the solar radiation is very
great, while at night cooling rapidly takes place, especially in those parts
which lose the sun early in the shadow of the hills. Frosts are frequent
practically throughout the summer : there was a sharp frost on the 8th
March, 1915. The prevailing wind is from the north-west, which deposits

Trans. N'.Z. Inst.. Vol. KLVII.

Platk VI.

Fig. 3. — Station Building seen from tin- .Smith-west.

Fig. 4. — View of Shingle-fan. Looking towards Mount Sugarloaf.
Canterbury College Mountain Biologk \i Station, Cass.

Face p. 334

Chilton. — Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station. 335

its moisture in heavy rainfall on the western slopes of the Southern Alps.
At the Cass the wind, though fairly dry, is still cool : it is often strong,
and is frequently accompanied with showers of rain, with corresponding
effect on the vegetation. Farther to the east the wind continues, soon
assuming the dry hot character that makes it so disagreeable on the
Canterburv Plains. The station is fairly well protected from the cold
south-west winds.

In the winter snow frequently falls, and may cover the ground for some
days, but it seldom lies for any long period of time. The ground around
the station was covered with a thin coat of snow on the 13th June, 1914,
and there were two slight falls towards the end of November in the same
year. The neighbouring hills are, of course, much more frequently covered
with snow which remains on them for much longer periods than on the lower
portions.

The building that has been erected is a substantial cottage, strongly
built to withstand the prevailing north-west winds. It contains a large
living-room, with fireplace, cooking- appliances. &c. and is fitted with cup-
boards and shelves and the necessary accommodation for field laboratory
work. There is a sleeping-room with bunks capable of accommodating eight
students, and a small room with two bunks for the teachers or leaders of
the parties. It is hoped in time to form at the station a small working
library of books required for field-work, and collections of preserved material
of plants and animals from the surrounding districts which could be worked
up either at the station itself or elsewhere. The station can be readily
reached from Christchurch by a train journey of about four hours" duration.
At present the train service is on alternate days only, but probably before
long there will be a daily service.

The foregoing account will, I think, show that the Canterbury College
Mountain Biological Station is eminently suited for the purpose for which
it was established, and that the vegetation of the surrounding district
offers great opportunities and many problems to the botanists of the future.
There is every reason for hoping that by the students of the College and
by other workers there will be produced a long series of notes embodying
the residts of observations and experiments made at the station, and that
the expense of its establishment and maintenance will be far more than
repaid by the value of the results attained.

I am greatly indebted to Mr. W. F. Eobinson, Lecturer on Surveying
at the School of Engineering, Canterbury College, for the preparation of
the map accompanying this article, and to Messrs. Foweraker and Nelson
for the photographs.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate V.

Fig. 1 . The station building seen from the north-east ; behind is the railway-station,
and in the distance the valley of the Cass. (P. S. Nelson, photo.)

Fig. 2. General view ; showing the swamp and Grasmere Stream in the foreground,
the shingle-fan with the station building on the right, and the snow-clad
mountains beyond the River Waimakariri in the distance. (P. S. Nelson,
photo.)

Plate VI.

Fig. 3. The station building seen from the south-west, with the patches of beech forest

behind. (C. E. Foweraker, photo.)
Fig. 4. View of the shingle-fan, looking towards Mount Sugarloaf r tussock, Aciphylla

squarrosa, and Discaria toumatmi in the foreground ; beech forest and mountain

scrub in the distance. (C. E. Foweraker, photo.)

336 Transactions.

Art. XXXVI. — The Inter montane Basins of Canterbury.
By R. Speight. M.Sc, F.G.S.

[Rend before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st July, 1914.]
[For important places mentioned in this article, see accompanying map.]

In his admirable paper on the ' ' Physiography of the Middle Clarence
Valley/' published in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Sep-
tember, 1913, Mr. C. A. Cotton discusses the origin of the Kaikoura Moun-
tains, and considers that their main features have resulted from the following
sequence of events : (1) Denudation of a deformed mass of Triassic rocks ;
(2) deposition of the covering strata ; (3) orogenic uplift ; (4) a cycle of
erosion which he terms the " great denudation " ; (5) regional uplift of
relatively small amount ; (6) renewed denudation.

From this it is apparent that the author considers the area now occupied
by the Kaikouras to have been covered by the sea in early Tertiary times,
and that during this submergence a veneer of relatively weaker beds was
laid down over these older rocks which had previously been either partially
or wholly reduced to a peneplain. Subsequently an orogenic uplift took
place, and the relatively weak beds were removed from the higher exposed
ridges, and were preserved at lower less-exposed levels, where they now
form strips occupying the floors of the main valleys and part of the flanks
of the adjacent ridges, or form a fringe on the seaward side of the outer
range of this mountain mass.

As the author of the paper referred to applies this explanation to the
country to the south-east of the Kaikouras on the borders of North Canter-
bury, and suggests a similar origin for various important physical features
of that district, the present paper has been written with the object of
examining how far these principles may be applied to the country
farther south, and what modifications, if any, must be made to frame a
satisfactory explanation of those features. As most of the evidence bear-
ing on the question will be furnished by an investigation of the conditions
obtaining in the case of the intermontane basins of the province, a con-
sideration of their features is a requisite before a proper conclusion on the
point can be arrived at.

We find in various parts of the mountain region of Canterbury and
its adjacent districts small outliers of sedimentaries of Cretaceous and
Tertiary age, consisting of members of the following sequence, which in its
complete form comprises the following, starting from the top : —

7. Calcareous gravels, sands, and shell-beds.

6. Sands more or less consolidated and passing downward into —

5. Grey Marl.

4. Limestone, glauconitic in its higher parts, and argillaceous in
its lower ; the lower member frequently absent.

3. Greensands.

2. Sands and clays, the former frequently sulphur-bearing, and with
large numbers of rounded concretions containing saurian re-
mains.

1. Clays and conglomerates with coal.

Speight. — The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury. 337

These rest everywhere in the Canterbury region on folded sedimentaries
of Trias-Jura age or on voleanics which have penetrated and overlie these
sedimentaries. It must be noted, however, that the sequence just quoted
is rarely complete, and that, as is natural in a country which has been
exposed to active erosion for a considerable period, it is the lower members
which are most frequently in evidence. The number of remnants of these
beds is somewhat large, and they are usually placed in basins either par-
tiallv or whollv surrounded by the Trias-Jura rocks. The chief of these
basins are the following : Hanmer Plains, Culverden Plain, Castle Hill
basin, the Md-Waimakariri, the Upper Kakaia, Lake Heron, Mid-Rangitata.
Upper Pareora ; but there are others of small size which have an important
bearing on the problem.

The two suggestions that have been put forward to explain their occur-
rence are, —

1. They are the remnants of a widely distributed cover of Tertiary
beds which once masked the greater part of the surface of the country.
Since thev were weak structurally, they have been removed from the higher
and more exposed parts of the country by ordinary erosive agents, such as
frost and rain, but more especially by the abrasion of the great glacier,-,
which in Pleistocene times filled the valleys. The isolated fragments of
this covering are only to be found in positions wThere they were more or
less shielded by the form of the ground from these erosive agents.

2. They have always been in the form of discontinuous deposits, and
represent materials which have been laid down in isolated areas which
were invaded by the sea, the basins having been eroded in pre-Tertiarv
times, and were, during the time of deposition, bays, gulfs, or straits
belonging to a more open sea ; and these basins had even at the time
• if deposition a form closely approximating to that which they have at
present.

The first suggestion has found its strongest support up to the present
from Cotton. There are suggestions, however, in the writings of other -
that the idea had occurred to them. Cox, for instance, in his " Report on
the Geology of the Clent Hills District " (" Report of Geological Explora-
tions," 1877, p. 107), notes the wide extent of the Cretaceo-tertiary series
in that district, and concludes that they have not filled valleys of erosion
owing to their presence at higher levels. Later, however, he departed
from this opinion, for in his report on the same district in 1884 (" Report
of Geological Explorations for the Year 1884," p. 43) he evidently regards
the basins in which the Awamoa and Pareora beds were laid down as having
much the same form as at present, for he considers the sea had access to the
basin by way of the Rangitata River and the Pudding-stone Valley, and
neither by way of the Rakaia nor by the Ashburton Gorge, which was not
cut at that time.

Park apparently occupies a middle position, which results from his
division of the Cretaceo-tertiary sequence of beds into two great series
with an unconformity between them. This he places finally between the
glauconitic limestone (Weka Pass stone) and the argillaceous limestone
(Amuri limestone). He regards the series closed by the latter beds as his
Amuri system, which was laid down in basins of previous formation, for he
says (" Geology of New Zealand," p. 88), " The Cretaceous beds, although
deeply involved in the faults that follow the foothills of the Inland Kai-
kouras, take no part in the tectonic arrangement of the rocks of the Hoko-
nui system, but rest against them as marginal deposits that follow the strand

338

Transactions.

Scall or Mills

Speight. — The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury. 339

•

of the pre-Cretaceous sea, invading even the narrow tortuous fiords that
stretched far back among the mountains of that date, as, for example, into
the Trelissick basin and along the ancient rift-like Clarence Valley."

Again, on page 98, he says, " The marginal distribution of the rocks of
the Karamea system ; the manner in which they ramify into and around
the narrow fiord-like valleys in Nelson and Otago ; and the mantling sheet
thev form in western Nelson, gradually ascending from sea-level up to
4,000 ft. on the higher slopes of the main divide, seem to afford indubitable
evidence that the main tectonic features of the country were already deter-
mined before the advent of the Cainozoic epoch." However, when referring
to the folded limestones at Bob"s Cove, Lake Wakatipu, he says (page 100),
" Here we have a portion of a marine littoral involved in a great crust fold,
and elevated to a height exceeding 5,000 ft. above the sea, affording clearest
proof that a sea-floor existed in the early Miocene where the Richardson
Mountains now stand."

Later, on page 144, he points out that marine conditions extended over
a great portion of Central Otago, and that the block mountains were formed
not by the subsidence of the portions of an elevated plateau, but by the
uplift of the adjacent strips of territory.

It is apparent from these statements that Park certainly regarded Central
Otago as a sea-bottom in Tertiary times, and that the marine deposits of
Canterbury were laid down in arms of the sea, and were not the remnants
of a widely extended overlying sheet.

McKay, in his report of the Trelissick basin (Geological Reports for
1879-80, p. 59) regards this basin as the result of movements accompanying
the elevation of the surrounding mountains. Elsewhere in his reports
McKay appears to consider that the Tertiary sequence of beds was more
widely distributed, and that the remnants occurring in other places, such
as in the Clarence Valley, were due to strips being preserved owing to their
being let down along the lines of fault to levels where they were less
exposed to eroding agents.

In connection with this, Hector states in his progress report for the
years 1888-89, p. liv, " The evidence collected is, it must be admitted,
strongly corroborative of the theory that the Cretaceo-tertiary and Arnuri
rocks once spread over the whole district, from the mountains on the north-
west side of the Awatere Valley to the eastern seaboard, and have only
disappeared from the higher elevations of the two intervening mountain
ranges on account of the intense denudation that must have taken place,
and is still taking place."

And in connection with the Trelissick basin, Hector remarks (Progress
Report, 1885) that " the presence of fault lines in other parts of New Zealand
is shown by structural movements that have isolated areas of Cretaceo-
tertiary and Upper Tertiary strata, such, for instance, as the Trelissick
area, which has been erroneously described as a basin."

Marshall gives no definite pronouncement as to the origin of these
basins, but in his " Regional Geology," page 41, he insists on the presence
of land of considerable extent, bold coast-fine, and small rivers, while the
glauconitic members of the middle of the Tertiary series were being laid
down, with the sea in the area of deposition of approximately 200-300
fathoms deep. He notes, too, the extreme variability of the character
of the deposits, the great thickness of conglomerate on the west coast of
the island, the remarkable changes in the thickness of such beds as the
Grey Marls, but concludes that the land-surface was depressed after long-

340 Transactions.

•

continued erosion. He makes no statement as regards the condition of
deposition from which one could conclude that the land-surface was even
approximately resembling that which exists now.

The strongest supporter of the theory that these beds were laid down
in pre-Cretaceous-formed inlets is Captain Hutton, for he nowhere expresses
any doubt as to their origin. The only exception to this statement is in
connection with the Hanmer Plains, which he attributed to a local sub-
sidence, and not due to the erosive action of gla'ciers (Geological Reports
lor 1874, p. 54). In the same report he accounted for the formation of
the Hurunui Plains by the erosive action of the sea on beds which were
relatively weak. He attributed at one time the basins at Wharekuri and
at Castle Hill to erosion of glaciers, but he afterwards abandoned this idea.
His most definite statements, however, are made in his paper on the " Origin
of the New Zealand Fauna and Flora,'' which appeared in the Annals and
Magazine of Natural History. He there maintains (page -91) that the erosion
of our mountain valleys such as the Rakaia was more profound in pre-
Cretaceous times that at present, and that the patches of Tertiary rocks
were formed in them when they were inlets of the sea. i\gain (Trans. N.Z.
Inst., 1886, p. 411), he attributes the formation of the Trelissick basin to a
pre-Cretaceous river, not to glacier erosion, and suggested that the sea
entered the basin not by way of the Rakaia and the Acheron River, but
by the Waimakariri and Craigieburn.

In vol. 43 of the '; Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " (1911)
there is a paper by Henderson on " The Genesis of the Surface Forms and
Present Drainage-systems of West Nelson," which has some bearing on
the question, since the author refers therein, to the whole mountain region of
the South Island. The arguments are somewhat difficult to follow, since
all the grounds on which the conclusions are based are not fully stated,
but the author evidently regards the Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits of
the restricted area which he describes as having been laid down in rift
valleys. He says (page 312), " The land seems to have been above sea-
level till Tertiarv times, when depression permitted the inroads of the sea
into rift valleys which had already been formed. Deposits accumulated
in these rift vallejs. . . . When these last [limestones] were formed
the land-surface of what is now west Nelson was represented by a series
of base-levelled islands ; to the east what is now the long line of the alpine
peneplain rose from the shallow sea. Elevation now took place."

According to this statement, Henderson evidently regarded the lime-
stone as laid down in rift valleys, but that the land was gradually reduced
to the peneplain form, and the absence of detrital sediments in the lime-
stones was due to the low relief of the land. He further suggested that the
elevation which succeeded the deposition was differential, that blocks were
elevated unevenly, and that the pre-Tertiary lines of fault again became
active.

The question of the origin of these intermontane basins is discussed
very briefly by Kitson and Thiele in a contribution to the Geographical
Journal of the year 1910, dealing with the origin of the Upper Waitaki
basin. Their conclusions are thus stated :—

The past geological history of the lake region in general of the Soutl
Island is probably as follows :~—

1. Middle Mesozoic alpine folding, accompanied by fracturing,, probably
of a radial character. Some faulting along these lines.

Speight. — The Inter montane Basin* uf Canterbury. 341

2. Pre-Cainozoic dissection ; valleys formed principally along lines of
fracture of fault. Some features of many of the existing valleys and basins
impressed.

3. Early Cainozoic subsidence, with infilling of valleys; marine trans-
gression, the sea invading some of the depressions

4. Middle Cainozoic uplift started, continuing with minor fluctuations
to the present time. Faulting, with probably some warping, during middle
and late Cainozoic times. Many of the old lake basins modified.

5. Advance of glacier conditions in late Cainozoic ; existing lake basins
and valleys modified by erosion and deposition.

The final summary of the authors suggests that the Waitaki basin is
due to pre-glacial erosion, faulting, with probably some warping, modified
by glacial action.

After a careful consideration of the opinions of these authors thus ex-
pressed, one must come to the conclusion that they have regarded this
basin as chiefly formed in early Tertiary times, and that the Tertiary
deposits were laid down in arms of the sea which penetrated it at a
later date.

Seeing that there has been this discrepancy of opinion, it has been con-
sidered advisable by the present author to consider the evidence now avail-
able which bears on the question, and to bring forward additional facts
which may help to elucidate the matter.

In all probability the best course to pursue will be to take the case of
several of these basins in turn, and point out their special features. As
the most distinctive of these is the Castle Hill or Trelissick basin, it will
be considered first, and then reference will be made to the other areas in
turn that may be considered as likely to furnish facts of importance.

Trelissick or Castle Hill Basin.

This basin lies behind Mount Torlesse, between it and the more westerly
Craigieburn Mountains, and is perhaps the most remarkable of all of the
interinontane basins. • It forms an enclosed roughly oval-shaped space of
about five miles long by three broad, surrounded on all sides by mountains
which reach a general height of between 6,000 ft. and 7,000 ft. It is only
towards the north-east that this ring is at all broken ; in that locality there
is a low saddle, composed of Trias-Jura rocks, which separates it from the
Craigieburn district and the adjoining Micl-Waimakariri basin.

The structure of the Trelissick basin has been dealt with by both Hutton
and McKay, but unfortunately neither of these geologists examined all
parts in detail, and there are several discrepancies between the descriptions
of these observers and the actual facts. In general, it appears to me that
McKay's account is the more correct of the two.

The general sequence of beds, in descending order, is as follows, accord
ing to Hutton, and is confirmed with slight modifications by the observations
of McKay and of the present writer :—

Pareora- —

Blue shales (plant-beds).

Soft grey sandstone.

Grey sandy clays and shales.

Lignite.

Grey sandstone full of Lamellibranchs.

Grey sandstone, curient-bedded.

342 Transactions.

Oamaru—

Limestone.

Volcanic grit.

Tufaceous greensands, calcareous tuff.
Waipara- —

Argillaceous limestone.

Greensands.

Grey Marl.

White sandstone.

Green sandstone with concretions.

Sandstones, with Ostrea and Conchothyra.

Sandstone with lignite.
The approximate thickness of the Pareora beds is 500 ft., of the Oamaru
beds 150 ft.. and of the Waipara beds about 1,600 ft.

Unconformities have been put in various places by different authorities,
but it appears to me that the beds are physically conformable throughout,
the only dislocations being those attributable to volcanic action or to fault-
ing or folding movements ; in some places, however, obscurities occur,
the elucidation of which may ultimately lead to a revision of this state-
ment. I have specially in my mind the absence of the upper limestone
over considerable areas. The general lithological nature of the beds indicates
that the sea of the region gradually became deeper, the maximum being
reached during the deposition of the limestones, after which shallowing
succeeded, whether by uplift of the bottom or by aggradation has not been
determined. This shallowing was followed by a slight deepening towards
the close of the period of deposition, and when the land finally emerged
at the close of this cycle of deposition it probably remained permanently
above the sea.

The most striking feature of the beds is the absence of coarse sediments
such as would occur were the conditions of the surrounding country, or even
the height of the land relative to the basin, at all similar to those now exist-
ing. The actual presence of land is proved by the sandy beds and by the
lignites, the last-named being also noteworthy as they occur at two distinct
horizons. This shows that at least on two occasions shore-lines were near
the area. A somewhat interesting constituent of the coal-bearing beds in
the Craigieburn Gully (which is a small outlier of the basin across a low pass
to the north-east) are rolled fragments of rhyolite. Now, no occurrence of
rhyolite in situ has been found inside the basin or nearer than the Rakaia
Gorge and the Malvern Hills. Between these localities and Craigieburn,
which are nearly twenty miles apart, there lies a continuous ring of moun-
tains rising at times to a height of 6,000 ft., and it seems impossible, as
noted by Hutton, that these pebbles could be transferred under present
conditions of relief. In confirmation of the movements of these pebbles
I have recently been given a pebble of rhyolite of similar nature picked up
in the bed of a small creek near the outlier of coal in the Acheron River
in the Rakaia basin, which has been carried in some similar way. It could
not have been carried under the present conditions. Hutton was fully
aware of this difficulty, as may be seen from a reference to his report on the
Trelissick basin.

Then, again, if we assume, with Hutton and others, that physical breaks
occur, we should expect, were the relief the same as now existing, or if it
resembled it to some degree even, that basal conglomerates and other relics
of the existence of land should occur in some parts of the basin at the points

Speight. — The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury.

343

where discordance occurred
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The structural evidence is also somewhat
important. There is definite proof that the
rocks of the area have been subjected to
decided folding movements, the general result
being analogous to what would happen were
a layer of plastic clay placed flat on the
palm of the hand and the palm closed
slightly. The harder and more resistant
limestones show this admirably, faulting,
both normal and reversed, the latter ex-
hibiting decidedly flat fault surfaces, and
overturned folds show the intensity of the
^ lateral pressure. This is clearly seen on
the western side of the area, between the
upper part of Broken River and the Hog's
Back Creek, but especially so in the country
between the latter and Waterfall Creek.
Where the limestone band crosses Broken
River, about a mile above the ford on the
road, it has been tilted till it stands almost
vertically, and a portion has been displaced
towards the centre of the basin relatively
to the lower member, the plane of rupture
being almost horizontal. Farther up the
river the line of outcrop of the limestone
takes the form of a letter S, and in the deep,
narrow, precipitous gorge of Waterfall Creek
there are several small faults at points
where the strain was probably the greatest
when the folding took place. In the Hog's
Back Creek the limestone is slightly over-
turned, but on following the outcrop north
the dip slowly diminishes till it becomes a
moderate one to the west when the Water-
fall Creek is reached (see accompanying-
section). It must be noted that the inter-
pretation of the structure, advanced by
Hutton on hearsay evidence as to the
locality, is not borne out on a closer exami-
nation on the spot. Farther south in the
basin, in the upper portion of Whitewater
Creek, there is a detached mass of lime-
stone, dipping to the west, whose presence
can only be explained by supposing that
a fault has been run along the western

s
o

o

60

a

CD

344 Transactions.

margin of the area, in close proximity to the Trias-Jura rocks, and
isolated this remnant from the main mass of limestone which forms
the crest of Castle Hill. This line of fault can be traced up Coleridge
Creek to the extreme south-west corner of the area, as is evidenced by
the blocks of limestone with westerly dip left in isolated positions high
up on the western side of the valley of this stream. The straight align-
ment of its walls is strongly suggestive of glacier action, but there is no
doubt its original form was determined largely by the fault-line.

The centre of the basin is masked by an overburden of Recent shingle
and other river deposit, and on the eastern side the dip of the beds is in-
wards as a general rule, but in one or two cases, as at the gorge of the Porter
River, it is almost vertical ; on the whole, however, the folding is less pro-
nounced on the eastern margin of the basin than on the west.

Farther east, in the lower part of the Broken River Valley, are outliers
of the coal-measures belonging to the lower part of the Tertiary or the
Upper Cretaceous series, as is clear from the presence of Conchothyra and
other fossil molluscs. These have evidently been folded on axes running
in a general north-and-south direction, and the surface on which they were
laid down shows evidence of considerable warping. The coal-measures
usually occupy the lower levels of deep valleys, where they have been pro-
tected from denuding agents. There is some evidence of faulting, and in
one case at least, in the bed of Sloven's Creek, the Trias-Jura rocks have been
bodily pushed over the Tertiaries from the eastward. It is extremely
probable that both of the parallel valleys of Sloven's and Winding Creek
have been determined by faulting. In one or two places there occur, inter-
calated in the greensands which overlie the coal, irregular beds of angular
greywacke pebbles up to 3 in. in diameter which cannot have travelled far
from some exposed rock-surface; but, judging from the lie of the coal-lx'ds.
the surface did not resemble that which now exists.

The remaining portion of the Waimakariri basin, with whose features
I am not at present as well acquainted as I should like, is no doubt of similar
origin to the Castle Hill area. Fragments of coal-measures are found in
various portions of it, and there is a great mass of limestone in the valley
of the Esk River near Mount White, and, judging from its presence, as well
as that of occasional small remnants of sedimentaries similar in character
to the Pareora beds of the Broken River basin, it seems clear that these
Tertiaries once covered the floor of this Waimakariri basin more or less
completely, but have been removed almost entirely by erosive agents which
were especially active in that locality in Pleistocene times and later. The
Esk River limestone owes its preservation to being out of the sphere which
was especially subject to glaciation, since there are everywhere signs that
the intensity of ice-action fell off on the eastern side of the great mountain
valleys, especially where their heads do not reach as far back as the main
divide, but belong rather to the drier mountain region to the east. The
boundary of this area on the eastern .side is the great ridge of the Puketeraki
Mountains, whose steep western faces and even alignment suggest an origin
dependent on some great structural feature such as faulting. This would
be quite in keeping with the features exhibited by other basins, where the
eastern margin is determined by fault-lines while their western side exhibits
folding.

The general results of this statement of the conditions governing the
formation of the Broken River and its associated basins are, —

Speight. — The Intermontane Basin* of Canterbury, 345

(1.) That land existed in the neighbourhood of the area at the beginning
of the period of deposition, and that it also existed subsequently, although
on some occasions the sea grew deeper.

(2.) That the land did not supply coarse sediments, and probably was
of low relief.

(3.) That it was different in form from that now existing.

(4.) That the rocks of the basin have been subjected to faulting and
folding.

(5.) That the Tertiary sediments are the remains of a once much more
widely extended sheet.

(6.) That the general character of the beds and their structural features
are those which might arise if the beds had been laid down on an old pene-
plain or plain of marine denudation, and that certain areas had been subject
to either faulting or folding movements which depressed them below the
level of this old surface, and that when elevation of the land took place
these deposits occupied the basins of relatively less height far below the
general level of the mountains.

(7.) This surface has been dissected by stream and glacier action as
well as by other denuding agents, and the relatively weaker beds have only
been preserved where the form of the ground sheltered them from these
destructive agencies.

Rakaia Vallev.

In the main Rakaia Valley there are five outliers of the Tertiary beds if we
neglect those in the valley of the Cameron River and near Lake Heron, which
belong more properly to the Upper Ashburton and Rangitata occurrences.
The former include coal-measures at the Acheron River, at Mount Algidus,
at the Rakaia Gorge, all of winch are now without limestone. These and
the overlying sandy beds with shell-remains, similar to those in the Trelissick
basin, are, hoAvever, preserved at Redcliff Gully, where, owing to their position,
they have been out of the line of action of the ice-stream which once operated
in the Rakaia Valley. Similar beds are also exposed at the Curiosity Shop,
where the river has cut through the gravel of the plains about three miles
below the gorge itself. These isolated fragments, occurring as they do in
widely separated parts of that valley, are probably remnants of a sheet
which once occupied it completely. They do not, however, furnish much
evidence as to the circumstances of their deposition, the lower exposed
members of the series being sands or clays, with the exception that at the
Rakaia Gorge there are fairly coarse conglomerates, composed chiefly of
fragments of rhyolite, similar to that which lies underneath the Tertiary
series and forms the volcanoes of the Rockwood Hills and their various
extensions. In the Redcliff Gully the beds have been subjected to faulting
and folding of an intensity similar to that in the Trelissick basin. The
limestone also has been elevated, till it now exists at a height of 3,700 ft.
above the sea.

Ashbttrton-Raxgi'tata Region.

There are in this district two areas which may be designated inter-
montane basins. These are the Lake Heron Valley, which extends from the
vicinity of Lake Heron across the middle course of the South Ashburton
River, and is bounded on the north-west by the high country stretching
from Mount Arrowsmith, and on the south-east by the range which extends
from the Rakaia River towards the Ashburton, and includes the following

346 Transactions.

elevations : Mount Hutt, Mount Alford, Taylor Peak. Mount Somers, and
the Clent Hills. This valley has connection with the Rangitata area by
means cf the Pudding-stone Valley and by the wide valley extending from
Hakatere towards the Potts Eiver.

The basin of the Rangitata includes the Mesopotamia country, and
extends down the river to about eight miles above the Mount Peel Station.
Both these basins are in all probability of structural origin, but have been
modified extensively by glaciation. They contain numerous remnants of
the Tertiary series, which, as originally pointed out h} Ccx, has no relation
to the present form of tlie country. They are almost entirely of sands
and clays with coal-seams, and only near Lake Heron and at Coal Creek,
on the south bank of the Rangitata, are any covering limestones present.
The former limestones were classified as Miocene by Cox, and put in the
Oamaru formation by Haast, and the latter, judging from its fossils, is of
the same age as the Mount Brown limestone of North Canterbury, which
may be correlated with the Mount Somers limestone. They are, there-
fore, in all probability of later date that the Malvern beds, and represent
the gradual extension of the coal conditions over central and southern
Canterbury. Remnants of the coal-measures are now found in the Cameron
Valley: near Lake Heron ; in the valley of the Smite Creek; near Clent Hills
Station; in the valley of the Potts River. The last-mentioned outlier occurs
at an elevation of about 3,000 ft. to the north of the ice-swept and moraine-
covered downs which stretch from Mount Potts in a south-easterly direction
towards the river of the sam° name. The total length of the exposure
is about 25 chains, with a maximum breadth of about 7 chains. The beds
consist of sands and clays about 200 ft. in thickness, with several seams
of brown coal, one of which is 18 ft. thick. They have a general strike
in a north-west to south-west direction, with a dip to the south-west at an
angle of about 60° ; in some places this is a little natter, but the variation
may be due to slip. There is no capping of limestone present, nor was I
able to discover any fossils, but from the general circumstances it is evident
that the coal belongs to the same series as that at Mount Somers. The
beds owe their preservation to having been faulted down and brought into
such a position that they have not been subjected to the full intensity of the
glacial erosion which other parts of the same valleys have experienced. A
similar occurrence exists in the valley of a tributary of the Godley River,
in the Mackenzie Country basin, which lies just across the Two Thumb
Range, the dividing ridge between the Rangitata and Waitaki basins. In
the country immediately to the west of the Lake Stream coal-measures are
found up to levels of between 4,000 ft. and 5,000 ft., and these fragmentary
occurrences are evidently the remains of a once widely extended sheet. As a
rule they do not show much signs of dislocation, though there is no doubt
that their position points to certain of them having been faulted down, and
their persistence may be due to their having been thus removed from the
operation of active erosive agents. Their frequent distribution at high levels,
associated with occurrences at lower levels, is strong evidence that the
sheet was extended over a surface unlike that now existing, and that the
surface has been subject to serious dislocations. The evidence from this
locality is strongly in favour of the wide distribution of a mantle of Ter-
tiary beds, and is remarkably analogous to the conditions obtaining in
Central Otago, where the quartz drifts and associated beds of Tertiary
age are found at times depressed in hollows and again in close proximity
acting as a capping to the flat-topped schist ridges.

Speight. — The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury. 347

Waiau-Hurtjnui Basin.

This basin lies across the middle courses of the Waiau and Hurunui
Rivers, and is perhaps the most typical of all those within the Canterbury
area. The rivers have cut deep gorges through the barrier which bounds
it on the east, and furnish a most interesting example of anomalous drainage.
Cotton has suggested that the rivers were antecedent to the present land-
surface, and that the gorges were cut as the surface was warped upwards.
The other explanation, which was originally advanced by Hutton, is that
it is a case of superimposed drainage.

The basin through which these rivers run extends for nearly thirty
miles in a south-west to north-east direction, and has a maximum breadth
of about eight miles, its elevation above the sea lying between 500 ft. and
800 ft. The greater part of its surface is formed by the combined aggraded
flood-plains of the Waiau, Pahau, and Hurunui Rivers, but at one or two
places the Tertiary beds rise through this covering. An extension of this
basin lies on the south side of the Hurunui River, and reaches the Waipara
River in the neighbourhood of Heathstock, with outlying portions in the
Upper Okuku and Ashley Rivers : and another connection with it lies
toward the upper head of the Waikari Creek, the dividing ridge being quite
low. and constructed entirely of Tertiary rocks.

The general sequence of beds exposed in the area is as follows :- —

(1.) Sands and clays, with beds of greywacke, gravel, and very occa-
sionally impure coal. These are well exposed in the banks of the Pahau,
on the western side of the basin, in the valley of the Mason River to the
north-east, and in the deep gorges cut by the various tributaries of the
Waipara River near Heathstock.

(2.) Limestones, frequently interstratified with volcanic tuffs. These
are typically developed on the north-west side of the area between the
Pahau and Waiau Rivers in the valley of the Mason, and near Heathstock.
In the central portion, on the south-east flanks of Mount Culverden, they
dip steadily to the south-east at angles of about 15° : farther west they
have been folded into an anticline, and in the lower part of the gorge of
the Pahau River the dip is to the north-west, but the directions are much
disturbed by volcanic action. The limestone outcrop can be traced round
the north side of the basin, across the Hurunui. and on the flanks of Mount
Mason, but the outcrop is not continuously visible. In this last-mentioned
locality the limestone, is folded back sharply where it abuts against the
Trias-Jura rocks of Mount Mason, although the general dip appears to be
towards the south-east. On the south side of the basin, along the Hurunui
River, the limestone has evidently been faulted down and covered up by
gravels, but farther west it reappears, the fault grading into a fold, and
the outcrop follows round the western end of the Trias-Jura mass forming
the Mount Alexander Range and joins on to the Weka Pass stone near
Waikari. which, when followed north-east down the Waikari Creek, forms
one of the strips of limestone in the floor and on the north-west flanks of
fault valleys which are so characteristic of this region of Canterbury. This
fault also grades into a fold in the upper part of the Waikari Creek basin.
There is a marked difference, however, in the fossil-content of the lime-
stones in the Culverden area from those of the Weka Pass stone, for the
former seem to accord more closely with those of the Mount Brown beds,
which lie above the Weka Pass stone, a fact which is probably explained
by the gradual and slow transgression of the sea over the Culverden area

348 Transactions.

towards the north-west, the limestone, although continuously linked up with
the Weka Pass stone, being deposited synchronously with the Mount Brown
stone.

(3.) The limestones are followed by sands and gravel beds with bands
of conglomerate composed almost entirely of greywacke. These are well
developed in the Isolated Hills, where the stratification is much disturbed.
They occur with regular dip to the south-east at Mouse Point, near Cul-
verden, accordant with that of the underlying limestones ; but they are
folded into a well-marked anticline at Hurunui Mound ; and they form
low hills on the south side of the Hurunui, which extend towards the Wai-
para River along the eastern side of Mason Flat, and divide that part of
the basin from the upper part of the Waikari Valley. These beds overlie
the limestones conformably on the western end of the Alexander Range.
On following the line of outcrop west past Hawarden and Horsley Downs,
the dip becomes very steep to the west till on reaching the Doctor's Range
of Trias-Jura rocks the dip is nearly vertical. This part of the basin appears
to be formed of beds arranged as a syncline, with the eastern limb much more
highly inclined than the western, a feature which appears to be almost
invariably exemplified, for the eastern edge of these basins is determined
by lines of faulting grading into steep folds. Similar arrangements of the
beds occur in the Omihi Valley, in the Lower Waipara, which has its south-
eastern margin bounded by a fault, but it is not seen in the Cheviot basin,
which lies between the Waiau-Hurunui basin and the sea, being divided
from the former by a range of older rocks and from the latter by a similar
range, but the limestones pass right over this range without any marked
signs of faulting or break. The arrangement of the beds in the Cheviot
basixi is synclinal, but as the Tertiary strata are followed south-west they
exhibit faulting which accounts for the characteristic strip of let-down
Tertiaries which occupy the valley of the Greta Creek.

The lithological and faunal evidence indicates clearly that land existed
in the neighbourhood of this area at the beginning of the cycle of deposi-
tion ; that the sea gradually extended over the area, followed by the shallow-
ing of the sea and the deposition of littoral beds. These have been
subjected to folding movements in which the underlying Trias- Jura beds
are involved, so that the form of the land-surface on which the Tertiaries
are laid down is quite different from that which now exists, but there is
distinct evidence of the close proximity of land throughout the period of
deposition. There is no sign, however, of any erosion of the underlying
beds while the later ones were being deposited, judging from the absence
of pebbles of limestone in the later deposits, so that it is unlikely that the
movements to which the rocks have been subjected had commenced during
the latter part of the period of deposition. Owing to erosion of the rela-
tively weaker Tertiary beds, a large area of these rocks has been removed ;
but it is extremely unlikely that they extended over the whole area.
Isolated peaks of Trias-Jura rocks no doubt existed as islands in this sea,
but they were by no means as extensive as the present areas of mountains
composed of these rocks. The basins have no doubt had an origin in
deformational movements either of folding or faulting, both of these move-
ments being closely related to each other.

Hanmer Plains.

This inland basin has generally been regarded as of structural origin,
even Hutton admitting this as being extremely probable. That earth-

Speight. — The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury. 349

movements have taken place in its vicinity is evidenced by the fault fissures
of recent earthquakes, and by the peculiar strip of folded-in limestone which
crosses the Waiau River at Marble Point, just below where the river issues
from the basin.

Canterbury Plains.

There is a marked resemblance in general features between the aggraded
flood-plain of the Hurunui basin and the Canterbury Plains, which perhaps
may be regarded as a large intermontane basin, with the mountain barrier
absent on the eastern side. There is some evidence that the plains have
been formed by the deposit of gravel on a syncline of Tertiary rocks.

I have noted in the appendix to my paper, " Some Aspects of the Terrace-
development in the Valleys of the Canterbury Rivers " (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 40, 1908, p. 40), that there is a probable outcrop of coal-measures beneath
the sea of the Canterbury coast, indicated by the frequent appearance in the
trawl of the steam-trawler " Nora Niven " of large pieces of lignite or brown
coal. These were obtained in depths of between 21 and 43 fathoms on a
line following the coast-line and about twenty-five miles distant from it.
Beyond the line where these were picked up the sea-bottom rapidly deepens,
and it is probable that they have been torn from the edge of a submerged
escarpment of Tertiary rocks where the coal will be in position. There is
also on Banks Peninsula an outcrop of Trias-Jura rock, similar' to that of
the Malvern Hills, with overlying rhyolites of identical lithological composi-
tion. This, too, is overlaid, at the head of Lyttelton Harbour, at Quail
Island, and at Governor's Bay by quartzose sands, whose age cannot be
exactly determined owing to the absence of fossils, but it is perfectly possible
that they represent similar sands associated with coal-measures on the
western side of the plains. The shales with plant-remains occurring near
Gebbie's Pass probably date from the same period.

A most persistent feature of the Tertiary deposits referred to above is
the occurence at their base of a fairly fine conglomerate composed usually
of pebbles of the underlying Trias-Jura greywackes. At Mount Somers,
Rakaia Gorge, Malvern Hills, and in the Trelissick area rolled fragments
of rhyolite of a kind which now forms mountains on the eastern front of
the Alps from the Selwyn to the Ashburton River is a notable constituent
of this conglomerate. The presence of these rolled fragments shows clearly
that the existent masses of rhyolite in close proximity to these sedimentaries
were a land-surface of considerable extent at the time when the coal-measures
of Canterbury were laid down.

On the western slopes of the Alps the basal beds of the coal-measures
contain an enormous thickness of coarse conglomerates, approximately
2,000 ft. {vide Bulletin No. 13, N.Z. Geol. Survey, p. 51). In this publication
Morgan says, " Apparently the highlands supported glaciers, for somewhat
outside the subdivision rocks corresponding to the basal conglomerates
show glacial characters." He also points out that the land which furnished
these boulders lay probably to the north or north-west ; that there was then
no Grey Valley, no Paparoa Range, and possibly no Southern Alps. As
mentioned later, such a land may have formed the sanctuary where the
Antarctic and Subantarctic elements in our flora found a refuge, at a time
when the site of the present Alps was occupied by land of relatively low
elevation.

It is to be noted besides, in places where the conglomerates do not occur,
that sandstone beds at the base of the series are coarse in texture, and are

350 Transactions.

indicative of the proximity of land. The presence of coal points to
estuarine conditions, and to the existence of a neighbouring land-surface,
whether the coal be formed from plants growing in situ or from drift
material.

The beds succeeding the coal afford evidence of a gradual deepening
of the sea, in which sand, greensand, and limestones were progressively laid
down ; but shore-line conditions must have obtained even then, for the
limestone almost invariably thins out or disappears or is replaced by sandy
beds as it is followed towards the old land-surface formed of Trias-Jura
rocks.

It has also been noted by Hutton that at Stonyhurst a bed of conglo-
merate formed of subangular pebbles of slate lies between the Amuri lime-
stone and the Weka Pass stone, thus showing that the shore-line was fairly
close even at the time that the limestones were deposited in this area (Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 41, 1885, p. 271).

It must be admitted, however, that the evidence of the presence of a
shore-line is not apparent in all localities where the Tertiary sediments occur,
but it is probable that the littoral deposits into which the limestone must
graduallv pass as it is followed landwards have been removed by denudation.
The long strips in which this now occurs have been tilted by earth-move-
ments, and now frequently occupy the floor and north-westerly flanks of
the valleys, and the part which abuts against the more resistant Trias-
Jura rocks has been necessarily more exposed to erosive agents working
along the line of junction of the rocks, especially as the lower members
of the overlying series consist of somewhat incoherent sands. There is a
distinct suggestion of the former higher extension of these covering beds
up the flanks of the mountains in the appearance of the landscape imme-
diately above the present limits of the Tertiary beds, the most striking
form being long valleys cut approximately parallel to the line of strike
of the Tertiary beds by old subsequent streams operating along the line of
junction of the two series, and for a part of their course incising the harder-
rock underneath. The character of the soil indicates that the limestones
and associated beds once had a much farther upward extension than they
now have.

A striking illustration of this is found in the valley of the Pareora River,
about ten miles from Timaru. Here the Tertiary beds are found passing
over the hills of Trias-Jura rock, arching with the rise of the ground and
completelv capping the tops in some cases, as at Craigmore, without any
break in continuity owing to erosion ; while farther north the uncovered
greywackes project through the Tertiaries. This case is most interesting,
as it shows that warping movements have taken place since the Tertiaries
were laid down in that locality, and thus renders it probable that similar
movements have taken place elsewhere within the Canterbury District,
and increases the probability of the wider extension of these beds than exists
at present.

After the deposit of the limestones the sea shallowed either by aggra-
dation or by elevation of the bottom, for marls, sands, and coarse rubbly
beds with fragments of shells, succeeded by incoherent sandy and marly
beds with a littoral fauna, are widespread in Canterbury. It has been
pointed out as well that in the Trelissick basin coal-beds occur among the
upper members of the series, with marine beds lying on top, showing that
the sea advanced over the area once more. It seems, therefore, perfectly
clear that the deposits were laid down in the vicinity of a shore-line, but in

Speight. — The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury. 35]

all probability the land was of slight relief, or that the waters were sheltered
from violent currents and waves.

However, in considering the question of the relief of the land as deduced
from the character of the deposit, allowance must be made for the situation
of the locality of deposition. Even on elevated coast-lines pebble beaches
are frequently absent for long stretches, and therefore it is perhaps inadvis-
able to be dogmatic on this point.

It is found, however, that conglomerates form an increasingly important
feature of the beds succeeding the limestones, and towards the end of the
Tertian- era they dominate the sedimentaries. This is clearly seen in those
places where the Pliocene beds are well developed, such as in the lower
Waipara and Teviotdale districts and in the Mount Grey downs. The
abundance of coarse gravels indicates the existence of higher land in the
vicinity, but the strata containing them appear to be perfectly conformable
with the older beds of the Tertiary sequence. This increasing content of
Trias-Jura pebbles apparently indicates a rise of the land, but there is no
certain evidence of any structural unconformity between these beds and
the lower members of the Tertiary sequence. If the rise of the land had
occurred this should be forthcoming, certainly as regards shore deposits,
although it might be absent in the case of beds laid down in deep water
offshore. Some slight variation in the conditions controlling the land-
surface, rather than a great modification in the relief, would explain the
increasing importance of the coarser materials.

After a careful consideration of the evidence, it seems fairly certain
that a land, probably in the form of islands, did persist in the North Canter-
bury area throughout Tertiary times, although it is quite possible that a
deep sea existed on the site of the Kaikouras, and that the deformations
which resulted in the formation of those great ridges were less pronounced
in the country to their south-west, and probably petered out in the mid-
district of Canterbury.

There is another point which may be considered in this connection.
Micaceous sandstones are a frequent occurrence in the Tertian* beds of
North Canterbury, and the source of this mineral must be looked for else-
where than in the Trias-Jura rocks to the westward. Although a small
amount of this mineral occurs in these rocks as a detrital constituent, it does
not seem sufficient to account for the large amount contained in the derived
Tertiaries. Although it is a long way to the Chathams from the coast of
Canterbury, yet mica and other schists do occur in those islands, and there
may have been at one time a closer connection with similar rocks occurring
in New Zealand, and the existence of a submerged schist area which might
have furnished this material is by no means a remote possibility. If, how-
ever, we must look to the granite and schist areas on the west of the main
divide to have furnished this material, then the form of the land-surface
must have been entirely different from that which now obtains.

The presence of a land connection with the Chatham Islands in«Tertiary
is absolutely necessary in order to explain the close resemblance of the fauna
and flora of these islands to that of New Zealand. Hutton suggested that
the land bridge was in existence in Pliocene times, though it broke up soon
after, this break being indicated by the fact' that some of the Chatham
Island species do show a considerable variation from their New Zealand
relatives ; and, further, there are species occurring in those islands which
have not been discovered on the main islands. He therefore considered
that the land connection was broken before the Pleistocene period began.

352 Transactions.

This connection he attributed to an elevation of the sea-bottom synchronous
with an elevation of New Zealand itself, which he postulated in order to
explain the extension of the glaciers. It is reasonable to think that in
mid-Tertiary times the Chathams were covered by the sea, from the occur-
ence of a limestone similar to that of New Zealand with a similar fossil fauna.
The form of the land-surface of these islands suggests that subsequentlv
they were base-levelled either by the sea or by subaerial agencies.

Again, Cockayne, in bis paper on the "Plant Covering of the Chatham
Islands •" (Trans. N.Z Inst,, vol. 34, 1902, p. 316, footnote), says, "The
occurrence on Chatham Island of Coprosma chathamica, so closely related
to C. petiolata of the Kermadecs, and of Rhopalostylis baueri in both regions,
if the identification of the latter be correct, suggests that they travelled
along the coast, which would, in the event of an east and north-east extension
of New Zealand, join the Kermadecs and the Chathams." There is good
reason, however,, to doubt the occurrence of R. baueri in the Chathams. In
the same paper (p. 314. footnote) the author notes the occurrence of SuUonia
chathamica at Stewart Island, a plant formerly believed to be restricted
to Chatham Island ; but in his report of the botany of Stewart Island the
author is very guarded about this occurrence, and considers the possibility
of the plant having been introduced by the Maoris, although he thinks
this extremely unlikely. If this last contingency is excluded, the
Kermadec -Chatham Island coast-line might be prolonged to Stewart Island,
following the line of the submarine continental shelf ; but it appears
somewhat dangerous to base such a conclusion on the evidence from one
or two occurrences of plants unless supported by other lines of evidence.

The presence of a land in Mesozoic times is rendered probable by the
persistent appearance of granitoid and other rocks as boulders in strata
of Jurassic age, and later, there being no known occurrence in situ in close
proximity to these deposits which could have furnished these boulders.
These deposits occur near Gisborne, in beds which are, according to McKay,
of Lower Tertiary or Cretaceous age, but, according to Adams, of Upper
Miocene age. They occur in Mesozoic strata near Cape Palliser ; at Cheviot ;
in the valley of the Acheron and Rakaia Rivers; in the Pudding-stone
Valley on the north side of the Rangitata ; in the Malvern Hills; and in
various parts of Otago ; and it is probable that they have been shed from
a land stretching east which persisted down to Tertiary times. If Adams's
determination of the age of the Grisborne deposits is correct, then such a
land most probably existed down to the middle of the Cainozoic era, for,
as far as is known, the rock pebbles of these beds are not likely to have
come from the Trias- Jura ranges to the west,

The origin of tiie native flora of the country must be considered fully
before coming to any conclusion as to the relief of the land. It seems im-
possible for the Antarctic element to have established itself or to have main-
tained itself in competition with the Malayan element had the high land
been completely removed during any part of the Tertiary era, unless there
had been adjacent tracts of elevated country, now completely submerged,
to which it might have moved as to a sanctuary ; but the difficulty in the
way of an invader obtaining a footing seems so great that it appears more
likely that an area once peopled has not been subject to great modifications
since the colonists obtained a footing. Migrations due to climatic change,
or to changes due to the changed elevation of the land, no doubt occur, but
very slowly. It seems clear, therefore, that high land must have existed
continuously over parts of the South Island, or close to it, since the Antarctic

Speight.— 2'Ae Intermoniane Basins of Canterbury . 353

element in the flora appeared, but that the form of the land-surface Was
entirely different from that existing now. The Southern Alps did not ex-
hibit their present form. Indeed, it seems reasonable that after the first
formation as a folded range, at the close of the Jurassic or the beginning
of the Cretaceous period, they were reduced to a peneplain— this would
take place towards the clo bh Cretaceous period' — and that on this

peneplain the Tertiary beds were laid down ; that subsequently they ex-
perienced vertical and perhaps differential uplift, with a certain amount of
folding and undoubted faulting: and that the Tertiary sediments which
now exist as discontinuous remnants in the intermontane basins are sur-
vivals of this covering sheet. It is not maintained that they formed a
complete veneer over the whole surface, but that elevations that survived
the period of erosion projected like islands through the Tertiary sea, and
may in some cases have been sufficiently high to form sanctuaries for the
Antarctic element in our flora.

Art. XXXVII. — Recent Changes in the, Position of the Terminal Face of the

Franz Josef Glacier.

By R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.
{Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November, 1914.]

These notes as to the position of the terminal face of the Franz Josef
Glacier are based on observations supplied to me by Mr. Alec Graham,
one of the guides of our alpine region, who resides in the immediate vicinity
of the glacier, and to him my sincere thanks are due.

In the year 1909 the officers of the Geological Survey, under the direc-
tion of Dr. Bell, made a complete map of the Franz Josef Glacier, and placed
pegs in position so that the changes of the face could be regularly and
accurately determined. The pegs are numbered in order from the western
side of the glacier, and the relative movements of the ice at each since they
were put in position are given in the following list, the original situation of
each peg being given first for the sake of reference : —

No. 1. — On the steep rock-face on the western side of the front, at
approximately 7 ft. above the ice and 3 ft. from it. This peg was placed
near the edge of the ice, but was afterwards covered, and now lies buried
under the moraine left by the glacier. Since it was put in, the river has cut
a huge gap, between the western wall and the ice, for about 24 chains, with
a width varying from 2 to 3 chains. The nearest ice across the river is
about 180 ft. distant.

No. 2. — On Harper Rock, 29 ft. from the ice-face and about 7 ft. above
the river-bank. This peg is now 215 ft. from the face, so that the ice has
receded 186 ft.

No. 3. — On Harper Rock, in a ridge about 10 ft. above the lowest part
of the ice, but overhung by the cliffs and ice above. In 1912 this was
50 ft. from the ice, and now it is 120 ft.
12— Trans.

354 Transactions.

'No. 4. — In the ice angle of Park Rock, surrounded by ice excepting
to the northward, but distant 69 ft. on the east and 75 ft. south. In 1912
it was 80 ft. from the ice, and is now 189 ft.

No. 5. — Thirteen feet above the ice, and 7 ft. from it at the inner edge
of Strauchon Rock. In 1912 it was 270 ft. from the ice, and now is 350 ft.
distant.

No. 6. — On Barron Rock, od a sharp ridge 17 ft. from the ice, and about
10 ft. above it. In 1912 it was 260 ft. from the ice, and is now 320 ft.
away.

No. 7. — At 9 ft. above the ice, and at 7 ft. from it in the eastern rock
border of the glacier. This peg stands on the top of a rock-face about 200 ft.
above the face of the glacier (aneroid measurement). The ice has receded
up the valley from this peg about 80 ft., whereas in 1912 it was only 45 ft.
back from it.

These records show clearly that the glacier has retreated since 1909
an average of about 170 ft. across the face, and that there is a considerable
shrinkage in the volume of the ice. The result is the more marked since
the observation made by the Survey were at a time when the face showed
signs of an extraordinary advance. There are distinct signs that another
wave of movement will take place in a few years' time, for two miles up the
glacier, at Cape Defiance, it has risen 20 ft. during the past year. In order
to determine this movement more exactly, a mark has been placed by
Mr. Graham about 50 ft. above the ice ; this will enable future observers
to obtain reliable data for the movements.

Marks are also being placed on the ice in order to determine the rate
of movement. Bell arrived at an average maximum movement near the
face of only 2 ft. per day. This was the result of observations extending
over a continuous period of 134 days. Recent observations made by
Graham on a boulder carried by the ice showed a rate of about 3 ft.
per day.

Although no accurate observations have been made on the Fox Glacier,
which lies in a parallel valley about twenty miles to the south of the Franz
Josef, the conditions appear to be very much the same. There has been
a recent marked retreat of the terminal face, and farther up the glacier
there are signs of a pulse coming down similar to that in the Franz Josef
Valley.

More accurate observations should be taken in order to determine the
period of these waves of high and low ice, and to see if they accord with periods
of change in the present climatic conditions of the country.

Speight. — Occurrence of Petroleum in New Zealand. 355

Art. XXXVIII. — Note on the Occurrence of Petroleum in New Zealand.
By R. Speight, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.]

The question of the origin of the petroleum known to occur in New Zealand
has a scientific interest apart from its economic importance, but, unfor-
tunately, the first is almost entirely dependent on the results which are
furnished by attempts to prove the capacity of the fields commercially,
and therefore, till a mass of evidence has accumulated as the result of boring
operations, conclusions as to its origin must be largely of a tentative nature

In the following parts of New Zealand indications of the presence oi
petroleum certainly exist : (1) Taranaki ; (2) Gisborne and the East Coast
in the neighbourhood of Poverty Bay ; (3) east coast of Wellington, between
the Tararua Banges and the sea ; (4) in the valley of the Grey River,
especially near Kotuku.

There are, in addition, other places of minor importance, such as the
Clarence Valley and Cheviot, which have given indications of less positive
nature. It must be clearly understood that, except, perhaps, in the first of the
above-mentioned districts, the present prospects of the oil industry are doubt-
ful; but the difficulties may eventually be obviated, and the actual result may
prove more satisfactory than the present state of affairs perhaps indicates.
Some of the difficulties are no doubt connected with drilling rather than the
absence of oil in commercial quantities.

In all the districts cited the prevailing beds associated with the occur-
rence of oil consist of marine mudstones, marls, sands more or less coherent,
with shell beds, all. of Miocene or Mio-Pliocene age. The predominating
strata are, however, mudstones and marls, locally known as " papa," and
it is only where these exist in great thickness or continuity that the indica-
tions are strong.

The most important problem to be considered is whether these beds
are the actual place of origin of the petroleum, or whether it is derived from
a more deep-seated source and has migrated to the overlying beds along
various lines of weakness or dislocation. A correct answer to this question
would prove of the highest value in framing estimates for the adequate
exploration of the petroleum-bearing areas. I therefore give the following
brief summary of the position in accordance with the evidence now available ;
and it will be more convenient to refer first to the Taranaki area, since it
is the best known and, according to present evidence, the most promising.

The strata which cover the greater part of the Province of Taranaki
consist of the typical Miocene rocks of the North Island — viz., mudstones,
sandstones, shell beds, and occasional bands of conglomerate which dip west
and south-west at low angles in the neighbourhood of New Plymouth, but
when followed towards the lower course of the Waitotara River change
their direction of dip to the south-east, the line of strike turning approxi-
mately through a right angle. The thickness of these beds certainly exceeds
4,000 ft., as is disclosed by the bores at New Plymouth, and may be much
greater, and they are apparently little disturbed by dislocations or other

12*

356 Transactions.

deformations ; but owing to the infrequency of good sections this statement
is subject to revision ; in one or two' places undoubted faults of small throw
are existent. Rising through these sediments and covering them over
considerable areas are the volcanics from Mount Egmont and numerous
small parasitic cones round the base of the mountain, as well as the igneous
masses of the Kaitaki and Pouakai Ranges. The age of these mountains
must be considerably greater than the cone of Egmont, but there is no strong
evidence that they are of pre-Miocene age, although that is extremely pro-
bable. A notable constituent of the sandstone beds intcrstratified with the
mudstones and marls of this age are fragments of hornblende crystals similar
to the mineral occurring in the Taranaki volcanics. These would seem
to indicate that a considerable area of igneous rocks was existent in the
neighbourhood while the petroleum-bearing beds were being laid down.
This fact mav have some bearing on the date of the intrusive rocks at
Moturoa, but, owing to the obscuring of the contacts between these and the
intruded rock by the overburden of fragmentary volcanic matter, no con-
clusion can be come to at present ; all the same, it is remarkable that bores
co aid have been put down to 4,000 ft. within but a short distance of these
masses. It seems, therefore, reasonable to suppose that they were intrusive
into the Miocene rocks as well as into the pre-existing masses.

The interstratification of sand with close impervious beds of mudsione
and marl would undoubtedly furnish satisfactory conditions for the storage
of hydrocarbons were they int oduced into the beds, but they do not furnish
prospects for great concentration. If the field proves satisfactory it will
have the* character of one which will produce steady yields rather than
sensational returns for- a short period.

The evidence for the presence of petroleum, apart from the actual vicinity
of Moturoa, where flowing wells occur, is based on the following :—

(I.) The existence of slight seepages of oil in various places remote from
New Plymouth, and distributed over an area stretching from the sea near
Waitara to the Waitotara River.

(2.) The existence of gas emanations over the same area, including
those recorded by Clarke.* Outside the area, therein referred to, they are
widely distributed, the most important occurrences being near Inglewood,
at Huiroa, in the Mangaone Valley, in the Waitara River. Such gas dis-
charges are known to occur as far to the east as Whangamomona.

(3.) Beds of oil-bearing shale of lenticular shape, but not extensive
in area, occur in several places, interstratified in the papa rocks.

(4.) In addition, there are sulphuretted-hydrogen and saline springs in
various places, these not being in themselves evidence of the occurrence
of petroleum, but are frequently associated with it.

(5.) The occurrence of mud volcanoes, which are frequently found in
oil regions, has been recorded from various parts of the district, but the
evidence on which these reports have been made is somewhat doubtful.

These various lines of evidence show that oil is found over a fairly wide
area, but they do not show that it is found in sufficient quantities to be
commercially valuable : that can be demonstrated only by boring. The
original theory for the origin of Taranaki petroleum was based on the sup-
position that its distribution was very local, and entirely confined to the
neighbourhood of Moturoa ; but the evidence that it is widely distributed
on the coast and inland between the Waitotara and the Mokau Rivers is

* Bulletin No. 14 (new series), N.Z. Geol. Surv., pp. 43-45.

Speight. — Occurrence of Petroleum in New Zealand. 357

verv strong, so that any explanation of its origin must account for its occur-
rence near New Plymouth as well as in parts distant from that town, and
must also be considered in connection with its distribution in beds of similar
age and lithological character elsewhere in New Zealand where the con-
ditions obtaining at Moturoa do not exist.

The first explanation of its origin was that adva.net d by Sir James Hector,
who suggested that the petroleum was formed by the distilling action of the
heated rocks of Paritutu and the Sugarloaves on the brown coal, which,
it was supposed, continued from the Mokau River till it came in close
contact with the igneous masses near Moturoa.

This hypothesis has been accepted by most geologists who have written
on New Zealand geology, including Park and Bell. McKay Las. however,
considerable doubt about it ; and Clarke, too, hesitates to accept it. but does
not advance any theory of his own. That the volcanic rocks have had some
effect is no doubt true, judging from the remarkable amount of carbon
dioxide present in the gas given off in the wells (see analyses quoted, p. 46,
Bull. No. 14, N.Z. Geol: Surv.), these results differing markedly from those
given for other wells in the Taranaki District. The chemical constitution
of the oil itself shows a notable percentage of constituents distilling at a
nigh temperature, and points either to the more volatile matter having
Deen driven off by the heat of the volcanic masses or its having escaped
through fractures in the rocks Both of these circumstances may occur
in the same locality, and in this case may be attributed to the igneous masses
of Paritutu and the Sugarloaves, which have provided the requisite heat,
and have also in all probability fractured and dislocated the surrounding
beds when the intrusion took place.

In criticizing Hector's theory it may be pointed out, —

(1.) There is no evidence that the Mokau brown-coal measures do
extend from the outcrops on that river to the neighbourhood of New Ply-
mouth— a distance of approximately seventy miles — and, judging from the
form of the coal areas in other parts of New Zealand, this is extremely
unlikely to be the case. Most of these areas in New Zealand are marginal
in character, and rarely continue over any wide expanse, although their
length may be considerable : the seams, too, are lenticular in shape and are
markedlv discontinuous. If, however, there were other concealed coal
areas lying on a pre-Miocene land-surface in the neighbourhood of north-
west Taranaki. this objection would not apply.

(2.) Seeing that the action of volcanic heat cannot be responsible for the
occurrence in districts remote from the centres of volcanic activity, some
other cause must be looked for in order to account for its presence ; and
because the petroliferous beds near Moturoa are of the same age as those
containing oil in other parts of the country, it seems reasonable that they
owe it primarily to the same cause, even if local variations of conditions
exercise a modifying effect. In advancing any theory for the origin, there
is an important question to be considered — viz.,- whether the oil has ori-
ginated in the papa beds or has migrated into them from some, other beds,
necessarily of more deep-seated position. It is likely, too, that both of
these circumstances may be in existence at once, and that the beds owe part
of the amount to accumulation in situ and part to migrations from other
strata.

The fact that the Miocene mudstones are usually associated with petro-
leum indications, and also that where these beds do not occur the indications
are scanty or absent, leads one to regard them as the locus of origin. As

358 Transactions.

far as present knowledge allows a conclusion to be made, indications of the
occurrence of gas or oil are met with at horizons distributed throughout
the whole thickness of these beds. It is true, nevertheless, that the amounts
are greater at lower levels ; but this is to be expected, since the more perfect
cover afforded by the increased thickness of overlying strata naturally
reduces the chances of the escape of oil. If it has originated in situ, the only
possible explanation of its origin is that it is due to the distillation of the
animal remains. The amount of vegetable matter included in these beds
is small and seemingly insufficient to account for the phenomena, but a
large amount of marine-animal matter does indeed occur. This includes
remains of Foraminifera, and above all of Mollvsca, whose shells are widely
distributed, and at times form banks several feet in thickness. By the
distillation of the animal matter they formerly were associated with, suffi-
cient hydrocarbon would be furnished to account for the oil in the strata,
and their wide distribution at various levels would account for the occur-
rence of oil through great depth. In this connection it may be noted that the
oyster-beds associated with the coal-measures in other parts of New Zealand
frequently give out a strong smell of petroleum when freshly broken. A
reference has been made previously to the existence of beds of carbonaceous
shale, which are interstratified in the papa rocks, but the origin of the car-
bonaceous matter is at present unknown. When analysed these show the
presence of oil, and they furnish absolute proof that it does exist in situ
in the Miocene beds.

The sandstone layers which are interstratified with the mudstones of
this series would undoubtedly be suitable for the storage of the oil, and
thick covering mudstones would favour its retention; but the structure of
the country, as far as is known at present, hardly favours its concentration.

As regards the existence of a deep-seated source, it must be admitted
that there is no direct evidence at present available from Taranaki. The
most suggestive fact is that the surface indications and the flow of oil are
specially strong in the immediate neighbourhood of the intrusive rocks
near Moturoa. This may be explained by supposing that leaks have occurred
up the surface of contact of these masses and the beds into which they
have been intruded, and that the disruptions which would occur when the
volcanic rocks were being forced into the surrounding sedimentaries would
afford a relatively easy path for leakage through them from lower levels.
There appears to be a close parallel between this occurrence and the
sensational wells of the East Mexico field in everything but volume
of flow.

Further, in the valley of the Waitotara River, along a line of fault, the
surrounding clays are impregnated with hydrocarbons, and smell strongly
of petroleum. This is certainly due to a leak, but whether it is a leak from
a lower level in the Miocene beds or to a leak from a still lower horizon
it is impossible to say. The strongest evidence of the deep-seated origin
of the^oil is, however, obtainedTfrom other localities.

In referring to the Kotuku district of the Grey Valley, Morgan says* that
the Cobden limestone underlying the marls of that locality is charged with
oil ; unfortunately, nothing certain is known of its origin in that region, but
the evidence undoubtedly points to a source below the limestone, and the
impregnations of the overlying clays are due to upward migrations.

* Bulletin No.US^new series), N.Z. Geol. Surv., p. 143.

Speight. — Occurrence of Petroleum in Xew Zealand. 359

In summing up the position, Morgan says (p. 148), " It seems not unlikely
that the source of the Kotuku petroleum may be at considerable depth, in a
horizon corresponding to the Omotumotu beds, Kaiata mudstone, or Island
sandstone. There is also the possibility of the oil originating in the Brunner
or Paparoa coal horizons. The chief evidence, however, in favour of the
view that the oil occurs at depth is based on the logs of the Brunner Company's
Nos. 2 and 9 bores. These logs state that a little oil and gas occur all
through the conglomerates that lie below the limestone. Since the bores
were cased, a mistake as to the occurrence can hardly have been made,
and therefore a deeper source than the conglomerate for all or much of the
Kotuku oil must be regarded as the most probable. The small amount of
benzene in the oil hitherto obtained supports the hypothesis of a deeper
source than the argillaceous sandstone or the limestone."

In the Gisborne district, according to Adams,* the oil which occurs
on the surface as well-marked seepages at Waitangi is derived primarily
from a bed of oil shale which lies at the base of the Whatatutu series of the
Survey. The author says (page 40), '; As a result of the examination that
has just been completed, it seems certain that the clay shales which form
the lowest members of the Whatatutu series are the upper portion of or form
the impervious cover for the oil zone of this area. Every sample of this
rock which was obtained gave, when finely pulverized and subjected to
strong heat, a decided smell of hydrocarbons. From its character the clav
shale is advisedly suited for a cover for a stratum containing oil."

These beds of the Whatatutu series are classified by Adams as of, Miocene
age, but it seems reasonable that McKay's classification of them as Cretaceous
is more correct, since he found Inoceramus shells in them ; and the report
has been recently confirmed by the discovery of these fossils in boulders
in the bed of the Waipaoa River in a matrix similar to that of the lowest
beds of the series. This discovery apparently confirms McKay's classi-
fication, and we may therefore look on the shale, or the beds associated
with it — probably the sandy beds — as the place of origin of the oil, and the
fact that indications are to be found freely in the overlying clays which may
be of Miocene age is attributable to migrations from a lower to a higher
horizon. In this locality the only possible origin for the oil is an organic
one, and almost certainly the oil has been derived from the remains of
animal-life of a former sea-bottom.

In the East Coast district of Wellington the Miocene marls and clays
are well developed, and under them lies, in all probability unconformably,
a Cretaceous series.f Surface indications, such as gas emanations, are
frequent in the overlying beds, but in all probability the major portion
of the oil is derived from the lower series, in which black slaty shales are
interbedded with clays and sandstones. These are well exposed near the
coast, and have a general inland clip. The overlying marls are very thick —
certainly over 3,000 ft,, and probably over 5,000 ft. — and since they are marine
in origin and contain traces of marine organisms it is quite possible that
a part of the hydrocarbon matter they contain, and in some cases the
whole of it, has been derived from the beds themselves and has not been
accumulated by migration from the petroliferous beds underneath.

If we consider, therefore, that a deep-seated source of oil exists, then
its probable mode of origin should be briefly referred to. The only accept-

* Bulletin No. 9 (new series), N.Z. Geol. Surv., Geology of the Whatatutu Subdivision.
t See Park, Geol. Surv. Report for the year 1887-88, p. 20.

36< • Transactions.

able explanation is that it is due to the alteration of organic matter. This
exists in two forms at the base of the Cretaceo-tertiary series — viz., as
coals and lignites of vegetable origin, or as animal matter of marine origin
Although the former is a possible source of the supply, it appears extremely
unlikely that these coals have been depressed so far that the earth's internal
heat has been sufficient to convert them into hydrocarbons. Our coals
show little change unless they have been placed in close proximity to volcanic
intrusives, in which case they are converted into altered brown coals or into
mineral cokes or anthracites. The marine-organism explanation, therefore,
is apparently the best solution of the problem. Below the limestones of
Lower Tertiary or Upper Cretaceous age there lie almost invariably Green-
sands and other sands which contain a considerable amount of matter of
organic origin. It has been noted previously that the black oysters asso-
ciated with the coals of this series, when broken or struck with the hammer,
give off a pronounced petrolaceous smell, and the remains of Foraminifera
and other marine organisms are widely distributed through the Greensands.
A thick band of these contains very generally a large quantity of sulphur,
whose formation can certainly be attributed to the former presence of
organic matter; and the frequent association of petroleum with sulphur
compounds in other fields is also very suggestive in this connection.* A
very illuminating paper by Daly in the " American Journal of Science,"
vol. xxiii, 1907, entitled "The Limeless Ocean of Pre-Cambriau Time,"
draws attention to the probable accumulation of organic matter which may
occur under conditions similar to those obtaining in the Black Sea at the
present time, and to the existence of large quantities of sulphur compounds
associated with these accumulations. We have thus an explanation of the
connection of sulphur with the large masses of organic material which could
yield petroleum if buried under an impervious covering and subjected to the
slow but sure chemical changes which go on in the crust of the earth, whether
these changes be due to the transference of heat from lower levels in the crust,
or to the action of bacteria, or to any other cause.

If, then, these sands and their associated beds be the locus from which
the supplies of petroleum are derived, it becomes increasingly important
when prospecting for oil in this country to know what thickness of the Mio-
cene marls has to be penetrated in order to reach the underlying Cretaceous
sands. In the North Island the marls are very thick — up to 5,000 ft., and
perhaps much more. In the South Island the marls, with the exception
of those in the Marlborough district, are comparatively thin ; but they are
usually folded with broken anticlinal crests, and it is probable that the
greater part of the oil they may have once contained has escaped. There
are places, however, such as Cheviot, which do undoubtedly give indications
of the. presence of oil in small quantities, and in these cases it may be reason-
ably supposed that the conditions favoured its retention for a longer period
than elsewhere.

* See U.S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 398 : " Geology and Oil Resources of Coolinga District,
California," p. 187.

Marshall. — Geology of Tahiti. 361

Art. XXXIX.— The Geology of Tahiti.

By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Professor of Geology, Otago

University.

[Read before tht Otago Institute, 1st December, 1014.]

Plate VII.

All those islands of the Central Pacific which have been examined geologic-
ally are either formed of coral rock or they are of volcanic origin. No
sediments other than those that have the nature of coral detritus or of
volcanic tuffs are known, with the possible exception of the coal-seams
that are said to occur at the Island of Rapa.

In a few of the islands the occurrence of plutonic rocks has been recorded.
Such records are, however, at the least, doubtful at Borabora, Maupiti, and
at the Marquesas. At Sunday Island, in the Kermadec Group, there are
certainly blocks of granite of considerable size and of some number em-
bedded in a volcanic breccia.

In the Island of Tahiti, however, a series of plutonic rocks has been
definitely proved to exist. The first record of these appears to be contained
in Cuzent's work on Tahiti in 1860. Afterwards, in the year 1898, specimens
were found in old collections previously stored in " l'ancien musee colonial/'
in Paris. These, like Cuzent's specimens, had been collected in the valley
of the Papenoo, in which the Tuoru River flows.

Professor Lacroix at once realized the interest attached to these rocks,
and in 1901 he induced M. Seurat to search for them. This distinguished
biologist was at that time sent on a zoological mission to Tahiti in connec-
tion with the pearl-shell industry. The success of M. Seurat's geological
work is described in the following words : ' M. Seurat a procede a, V explora-
tion herisee de difficultes de loute la vallee de Papenoo et particulierement de
sa partie haute. II est parvenu ainsi a trouver le gisement en place de la roche
en question. "*

With the aid of"M. le Capitaine Courtet, who had at a previous time
made a survey of the valley, a good map was drawn, and on it the geological
information obtained by M. Seurat was inserted. This map was of the
greatest value, as it was in all respects more accurate and more detailed
than the official map used in Tahiti. So far as the lower course of the river
was concerned, it appeared to be absolutely correct. It was not until we
reached the upper part of the valley that any discrepancies were found
between the map and the actual courses of the streams.

Professor Lacroix had hoped that the work of M. Seurat would have
enabled him to decide the vexed point as to whether the plutonic rocks
were the remnant of an ancient eroded land-mass, or whether they were
masses intrusive into the basaltic series of which the island is almost entirely
composed, in the same way as the gabbros are intrusive into the lavas of
the Hebrides. In this important respect the results were inconclusive,
for he says, " Malheureusement, je ne suis que poser ce probleme. M. Seurat
m'a dit n'avoir pas vu de blocs de couleur clair dans les tufs basaltiques, mais
les researches precises seraient necessaires pour elucider ce probleme."^

Matters resting in this rather unsatisfactory state, advantage was taken
of a visit to Tahiti in August, 1913, made with the aid of a grant from the

* Lacroix, " Les roches alcalineti do Tahiti," Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, 4e scrie,
t. x, 19:0, p. 92.

t Lacroix, lor. fit., p. 97.

362 Transactions.

Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, for research on
the alkaline rocks of Australasia.

Letters written previously to the Governor, M. Leon Geraud, received
replies which assured me of every assistance in the project of ascending
the Papenoo Valley, which was said to be " herisee de difficultes " and " il
n'existe pas de sentier bien trace et on doit se frayer soimeme son chemin."

On my arrival in the colony M. Geraud kindly gave me a letter to the
chief of the Village Papenoo, situated at the mouth of the River Tuoru,
and he promptly furnished us with the necessary guides. It was extremely
fortunate that one of these, Teaeo by name, had accompanied M. Seurat
when he made his geological collections in the valley. This enabled me to
find his localities with the utmost certainty and with the least loss of time.

The entrance to the Papenoo Valley is about 300 metres wide, and its
sides rise precipitously to a height of 100 metres at first, but they ascend
gradually towards the interior of the island. Its floor is covered with
gravels, in which boulders of plutonic rocks of some variety are quite common.
These vary from pure white types to dark theralites, many of which
contain conspicuous crystals of hornblende and augite. Mixed with these
there is a great variety of basalts, and a few of tinguaite and monchiquitc.

The river maintains a wide floor as far as Tiamii (see map of valley),
about 9 kilometres from its mouth. Here the Tamanu tributary branches
off from it. This stream drains the east and north of Orofena, the highest
peak of the island. In its gravels there were no boulders of plutonic rock.
Above this point the Papenoo Valley narrows rapidly, and in many places
flows over the native rock.

Close to Tiamii an area of plutonic rock is indicated by Seurat. The
guide Teaeo showed me a large boulder in the forest, which he said was the
outcrop discovered by Seurat. It was clearly a transported boulder, and
I could find no outcrop of plutonic rock near it, though basalt occurred
in situ 100 metres farther up the stream.

The same was found to be true at the mouth of the Navenave and Pihoi,
other localities where plutonic rocks had been reported in situ by Seurat.
In both of these places large boulders of plutonic rocks were to be seen
in number, but no rock other than basaltic breccia could be found in place.
From a point a little beyond the mouth of the Pihoi our track led some
distance above the bed of the Tuoru across the small stream Teti. Here
again the only plutonic material that was found consisted of large boulders
evidently water-borne. The bed of the Tuoru was not seen near this place,
so I am not able to say whether the plutonic occurrence recorded by Seurat
at this place is correct, though, as far as appearances went, it appeared
unlikely that it was so.

Shortly above the junction with the Teti the Tuoru forks into the Maroto
and the Tahinu. My guide (Teaeo) asserted that Seurat went no farther
than the junction with the Teti. j Lacroix, however, states that Seurat
went for some distance along the bed of the Maroto, and found that the
plutonic boulders soon disappeared, and that the upper part of the valley
is constituted entirely of basalt. There must be some mistake here, for
at the junction of the Tahinu and Maroto there is nothing but volcanic rock
in sit", while a little farther up the Maroto plutonic rock is to be seen forming
the bed of the stream, and it continues to form its banks for some distance.

It thus appears that in all but one of the localities where Seurat is stated
to have found plutonic rock in situ I was unable to find any, and this one
I was not able to visit.

Marshall. — Geology of Tahiti.

363

VNN^W

Wit T«W£V-~-

TcL^MO*t

Papewoo Valley, Tahiti.

364 Transactions.

In the bed of the Tahinu, about a mile above the point where the river
joins the Maroto, there is an outcrop of white syenite which extends for about
100 yards along the bed of the stream. This rock is seamed most irregu-
larly by thick and thin dykes of a dark rock of a diabasic nature. Two
hundred metres above the syenite outcrop the Tahinu again branches, and
the right-hand branch retains the name Tahinu. In the bed of this stream
no boulders of plutonic rock could be seen ; all the boulders had a basaltic
appearance. In the bed of the left-hand branch, the Terefaatautau, plutonic
boulders of various natures were quite frequent. This branch was followed
for a short distance, but no rock was seen in situ. The proportion of boulders
of plutonic rock slightly decreased, and the stream in this part of its course
was relatively open, and not enclosed in a gorge.

The Maroto branch was not followed for some distance from its junction
with the Tahinu, but it was found that about half a kilometre above that
point it cuts through a plutonic rock (gabbro). A short distance farther
on a small tributary which joins it on the right contained no boulders of
basalt, but a great variety of large boulders of plutonic rock. Another
half a kilometre farther on the stream showed a large exposure of peridotite.
A little distance farther on there was close to its right bank an occurrence
of a highly porphyritic theralite containing large crystals of hornblende.
Above this point the stream contained as many boulders of basalt as of
plutonic rock. Nearly a kilometre farther on, and at a short distance
from the right bank, there was a large outflow of spring-water of a strongly
ferruginous character. The water was highly charged with a gas which had
no smell and would not# support combustion ; it was probably carbon dioxide.

The rock near the spring was much decomposed ; it contained large
crystals, and appeared to be a theralite. This spring was said by my guide
to be Vai Apaaoa, which in Lacroix' map is placed on the left bank of the
Maroto. All the ground near this spring is saturated with spring-water,
and the soil is everywhere red with iron oxide. The water of a neighbouring
stream is as great in volume, and contains ferruginous matter to as great
an extent, as Vai Apaaoa, and it is evident that there is close at hand
another spring as large as the one that we saw. The water of these springs,
which is quite cold, tinges the whole of the water of the Maroto a ferruginous
tint. The water of the Tahinu is tinged in a similar manner near the out-
crop of syenite, and spring-water is everywhere escaping in some quantity
near the main stream. This evolution of spring-water may account for the
fact that the syenite contains a considerable quantity of pyrite. Above
its junction with the Terefaatautau the water of the Tahinu was quite clear,
and in the Terefaatautau there was very little discoloration due to spring-
water. It appears, then, that the evolution of spring-water occurs only in
the area of plutonic rock, and, so far as observed, the escape of the spring-
water was greatest near the margin of the plutonic rock.

On the left side of the Maroto, opposite the spring Vai Apaaoa, no plutonic
jock was seen on the side of the hill which forms the watershed between the
Tuoru and the Tamanu.

From the summit of this watershed at Tetiairi Pass a good view was
obtained of the whole of the central basin of the island. The general form
of this basin was now disclosed, and was seen to fully justify the expression
of Meinieke : "' Liegt er an der Westseite eines grossen runden Bergkranzes
tier das Thai <les obcrni Papenoo flusses umschliesst."*

* Meinicke, " Inseln des stillen Oceans," Zweiter teil, p. 164. Leipzig, 1875.

Marshall. — Geology of Tahiti. 365

From the point where the Navenave joins the Tuoru the whole of the
basin of the Upper Papenoo, about 5 kilometres in diameter, is enclosed by
a rampart of astounding mountain-peaks, which, however, do not actually
include Orofena (2,230 metres). The highest peaks of this rampart cer-
tainly nowhere rise to a greater height than the 1,800 metres of Tetufera
(Plate VII, fig. 1), and the 1,476 metres of Tamaiti, yet their acclivities
are most abrupt. Even at the locality where syenite outcrops in the Tuoru
bed the elevation is only 320 metres above sea-level, and for some distance
toward the mountain the slope is but slight. Along this nearly circular
wall the summits rise in remarkably sharp aiguille peaks (Plate VII, fig. 2),
and in two places the wall is pierced by relatively low passes, one of which
— Urufaa — is only 884 metres above sea-level, and leads to the lake Vaihiria,
on the south-eastern slopes of the island.

The central part of this impressive amphitheatre is occupied by a low
hill — Ahititera — about 850 metres high (Plate VII, fig. 1). Its surface is
rounded and smooth compared with the steep precipices and aiguille peaks
of the surrounding mountains. This hill — Ahititera — is drained on its
two sides by the Terefaatautau and the Maroto respectively. Its summit
consists of a rocky mass, which, unfortunately, was not seen before our
viewpoint was reached. Our food-supply and other considerations did not
allow of time for visiting this peak, from which as a central point the sur-
rounding landscape must be wonderful. Specimens, too, were not obtained
from it. The ^uide Teaeo, whom I found most accurate in all of his topo-
graphical statements, assured me that it was formed of a roche grenne, and
his information was strongly supported by the appearance and weathering
forms of the rock.

The topography of the country strongly suggested the opinion that
this relatively low conical bill was composed of plu tonic rock, as was
actuallv the case so far as that part of it which I had visited was con-
cerned. The essentially different nature of the surrounding hills suggested
also that they were formed of a different kind of rock-series. This opinion
is supported by the iact that in the Upper Tahinu, judging by the nature
of the boulders in its bed, nothing but basalt outcrops. In the Upper
Navenave and Pihoi there is said by M. Seurat to be no indication of the
outcrop of plutonic rock. In the main stream I found no plutonic material
in situ until the white syenite was reached on the east side of the hill Ahiti-
tera, and in the gravels of the Terefaatautau and Maroto boulders of plutonic
rock became less numerous as the stream-beds were ascended.

It thus appears that, so far as my observations go, the whole area
of plutonic rock is practically confined between the beds of the Tahinu,
Terefaatautau, and Maroto Streams — that is to say, the area of the hill
Ahititera.

Petrology.

The plutonic rocks of the Papenoo Valley, of Tahiti, have already been
shown by Lacroix to be of special and somewhat peculiar interest, for they
include alkaline rocks which here, as elsewhere, display a great variety.
Lacroix compares them with those of Madagascar, from which island he has
described a similar series. All but one of Lacroix' types contain a feld-
spathoid mineral, principally nepheline ; and they all lie between nepheline
syenite and essexitic gabbro. He classes them as follows :* Syenites nephe-
liniques, monzonites nepheliniques, gabbros nepheliniques, gabbros essexitique, .

* Lacroix, he. cit., p. 121.

366 Transactions.

None of these types were, however, found in situ, though the large
boulders that were found suggested that this was the case. It was my
good fortune to extend this series at both ends by additional specimens
of plutonic rock actually found in situ. On the one hand, in the bed of
the Tahinu, as mentioned before, there was a syenite wanting in nepheline,
and of a more acid character than any of the rocks described by Lacroix.
On the other hand, there was a peridotite in the bed of the Maroto which
in a sense corresponds among the plutonic types to the picrite mentioned
by Lacroix as occurring in the volcanic series. The plutonic rocks of the
interior of Tahiti thus form a very complete series from acid to peridotite
types, through a great variety of alkaline varieties.

Syenite.

Hand-specimens of this rock are nearly quite white, though they show
a few plates of biotite, and contain a great many very minute crystals of
pyrite.

In section the rock is found to consist almost solely of an alkaline feld-
spar in allotriomorphic crystals. The albite twinning is very general, but
irregular, and the mineral is almost certainly anorthoclase or a fine perthite.
It is considerably decomposed, and in some cases the product of decom-
position is distinctly muscovite. There is a little biotite in rather large
crystals, with intense pleochroism, from pale-straw colour to nearly black.
Small crystals of pyrite are scattered through the rock rather plentifully.
Sphene, which is so abundant in the nepheline syenites and monzonites,
and to some extent in the theralites, is in this rock almost entirely wanting.
(For analysis, see page 371 .)

Gabbro.

This was found in a small gorge where an ill-defined pig-hunting track
of the Natives crossed the Maroto, apparently about half a mile above the
point where the Maroto joins the Tahinu. In hand-specimens the rock is
moderately coarse-grained, the feldspar predominant over the augite, but
a quantity of magnetite is to be seen.

In section the feldspar is found to be bytownite. It is in small grains,
and its crystal outline is seldom complete. All the feldspar is fresh and
well twinned. The augite has a very slight violet tint, and is not noticeably
pleochroic. Ilmenite is abundant in the section. It occurs in sharp crystals,
bordered by a thin reaction rim. Frequently there is a small amount of
biotite associated with the ilmenite, but this mineral is not to be seen
elsewhere in the section. No sphene was seen.

Peridotite (Wehiite) .

A black rock, in hand-specimens showing a small amount of serpentine,
and clearly granular in structure. In section, augite is found to be the
most abundant mineral. It does not show the distinct violet colour which
characterizes this mineral in the great majority of plutonic rocks of this
island. The crystals are of moderate size, and show few regular crystallo-
graphic planes. Olivine is fairly abundant. It is much fractured, and the
crevices are filled with magnetite. The olivine does not show crystal bound-
aries. Associated with it there are patches of colourless crypto-crystalline
matter, in which a few grains of iron-ore can be seen. This crypto-crystal-
line matter is very fine-grained, and has a low refractive index, with very
high birefringence. Where it borders the augite it has sharp clear-cut

Marshall. — Geology of Tahiti. 367

boundaries, indicating, of course, that it was the last mineral to crystallize.
A little dark-brown biotite is associated with the olivine. There is no
iron-ore apart from that associated with the olivine. (For analysis, see
page 371.)

It will at once be evident that the discovery of these types considerably
extends the series previously described by Lacroix, who has already com-
mented on the close relationship between the various members. An ex-
tension of the series in the basic direction was clearly foreseen by him, for
he recognized that an ultra-basic plutonic would probably exist to represent
the picrite which he had distinguished among the basalts. This picrite.
however, contains some feldspar, and it is thus less completely ultra-basic
in a mineralogical sense than the peridotite just described.

In the acid direction the series of Lacroix is still further extended, for
the most acid type described by him — the syenite nepMlinique d biotite- —
contains only 52-25 per cent, of silica, whereas the syenite now found in
situ in the bed of the Tahinu contains 61-06 per cent, of silica, notwith-
standing the considerable amount of pyrite in the rock. This syenite con-
tains a slight excess of potash over soda — a feature that was noticed bv
Lacroix also in his syenite nephelinique a biotite, though in all the other
rocks of the series there is a considerable excess of soda over potash.

It is thus apparent that in this small area there is a plutonic series
extending from a syenite with potash in excess of soda, and consisting
almost entirely of alkaline feldspar, through various types of monzonites,
essexites, theralitet, and gabbros to a peridotite with absolutely no feldspar.

Professor Lacroix, in 1910, mentioned a specimen of granite which had
been collected at Tautira, on the north side of the Peninsula of Taiarabu.
Pere Alain, of L'Ecole des Freres, at Tahiti, kindly gave me a specimen
of a similar granite which had been given to him as coming from Tautira.
As Lacroix said, " S'il provient du sol de File il y aurait Id un fait d'une
grande importance. ." A visit was accordingly made to Tautira, and a
specimen of the granite was shown to various Natives, who all agreed that
they had never seen .such a rock anywhere in the district. The chief,
Ori a Ori, in particular, was emphatic in the statement that he had not
seen a rock of this nature in the mountains, or anywhere else in the country.
A diligent search was afterwards made in the river-gravels and on the sea-
beach for boulders or pebbles of granite, but entirely without success. It
seems that this granite, if it ever really came from Tautira, had been
previously brought there as ballast or for some other purpose by some
/isiting vessel.

Though no granite pebbles were found at Tautira, pebbles of plutonic
rock were not infrequent in the gravels of the Tautira Eiver. These were
found to be specimens of a highly feldspathic olivine gabbro similar in many
respects to the specimens from the Papenoo Valley.

Dyke Rocks.

Specimens of tinguaites, monchiquites, and camptonites have already
been described from the material brought from the Papenoo Valley by
M. Seurat. I found that boulders of tinguaite were not common in the
material of the river-bed, and I was unable to find any in place. One of
my guides — Mauri — however, told me that the roches vertes were to be
found in some abundance in the gravels of the upper part of the Teti Valley,
but I had no time to attempt to verify his statements. Boulders of mon-
chiquite were quite common among the boulders of the Papenoo Valley.

368 Transactions.

As stated by Lacroix, there is every variation between the rocks classed
by him as monchiquites and camptonites ; that is, between hornblende
lamprophyres which have a basic feldspar in the finer constituents of the
groundmass and those that have analcite. I did not find any dykes of
monchiquite in situ.

Numerous dykes were found seaming the syenite. These, however,
are of a diabasic type. The rocks contain an abundance of augite, always
in small crystals with idiomorphic boundaries, and occasionally forming
small group of five or six radiating individuals. Feldspar is not abundant.
It has the moderate extinction-angle of andesine. There is a little ser-
pentine, obviously derived from olivine. Some epidote occurs in somewhat
irregular patches. There is much magnetite. A little brown hornblende
is found where residual fluid matter has oozed into pores of the rock.
A mineral is present in the form of small irregularly lath-shaped crystals
with a high refractive index and high birefringence. It has the small
extinction-angle of 6° and a pronounced longitudinal cleavage. It is
almost colourless, and may be a variety of hornblende. Except for this
type, no dyke rock was found in place.

Volcanic Rocks.
The greater number of volcanic rocks that were found in Tahiti were
basalts ; in fact, this type appears to be the only one which occurs in the
vicinity of Papeete, though, of course, its structure, and to some extent
its composition, varies somewhat widely. An extremely coarse type with
large idiomorphic crystals of augite is found in the bed of the small stream
Riviere de la Reine, about 1 kilometre west of Papeete. Another type
with large grains of olivine always surrounded with a red oxidized border
is quarried for road-metal on the main road 3 kilometres west of the
town. This rock contains small crystals of augite only in the groundmass,
and very little labradorite feldspar, though iron-ores are plentiful. In the
valley of the Papenoo boulders of basalt are more common than those of
any other kind of rock. They are often vesicular, and in the vesicles there
is a considerable variety of small crystals of zeolite.

One of the largest outcrops of basaltic rock that was seen occurred in
the valley of the Papenoo, about 5 kilometres from its entrance. This out-
crop extended from the Vai Rutu to Maoma. It forms cliffs rising to a
height of over 100 metres above the floor of the valley, and shows a distinct
columnar structure. In section the rock is found to consist of crystals of
olivine, mostly idiomorphic, and of moderate size, embedded in a plexus
of small brown crystals of augite. There are small grains of magnetite and
a little residual dark-brown glass crowded with feathery crystals of ilmenite.
In hand-specimens the rock is quite black, and the only mineral which can be
distinguished is olivine. This rock is quite a typical limburgite, distinguished
from the picrite of Lacroix by the entire absence of feldspar.

At the entrance to the Vaihi tributary of the Tuoru there is a zeolitic
basalt in situ. It contains no olivine. The augite is of a pale-brown colour,
in long slender crystals. The feldspar is in the form of very slender micro-
lites arranged in the form of delicate feathery growths. This is certainly
one of the older lava-flows of the island volcano.

Haaynophyre.

The rock of this class previously described from A rue (Rep. Aust. Ass.
Adv. Sci., vol. 13, 1912, p. 196) could not be found in situ. The road-

Marshall. — Geology of Tahiti . 369

cuttings near at hand, where the road round the island passes over a pro-
jecting spur, show nothing but basalt lavas, and it becomes evident that
the small stream in the bed of which the pebbles of hauyn.opb.yre are found
have been transported from a considerable distance. This is at present the
only lava rock of the island in which hornblende has been found.

Another rather different hauynophyre was, however, found in sit".
This rock forms a high cliff at Tapahi, 20 kilometres east of Papeete.
This rock contains a few grains of olivine, which have a thin border of iron
oxide, and are entirely surrounded by augite. Pale-brown phenocrysts of
augite occur, but they are not plentiful. The crystals of hauyne are of
moderate size. They are dark blue in colour, but they weather readily to a
pale-yellow tint. The hauyne contains a great abundance of inclusions of
a black colour, which in many cases make the mineral quite opacpie. The
groundmass contains much augite in elongated microlites. Feldspar
forms irregular microlites of small size : they are apparently anorthoclase.
There is a little nepheline, quite allotriomorphic, and a great deal of
magnetite.

'. slip about 200 metres farther down the Tahinu than the outcrop of
syenite discloses a highly weathered light-green rock, from which, how-
ever, a sound specimen was obtained. The greater part consists of small
irregular crystals of feldspar (andesine) with much pale augite also in small
crystals, and contains a number of inclusions of magnetite. There are some
patches of irregular grains of brown hornblende. There are a few grains
of olivine, which are much dusted with magnetite throughout, and are
occasionally changed into a highly birefringent crypto-crystalline substance
that could not be identified.

Another lava outcropping about 50 metres down-stream from the syenite
outcrop proved to be a dolerite. It contains large crystals of pale-brown
augite with a dark border. Labradorite feldspar is plentiful. Magnetite
and ilmenite are abundant, and there is much olivine dusted with magnetite
throughout.

These lavas have, evidently been considerably affected by the high
temperature due to the adjacent pipe of the volcano which was built up
to a height of 2,000 metres above them after they had been ejected.

From the account given here it will be seen that the occurrence of
plutonic rocks in the island of Tahiti is quite different from that indicated
in the map published by Lacroix, which was based on the collections and
observations of Seurat. The large exposure of these rocks over the greater
part of the Upper Papenoo Valley which is shown in the map was not found
by me. The actual exposure seen was situated almost entirelv between
the beds of the Tahinu and Maroto Streams. Here the ground has a
relatively gentle slope, in marked contrast with the precipitous slopes of
the hills around. The top of the conical hill — Ahititera — formed of these
plutonic rocks does not rise to more than 850 metres above sea-level. The
plan of the island shows that this area is almost exactly the centre of the
whole island. Within this plutonic area there is found to be a great variety
of rock types, actually varying from an acid syenite to a peridotite. The
greater part of the area, however, judging at least from the preponderance
of boulders, appears to be formed of the more alkaline types, from nepheline
monzonite to theralite. This, however, has not yet been demonstrated by
the actual location of the outcrop, partly because the tropical vegetation
and weathered rock-matter largely obscured the outcrop, but mainlv because
of the lack of time available for work.

370 Transactions .

So far as the actual located outcrops are concerned, the extreme types
appear to be marginal in their occurrence, while the main mass of the central
hill — Ahititera — seemed to be composed of monzonitic rocks, judging by
the boulders contained in the beds of the streams that radiate from the bill.
It was most unfortunate that the slopes of Ahititera were not more closely
examined, but as our route had led along a stream-valley in mountainous
country covered with tropical forest it was not possible to get an idea of
the topography of the country until the viewpoint from the pass Tetiairi
had been reached, and it was then too late to return.

As stated previously, the hill Ahititera, over which the outcrop of
plutonic rocks occurs, is the actual central area of the island. This hill
is almost entirely surrounded by a circle of high mountain-peaks, composed
apparently of lavas and breccias, and from these peaks the land slopes
outward without steep average slopes in all directions. It is, however,
radially furrowed by deep radiating valleys separated by the knife-like
ridges so well described by Darwin and Dana. On the west side only is
there any exception to this statement. There Aorai and Diademe extend
the high country somewhat to the west of the upper part of the Papenoo
Valley.

When this arrangement of a small plutonic area surrounded by a circle
of volcanic rocks, and of this central hill surrounded by a ring of lofty peaks,
is borne in mind, only one conclusion as to the structure of the island can
be arrived at. It appears obvious that the plutonic area marks the position
of the much-denuded remnant of the plug filling the pipe through which
the volcanic rocks were ejected. If this reasonable conclusion be accepted,
it will be seen that the original volcano of which Tahiti was formed reached
a height of at least 3,000 metres, for the dissected and worn remains still
attain an elevation of 2,232 metres in Mount Orofena, which stands some
distance back from what was probably the central orifice of the volcano.
Here, then, we have the materials of a volcanic plug exposed by erosion
and weathering at a depth of 2,000-2,500 metres below the summit of a
volcano the ruined flanks of which still rise up in a mighty rampart to a
height of 1,500 metres or more on every side.

The plutonic rocks of the central plug of the volcano are mainly of
an alkaline nature, lying between monzonite and theralite. The volcanic
rocks are mainly basalts, though hauynophyres and phonolites also occur.
There thus appears to be something of a discordance between the plutonic
and volcanic types, and this even suggests that there is no community of
origin between them. This discordance is of a specially marked nature
mineral ogically, for whereas almost all the plutonic rocks contain a large
amount of nepheline, brown hornblende, and often biotite and sphene, the
volcanic rocks contain practically none of them.

This difference is, however, far more marked mineralogically than
chemically, as has been well shown by Lacroix. The analyses that he
has published show quite clearly that the chemical differences between
his gabbro nephelinique (theralite) and gabbro essexitique on the one hand,
and of some of the basalts on the other, is quite slight. Again, the syenite
nephelinique a amphibole and monzonite nephelinique on the one hand are
also chemically equivalent to the hauynophyres on the other. The discoverv
related here of the plutonic rocks syenite and peridotite now provide
equivalents for the phonolite and picrite of Lacroix among the volcanic rocks.

It thus appears that from a chemical standpoint there is a satisfactory
equivalence between the plutonic and the volcanic rocks of this island.

Marshall. — Geology of Tahiti.

371

To some extent at least the great mineralogical difference that has
been mentioned can be explained. It appears that hornblende and mica
do not crystallize in an igneous magma unless some mineralizer is present.
Thus Doelter says, " Was die hornblende anbelaxgt, so wird vielfach die
Notwendigkeit von Wasser und hoheren Druck angenommen. Keinenfalls ist
ihre Bildung ohne Mitwirkung von Mineralisatoren moglich, ebensowenig wie
bei Glimmer . . . Bezuglich der Hornblende hat Becke der Einfluss des
Druckes aufihre Bildung studiert and scheint jedenfdlls wenigstens eine geringe
Druckzunahme ihre Entstehung zu fordern."*

At the time of an eruption of magma the water, and probably any other
mineralizer, would escape, and there would then be no chance of hornblende
forming. A new molecular arrangement within the magma would be
the result. This might well end in the crystallization of the minerals of
a normal basalt. It is noticeable that, while theralites and nephelinitoid
monzonites are apparently the commonest types of plutonic rocks, basalts
are by far the commonest types of volcanic rocks.

Lacroix has already shown that a clear relationship of a chemical nature
exists between his monzonite nephelinique a biotite and the hauynophyre.
It can be clearly seen from the accompanying table that the syenite men-
tioned in these pages is a chemical representative of the phonolite described
by Lacroix as coming from Vairao. The peridotite also obviously belongs
to the same chemical class as the picrite he has described. The table of
analyses given here is taken from his paper, but the analyses made by me
of the syenite and peridotite are added to it.

Plutonic Rocks.

A.

B.

c.

D.

E.

F.

G.

Si02

6106

52-25

51-31

47-50

45-10

41-50

43-92

A1203 . .

16-04

18-70

20-07

19-97

19-30

12-31

3-16

Fe203 . .

7-02

2-55

3-10

3-39

1-55

5-20

5-24

FeO

0-40

3-69

2-50

4-74

8-70

8-46

6-20

MgO

0-72

1-78

102

3-60

5-30

11-29

20-71

CaO

0-70

3-95

3-57

6-92

9-81

14-05

12-42

Na20

5-27

5-10

6-50

5-25

4-32

206

0-34

K20

6-43

6-62

5-38

3-47

1-58

0-48

0-07

Ti02

0-78

2-29

1-92

2-96

3-49

4-78

3-46

P205 •-

0-06

0-20

0-44

0-57

0-06

002

H20

0-43

2-75

3-85

2-25

0-75

0-50

4-16

S

4-21

••

103-12

99-88

99-85

100-49

100-47

100-69

99-71

Subtract 02

2-34

100-78

A. Syenite with pyrite and a little biotite. Analysis, P. Marshall.

B. Syenite nephelinique a biotite.

C. Syenite nephelinique a ampliibole. I

D. Monzonite nephelinique. - Analysis, M. Pisani.

E. Gabbro nephelinique.

F. Gabbro essexitique.

G. Peridotite (wehrlite). Analysis, P. Marshall.

B, C, D, E, and F quoted from Lacroix, " Roches alcalines de .Tahiti,'
Bull. Soc. C4eol. de France, 4e serie, t. x, 1910, p. 121.

* C. Doelter, " Petrogenesis, Braunschweig," 1906, p. 146.

372

Transaction s.

Roches Microgrennes.

A.

B.

C.

Si02

56-40

46-10

44-26

A1203

21-41

19-91

13-32

Fe203

1-04

2-75

4-60

FeO

1-50

5-02

8-19

MgO

0-51

3-30

9-42

CaO

0-96

6-95

10-95

Na20

9-61

6-10

2-40

K20

5-36

3-62

0-99

Ti02

0-25

3-02

5-02

p2o5

*

0-25

0-45

H90

2-50

2-99

0-37

99-54 100-01

A. Tinguaite. B. Camptonite. C. Microgabbro.
All analyses by H. Pisani, Lacroix (loc. cit.).

99-97

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

6.

H .

I.

Si02

60-50

49-52

48-70

46-25

48-64

44-25

44-75

43-85

42-30

A1„03

18-20

19-40

19-12

19-00

17-04

16-27

13-22

9-07

12-74

Fe203

1 -.34

2-08

2-40

4-65

3-32

1-50

1-20

FeO

1-89

5-15

4-77

3-60

6-14

10-30

10-50

10-75

10-60

MgO

1-18

2-12

1-54

2-20

2-58

6-51

10-85

23-40

12-74

CaO

1-75

6-51

6-25

6-61

5-79

10-14

11-50

7-90

1301

Na,0

7-25

7-15

7-83

6-10

7-16

3-24

1-95

1-30

2-65

K20

4-45

3-85

3-45

3-62

3-02

1-98

1-27

0-54

0-94

TiO.,

0-92

3-30

2-37

2-78

2-06

3-65

3-45

1-88

1-51

so3

, .

0-41

0-83

0-55

004

. .

p2o5

, ,

. ,

. .

0-63

0-38

0-38

CI

. .

0-15

0-13

0-25

0-20

H20

2-30

0-50

2-80

4-38

3-20

2-40

1-62

1-62

2-54

99-78

100-14

100-19

99-99

99-21

100-87

100-69

100-69

9903

A. Phonolite. B, C, D, E. Hauynophyre. F, G. Basalt. H. Picrite.
I. Limburgite.

A, B, C, D, F, G, H, analyses, H. Pisani, Lacroix (loc. cit.) ; E, analysis,
P. Marshall (Rep. Aust, Ass." Adv. Sci.. vol. 13, 1912, p. 197).; I, analysis,
P. Marshall.

Daly has lately, as is well known, suggested that the alkaline igneous
rocks are due to the solution of masses of limestone in a magma of sub-
alkaline composition. There appears to be no evidence in support of this
theory so far as our knowledge of the alkaline rocks of the South Pacific-
islands allows us to form a judgment at the present time. Though volcanic
tuffs and breccias are of common occurrence in the Pacific islands, and
though they have been examined carefully in several places, no fragments
of limestone or sedimentary rock have yet been discovered in them, nor has
any material of this kind been found in the lava itself. It is true that Daly,
in his summary of the field associations of alkaline rocks in different parts

Marshall. — Geology of Tahiti. 373

of the world, inserts a query as to the possibility of carbonate rocks being
cut by the eruptive rocks of Tahiti.*

All round this island the ocean-floor quickly falls to a depth of about
2,500 fathoms, and its surface is covered with volcanic mud, or with this
material mixed with globerigina ooze or with red clay.f There appears to
be no reason to suppose that before volcanic activity commenced on the
site of Tahiti the ocean-floor at that particular spot was in any way different
from its nature in the closely adjacent area. Over this area the ocean-
floor is at such a depth that the calcium-carbonate remains of organisms
have already been partly dissolved and the percentage of silica has become
considerable.

The question also arises as to whether any instances are known where
basic magmas have invaded limestone and have acquired in consequence
a local alkaline character on the borders of the magma. So far as New
Zealand is concerned, we do not at present know of any district in this
country where basic magmas have invaded limestone rocks. There is,
however, a striking instance of a large acid batholite in contact with a
limestone deeply buried at the time of the intrusion of the magma. This
example has been described by Webb, Bell, and Clarke. J Here the great
intrusive mass of granite of the Pikikiruna Boss is in contact with a crystal-
line limestone of Ordovician age. Basic rocks are the result of the contact,
and patches of basic rock due apparently to absorption and solution of
limestone are found at some distance within the granite. There appears
to be no evidence, notwithstanding the obvious evolution of quantities of
carbonic-acid gas, of any great disturbance of the magma, or of any
influence of the absorbed limestone, on the whole mass of the granite,
but only on localized portions of it. No development of alkaline types is
noticed. Similarly, in the district of alkaline volcanic rocks at Dunedin,
New Zealand, where a highly arenaceous limestone of Cainozoic age under-
lies the volcanic rocks, no evidence has so far been found that any solution
of this material has taken place.

In the actual field occurrence of the plutonic rocks in the Papenoo
Valley, Tahiti, the occurrence of acidic types and ultra-basic types within
a short distance of one another appears to preclude the idea of absorption
of calcareous matter. There is every reason to believe that the outcrop is
at a level of at least 10,000 ft. to 15,000 ft. above that at which absorption
has to be supposed. Upward movement through this distance would cause
the complete mixing of the absorbed matter. Yet here we find a complete
separation of the magma into rocks of which one at least cannot be regarded
as a desilicated type.

The rock-specimens found on the beach at Tautira and in the gravels
of the Tautira Biver included gabbros and phonolites. The Tautira Kiver
is the largest in the Taiarabu Peninsula, and, judging by the map, it appears
to have a large circular basin in the centre of the peninsula. There can
be no doubt that this peninsula was an independent volcano, and the
Tautira Biver appears to have the same relation to it as the Papenoo has
to the main island. In other words, the Tautira appears to have drained
the original crater, and now that denudation is far advanced its basin includes

*Daly, "The Origin of Alkaline Rocks," Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 21, 1910,
pp. 87-118.

t Agassiz, Mem. Mus. Conip. Zool., vol. 28, plates, pi. 202.
% N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 3 (new series), 1907, p. 73.

374 Transactions.

the denuded plug that fills the pipe through which magmatic matter rose to
the crater. The variety of plutonic rocks found here, however, was quite
small, a fact that can be explained by the smaller size of the Taiarabu volcano,
and therefore by the less extent to which denudation has laid bare the
deeper portions of the plug. There was, unfortunately, no opportunity of
making geological observations in the valley of this river.

It will at once be seen that there is in Tahiti a splendid opportunity
of studying the differentiation that has taken place in the magma that
filled the pipe of a volcano of large dimensions at a depth of 2,000 metres
below the actual crater, and of the correlation of these differentiates with
the lavas that have issued from the crater from time to time. It happens,
however, that a lack of time and means have prevented anything more than
a mere locating of a few of the plutonic types, and but little has yet been
done in finding the extent of the different lavas. The present paper
merely calls attention to the excellence of this field for study.

It may, however, be noticed that the rocks of Tahiti appear to be
merely typical of those of most of the volcanic islands of the Eastern
Pacific. Thus, nothing but basic and alkaline rocks have up to the present
been recorded from the following islands : Samoa, Rarotonga, Aitutaki,
Mangaia, Raiatea, Huaheine, Mangareva, Pitcairn, Rurutu, and the Sand-
wich Islands.

The association of the rock types in Tahiti appears to have a close
relationship to the series of alkaline and basic rock types at the Otago
Peninsula, New Zealand. Here, as previously pointed out, there is a large
area of white trachyte c< imposed of almost pure feldspar, a large develop-
ment of phonolites, and a great many basalts, as well as connecting types
such as trachydolerites.* Some of the trachydolerites contain large crystals
of brown hornblende which is largely resorbed, and is associated with the
violet augite in exactly the same manner as in the theralites and essexitcs
of Tahiti, and in similar rocks of other localities, such as Massachusetts.
The composition of these trachydolerites is intermediate between the
composition of the phonolites and that of the basalts.

At the north head of Otago Harbour a trachydolerite lava nearly always
lies beneath a phonolite, which is in turn followed by basalts. The author
has suggested that this association can be explained by the assumption that
the lavas were supplied from a reservoir at an intermediate level, to which
theralitic matter party crystallized was moved from time to time. Within
this reservoir resorption of the crystals that had already formed might have
taken place if the mineralizers of the magma escaped. Differentiation would
then take place in this magma, with the result that phonolitic and basaltic
matter might be separated and emitted at different eruptions.

Inspection of the old solidified plug of Tahiti shows that much differenti-
ation of a magma can take place at depths of no more than 2,000 metres
— -in fact, that it may be so complete as to produce a syenite composed
almost solely of feldspar as well as a non-feldspathic peridotite.

This observation may therefore explain the frequent association of
alkaline and basic rock types in the Pacific region, to which attention has
previously been called, and for which a special explanation has been re-
quired. ' Whether the different species of rocks in Tahiti have resulted

* Marshall, P., "The Geology of Dunedin," Q.J.G.S., vol. (52, 1906, p. 388.

Marshall. — Geology of Tahiti. 375

from magmatic differentiation is a question for the future. . . . The
constant association of the main types in the islands visited truly supports
this view.'"*

Interest largely centres in these oceanic islands in connection with the
structure and origin of the Pacific basin. Many attempts have been made
within recent years to establish an association between coastal structure
and the products of volcanic activity, notably between the coast lands of
the Pacific types of Suess and the occurrence of andesitic rocks. This idea
has been supported by Harker and Prior, amongst others, while Gregory
and others have dissented from it. Thus Lacrorx points out that the ande-
sitic type is strictly circum-Pacific. This statement holds in the present
state of our knowledge, as pointed out by Marshall, if, as seems reasonable.
Tonga, Fiji, New Hebrides, Santa Cruz, Solomon, Caroline, and Marianne
Islands are considered as circum-Pacific in their situation, a suggestion
which is strongly supported by ocean soundings.

On the other hand, those islands which are situated in the central areas
of the Pacific Ocean are, so far as known, constituted of the alkaline and
basic facies which are referred to the Atlantic region. It is, however, possible
that the Marquesas (biotite trachyte, Lacroix) and Easter Island (andesites,
Helsch) are exceptions. In order to explain this contrast between the ande-
sitic border and the alkaline basic central area, the suggestion of Supan
that andesitic rocks are the product of eruption where rock-folding is in
progress, and alkaline basic rocks where radial fractures have been formed,
demands attention. There is, however, so little knowledge of the actual
structure of the basement on which these island groups are situated that
any stated conclusions are more likely to be guesses or the expression of
the personal bias of an author than scientific deductions based on. reliable
premises.

Other questions arise. Is the basin of the Pacific Ocean the scar left
by the moon when it separated from the earth, an infallen area, or a de-
pression of an isostatic nature due to the high, specific gravity of the materia]
of the earth's crust in that region ? The study of the petrology of these
island groups ought to produce some evidence on this point confirmatory
or otherwise of such pendulum experiments that have been. made.

I do not know whether the first theory should or should not require any
particular nature of the rocks forming the floor and the material immedi-
ately beneath the floor of the ocean-basin. If there is, any one would perhaps
expect the rock to be of an ultra-basic nature. If the area is infallen, it
would be reasonable to expect to find occasional fragments of sediments
included in the tuft's or lava-flows, as at Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand,
as well as at Auckland and Dunedin. Search has, however, failed to reveal
any such fragments in the islands of the Society and Cook Groups that
I have visited. It would thus appear that sedimentary rocks form a less
important part of the earth's crust in the neighbourhood than in the areas
of the great volcanic districts of New Zealand.

On the other hand, there is in the volcanoes of these islands a great
predominance of basic types of rock. In the basic rocks feldspar is relatively
unimportant, and is in almost all cases confined to the groundmass. In
the phonolites, which are. however, found in much smaller quantity than

* Marshall, P., " Handbuch der Regionalen Geologie," band vii, abt.2 ; also Rep.
Aust. Ass. Sci., vol. 13, 1912, p. 201.

376 Transactions.

the basic rocks, feldspathoid minerals are often more abundant than the
feldspars. Such facts as these, though possibly in the future they may
require qualification or revision, suggest at least in the present state of our
knowledge that the composition of sub-Pacific material is, on the whole,
more basic than that of the other areas, and to that extent favours the
idea of the isostatic equilibrium of the Pacific basin.

Summary.

1. The distribution of plutonic rocks in the Papenoo Valley, in the centre
of Tahiti, is somewhat different from that stated in Lacroix' paper, which
was based on the field-work of Seurat.

2. So far as the observations of the author showed, the outcrop of these
rocks is almost confined to the low hill Ahititera, which occupies the centre
of the large circular basin of the Upper Papenoo Valley.

3. The hill Ahititera is the centre of the island, and from the crest of
the mountain rampart which surrounds the Upper Papenoo the level of the
land falls outward somewhat evenly on all sides to the sea-level, though
the slopes are deeply seamed by the stream- valleys which radiate outwards
in large numbers.

4. The situation of Ahititera is therefore the position of the central
conduit of the original great volcano of Tahiti.

5. The series of volcanic plutonic rocks discovered by Lacroix is ex-
tended by the discovery of a highly feldspathic syenite as well as a peridotite
in situ in addition to some of the types already described as Lacroix.

6. This series is regarded as the result of the differentiation of an
essexitic magma.

7. Parallels of these plutonic types are found in the dykes and the
volcanic rocks found in the island.

8. It is suggested that the constantly occurring association of basic
and alkaline volcanic rocks in other Pacific islands, and at Dunedin, New
Zealand, has resulted in a similar manner.

9. No evidence was found in support of Daly"s theory that the alkaline
are due to the solution of calcium-carbonate rock by a basic magma.

10. It is suggested that the frequent highly basic character of the
volcanic rocks of the Central Pacific islands supports the theory that the
floor of the Pacific Ocean has its low-lying position as a result of isostatic
equilibrium.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE Vil.

Pig. 1. View of upper basin of Papenoo Valley, Tahiti, from Tetiari Pass (800 m.), look-
ing south. Rounded conical hill in middle distance, Ahititera (850 m.), formed
of plutonic rock. Tetufera Peak (1,800 m.) in background, in the centre.

Pig. 2. View of Orohe Peak from base of Ahititera Hill, Upper Papenoo Valley, Tahiti,
looking north. Orohe Peak is formed of volcanic lava and breccia.

Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. XLVII.

Plate VII.

Face p. 376.]

Marshall. — Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru.

377

Art. XL. — Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru.

By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Professor of Geology, Otago University.

[Bead before the Otago Institute. 1st December, 1914.]

Further collecting in the fossiliferous beds of Tertiary age near Oamaru
has been continued on many occasions by Mr. Uttley and myself with several
assistants. It has been thought worth while to put on record the names
of those fossils that we have found, and to add to these lists stratigraphical
and lithological notes of an explanatory nature. For the statements that
are made here the author alone is responsible, but he is indebted to Mr.
Uttley for much information.

'.ew-vi

4i! Diy Ba.y.

Scod«

-L I I I I

TKrust PUxnc

7o Miles.

Fig. 1. — Sketch-map of Oamaru district, showing localities where fossils were

collected.

The accompanying map shows the locality of the various places where
we have made collections, and it will be seen generally that collections have
been obtained from various points from All Day Bay, on the coast, ten miles
south of Oamaru, to Wharekuri, in the Waitaki Valley, forty miles distant
from the sea, and in the Waihao Valley, twenty miles to the north of
Oamaru.

378

Transactions.

In the lists given here Mollusca only are classified. The Brachiopods of
New. Zealand are being separately reclassified by Dr. J. A. Thomson. The
teeth of sharks are relatively few in this formation, and the Corals, Fora-
minifera and Polyzoa have not been separately collected. It is not supposed
that the collections are exhaustive, though it is probable that relatively
few species will hereafter be added to the list from Target Gully. The work
of identification would have been impossible without the kind and generous
assistance of Mi'. H. Suter, who has also named a large number of the new
species, and his descriptions of these will shortly be published in Bulletin
No. 3 of the Palaeontological series of the New Zealand Geological Survey.

Target Gully.

Some three days have been spent at Target Gully, Oamaru, in adding
to the collections previously made there. The following is a complete
list, including the species that have been named by Suter. The description
of these will be given in Bulletin No. 3 of the Palaeontological series of the
New Zealand Geological Survey.

Schismope atkinsoni T. -Woods.
Emarginula striatula Q. & G.
Trochus tiaratus Q. & G.
Monilea simplex Suter.
Lissospira exigua Suter.
Circulus politus Suter.
Leptothyra. fluctuate/, Hutton.
Cerithiopsis aequicincta Suter.
Newtoniella fidicula Suter.
Serpulorbis sp.
Turritella carlottae Watson.

concava Hutton.

rosea Q. & G.

murrayana Tate.

patagonica Sowerby.

Eglisia striolata Hutton.
Struthiolaria tuberculata Hutton.

■ cincta Hutton.

Calyptraea maculata Q. & G.

■ alta Hutton.

maccoyi Suter.

Crepidula crepidula L.

densistriata Suter.

striata Hutton.

costata Sowerby.

incurva Zittel.

Natica zelandica Q. & G.
Polinices suturalis Hutton.
gibbosus Hutton.

cinctus Hutton.

Cymatium minimum Hutton.

7 SP-

Epitonium broivni Zittel.

rugulosum lyratum Zittel.

Turbonilla zelandica Hutton.

oamarntica Suter.

Odostomia pudica Suter.

rugata Hutton.

Fusinus sp.

LatirLs brevirostris Hutton.
elatior Suter.

- compact us Suter.

- acuticingulatuc Suter.

n. sp.

Mitra enysi Hutton.
Vexillum rutilidomum Hutton.
Siphonalia dilatata Q. & G.

costata Hutton.

• conoidea Hutton.

turrita Suter.

excelsa Suter.

Euthria striophora Suter.
Cominella pulckra Suter.

huttoni Kobelt.

intermedia Suter.

Alectrion socialis Hutton.

— tatei T. -Woods.
Murex octogonus Q. & G.

angasi Crosse.

Trophon lepidus Suter.

paivae Crosse.

Typhis maccoyi T. -Woods.
Admete praecursoria Suter.
Fulguraria arabica Marty n.
■ elongata Swainson.

gracilis Swainson.

n. sp.

Lapparia corrugata Hutton.
Ancilla australis Sowerby.
■ pseudaustralis Tate.

bicolor Gray.

■ — — hebera Hutton.

Marshall. — Cainozo'c Fossils from Oamaru.

379

Marginella harrisi Cossman.

conica Harris.
Erato striata Surer.
Drillia imperfecta Suter.
— - — callimorpha Suter.
Surcula fusiform is Hutton.

- awamoaensis Hutton.
Bathytoma sulcata Hutton.

■ — anticostata Suter.

- - — perlata Suter.
Tunis alius Harris.

- ■ transennus Suter.

Mangilia brachyspira Suter.

infelix Suter.

canaliculatus Suter.

tenuilirata Suter.

leptosoma Suter.

- rudis Hutton.

siuclairi Smith.

Terebra onjcta Suter.

costata Hutton.

Ringicula uniplicata Hutton.
Gylicknella enysi Hutton.

striata Hutt^j.

soror Suter.

Volvulella reflexa Hutton.
Hem icon us trailli Hutton.
Dentalium solidum Hutton.

mantel! i Hutton.

nanum Hutton.

Xucula hartrigiana Phil.
Mallet ia a astral is Q. & CI.
Anomia huttoni Suter.
Placunanomia incisura Hutton.

zelandica Gray.

Area decussata Gray.

australis Hutton.

subvelata Suter.

Glycymeris laticostata Q. & G.

globosa Hutton.

Cucullaea alta Sowerby.
Limopsis zitteli Ihering.
— ■ — catenata Suter.

Additional species since obtained are

Hinnites trailli Hutton.
Protocardia sera Hutton.

Pectcn ratlins Hutton.

burnetti Hutton.

— — huttoni Park.
Lima color ata Hutton.

bullata Born.

Mytilus striatus Hutton.
Ostraea augasi Hutton.

nelsoniana Zittel.

OrassatelUtes obesus A. Adams.

attenuatus Hutton.

amplus Zittel.

Venericardia difficilis Deshayes.

pseutes Suter.

Diplodonta globularis Lamarck.
Lor i pes la adnata Hutton.
Divaricella cumingi Adams and

Angas.
Tellina glabrella Deshayes.
Zenatia acinaces Q. & G.
Dosinia magna Hutton.

greyi Zittel.

Macrocallista ruultistriata Sowerby.
Chione meridionalis Sowerby.

mesodesma Q. & G.

yatei Gray.

Paphia curta Hutton.

n. sp.

Cytherea oblonga Hanley.

sulcata Hutton.

— — subsulcata Suter.
Cardium patulum Hutton.

n. sp.

Psammobia lineolata Gray.
Corbula pumila Hutton.

canalicdata Hutton.

kumerosa Hutton.

- caiparaensis Suter.

Panopaea sp.
Myodora subrostata E. A. Smith
Chamostraea albida Lamarck.
Chama huttoni Hector.
Teredo heaphyi Zittel.

Trivia n. sp.
Mitra n. sp.

The total number of species in this list is 155, of which forty-seven species
are Recent — a percentage of 33. The collections that we have made at
Target Gully illustrate forcibly the errors that are likely to arise if, for the
purpose of classifying strata, importance is laid on the absence of species
or genera of fossils found in incomplete collections which may be used to

380 Transactions.

arrange the Cainozoic formations of New Zealand in a chronological sequence.
Thus the first year's collecting in these heds gave us no Epitonium, Cardium,
Papkia, Fusinus, or Mangilia ; while Murex, Latirus, and Struthiolaria
were poorly represented.

The present list appears to be sufficiently complete to establish a definite
horizon, which stratigraphically lies almost directly on the Hutchinson's
Quarry beds, which in its turn admittedly rests on the Oamaru limestone.
The fauna appears to be characteristic of a depth of about 40 fathoms.
The incomplete filling of many of the larger shells with sediment, and
the uninjured nature of such shells as Murex, show that the sea-floor
was not subject to much disturbance. The fact that many shells are
broken must probably be ascribed to fish. The grains of glauconite,
which are quite frequent, point to slow accumulation and an extensive
shore-line situated many miles away.

The number of species of Mollusca collected in this small shell-bed, 4 ft.
high and 6 ft. long, is more than one-seventh part of the number of the
Recent species of New Zealand Mollusca recorded in Cheeseman's Manual.

Wharekuri.

The locality from which we have collected at Wharekuri is on the bed
of the Waitaki River, about forty miles from the sea. The actual spot
is about (me mile belowr Wharekuri, and on the opposite (or left) bank of
the river. Lithologically the beds consist of a marly greensand. and dip
about 2° to the north. There can be no doubt that they directly overlie the
Kehenodon beds of McKay, classed by him with the Upper Eocene.* They
are, in fact, identical with the fossiliferous horizon on the opposite bank of
the river, referred to by McKay.

Hamilton subsequently showed that in the extreme southern portion
of this Tertiary basin the rocks are cut by several fault-planes. f From the
Kehenodon beds of McKay Hamilton obtained a good specimen of Aturia
ziczac var. a astral is.

Park classed these strata as the equivalent of the Mount Brown beds,
the middle member of his Miocene system. J The whole series of Cainozoic
beds is certainly conformable, as shown by Park, though the large fault in-
serted by him is unnecessary.

In the Wharekuri basin the lowest rocks of the Tertiary sequence are
quartz gravels, a fact that has considerable significance. The quartz is
undoubtedly derived from schist, and the area of schist rocks is now sepa-
rated from the Waitaki Valley by Mount Domett and the Kakanui Ranges,
with an average elevation of about 4,000 ft.

The occurrence of the quartz gravels, therefore, practically proves that
the range of the Kakanui Mountains did not then exist, for in such a narrow
fiord as the present AVaitaki Valley would have been if the Kakanui Range
had then existed the floor must have been covered with detritus derived
from the slopes of the neighbouring range — that is, with material derived
from the waste of greywacke rocks — a deposit that is quite common in New
Zealand, and quite different from the nearly pure quartz gravels of which
the lowest Tertiary rocks are composed.

* Rep. Geol. Surv., 1881, p. 67.

t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, 1904, p. 465.

% Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 37, 1905, p. 525.

Marshall. — Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru.

38 J

In the floor of the Awahokomo Valley, about three miles from the point
where it joins the Waitaki, the junction of the Tertiary strata with the
Maitai rocks of which the Kakanni Mountains are formed is to be clearly
seen. The actual plane of junction dips 73° to the south, and strikes 15°
west of north. The Maitai rocks to the south of the plane of junction are
greatly shattered. This is best seen when the line is followed over the hills
which lie to the north of the Awahokomo. The weathering of the rocks
has here developed their shattered nature, and they break down into a clayey
material, which still contains angular fragments of rock. This shattered
material has been called by McKay " glacier deposits."' *

There can be no doubt that this plane of junction is a thrust-plane,
though more highly inclined than is usual for such planes. This high in-
clination of a thrust-plane appears to be a feature of those examples that
have been described in New Zealand. f

In the present case the great tectonic movement has had relatively little
effect on the Cainozoic sediments over which the Maitai rocks have been
thrust. These are in no way crushed, and the fossils which are contained
in them are not distorted. This again appears to be a feature of New Zea-
land Teitiaries when they are involved in tectonic movements. The fossils
in the narrow band of Tertiary rocks, only 15 ft. wide, at Stony Creek, near
Lake Wakatipu, with schist on both sides of it. are not distorted, and again
the rock is not crushed. In the Clarence Valley the rocks are not fossiliferous,
but their structure does not appear to have suffered in any way by the great
tectonic movements which have been so well described by Cotton.

On the northern bank of the river the beds soon rise gradually, and before
long the basal quartz gravels with coal-seams are exposed. They contain
good specimens of fossil wood similar to that described by Unger as Nicolia.J

S.W

Fro. 2. — Section across Wharekuri Basin

• way from the river the ground rises somewhat more steeply, and highly
siliceous greensands are seen to rest on the quartz gravels. These greensands
contain Cucullaea, Venericardia. Dentalium, and Natica rather badly pre-
served, but apparently similar to the species that were found in the river-
bank. In the Awahokomo Valley the same genera were found in a greensand
lying only 20 ft. above the quartz gravels, which there contain coal-seams.
There is obviously every reason to believe that the whole of the younger
rocks in the Wharekuri Basin belong to the same series.

On the north-east side of this basin of Tertiary rocks the Maitai sediments
rise abruptly in a steep scarp for about 1,000 ft., and this scarp is but little
incised by the erosion of the streams that flow down it. The outcrop is
separated from that of the Tertiary rocks by a distance of about 30 ft. only,

* Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1881, p. 60.
t Cotton, Geogr. Mag., 1913, p. 227.
$ " Reise der ' Novara,' " 1865 Geologischer Theil, Bm<l 1 p. 1 3

382

Transactions.

and the two series appear to be separated from one another by a normal
fault. The diagram, fig. 2, therefore represents the author's opinion of
the structure of this interesting basin of Tertiary rocks.

The following is a list of the fossils found in the marly greensands on
the left, bank of the river about a mile below Wharekuri, which were obtained
as a result of two days' collecting : —

Turritella ambulacrum Sowerby.

pagoda Reeve.

symmetrica Hutton.

carlottae Watson.

Struthiolaria cincta Hutton.
Oalyptraea maculata Q. & G.
Polinices gibbosus Hutton.

huttoni Ihering.

cinctus Hutton.

suturalis Hutton.

Cymatium minimum Hutton.
Epitonitim, rugulosum lyratum Zittel.

n. sp.

Niso n. sp.

Fu sinus sp.

Siphonalia nodosa Martyn.

excelsa Suter.

Cominella exsculpta Suter.

pulchra Suter.

Alectrion socialis Hutt.
Lapparia corrugata Hutton.
Fulguraria gracilis Swainson.
Ancilla pseudaustralis Tate.

bicolorata Hutton.

Marginella harrisi Cossman.
Tunis uttleyi Suter.
Drillia callimorpha Suter.
Surcula fusiformis Hutton.

hamiltoni Hutton.

Bathytoma sulcata excavata Suter.

Mangilia cincta Hutton.

- rudis Hutton.
Exilia dalli Suter.
Cylichnella enysi Hutton.
XenopJwra sp.
Dentalium mantelli Zittel.

— solidum Hutton.
Leda semiteres Hutton.

— bellula A. Adams.
Malletia australis Q. & G.
Anomia trigonopsis Hutton.

— ivalteri Hutton.
Glycymeris cordata Hutton.
Cucullaea attenuata Hutton.
Limopsis aurita Brocchi.

zitteli Ihering.

Pecten chathamensis Hutton.

huttoni Park.

Ostraea tatei Suter.
Crassatellites obesus A. Adams.
Venericardia pseutes Suter.
Loripes laminata Hutton.
Dosinia greyi Zittel
Macrocallista multistriata Sowerby.
Chione meridionalis Sowerby.
Gardium patulum Hutton.
Psammobia lineolata Gray.
Corbula humerosa Hutton.

canaliculata Hutton.

Teredo heaphyi Zittel.

Fourteen species in this list of sixty are Recent, a percentage of 23*3.
The most abundant of these fossils are Polinices huttoni, Cucullaea attenuata,
Venericardia pseutes, Crassatellites obesus, and amongst the smaller shells
Limopsis zitteli.

The only other list of species of Mollusca from this locality is that given
by Park.* Park's collection, however, was made on the other side of the
river. It contains thirty-nine species, of which only twelve are identical
with|the species listed here.

Otiake.

There is a prominent exposure of limestone on the right bank of the
Waitaki, about five miles below Kurow. It lies half a mile distant from the
railway-line between Oamaru and Kurow, on its southern side, just below

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, 1905, p. 525.

Marshall. — Comozoic Fossils from Oamaru.

383

the bridge over the Otiake Stream. The limestone is of an arenaceous
nature, and contains a great number of fossils. Near its base there is a
thin band of greensand, which contains many specimens of Isis dactyla,
Magellania sp., and Pecten kuttoni.

The following is a list of the species obtained during two days' collecting
from a face of arenaceous limestone some 50 ft. in height : —

Turritella caver shamens is Harris.

murrayana Tate.

Struthiolaria verm is Martyn.
Crepidula gregaria Sowerby.

striata Hutton.

Calyptraea maculata Q. & G.
Natica zelandica Q. & G-.
Polinices kuttoni Ihering.

suturalis Hutton.

ductus Hutton.

gibbosus Hutton.

Trichotropis clathrata Sowerby.
Epitonium rugulosum lyratum Zittel.
Fusinus sp.

Mitra n. sp.

Siphonalia conoidea Zittel.

nodosa Martyn.

Cominella pulchra Suter.
Murex zelandicus Q. & G.
Typhis maccoyi T.- Woods.
Fulguraria gracilis Swainson.
Lapparia corrugata Hutton.
Ancilla hebera Hutton.

bicolorata Gray.

mucronata Sowerby.

Marginella harrisi Cossrhan.
Tunis alt us Harris.

altus transennus Suter.

uttleyi Suter.

Exilia dalli Suter.
■ n. sp.

Terebra orycta Suter.
Surcula n. sp.

n. sp.

Drillia callimorpha Suter.
Bathytoma sulcata excavata Suter.
Euthria sp.
Mangilia rudis Hutton.

tenuilirata Suter.

■ n. sp.

Dentalium solidum Hutton.
— ■ — ■ mantelli Zittel.
Cucullaea attenuata Hutton.
Limopsis aurita Brocchi.
Modiolus australis Gray.
Pecten zelandiae Gray.

huttoni Park.

Lima color ata Hutton.
Crassatellitus obesus A. Adams.
Venericardia difficilis Deshayes.
Divaricella cumingi Adams and

Angas.
Zenatia acinaces Q. & G.
Dosinia greyi Zittel.
Cytherea oblonga Hanley.

n. sp.

Macrocallista multistriata Sowerby.
— — ■ assimilis Hutton.
Corbula canaliculata Hutton.

humerosa Hutton.

— — - caiparaensis Suter.
Teredo heaphyi Zittel.

This list contains sixty-one species, of which fifteen are Recent, a per-
centage of 24. No collecting has previously been done in this locality.

All Day Bay.

In this locality the lowest rock is a volcanic breccia commonly known
in New Zealand geology as the Waireka tuffs. A bed of limestone about
12 ft. thick rests on the breccia quite conformably. The upper surface of
the limestone is remarkable for the abundant remains of species of Isis.
This upper surface is somewhat uneven, as is generally the case in New Zea-
land when the limestone is succeeded by a bed of greensand, which is the
case here. The greensands gradually become argillaceous, and within a
thickness of 50 ft. they pass into a material that cannot be distinguished
from the Awamoa beds, which five miles farther north are clearly seen at
the Rifle Butts to have exactly the same stratigraphical position. No
lists of fossils from this locality have been published previously. The

:;,s i

Transactions.

following twenty-seven species were found by us in the course of one day's
collecting : —

TwrriteUa cavershamensis Harris.
Pol in ices gibbosus Hutton.
Cymatium n. sp.

Phalium achatinum pyrum Lamarck.
Epitonium browni Zittel.
Turbonilla oamarutica Suter.
Mitra n. sp.

Vexillum apicale Hutton.
Typhis maccoyi Tate.
Murex octogonus Q. & G.
Lapparia corrugata Hutton.
Ancilla bicolorata Gray.
n. sp.

Marginella harrisi Cossman.
Turris altus Harris.
Maw/ilia rudis Hutton.
Dentalium mantelli Hutton.
Placunanomia zelandica Grav.
Limopsis zitelli Ihering.
Nucula hartvigiana Phil.
Pecten huttoni Park.
Lima colorata Hutton.
Crassatellites obesiis A. Adams.
Venericardia australis Lamarck.
Macrocallista assimilis Hutton.
Corbula pumila Hutton.

Marginella conica Harris.

Only six of these twenty-seven species are known to be Eecent, a per-
centage of 22-2. As stated previously, the beds at All Day Bay are similar
stratigraphically and lithologically to the Awamoa beds, but in a collection
of sixty-Jour species made at Awamoa in 1912 the percentage of Eecent
species was found to be as high as 35-5.

Eifle Butts.

At this locality, which is situated a short distance to the south of Cape
Wanbrow, the strata are dipping to the south at an angle of 35°. The
sequence is here perfectly plain, and the highest beds are composed of bluish
clay similar to that at Awamoa and All Day Bay. In descending order,
these are succeeded by greensands, limestone, and tuffs. Here, as at many
other places near Oamaru, the continuous deposition has been greatly
interrupted by the volcanic eruptions of the vicinity, which have caused
beds of tuff to be associated with the blue clay. Collections of Mollusca
were made from the blue clay, with the following result : —

Turris altus Harris.

Drillia awamoaensis Hutton.

Surcula fusiformis Hutton.

n. sp.

Baihytoma albula Hutton.
Mangilia rudis Hutton.

protensa Hutton.

leptosoma Hutton.

Turritella patagonica Sowerby.

concava Hutton.

sturtii Tate.

n. sp.

Crepidula gregaria Sowerby.
Nat i a i zelandica Q. & G.
Polinices suturalis Hutton.

gibbosus Hutton.

■ — — amphialus Watson.
Turbonilla oamarutica Suter.
Phalium achatinum pyrum Lamarck.
Vexillum apicale Hutton.

Unctum Hutton.

Siphonalia turrita Suter.
Alectrion socialis Hutton.
Ancilla bicolor Gray.
Marginella pygmaea Hutton.
— ■ — conica Harris.
Marginella harrisi Cossman.

Of these thirty-eight species, only ten are Eecent — that is, a percentage
of 26-3.

Cylichnella thetidis Hedley.
Dentalium solidum Hutton.
Placunanomia zelandica Gray.
Cucullaea attenuata Hutton.
Pecten sea modus Hutton.
Venericardia difficilis Deshayes.
Loripes laminata Hutton.
Tellina glabrella Deshayes.
Zenatia acinaces Q. & G.
Cytherea oblonga Hanley.
Corbula canaliculata Hutton.

Marshall. — Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru.

385

embedded is a limestone. The following

Cylichnella enysi Hutton.
Nucula stangei A. Adams.
Venericardia difficilis Deshayes.
Cardium waitakiense Suter.

Maerewhenua River.

A small collection was made by Mr. Uttley near the right bank of this
river, ten miles distant from the point where it joins the Waitaki. The
rock in which the fossils are
species have been identified : —
Turrilella carlottae Watson.
Capulus australis Lamarck.
Polin ices amphialus Watson.
Sinum n. sp.
Ancilla bicolor Gray.
Surcula n. sp.
Mangilia n. sp.

Waihao Valley.

In this district Mr. Uttley made collections at several different localities,
as shown below.

1 . Right bank of the Waihao River, three miles below the Waihao Forks,
in a bed of greensands which lies conformably below the arenaceous lime-
stone. Ten per cent, of the species are Recent.

n.

sp.

Corbula humerosa Hutton.

Turritella concava Hutton.

murrayana Tate.

— - — carlottae Watson.

patagonica Sowerby.

Struthiolaria papulosa Martyn
Polinices suturalis Hutton.
Galeodea senex Hutton.
Alectrion socialis Hutton.
Lapparia corrugata Hutton.
Ancilla hebera Hutton.

Surcula fusiformis Hutton.

n. sp.

n. sp.

Bathytoma haasti Hutton.
Hemiconus trailli Hutton.
Dentalium mantelli Zittel.
Limopsis aurita Brocchi.
Lima paucisulcata Hutton.

Cr as satellites obesus A. Adams.

Corbula paucisulcata Hutton.

2. Right bank of the Waihao River, at McCulloch's bridge. Here again
the fossil-bearing beds consist of greensand which lies conformably beneath
the arenaceous limestone. Fifteen per cent, of the species are Recent.
Turritella aldingae Tate. Turris n. sp.

ambulacrum Sowerby.
Xatica zelandica Q. & G.
Polinices suturalis Hutton.
Mitra inconspicua Hutton.
Siphonalia turrita Suter.
Ancilla bicolor Gray.

3. Near Mount Harris, on
first outcrop on the road leadin

Turritella murrayana Tate.

cavershamensis Harris.

— - — concava Hutton.
Polinices gibbosus Hutton.
Galeodea senex Hutton.
Epitonium browni Zittel.
Ancilla browni Zittel.

bicolor Gray.

Drillia n. sp.

Surcula fusiformis Hutton.

Dentalium mantelli Zittel.

13— Trans.

n. sp.

Surcula pareorensis Suter.
Mangilia rudie Hutton.
Dentalium solidum Hutton.
Corbula canaliculata Hutton.

the slope towards the Waitaki Valley — the
g from the Waitaki to the Waihao Valley.

Nucula n. sp.

Malletia australis Q. & G.

Limopsis aurita Brocchi.

Crassatellites obesus A. Adams.

Venericardia difficilis Deshayes.

Zenatia acinaces Q. & G.

Cytherea oblonga Hanley.

Psammobia lineolata Gray.

Corbula caiparaensis Suter.

— — ■ canaliculata Hutton.

humerosa Hutton.

Surcula n. sp.

■ n. sp.

Bathytoma sulcata excavata Suter.
Mangilia n. sp.
Terebra costata Hutton.
Cylichnella thetidis Hedley.
Thalassohelix igniflua Reeve.
Dentalium nanum Hutton.

ecostatum T. W. Kirk.

Crassatellites obesus A. Adams.
Venericardia difficilis Deshayes.
Corbula canaliculata Hutton.

} 86 Transactions,

The fossils are contained in a stratum of brown sands, which is the
material of which Mount Harris is formed. This material overlies the
limestone, and is probably a slightly higher horizon than that of the Target
Gully beds. Thirty-three per cent, of the species are Recent.

4. The top of the hill from Waihao Forks to the Elephant Hill. The rocks
here again are brown sands similar to those of the last locality.

Turritella caver shamensis Harris.

carlottae Watson.

Natica zelandica Q. & G.
Polinices suturalis Hutton.

huttoni Ihering.

Fusinus n. sp.
Si-phonalia conoidea Zittel.
Alectrion socialis Hutton.
Fulguraria arabica Martyn.
Ancilla bicolor Gray.
Marginella pygmaea Sowerby.
Surcula fusiformis Hutton.

Of these species, as many as 46 per cent, are Recent.

The general similarity of these lists at once establishes the fact that
the rocks in which the fossils occur belong to the same stratigraphical
series. This fact is also, in the author's opinion, abundantly proved by the
stratigraphical evidence, for no appearance of a stratigraphical break is to
be found. Hector and McKay, however, placed these strata in three dif-
ferent formations — Cretaceo-tertiary, Upper Eocene, and Lower Miocene ;
Hutton placed them partly in the Oligocene and partly in the Miocene ;
while Park classified them all in the Miocene formation. It is obvious from
the foregoing lists that the last opinion is probably correct, though the
author differs from Park as to the arrangement of the different beds within
this system. The stratigraphical sequence is clearly —

4. Brown sands.

3. Grey argillaceous beds (Awamoa).

2. Limestone.

1. Greensands.
That this arrangement is supported by the palaeontological evidence
is shown by the following considerations : The greensands at Wharekuri
contain 23-3 per cent, of Recent species, and those on the Waihao 10 per
cent, and 15 per cent, respectively. The lower percentages in the last two
cases are based on small and probably quite incomplete collections.

Collections were made from the limestone at Otiake. In this place it has a
molluscan fauna which contains 24-2 per cent, of Recent species. Though
the limestone has a wide occurrence in the Oarnaru district, it seldom contains
many molluscan remains, and in most localities the hard and compact nature
of the rock makes it almost impossible to extract the shells. In those places
only where the limestone is highly arenaceous can the shells be collected
with any ease. Park has classified the limestone outcrops at Oarnaru in
two different series, but we are not able to agree with this from a study
of the stratigraphical evidence. The palaeontological evidence as here
detailed gives no support to this theory. The fauna of the greensands
at Wharekuri and at Waihao appears to be of a distinctly more ancient
type than that of the sands which rest on the limestone at Oarnaru. Park

Marshall. — Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru. 387

would consider these two strata of the same age. The Oamaru limestone
generally consists almost entirely of remains of Echinoderms, Polyzoa, and
Foraminifera, though the material is generally somewhat fragmentary.

Near the coast at Awamoa, and actually on the coast at the Eifle Butts
and at All Day Bay, the rocks which rest on the limestone are a bluish-grey
calcareous mudstone. The percentage of Recent species contained in the
Mollusca found in these rocks is 35, 26, and 22 respectively. The divergence
between these results is considerable, but the collections are of very dif-
ferent values. It is possible that when the collections are more complete
the results will be more in accord.

The Target Gully beds are a slightly higher horizon, and the large col-
lection that has been made there contains 33 per cent, of Recent species.
The beds of Mount Harris, in rather similar material, give almost the same
result ; while those of Elephant Hill, which appear to be a still higher
horizon, contain as much as 46 per cent, of Recent species.

Thus the relative number of Recent species gradually becomes greater
in the higher beds, as would, indeed, be expected ; and it is evident that this
result, at the least, strongly supports the conclusion as to the relative position
of the strata which was dependent upon purely stratigraphical observations.

As to the actual percentages of Recent species, it is probable that con-
siderable changes will be made in the future as the molluscan fauna of the
deeper waters off the New Zealand coasts becomes better known. At the
present time relatively little dredging has been done, and it cannot be doubted
that several species hitherto believed to be extinct will be yet discovered
when further work of that nature has been done. It is, however, evident
that none of the strata from which the collections described in this paper
have been made is older than the Miocene period. This statement, how-
ever, involves the question whether any importance is to be attached to the
percentage of Recent species. In a country so geographically isolated as
New Zealand it is possible that formal change is very slow and that a
relatively high percentage of Recent species may be found in strata of
relatively high antiquity.

Art. XLI. — The Recent Volcanic Eruptions on Ambrym Island.

By P. Marshall, [M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Professor of Geology, Otago

University.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 1st December, 1914.]

It is well known that geologically the New Hebrides Islands are mainly of
volcanic origin, and of all of them Ambrym Island is the best known because
of its volcanic activity. The island is near the middle of the group, in
latitude 16° 10' S. and longitude 168° E. It is more or less triangular in
shape, with its greater dimension extending for thirty miles in a direction
that is nearly east and west. It measures twenty-one miles in a north-
to-south direction. Its surface is mountainous, the highest point, Mount
Marum, rising to 4,380 ft., while the whole of the central portion of the
island rises to more than 2,000 ft. Volcanic activity was in progress on
the island when it was first sighted by Captain Cook, in 1774, and its
activity has been frequently mentioned by travellers since that date.

13*

388

7 ' ransactions .

The best description of the island is that given by Captain Purey Oust.*
Whilst he was surveying the island in H.M.S. " Dart " in 1894 he witnessed
an eruption of great magnitude. Captain Purey Cust describes a great
central ash plain, as much as five or six miles in diameter, in the more
elevated part of the island. On the edge of this, on its western side, are
situated the two volcanoes Marum and Benbow, 4,380 ft. and 3,720 ft.
respectively. The latter of these was active at the time of Purey Gust's
visit, though the activity that took place in the crater of the volcano
was explosive only, for the lava-streams which were emitted at that time
escaped from orifices two to five miles to the west of the volcano. One of
these streams flowed north-west and then north, finally reaching the coast
at Krong Point after flowing for a distance of six miles. Another stream,
which flowed from a point farther to the west, filled a small lake. The
former of these streams is said to be no more than 10 yards wide in places.

Dec. X
Dip ?\.
Dec. 73.

River,

Sketch-map of Ambeym Island.

There was a small eruption near the extreme east of the island in 1889.
In 1910 a lava-stream issued from near the base of Mount Marum, and
flowed in a N.N.W. direction, finally reaching the sea at a point about five
miles distant from its point of origin.

Dr. Bowie has kindly given me the following account of the devastating
eruptions of December, 1913, which were almost confined to the extreme
western end of the island.

Some of the essential features of the island are shown in the appended
map, which has been copied from that of Captain Purey Cust. On this
map Dr. Bowie has kindly indicated the direction of the lava-flows of 1910,
1913, and 1914. A few of the surface features of the island are indicated
in the accompanying sketch-map, but in order to obtain a good idea of its
topography it is necessary to consult the map of Captain Purey Cust.

* Journ. & Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc, 1896, p. 586.

Marshall. — Volcanic Eruptions on Ambryih Island. 389

It appears tolerably evident that the central ash plain marks the site of
a former large cone which was truncated by an immense explosive eruption,
though Mawson refers to it merely as an old crater.

Keport of Eruption rx Ambrym Island, New Hebrides, 7th De-
cember, 1913, by Dr. Bowie.

On the 6th December, 1913, a little after 5 p.m. it was observed that
Mount Benbow. Ambrym Island, was in active eruption to an exceptional
degree. Gigantic columns of steam were seen to rise many thousands of feet
in the air. After each explosion a fresh pillar could be made out, boring its
way in a spiral fashion through the cloud which extended upwards from
the mouth of the crater. The succeeding explosions followed each other in
more and more rapid succession, as well as in added force, until within an
hour the intervals between the explosions were reduced from about three
minutes to under one minute, and ultimately there was apparently no in-
terval at all.

(a.) Just before dark, dense columns of steam and smoke were observed
rising somewhere in the western edge of the " Great Ash Plain," and as
darkness fell we could easily see a great river of incandescent lava rushing
towards Baulap ; another was running towards Port Vato. We climbed
the hill immediately behind the hospital at Dip Point, and watched the
Baulap stream until it reached the sea, which it did a little after 9 p.m.
Lava, however, continued to flow down that valley for at least a whole dav
after this.

(b.) About 11 p.m. a new lava-stream was sighted rushing down the
hillside about three miles and a half north-east along the coast. It reached
the sea immediately to the west of Krong Point at about 2 a.m.

(c.) Soon after the last stream reached the sea it became very apparent
that another lava-flow was on its way to the sea. During the whole night
the sky was brilliantly -lit up, but now, though there were high hills between
us and the various rivers of lava, the valley in which we were was so
illuminated that we could discern objects hundreds of yards away. This
stream reached the sea two miles to the north-east of the hospital about
2.30 a.m., 7th December.

(d.) Almost simultaneously with stream (c) another made its appearance
back in the hills at the head of Lowea Valley. This stream, one could easilv
observe, was coming much nearer to us, and we calculated the speed of the
flow at about five miles an hour. Certainly the incline was, on the whole,
pretty steep, and at one place the lava poured over a precipice about 60 ft.
or 70 ft. high. The sight was magnificent as well as awe-inspiring. The lava,
which was quite incandescent, came quickly on, burning up great forest-
trees, tossing them all aglow in the air. As they fell again into the torrent
they rebounded high in the air, emitting sparks like a thousand catherine-
wheels. Soon after 3 a.m. the lava plunged with a savage hiss and a mightv
roar into the sea. The sight was then superb, and never to be forgotten.

The din as the lava flowed through the forest reminded one very much
of the noise of a hurricane with the boom of the ocean and the crashing of
great forest-trees.

The last stream mentioned reached the sea within three-quarters of a
mile of the hospital compound, but the hospital was built in a valley sur-
rounded by hills except on the sea side. The valley behind was about a
mile and^a half long by about a mile broad at its widest part, and narrow-

°-9l» Transactions.

o

ing to within half a mile at the sea. The hills around ranged fromT500 ft. to
1,245 ft., and we considered everything inside this barrier as being quite safe.

Just about the time, or shortly before, the last stream reacheclTthe sea
we saw a dense volume of black smoke rising from the hilltop on the east
side, near the entrance to the valley and overlooking the hospital. When
day broke we discovered the top of the hill was being blown out, but as
yet there was no appearance of fire ; only some continuous expulsive force
was driving the hilltop out. There were no separate explosions observable.
The force was continuous. Soon, however, fire appeared, and the force in-
creased quickly, so that one could observe the hill steadily diminishing in
height. The side of the hill looking west was acted upon, and decreased more
quickly than the other sides, and about 10 a.m. on the 7th lava began to flow
down the hillside into the valley and through part of the hospital compound.

(e.) The ground in the valley could be felt in motion — a kind of heave
—not violently, but reminding one of a slight motion at sea. This motion
was not continuous, but at very short intervals.

Shortly after 10 a.m. an explosive eruption blew the hospital and other
buildings into the air. The force of this explosion was terrific. First a
great sheet of what appeared to be electric flame flashed from the ground,
and immediately following was a mighty roar and crash like myriad
thunder-claps one piled on another. The heat, too, was intense. We could
see for an instant only the corrugated iron spreading out like scintillating
glass, and then it was- gone. Explosion then followed explosion almost
continuously for four days at least. Sometimes there would be a short
interval, but the intervals did not last long.

(/.) We discovered at daylight that another lava-stream had flowed
behind our hills towards Craig's Cove. This stream stopped on the plain
about 500 yards from the beach. This stream was the biggest of all, being
in some parts about three-quarters of a mile wide.

(g.) About 3 p.m. on the 7th a submarine volcano broke out about a
mile from the shore off Lamb Point. Soon an island was formed, and within
sixteen hours had joined the mainland. After four days the activity of this
volcano ceased.

On Tuesday, the 9th December, a geyser suddenly broke out a few hundred
yards inland from Craig Point. Water must have been forced to a consider-
able height, for we were drenched in a mud bath while over 500 yards from
the shore. The geyser lasted for probably fifteen minutes or more. Im-
mediately after the geyser ceased a roar like a rushing torrent was heard.
Very soon a river extending in width from the trading-station at Craig
Point to Malver tore its mad rush to the sea. For half an hour or so there
was a great volume of water, which gradually diminished in volume, and
apparently in speed. This river ran for at least six hours.

On Sunday, the 7th December, there were six distinct craters in the
vicinity of Dip Point, West Ambrym. The whole district was undoubtedly
a fairly recent volcanic area. In the valley behind the hospital, as well as
at Craig's Cove, outcrops of lava could be seen at various points, and there
was little evidence of weathering, the lava in man}' places appearing
rugged, as it does soon after cooling.

Petrography.

The rocks oi Ambrym do not appear to have been described hitherto,
and it has therefore been thought advisable to add to this account of the
eruption by Dr. Bowie a few notes on the rock-specimens that have been

Marshall. — Volcanic Eruptions on Ambrym Island. 391

brought from this island. Some of these have been kindly forwarded by
the Eev. Peter Milne, a missionary on Nguna Island, and others by Professor
W. Morris Davis.

The locality of the specimens sent by Mr. Milne is not stated, but Dr.
Bowie assures me that the rock is the commonest type that is found at the
western end of the island. This rock is highly vesicular, and contains large
rounded phenocrysts of feldspar as much as 1 cm. in diameter, but no other
minerals can be distinguished in hand-specimens.

In section the rounded crystals of feldspar are found to be aggregates
of bytownite, with an extincton-angle of 40° in those sections which are
at right angles to the brae hyp inacoid. In the central portions of these
aggregates there are a great many inclusions of magnetite and of glassy
matter. These can be compared with the feldspar glomerules of the Mau
basalt previously described by Mawson.* In the present instance, how-
ever, there is not a marginal zone of inclusions, nor are the marginal portions
less basic than the central area. Smaller crystals of greenish augite and of
perfectly colourless olivine also occur, and in some instances rounded grains
of olivine are actually embedded in the feldspar. The groundmass consists
almost equally of microlites of bytownite, short crystals but more frequently
rounded grains of augite, and sometimes also of olivine. There is a con-
siderable residue of brownish glass, densely filled with magnetite-dust.

From Dip Point Professor W. M. Davis has sent me a specimen of a
compact grey rock which contains numerous feldspar phenocrysts. As in
the previous case, the phenocrysts when examined with the microscope are
found to be aggregates of several crystals, though they are less regularly
arranged than in the preceding rock. The mineral in these aggregates is
again bytownite. The groundmass consists mainly of bytownite with large
grains of diopside and of colourless olivine, and small octahedrons of
magnetite. There is a base of brownish glass, which contains numerous
needles of ilmenite.

A specimen of the lava of 1913 at Dip Point was also sent to me by
Professor W. M. Davis. The hand-specimen is iron-grey, and it is highly
vesicular. There is no porphyritic feldspar, though green augite and olivine
are distinct. In section there is found to be much feldspar in crystals of
small size but much twinned ; it is of a basic type, bytownite-Iabradorite.
The augite is near diopside, but slightly pleochroic. The crystals of olivine
are generally crowded Avith magnetite-dust. This appears to be an alter-
ation of a somewhat unusual nature, as no mention of it can be found
in text-books. A similar alteration occurs in the olivine of a dyke which
traverses the scoria cone of Mount Eden, at Auckland, and also in basaltic
rocks which occur near the margin of the pipe of the great central volcano of
Tahiti, though in the last instance the change is marginal or restricted to the
border of the cracks which traverse the mineral. It is still more noticeable
in the peridotite that forms part of the pipe of Tahiti.

The groundmass of this Ambrym rock consists of feldspar and augite
with magnetite. The augite of the groundmass is greenish, but often with
a brown margin.

It will be seen that these rocks are all basalts, and it is stated by Mawson
that all the recent products of volcanic activity in the New Hebrides are
basaltic, though earlier eruptions were associated with the emission of
andesitic rocks.

* "Geology of New Hebrides," Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1905, p. 463, pi. xxiii, fig. 4.

392 Transactions.

Art. XLII. — Brachiopod Genera : The Position of Shells with Magaselliform
Loops, and oj Shells with Bouchardiform Beak Characters.

By J. Allan Thomson, MA., D.Sc, F.G.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosphical Society, 28th October, 1914.]

The genus Magasella was founded in 1870 by Dall* for shells for erly
included under Terebratella, but distinguished from Terebratellae proper by
the possession of a high septum and by the fact that the reflected portion
of the loop forms a ring behind the upper portion of the septum.

It was subsequently discovered that during growth Terebratella passes
through a stage exactly comparable to Magasella, and that Magellania
(M. venosa) passes through stages comparable to Magasella and Terebra-
tella^ ; and, further, that a large number of species that had been described
as Magasellae were in reality only the young of known species of Terebra-
tella and Magellania. This proved to be the case with Terebratella evansi
Davidson, which Dall had chosen as the type of his genus Magasella, for
this species, originally described from Lyall Bay, Wellington, is a young
form of the common New Zealand shell Terebratella sanguinea Leach.
According to a strict application of the law of priority, then, Magasella is
a synonym of Terebratella. As there are, however, shells with Magaselli-
form loops which are undoubtedly adult, a generic name, embodying Dall's
intentions is necessary, and at first sight it appears to be a case in which the
law of priority might be set aside with advantage. This course was followed
by Deslongschamps4 who proposed the South Australian Recent shell
Terebratella. cumingi Davidson as the genotype, in place of T. evansi. If
all shells with Magaselliform loop characters could be placed in Magasella
thus emended, this course would have no other objection than the lack of
finality that must always attach to any alteration of the law of priority.
As will be shown below, however, Magaselliform loop characters may be
attained independently in more than one stock, and a different procedure
becomes necessary. Bud. man has already pointed out this polygenetic
origin of loop characters in the case of shells hitherto placed under Magel-
lania and Terebratella.^

'' It may be remarked that as species of Magellania pass through a
Terebratelliform stage in their ontogeny, pointing to a Terebratelliform stage
of phylogeny, the names Magellania and Terebratella do no indicate proper
generic divisions, but nark the stage of loop-development attained. It is
therefore more likely that certain Magellaniae are really Terebratellae which
have attained the Magellaniform loop, and that certain Terebratellae are
really Magellaniae which have not yet lost the Terebratelliform loop. This
means that a rearrangement of these genera to correspond with vertical lines
of descent instead of to indicate horizontal lines of developmental stages
may be anticipated. It is known that among Terebratuloid forms the shape
(test and ornament) may change considerably while the loop remains without
much modification ; and, on the other hand, that the loop may change
considerably while the shape remains little altered."

* Am. Journ. Conch., vol. 6 (1870), p. 97, fig. 18.

t P. Fischer and D.-P. Oehlert, Bull. Soc. Hist. nat. d'Autun, t. 5 (1892), pp. 254-334.
% Etudes critiques sur des Brachiopodes, &c. (1884), p. 204.

§ Wissensch. Ergobn. Schwed. Siidpolar-Exped., 1901-3. bd. iii, lief. 7 (1910),
pp. 21, 22.

Thomson. — Brachiopod Genera. 393

It will clear the ground to indicate first the validity of the genera
Neothyris Douville and Pachymagas Ihering. Douville* separated Neothyris
(genotype, Terebratula lenticularis Desh.) from Waldheimiaf (genotype,
Terebratula australis Quoy and Gaimard= T . flavescens Lamarck) on grounds
of different types of folding. The former he placed among the Cinctae,
stating that the valves are without folds and the commissure almost plane.
It is true that the valves are almost without folds, but the anterior com-
missure exhibits a slight but distinct anterior depression, a feature more
stronglv marked in related species, and due to incipient ventral uniplication.
The folding, therefore, places this species among the Nucleatae, and not
among the Cinctae. In the other species, WaMheimia flavescens (Magellania),
Douville distinguished primary and secondary folds, and placed the species,
on account of its primary folds, in the group of Coarctatae — i.e., antiplicate
or ventrally biplicate. In this respect Douville was, I believe, justified. J
The triplication is certainly slight in M.flavescens, but it is quite well marked
in certain Australian Tertiary forms, such as M . grandis, M. garribaldiana,
and M. divaricata. Nevertheless, it is not in itself a character of generic
importance in this case. The whole of the Magellaninae, if folded at all,
show a dominant ventral uniplication, § and the feeble ventral biplication is
only a slight modification of this, and has arisen independently in more
than one evolutionary stock. Actually it appears to be confined to Australian
forms, but it is not yet certain that they will all come under Magellania
s. str.

There is, however, another important difference between M. lenticularis
and M . flavescens, and it is precisely that used by Ihering in 1903 to dis-
tinguish Pachymagas from Terebratella — viz., the difference in the hinge-
plate and cardinal process. " Comparee avec T. dorsata, le plateau cardinal,
comme aussi ses annexes et le septum, sont extremement grossis et ces caracteres
servent pour etablir un sous-genre, pour lequelje propose le nom de Pachymagas.
L'espece typique est T. tehuelca et il jaut placer dans le mime sous-genre,
T. gigantea Ortm. et venter Ih. Toutes ces especes sont eteintes et restreintes
aux depots tertiares de la Patagonie ; toutes ont la coquille lisse, tandis que
dans Terebratella s. str., le processus cardinal, les crura et le septum sont
minces, plus ou moins lamellaires et la surface externe des valves est munie
de larges cotes rayonnantes."\\

Before discussing the cardinal process and other hinge parts it will be
convenient to dispose of the accessory character of multicostation, which
is shared both by M.flavescens and T. dorsata, the genotypes of Magellania
and Terebratella respectively. It is confined, among the higher genera of

* Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr., t. 7 (1879), pp. 273-75.

t Waldheimia was found to be preoccupied, and the name was changed to Magellania
by Bayle in 1880.

X Buckman apparently did not recognize the biplication. He says (Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc, vol. 63 (1907),' p. 342), "Hall and Clarke speak of Magellania numismalis,
the present Cincta ; but M. flavescens has not come through a Cincta stage, and shows
no sign of anterior retardation of the Cincta type. What it does show a little indication
of is a uniplicate stage, but reversed as compared with Terebratula whitakeri — that is,
it is ventrally, not dorsally, plicate."

§ With the exception only of Magasella vercoi Blockman, which shows slight dorsal
uniplication, and of M. adamsi Davidson, a species whose position in the Magellaninae
is not unequivocal. It is probably not an adult shell, and may be the young of some
member of the Dallininae.

|| H. von Ihering, " Les Brachiopodes Tertiares de Pptagonie," Ann. Mus. Nac.
Buenos Aires, torn. 9 (1903), p. 332.

394 Transactions.

the Magellaninae, to species which come under Terebratella and Magellania
s. str., if these be defined by the type of hinge ; but there are species in each
of these genera which do not exhibit this property. Terebratella rubicunda
is nearly smooth, showing only a slight crinkling near the margin in old
shells, while Terebratella oamarutica Hutton is perfectly smooth. A Recent
species of Magellania from Macquarie Island collected on the Mawson Ex-
pedition by Mr. H. Hamilton is also perfectly smooth. Multicostation,
therefore, although constantly absent in Pachymagas and Neothyris, cannot
be considered a property on which to base generic distinctions. These
must rest primarily on the types of hinge parts and cardinal process.*

Types of Hinge Parts and Cardinal Process.
(«.) The Terebratelliform Type. Fig. 1.

In M. fl,avescens, T. dorsala, T. sanguinea, and T. rubicunda — i.e., in
Magellania s. str. and Terebratella s. str. — the socket-ridges, hinge-plates,
septum, &c, are frequently described as lamellae, in reference to the

fact that they are thin and
i ' ^>\ sometimes almost transparent.

£ The hinge-plates are hollowed

f^^? underneath (fig. 1, b), and if
they be broken away it is found
that the septum extends be-
Fig. ] .—Terebratella sanguinea (Leach), Wellington neath them right to the umbo
Harbour. Interior of dorsal valve, a. View of the valve. The cardinal
from above b. Front view of hinder end proce8S [8 superimposed on
broken oft, showing shell and septum in sec- f, , . , « f, , .

tion/ lower sides of hinge-plates in perspective. the posterior end of the hinge-

plates, and consists of a thin

plate, broader than long, curving forward, and excavated on the upper
side to form a rounded cup or socket to which the diductor muscles are
attached.

H HH (b.) Pachymagoid and Neothyroid Types. Fig. 2.

HI In Terebratella parki Hutton and in other species referable to Pachymagas,
and in M. lenticularis and other species referable to Neothyris, the socket-
ridges, crural bases, and septum are thick and solid, and cannot be described
as lamellae. The socket-ridges nearly meet at the umbo, and thence diverge
more or less obliquely. The crural bases make junction with them on
their inner anterior corners, and are so intimately fused with them at this
point that they cannot generally be traced any farther posteriorly : but
in some species (N. lenticularis, N. oralis) they can be distinguished along
the inner sides of the socket-ridges for their whole length. The septum
does not extend as such to the umbo, but bifurcates posteriorly to join
the inner anterior ends of the socket-ridges (near the point of origin of the
crural bases as distinct processes). There are no definite hinge-plates as
in Terebratelliform types, their place being taken by the more or less steep
inner walls of the socket-ridges, which, with the bifurcating process of the
septum, enclose a trough which we may term the " hinge-trough.'" The
cardinal process rises from the bottom of the hinge-trough, and varies greatly
in different species. In New Zealand older Tertiary examples of Pachymagas
it is always fairly simple, but differs greatly in size and height. In its most

* That is to say, these characters best serve to distinguish the evolutionary stocks.

Thomson . — Brachiopod Genera .

395

primitive form it is very short, being confined to the posterior part of the
hinge-trough, and is also very low, in shape being a pyramid with an edge
facing forwards and a hollowed side behind. In more advanced types the
process gains both in length, occupying more and more of the hinge-

Fig. 2. — Interiors of dorsal valves of Pachymagas and Neothyris, showing evolution of
cardinal process, a. P. parki (Hutton), Kakanui greensands. b. P. parki (Hutton).
Hutchinson's Quarry greensands. c. P. hultoni sp. now (see appendix), Wharekuri
greensands. d. N. ovalis (Hutton), Shakespeare Cliff, Wanganui. e. N. ovali*
(Hutton), Castlecliff, Wanganui. /. N. lenticularis (Desh.), Recent (after Davidson).

trough, and in height, projecting above the socket-ridges, while the
hollow behind is now confined to its base, and is bounded by two
lateral ridges. In the most advanced types met with in New Zealand
species of Pachymagas there is a slight posterior median ridge in the

396 Transactions.

upper part of the process, and this ridge becomes still more accentu-
ated in. the Patagonian late Tertiary species, including P. tehuelca, the
genotype, and in the most primitive species of Neoihyris in New Zealand,
while at the same time the process gains still further in length and height.
Finally, in N. lenticularis the process is so large that it fills the whole of
the hinge-trough, and almost hides the bifurcation of the septum ; the
posterior median ridge is strongly marked, while the two lateral ridges
bounding the hollow facet at the bottom of the posterior part of the process
are greatly developed, and incurved so that they nearly meet to form a
tube.

The great resemblance in hinge characters between Terebratella dorsata
and Magellania flavescens on the one hand, and between Pachymagas tehuelca
and Neothyris lenticularis on the other, makes it certain that M . flavescens
had an ancestral form with Terebratelliform loop and Terebratelliform hinge
characters, while N. lenticularis had an ancestor with Terebratelliform loop
and Pachymagoid hinge characters. Corroborative evidence would be fur-
nished by a study of the hinge characters of the young stages of these
species, sufficient material for which I possess only in the case of the former
stock.

In M . flavescens, T. sanguinea, and T. rubicunda, Terebratelliform hinge
characters can be recognized not only in specimens with Terebratelliform
loops, but in specimens with Magaselliform loops. Young specimens of
fossil Pachymagas also possess Pachymagoid hinge characters at a stage
when the loop is Magaselliform. We are thus in a position to recognize
two stocks, typified in their highest development by M . flavescens and N.
lenticularis, and to state that the generic distinctions between Terebratella
and Pachymagas on the one hand, and between Magellania and Neothyris
on the other, are well founded.

Magella gen. nov.

No adult specimen with Pachymagoid hinge and Magaselliform loop has
yet been described, but there is in the Kakanui limestone (Oamaruian) a

species with Terebratelliform hinge cha-
racters and Magaselliform loop- — viz.,
Terebratella hahanuiensis Thomson* non
Hutton. This species I now rename
Magella carinata,\ and make it the type
of a new genus Magella, the essential
characters being those already indicated.
Fig. Z.—MayeUa carinata Thorn- In 0ld specimens the loop is rather more

son, Kakanui limestone. In- advanced, and the septum correspondingly
tenor of dorsal valve, end , . , . , £ . •. -1 , 9 J

view, showing loop touching lower> tnan in most species placed under
septum. Magasella ; but the pattern is still Maga-

selliform and not Terebratelliform, as fig. 3
shows, and the septum is still much higher in front than behind. The
deltidial plates are discrete, as in the young of Terebratella and Magellania.
There are probably a large number of described species which may be
transferred to Magella. In some with Terebratelliform hinge the loop
is more primitive, being in the stage called by Fischer and Oehlert

* Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 40 (1908), p. 102, pi. xiv, fig. 4, a-c.

[" The holotype of this species is the specimen figured by me in 1908, and now in
the Otago Museum.

Thomson. — Brachiopod Genera. 397

" Magadiform." These may, nevertheless, be placed in Magella, which will
then include all species of the Terebratella-Magellania stock which have not
attained at maturity the Terebratella stage of loop. Amongst such species
with primitive loops are Magasella australis Buckman, from the Pecten
conglomerate (Pleistocene) of Cockburn Island, off Graham Land, West
Antarctica ; Magasella gonldi Dall, from the Recent seas of Japan, which
is possibly only a young stage of Magellania grayi or some other species ;
and Magasella aleutica Dall.

Magasella flexuosa (King), if a valid species, as Ihering contends, is
certainly a Magella, but it is usually considered a young stage of Terebra-
tella dorsata, and the same is true of Magasella patagonica (Gould). Similarly
Magasella (?) laevis Dall is probably the young of Magellania venosa. It is
probable that Terebratella woodsi Tate, from the Table Cape beds of Tas-
mania, and Terebratella pumila Tate, from the Gippsland Lakes, will be
found on dissection to belong to Magella, as they agree pretty closely with
the genotype in external characters. Finally, Magasella antarctica Buckman,
from the glauconitic bank, Cockburn Island, described by Buckman as
possibly the Magaselliform ancestor of Terebratella rubicunda, is without
doubt to be transferred here.*

Shells with Bouchardiform Beak Characters.

All the known species of Bouchardia, though differing somewhat in
length and breadth, and in the amount of ventral uniplication or unicarina-
tion, possess similar and rather unusual beak characters- — viz., the beak is
incurved only at its apex, and then but slightly ; there are sharp beak-
ridges uniting in front of the foramen, which is thus behind the apex, the
false area is prominent, and the pseudo-deltidium strong, solid, and blended
with the shell. These characters are illustrated in fig. 4, which comprises
all the known species of Bouchardia.^

Now, there are in New Zealand older Tertiary (Oamaruian) a series of
shells which bear out Buckman's dictum that " the loop may change con-
siderable while the shape remains little altered." These shells have Bou-
chardiform beak characters, and, although much larger in size, they are
externally so like Bouchardia that they were described as such by Hutton
in 1905J under the names of B. rhizoida and B. tapirina (not Waldheimia
tapirina Hutton, 1873). Buckman, accepting Hutton's generic determi-
nation, compared them with the other known species of Bouchardia, and
considered that in shape the New Zealand species were biologically the
earliest. In spite of this undoubtedly primitive shape, these specimens
have proved to possess Magellaniform loops and septa (fig. 5).§ It is more

* Jackson (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 48 (1912), pp. 384-85) considers this species
the young of Terebratella dorsata, erroneously ascribing the glauconitic bank to Pleistocene,
whereas Buckman gives its age as Miocene -Oligocene. This greater age makes it more
probable that M. antarctica is an ancestral form of Terebratella dorsata than a young
specimen. Buckman considered it ancestral to T. rubicunda, but one would hardly
expect even incipient multicostation, such as M . antarctica shows, on a Miocene ancestor
of T. rubicunda.

t With the exception of B. patagonica jorgensis Ihering, the original description
of which I have been unable to consult.

J Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37 (1905), p. 480, pi. xlvi, figs. 6, 7. The beak characters
are not correctly rendered in the figures.

§ I obtained from Target Gully, Oamaru, a hollow specimen of B. rhizoida with a
complete loop, but unfortunately it was destroyed in removal.

398

Transactions.

than probable, therefore, that the ancestors of these species which possessed
Magaselliform and Terebratelliform loops also had Bouchardiform shape

Fig. 4. — Species of Boiichardia. a-d. South American (after Ihering). a. B. zitteli
. Ihering (twice natural size), b. B. patagonica Ihering (twice natural size), Pata-
gonian formation, c. B. zitteli Ihering, holotype (twice natural size), Patagonian
pj formation, d. B. transplatina Ihering (very slightly enlarged), Entrerian forma-
tion, e-k. Younger beds, Seymour Island, off Graham Land, Antarctica (after
Buckman), (natural size), e. B. ovalis Buckman. /, j, h. B. antarctica Buckman.
g. B. elliptica Buckman. h. B. angusta Buckman. i. B. attenuata Buckman.
f I l.?B. rosea (Mawe), Becent, Brazil (after Davidson).

Fig. 5. — Rhizothyris rliizoidu (Hutton). a. Holotype, Mount Brown beds, Weka Pass
(specimen in the Canterbury Museum). 6. Interior of dorsal valve, Weka Pass,
c. Interior of dorsal valve, Huchinson's Quarry, d. Form with nearly straight
sides, Weka Pass. (Figs, a-c by Dr. C. A. Cotton.)

and beak characters, and, if this be so, we must be dealing with a third
stock which has attained independently the Magellaniform loop. In any

Thomson. — Brachiopod Genera.

399

case, the hinge-pattern of these shells prevents their inclusion in either
Magellania or Neothyris. Consequently a new genus is necessary, for which
I propose —

Rhizothyris|^en.^nov.

Genotype, Boxichardia rhizoida Hutton.

The other species, Boachardia tapirina Hutton (non Waldheimia tapirina
Hutton), I now rename Rhizothyris curiosa, the holotype being a specimen
in the Dominion Museum from the Curiosity Shop beds, Rakaia River,
Canterbury (fig. 6).

Fig. 6. — Rhizothyris curiosa Thomson, holotvpe, Curiosity Shop.
(Figs, by Dr. C. A. Cotton.)

Fortunately, we can point to shells both with Magaselliform and with
Terebratelliform loops which possess rouchardiform shape and beak cha-
racters, and thus fill the gap between Bouzhordia and Rhizothysis TheSv.
shells require separate generic recognition, and for the former I propose —

Magadina gen. nov.

Genotyp'f, Magadina browni sp. nov., Mount Brown beds, Waipara
district, North Canterbury (fig. 7). (Fee appendix.)

Besides the genotype and Magadina waiparensis (fig. 8), another new
species {torn the Mount Brcwn beds, there are several already-described

Fig. 7. — Magadina browni Thomson, Mount Brown beds, Waipara,
Weka Pass district, a, b. Holotype (twice natural size).

c. Interior of dorsal valve, paratype (twice natural size).

d. Partial interior of both valves, paratype (natural size).

forms, all Australian, which combine Bouchard-form shape with Magasel'i-
form loops. Such are Magasella cretacea Etheridge (fig. 9), 7\irebratula
compta Sowerby (fig. 10), Magasella compta Tate (? of Sowerby), a species

400

Transactions.

which has attained triplication (fig. 11), and the Recent well-known
TerebratelJa cumingi Davidson (fig. 12). Possibly also Magasella tenisoni
Tenison-Woods belongs here. The unity in shape of these species and
their distinctness from those ascribed above to Magella will be easily
recognized.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 8. — Magadina ivaiparensis Thomson, Mount Brown beds, Middle Waipara

district, holotype (twice natural size).
Fig. 9. — Magadina cretacea (Etheridge), Gingin beds, Western Australia (after

Etheridge), (twice natural size), a. Dorsal valve, b. Ventral valve.

c. Interior of dorsal valve.
Fig. 10. — Magadina compta Sowerby, Port Fairy, Cape Otway coast, Victoria

(after Sowerby).

In loop characters Magadina browni is much less advanced than Magella
carinata, the descending and ascending branches being separately attache!
to the septum, which reaches to the opposite valve. This stage, termed
" Magadiform " by Fischer and Oehlert, differs from that of Magas in

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 11. — Magadina compta Tate (?of Sowerby), Mannurn, R. Murray (after

Tate).
Fig. 12. — Magadina cumingi (Davidson), Backstairs Passage, South Australia

(after specimens in the Dominion Museum supplied by Dr. Verco).

a. Dorsal view (natural size), b. Interior of dorsal valve (enlarged).

that the ascending branches form a complete ring, and it may now more
appropriately be termed "Magadiniform." Magadina cumingi possesses a
Magadiniform loop almost to adolescence, and finally attains an early
Magelliform loop.

Magadinella gen. nov.
Genotype, Magasella woodsiana Tate* (fig. 13).

The beak characters of this species are not strictly Bouchardiform, the
modifications being slightly greater incurvature and less sharp beak-ridges.

* Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austral., vol. 3 (1880), pp. 163-64, pi. x, fig. 3, a-d.

Thomson. — Brachiopod Genera .

401

Nevertheless, its nearness in shape to Magadina is shown by the fact that
Tate states that it bears considerable external resemblance to M. cumingi,
while Pritchard has placed it as a synonym of M. com/pta* The loop is
much more advanced than that of Magadina, however, being an early
Terebratelliform stage. Its hinge characters, described below, are quite
distinct from those of Terebratella and Pachymagas. Although, from the

Fig. \3.— Magadinella woodsiana (Tate), River Murray.
(After specimens in the Dominion Museum.)

slight difference in beak characters, Magadinella woodsiana cannot possibly
itself be an ancestral form of RJiizothyris, the forerunner of Rhizothyris with
Terebratelliform loop may be placed, when it is found, under Magadinella.

Hinge Characters of the Bouchardia-Rhizothyris Series.

In Bouchardia the posterior parts of the valves are much thickened,
the hinge-teeth of the ventral valve are strongly bifid, while in the dorsal
valve the fusion of the parts prevents exact comparison with the socket-
ridges, cardinal process, &c, of more advanced genera. The adductor and
diductor muscular impressions are situated anteriorly in the ventral valve,
and are divided by a low median ridge. In Magadina the valves are still
somewhat thickened posteriorly, the hinge-teeth are more strongly bifid
than in advanced genera, while the median ridge separating the muscular
impressions on the ventral valve is still situated anteriorly. The thickened
hinge parts of the dorsal valve consist principally of two socket-ridges,
which posteriorly are separate and taper each nearly to a point, projecting
considerably behind the umbo, but anteriorly are very solid, and unite with
one another in front of the septum. Between them, behind their anterior
junction, there is a small but deep hinge-trough, in which a cardinal process
lies. In Magadina broivni this process is very small, but in M. eumingi
it is large and solid, without sharp angles, and completely fills and obscures
the hinge-trough. The septum, high in front, low behind, joins the anterior
junction of the socket-ridges without bifurcation.

In Magadinella the posterior thickening of the valves is greatly reduced,
while the muscular impressions of the ventral valve are situated posteriorly
as in other advanced genera. The septum is long but low,f so that the
loop is probably in an early Terebratelliform stage. The hinge characters,
however, still present considerable resemblance to those of Magadina. The
socket-ridges are swollen anteriorly, almost uniting in the middle, where
they are joined by an unbifurcated septum ; posteriorly they become
attenuated, and project considerably behind the umbo. The hinge-trough

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., n.s., vol. 8 (1896), p. 143.

t Tate's figure shows a septum moderately high anteriorly, due probably to the
youth of the shell figured.

402 Transactions.

is roomy, and only partially filled by a small cardinal process pointing
obliquely forward, and expanded to form an excavated trefoil above.

In Rhizothyris the socket-ridges are thickened, and almost unite an
teriorly, where they are joined by a short stout unbifurcated septum. In
R. curiosa the cardinal process is small and similar to that of Magadina
browni ; in R. rhizoida it is large and swollen, and often fused with the
septum and socket-ridges, but in specimens where it is distinct it is
essentially similar to that of Magadina cumingi.

It will thus be seen that, while retaining Bouchardiform shape, there is
an evolution shown in this series not only in loop characters, but also in
hinge characters. While the loop has evolved until in Rhizothyris it is
indistinguishable from that of Magellania, the hinge has remained much
more simple, not showing the bifurcation of the septum which is so pro-
minent in Neothyris and Pachymagas.

Other Stocks.

In the above account all known shells with Bouchardiform beak
characters have been discussed, and the majority of the known species of
Magasella have been transferred to the Magaselloid genera, Magella and
Magadina, while the probable existence of a third Magaselloid genera be-
longing to the Pachymagas-Neothyris stock has been indicated. There are
still numerous species of Terebratella and Magellania, sensu lato, which will
not fit into any of the genera above described, but their treatment must be
postponed until a revision of the Tertiary Brachiopods of Australia and
South America has been made with special regard to the hinge characters.
There are also certain Recent species of Magasella still unplaced, notably
the South Australian forms Magasella vercoi Blockman and M. exarata
Verco. The name Magasella may still conveniently be retained in a wide
sense as a temporary designation for species whose relationship is not
ciear.

With regard to the relationship of the evolutionary stocks already indi-
cated, it is probable that Bouchardia is a retrograde genus from a forerunner
of Magadina, and that from the latter genus, by an anterior enlarge-
ment of the hinge-trough, the Magaselliform forerunner of Pachymagas has
evolved. From this suppositional genus, by evolution of loop characters
Pachymagas and Neothyris have evolved oa the one side, and by a further
reduction in the calcification of the hinge Magella has evolved on the
other side, giving rise later by evolution of the loop to Terebratella and
Magellania,

APPENDIX: DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES.

Magadina browni sp. nov. Fig. 7, a-d.

Description. — Shell rounded pentagonal, slightly longer than broad,
greatest breadth posterior to the middle, sides nearly straight, front more
or less tapering ; hinge-line nearly straight ; dorsal valve nearly flat, with
a short but often pronounced anterior sinus ; ventral valve moderately
convex, with a median carination ; commissures with a well-marked anterior
sinuation. sometimes narrow and deep, sometimes broad and shallower ;
beak short, not incurved, truncated obliquely by a relatively large, nearly

Thomson. — Brachiopod Genera.

403

round foramen whose anterior lip projects slightly forward; beak-iidgef
fairly sharp, delimiting a false area, the greater part of which is occupied
by a large solid concave pseudo-deltidium. Surface of valves smooth with
numerous strong growth-lines.

Dimensions in Millimetres.- —
Holotype
ParatypesJ

Length.^;
.. 10
.. 10-6
11
9-8

\Type Locality.- — Base of main limestone, cuesta between Mount Brown
and the Waipara Biver, North Canterbury.

Ireadth.

Thickness.

8-5

5-3

7

5

10

4-8

93

4-8

Magadina waiparensis sp. nov. Fig. 8, a, M

This species so closely resembles M. broivni that the differences only
need be indicated. M. waiparensis is slightly more elongate, more con-
vex, and the dorsal valve more arched from back to front. The beak is
much more produced, and more incurved, and in consequence the pseudo-
deltitidium is higher and more concave.

Dimensions in Millimetres.- —

Length.

Breadth.

Thickness

Holotype

.. 11

8-3

5-5

Paratypes

.. 10-4

7-8

5-8

11-3

9

5-5

Type Locality. — Lowest Mount Brown limestone, in cliffs of the Deans-
Waipara cuesta opposite the Barn's Paddock, Middle Waipara district,
North Canterbury.

Pachymagas huttoni sp. uov. Fig. 2, c.

1905. Magellania triangularis Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst,
p. 477 (not the species of 1873).

vol. 37,

Description.- — Shell suborbicular, greatest width about the middle ; hinge-
line short, obtusely angular. Dorsal valve depressed, with a faint anterior-
sinus, slightly produced and reflected in front ; ventral valve strongly and
broadly carinated, sides rather flattened ; margins of valves fairly sharp ;
anterior commissure with a broad moderately deep anterior sinuation.
Beak small, inflated, not greatly incurved, truncated by a moderately large
circular foramen ; beak-ridges fairly sharp, pseudo-deltidium broad, low,
Surface of valves smooth with numerous growth-lines.

concave.

Dimensions of Holotype. — *

Length.
43 mm.

Breadth.
41 mm.

Thickness.
23 mm.

Type Locality.-
north of Ngapara.

-Maerewhenua limestone, crossing of Awamoko Biver,

* The holotype is in the Dominion Museum, and is not the specimen here figured.

404 Transactions.

Art. XLIII. — Additions to the Knowledge of the Recent Brachiopoda of

Neiv Zealand:'

By J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 28th October, 1914.]

There are only four valid species of Brachiopod described from New
Zealand waters — viz., Hemithyris nigricans (Sowerby), Neothyris lenticularis
(Deshayes), Terebratella sanguinea (Leach), Terebratella rubicunda Sowerby.
The occurrence of a fifth species, Crania sp. ind., has been indicated
by Hutton* and Hamilton. f To this list I am now able to add four
species, the locality of one of which is doubtful. Two species formerly in-
cluded in Hutton's lists — viz., Magadina cumingi (Davidson) and Kraussina
lamarckiana (Davidson) — are well-known Australian species, whose occur-
rence in New Zealand has not been verified during the last forty years,
and they should be omitted from our lists.

Since the publication in 1887 of part ii of Davidson's " Monograph
of Recent Brachiopoda" % no further study of the New Zealand forms has
been made. Nevertheless, since that date observations of the greatest
importance, affecting the whole classification, have been made on the South
American forms, § showing that the genera Magasella, Magas, Terebratella,
and Magellania are related in such a way that the loops of the higher genera
pass during growth through forms comparable with the adult loops of the
lower genera. Beecher|| has contrasted this series of growth stages with
those of Macandrevia cranium and of some other northern species formerly
assigned to Terebratella and Magellania, and, on account of the differences
displayed, has founded for these species the genera Terebratalia and Dallina,
placing them along with Macandrevia in a new subfamily, the Dallininae.
Beecher rather hastily assumed that the Dallininae were entirely confined
to the Northern Hemisphere and the Magellaninae to the Southern, and,
this assumption being until recently unchallenged, it has not seemed a
matter of urgency to study the growth stages of other species ascribed to
the above-mentioned genera. Jackson, ^f however, has recently shown that
a species of Macandrevia ranges from the Gulf of Panama to Coats Land,
Antarctica, thus proving the occurrence of the Dallininae in the Southern
Hemisphere. The occurrence of species of Magasella in the Northern Pacific
has long been known, but their significance appears to have been overlooked.
Elsewhere** I have shown that certain species of the Northern Pacific now
generally ascribed to Terebratalia and Dallina have not the type of folding
typical of members of that stock of the Dallininae, but that characteristic
of the Magellaninae, and that on this account these species should probably
be referred back to Terebratella'ff and Magellania.

These circumstances in themselves make a study of the young stages
of all Recent Brachiopods belonging to the Terebratellidae desirable, more

* Cat. Marine Mollusca N.Z. (1873), p. 87.

f Colonial Museum Bull. No. 1 (1906), p. 41.

% Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., ser. 2, Z ol., vol. 4, pt. i (1886), pt. ii (1887).

§P. Fischer and D.-P. Oehlert, Bull. Soc. Hist. nat. d'Autun, t. 5 (1892),
pp. 254-334.

|| Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts Sci., vol. 9 (1895), pp. 376-99, pis. i-iii.

TI Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 48 (i9l2), pp. 379-83.

** Geol. Mag., dec. 6, vol. 2 (1915), pp. 71-76.

ft The genotype of Terebratalia come under this category, and if my contention is
correct this genus becomes a synonym of Terebratella. I have proposed a new genus
Dallinclla, as the Terebratelliform forerunner of Dallina.

Thomson. — Recent Brachiopoda of New Zealand.

405

especially those of New Zealand, Australia, Japan, and western North
America. When it is further recognized that within the Magellaninae, and
probably also the Dallininae, there are different stocks that have arrived
independently at similar loop forms, a knowledge of the growth stages
becomes of the highest interest.

Young Stages of Terebratella rubicunda and Terebratella

sanguine a.

Through the kindness of Miss Mestayer and Mr. H. Hamilton I have
been able to examine a large number of the young of these species from
Chetwode Islands (Cook Strait), Wellington Harbour, and Foveaux Strait.
Specific discrimination is possible between these two species down to a
length of 3 mm. for the ventral valve ; the young of T. sanguinea is
in general broader, and the multicostation has already commenced as
a crinkling on the margins at that length. So far as the development
of the loop is concerned, these two species agree almost entirely with
T. dorsata, the development of which has been described by Fischer and
Oehlert.* This is only to be expected, since the New Zealand species
belong to Terebratella s. str, of which T. dorsata is the genotype.

Table indicating Names of Loop Stages in Terebratella and

Magellania.

Fischer and Oehlert.

Beeeher.

Names adopted in this Paper.

Pre-Magadiform

Magadiform
Magaselliform
Terebratelliform
Magellaniform

j Bouchardiform . . |
[ Megerliniform . . i

Magadiform

Magaselliform

Terebratelliform

Magellaniform

Pre-Magadiniform.

Magadiniform I Magaselli-
Magelliform j form.
Terebratelliform.
Magellaniform.

In the so-called Magadiform stage (fig. 5) the descending and ascending
portions of the loop are separately attached to the septum, and the ascend-
ing portion forms a complete ring. This is the condition of the adult
loop in Magadina browni, whereas in Magas pumilus the ascending branches,
so far as is known, do not unite to form a ring. Moreover, in the growth
of the loop of Terebratella the ascending portion never passes through
a stage where the ring is incomplete. It is therefore desirable to re-
place the term "Magadiform" by "Magadiniform." Similarly the term
" Magaselliform " has not been used in an unequivocal sense. It is
restricted by Fischer and Oehlert and Beeeher to the stage, later than
Magadiniform, where the descending and ascending portions of the loop
have united with one another along the side of the septum (fig. 6). This is
the stage attained in the adult loop of Magella carinata, but many species
classed under Magasella have not passed the Magadiniform stage. Hence
it will conduce to clearness if the term " Magelliform " be used for the later
stage, and the term "Magaselliform" be used in a wider sense for both
Magadiniform and Magelliform stages- — that is, for shells with a high septum
rapidly lessening in height posteriorly, and with descending portions of

* Loc. cit.

406

Transactions.

the loop complete. For the earliest stages with a high septum and with
the descending portions of the loop incomplete the term " pre-Magadini-
form " may be used.

Beecher has compared the pre-Magadiniform stages with the adult
condition of the loop in Bouchardia and Megerlina, but there are import-
ant differences which make the use of the terms " Bouchardiform " and

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Fig. ] . — TerebrateMa rubicunda, Chetwode Islands. Pre-Magadiniform stage, before
the appearance of the hood on the septum. Length of ventral valve, 3 mm.

Fig. 2. — Terebratella rubicunda, Chetwode Islands. Pre-Magadiniform stage, with
small hood on septum. Length of ventral valve, 3-5 mm.

" Megerliniform " misleading. In each of these genera, as in Magas, the
ascending branches do not unite to form a ring, while in B. rosea the
descending branches are completely absent. In the young stages of
TerebrateMa there is never an incomplete ring, while the growth of the
descending branches commences before any indication of the ascending
branch can be found on the septum. It is probable that in loop characters
B. rosea is degenerate from a stock originally possessing pre-Magadiniform
characters. The loops of the fossil species of Bouchardia are as yet un-
known, and their description will possess the highest interest.

In the young of TerebrateMa rubicunda there is a great deal of latitude
in the relations between size of shells and stage of loop-development attained.
Generally speaking, the Magadiniform characters are attained at a length

Fig.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 3. — Terebratellu rubicunda, Chetwode Islands. Pre-Magadiniform stage, with ring
developed from hood. Length of ventral valve, 3-5 mm.

Fig. 4. — TerebrateMa rubicunda, Foveaux Strait. Late pre-Magadiniform stage, re-
taining a hood on the septum when the descending branches are nearly complete.
Length of ventral valve, 6 mm.

of 4 mm., but one specimen of 6 mm. is still in the pre-Magadiniform stage.
Magelliform characters usually commence at a length of 6 mm., and are
quickly superseded by early Terebratelliform characters.

The only observations I have been able to make on loop-development
additional to those of Fischer and Oehlert relate to the very early stages.
The growth of the crura commences, as they have pointed out, before any

Thomson. — Recent Brachiopoda of New Zealand.

407

sign of the ring appears on the septum (fig. 1). I have observed several
specimens in a succeeding stage in which a very small hood, not a ring,
appears on the posterior end of the septum (fig. 2). The base of this hood
later becomes resorbed, and it passes into a ring (fig. 3), but sometimes
it persists to a fair size (fig. 4). In the large specimen of 6 mm. previously
mentioned, the front parts of the descending branches have already appeared
on the septum before the hood has developed into a ring.

Fischer and Oehlert made no observations on the development of the
hinge-plate, which is a characteristic of the Terebratella-Magellania stock.
In their figures of T. dorsata the septum does not extend back as far as the
hinge-plate until the Magelliform stage is reached, whereas in T. rubicunda
it passes under the anterior end of the hinge-plate in the Magadiniform,
and exceptionally in the pre-Magadiniform. stage. The development of
the hinge-plate commences independently of the septum. In very young
specimens it starts as two almost vertical plates on the inner sides of the
anterior end of the socket-ridges, separated in front from the socket-ridges
by a hollow, but behind coalescing with them. Possibly these two plates

Fig.

Fig. 6.
Early Magadiniform stage

Fig. o. — ■Terebratella rubicunda, Foveaux Strait

of ventral valve, 4 mm.
Fig. 6. — Terebratella rubicunda, Foveaux Strait. Magelliform stage

valve, 8 mm.

Length
Length of ventral

are united along the middle line of the valve, but, if so, they are closely
applied to the bottom of the valve. In succeeding stages these plates
descend from the socket-ridges more and more obliquely, thus gradually
approaching one another, while the hollow between them and the floor of
the valve gradually increases in size. In later Magadiniform stages, where
the septum now reaches back to the region of the hinge, these plates unite
above the septum, but farther back the}' are still applied to the bottom of
the valve. Finally, in the Magelliform stages
the septum reaches right back under the hinge-
plates to the umbo, and the characteristic
Terebratelliform hinge characters are attained.
The cardinal process appears at the umbo in
very early stages in much the same form as it
attains at maturity, while the hinge-teeth of
the ventral valve are also well developed in
the early stages.

The ridge separating the muscular mark-
ings of the ventral valve, which is situated
anteriorly in Bouchardia and Magadina, but
posteriorly in Terebratella and Magellania, is
well developed in the young stages of T. rubicunda, and is situated
anteriorlv in pre-Magadiniform stages, centra ly in the Magadiniform
stages, and posteriorly in the higher stages.

Fig. 7. — Terebratella rubicunda,
WellingtonHfibour. Adu]'.
Lergth of ventral valve,
1 9 mm.

408 Transactions.

The young stages of Terebratella sanguined differ in no important
respect from those of T. rubicunda.

Young Stages of Neothyrls lenticularis.

It is known from the observations and figures of Douville* and
Davidsonf that the loop of this species passes through Magelliform and
Terebratelliform stages during growth, and it is probable that the still
earlier stages do not differ jrom those of Terebratella. Unfortunately, I
have not yet been able to obtain a series of very young shells in which to
confirm this, though such a series should not be difficult to obtain from
the oyster-dredges of Foveaux Strait. The study of the development of
the cardinal process in this species will be of much interest.

Additions to the List of Species occurring in the New Zealam>

Area.
Liothyrina sp. ind. Fig. 8.

Included in Mr. Hamilton's collection from Foveaux Strait there is a
single example of Liothyrina. This genus is characterized by a short Tere-
bratuloid loop, a thin shell finely punctate, and the presence of 4 radiating
furrows in the interior of the dorsal valve for the attachment of the pallial
sinuses, all of which characters are well displayed by the present example.

Fig. "8. — Liothyrina sp., Foveaux Strait, a, dorsal view ; 6, side
view ; c, interior of dorsal valve. Length, 14 mm.

In shape it is suborbicular, and entirely non-plicate, and has all the appear-
ance of a young shell, for which reason I do not propose to give it a specific
name at present. The beak characters are hardly typical of Liothyrina,
which usually has at least slight anterior projection of the lip of the
foramen ; but, again, this may be due to its youth.

Liothyrina occurs in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres,
but has not been before recorded in the New Zealand - Australian area.
It is known from the English chalk, and probably occurs in the Italian
Tertiaries, but none of the New Zealand or Australian Tertiary Terebratu-
loids, though in some cases thin-shelled, appear to belong here. It appears,
therefore, to be a recent immigrant to our waters, in contradistinction to
our other species, which are all descendants of known Tertiary shells.

Neothyris ovalis (Hutton). Fig. 9.

1886. Waldheima ovalis Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, p. 335.
1905. Magellania lenticularis ovalis Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37,
p. 475, pi. xlv, fig. 2.

This species is related to N. lenticularis, but differs in shape and also
in its less incurved beak and much larger foramen, while the cardinal
process is also more primitive. It is abundant in the younger Tertiary

* Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr., ser. 3, t, 7 (1879), p. 256, fig. 3.
t Loc cit., pt. i, pi. 9., figs. 11, 12, 13.

Thomson. — Recent Brachiopoda of New Zealand.

409

rocks (Wanganuian) of the North Island, but has not hitherto been found
Recent. The specimen here figured was obtained by Captain Bollons from
Farewell Spit. The colour is pinkish-
red, as in N. lenticularis, and the shell
is sufficiently translucent for the pallia 1
sinuses to show through.

It is rather remarkable that Neothyris
campbellica Filhol, which is intermediate
in characters between N. oralis and
N. lenticularis, should not also be found
Recent. It is a common Wanganuian
fossil in the North Island and on Camp-
bell Island.

Fig. 9.— Neothyris ovalis (Hutton),
Cape Farewell Spit. a, dorsal
view; 6, side view. Length, 36mm.

Terebratella sp. cf. Magella carinata Thomson.

In Mr. Hamilton's collection there are four specimens from Foveaux
Strait of a new species of Terebratella, which differ from T. rubicunda by the
possession of a more pronounced ventral unicarination, of an incomplete
foramen, and of distinctive colour-markings. The shell is of a pale pinkish-
white colour, with irregular radial splashing of deep red. Such colour-
markings are rare amongst Recent Brachiopods, but occur in Bouchardia
rosea. In shape the adult shells agree nearly with Magella carinata, but the
loop has advanced to an early Terebratelliform stage. The four specimens
comprise two adults, about the size of small specimens of T. rubicunda,
and two half-grown shells, not so carinate, and with Magaselliform septa.
Unfortunately, the two adults are too damaged to serve as type specimens,
and in consequence it is better to leave the species unnamed at present.

It is remarkable that this species, undoubtedly a descendant of the
Oamaruian Magella carinata, should not be found in the Wanganuian rocks.
The explanation may be that it has always been restricted to a southern
habitat. Magella carinata has only been found near Oamaru. and the
present species occurs in Foveaux Strait, still farther south, while no
Wanganuian marine rocks are known from Otago or South Canterbury.

Magellania flavescens (Lamarck).

There is in Miss M. Mestayer's collection a single specimen of this
species, which probably comes from the Chatham Islands. It was in a box
of Hemithyris nigricans labelled "Chatham Islands and Lyall Bay," and,
since the Lyall Bay habitat has not been confirmed, the probability is that
it came from the Chatham Islands. Miss Mestayer is positive that it did
not come from Australia. Nevertheless, its occurrence must be verified
before it can be added to our list.

The shell is a rather elongate form, with strong ventral uniplication
and little sign of Implication, and the multicostation is perhaps a little finer
than usual. Nevertheless, it comes well within the range of variation
figured by Davidson.

410 Transactions.

Art. XL1V. — On the Occurrence of Lower Ordovician Graptolites in Western

Otago.

By T. S. Hall, M.A., D.Sc., University of Melbourne.
Communicated by Professor P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, Otago University.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 5th December, 1911.]
Plate VII'.

Through the kindness of Professor P. Marshall, of Dunedin, I have had
the opportunity of examining half a dozen small slabs of graptolite-bearing
shales collected by Mr. J. S. Nicol, of Gore, at Preservation Inlet, at the
extreme south-west corner of New Zealand.

The rocks containing the fossils are of two kinds. Both are dark blue
in colour. One is slightly micaceous, and has small white spots of some
decomposed mineral in it. It has a somewhat irregular fracture. .The
other rock is of a darker tint, being almost black, and splits more freely
along the bedding-plane. Both rocks are silicified. The graptolites are
mostly very distinctly shown, being preserved in a silvery-white mineral
which is generally spoken of as gumbelite. Further examination should
result in the discovery of a larger supply of better material than has been
submitted to me.

The fossils clearly belong to the series known as Lancefieldian in Victoria,
which is very low down in the Ordovician, and contains some forms which
elsewhere are of Cambrian age. One of the most striking features is the
exact resemblance of the darker rock to that which occurs at Lancefield
itself. The slabs containing the specimens shown in figs. 1 and 2 may be
matched both lithologically and palaeontologically with examples from the
Victorian locality, twelve hundred miles away. That both should be similarly
silicified is very remarkable.

I have ventured on two specific identifications only, with a separate
variety in one case. But besides these several examples are shown of another
genus, Bryograptus, which may be new, and probably are, but as the thecal
characters are not clearly shown I have not named them.

The figures show the following forms : —
Clonograptus tenellus Linnarson.
Clonograptus tenellus var. callavei Lapworth.
Clonograptus sp. n.
Bryograptus sp.
Tetragraptus decipiens T. S. Hall.

In addition, there are many fragments, suggestive but unidentifiable.
None of these seem to belong to genera not represented at Lancefield. Clono-
graptus tenellus and its numerous varieties is, outside Australasia, a typical
Cambrian species.* In Victoria it is, as has been shown, Lower Ordo-
vician.f

The new species of Clonograptus is a fairly large one, and a perfect
hydrosome would probably be 6 in. or 8 in. in diameter. But there is not
enough of it preserved to justify description. Bryograptus is represented

* See especially A. H. Westergard, Studier ofver Dictyograptusskiffern, &c. Lunds
Universitets Ansshrift. N.F., Afd. 2, bd. 5, nr. 3, 1909.

tT. S. Hall, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, n.s., vol. ii, 1899, p. 164.

Trans. X.Z. Inst. Vch XI.V11.

Plate VI 11

Gkaptoi.ites prom Western Otago.

Fact p. Sin

412 Transactions.

There is a general agreement in the fossils of Dr. Shakspear's collection
and the one before me, but owing to an unfortunate accident I have not
been able to define the contents of the beds exactly.

None of the specimens were labelled when I received them, but those
from each locality were in separate parcels. There was, however, some
confusion in the localities. In one instance counterparts were attributed
to separate localities, and in two other instances I think that confusion
has taken place, though I am unable to distinguish the matrix. The
association, however, is not exactly what we know to occur in Victorian
strata, unless the two specimens be rejected.

Arranged in descending order, the three localities are placed as follows :
(1) Tramway locality ; (2) Golden Ridge ; (3) Butcher's Gully.

The following species have been identified : —

(1.) From the Tramway Locality.

Didymograptus extensus J. Hall.

caduceus Salter.

bifidus J. Hall.

Phyllograptus angustifolius J. Hall (?).
Loganograptus logani J. Hall (?).

In Victoria D. bifidus is not associated with the large variety or form
of D. caduceus which occurs in these beds. I therefore regard the single
specimen of D. bifidus, which has no other fossil on the same slab with it,
as wrongly included. There is, so far as I can see, no difference in the
matrix, nor, for the matter of that, is there much between that of the
three localities. The specimen doubtfully referred to Loganograptus logani
is very imperfect, but it is probably that species. Its associates, except
D. bifidus, do not forbid it.

(2.) From Lowest Adit of Golden Ridge Mine.

Didymograptus mundus T. 8. H. var.

caduceus Salter.

Tetragraptus serra Brong.
Dichograptus octobrachiatus J. Hall.
Goniograptus cf. crinitus T. S. H.

- cf. laxus T. S. H.
Phyllograptus angustifolius J. Hall.
Diplograptus sp.

The counterpart of the slab that contains I). octobrachiatus and the two
species of Goniograptus was included in the collection from the tramway-
line, so that their horizon is not quite certain. It is this clear case of
confused association that strengthens my idea that two other cases occur
as detailed below. D. mundus is closely allied to D. nitidus.

(3.) From Butcher's Gully.

Didymograptus extensus J. Hall (probably introduced).
caduceus Salter (probably introduced).

- bifidus J. Hall.
Tetragraptus serra Brong. (?)

- harti T. S. H.

pendens Elles.

Phyllograptus cf. typus J. Hall.

Hall. — Golden Ridge Graptolites. 413

The single example of D. caduceus is thejlarge forni, which in Victoria
isjnot found associated with D. bifidus, but occurs in higher beds. It has,
[ think, been included by mistake. D. bifidus is very common, and juvenile
and well-grown specimens occur. Tetragraptus serra agrees with the figures
of the form which J. Hall refers to Brongniart's species, and which has
been renamed by Miss Elles and Miss Woods T. amii. T. harti resembles
T. quadribrachiatus J. Hall, but has only one theca in the primary branch,
and is much more slender. The sicula is well shown in the two examples
present. Phyllograptus cf. typus comprises several specimens of lanceolate
forms of various sizes.

Age of the Beds.

Judging by the Victorian standards, and eliminating the two specimens
that I regard as intruders, the beds may be arranged in the order given
above. They represent the middle and lower series of the Castlemainian.
The Bendigonian, characterized by Tetragraptus fruticosus, is with us usually
only a few feet below the beds corresponding with those of Butcher's Gully,
and it would be of interest to see whether this series is not represented in
the locality which has yielded the present series of fossils. The presence
of Lancefieldian has been proved at Preservation, as shown by a previous
paper to the Institute.

For convenience, the Victorian divisions of the Ordovician are here
given, especially as a recent work on geology coming from a faulty source
gives them wrongly : —

Upper Ordovician.

/Darriwillian.

T rv i • • Castlemainian.

Lower Ordovician -r, , .

j Bendigonian.

I Lancefieldian.

Art. XL VI. — Notes on the Soils of the Wairau Plain, Marlborough.
By Leonard J. Wild, M.A., F.G.S.

[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 26th October, 1914.]

The district herein described is about 60,000 acres in extent, and includes
some of the richest alluvial soils in the Dominion. The Wairau Plain pro-
bably owes its formation to the filling-up of a lagoon by the sediments brought
down by the Wairau River. There is no doubt that at a geologically
recent period this district was at a lower level than it is at present, and what
is now a fertile plain was then an arm of the sea extending up the valley for
twelve or fourteen miles from the present coast-line. The neighbouring
Awatere Valley was also at a lower level, but was nevertheless a land sur-
face, and the Awatere River discharged large quantities of sediment into
the sea. A portion of this material, the heavier gravels deposited near the
shore, was gradually drifted up the coast, across the mouth of the Wairau
arm, and piled up against the cliffs at Cloudy Bay. thus enclosing a lagoon.
In this lagoon the sediments of the Wairau River and its present tributaries
have been deposited, and even yet the process of filling in is not completed,
for in the south-east corner of the district there still remains a portion some

414

Transactions.

thousand acres in extent, most of it permanently under water, and separated
from the sea by a narrow boulder-bank 8 ft. to 16 ft. above sea-level. All
the material in this boulder-bank is from the Awatere River, and includes
large quantities of the volcanic rocks brought down by the tributaries from
the dvkes in the Kaikoura Mountains described by McKay, and more
recently by Thomson.* The Wairau River, indeed, has not yet carried
any gravel to the sea, the limit to which it has so far carried any being just
below the railway bridge, which is several miles from the shore-line.

The rivers that cross the plain afford further evidence as to the manner
of its formation. The largest, the Wairau, meanders over a wide stretch
of country, and provides two very fine examples of an ox-bow curve and
one of an ox-bow cut-off. The first curve occurs a little below the point
where the Blenheim-Picton Railway line crosses the river, the cut-off is
about a mile and a half lower down the river, and the other curve is

sketch map „f

THE WAIRAU PLAIN,
MARLBOROUGH.

WHITE
BLUFFS

about a mile and a half lower down again. The next-largest river, and
the most important, in that it makes the Town of Blenheim accessible to
small steamers, is the Opawa. This is a distributary of the Wairau, and
the two enclose, the greater part of the delta formed when the Wairau
entered the still waters of the lagoon. The Opawa is a perfect example of
a meandering river. The shortest course possible to it from Blenheim to
the point where it rejoins the Wairau near the sea is four miles and a half
long ; the actual course taken by the river in its windings between these
two points is over nine miles and a half in length.

These and other facts contribute to an understanding of the geological
history of the area. The whole plain is a flat surface slightly tilted towards

* Trans., N.Z. Inst,, vol. 45, 1913, p. 308.

Wild. — Soils of the Wairau Plain. 415

the sea. Until the early settlers had considerably increased by artificial
means the height of the natural levees bordering the rivers the whole dis-
trict was subject to periodical floods. Even yet the district is not immune :
in December, 1914, a large area was inundated by a Wairau flood, and
hundreds of pounds' worth of crops just ready for harvesting were destroyed.
Indirectly the floods are useful, for they are active agents in renewing the
soil and in building up the plain. Cases have been brought to the notice
of the writer of fences built by the settlers of fifty or sixty years ago
which are now completely buried by the flood-deposits of less than half [a
century.

We now have the key to the nature of the soils. Examination in the
field and mechanical analysis in the laboratory show that all grades are
represented, from gravelly and sandy soils in the inner area to fine-grained
silts near the coast. If grouped according to their physical properties, the
soils fall roughly into bands parallel to the present coast-line, but there are
two notable exceptions to this arrangement. One is the alluvial fan of the
Taylor River south of Blenheim, some hundreds of acres in extent. The
soil here is gravelly, yet very fertile, and has proved itself capable of
maintaining excellent lucerne-fields, and this is no doubt largely due to the
excellent drainage and water-supply provided by the widely spreading
underground channels of the Taylor River, and to the fact that the area
lies well to the sun. The other exceptional area is in the north-east corner
of the district, where the band of gravel from the Awatere River already
referred to is much wider, as, indeed, it would be expected to be from
geological considerations. Here the soils are .extremely gravelly, and
ploughing has not yet been attempted, but sheep do very well there.

Chemical analyses show that the soils are well stocked with plant-food
in an available form, and this is in accord with the remarkable crops they
bear. Large yields of excellent malting barley are still obtained, though the
yields are not now equal to those obtained by the last generation of farmers.
This is generally ascribed to continuous cropping without manures ;
thorough cultivation is the usual preparation for the crop, and the tradi-
tional practice is to " plough three times." The most important crops
taken at the present time are oats, barley, peas, clover, lucerne, and such
forage crops as rape, mangels, maize, &c, together with a small area of
potatoes. The area devoted to roots is necessarily restricted by the scarcity
and expense of labour. The fertilizer most commonly used is superphos-
phate, which even on clovers gives better results than basic slag, notwith-
standing that there is not an excess of lime in the soil. The superiority of
superphosphate is probably due to its stimulation of root-growth, for the
district is one of low rainfall. Nitrogenous and potash manures have
been found to produce no appreciable effect.

The Wairau Plain is widely and favourably known for the production
of seed of great vitality and high germination-capacity. Thousands of
bushels of garden peas are annually exported for seed, and the lucerne seed
that gives best results in New Zealand is that grown in Marlborough. A
considerable quantity of red clover and cowgrass seed of excellent quality
is also harvested, and small areas are given up for the raising of mangel,
carrot, and flower seeds. Seed-raising is for the most part done on the
contract system, the farmer supplying the land and labour, and the other
party, usually one of the large seed-merchants, providing the seed and taking
over the produce at a specified price.

416

Transaction*.

Soil-analyses.
Chemical.

Nitrogen.

0-290
0-191
0-114
0-281

0-272
0-300

Mechanical.

No.

Moisture.

Loss on
Ignition.

Clay.

Fine

Silt.

Silt,

Fine
Sand.

Coarse
Sand.

Gravel.

1 ..

2-10

7-90

12-7

45-4

18-2

12-4

1-70

2 ..

1-90

4-50

1-7

24-3

25-3

23-0

11-70

7-26

3 ..

2-15

5-78

4-6

29-2

25-5

28-0

5-70

. ,

4 ..

1-85

3-85

10-8

20-2

23-7

35-5

5-30

5 ..

3-12

6-80

5-7

31-4

31-2

17-8

4-35

6 ..

2-00

4-13

9-8

24-1

26-3

23-6

10-10

Reference.

1. At confluence of Wairau and Opawa Rivers.

2. From Renwicktown.

3. From Blenheim.

4. From Spring Creek, east of railway-line.

5. From Upper Spring Creek.

6. From Upper Spring Creek, west of No. 5.

These analyses were made by the conventional methods of British
agricultural chemists. The nitrogen determinations were made by Kjel-
dahl's method, and the mechanical analyses by the sedimentation process.

Iredale. — Suter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 417

Art. XL VII. — A Commentary on Suter's ''Manual of the New Zealand

Mollusca."

By Tom Iredale.

Communicated by W. R. B. Oliver.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1914.']

The receipt of the long-looked-for " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca "
has given me great pleasure, and I hasten to emphasize my appreciation
of Mr. Suter's work, and tender my congratulations to him upon the suc-
cessful completion of his task and upon the magnificent memorial he has
created to his name. I have elsewhere, in another connection, observed
the ease of destructive criticism as contrasted with constructive work,
and I once more appear in the unhappy role of a critic who could not have
compiled such a work as that subjected to analysis. The part is not a
pleasant one, as I well know the disadvantages under which Mr. Suter has
perpetually worked in the preparation of his splendid guide, for I once
worked at the study of the New Zealand Mollusca with no other aid than
the Manual compiled by Hutton in 1880. Since then I have enjoyed
the benefit of continual access to the unrivalled collections and literature
at the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, with also
daily intercourse with all the well-known British malacologists. Such a
contrast has enabled me to realize probably more fully than any other
malacologist the wonderful work Mr. Suter has completed.

I have felt compelled to make the preceding remarks, as the following
long list of alterations and corrections of Mr. Suter's results might otherwise
be misunderstood.

In the present paper the notes are such as I have jotted down while
engaged upon the determination of the collection made at the Kermadec
Islands during 1908, and also comparison with collections made at Lord
Howe Island and Norfolk Island by Mr. Roy Bell.

At the present time I can only indulge in the study of museum col-
lections as regards Neozelanic shells, but the past days of collecting throw
many a gleam of light upon the darkness of museum comparisons and dull
book-handling.

The majority of the succeeding notes are due to the latter causes, but
some field notes also occur. I anticipate, with such an easy guide as that
offered by Mr. Suter, a great revival of interest in the field in New Zealand,
as there is so much to do. I do know, in my own case, had such a manual
been available my own efforts would have been more vigorous and fruitful.

Mr. Suter has omitted the Kermadec Mollusca, writing that the Kermadec
Islands " belong to a distinct province of the Australian subregion." I
am very gratified at this conclusion, which is quite justified, and in agree-
ment with my own results. I hope an account from the pen of my com-
panion, Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, dealing with the Kermadec Mollusca as a
whole, will succeed this article. Study of it in connection with the Manual
will fully confirm Mr. Suter's statement.

Unfortunately, there is one blemish in the Manual, and that is the re-
jection of names unaccompanied by a figure in favour of later different
names proposed with the shell figured. To the systematic worker this is
a serious matter, as the International Rules are quite clear upon this point,

14 — Trans.

418 Transactions.

and I know of no other recent worker who has followed this practice. In
some cases Mr. Suter has given a note remarking his action, but in a few
cases he has omitted to do so. In every case, of course, Mr. Suter's action
is contrary to the International Eules, and the earliest name must be
reinstated.

The succeeding notes are to a great extent nomenclatural, and I want
here to emphasize the invaluable aid that the " Index Animalium," by
C. Davies Sherborn, must be to the Neozelanic student. Many of the
errors here corrected would have been just as easily amended by systematic
workers in New Zealand had reference been continually made to Sherborn's
priceless work. By means of it they can be practically assured of names
prior to 1800.

I am placed in a peculiarly favourable position, as, in addition to the
published work, I have access to Mr. Sherborn's continuous labour, and
also obtain his unique advice upon bibliographic work. No words can
express the gratitude I feel, and it must be understood that many of the
following notes are due to Mr. Sherborn's initiative, and depend entirely
upon his work, freely given at every opportunity.

I also desire to record the invaluable assistance Mr. E. A. Smith, I.S.O.,
of the British Museum, has given me. Many of the notes here given are
based on his unequalled knowledge of molluscan forms and literature. In
every case of doubt I have consulted Mr. Smith, and in no case have I
written anything save the results of our considered judgment.

The majority of my notes are novel, but in order that my commentary
should cover the recent work done I have included items published by
Hedley, Smith, and myself which have appeared since or are not incor-
porated in the Manual. I give here only those notes which I consider
complete at the time of writing — viz., the 15th September, 1914. I mention
this as it is certain that some of them will be out of date before publication
in June, 1915.

Suter has remarked on p. 941, "I think it is more in the interests of
science to separate a number of more or less distinct forms which are pro-
duced by differences in their environments. Too much lumping does not
tend to advance scientific knowledge." I emphatically endorse this state-
ment, and would apply the principle to the usage of restricted genera and
subgenera. I would draw attention to the extraordinary action of British
malacologists who, when dealing with Antipodean material, have lumped,
as regards genera, in the most casual manner. Yet when classifying the
British molluscan fauna, both land and marine, the same workers have
utilized to the extreme limit restricted genera and subgenera.

I herewith propose many new groups, which are all the result of study
of the Neozelanic forms in conjunction with extra-limital species, and I
bleieve the usage of these groups will tend to advance our knowledge.

I have been compelled to make continual reference to my papers in
the Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London, where the technical
details of the matters are fully discussed. As the Proceedings of this society
may not be commonly available throughout New Zealand, I will gladly
forward copies of my papers to any reader interested in Neozelanic mala-
cology. Any requests addressed care of British Museum (Natural History),
South Kensington, London, S.W., would always reach me.

Some of the succeeding notes may appear rather lengthy, but I have
incorporated many extracts explanatory of my conclusions, as I know
such cannot be easily referred to, and they will aid the New Zealand worker

Iredale. — Suter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 419

in understanding bettor the results stated. The references given can be
quoted freely, as I have carefully verified each one myself.

Order Polyphacophora.
This order has been my chief interest ever since I commenced the study
of molluscs. I hope to incorporate all the results of my investigations in
a monograph of the Australasian forms. I have, to this end, contributed to
the Proceedings of the Malacological Society (London) a series of articles
dealing with nomenclatural problems, and also indicating alterations neces-
sary in classification. I herewith give a summary as affecting the names
and status of the New Zealand genera and species as I understand them at
present. In the " Additions and Emendations," pp. 1077-82, Suter has
included some of my earlier notes, so that when considering this group
these must be reckoned with. On p. 1082 Suter lias given a synopsis of
Thiele's classification of these molluscs, a scheme which I generally approve
of. I would, nevertheless, indicate that Thiele's arrangement opens up a
large field for study, as, though radular characters form the basis of his
grouping, shell features confirm it.

Ischnochiton contractus (Reeve, 1847). [P. 8.]*
I have not seen Suter's immature specimen, but I doubt if it should be
referred to this species. Mr. W. L. May has sent me specimens of three
distinct species which have been confused by Tasnianian collectors under
that species-name.

Ischnochiton campbelli (Filhol, 1880). [P. 9.]

On p. 1077 Suter comments upon my identification of /. fulvus Suter,
1905, and I. parkeri Suter, 1897, with the earlier Tonicia gryei, Filhol,
1880, and rejects the last-named, as Filhol's description was unaccompanied
by a figure ; but Mr. Suter's rejection cannot be maintained. He also differs
from me in still considering his own two names as representing distinct
species. I have therefore once more re-examined the shells, of which I
have long series, and cannot see any differentiating features. Suter only
gives " shape and divergence," and in this genus these characters are un-
stable. Further study of these shells has convinced me that the correct
name to be used is as above, based on Lepidopleurus campbelli Filhol (Comptes
Rendus Sci. Paris, vol. xci, p. 1095, 1880: Campbell Island). When I
studied the types of the French authors, by permission of the Curator of
the Paris Museum, the types of this species had been mislaid. As the
types of Tonicia gryei Filhol were hidden under the later name Lepidopleurus
melanterus Rochebrune, I conclude that the tube so labelled also contained
the shells described by Filhol as L. campbelli. The description is quite
good — indeed, more applicable in detail than that of Tonicia gryei, which
follows it. Though no figure was offered, this is no reason for dismissing
Filhol's name, and I therefore reinstate it as above.

I have seen specimens from South Australia named /. fulvus by Dr.
Torr, but these are at once recognized as distinct by examination of the
girdle-scales. The few deep grooves on the scales of /. campbelli Filhol
are quite characteristic.

* The references in square brackets— e.gr., [P. 8] — give the page of the " Manual of
the New Zealand Mollusca" referred to, but the names at the head of the paragraphs
in this paper are not always these used by Mr. Suter.

14*

420 Transactions.

Ischnochiton maorianus Iredale, 1914. [P. 9.]

In the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 36, 1914, I proposed this name
for the common New Zealand species known as /. longicymba Quoy and
Gaimard, 1835.

In the Diet. Sci. Nat. (Levrault), vol. xxxvi, 1825, Blainville furnished
the first systematic monograph of this order, and on p. 542 described Chiton
longicymba from specimens collected at King Island, Bass Strait. In 1835,
as quoted by Suter, Quoy and Gaimard figured a shell under Blainville's
name, giving as localities New Zealand and Australia.

In the Manual Conch., vol. xiv, p. 87, 1892, Pilsbry detailed the differ-
ences between the shells thus named from Australia and New Zealand,
and, ignoring Blainville's name, used Quoy and Gaimard's misinterpretation,
further making confusion by restricting the name to the New Zealand form.
It is unjustifiable to transfer names in this manner, and the only way out
was to name the New Zealand species as I have done.

Acanthochiton australis (Suter, 1907). [P. 16.]

Suter described a Mopalia australis from the Snares Islands. Geo-
graphically the generic location was extraordinary, and it has now been
proved that the genera of Chitons are restricted to certain geographical
areas. Thiele, from this reasoning, threw doubt upon the accuracy of
Suter's selection. I have been puzzled, but now put forward the solution.
The description given by Suter agrees in every detail, save the number
of slits in the anterior valve, with Acanthochiton. The normal number of
slits in that genus is five, and any larger number is due to interslitting.
Consequently the eight recorded by Suter is quite abnormal, and misled
him owing to the eroded nature of the exterior. Had the sculpture been
observed, it is almost certain that the true generic location would have
been ascertained at first.

Plaxiphora aurata (Spalowsky, 1795). [P. 18.]

In the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 31, 1914, I noted that
P. aucklandica Suter was based upon a juvenile of P. campbelli Filhol. I
now put forward the above as the correct name for a species which has the
longest synonymy of any austral Chiton, and yet is the best-marked species.

In the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. ix, 1910, I synonymized P. superba
Pilsbry and P. subatrata (Pilsbry) Suter with the earlier P. campbelli Filhol.
These names refer to Neozelanic shells. On the next page I pointed out
that P. carmichaelis (Wood) should be used for the South American species
commonly known as P. setiger King, and also recorded as a synonym
C. hahni Eochebrune. The following year Pilsbry (" Nautilus," vol. xxv,
p. 36, 1911) showed that Chiton auratus Spalowsky (Prodr. Syst. Hist.
Test., p. 88, pi. 13, figs. 6a, 6&; 1795) antedated both, and though described
from " Die Siidsee (von der Insel Otahaiti ?) " was undoubtedly the South
American shell. I have examined large numbers of the latter in every
stage of growth and preservation, and I cannot distinguish any differential
characters between them and the Neozelanic shell. It should be remarked
that hitherto no one has critically compared the two species. Pilsbry
only knew the Neozelanic form from Carpenter's notes, and Suter never
mentions the South American species in connection with it. A parallel
distributional case is the admission of Callochiton puniceus Gould, a common
South American shell, to the New Zealand Chiton fauna (p. 14). Suter

Iredale. — Suter's :i Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 421

dismissed P. campbelli Filhol for lack of figure (p. 1079), but this excuse
cannot be urged against Spalowsky's name, as a beautiful coloured repre-
sentation accompanies it. I hope to elaborate the relationships of the
littoral marine molluscs of South America and New Zealand at some later
date, as hitherto not much notice has been given to this fact.

Plaxiphora zigzag (Hutton, 1872). [P. 19.]

Forty- odd years ago Hutton described this species, which has only re-
ceived its due recognition this year (1914) by myself through indications
by Thiele in 1909. In the Revision, p. 23, Thiele's examination of a small
shell from Lyttelton led him to point out the differences between this and
P. caelata Reeve. As the specimen seemed young, Thiele fortunately
withheld nomination. When I was collecting at Lyttelton I was always
puzzled at the association of all the small Plaxiphora under the one name,
caelata Reeve. A smaller shell, differently coloured, with a peculiar girdle,
was more common, but almost always in an unrecognizable state as regards
valve sculpture. The larger, clean, easily determined P. caelata Reeve lived
lower down, and was much more rare. I collected numbers of the former
in the desire to secure good-looking specimens. Dissection of many of
these showed them constantly to give the characters noted by Thiele as
differentiating his unnamed form from P. caelata Reeve. In the Proc.
Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 34, 1914, I recorded the fact that no new name
was needed, as this was the species described by Hutton in 1872, and this
must be added to the New Zealand list, and the name removed from the
synonymy of P. caelata Reeve. Hutton's description is very good as regards
external features, and the shell can be recognized by means of it.

Suter (p. 1078) remarks that P. terminalis may be classed as a subspecies
of P. caelata ; but that conclusion was not intended by my remarks. My
reading of Thiele's description and figures of P. schauinslandi led me to
decide that agreement with P. terminalis was certain, laying no weight
upon locality. The Chatham Island species, which I have not seen, would
appear to differ, though it is difficult to judge from descriptions, and, if so,
would bear Thiele's name.

Plaxiphora glauca (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835). [P. 20.]

What the species included under this name is I do not know. It cannot
bear this name, as it undoubtedly cannot be the Australian species thus
named, for which the correct name is P. albida Blainville, as noted by Suter
on p. 1079, but rejected as unfigured. " The latter [glauca Q. & G.] can
still be retained," Suter writes; but that is not so, as the name is pre-
occupied as corrected by Thiele.

Thiele also named P. schauinslandi from the Chathams, and this may
be Suter's species. The coincidence of locality and description forces the
conclusion, though P. schauinslandi is referable to the group I have called
Maorichiton, while the true P. albida is a member of the Poneroplax group.
I propose to substitute Thiele's name for the doubly invalid one selected
by Suter, and ask for confirmation.

I have expressed my views with regard to the genus Plaxiphora in the
Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, pp. 31-33, 1914, and have separated the
species P. obtecta Pilsbry, with generic rank. I have distinguished five
subgenera in the genus Plaxiphora, and would insist upon their usage.
This necessitates more careful examination of the species and study of

422 Transactions.

many dissected examples, but it obviates puzzles such as presented by the
record of the species P. glauca Q. & G. from the Chatham Islands. The
item in Suter's description, " Posterior valve convex, with transverse lines,
mucro terminal," suggests its reference to the subgenus Maorichiton, and
consequently its identity with Thiele's P. schauinslandi. The terminal
mucro is characteristic of the subgenus, the mucro in Australian shells
being never terminal, but subterminal or subcentral.

Genus Acanthochiton (Gray, 1821, em.)- [P- 25.]

The introduction of the subgeneric name Acanthochitona by Gray in
the " London Medical Eepository," vol. xv, p. 234, 1821, has been con-
stantly overlooked, the later Acanthochiles of Risso, 1826, being commonly
in use. When I restored it (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 126, 1914)
I also gave notes on the names Amicula, Cryptoconchus, and Macandrellus,
and advocated the recognition of four generic types in the Acanthochitons
of New Zealand. The synonymy of these names has been discussed in
detail at the place quoted, so need not here be elaborated. The family
name should be Cryptoconchidae. as I noted that Cryptoconchus must be
regarded as introduced in 1815, and therefore antedates Acanthochiton
Gray, 1821. I agree with Suter (p. 1080) that Spongiochiton productus
Pilsbry should be dismissed from the New Zealand list.

Amaurochiton glaucus (Gray, 1828). [P. 34.]

In the " Spicilegia Zoologica," pt. 1, p. 5, 1828, Gray described Chiton
glaucus from unknown locality. Pilsbry rejected this name, as he con-
sidered the description inadequate, and stated that the type was lost. It
appears he wrote this last sentence without inquiry, as the type is pre-
served in the British Museum. Further, Pilsbry based his monograph upon
Carpenter's manuscript notes, and Carpenter recognized the type, and
upon the back of the tablet is a note by Carpenter regarding his identi-
fication. It is undoubtedly the New Zealand shell, and all Neozelanic
specimens for many yeais were, and are still, given Gray's specific name.
I simply noted this fact in the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.). vol. xi, p. 38, 1914,
in a footnote, when noting the dissimilarity between " Chiton pellisserpentis
Quoy and Gaimard " and "Chiton quoyi Deshayes " = Amaurochiton
glaucus (Gray). The usage of the generic Amaurochiton becomes necessary
through the rejection of " Chiton " as applicable to a heterogeneous as-
semblage of Chitons with scaly girdles and pectinated insertion teeth.

Amaurochiton was proposed by Thiele from an examination of the radular
characters of Chitons. The name was given to the South American species
C. olivaceus Deshayes. Thiele also proposed Triboplax generic-ally for the
present species, but these are only specifically distinct. Indeed, sonic
workers have used the names as if they were conspecific. The relation-
ship is really very close, and there can be no hesitation in using the above
generic name. Chiton belongs to a species which superficially recalls Chiton
pellisserpentis Q. & G., and the rejection of it in the present connection
will be admitted as necessary by every accurate worker.

Craspedochiton cuneatus (Suter). [P. 42.]

The genus Tonicia must be dismissed from the Neozelanic fauna, and
the species named by Suter Tonicia cuneata transferred to Craspedochiton.
On p. 1081 Suter records Thiele's conclusion to the same effect from study

Iredale. — Sitter's " Manual of the Neiv Zealand Mollusca." 423

of the radula. My own result was achieved by criticism of the shell cha-
racters alone. The slitting in the head-valve is abnormal, four only being
counted, instead of the usual five, but in Tonicia the normal is eight.
I would emphasize the fact that the generic location must be regarded as
temporary only, as I have not seen the unique specimen, and the figure given
by Suter is comparatively valueless, showing seven valves only.

I wish Mr. J. C. Anderson would find some more specimens, but I well
know the difficulty of securing these rare stragglers from deeper water.

Genus Acanthopleura (Guilding). [P. 44.]
This, with the species A. granulata, and all the matter connected with
them, must be omitted, as this is no constituent of the New Zealand fauna.
I have pointed out, as acknowledged in the Manual, p. 1078, that Tonicia
corticata Hutton should rank as a synonym of Plaxiphora biramosa (Quoy
and Gaimard). The genus Acanthopleura is confined to the tropics, rarely
occurring outside these limits. It is absolutely littoral in every portion
of its range, though sometimes specimens are dredged in shallow water.
Two species occur in north Australia and the Pacific Ocean, but it is the
West Indian species that is here included. It is impossible to accept such
a record, and I do not think that the shell upon which Sater based his record
had any history at all. It was certainly never collected alive in New Zea-
land waters. The locality, Pitt Island, I do not understand, and in view
of the known distribution of Chitons this species cannot be recognized as
Neozelanic. Will collectors please note.

Onithochiton neglectus (Rochebrune, 1881). [P. 49.]
In the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. ix, p. 153, 1910, I wrote upon New
Zealand Onithochitons, and agreed with Thiele that 0. semisculptus Pilsbry
was an absolute synonym of 0. undulatus Quoy and Gaimard, and that.
• moreover. Pilsbry' s name was antedated by Rochebrune's four specific
names published a dozen years earlier. I also stated that I would consider
Suter's var. subantarcticus as a different species. In the same, journal,
vol. xi. pp. 45-46, 1914, I noted that Quoy and Gaimard's name was pre-
occupied, and that the common New Zealand shell would bear the name
0. jilholi Rochebrune. Upon reconfirming my data I find that this was clue
to a misreading of my notes, and that the name to be used is 0. neglectus
Rochebrune.

Suter's record of his var. subantarcticus from Cook Strait and New Brighton
does not refer to this species, which is confined to the subantarctic islands,
but belongs to a species quite distinct, but as yet unnamed.

Summaries are most helpful, and I here give a summary of my classi-
fication of the Neozelanic. Chiton fauna, with the use of Thiele's system as
basis. I add the original reference only when it differs or is not given by
Suter.

Suborder Lepidopleurina.

Fam. Lepidopleuridae Pilsbry.

Genus Lepidopleurus Risso, 1826.

Subgenus Terenochtton Iredale, 1914. Terenochiton Iredale,
Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 28, 1914. Type:
Lepidopleurus subtropicalis Iredale.
Lepidopleurus inquinatus (Reeve, 1847).

424 Transactions.

Suborder Chitonina.

Fam. Lepidochitonidae Iredale.
Genus Callochiton Gray, 1847.

Subgenus Icoplax Thiele, 1893. Icoplax Thiele, Das Gebiss d.
Schnecken, vol. ii, p. 392, 1893. Type : Chiton puniceus
Gould.
Callochiton puniceus (Gould, 1846). Synonyms: Chiton illu-
minatus Reeve, 1847 ; C. dimorphus Rochebrune, 1889.

sulculatus Suter, 1907.

empleurus (Hutton, 1872).

- platessa (Gould, 1846). Synonyms : Chiton crocinus
Reeve, 1847 ; C. versicolor Angas, 1852.
Genus Eudoxochiton Shuttleworth, 1853.
Exidoxochiton nobilis (Gray, 1843).

huttoni Pilsbry, 1893.

Fam. Plaxiphoridae Iredale.

Genus Plaxiphora Gray, 1847.

Subgenus Plaxiphora s. str.

Plaxiphora aurata (Spalowsky, 1795). Chiton auratus Spa-
lowsky, Prodr. Syst. Hist. Test., p. 88, pi. 13, figs. 6a, 66,
1795, ' " Tahiti" = Falkland Islands. Synonyms : Chiton
carmichaelis Wood, Index Test. Supp., pi. 1, fig. 10, 1828,
"Cape of Good Hope" = South America; C. setiger
King, Zool. Journ., vol. v, p. 358, 1831, South America;
Plaxifora campbelli Filhol, Comptes Rendus Sci. Paris,
vol. xci, p. 1095, 1880, Campbell Island ; Choetopleura
savatieri Rochebrune, Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris, ser. 7,
vol. v, p. 119, 1881, Straits of Magellan; C. hahni, id. ib.,
vol. viii, p. 34, 1884, Patagonia; C. frigida, id., Miss.
Sci. Cap Horn, vol. vi, Moll., p. 137, 1889, Patagonia;
Plaxiphora superba Pilsbry, Man. Conch., vol. xiv, p. 319,
1893, New Zealand; P. subatrata Suter, Proc. Mai. Soc,
vol. ii, p. 188, 1897, New Zealand ; P. aucklandica, id.,
Subant. Isds., N.Z., vol. i, Moll., p. 2, 1909, New Zealand.

Subgenus Diaphoroplax Iredale, 1914. Diaphoroplax Iredale,
Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 32, 1914. Type:
Chiton biramosus Quoy and Gaimard.
Plaxiphora biramosa (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835). Synonym :
Tonicia corticata Hutton, 1872.

Subgenus Maorichiton Iredale. 1914. Maorichiton Iredale, Proc.
Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 32, 1914. Type : Chiton
caelatus Reeve.
Plaxiphora caelata (Reeve, 1847). Synonym : Chiton ter-
minalis E. A. Smith, 1874.

zigzag (Hutton, 1872).

murdochi Suter, 1905.

schauinslandi Thiele, 1909. Synonym: Plaxiphora glauca

Suter, 1905 (not Quoy, 1835).

Subgenus Frembleya H. Adams, 1866. Frembleya H. Adams,
Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1866, p. 445. Type : F. egregia
H. Adams.
Plaxiphora egregia (H. Adams, 1866). Synonym : Acantho-
chaetes ovatus Hutton, 1872.

Iredale. — Sitter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 425

Suborder Chitonina — continued.
Fam. Plaxiphoridae — continued.
Genus Guildingia Pilsbry, 1893.

Guildingia obtecta (Pilsbry, 1893). Synonym : Plaxiphora suteri
Pilsbry, 1894.
Fam. Cryptoconchidae Iredale.

Genus Cryptoconchus Burrow, 1815. Cryptoconchus Burrow, Elem.
Conch., 1815, p. 190. Type : Chiton porosus Burrow.
Synonym : Amicula Gray in DiefTenbach's " Travels in New
Zealand," vol. ii, p. 246, 1843. Type : C. porosus Burrow.
Cryptoconchus porosus Burrow, 1815. Synonyms : Cryptoplax
depressus Blainville, 1818 ; Chiton leachi Blainville, 1825 ;
C. monticularis Quoy and Gaimard, 1835 ; Cryptoconchus
stewartianus Kocbebrune, 1881.
Genus Acanthochitox (Gray, 1821, em.). Acanthochitona Gray,
Lond. Med. Repos., vol. xv, p. 234, 1821. Type: Chiton
fascicularis Linne. Synonym : Phakellopleura Guilding, 1829.
Acanthochiton zelandicus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835). Synonym :
Acanthochaetes hooJceri Gray, 1843.
— — thileniusi Thiele, 1909.

australis Suter (1907).

Genus Macandrellus Dall, 1878. Macandrellus Dall, Proc. U.S.
Nat. Mus., vol. i, p. 299, 1878. Type : Acanthochites costatus
Adams and Angas. Synonym : Loboplax Pilsbry, " Nautilus,"
vol. vii, p. 32, 1893. Type : Chiton violaceus Quoy and
Gaimard.
Macandrellus violaceus Quoy and Gaimard, 1835. Synonym :

Chiton porphyreticus Reeve, 1847.
Macandrellus mariae Webster, 1908. Synonym : Loboplax
sieivartiana Thiele, 1909.
Genus Craspedochiton Shuttleworth, 1853. Craspedochiton Shuttle-
worth, Mittheil. naturf. Gesell. Berne, p. 67, 1853. Type:
Chiton laqueatus Sowerby. Synonyms: Angasia Pilsbry, Man.
Conch., vol. xiv, p. 287 1893 (preocc). Type: Angasia tetrica
Pilsbry. Phacellozona Pilsbry, " Nautilus," vol. vii, p. 139,
1894. Type : Angasia tetrica Pilsbry.
Craspedochiton rubiginosus (Hutton, 1872).

cuneatus (Suter, 1908).

Fam. Ischnochitonidae Thiele.

Genus Ischnochiton Gray, 1847. Type: Chiton textilis Gray.

Ischnochiton maorianus Iredale, Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi,
*p. 36, 1914: Otago Peninsula. Synonym: Ischnochiton longi-
cymba Pilsbry, 1892 (not Chiton longicymba Blainville, 1825).

campbelli (Filhol, 1880). Lepidopleurus campbelli Filhol,

Comptes Rendus Sci. Paris, vol. xci, p. 1095, 1880, Campbell
Island. Synonyms: Tonicia gryei Filhol, 4b. id. ; Lepidopleurus
melanterus Rochebrune, Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris, 1883-84,
p. 37; Ischnochiton parkeri Suter, 1897; I.fulvus Suter, 1905.

gramdifer Thiele, 1909.

— luteoroseus Suter, 1907.
? contractus (Reeve, 1847) ?

Genus Lorica H. and A. Adams, 1852.

Lorica volvox (Reeve, 1847). Synonyms : Chiton cimolius Reeve,
1847 ; C. rudis Hutton, 1872.

426 Transactions,

Suborder Chitonina — continued.
Fam. Chitonidae Thiele.

Genus Sypharochitox Thiele. 1893. Sypharochiton Thiele, " Das
Gebiss der Schnecken," vol. ii, p. 365, 1893. Type : Chiton
pellisserpentis Quoy and Gaimard. Synonym : Triboplax
Thiele, loc. cit., p. 366.
Spharochiton pellisserpentis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835).

sinclairi (Gray, 1843).

torri (Suter, 1907).

Genus Amaurochiton Thiele, 1893. Amaurochiton Thiele, loc. cit.,
p. 362. Type : C. olivaceus Deshayes. Synonym : Poecilo-
plax Thiele, loc. cit., p. 365.

Amaurochiton glaUcus Gray, 1828. Chiton glaucus Gray, " Spici-
legia Zoologica," pt. i, p. 5, 1828. Synonyms: C. viridis Quoy
and Gaimard, 1835; C. quoyi Deshayes, 1836; C. quoyi subsp.
limosus Suter, 1905.
Genus Rhyssoplax Thiele, 1893. Rkyssoplax Thiele, loc. cit.. p. 368.
Type: Chiton affinis Issel. Synonyms: Clathropleura -Thiele,
loc. cit., p. 367 (not of Tiberi, 1878); Anthochiton Thiele,
loc. cit., p. 377.

Rhyssoplax aerea (Reeve, 1847).

canaliculata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835). Synonyms : Chiton

stangeri Reeve, 1847; C. inscvlptus A. Adams, 1854.

clavata (Suter. 1907).

hiiMoni (Suter, 1906).

Hindus (Pilsbry, 1893). Chiton limans Pilsbry, Man. Conch.,
vol. xiv, p. 176, 1893. Synonym : C. muricatus A. Adams,
1854, notTilesius, 1824.

suteri (Iredale, 1910). Synonym : Chiton stangeri Suter,

1897, not Reeve, 1847.

Genus Oxithochitox Gray, 1847.

Onithochiton marmoratus Wissel, 1904. Synonym: Onithochiton
nodosus Suter, 1907.

suba Suter, 1907.

neglectus Rochebrune, Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris, ser. 7,

vol. v, p. 120, 1881 : Wellington, X.Z. Synonyms : Chiton
undulatus Quoy and Gaimard, 1835, not Wood, 1828 ; Onitho-
ciiiion astrolabei Rochebrune, loc. cit., p. 120; O. filholi, id.
ib. : O. decipiens, id. ib., vol. vi, p. 196, 1882 : O. semisculptus
Pilsbry, 1803.

There is still much to be done in the investigation of the Neozelanic
Chiton fauna, as, in addition to the preceding, I have unicums representing
two distinct species, and I have two other recognizable species hitherto
confused. I have also seen a deep-water Lepidopleurus dredged by the
Scott Antarctic Expedition.

Fam. Acmaeidae. [P. 62.]

It is doubtful whether this name should be retained, as there is a prior
Acmea (" Hartmann Neue Alpin," i, 1820) and the two names seem to
conflict. I am, however, less concerned with regard to this debatable point
after examination of the type species of Acmaea Eschscholtz. This is a
west North American shell, and the Neozelanic shells are decidedly not

Ikedale. — Suter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 427

congeneric. When the classification used by Australian and Neozelanic
malaeologists was prepared scientific investigation as to phylogeny as
understood to-day was in its infancy, and geography and much else was
disregarded. If a shell resembling Acmaea mitra was found by a Neozelanic
conchologist, I venture to state it would have been classed anywhere but
in Acmaea. I am convinced that, though Neozelanic malacology has bene-
fited greatly by the research of American workers, it has also suffered through
the acceptance of their conclusions as regards generic and specific values,
such conclusions being based on little or no material conjoined to an igno-
rance of local conditions. From 1880 to 1913 the number of forms recognized
was raised from 447 to 1187, and this can be said to be the work of one man,
Mr. Henry Suter, for, though much collecting was done by others, the bulk
of this was due to Mr. Suter's initiative. The work is just commencing in
every way, animals and habits being as yet comparatively unknown.

The rejection of Acmaea from the New Zealand list is certainly inevitable,
and the other names given to northern " Acmaeas," — viz., Tectum Gray,
Erginus Jeffreys, and Collisella Dall — are just as unsuitable.

From shell characters the Neozelanic species are easily grouped, and there
can be little doubt that animal characters coincidently agree. I propose
to introduce new names for these, and invite investigation and study. These
names are equally applicable to Australian forms, and it should be observed
that these austral species have no connection with northern forms,
" Acmaeas " being practically absent from the intervening tropics. By
the usage of these names we get a better idea of the relationships of the
forms than by the continuance of extra-limital terms which are most doubt-
fully applicable, and which, judging from shell characters, are certainly
untenable.

Radiacmea gen. nov. [P. 63.]

I propose this name for the group of shells around A. cingulata Hutton,
which I name as type. These agree in shape, external features, and general
coloration. According to Suter, the radular characters are '; typical, re-
sembling very much that of A. mitra Esch." With this species the shell
has nothing in common. The shells would come nearer A. corticata Hutton,.
but the radula of this species differs. The group is well marked in New
Zealand, but I dissociate Suter's A. intermedia and roseoradiata from it,
and restrict it to A. cingulata Hutton and Fisstirella rubiginosa Hutton.

I did not collect any LC Acmaeas " at the Kermadecs, nor have I got any
from Norfolk Island, nor are there any littoral species from Lord Howe
Island, but one small species is commonly dredged. Mr. Oliver has. however,
received some specimens of Radiacmea from the Kermadecs.

Atalacmea gen. nov. [P. 68.]

I propose this name for the species commonly known as Acmaea frag His
Chemnitz. Chemnitz was, however, not a binomialist, and his species-
names, cannot be accepted. This is undoubtedly true as regards all the
preceding ten volumes, but because in the eleventh, where this name occurs,
binomials are frequent and polynomials scarcer, such binomials have been
commonly preserved. Their rejection is inevitable, and it should be noted
that these names do not occur in Sherborn's " Index Animalium." The
next name appears to be Lesson's Patella unguis-almae, which must come
into use.

428 Transactions.

The anatomy of this species is said to differ little from that of other
" Acmaeas." I do not agree with this, as the shell characters differ extra-
ordinarily, and in habits this species is no " Acmaea " : its habitat and rapid
movements are unique in the family, if it be classed correctly.

Notoacmea gen. nov. [P. 71.]

I name as type Patello'ida pileopsis Quoy and Gaimard, and would class
under this genus the remaining uncharacterized Neozelanic " Acmaeas,"
with the proviso that probably more than one generic form is here confused.
The type shell conchologically resembles that of Tectum, of the Northern
Hemisphere, and the southern shells were so placed by Thiele, though
differences in the radula were shown. The small "Acmaeas," such as
A. daedala Suter and A. parviconoidea Suter, are easily separated, and might
form a subgenus, for which I propose the new name Parvacmea, and name
A. daedala Suter as type.

If the Neozelanic species were collected and examined in connection
with the names here proposed it would at once be seen how natural my
groups are, and also that the Australian forms fall into order.

Patelloida (Quoy and Gaimard, 1834). [P. 73.]

The nomination of some shells from the Montebello Islands, Western
Australia, allowed me the opportunity of rectifying the nomenclature of the
shells grouped about A. saccharina (Linne), and I discovered that this name
was applicable to the group named by Suter as Collisellina Dall, 1871.
The type of Patello'ida Quoy and Gaimard was given in the Manual Conch,
by Pilsbry as P. fragilis Q. & G., but that was an error; also one which
would not be easily discovered by the Neozelanic worker. These facts were
recorded in the Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1914, p. 670.

The Neozelanic species would bs named Patelloida stella (Lesson, 1831) ;
P. pseudocorticata (Iredale, 1908) ; P. perplexa (Pilsbry, 1891).

I will discuss the status of corticata, now admitted as a subspecies, and
pseudocorticata in my next communication, when I will give figures eluci-
dating my species.

Notoacmea suteri nom. nov. [P. 65.]
Acmaea roseoradiata Suter, 1907, is preoccupied by the prior Acmaea
roseoradiata E. A. Smith (Journ. Conch., vol. x, p. 106, pi. i, fig. 19, 1901).
I had intended that such alterations should have been made by Mr. Suter
himself, but as he has written me to the effect that he will be unable, to give
more attention to the Recent Mollusca in the future I herewith propose
amendments. Mr. Suter comments : ' This pretty little shell is well cha-
racterized, and quite distinct from all other known New Zealand species
of the genus." I therefore introduce the above as a suitable alternative.
I do not, however, class the species in my genus Radiacmea, though Suter
associated it with A. cingulata Hutton. The radular characters are un-
known, and the shell differs appreciably to me from Radiacmea. Its reference
to Notoacmea is, however, of a temporary character.

Notoacmea helmsi (E. A. Smith, 1894). [P. 69.]

Under this name I include the shells referred to Acmaea septiformis
Quoy and Gaimard by Suter, and also class as a variant the var. leucoma
Suter, 1907, which he referred to A. parviconoidea. Only two localities

Iredale. — Sitter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 429

are quoted by Suter for A. helmsi — viz., Greymouth and Cape Egmont.
Examination of the types, however, show it to be a common shell occur-
ring at manv points from Lyttelton to Dunedin, and which I had so
identified, but ranked as a variety of A. septiformis Q. & G. I would
reject this latter from the Neozelanic list, as it seems to be the Australian
representative of the Neozelanic A. pileopsis Quoy and Gaimard. The two
species seem liable to extraordinary variation, due to environmental stresses,
and really many well -differentiated forms should be recognized in both
species. The Australian septiformis runs into the form called " cantharus,"
quite wrongly according to my investigations ; and at Caloundra, Queens-
land, I collected two fine shells which immediately recalled large pileopsis :
they were less elevated, more rounded in outline, and rayed with white
rather than spotted ; internally they showed the same black edging and
light inside coloration. If the Neozelanic and Australian forms be con-
sidered separately, and the variation of each carefully studied, much more
good would be effected. It does not seem possible with the present material
to class helmsi as a variant of pileopsis, so that a good deal of collecting
must be done before much advance can be made in this family. One point
I would emphasize is that, from any given place, series of these shells are
fairly constant according to their environment.

Notoacmea pileopsis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1834). [P. 71.]

Through usage of alphabetical sequence Acmaea cantharus (Reeve)
appears five pages away from Acmaea pileopsis (Q. & G.). In life there
is no such separation. My conclusions put forward in Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. xi, p. 367, 1908, regarding the identity of these two are therefore not
accepted. Further study has not occasioned the revision of my facts,
and I would note that since I wrote I have seen that Pilsbry (" Nautilus,"
vol. viii, p. 127, 1895) had recognized the Tasmanian shell as the true
cantharus Reeve, quoting that Hutton had previously so decided. Pilsbry,
however, has never seen Reeve's types, which I have now examined, and
I find they are undoubtedly the Neozelanic shell upon which my con-
clusions were framed. I had thought that it might be possible to rank
cantharus Reeve as the southern geographical representative of the northern
pileopsis. I find that this is impossible, as, though Quoy and Gaimard
gave as localities Bay of Islands and French Pass, they described and
figured a shell quite like cantharus. Suter's recognition of both species at
the Auckland Islands necessitates the rejection of specific distinction; and,
finally, the name cantharus is predated.

Patella sturnus Hombron and Jacquinot (Ann. Sci. Nat., 2nd ser., vol. xvi,
p. 191, 1841) refers to this species, and as the description applies to the
cantharus form, and the type was almost certainly collected in Otago,
where cantharus is abundant, it would have to come into use. It is some-
what remarkable that, while this name passed into the synonymy of P.
radians Gmelin, the succeeding Patelloides antarctica was correctly placed
under the present species.

Patella floccata Reeve. [P. 71.]
This name has continually given trouble, and its last resting-place is
in the synonymy of Acmaea pileopsis Q. & G. I have carefully examined
the types of this species, and would suggest it is not a New Zealand shell
at all. It is not, from shell characters, an "Acmaea " at all, but belongs
to the familv Patellidae.

43<> Transactions.

Patelloida perplexa (Pilsbry, 1891). [P. 75.]

This is the only species of " Acmaea " or limpet at present commonly
acknowledged as specifically identical in Australia and New Zealand.
Pilsbry's name was aiv< n to an Australian shell, and comes into use, as
Hutton, who first described it from New Zealand, unfortunately selected a
preoccupied name.

A summary of my classification of the New Zealand " Acmaeidae " would
read, —

Genus Radiacmea nov.

Radiacmea cingulata (Hutton, 1883).

rubiginosa (Hutton, 1873).

Genus Atalacmea nov.

Atalacmea unguis-almae Lesson. Synonyms : Patella fragilis Chem-
nitz, 1795 (non-binomial) ; Patelloida fragilis Quoy and Gaimard,
1834 ; Patella solandri Colenso, 1844.
Genus Notoacmea nov.

Notoacmea campbelli (Filhol, 1880).

— — daedala (Suter, 1907).

subsp. subtilis (Suter, 1907).

helmsi (E. A. Smith, 1894).

var. leucoma (Suter, 1907).

intermedia (Suter, 1907).
parviconoidea (Suter, 1907).

subsp. nigrostella (Suter, 1907).

- pileopsis (Quoy and Gaimard, 1834). Synonyms : Patella
sturnus Hombron and Jacquinot, 1841 ; Patelloides antarctica,
id. ib. ; Patella cantkarus Reeve, 1855.

Notoacmea scapha (Suter, 1907).

suteri nov. Svnonvm : Acmaea roseoradiata Suter, 1907, not

Smith, 1901.
Genus Patelloida Quoy and Gaimard, 1834. Synonym : Collisellina
Dall, 1871.
Patelloida stella (Lesson).
s — siibsp. corticata (Hutton, 1880).

- pseudocoiticuta (Iredale, 1908).
perplexa Pilsbry (1891). Synonym : Patella octoradiata Hutton,

1873, not Gmelin, 1791.

Genus Cellana (H. Adams, 1869). [P. 78.]
In the svnonvmy of Helcioniscus Dall, 1871, is placed " Cellana
H. Adams, P.Z.S.", 1869, 274 ; type, Nacella cernica, H. Ad." In the
Man. Conch., vol. xiii, 1891,. Pilsbry (pp. 149-50) noted: 'This species
is the type of H. Adams's subgenus Cellana. It probably belongs to
Helcioniscus rather than to Nacella or Patinella. The name Cellana has
priority over Helcioniscus, but it has not been adequately defined."

Under the present laws governing nomenclatural usage the lack of
definition does not invalidate a generic name, and consequently Cellana
must displace Helcioniscus. Helcioniscus was only provisionally introduced
by Dall, who was unaware of H. Adams's Cellana.

Pilsbry, in this volume of the Man. Coch., did not use names for Acmaeas
and limpets in accordance with the rules now in use, and many alterations
are now necessary.

Iredale. — Suter' $ "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 431

Patella antipodum (E. A. Smith, 1874). [P. 79.]
Suter has made use of this name for the species known in New Zealand
as Helcioniscus tramosericus Martyn. This name having been questioned
as doubtfully applicable to the Australian shell, and P. (liemenensis Philippi
used instead, upon Dall's advice Suter utilizes the present name as obviating
discussion, being certainly referable to the New Zealand form, whether this
be the same or different from the Australian species. It is regrettable that
such a pretty argument should be entirely spoilt by the fact that Smith's
name is not available. Almost the first shell I noted in the British Museum
was this species; and I was surprised — as most conchologists will be when
they read this note — to recognize in it a commonplace variation of Patella
radians Gmelin. In view of its usage by Suter I have consulted Mr. Smith,
the author of the species, and he agrees that his P. antipodum could be
easily classed as a variant of Gmelin's P. radians, while he emphasizes the
fact that it has no relationship with the Australian shell known as H. tramo-
sericus Martyn. Of this I collected a long series, showing variation and
growth stages, at Caloundra. Queensland. None of these exactly agree
with Martyn's figure.

I have seen no Neozelanic specimens, so cannot say whether they differ
or not. I would certainly endorse Suter"s remark, " Species of the Patellidae
have usually a very limited range of distribution." Suter has not described
his Hauraki Gulf specimen, but reprinted E. A. Smith's account of his
P. antipodum, and, as this refers to a different species, there is no description
on record of Neozelanic " tramosericus."

With regard to the Australian " tramosericus," if Martyn's name be
rejected the earliest recognizable name is Patella variegata Blainville (Diet.
Sci. Nat., vol. xxxviii, p. 101, 1825 : Botany Bay). This name is, how-
ever, preoccupied by Gnielin, so that choice then falls upon Patella jack-
soniensis Lesson. Zool. Voy. " Coquille," vol. ii, p. 418, 183 : Port Jackson,
New South Wales. Both these names were rejected by Pilsbry, but anv one
acquainted with Australian limpets can recognize them with ease. Blain-
ville described half a dozen other limpets at the place quoted, from Australia,
and it is just possible that one of these names may also apply; but I hope
to elaborate this in another place. This will suffice to show that it is even
probable that a name may exist for the Neozelanic "tramosericus," though
I think not.

Cellana denticulata (Martyn, 1784). [P. 80.]

In his distribution of this species Suter observes, " Hutton also mentions
Dunedin and the Chatham Islands." It is pretty certain that Hutton,
mainly dependent upon second-hand information, did not recognize our
names for the forms accepted. ' Thus in 1007 I made notes upon the Otago
Museum shells, and I observed that under the name P. deyitiodata specimens
were shown from Moeraki and Nelson ; but these were not that species, but
C. ornata Dillwyn. I do not know who was responsible for the incorrect
nomination, but the adjacent shells were true C. denticulata Martyn, and
these bore the data "H. strigilis var. redimiculum, North Island, F. W. H."
I should conclude this merely meant that Hutton collected or presented
these specimens, but he may also have specifically determined them.

Cellana radians (Gmelin, 1791). [P. 81.]

It may be as well to record that the date of Gmelin's Mollusca is given
throughout Suter's work as 1790, whereas it should be 1791 (Hopkinson,
P.Z.S., 1907, p. 1035), the earliest date of notice being the 14th May, 1791

432 Transactions.

First, omit from the synonymy " P. sturnus, H. & J., t.c, 191 " (a syno-
nym of N. pileopsis Q. & G.); and add, " Patella antipodum E. A. Smith,
Voy. Ereb. & Terr., Moll., p. 4, pi. 1, f. 25, 1874." The forms of this
species recognized by Suter I cannot consider well defined.

Patella argentea Quoy and Gaimard, 1834, is untenable, through Patella
argentea Gmelin, Syst. Nat., p. 3704, 1791 ; also Patella affinis Eeeve, 1855,
by P. affinis Gmelin, loc. cit., p. 3726, and Patella olivacea Hutton, 1882,
by the use of P. olivacea Gmelin, loc. cit., p. 3702.

For Hutton's P. olivacea I propose the new name Gellana radians perana,
and would unite with it the so-called wC argentea.'"

Suter has reduced to subspecific rank under this species the shell he
described as Helcioniscus mestayerae. This is not a New Zealand shell. It
was supposed to have come from Stewart Island, but when Miss Mestayer
showed me the type in 1908 I at once remarked upon its alien features. Miss
Mestayer concurred, and suggested that the locality was incorrect. A few
days iater, at Sydney, Mr. Hedley gave me a specimen agreeing entirely,
naming it as Patella testudinaria Linne. Into the synonymy of this exotic
species, then, must pass Helcioniscus mestayerae Suter : Stewart Island
(error) ; and it must be expunged from the Neozelanic list.

Cellana strigilis (Hombron and Jacquinot, 1841). [P. 87.]
I cannot separate, even as a variety, Patella redimicuhim Reeve, which
Suter admits as a distinct species, writing, " The two are very nearly allied."
At Shag Point, Otago, I collected a long series showing gradation from the
one to the other. Only one species is admitted in the British Museum.
The variation in the species is really slight, and when the two forms are
studied in life it is easily seen that the elevation or depression is due to
environmental stress. At a point in Dunedin Harbour, Otago, I procured
many specimens of typical " strigilis, " leaving no doubt as to their develop-
ment by stress, as the juveniles were quite typical " redimiculum."

Suter records both species from Preservation Inlet, and his measurements
of the " redimicuhim " shell agree almost with a " strigilis " from Tauranga
to a millimetre — viz., 58 x 47 x 23 mm. and 60 x 48 x 24 mm.

My arrangement of the species of Cellana would be, —

Genus Cellana H. Adams, 1869. Synonym : Helcioniscus Dall, 1871.
Cellana sp. ? ? Synonym : Helcioniscus antipodum Suter, not Smith.

denticulata (Martyn, 1784).

ornata (Dillwyn, 1817).

radians (Gmelin, 1791).

var. decoi'a (Philippi, 1848).

var. earlii (Reeve, 1855).

var. ? chathamensis (Pilsbry, 1891). Synonym: affinis

Reeve, 1855, not Gmelin, 1791.

v&v.flava (Hutton, 1873).

var. perana nov. Synonyms : olivacea Hutton, 1882, and

argentea Quoy and Gaimard, 1834, not Gmelin, 1791.

— strigilis (Hombron and Jacquinot, 1841). Synonym: P. redi-
micuhim Reeve, 1854.

— stellifera (Gmelin, 1791).
var. phymatia (Suter, 1905).

A most delightful field of study here reveals itself, as the species and
varieties are repeated throughout the Dominion, and there must be a

Iredaee. — Suter' s " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 433

recognizable cause for the repetition of distinct forms in separate localities.
An easily determined form is Cellana radians var. jlaca Hutton. This
beautiful shell is common a.t Napier, and lives upon the red sandstone rocks,
into which it makes hollows, so that it is difficult to detach without cutting
the rock away. Upon the black hard rocks intermingled dark shells are
found, and I believe that this yellow form will only be obtained when the
soft red rocks are available for its development. Perfectly coloured shells
are rare, as might be anticipated.

Montfortula gen. nov. [P. 100.]

Under the genus-name Subemarginida Blainville, 1825, three New Zealand
species are named, two sections being admitted. This nomenclature and
classification is incorrect, though Suter is not to blame in the matter, as
he simply followed the " Manual of Conchology," wherein the species of this
family were monographed by Pilsbry twenty-odd years previously. It is
quite remarkable that no corrections have been made since Pilsbry's work
was published, and it has apparently been accepted by most workers with-
out question.

Firstly, the genus-name Subemarginida Blainville, 1825, was accepted.
Upon reference to the place quoted (Man. Mai., p. 501, 1825) the name does
not occur, but there is only a section of the genus Emarginula named " Les
Subernarginules." Such an introduction of a vernacular is not recognizable,
and it was necessary to trace the first user of the latinized form Sub-
emarginida. This search resulted in Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1847,
p. 147 ; type, Patella octoradiata Gmelin. This is not the type named by
Pilsbry — viz., Emarginula emarginata Blainville — but there is no question
that Subemarginida must date from Gray, 1847, with Patella octoradiata
Gmelin as type, upon the present facts. Hemitoma Swainson (" Treatise
Malacology," pp. 244, 356, 1840), with H. tricostata Sw., Sow. Gen., fig. 6,
was the next synonym, but this appeared to be preoccupied by Hemitoma
Rafinesque, 1820. Rafinesque, however, proposed Hemiloma, and Hemi-
toma was only one of-Agassiz's gratuitous manuscript corrections ? quoted
by Scudder. This species is congeneric with Blainville's E. emarginata, and
would be the earliest name for the association grouped by Pilsbry under
" Subemarginida."

At this point it became necessary to study the shells, which I casually
knew, more carefully, to determine the groups, as it became obvious Pilsbry's
grouping was faulty.

Clypidina Gray, 1847, was used by Suter as the sectional name for
" rugosa Qiioy and Gaimard." I collected many specimens of this shell
at Sydney, New South Wales, and Caloundra, Queensland. I also procured
examples of Patella notata Linne at Colombo, Ceylon. This shell is the
type of Clypidina which was introduced by Gray in the Proc. Zool. Soc.
(Lond.), 1847, p. 147. These are entirely different in every manner, and
do not show the " internal groove distinct, ending in a short anterior notch,"
which is given by Suter as the character of the section. The groove is so
indistinct that very recently specimens of this Linnean species (Syst. Nat.,
ed. x, p. 784, 1758) were determined by a well-known conchologist as a new
species of Acmaea! This memo should indicate how unlike Clypidina is
to the other " subemarginuloid " shells. I regard this as a distinct mono-
typic genus, and it is so classed in the British Museum.

I also consider Tugalia, notwithstanding Pilsbry's opinion, should also
rank as a distinct genus, the animal as well as the shell showing good

434 Transactions.

differential characters. Again, the British Museum classification is in agree-
ment with my own conclusion. The first reference is that in DieffenbachV
" Travels in New Zealand," vol. ii. p. 259. 1843. where the name is written
Tugali. I see with regard to both this reference and that of Clypidina
that Suter gives Syst. Dist. Moll. Brit. Mus., though quoting dates correctly
as 1843 and 1817 respectively. The book quoted did not appear until
1857. Such action is most confusing, as Suter gives the second reference
in his specific synonymy.

ruder the genus-name Hemitonia Swainson, 1840, a series of shells is
arrayed in the British Museum (the genus-name Subemarginula not being
recognized) which can be easily divided into three groups. No intermedi-
ates occur in any way, so that these should be regarded as genera.
Examination of the radula will confirm this. The first group consists of
Patella octoradiata Gmelin alone, and for this Subemarginula Gray, 1847,
must be used. The second, typified by tricostata Swainson, must bear the
name Hemitoma Swainson, 1840. The names, in the British Museum,
associated with species congeneric with this shell are australis Quoy and
Gaimard, scidptilis A. Ad., panhi Quoy and Gaimard, panhiensis Reeve,
imbricata A. Ad., guadaloupensis Sowerby, polygonalis A. Ad., nodulosa
A. Ad., and oldhamiana G. and H. Nevill. Some of these may be synonyms,
and I simply quote them to show the extent of the group and the ease
with which species may be determined. To this genus must be assigned
Em marginata Blainville, but this specific name is generally aban-

doned as indeterminable. I would observe that Blainville appears to have
previously described this specie- in the Diet. Sci. Nat. (Levrault). vol. xiv,
p. 382, 1819, under the name Emarginula subemarginata, but here also the
description is indeterminate.

The third group is represented in the British Museum by shells bearing
the names rugosa Quoy and Gaimard ; Candida, anntdata, and stellata, all
of A. Adams; andfungina, aspera. radiata, and cinerea, all of Gould. Again,
these contain recognized synonyms, but probably other district species
could be added. This is the group occurring in the Neozelanic fauna, and
it was necessary to find a name for it.

As a synonym of Subemarginula, Pilsbry included Siphonella Issel. but
on p. 284 he dismissed the species thus: " S. areonatii Issel (Mai. Mar.
Ross., p. 232). Unfigured. Gulf of Akaba." This was easy, but quite
unscientific, for on reference to Issel's work I find a long, careful description
given, and the group to which the shell belonged is easily determined by
the characters, " Testa solidiuscula, capuliformi . . . costis 3 anticis
productioribus, media maxima, intus laevi, canali profundo antice munita ;
apice subcentrali recurve."' Siphonella Issel, 1869, thus becomes a synonym
of Hemitou/a ; but the name is also preoccupied. As the name of a section,
Pilsbry used Plagiorhytis Fischer (Man. Conch., p. 860, 1885), and thereto
added only stellata A. Ad. and sulcifera A. Ad. When Fischer proposed
this name he regarded *S'. rugosa Quoy and Gaimard as typical of Sub-
emargimda Blainville, 1825 = Hemitoma Swainson, 1840 = Montjortia Recluz
1843 = Siphonella Issel, 1869. His definition of Plagiorhytis reads, " Rigole
oblique et dirigee un peu a, droite {S. stellata A. Adams)." It would seem,
then, that Fischer intended to name the " emarginata Blainville" group,
but the species named is referable to the " rugosa " group. Neither Fischer
nor Pilsbry had ever seen Adams's types of stellata. Fortunately we are
relieved from the decision of fixing Fischer's name, as it is invalid, being
preoccupied. In the synonymy Fischer has given " Montjortia Recluz,

Iredale.— Suler's " Manual uf the New Zealand Mollusca." 435

1843," a name for some unknown reason quite ignored by Pilsbry. In
the Eevue de Zool., 1843 (Sept.), p. 259, Recluz diagnosed a group and
named it " Montforti (Nobis). Les Subemarginales Blainville." He wrote,
': De cette section . . . nous eonnaissons six especes . . . Em.
emarginata Blainv., Em. panki [sic] Quoy. Em. australis Quoy, Em. tricostata
Sow. (Patella tricostata Gmelin), Em. depressa Blain. et la suivante . .
Nous proposerions de donner a ce nouveau genre le nOm de Montfortia en
l'bonneur de Denis de Montfort." On p. 376 the first line given in corrected
to "Montfortia (Nobis). Les Subemarginules (Blainv.)." I designate as
type E. australis Quoy and Gaimard, as the Blainvillean species are doubt-
fully determined ; Recluz's species are all congeneric, and the name falls
as a synonym of Hemitoma.

I have therefore failed in my search for a name for the " rugosa " group,
and therefore propose the new generic name Montfortula, with Emarginula
rugosa Quoy and Gaimard as type. My study of the shells available at
the British Museum, and my knowledge of the live animals of M. rugosa
(Q. & G.), with species of Emarginula. leads me to state that there is a
greater alliance between species of Montfortula and Emarginula than between
Montfortula and Hemitoma. whilst Subemarginula Gray, 1847, I suggest
differs greatly. As a matter of fact, it is quite probable that study of the
shells classed under Emarginula would cause the degradation of Montfortula
to subgeneric rank under that genus. T have to consider many species of
Emarginula in the Lord Howe Island fauna, when I will carefully deal with
that aspect of the case.

The alterations necessary may be summarized thus : Omit Subemarginula
Blainville, 1825, with its synonymy, and Clypidina Gray with its reference,
and read, —

Genus Montfortula nov.

Montfortula rugosa (Quoy and Gaimard, 1834).
Genus Tugalia Gray, 1843, em.

Tugalia parmophoidea (Quoy and Gaimard, 1834).

intermedia (Reeve, 1842).

The synonyms given under M. rugosa Q. & G. may not be all correct, but
I will attend to those later.

With regards to Tugalia intermedia (Reeve, 1842), Suter says, " The
type is from Port Jackson." In tbe original description, however, the
locality given is " I. of Bohol, Philippines." The type should be in the
Mus. Cuming, preserved in the British Museum, but I have not yet traced
it. I mention this as there are Philippine species of this genus.

Genus Trochus (Linne, 1758). [P. 106.]

The classification utilized by Suter is that put forward by Pilsbry in the
" Manual of Conchology " twenty-odd years previously, and is one which,
as regards generic and subgeneric values, has been discarded for many years
even by Pilsbry himself. No recent malacologist, however conservative
he may be, sinks Clanculus as a subgenus of Trochus. A criticism of the
series presented in the British Museum shows the species generally classed
under Trochus to resolve themselves into three distinct rather large groups
and several distinct smaller ones.

The generally accepted type of Linne's Trochus I have shown to be
untenable, as it does not occur in the Linnean genus, and therefore to cause
the least confusion I designated as type of Trochus Linne (Syst. Nat., ed. x,

436 Transactions.

p. 756, 1758) the species Trochus maculatus Linne (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.),
vol. x, p. 225, 1912).

The genus Tectus Montfort is well defined and limited, and does not occur
on the mainland of New Zealand, but the shell I described from the Ker-
madecs as Trochus royanus (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. x, p. 225, pi. ix,
fig. 12, 1912) must he called Tectus royanus (Iredale).

Infundibulum Montfort does not easily fall into any other group, and
should be generically recognized, but no members are Neozelanic. Gar-
dinalia Gray constitutes another distinct little group, whilst Trochus niloticus
cannot be easily lumped.

The majority of the other species can be classed around Trochus macu-
latus Linne, the type of Trochus Linne, 1758, of which Lamprostoma Swain-
son, 1840, is an absolute synonym. Fischer's Coelotrochus and Gray's
Anthora seem merely .sections of this genus, and scarcely seem worth recog-
nition. The species seem to grad*: very easily. If the section " Anthora "
be retained, a good excuse being the. thickened outer lip, a rather infrequent
occurrence in the genus, it must be renamed, as Anthora Gray is preoccupied.
The new name Thorista can be used. The species Polydonta chathamensis
Hutton, 1873, does not fall into any known Trochoid group, and it is worth
while noting that the species is placed under the genus Gibbida (sensu latis-
simo) in the British Museum. Suter has associated subspecifically the
shell he described as Trochus. oppressus var. dunedinensis, and " Trochus "
oppressus was described by Hutton under the genus name Gibbula. To
fix the valid nature of this group it is only necessary to state that on p. 144
Suter has included the species described by E. A. Smith as Calliostoma
aucklandicum. in the genus Calliostoma, with the remark, " I have not seen
this species." Examination of the types of Smith's species show them to
be very close allies of " chathamensis," and I see that in the " Hab." of
that species " Auckland Islands (Captain Bollons) " occurs. Specimens
from Snares in 50 fathoms (Captain Bollons) and Bounty Islands in 50
fathoms (Captain Bollons) appeared to agree with the Auckland Island
shell. From the series here available, I conclude the two forms are dis-
tinct, and the above localities should be transferred from " chathamensis "
to "aucklandicum."

Inasmuch as the three selections Trochus, Gibbula, and Calliostoma are
each unsuitable, and show the peculiar nature of the shells, I introduce the
new genus Thoristella, and designate Polydonta chathamensis Hutton, 1873,
as type. The subfamily name is spelt in error on p. 106 " Trochininae" ;
it should be " Trochinae." Trochus will be retained, as the New Zealand
species are congeneric, with T. maculatus Linne.

The names to be used would be,—
Genus Trochus Linne, 1758.

Section Coelotrochus Fischer, 1880.

Trochus tiaratus Quoy and Gaimard, 1834.
Section Thorista nov. = Anthora Gray preocc.
Trochus viridis Gmelin, 1791.

camelophorus Webster, 1906.

Genus Thoristella nov.

Thoristella chathamensis (Hutton, 1873).

— var. dunedinensis (Suter, 1987).

aucklandica (E. A. Smith, 1902).

oppressa (Hutton, 1878).

Iredale. — Suter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 437

Genus Clanculus Montfort, 1810.
Clanculus ringens (Menke, 1843).
talcapunensis (Webster. 1906).

Section Melagraphia (Gray, 1847). [P. 115.]

This name must displace Neodiloma Fischer, 1885. It appears to have
been quite overlooked, as it appears in no recent synonymy I have ex-
amined, nor is it included in Scudder's Nomenclator. It is introduced
in the Proc. Zool. Soc. (Loud.), 1847, p. 145, as of " Stentz, 1836," for
Tr. aethiops Gmel. alone. I have been quite unable to trace any publica-
tion by Stentz, and have concluded its reference to Stentz implies manu-
script usage only. I observed Philippi referred to other names given by
Stentz in manuscript to shells in the Berlin Museum.

Labio concolor (A. Adams, 1853). [P. 116.]

Eliminate this name from the synonymy of Monodonta aethiops Gmelin,
1791, as examination of the types, preserved in the British Museum, show
the locality given to be incorrect, the shells being a form of Trochus lineatus
Da Costa, a shell I have collected at Torquay, England.

Labio rudis (A. Adams, 1853). [P. 117.]

This is the earliest name given to the " corrosa " group by A. Adams,
the locality "Australia" being incorrect. It has one page priority over
L. corrosa, but the name is invalidated by the prior Mondonta rudis Gray
in King's Survey Coasts Austr., App., p. 480, 1826, which appears to me to
be identical with and have priority over the Western Australian melanoloma
Menke. It is possible that Labio rudis has been placed in the synonymy
of the Western Australian species, but examination of the types show them
to be the commonest form of corrosa," such as is easily collected in the
Heathcote Estuary, Christchurch.

Trochus acuminatus (Perry, 1811). [P. 124.]

This synonym of Cantharidus opalus Martyn, 1784, is not included by
Suter. In Perry's " Conckology," pi. xlvii, fig. 1, an easily recognizable
figure is given.

Cantharidus capillaceus (Philippi, 1848). [P. 125.]

Suter has used the later C. pruninus Gould, 1849, though including
the present name in the synonymy. In the Man. Conch., 1st ser., vol. xi,
p. 122, 1889, Gould's name was preferred, but that was due to a mistake
in dates, the Otia. Conch., p. 55, being quoted as " 1846," though the earliest
publication of the name is that given by Suter, and the date 1849 is correct.

Cantharidus capillaceus subsp. perobtusus (Pilsbry, 1889). [P. 125.]

Omit from the "Hab." "Sandfly Bay, Otago Peninsula (T. Iredale)."
That refers to the shell I described as Photinitla decepta, which was named
as above by Mr. Suter.

Cantharidus capillaceus var. minor (E. A. Smith, 1902). [P. 125.]

From examination of the types, I believe this to be a distinct species,
which I will deal with later.

438 Transactions.

Cantharidus oliveri 110111. nov. [P. 126.]

I propose this name for the. species described by Suter under the name
Cantharidus pupillus Huttori, 1884. Hutton did not describe this shell
as a distinct species, but simply made use of Gould's name. This mis-
interpretation cannot be utilized as the basis of a name : this law has been
universally accepted, and Suter has constantly admitted it.

Hedley wrote his conclusion thus (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.. vol. xxxiv,
p. 436, 1909) : *' Born never proposed his Patella tricarinata as a new-
species, so that when it is accepted that he did not treat of the Linnean
P. tricarinata his name has no standing in literature." In case I have no
other opportunity, I would point out that the name selected by Hedley on
that occasion — viz., Emarginula clathrata Adams and Reeve, 184 — is
antedated by Deshayes's usage (Ency. Meth. Vers., ii, p. Ill, 1830).

I name the Cantharidus after my friend Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, who accom-
panied me on my many collecting trips in New Zealand.

Cantharidus lineolaris (Gould, 1861). [P. 130.]

Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxiii. p. 466, 1908) has shown
that this name, published in the Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. viii, p. 14,
1861, has priority over H. and A. Adams's name picturatus of 1863. If
the locality " Stuart Island " be the only one known, it would seem to lie
a doubtful constituent of the New Zealand fauna. The sections Banhivia,
Leiopyrga, and Thalotia would be best treated as genera; but I hope to deal
with the species of Cantharidus at a later date. Thalotia is generically
recognized in the British Museum collection, as is also Banhivia, but Leio-
pyrga is given subgeneric rank under the latter.

Calliostoma tigris (Martyn, 1784). [P. 148.]

Add as a synonym Turbo granatum Bolten, Mus. Bolten., p. 88, 1798.
This name is given to Der Granat-Apfel (T. Martin, Univ. Conch., 2, fig. 75),
so that the synonymy is exact.

Margarella decepta (Iredale, 1908). [P. 133.]

I will shortly give a figure of the shell I described as Photinula decepta,
which has not yet been figured. It closely resembles Photinula violacea
(Sowerby), and must be classed in the same genus. From examination of
the radular characters the species of the caerulescens group (true Photinula)
have been separated from the forms allied to violacea. Such a separation
is amply confirmed by shell characters, so that Photinula can be dismissed
from the Neozelanic fauna. I was the first to introduce it in connection
with the species under discussion, and I did so on account of the apparent
close relationship with violacea, which I only knew from literature. For
the violacea group Thiele proposed (Gebiss d. Schnecken, vol. ii, p. 259,
1891) Margaritella, quoting violacea, expansa, and the New Zealand antipoda.
The genus-name being preoccupied, he has since amended it to Margarella.
This name should be used. Suter has rejected this name, using Photinula,
making the remark, " Thiele included in his genus Margarella our species
P. nitida and P. antipoda because the dentition shows a close resemblance.
Margarella stands, no doubt, nearer to Yalvatella, the animal having jaws."
The conchological features of antipoda, decepta, and violacea are essentially
identical, whilst nitida shows quite different features.

IhedaIjB — Suter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 439

The first three must be grouped together, whilst the hist must be sepa-
rated ; and though the shell described as Pkotinula suteri by Smith has been
classed in Gibbula by Suter on account of the presence of jaws, it is much
nearer Margarella, and I would there place it for the present. I believe.
from a criticism of the shells — and this is confirmed by examination of
the radula — that the recognition of the jaws depends too much upon the
personal equation, and cannot in the present state of our knowledge be
depended upon. I would therefore reject Pkotinula, and replace it by
Margarella, and recognize three Neozelanic species, thus : —

nus Margarella Thiele. Synonym: Margaritella Thiele, 1891, not

Meek and Heyden, 1860.
Margarella antipoda (Hombron and Jacquinot, 1854). Synonym:
Chrysostoma rosea Hutton, 1873.
— decepta (Iredale, 1908).
suteri (E. A. Smith, 1894).

I see no good purpose in retaining Hutton's name rosea for a variety,
as the colour-variation is endless, and there is no definition.

Gibbula nitida Ad. & Aug.. 1864. which Suter placed in Pkotinula be-
cause the animal had no jaws, is certainly not congeneric with the above,
and shows a much closer relationship with G. picturata of the same authors,
which Pilsbry made the type of ( antkaridella, a section of Gibbula. Jaws
are said to be present, but neither of thes< a very close relation-

ship to Gibbula.

Genus Solariella Searles Wood. [P. 140.]

ruder this genus-name in the British Museum is placed the shell known
to Neozelanic collectors as Monilea egena Gould. It should be remembered
that this generic (Monilea) location was simply Hutton's solution, as
Pilsbry in his monograph sti e did not know it, and therefore followed

Hutton. To my eyes the Neozelanic shell was not congeneric with Monilea,
but was nearer Minolia, which Suter used subgenerically for some other
Neozelanic species. I could not see any subgeneric difference between these,
and the)7" seemed well placed in Solariella.

Mr. E. A. Smith has just told me that he cannot determine Mem ilea
Swainson, that he cannot separate Minolia from Solariella. and that all
the Neozelanic species are congeneric. His conclusions will be published
before this is in print, but it is certain that Monilea must be rejected, and
in its stead Solariella may be used, and all the Neozelanic species be so
classed.

Fam. Trochidae. [P. 150.]

Add : Genus Angaria Bolten. Angaria Bolten, Mus. Bolten., p. 71. 1798.
Type : Turbo delpkinus, Linne. Synonym : Delphinula Lamarck, &c.

This genus has not yet been recorded from New Zealand, though I have
. recorded two species at the Kermadec Islands. From dredgings made at
that place I sorted out many minute shells, and a long series enabled me to
recognize the growth stages of this genus. They show no form or sculpture
at all like the adult, and do not appear to have yet been figured. The
two species, Liotia serrata Suter, 1908 (p. 151), and Liotia solitaria Suter,
1908 (p. 152), are probably both juveniles of this genus : the latter certainly
is, whilst the species Suter compared it with — viz., L. stellar is Ad. & Rve. —
is also a juvenile Angaria, as is shown here in the British Museum, the
type being so placed when it was described.

440 Transactions.

The presence of the genus in north Neozelanic waters is not strange,
as it occurs on all the three northern groups — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk
Island, and the Kermadecs. From the two former it is as yet known only
by juvenile and half-grown specimens dredged, but at the Kermadecs one
species was rarely obtained, alive and adult, below low water. The juveniles
dredged show great variation, so that I cannot refer Suter's two species to
any named species, nor decide whether they are conspecific. The only
conclusion under such circumstances is to admit both, and draw attention
to the matter, so that adults may be looked for. Will northern collectors
please note.

Genus Angaria Bolten, 1798.
Angaria serrata (Suter, 1908).
solitaria (Suter, 1908).

Fam. Liotiidae Iredale. [P. 150.]

I propose this family name for quite a different association to the family
Liotiidae Gray, used by Pilsbry and Suter. That name is based upon the
usage of Liotia for the shells with heavily varicosed aperture, and operculum
with a calcareous superimposition in the form of spirally disposed particles.
No member of this group inhabits New Zealand as far as is yet known, though
I collected a typical species at the Kermadecs.

In the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. ix, p. 257, 1911, I showed that
Liotia Gray was proposed for the shells typified by Delphinula cancellata
Gray, and that species did not possess a variced mouth nor a calcareous
operculum. The name for these latter I also concluded was Liotina Fischer
(Man. de Conch., p. 831, 1885), with type L. gervillei Defrance. I have
since recognized that the type of Liotia agrees with Cyclostrema micans
A. Adams in every essential particular. The types of both are before me.
As this was selected by Tate as typical of a new genus Pseudoliotia, that name
falls as an absolute synonym of Liotia Gray. The species classed by Suter
under Liotia have no relationship with that genus.

On p. 152 the family Cyclostrematidae Fischer is admitted. This would
partly represent my family Liotiidae.

On p. 153 the genus Cyclostrema is utilized for a species — Cyclostrema
eumorpha Suter. Suter's arrangement is based upon that proposed by
Miss Bush after a study of west North American forms. I have investi-
gated the austral species in view of Miss Bush's conclusions, and cannot
advise that the groups there proposed should be introduced into Neozelanic
literature. Miss Bush, however, killed the ghost of Cyclostrema, as it appeared
that no one previously had examined the matter, but simply used Cyclo-
strema as a " waste-paper basket " for puzzling minute Trochoids. I am
sorry that this usage still persists, a chief offender being Melvill, who
wrote upon the Cyclostrematidae of the Persian Gulf (Proc. Mai. Soc.
(Lond.), vol. vii, pp. 20-28, 1906), and has since described species of
" Cyclostrema " most obviously not congeneric with the type. The genus
" Cyclostrema " was proposed for a shell found among some West Indian
forms. The type is lost, and the nearest species known comes from the
Philippines. I have often studied the figure and description of Marryat's
genus and species, and these seem to represent an immature shell which
might have developed into a species of what I call Liotina. I would suggest
that the name be dismissed as indeterminable, especially as it has been so
casually used in no scientific manner.

Iredale. — Suter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 441

On p. 154 Delphinoidea is included, but the species so classed bears little
resemblance to the British shell, which is the type of the genus.

On p. 157 Miss Bush's fam. Vitrinellidae is admitted, but the shells
placed under this name bear little or no resemblance to Vitrinella, and the
name should be dismissed at once from Neozelanic literature.

Miss Bush's Lissospira is also introduced for the minute turbinate species,
corulum Hutton, 1885, and micra Tenison- Woods, 1877. The former of
these has little resemblance to the species of Lissospira, and I have already
proposed to seperate it genericallv. The latter bears only superficially the
aspect of species of Lissospira . Moreover, Miss Bush recognized as a sub-
genus of Lissospira the genus Ganesa Jeffreys. That name has long priority,
but the species are quite unlike the austral species.

Thiele has shown that most of the Antarctic shells, which closely re-
semble boreal species — so much so that previous workers had considered
them congeneric — showed vast differences when the aninals were examined.
In my own case, I cannot separate shells of Heterorissoa and Jejfreysia, yet
the opercula notably differ, and Thiele has been able to recognize several
genera in the southern so-called '' Jejfreysia."

Under these circumstances, I unhesitatingly reject Lissospira, and also
Cyclostremella Bush, admitted by Suter on p. 160. This latter genus was
proposed for such a shell as the Australian Cyclostrema charopa Tate, but
Thiele has differentiated an Antarctic genus under the name Microdiscula.
The austral species I would class under this name rather than under Miss
Bush's, especially as she writes, " Nuclear whorl relatively large, turned
downward, seen only in a basal view, leaving a small pit above." No
austral form I have examined shows this character. Suter's Cyclostremella
neozelanica seems to show no affinity with either Cyclostremella Bush or
Microdiscula Thiele, but differs in almost every particular, as will be here-
after shown.

Circulus Jeffreys is, on p. 159, introduced into the Neozelanic fauna to
include a shell very closely allied to "Cyclostreme " tatei Angas. There is
quite a large group of- Indo-Pacific shells agreeing vaguely in character
with C. tatei Angas, but these do not correlate with the type of Circulus
when actual specimens are compared.

The whole of the Neozelanic and Australian species bear a different
look when specimens (not descriptions and illustrations) are brought along-
side European forms, and I advocate the rejection of European names
until animals are examined.

I herewith introduce four new generic names for usage in connection
with the Neozelanic forms, and most of these will come into use for Aus-
tralian species. I have collated some sixty generic names proposed for
shells of this group, and I have examined the types of the majority of these
genera and most of the species, both fossil and Kecent, allotted to the genera
named, in the hope that I may at some time produce a monograph of the
whole gioup. In addition to the named forms, I have many unnamed
species from the Kermadec Islands, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk
Island, and these have been utilized in consideration of the groups
here named. The usage of these would certainly obviate such incon-
gruous assemblage as my friend Mr. Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
vol. xxxiv, 1909) has produced in classing figs. 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 on
plate xxxix as Liotia, and figs. 46, 47, 48, pi. xxxix, and figs. 49, 50, 51,
pi. xl, as Cyclostrema.

442 Transactions.

Liotella gen. nov. [P. 151.]

I introduce this genus-name to cover a series of minute shells which
have been classed by Australasian workers in Liotia, but which differ in
their texture, do not possess a thickened peristome, and are more or less
loosely coiled. I name as type Liotia polypleura Hedley, a species I am
very familiar with, and that shell has a multispiral horny operculum with
a central nucleus. The second species on p. 151 (Liotia rotula Suter) would
be here classed, and I would suggest the addition of Liotia annulata Ten.-
Woods (Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasm.. 1877, p. 121, 1878); Liotia anxia Hedlev
(Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxiv. p. 437, pi. 39, figs. 43-45, 1909) : Liotia
petalifera Hedley (Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. vii, p. 116, pi. 22, figs. 6-8, 1908) ;
Liotia disjuncta Hedley (Mem. Austr. Mils., iv, p. 336, fig. 66 in text, 1903) :
and Homalogy'ra pulcherrima Brazier (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. ix, p. 175,
pi. 14, fig. 13, a, b, 1894). These are all obviously neither Liotia nor Liotina,
and, though I suggest all are not congeneric, the present location is good as
a temporary one, though not permanent.

Zalioais gen. nov.

Suter described a minute shell as Cyclostrema lissum in 1908, and he
now disposes of it in Delphinoidea Brown. That genus is based upon a
British shell which I do not consider congeneric with Suter's C. lissum,
which was one of my first discoveries when investigating the minutiae
found living in seaweeds in tide-pools at dead low water on the New Zea-
land coast. I sent Mr. Suter specimens for examination from Blind Bay,
Nelson, in addition to the localities lie mentions, and I also obtained it at
Sandfly Bay, Otago Peninsula. It is probably well distributed, but we have
knowledge of very little of the New Zealand minute marine molluscs as yet.

I propose the above generic name, naming C. lissum Suter as type, and
anticipate many additions. I have another Neozelanic species, yet unde-
seribed, before me, but at present I do not know any Australian species I
would refer here.

Lissotesta gen. nov.

I mentioned to Mr. Suter in 1907, when I passed through Auckland on
my way to the Kermadec Islands, that I had written to Mr. Hedley ask-
ing his opinion with regard to Cirsonella ? neozelanica Murdoch. I had
compared the type of Cirsonella, and from shell characters it was not
congeneric, and the anatomical details given by Murdoch confirmed this
conclusion, whilst the operculum made the rejection of the species from
Cirsonella certain. Mr. Hedley has replied suggesting Assiminea, and
agreeing with my opinion. On p. 155 Cirsonella neozelanica is included,
but on p. 1082 there is a note quoting Thiele's investigation and its tenta-
tive reference to Acmella in the subfamily Omphalotropidinae of the family
Pomatiasidae, which is certainly a much better location.

The first species, Cirsonella densilirata Suter, 1908, is certainly correctly
placed under the genus Cirsonella in the present state of our knowledge,
but the third species, Cirsonella granum Murdoch and Suter, 1906, I would
remove to my genus Lissotesta, which I here propose for the shells about
Cyclostrema micra Ten. -Woods. 1877, which I name as type. Yet Suter
has placed the former in the family Cyclostrematidae, and the latter in the
family Vitrinellidae.

These " featureless " " Cyclostrematids " are difficult to place from
figures and descriptions alone, but the two here mentioned are conchologic-

Iredale. — Sitter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 443

ally as alike as any of these things are. Thus I would here place Cyclo-
strema torridum Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxiv, p. 438, pi. 40,
figs. 49-51, 1909) ; and I at one time considered C. porcellanum Tate and
May would belong here, but examination of specimens in the British
.Museum, marked " co-types,'* shows this species to have an oval aperture
quite repugnant to my genus, and recalling shells I collected in New Zea-
land and which from opercular characters were referred to Laevilitorina.

Elachorbis gen. nov.

On j». 153, under Cyclostrema, Suter lias placed his own Cyclostrema
eumorpha, and on p. 159. under Circulus, lie has ranged his Cyclostrema
subtatei.

There is a large group of minutiae similar in general characters to Cyclo-
strema tatei Angas, and I propose the above genus for these, with that species
as type. There cannot be recourse to Cyclostrema, as already pointed out,
and Circulus, from examination of the type, would be a bad substitute.

Melvill has described a whole series of species from the Persian Gulf
under the genus-name " Cyclostrema " which would come into this genus.
Melvill's idea of " Cyclostrema" as further exemplified in the Trans. Roy.
Soc. Edinb., vol. xlviii. L912, pp. 345-46, is about as vague as the Linnean
Helix, as he admits "this genus is somewhat multifarious already in its
component pa 1 1 s . " "

Leptothyra imperforata (Suter, 1908). [P. 156.]

This is where I should place the shell named Pseudoliotia imperforata
by Suter. Pseudoliotia Tate, from examination of types, agrees exactly
in every detail with Liotia Gray, and must be ranked as an absolute synonym
of that name.

I have not seen Suter's species, but the description and figure agree
very closely with the type of Leptothyra, and until the opercular characters
are known this should be its generic location.

When Hedley introduced Liotia latebrosa (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
vol. xxxii. 1907. p. 493) he commented, "The shell resembles Leptothyra,
but the operculum is of a different type. It seems to me probable that
neither Leptothyra nor Collonia occurs in Australasian seas, and that the
species which have been ascribed to them ought to be transferred to
Liotia." This was written before I had shown that Liotia Gray wras not
Liotia Auct., and with our present knowledge it is quite impossible to class
Hedley \s Liotia latebrosa with either Liotia Gray (== Pseudoliotia Tate) or
Liotina Fischer (= Liotia Auct.).

Hedley admitted (loc. cit., p. 479) Leptothyra laeta Montrouzor, and
this fairly agrees with typical Leptothyra. The species I found at the Ker-
madecs and recorded as Leptothyra pie/a Pease is also quite a typical shell.
The present species does not closely resemble Cyclostrema mica as A. Adams,
but recalls Collonia roseopunctata Ten. -Woods, and this w7ould also range
under Leptothyra.

The species Suter includes in Leptothyra (pp. 164-65) are not congeneric,
and I will deal with these when I arrive at those pages.

Brookula corulum (Hutton, 1885). [P. 158.]

The shell described as Scala corulum by Hutton was temporarily placed
under Cyclostrema by Suter and myself in 1908. Suter now ranks it under

444 Transactions.

Lissospira, which it disagrees with in almost every particular. I have in-
troduced (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. x, p. 219, 1912) the genus-name
Brookula, with type the Kermadec species B. stibarochila, and the group
thus named is quite a large one, and well defined.

Liotella ? neozelanica (Suter, 1908). [P. 160.]

Sitter's Cyclostremella neozelanica is autoptically unknown to me, but
it is obvious that it is not a Cyclostremella. I have seen species somewhat
recalling Suter's figure and description, and until I know them better I
would class them as close relations of Liotella spp.

My disposition of the species ranked by Suter in the families Liotiidae,
Vitrinellidae, and Cyclostrematidae (pp. 150-61) are as follows :—

Transfer Liotia serrata Suter, 1908, and Liotia solitaria Suter, 1908,
to the genus Angaria Bolten, 1798, in the family Trochidae. Transfer
Cirsonella neozelanica Murdoch, 1899, to the genus Acmella in the family
Pomatiasidae. Transfer Pseudoliotia iui perforata Suter, 1908, to the genus
Leptothyra in the family Turbinidae. The remainder may be classed in
the family Liotiidae Iredale, as hereafter named : —

Fam. Liotiidae Iredale.
Genus Liotella nov.

Liotella poly pleura (Hedley, 1904).
rotula (Suter, 1908).'

? neozelanica (Suter, 1908).

Genus Elachorbis nov.

Elachorbis eumorpha (Suter, 1908).

subtatei (Suter, 1907).

Genus Zalipais nov.

Zalipais lissa (Suter, 1908).
Genus Cirsonella Angas, 1877.

Cirsonella densilirata (Suter, 1908).
Genus Brookula Iredale, 1912.

Brookula corulum (Hutton, 1885).
Genus Lissotesta nov.

Lissotesta micra (Ten. -Woods, 1877).

■ granum (Murdoch and Suter, 1906).

There are many species and genera living in Neozelanic waters to reward
the worker who will undertake search for these delightful minutiae. I have
before me at this time more than half a dozen species representing genera
new to the Neozelanic list and others referable to the above-named genera.

Subgenus Lunella (Bolten, 1798). [P. 162.]

" Marmorostoma Swainson, 1840 ; type, T. porphyreticus Mart.," is
utilized by Suter in a subgeneric sense for Turbo smaragdus Martyn. This
name is untenable in this connection, as it was first proposed by Swainson
in the Zool. Illus., 2nd ser., vol. i, 1829, pi. 14, where he wrote, " From
the genera Turbo and Trochus of modern conchologists we have detached
all those species whose shells are closed by a calcarious [sic] operculum ;
and this group we propose to distinguish by the name of Marmarostoma."
He then named as type " Turbo chrysostomus L."

In the " Treatise on Malacology " (1840, p. 215) Swainson amended
this proposal thus : " Before we had sufficiently studied this family we

Ikedale — Suter's "Manual of the Ntw Zealand Mollusca.'' 445

included the foregoing in our genus Marmarostoma, but we intend to limit
that name to the umbilicated division of Humphrey's Senectus, represented
by the M. versicolor (Turbo versicolor Martini, pi. 176, figs. 1740, 1741)."
Such a transposition of names is not permissible, and the first usage of
Marmorostoma prohibits its use in any connection, as it falls as an absolute
synonym of Turbo s. str. In Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxviii, 1905, p. 324
(1906), Suter wrote, " The subgenus Lunella Bolten, 1798, used by Webster,
should be replaced by Marmorostoma Swainson, 1840, as most conchologists
reject the names proposed by Bolten." At the present time the converse
is the case, as practically every systematist now recognizes the Boltenian
genera. The chief antagonist (Mr. A. J. Jukes- Browne) of the Boltenian
genera has recently passed away, and I at present know of no other
opponent.

Lunella Bolten (Mus. Bolten., p. 103, 1798) can therefore be used instead
of the doubly invalid Marmorostoma Swainson, 1840, which, if quoted in
the synonymv, should be accompanied by the words " not of Swainson,
1829."

Turbo smaragdus (Martyn, 1784). [P. 162.]

To the synonyny of this species add (Helix) Smaragdus minor Martyn
(Univ. Conch., vol. ii, pi. 74, 1784), Turbo smaragdinus Bolten (Mus. Bolten.,
p. 86, 1798).

I notice with pleasure that Suter has also included Turbo smaragdus
var. tricostatus Hutton, 1884. My own collecting led me to endorse Suter's
suggestion (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol." xxxviii, 1905, p. 324, 1906) that " further
investigation will show that all young shells of T. helicinus (= smaragdus)
are tricostate." The plate given by Martyn, and named as above, shows
two beautiful paintings of half-grown shells which clearly portray the tri-
costate stage, and if such had been separable Marty n's name, given just
one hundred years before Hutton's choice, would have claimed usage.

Another synonym, which I will later discuss, seems to be Omalogyra
bicarinata Suter (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. viii, p. 33, 1908).

Argalista gen. no v. [P. 164.]

I propose this generic name for Cyclostrema fluctuata Hutton. This
species, along with Leptothyra crassicostata Murdoch, belongs to a group
confused with Leptothyra and Collonia. The true species of Leptothyra
are very different shells, with different opercular characters. Collonia is
a name that has been recently restricted to fossil shells somewhat recalling
Argalista, but the name is so uncertain that it cannot be here recommended
for usage.

I have before me new species of Argalista, and Hedley has described
Liotia latebrosa in 1907 (see under Leptothyra imperforata Suter, ante) and
more recently Leptothyra fug itiva (Zool. Pes. Fish. Ex. " Endeavour," pt. i,
p. 102, pi. 18, figs. 18-20, 1911), which probably, with Teinostoma rotatum
Hedley (Mem. Austr. Mus., iii, p. 553, fig. 65 in text, 1899) and many other
species, would fall into the present genus.

Astraea sulcata (Martyn, 1784). [P. 167.]

As a synonym, add Cidaris novaezeelandiae Bolten (Mus. Bolten., p. 85,
1798). This name is given to Der neuseelandische Turban (Chemn., 5,
t. 164, fig. 1550). The figure is numbered 1551, and is easily recognizable.

446 Transactions.

Genus Phasianella (Lamarck, 1804). [P. 168.]

Many synonyms might here be added. The following refer only to the
typical section, and are absolutely exact : —

Phasianus Montf ort, Conch. Syst., vol. ii, pp. 254-55, 1810 (not Phasianus
Linne, 1758).

Bolina Rafinesque, " Analyse Nature," p. 144, 1815. Orthopnoea Gistel,
Naturg. Thierr. Schul., p. 169, 1848. Both these are simply substitute
names for " Phasianella Lam."

Eutropia Humphrey was quoted by Swainson (Treat. Mai., p. 21, 1840)
as being equal to Phasianella Lam., and was so used by Adams Bros.

Eutropia H. and A. Adams, Gen. Rec. Moll, vol. i, p. 389, 1854.

Genus Umbonium (Link, 1807). [P. 170.]

Umbonium Link, Beschr. Samml. Rostock., 1807. Type : Trochus
vestiafius Linne.

As synonyms may be noted Globulus Schumacher, 1817, and Rotella
Lamarck, 1822. A full synonymy will be given later.

This genus is not clearly defined from Etkalia A. Adams, which Suter
has used, following Pilsbry, for the New Zealand shell l" Ethalia zelandica
H. & J." In the British Museum Ethalia is only given subgeneric rank,
which looks natural to me ; but whatever value is hereafter accorded Ethalia
I conclude that the Neozelanic shell will be classed in Umbonium. It is
so placed in the British Museum. Ethalia is much younger, in date, than
Umbonium, but even if used subgenerically the Neozelanic shell would fall
into Umbonium s. str. Ethalia must be altogether eliminated from Neo-
zelanic usage.

Umbonium anguliferum (Philippi, 1853). [P. 170.]

Globulus anguliferus Philippi, given by Suter in the synonymy of
"" Ethalia zelandica Hombron and Jacquinot, 1854," was really published
in 1853, and therefore lias clear priority over the name assigned to Hombron
and Jacquinot, but only published by Rousseau in 1854.

The reference to the genus Ethalia is due to Pilsbry's initiative when
he monographed the group in the '" Manual of Conchology." I cannot
understand his argument, as he referred Crosse's U. thomasi to Umbonium,
and these two species are very nearly allied, and certainly congeneric.
I note he has since indicated that the traditional identification of Quoy
and Gaimard's guamensis, the type of Ethalia. may be incorrect. How-
ever, A. Adams (Proc. Zool. Sue. 1853. 188 (1854) ) proposed two new species
of Umbonium — U . zealandicum and U. chalconotum. These are synonyms of
the present species, and they are not congeneric with H. and A. Adams's
Ethalia guamensis, which is now before me, whether this be Quoy and
Gaimard's species or not. The first introduction of Ethalia is by H. and A.
Adams, Gen. Rec. Moll., vol. i, p. 409, May 1854. The type is " guameuse
Quoy k Gaim."

Genus Murdochia (Ancey, 1901). [P. 177.]

1 would like to see this name come into use for the Neozelanic shells
at present classed in Lagochilus. All Neozelanic workers, as well as extra-
liniital malacologists, deeply regret the withdrawal of Mr. R. Murdoch from
the. active study of the Neozelanic molluscan fauna.

Ieedale. — Suter' s " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 447

My reasons for the recognition of Murdochia are that Lagochilus Bland-
ford, 1864, is antedated by the prior names Lagochilas and Layochile. These
names are being considered near enough to invalidate Blanford's name by
most present-day workers. Cytora Kobelt and Moellendorff, 1902 or 1897,
is long predated by Cytorus, and is therefore unavailable.

Genus Palaina (Semper, 1865). [P. 185.]

The reference to Palaina is not given, and, as I had occasion to look it
up, it may be here noted : —

Palaina Semper, Journ. de Conch, vol. xiii. p. 291, 1st July, 1865.
Synonym : Pupoidea Pease, Amer. Journ. Conch., vol. i, p. 290, 1st October,
1865.

Suter notes that the occurrence of the species in New Zealand requires
confirmation.

I have examined the type, and it closely approaches some forms from
Lord Howe Island, but though I have tried to match it I have not yet
succeeded. The Lord Howe land molluscan faunula is so certainly derived
from that of New Caledonia that search in that island may reveal the habitat
of the supposed Neozelanic shell. My criticism of the type leaves no doubt
that it came from New Zealand, New Caledonia, or Lord Howe Island.

Genus Melarhaphe Menke. [P. 186.]

I have recorded my conclusion (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. x, p. 223,
1912) that this genus-name should replace Littorina for usage for the Aus-
tralian shells commonly so called. Suter has given the correct reference
to this name, but the type I named as M. neritoides (Linne). The species-
name (p. 188) mauritiana Lamarck, 1822, should be rejected, as the Mauri-
tian shells are much larger and easily separable. The next name is L.
unifasciata Gray, 1826, given to an Australian shell, and this may be used,
but I think the Neozelanic shell may prove subspecifically separable. A
long series I collected at Caloundra. Queensland, were fairly constant, and
showed slight differences, but I will later discuss these differences in more
detail than I can at present.

Fam. Rissoiciae Gray. [P. 198.]

' Rissoids " have given trouble to all systematists, on account of their
small size. Few malacologists have deigned to study them, and most
conchologists have utilized the name for any minute shell which could not
be conveniently elsewhere placed. Hence, to the serious systematist
" Rissoa " is the most displeasing name on record. I drew up a scheme for
the differentiation of Australian " Rissoids " some six years ago. Unfor-
tunately, my MS. was lost while travelling, and it has taken much study to
arrive at a satisfactory appreciation of the austral forms in conjunction
with the European forms. These latter have been generically divided and
subdivided until there are about two generic names provided for each species.
With such a multiplicity of names available it seemed only a matter
of comparison to select those suitable for Neozelanic shells, and then cor-
relate synonyms. The Norman collection of palaearctic molluscs is now
preserved in the British Museum, and such a wealth of material can scarcely
be understood by the Neozelanic student. Series of shells from varied
localities showing all growth stages and variation, with paratypes from most
European workers, are there exhibited. I made a careful study of this

448 Transactions.

collection as regards these shells, and was astonished at my results. 1
had first collated all the generic, subgeneric, and sectional names proposed,
with the types given by their author or the next worker to select such.
Rissoa has had three types, named by three workers, and, whichever of these
be considered the genus-name, Rissoa must be eliminated from Neozelanic
literature.

I now propose a scheme of nomination adapted to austral species, and
would urge its acceptance by austral students. It may seem at first arbi-
trary and in some ways inconsistent, but I believe it to be based on sound
principles. It is the result of consideration of European Rissoids, both
Recent and fossil, in conjunction with Australian, Neozelanic, and Lord
Howe, Norfolk Island, Kermadec, and Lifu species. I deliberately mention
these islands as I have many species from these groups, and these have
reinforced the opinions produced by the study of the Neozelanic species
alone.

Suter has accepted the genus Rissoa, admitting six subgenera — Rissoa
(s. str.), Alvania, Onoba, Ceratia, Cingula, and Setia. As distinct genera he
includes Amphithalamus and Anabathron.

More space than would be here allotted is required to record all the
vicissitudes of Rissoid classification as regards austral forms. . Here it
can be noted that Hedley (Zool. Results " Endeavour," pt. i, p. 105, 1911)
has rejected Rissoa, with type Turbo cimex L., as available for many
austral species, and has substituted Amphithalamus. I do not agree with
his association of species under the latter name, and these. I will hereafter
discuss. The type of Rissoa named by Hedley is the type of Alvania, so
that name must also be omitted from consideration in connection with
these species. The shell Suter names as type of Rissoa appears to have
the best claim, but that will be discussed fully elsewhere.

Onoba, I conclude, can be used for certain Neozelanic shells without
recourse to animal characters. Ceratia would be also available, but it is
preoccupied. Cingula has no representative in New Zealand, whilst Setia
is also preoccupied.

My scheme necessitates the introduction of new generic names for
austral groups, and I would at once protest against the action of some
conchologists who, without making any study of the subject, throw all
new names into synonymy. If these minutiae be carefully studied, I
prophesy the proposal of many more genera rather than the rejection of
the few I separate.

Firstly, there is an austral group oscillating about Rissoa cheilostoma
Ten.-Woods. This group is well marked, and I have half a dozen distinct
species under review at the present time : these all agree in general ap-
pearance, in the spirally sculptured protoconch and the heavily varicosed
somewhat oval aperture, though varying from minute slender elongate forms
to large stout tightly wound forms. These have been classed in Alvania
and Alvinia, but examination of the type of Alvania shows a very different
style of shell. Alvinia recalls them, but species of that genus have a smooth
protoconch, and are different in texture, resembling that of Brookula. A
number of small shells with a smooth protoconch and a Brookula appearance
also occur in Australian waters, but these when compared with Alvinia
do not match at all, showing the great difficulty of judging " Rissoids "
from descriptions or figures. I will elaborate this group later, as I know no
Neozelanic species, though Rissoa pingue Webster, a species I am not
autoptically acquainted with, may belong here.

Iredale. — Suter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 449

A series of species show a spiral sculpture only, the above-named being
all clathrately sculptured. These differ in other details, but the association
hereafter mentioned does not seem natural. Rissoa suteri Hedley is the
only Neozelanic example. This is classed by Suter in Onoba, but neither
it nor the other species so classed by Suter, R. foliata Suter, have much
in common with the type of Onoba. This species, striata Montagu. I have
collected in Devonshire. England, and it accurately agrees conchologically
with the shells named by Webster R. candidissima and R. carnosa. The
confusion present in Suter's arrangement can be gauged from the fact that
the former is placed in the genus Rissoa under the subgenus Alvania, whilst
the latter appears in the genus Rissoina under the subgenus Moerchiella.
Yet both are typically Onoba, not like the species Onoba glomerosa Hedley,
somewhat atypical. Ceratia is invalidated by the prior Ceratias.

Otherwise the shells so classed by Suter agree fairly well. The group
is well represented, and might be regarded as a subgenus of Onoba, and
would include most of the species placed by Hedley in Onoba.

Cingula is utilized for a series of species which may not be congeneric,
but they certainly differ generically from the type of Cingula, a shell I
collected numerously in Devonshire, England. Hedley has classed these
in Amphithalamus, but his association of species differs from mine.

Setia cannot be resorted to for the " featureless " Rissoids, as it is
preoccupied. It has been subdivided many times by European mala-
cologists, and I will discuss the names hereafter.

Amphithalamus is a name I have a great dislike to, as it was given to a
North American species, and the austral species so called have an austral
name already available.

Anabathron was proposed for an Australian species, and the group is
confined to austral seas, as hereafter observed.

Haurakia gen. no v.

This genus-name is. provided for the species agreeing with Rissoa hamil-
toni, which I name as type. I introduce this genus with some diffidence,
as the species is conchologically quite close to Turboella Gray. The mouth
of the type species of that genus disagrees, and it runs into quite a different
form, named Zippora, which again varies, and has been generically named
Rissostomia. The variations that more strongly recall the austral group
have been named Apicularia and Pusillina, both by Monterosato, whilst
Sabanaea was used by Monterosato for another, to me indistinguishable,
group.

Apicularia and Pusillina agree very closely, as far as conchological
characters go, with Haurakia, but as they appear rather obvious derivatives
of Turboella, which differs very appreciably from the Neozelanic forms, I
would reject both.

Merelina gen. nov.

I propose this name for the shells grouped around Rissoa cheilostoma
Ten.-Woods, which I name as type.

The New Zealand specimens available differ at sight from Sydney shells
so named, and I have found species of this genus to be fairlv constant in
their characters. The genus extends to Lifu as Alvania pisinna Melvill
and Standen, which I collected commonly at the Kermadecs, and is un-
doubtedly congeneric.

15— Trans

450 Transactions.

I doubtfully locate here Webster's R. pingue, as the " glossy " proto-
conch indicates it as a member of another group ; but it is almost impossible
to generically place any Rissoid without study of actual specimens.

I would reject Alvania without much consideration, and Alvinia super-
ficially recalls this group, but the texture differentiates this form easily.
I would draw attention to a paper by Bartsch in the Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,
vol. xli, p. 333 et seq., 1911, on the west American species of Alvania.
No authority is given for the generic name, nor is there any synonymy
collated, nor are comparisons given with any extra-limital forms even as
regards generic affinity, yet species with smooth nuclear whorls, punctured
(papillose) nuclear whorls, and spirally lirate nuclear whorls are lumped
together, whilst the shells show spiral sculpture only or clathrate or both,
with varicosed mouths or simple, oval or pear-shaped.

Alvania cosmia Bartsch, p. 352, pi. 31, fig. 4 ; Alvania halia, id., p. 354,
pi. 31, fig. 5 ; and Alvania aequisculpta Keep, p. 358, pi. 32, fig. 7, seem to
agree exactly from figures and descriptions with members of Merelina
as here proposed, which, as far as Australasian waters are concerned, is a
distinct well-marked group.

Subonoba gen. nov.

The species Suter classed under Ceratia are here so named, and I select
Rissoa fumata as type. In addition to the three species included by Suter,
other species are known to me from New Zealand. In general appearance
these differ from Onoba, and they always entirely lack longitudinal ribs.
The British species of Onoba sometimes show these very obscurely, but
even then they are quickly recognizable.

Probably the shells classed by Hedley in Onoba — viz., Onoba bassiana
(Zool. Res. Fish. Exp. "Endeavour," pt. i, p. 108, pi. xix, fig. 25, 1911) and
Onoba glomerosa (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxii, p. 495, pi. xvii, fig. 23,
1907) — together with Watson's Rissoa (Onoba) mercurialis (Chall. Rep. Zool.,
vol. xv, p. 600, pi. xlv, fig. 12, 1886) could be here placed, as, though the
two former do not fairly agree in general shape and mouth characters, they
disagree much more with typical Onoba.

Lironoba gen. nov.

I designate as type of this new group Rissoa suteri Hedley. These
heavily lirately sculptured forms seem to be unknown in European seas,
as I have noted nothing that much recalled this species.

When Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxiii, p. 469, 1908)
described Rissoa imbrex (pi. x, fig. 33) he wrote, " This species is related
to a small group of spirally ribbed shells — R. tenisoni Tate, R. layardx
Petterd, R. agneivi Ten. -Woods, and R. unilirata Ten.-Woods — among which
it stands nearest to the last." Since then he has added Rissoa lockyeri
(Zool. Res. Fish. Exp. "Endeavour," pt, i, p. 103, pi. xviii, fig. 22, 1911)
and Alvania praetornatilis (Rec. Austr. Mus., vol. viii, p. 139, pi. xli, fig. 16,
1912), and this series may be temporarily classed, for the sake of convenience,
together under the genus-name Lironoba. I write "temporarily,'* as
some recall other genera, and further study may necessitate their trans-
position.

Rissoa wilsonensis Gatliff and Gabriel, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xxv,
n.B., p. 68, pi. viii, fig. 4, 1913, also comes into this genus.

Iredale. — Suter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 451

Estea gen. nov.

The shell described by Webster as Rissoa zosterophila is selected as type
of this genus, which is as yet quite an austral evolution. When Melvill
and Standen met with a species from Lifu they were quite puzzled, and
referred it to Barleeia, a quite inadequate conclusion. Hedley (Zool. Res.
Fish. Exp. " Endeavour," pt. i, pp. 105-8, 1911) has referred them to Amphi-
thalamus, but that generic name should be restricted to the species grouped
around Rissoa scrobiculator Watson and R.jacksoni Brazier (= badia Watson).
These superficially agree with Amphithalamus inclusus Carpenter, but the
operculum of that species seems undescribed. Hedley has figured an
operculum in the mouth of his Scrobs pyramidatus (Mem. Austr. Mus., iv,
p. 354, fig. 77 in text, 1903), and this seems to agree with specimens I have
examined ; but I hope to deal fully with the genus Amphithalamus at a
later date. I have many species all clearly showing the " Scrobs " feature,
which never seems to me to merge into such a mouth as that shown by the
type of Estea.

The difficulty of classing these is shown by the fact that the genus
Modulus Monterosato resembles a distorted Scrobs-like species, whilst the
genus Pisinna Monterosato suggests a combination of Scrobs and Estea,
agreeing exactly with neither. Yet when Sacco discovered a fossil like
Scrobs he named it Parmsetia ? mioscrobs&ides (I. Moll, del Piemonte, pt. xviii,
p. 32, 1895).

Then Bartsch (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. 41, pp. 289-91, 1911) de-
scribed west American species of Modulus, after having dealt with the
species of Amphithalamus (id., pp. 263-65), and thereto assigned shells
whose figures recall such as were assigned by Tate and May to Rissopsis
and Hedley to Epigrus. The species Tate and May put under Nodulus
Hedley has referred to Amphithalamus.

When Hedley transferred Rissoa bicolor Petterd to Amphithalamus
(Zool. Res. Fish. Exp. "Endeavour," pt. i, p. 106, 1911) he noted, "This
seems synonymous with R. annulata Hutton (N.Z. Journ. Sci., ii, July,
1884, p. 173 : Proc. Mai. Soc, iii, 1898, p. 3) from New Zealand, over which
it has priority." I do not understand how this erroneous statement was
made, as Webster showed that at the second reference a very distinct
species was described, and that Hutton's R. annulata was only a form of
Hutton's R. olivacea, the type of Hutton's genus Dardania. The second
species he named R. zosterophila (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxvii, 1904, p. 277,
pi. ix, fig. 5 (1905) ). and this is the type of my Estea. Rissoa bicolor Petterd
I refer to the same genus, but specimens (practically paratypes) of this
species in the British Museum agreeing with figures by Tate and May, as
quoted by Hedley and more recently figured by Gatliff and Gabriel (Proc.
Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xxv, n.s., pi. viii, figs. 5, 6, 1913), are abundantly
distinct from Webster's species.

I should consider that Hedley and May's Rissoa columnaria (Rec. Austr.
Mus., vol. vii, p. 117, pi. xxii, fig. 9, 1908) showed every character of Estea
clearly both in figure and description : " Aperture perpendicular, circular,
peristome reflected all round."

Webster figured the operculum of R. zosterophila, and this disagrees
with that of Scrobs pyramidatus Hedley aforementioned.

I suggest the inclusion under Estea of all the species Suter placed in
the subgenus Cingula, with which they have very little in common.

I have more New Zealand species of Estea, and also species from Lord
Howe and Norfolk Islands, where Amphithalamus also occurs, but I only
procured examples of the latter genus from the Kermadec Islands.

15*

452 Transactions.

Notosetia gen. no v.

This is provided for the " Setia " of Suter, and I name as type Barleeia
neozelanica Suter. I consider it a heterogeneous assemblage, but consider
it wiser to provide quite a new name than encumber Neozelanic litera-
ture with another unnecessary extra-limital innovation. I have studied
the European " Setia" and could easily match some of the shells with
Neozelanic forms, but as each European species has one or more generic
names it would be difficult to fix a limit, and some of the Neozelanic forms
differ widely. Further, the particular forms that conchologically agree
are known, in the few cases that animal or opercular features have been
studied, to disagree. The " Gordian solution " I therefore favour, and
solicit criticism. In a like case Thiele referred such things to " Rissoa,"
and upon my remonstrance urged, " I know quite well they are not Rissoa,
but I don't know what they are."'

Nozeba gen. no v.

I recorded as Recent the species Rissoa emarginata Hutton, previously
known only in the fossil state. I now provide for this species the above
genus-name, and fix it as type. A second species is Rissoiiut coulthardi
Webster. These two species are classed by Suter in Rissoina under the
section Zebina H. and A. Adams.

The species of Zebina differ generically from those of Rissoina, which-
ever subgenus of the latter is compared. I collected a species of the true
Zebina at the Kermadecs, and was at once struck by its peculiar Eulimoid
aspect, and found later that some of the species had been described under
the genus-name Eulima.

A recent consideration of the varied forms classed under Rissoina showed
no other species easily compared with the two above named.

Dardanula gen. nov.

I propose this name to replace Dardania Hutton, 1882, which is pre-
occupied by Dardania Stal. Suter has dismissed this as a synonym of
Eatoniella Dall, which he has ranked as a subgenus of Rissoina. The re-
ference to Rissoina simply because the operculum shows an internal clavi-
form nucleus is a degradation of conchological characters, as the association
of shells by means of operculum alone would lead to chaos. If the oper-
culum- of Dardanula be compared with that of Rissoina it will be seen to
differ widely, whilst from shell characters the two would never be ranged
together. Thiele has shown that the genus Eatoniella has been utilized to
cover diverse elements, examination of the animal showing different generic-
types to be thereunder confused. The operculum of Dardanula differs at
sight from that of Eatoniella, so that generic distinction must be allowed.

Anabathron foliatum (Suter, 1908). [P. 204.]

When this species was described by Suter he placed it in the genus
Rissoa, while he referred another shell to Anabathron, describing it as
A. gradatum. I cannot exactly place the latter species, but it is certainly
not referable to Anabathron, whilst the former just as decidedly is.

The genus Anabathron is well defined, and seems to be as yet only known
from east Australian and Neozelanic waters. The species comprising the
genus at present are : Anabathron contabulatvm Frauenfeld, New South

Irebale. — Suler's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 453

Wales: A. contortum Hedley, 1907. Queensland; A. ascensum Hedley, 1907,
Queensland; A. foliation (Suter, 1908). New Zealand; A. pagodiformis
Sowerbv, 1914, New Caledonia. I have a sixth species, from Lord Howe
Island, at present undescribed.

Estea roseola nom. nov. [P. 209.]

This is proposed for the Rissoa rosea Hutton, 1873, which is invalidated
by Rissoa rosea Deshayes, lie Reunion Moll., p. 61, pi. vii, fig. 29, 1862.
The reference to the genus Estea is tentative, as the specimens before
me, identified from their coloration as Hutton's species, incline rather to
Amphithalamus, and might be better grouped there. I suggest that more
than one species is classed under Rissoa rosea Hutton through the prejudice
of the coloration.

Notosetia subflavescens nom. nov. [P. 212.]

Suter's selection of Rissoa atom is in 1908 was invalid, as Smith had
previously proposed the same name (Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.) ) for a St.
Helena shell. I rename Suter's species as above, but the generic, location
must be considered a tentative one.

Rissoina chathamensis (Hutton. 1873). [P. 220.]

This name must be used for the species commonly known as R. rugulosa
(Hutton, 1873). Both names were introduced in the same place, but the
one I select has five pages precedence, and therefore demands recognition.
Suter suggests that it is scarcely distinct from some Australian species, but
says that he has not the series available to settle the question.

Suter has admitted Rissoina hanleyi Schwartz, 1860, and, though he writes
the specimens are " undoubtedly " this species, the determination may be
queried. No other extra-limital species of Rissoina is recorded from New
Zealand, and the Philippines are a long way off. R. hanleyi does not appea
(at present) to be a common shell in intermediate localities.

My arrangement of the New Zealand Rissoidae would then be expressed
thus : —

Genus Haurakia nov.

Haurakia hamiltoni (Suter. 1898).

- huttoni (Suter, 1898).

- exserta (Suter, 1908).
Genus Merelina nov.

Merelina cheilostoma Ten. -Woods, 1877. Synonyms : Rissoa plicata

Hutton, 1873, not Deshayes, 1838 ; R. cheilostoma var. lyalliana

Suter, 1898.

(?) pingue Webster, 1906.

Genus Onoba H. and A. Adams, 1852. Onoba H. and A. Adams, Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd ser., vol. x, p. 358, Nov. 1, 1852. Type:

O. striata (Montagu).
Onoba candidissima Webster, 1905.

carnosa Webster, 1905.

Genus Subonoba nov.

Snbonoba foveauxiana (Suter, 1898).

fumata (Suter, 1898). . .

insculpta (Murdoch, 1905).

154 Transactions.

Genus Lironoba nov.

Lironoba suteri (Hedlev, 1904).
Genus Anabathron Frauenfeld, 1867.

Anabathron foliation (Suter, 1908).
Genus Estea nov.

Estea incidata (Frauenfeld, 1867).

lampra (Suter, 1908).

roseola nov.

roseocincta (Suter, 1908).

subfusca (Hutton, 1873).

var. micronema (Suter, 1898).

zosterophila (Webster, 1905).

— ■ var. minor (Suter, 1898).

impressa (Hutton, 1885).

rufoapicata (Suter, 1908).

Genus Notosetia nov.

Notosetia subflavescens nov. Synonym : Rissoa atomns Suter. 1908,
not Smith.

infecta (Suter, 1908).

- leptalea (Murdoch, 1905).

lubrica (Suter, 1898).

micans (Webster, 1905).

microstriata (Murdoch, 1905).

neozelanica (Suter, 1898).

— — porcellana (Suter, 1908).
■ — — stewartiana (Suter, 1908).
— — verecunda (Suter, 1908).
: — ■ — vulgaris (Webster, 1905).

? gradation (Suter, 1908).

Genus Amphithalamus Carpenter, 1865.

AmphithaJamus hedleyi (Suter, 1908).
Genus Rissoina D'Orbigny, 1840.
Rissoina hanleyi Schwartz, 1860.

rufolactea Suter, 1908.

chathamensis (Hutton, 1873). Synonym : Rissoa rugulosa

Hutton, 1873.

■ zonata Suter, 1909.

Genus Nozeba nov.

Nozeba coulthardi (Webster, 1908).

emarginata (Hutton, 1885).

Genus Dardanula nov. Synonym : Dardania Hutton, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. xiv, p. 147 (1882), (not Dardania Stal).
Dardanula chiltoni (Suter, 1909).

cuvieriana (Suter, 1908).

fiiscozona (Suter, 1908).

limbata (Hutton, 1883).

olimcea (Hutton, 1882).

var. annulata (Hutton, 1884).

— var. lutea (Suter, 1908).

Probably we do not know even a quarter of the number of species of the
family Rissoidae existing in Neozelanic waters. Many of the species seem
to be local on the littoral, and very little dredging has yet been done. A
day's seaweed-washing at almost any point would give a new species, whilst

iKtDALE. — Suier' s ''Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 455

shell-sand would easily add others at the same place, such inhabiting the
sublittoral zone. It is, however, more than probable that when the animals
are examined many will be found to belong to other families, and it is im-
perative that the present association be only recognized as a temporary
one.

Omalogyra bicarinata (Suter, 1908). [P. 229.]

I have before me specimens which agree in detail with Suter's description
and figure. They cannot be referred to Omalogyra, as the " peristome
continuous " is quite antagonistic to that genus. I have many times
studied them, and they do not carry adult features in my eyes. My series
does not exactly prove, but I myself am of the opinion, that they represent
the first stage in the growth of Turbo smaragdus (Martyn, 1784). The
careful search for young microscopic forms at any locality would well repay
the student, and such a puzzle as the present one would be quickly solved.
The shells can be compared with the juveniles of Angaria, which Suter
described as species of Liotia (ante). I have examined, as well as the Euro-
pean and Neozelanic species of Omalogyra, species from Sydney, New South
Wales, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island, and they are all easily
recognizable.

Genus Cerithiella (Verrill, 1882). [P. 249.]

In the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. ix, p. 260, 1911, I discussed the
rejection of this name by Cossmann, and the proposition of the new name
Newtoniella. According to the nomenclatural laws now in force, Cerithiella
is the valid name for this genus, and must be used. Thiele, apparently
independently, has also investigated the matter, and has endorsed my
conclusion. Morris and Lycett introduced Ceritella, and this name does not
clash with Cerithiella, which was proposed by Verrill in the Trans. Conn.
Acad., vol. v, p. 522, 1882. Mr. Edgar A. Smith, I.S.O., recently working
upon Antarctic shells, has considered the matter, and also confirmed my
results.

The only Neozelanic species seems referable to the genus as defined
by Harris and quoted by Suter, but disagrees somewhat with the type.

Seila terebelloides (Hutton, 1873). [P. 253.]

Suter used Cerithium terebelloides Martens, Crit. List, 1873, p. 26, as the
basis of his Seila terebelloides, rejecting Cerithium. cinctum Hutton of even
date, writing, " Hutton's name has priority by one month, but the de-
scription is quite inadequate, and he himself adopted the name bestowed
on the species by von Martens." Hutton, however, published Martens*
name at the same time as his own — viz., in the Cat. Mar. Moll. N.Z.,
p. 107, 1873 — so that Hutton's C. cinctum, p. 27, has only page, not time,
priority. This is quite sufficient to legalize Hutton's name ; but we are
relieved from making any alteration, as Hutton's name-selection was an-
ticipated by Bruguiere (Tabl. Ency. Meth. Vers., pt. 2, p. 493, 1792).

The original reference, however, must be quoted : Cerithium (Bittium)
terebelloides Hutton, Cat, Mar. Moll. N.Z., p. 107, 1873.

Calyptraea tenuis (Gray, 1867). [P. 284.]

Mr. E. A. Smith has shown that Calyptraea scutum Lesson is indetermin-
able, and that the correct name for the Neozelanic shell is C. tenuis Gray,
Proc. Linn. Soc, 1867, p. 735.

456 Transactions.

Calyptraea novaezelandiae (Lesson, 1830). [P. 285.]

Suter lias rejected this name in favour of the later one given by Quoy
and Gaimard because the latter figured their species. This is not a valid
reason, and, as Lesson's description is recognizable, his prior name must
be conserved, as Suter himself had concluded only a very few years before
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxviii, p. 326).

Crepidula costata Sowerby, 1824. [P. 287.]

When rejecting C. aculeata (Gmelin), Suter remarked, " Sowerby's species
was first figured (1824), and his specific name has to be adopted." This
statement is clue to ignorance of the facts, *as when Gmelin named his species
he quoted no fewer than five figures in support as having appeared prior to
1791. However, Sowerby's name should be retained, as Patella aculeata
Gmelin has been shown by Mr. E. A. Smith to be a different species.

Polinices vitreus (Hutton, 1873). [P. 290.]

If the identity of Hutton's Nalica, vitrea and Watson's N. amphiala
be admitted, Hutton's name must be used. It is apparently rejected on
account of the lack of figure, which is no valid reason. Watson himself
repudiated the identity until shells were compared, and I do not know
whether this has yet been done.

Trichotropis inornata (Hutton. 1873). [P. 296.]

Suter has rejected this name in favour of Sowerby's later T. clathrata,
as this was figured and Hutton's species was not. Hutton's species has
always been recognized, and Suter's alteration seems here to create quite
unnecessary confusion, as hitherto no question of the availability of
Hutton's name had arisen to the New Zealand student. Suter has given
as habitat, " Throughout New Zealand, in deep water." I have found
this species living also between tide-marks on Otago Peninsula.

I would agree with Suter that this species seems much nearer Tricho-
tropis than Lippistes, and all the Australian forms are really better placed
in the latter than the former a;enus.

Fam. Cymatiidae Iredale. [P. 302.]

I have recently advocated the recognition of this family-name, as Dall's
name Septidae I proved to be invalid. The reasons for the alteration can
be here summarized : Dall and Simpson (Bull. U.S. Fish. Commission,
vol. xx, pt. i. p. 416, 1900) brought into use for the shells congeneric with
Murex tritonis Linne. the name Septa of Perry, 1811. This was done as
Tritonium, commonly in use, was invalid. Dall then contributed an in-
valuable account, entitled 'k An Historical and Systematic Review of the
Frog Shells and Tritons" (Smithson Miscell. Coll., vol. xlvii, pp. 114 et
seq., 1904). As this is not generally available to the Neozelanic student,
I give a synopsis, so that my remarks can be followed : —

Fam. Septidae Dall.

Genus Trachytriton Meek.
Personella Conrad.
Ranellina Conrad.
Audrotriton Cossmann, 1903.

Irbdale. — Sitter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 457

Fam. Septidae — continued.
Genus Gyrineum Link, 1807.
Eugyrina Dall, nov.
Argobuccinwm Mdrch, 1852.

Subgenus Pamlagena Dall, nov.

Fusitriton Cossmann, 1903.
Priene H. and A. Adams, 1858.
Distortrix Link, 1807.
Cymatium Bolten, 1798.
Subgenus Cymatium s. str.
Sect. Cymatium s. str.

Lampusia Schumacher, 1817.
Ranularia Schumacher, 1817.
Tritonocauda Dall, nov.
Gutturnium Morch, 1852.
Turritriton Dall, nov.
Tritoniscus Dall, nov.
Cabestana Bolten., 1798.
Subgenus Mono flex Perry, 1811.
Linatella Gray, 1853.
Genus Septa Perry, 1811.

This was certainly an advance on Cossmann's treatment of the previous
year in the Essai Paleoconch. comp., vol. v, which was marred throughout
by a disregard of the nomenclatural laws commonly observed. Kesteven
had also attempted to show that all the species constituted a single genus
(Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 27, pp. 443-83, 1902) ; but his effort was
prejudiced by lack of material, and consequent inability to fix relationships
from figures alone. I have already indicated that this group calls for a
competent monographer, as Dall's review was of a skeletal nature, and it
is difficult to reconcile the shells with the preceding synopsis. Cossmann
(Essai Paleoconch. comp., vol. vii, p. 232 et seq., 1906) criticized Dall's
classification, but his nomenclature does not agree with the facts, and his
rejection of the Boltenian and Linkian genera obviates much discussion of
his results.

As type of Septa Perry, 1811, Dall selected Septa rubicunda Perry
= nodiferum Lamarck, 1822, and this was accepted, as there was no legal
objection possible to Dall's action. Mathews and I have, however, showed
that Perry, in an earlier work, named " Arcana " ("Victorian Naturalist,"
vol. xxix, 1912, pp. 9-11), had introduced the genus-name Septa in con-
nection with the species S. scarlatina Perry = Murex rubecula Linne. 1758.
alone. This species is not congeneric with Septa rubicunda, so that Dall's
usage is invalidated. We observed that Pilsbry had cited Septa Perry,
1811, as a synonym of Aquillus Montfort, 1810; but as we now knew Septa
to have been published on the 1st January, 1810, it should antedate Mont-
fort's name, but that we did not know the date of publication of Montfort's
work. I have since discovered that this was reviewed in the Gotting.
Anzieger, as follows : Vol. i, pt. 2, p. 961, 19th June, 1809 ; vol. ii, pt. 2,
p. 847, 28th May, 1810. The latter date is the one concerned ; but Aquillus
Montfort, 1810, is an absolute synonyn of Cabestana Bolten, 1798. For
the Tritonis group, as Septa was unavailable, Dr. Dall (" Nautilus," vol. xxvi,
pp. 58-59, Sept., 1912) suggested the use of Nyctilochus Gist el, 1848. How-
ever, upon looking into the matter I noted that this name was not applicable,

458 Transactions.

whilst another one proposed by Gistel — viz., Charonia — was. I therefore
advocated the use of this genus-name (" Nautilus," vol. xxvii, p. 55, 1913),
and also proposed that the family-name should be Cymatiidae, basing this
upon the oldest generic name in the group, Cymatium Bolten, 1798.

From a criticism of the British Museum material I cannot advocate
the recognition of all of Dall's groups, whilst the nomenclature must be
amended.

Kesteven had suggested the abolition of all sectional grouping, and
the reference of all the species to the genus-name Lotorium (= Cymatium),
indicating that no marked groups were distinguishable. I do not agree
with this statement, as there are certainly well-differentiated series, and
Kesteven's connecting-links, in many cases, were due to a misunderstanding
of the species so considered. I think that a mean between Dall's treatment
and that of Kesteven would be an advancement ; but much study must
be given, as there can be no question that the group, from a taxonomic
point of view, is a difficult one. Nevertheless, the association of such shells
as Murex labiosus Wood and Murex tritonis Linne in the same genus seems
inadequately to represent their relationship.

For the Neozelanic species I would consider the facts best shown by
the scheme hereafter given. The British Museum collection has been
arranged on Dall's plan, and I have simply amended it where it seems
possible ; but, as already stated, a competent monographer might alter
my grouping, though I consider it shows the facts fairly well.

At the Kermadecs I obtained specimens of many species of this family
and the family Bursidae which do not occur in Neozelanic waters as far
as is yet known. The recent recognition of " Cymatium parkinsonianum
Perry " suggests that some of these may yet be discovered in the extreme
north of New Zealand.

My arrangement would read as follows : —

Fam. Cymatiidae Iredale.

Genus Charonia. Gistel, 1848.

Charonia lampas (Linne, 1758).

tritonis (Linne, 1758).

Genus Cymatium Bolten, 1798.

Subgenus Monoplex Perry, 1811.

Cymatium parthenopeum (von Salis, 1793).
Subgenus Cabestdna Bolten, 1798.
Cymatium exaratum (Reeve).

spengleri (Perry, 1811).

Genus Austrotriton Cossmann, 1903.

Austrotriton parkinsonia (Perry, 1811).
Genus Argobuccinum Morch, 1852.
Argobuccinum tumidum Dunker.

australasia (Perry, 1811).

Charonia lampas (Linne, 1758). [P. 303.]

Mr. E. A. Smith, I.S.O., has recently investigated the status of Murex
lampas Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, p. 748, 1758, from the Mediterranean
Sea, and has shown (Journ. Conch., 1914) that it refers to the species
Triton nodifer Lamarck, 1822. This name Suter has synonymized with
Septa rubicunda Perry, 1811, which name, on the score of priority, is
used. But Mr. Smith has also noted that Tritonium opis Bolten, Mus.

Irbdale. — S titer's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 459

Bolten., 1798, p. 125, is the Mediterranean shell, and is also earlier than
Perry's name. I cannot differentiate Australian, Kerraadec, and Neozelanic
specimens from Mediterranean examples, though I have been prejudiced
in favour of that course by Hedley's decision (Biol. Res. " Endeavour,"
vol. ii, 1914, p. 65). In coloration, degree of nodosity, and size, austral
specimens easily match northern shells, and I conclude variation is due to
station of life, not locality. At the Kermadecs I found many examples
living below low-tide mark which were all decollate, much eroded, and
comparatively small ; but specimens washed up from deeper water — pro-
bably 10 to 15 fathoms — were of much larger size, and quite clean. No
difference whatever can be seen by me at present between these and northern
shells. This would agree with Hedley's experience (loc. cit.), as I would
regard his var. euclia (pp. 65-66) as a deep-water representative of the
austral shell. The wrinkling on the columella and inner lip is a character
which differs with age, younger specimens showing heavy wrinkling such
as is seen in tritonis Linne, but this becomes obscured by a heavy callus
with age. For Neozelanic and Australian shells I must therefore recommend
the usage of Charonia lam/pas (Linne, 1758), and this conclusion necessitates
the acceptance of T. sauliae Reeve as a synonym.

Cymatium parthenopeum (von Salis, 1793). [P. 305.]

Such is the name to be used for Septa costata (Born, 1778) given by
Suter. Murex costatus Born, 1778, is preoccupied by Murex costatus Pennant,
Brit. Zool., ed. 4, vol. iv, p. 108, 1777. The next recorded synonym is
Murex parthenopeus von Salis, Reise Neapel., p. 370, 1793. According to
Watson (Chall. Rep. Zool. vol. xv, p. 391, 1886), the reversion to this
specific name should be welcomed. Suter has placed the species in the
genus Septa under the subgenus Lampusia Schumacher, 1817. This is
obviously an error. It must be classed in the genus Cymatium Bolten, 1798,
and the subgeneric name is Monoplex Perry, " Conchology," pi. hi, 1811,
this species being figured as fig. 3 under the name Monoplex australasiae,
which was long ago selected as type of Monoplex. The name Monoplex
anstralasiae should be added to the synonymy of the species.

Austrotriton parkinsonia (Perry, 1811). [P. 307.]

Austrotriton Cossmann, Essai Paleconch. comp., vol. v, p. 98, 1903, was
proposed, with type the fossil T. radialis Tate, the species abbotti Ten.-
Woods and cyphus Tate being noted as congeneric. When Kesteven wrote
up his study of the genus Lotorum (= Fam. Cymatiidae mihi) (Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., 1902), he said (p. 484), " L. parkinsonianum is fche recent
representative of L. radiale, abbotti, &c. This group is more distinct than
any I have studied." Ten years afterwards (ib., vol. xxxvii, 1912) he
figured abbotti and parkinsonianum, as well as torterostris Tate, to show
the close relationship.

The Recent species parkinsonia Perry stands quite alone when com-
pared with other Recent species, so that I make use of the generic fossil
name, basing its use upon Kesteven's studies.

Triton strangei (A. Adams and Angas, 1864). [P. 308.]

The reference " T. strangei Ad. & Ang., P.L.S., 1878, pi. 15, f. 16," must
be eliminated from the synonymy of C. spengleri. Pritchard and Gatliff

1Q0 Transactions.

seem to be the authors of this mistake, as the two species are very distinct,
and at the place given Smith figured Adams and Angas's type which was
described in the same journal twelve years previously (p. 35) from Moreton
Bay, Queensland.

As a matter of fact, from examination of types, I confirmed (Proc. Mai.
Soc. (Lond.), vol. ix, p. 73, 1910) Tryon's reference of Adams and Angas's
species to Murex tabiosus Wood, Index Test. Suppl., 1828, p. 15, pi. v, fig. 18.
I collected specimens at the Kermadecs agreeing accurately with both
the types named. As far as I know, the. species has not yet been found
in Neozelanic waters, but it probably lives there, and may have been over-
looked as the juvenile of some other species.

Triton waterhousei (A. Adams and Angas, 1864). [P. 308.]

This name is also given by Suter as a synonym of Cymatium spengleri.
I collected specimens at the Kermadec Islands which I immediately
differentiated from typical C. spengleri, and these were named C. water-
hovsei A. Ad. & Ang. for me by Mr. Hedley at Sydney. Mr. C. J. Gabriel,
of Melbourne, Victoria, showed me specimens which he contended were
gradations between C. waterhousei and C. spengleri. As my own series
was small, for this reason I did not record C. waterhousei from the Ker-
madec Islands.

I have since received further specimens, and criticism of these in con-
junction with the type force the conclusion that this species is quite dis-
tinct from C. spengleri. Kesteven (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1902, p. 475)
also concluded that the two species were distinct, and gave what seem
very good differential characters. I do not think waterhousei has yet been
observed in Neozelanic waters.

Argobuccinum tumidum (Thinker, 1862). [P: 309.]

Ranella tumida Dunker. Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1862, p. 239, Suter
has included in the synonymy of Argobuccinum argus Gmelin, of which he
gives as the range " Tasmania, Australia . . . Cape Colony . . . Chile."
The most casual examination of Cape Colony shells, which probably
Suter has not examined, convinced me of their distinction, the Cape
being the type locality of argus Gmelin. Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
vol. xxxviii, p. 297, 1913), after examining the British Museum collection,
advocated the recognition of the Australia-Neozelanic form as a distinct
species, a course I emphatically endorse. The name given above is Hedley's
selection.

Argobuccinuiii australasia Perry is also represented in South Africa
by a distinct species, which I have asked Mr. E. A. Smith, I.S.O., who is
much interested in South African shells, to describe. It differs at sight
in the coloration of the outer lip, the " leucostoma " having dark red-brown
teeth .

Philippia (Gray, 1847). [P. 316.]

As a subgenus of Architectonica Bolten, 1798, this name appears with
the reference " Philippia Gray in Philippi Enum. Moll. Siciliae, i, 174 ;
P.Z.S., 1847, 146. Type: Solarium luteum Lam." Here again I cannot
guess who is responsible for such a confusion of facts.

In the Proc. Zool Soc. (Lond.), 1847, p. 146, Gray has written,

' PhiKppia Gray, 1840 (Phil. Sicil., i, 174). Solarium, luteum, Lamk."

Reference to Philippi's work shows that vol. i was published in 1836, not

Iredalb. — Sitter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca,.*' 461

1840 as quoted in Suter's work, and that at the page given (174) Philippi
simply described Solarium luteum Lamarck. He there gave observations
on the animal, stating it was apparently normally Trochine, and had a
Trochoid operculum. I have already recorded that Philippia does not
appear in any of Grav's writings, as far as I could trace, until 1847 (Proc.
Mai. Soc, vol. x, p. 309, 1913).

Genus Omalaxis (Deshayes, 1830). [P. 318.]

Suter's matter in connection with this genus-name is copied from Dall.
As long ago as March, 1911, I had, however, published the results of an
investigation into the status of this name, and it shows how slow the publi-
cation of the work must have been when no consideration of that article
was able to be incorporated by Suter. I there showed that the type of
Omalaxis was not Solarium bifrons Lam., as quoted by Suter, but Solarium
disjunctum Lamarck, conchologically a different shell. I stated that study
of growth-stages of shells collected at the Kermadecs had shown such a
shell as that described by Murdoch and Suter as Omalaxis amoena to become
adult as Heliacus, and that this species should be there transferred. I
have since received many more examples, and hope to give figures later.
The genus-name Omalaxis must be eliminated.

Fam. Pyramidellidae Gray. [P. 327.]

Though not mentioned, it seems obvious that Suter's classification of
this family is based upon Dall and Bartsch's monograph.

In the " Nautilus," vol. xxiv, pp. 52-58, 1910, I made some comments
on the nomenclatural defects apparent in this monograph, indicating the
grave danger of the inaccuracies being continually copied by workers who
were unable, through want of literature, to check their references. I stated
that I was at that time unable to criticize the arrangement and grouping
of the species and genera. I have not yet completed my studies, but can-
not recommend the acceptance of Dall and Bartsch's groups. Suter appears
to have done so, and Hedley did at one time, but only for a very short time.

Genus Eulimella (Jeffreys, 1847). [P. 329.]

In my paper quoted I showed that the reference given by Dall and
Bartsch, and copied by Suter, was wrong, and that the earliest introduc-
tion of the genus-name Eulimella was by Jeffreys in the Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist.

I cannot recognize Eulimella as a subgenus of Pyramidella, the forma-
tion of the mouth being a clear separative feature, whilst geographically
the group has a wider range than Pyramidella.

Genus Syrnola (A. Adams, 1862). [P. 330.]

This group also deserves generic recognition, as it is well marked and
easily defined. Moreover, it is a large group with a great range, and, if
only for convenience' sake, would claim usage.

Genus Odostomia (Fleming, 1813). [P. 333.]

Suter has here accepted the incongruous association considered a genus
by Dall and Bartsch. This method of accepting a huge unwieldly group
with a multitude of sections, many of which seem unnecessary, does not

462 Transactions.

appeal to me. A large number of well-defined groups, considered as genera,
makes a much more workable system, and that is all that can be asked
for at present in connection with these minutiae. As far as I have gone,
I have found little difficulty in recognizing at sight species of Oscilla, Pyrgu-
lina, Miralda, and Odostomella, simply to cite the first names called to mind.
Such an ultra-conservative worker as Melvill (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. ix,
p. 171, 1910) rebelled at Dall and Bartsch's retrogressive action, and I would
consider the arrangement given by Melvill a better and more natural one
than Dall and Bartsch's.

On p. 197 Melvill notes that Dall and Bartsch failed to distinguish
between Turbonilla and Odostomia (sensu lato), a fact I had independently
observed. Again, on p. 194 Melvill points out that Cingulina and Oscilla,
which Dall and Bartsch confused, were easily separable, another item I
independently recorded.

I have not yet carefully criticized all the Neozelanic forms, but would
advocate the acceptance of the subgenera quoted by Suter as of generic
value.

For this family the names would then read, —
Genus Eulimella Jeffreys, 1847.

Eulimella coena Webster, 1905.

levilirata Murdoch and Suter, 1906.

limbata (Suter, 1908).

Genus Syrnola A. Adams, 1862.

Syrnola lurida (Suter, 1908).

— — pulchra Brazier, 1877.

tenuiplicata (Murdoch and Suter, 1906).

Genus Turbonilla Risso, 1826.

Turbonilla zealandica (Hutton, 1873).
Genus Odostomia Fleming, 1813.

Odostomia acxdangula Suter, 1908.

bembix Suter, 1908.

— — cryptodon Suter, 1908.

denselirata Suter, 1908.

dolichostoma Suter, 1908.

hypkala Watson, 1886.

fastigiata Suter, 1907.

incidata Suter, 1908.

■ inornata Suter, 1908.

stygia Suter, 1913.

murdochi Suter, 1913.

pudica Suter, 1908.

takapunaensis Suter, 1908.

tavmakiensis Suter, 1908.

vestalis Murdoch, 1905.

Genus Evalea A. Adams, 1860.

Evalea chordata (Suter, 1908).

impolita (Hutton, 1873).

liricincta (Suter, 1908).

Genus Pyrgulina A. Adams, 1863.

Pyrgulina rugata (Hutton, 1886).
Genus Menestho Moller, 1842.

Menestho sabulosa (Suter, 1908).

Irrdalb. — Sitter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 463

Genus Subularia (Monterosato, 1884). [P. 351.]

I have been unable to appreciate the subjection of the species commonly
called Leiostraca to Eulima. I have already pointed out that Leiostraca is
quite untenable, and that it must be displaced by Subularia. In the same
place (Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1914, p. 673) I 'noted that Eulima, 1826,
was antedated by Melanella, 1822, and it was only by the acceptance of
the generic separation of the " humpbacked " species under Melanella that
Eulima could be preserved as commonly used. The worker who would
lump Subularia with Eulima must needs use Melanella for the association,
as the latter two are much more closely related than the former two.
I would, at present, deny a very close relationship between the species of
Subularia and those of Eulima. I have many species and forms of both
under consideration at the present time.

Fam. Turbinellidae Sowerby, and Genus Megalatractus P. Fischer, 1884.

[P. 355.]

These names and the matter relating thereto must be dismissed from
the New Zealand molluscan fauna. They were introduced in order that
Siphonalia maxima Tryon should be there placed, as, according to the
investigations of Kesteven (Mem. Austr. Mus., iv, pp. 419-50, 1904), this
species was congeneric with Megalatractus aruanvs (Linne). Kesteven
was unacquainted with the anatomy of the Neozelanic shells attributed to
" Siphonalia," and consequently no comparisons were made in that direction.
Minimizing the differences and magnifying the resemblances observed in
the animals of the two species he examined, Kesteven concluded that they
were congeneric. From a criticism of his work it becomes obvious that
Kesteven confused group characters of a much higher value, and that
the differences noted were of generic value. The natural sequence of
accepting Kesteven's results would be the transference of all the Neozelanic
" Siphonalia " to the genus Megalatractus. If the figures given by Kesteven
of the operculum and radula of Siphonalia maxima be contrasted with those
given by Hutton (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xv, p. 119, pi. xiii, fig. F) for
" <S." dilatata (Quoy and Gaimard), they will be seen to agree in the very
details wherein they differ from Kesteven's own figures of the same items
of M. aruanus (Linne). Kesteven also argued that the protoconchs
of S. maxima Tryon and M. aruanus (Linne) were essentially similar.
I entirely disagree with this conclusion, and would consider they showed
radical differences. Here again the protoconchs of S. dilatata (Q. & G.)
and S. mandarina (Duclos) are in absolute agreement with those of
S. maxima Tryon. It will also be noted that Kesteven made no com-
parisons with true Siphonalia, and, consequently, whatever his results,
they were prejudiced through overlooking this important item. The results
were : S. maxima Tryon, S. mandarina (Duclos), and S. dilatata (Q. & G.)
were much more closely related to each other than to M. aruanus (Linne),
and were not congeneric. If it were admitted that these were congeneric,
then Kesteven had not shown any reason for their transference from
Siphonalia. I had got so far in 1907, and was hoping I might find
M. aruanvs at the Kermadec Islands, but I did not do so.

Upon further investigation at the British Museum I found that Siphon-
alia was introduced for a series of Japanese shells which were quite unlike
those referred to this genus-name by Neozelanic and Australian students.
The further discussion will be carried on under the name Verconella, which

464 Transactions,

must displace Siphonalia on p. 368. Here only must be noted that Megala-
tractus as a member of the family Turbinellidae is not a constituent of the
Neozelanic fauna.

Genus Taron (Hutton, 1883). [P. 358.]

It was quite unnecessary to reduce Hutton's generic name to a synonym
of Latirus, and thus also dispose of Hutton's specific name as invalid.
Taron dubius Hutton, 1883, should be resumed for the species Suter in-
cludes as Latirus huttoni. Even if the relationship of the species with
Latirus be admitted, the shell is sufficiently characterized for the genus
Taron to stand on its own merits. In the British Museum it has two
different locations, but neither approach Latirus, though as that genus is
now shown it is obviously polyphyletic, and segregation is demanded, not
the additional congregation of distinctive forms.

Eeference to Mr. E. A. Smith, I.S.O., confirmed my conclusion, and he
stated he could see little or no relationship with Latirus, and MelvilFs
generic groups are noteworthy for their polymorphic aggregations and are
not natural.

Mitra carbonaria (Swainson, 1822). [P. 361.]

Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii, p. 312, 1913) has added
"Mitra badia Reeve, Conch. Icon., ii, f. 157. Hab. ? M.C.," from examina-
tion of the type, to the synonymy of this species. Suter's remarks as to
the occurrence of this species in New Zealand read, " Only worn and empty
shells have hitherto been found. The type is from Port Jackson, New
South Wales.'' The specimens I obtained at the Kermadecs were in the
same condition, but they fairly well agree with specimens I collected at
Port Jackson. I, however, note that, preserved in the British Museum,
there are some shells named " Mitra rutila A. Ad., New Zealand." It is
quite probable that this locality is wrong, but these shells have a superficial
resemblance to Mitra carbonaria Swainson.

Genus Verconella Iredale. [P. 368.]

Siphonalia is admitted by Suter, three subgenera being recognized —
Siphonalia s. str., Penion, and Auslrofusus. The typical Japanese species
have no close relationship with the Neozelanic species so called, and the
genus-name Siphonalia must be dropped from the Neozelanic list. The
former recall Cominella, next to which they are placed in the British
Museum, whilst the Neozelanic shells are not associated with them, but
placed next to Fusus (sensu lato). I advocated in the Proc. Mai. Soc.
(Lond.), vol. x, p. 223, 1912. the rejection of Siphonalia and the acceptance
of Penion for the Austro-Neozelanic group, there also stating that Siphonalia
maxima Tryon must accompany S. dilatata (Quoy and Gaimard), and be
removed from the genus Megalatr actus, where Kesteven had placed it
through ignorance of the essential differential features of the animals.

Hedley (Biol. Pes. "Endeavour," vol. ii, pt. 2, p. 73, 1914) has endorsed
my suggestion, recording Penion maximus (Tryon) and P. tvaitei (Hedley).
Previously Dr. Verco (Trans. Roy. Soc, South Austr., vol. xxxvi, p. 221,
1912 (1913) ) had lumped Siphonalia maxima Tryon with S. dilatata " Quoy
and Gaimard." This confirms my conclusion of the very close alliance
of these two, as I considered them only congeneric, while Dr. Verco has
reduced this grade by making them conspecific.

Iredai.e. — Suter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 465

I have since observed that Penion Fischer is invalid, as Philippi had
previously used it. and therefore introduced (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi,
p. 175, 1914) Verconella, with Fusus dilatatus Quoy and Gaimard as type.
Austrofusus Kobelt cannot be used, as the type of that section is quite
another style of shell. It looks similar to " S" mandarina (Duclos), but
examination of the shells shows them to differ considerably, and the re-
semblance to be similar. I cannot, however, separate " S." mandarina
Duclos subgenerically from S. dilatata (Q. & G.) : they agree in every
essential detail to me. Martyn's Buccinum nodosum is, however, a very
different type of shell, and it may later prove generically distinct ; in the
meanwhile I propose the subgenus-name Aethocola for it alone.

My reading of the genus would be, —

Genus Verconella Iredale, 1014. Verconella Ixedale, Proc. Mai. Soc.

(Lond.), vol. xi, p. 175, 1914. Type : Fusus dilatatus Quoy and

Gaimard. Synonym : Penion Fischer. Man. de Conch., p. 625, 1884

(not Penium Phillippi, Verh. z. 1. Ges. Wien. vol. xv, p. 741, 1865).
Subgenus Verconella s. str.

Verconella dilatata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833).

maxima (Tryon, 1881).

mandarina (Duclos, 1831).

ruled icta (Watson, 1886).

caudata (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833).

Subgenus Aethocola nov.

Verconella nodosa ( Marty n, 1784).

Cominella eburnea (Reeve). [P. 383.]

This name, according to Suter's synonymy, must displace Cominella
costata (Quoy and Gaimard). as the basis of that name is Buccinum costatum,
which is invalidated bv the prior usage of Linne (Svst. Nat., ed. x, p. 738,
1758).

Cominella qaoyana (A. Adams, 1855). [P. 384.]

Kobelt proposed Cominella huttoni for the species so named, as there
was a Buccinum quoyi Kiener which comes into the same genus, Cominella.
It has been continually used, but, according to the nomenclatural laws
now adhered to, A. Adams's name must be reverted to.

Cominella adspersa (Bruguiere, 1789). [P. 385.]

Martyn's Buccinum maculatum is invalidated by Linne's prior use (Syst.
Nat., ed. x, 1758, p. 741). Bruguiere's name comes next, and claims usage.

Fam. Fusidae Iredale. [P. 392.]

I propose this name to replace Dall's family Colubrariidae, basing the
name upon the oldest genus-name in the family. The following account-
will clearly show the. extreme difficulty and amount of time necessary if
one attempts to name a shell correctly both generically and specifically.

When I was investigating the relationships of my genus Jeannea (Proc.
Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. x, p. 220, 1912) it was necessary to fix the genus
Pisania. The only member T was familiar with was Pisania reticulata
A. Adams, and mj Jeannea was nothing like that. Under the genus Pisania
in the British Museum collection rather an incongruous association of shells
appeared, amongst them being Pisania reticulata. The type of Pisania

466 Transactions.

of H. Bivona-Bernardi (Efi'em. Sci. Litt., vol. ii, p. 8, 1832) is P. striatula
nov. = B. maculosum Gmel. That shell was as unlike Pisania reticulata
as it. was dissimilar from my Jeannea. It was obvious that Adams's species
was unhappily located. Mr. C. Hedley was at that time in England, working
through the Australian shells in the British Museum, so I drew his attention
to this fact. He at once informed me that he had always been dubious of
the generic selection, and that to his eyes reticulata suggested Colubraria.
Upon making comparisons I at once agreed that such would be quite an
acceptable relationship, and, moreover, noted that Mr. Edgar Smith had
arranged some Australian shells in this genus. Thus Colubraria bednalli
(Brazier), C. coxi (Brazier), and C. angasi (Brazier) are all closely related
to Pisania reticulata A. Adams, the first-named being very near. My own
specimens of P. reticulata A. Adams show obsolete varices, and the reti-
culate sculpture is characteristic of Colubraria and foreign to Pisania.

In the Smith. Miscell. Coll., vol. xlvii, 1904, Dall proposed the family
Colubrariidae to cover a series of shells varied and showing a resemblance
to Tritons, but differing in being rhachiglossate, not taenioglossate. As a
subgenus of Colubraria was ranked Cumia Bivona, 1838, with type Triton
reticulatus Blainville, and as sections were named Maculotriton, Monostiolum,
Caducifer, and Taeniola, and a subgenus Phrygiomurex. The Australian
species fall into Cumia, angasi being near reticulatus Blainville. As a
consequence of this conclusion, Pisania reticulata must be renamed. How-
ever, in the Journ. Conch., vol. xi, p. 289 et seq., 1906, Dall discussed " The
Early History of the Generic Name Fusus," pointing out that this name
was first proposed by Helbling in the Abhandl. Privat Bohni, vol. iv,
pp. 116-20, 1779, and that four species were included, the last named
being Murex (Fusus) intertextus Helbling = T. reticulatus Blainville. As
causing the least confusion, this was selected as type of Fusus Helbling,
and this antedates Cumia and also Colubraria. Dall suggests that these
two may prove generically separable, and then Colubraria may be preserved
for the larger shells. This, however, does not much concern us, as the
shell under question is closely related to Cumia and not Colubraria. The
specific name reticulata A. Adams cannot, however, be preserved, so that
I propose the new name Fusus mestayerae for Pisania reticulata A. Adams.

The other three names I noted— bednalli, coxi, and angasi — all of Brazier,
may need emendation when transferred to Fusus, though I have noted
that Hedley has ranked the last two, I believe, as synonyms of antiquatus
Hinds.

Genus Pollia (Sowerby, 1834). [P. 393.]

Suter has retained the genus Cantharus Bolten, 1798, for two Neozelanic
species, citing as a synonym " Pollia Gray, 1839 (in part)." One of the
species is placed under Cantharus s. str. ; the other under Tritonidea Swain-
son, 1840, treated as a subgenus. It seems certain that Suter was not
acquainted with C. tranquebaricus (Gmel.). otherwise he would not have
separated C. fuscozonatus Suter from C. colensoi Suter to have placed it
with that species. Most workers now admit " Tritonidea " as a distinct
genus, and it is quite impossible to admit subgeneric distinction between
the two Neozelanic species. Both would fall into " Tritonidea " in prefer-
ence to Cantharus, and I would there place them. The name Tritonidea
is, however, antedated by Pollia Sowerby, and use of the latter must be
advocated. I showed (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. x, p. 221, 1912) that
Pollia was introduced in Sowerby's Gen. Rec. Fossil Shells, vol. ii, pi. 237;
fig. 12, 1834, and that the type (the only species) there mentioned was

Iredale. — Sitter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 467

Triton undosus Lam. Consequent!)' Tritonidea Swainson was six years
later, and an absolute synonym. Later (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.)5 vol. xi,
p. 177, 1914) I noted that Swainson had recorded this identity, but pre-
served his own name on account of a prior Folia. But these two names
are essentially different. Therefore I should dismiss Gantharus from the
Neozelanic fauna and replace it by —

Genus Pollia Sowerby, 1834. Pollia Sowerbv, Gen. Rec. Fossil Shells,
vol. ii. pi. 237, fig. 12, 1834. Type : Buccinum nodosum.
Synonym: Tritonidea Swainson, Treat. Mai., pp. 74, 302, 1840;
same type.

Pollia fuscozonata (Suter, 1908).

colensoi (Suter, 1908).

Alectrion victorianus nom. nov. [P. 397.]

I propose this name for Buccinum fasciatum Lamarck, 1822, which is
antedated by Buccinum fasciatum 0. F. Miiller (Vermes, vol. ii, p. 145,
1774), and also by Bruguiere (Ency. Meth. Vers., vol. i, p. 247, 1789).
I have not seen Neozelanic specimens, and therefore note that the name
is given to the Australian shell. I believe this shell is the badge of the
Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria, and for this reason have formed the
above specific name.

In the Man. Conch., vol. iv, as noted by Suter, this species was placed in
the subgenus Hima. That name I will later show to be unapplicable, but
cannot go into details at present ; the subject is too complex. This species
does not fall into Alectrion s. str., but, associated with A. ephammilla Watson,
would fall into the subgenus which has wrongly borne the name of Hima.

Alectrion suturalis Lamarck subsp. dunkeri (Suter, 1908). [P. 398.]

I cannot understand what Suter has done in this case. Apparently he
has renamed Dunker's Nassa intermedia, but I cannot understand what the
shells were that he identified with this form.

At the Kermadecs I rarely collected a shell which occurs abundantly
at Lord Howe Island, at Norfolk Island, and rarely in New South Wales.
These were recognized by comparison with the types as Nassa spirata,
A. Adams. I recorded this in the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. ix, p. 77,
1910. Suter's description and habitat agree with these shells, save for the
statements, " Usually 3 distant fine brown spiral lines on the spire-whorls,
5 to 7 on the body- whorl." " Outer lip . . . sometimes with 4 to 5
minute teeth near the base." These are characteristics of the " glans "
group, and do not occur in the hundreds of A. spiratus A. Ad. I have
before me. Otherwise I should have considered Suter's name as a synonym.

Fam. Muricidae Fleming. [P. 399.]

The nomenclature of the species recognized in this family may be cor-
rect, but it is certain that the nomination of higher groupings is inexact.

Under the genus-name Murex Linne many groups are confused, and the
characters of each are so well defined that they should be considered as of
generic value. In the British Museum, an institution famed for its con-
servatism, this has been accepted, and the species are arranged under many
genera. It is quite impossible for me at the present time to revise the
group, but I would put on record some of the data I have collated, as it
differs from that shown by Suter.

■168 Transactions.

The earliest type-designation of the Linnean Murex I have traced is
that by Montfort, who in the Conch. Syst., vol. ii, p. 619, 1810, designated
Murex tribulus Linne as type-
As subgenus (p. 400) Muricantha is used, based on Muricanihus Swain-
son, Treat. Mai., 1840, p. 296 ; as synonyms being quoted Centronotas
Swainson, 1835 (not of Schneider, 1801), and Phyllonotus Swainson, 1840.

On p. 403, as a subgenus, Pteropurpura Jousseaume, 1879, is used: as
a synonym Pteronotus Swainson, 1840, not of Gray, 1838, being cited.

The history of the Swainsonian genera is as follows: — In the Zool. Ulus.,
2nd ser., vol. iii, 1832-33, Swainson moved thus : In part 22, in connec-
tion with plate 100, he subdivided the genus Murex into five' subgenera—
viz., Murex Auct., Haustellaria Sw., Phyllonotus Sw., Centronolus Sw., and
Pterynotus Sw. Diagnoses are given, but no species named. The species
in question, however, is figured and described as Murex (Centronotus) eury-
stomus. In part 24, on pi. 109, is figured and described Murex (Phyllonotus)
imperialis, and Murex pinnatus is named in connection with Pyterynotus. In
the 27th part Murex. (Pteronotus) pinnatus is figured on pi. 122, earlier
described in Bligh's Cat. App., p. 17.

The dates and types of these generic names would read then, —

Centronotus Swainson, Zool. Illus., 2nd ser., vol. iii, pi. 100, 1833. Type
(by monotypy) : Murex (C.) eurystomus, Sw.

Phyllo7wtus, id. ib., pi. 109, 1833. Type (by monotypy) : Murex (P.)
imperialis Sw.

Pteronotus, id. ib., pi. 122, 1833. Type (by monotypy) : Murex pin-
natus Sw.

In the Treatise Mai., 1840, Swainson made several alterations, and this
contradictory effort has been generally accepted without criticism, due to
ease of reference. On p. 296 Phyllonotus Sw. is made to include both eury-
stomus Sw. and imperialis Sw., whilst the new name. Muricanthus is pro-
posed, with two species — radix Sw. and melanomathus — though it is stated
in a footnote, " This type was originally called Centronotus ; but as that
name had been previously given to a genus of fishes, we substitute the
above." If Suter's synonymy were correct, then Phyllonotus Swainson,
1833, would replace the subgeneric name Muricantha Swainson, 1840, on
p. 400 ; and on p. 403 Pteronotus Swainson, 1833, would become available
instead of Pteropurpura Jousseaume, 1879, as it is earlier than Pteronotus
Gray, 1838. As noted, however, above, these groups seem certainly very
well differentiated, and of full generic value. A careful monographic review
would probably give many more than I here admit, but there are four
distinct groups. Fischer admitted seven subgenera covering these same
four. Adams Bros, had recognized ten, but three of these were generically
separated from Murex by Fischer.

Names not taken into consideration by Fischer are now commonly
recognized, so that his nomination cannot be followed.

T. Martyn, in 1784, introduced Purpura for a species of this family,
but its first entrance is in connection with a shell (P. foliata) which was later
made the type of a new genus, Cerastoma Conrad, 1865, which name it must
displace.

Perry's names Triplex and Hexaplex call for consideration, so that I
have roughed out these names for future workers.

Montfort, in May, 1810, split up Murex Linne as follows : Murex Linne ;
type, M. tribulus Linne. Chicoreus nov., pp. 610-11 ; type, M. ramosus ;
Brontes nov., pp. 622-23 ; type, M. haustellum.

Iredale. — Sitter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 469

Perry, in June, 1810, independently provided : Triplex ; type, T.
foliatus : in December, 1810, Aranea ; type, A. gracilis-: and in 1811
Hexaplex ; type, H. foliacea : the last-named being noted in June, 1810,
as a nomen nudum only.

Of the above names, Bronte* and Aranea cannot be legitimately used, as
both aie preoccupied.

Swainson, as above recorded, seems to have been the next, recognizing
five subgenera, ignoring previous workers, and therefore introducing five
new names, thus : Murex Auct., Haustellaria, Centronotus, Phyllonotus, and
Pteronotus. The fifth, Pteronotus, seems to have not been previously in-
dicated, and is a valid group. In 1840 Swainson added as distinct genera
Muricidea and Vitulina. These are proposed in the Treat. Mai., p. 64,
where the types are named as of the latter, the Murex vitulinus of authors
and of Muricidea p. 65 Murex magellanicus. On p. 296 Muricidea has
seven species noted, whilst on p. 297 Vitularia is written. I note this as
the latter spelling is commonly used for a distinct group, whilst Muricidea
was used for a subgenus of Murex by H. and A. Adams, though the type-
designation of Swainson himself makes it an absolute svnonym of Trophon
Montfort, 1810.

The four outstanding genera would seem to bear the following names :—

Murex Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, p. 746, 1758. Type : Murex tribulus

Linne.
Chicoreus Montfort, Conch. Syst., vol. ii, pp. 610-11, 1810. Tvpe: Murex

ramosus Linne.
Pteronotus Swainson, Zool. Ulustr., 2nd sex., vol. iii, 1832-33, pi. 122.

Type : Murex pinnatus Swainson.
Hexaplex Perry, Conchology, pi. viii. 1811. Tvpe : H. foliacea, fig. 4

= cichoreus Gmel.

As early synonyms of Murex Linne, may be noted Aranea Perry, 1810,
preoccupied ; Brontes Montfort, 1810, preoccupied ; Haustellaria Swainson,
1833 ; and Haustellum H. and A. Adams (ex Klein) ; and probably many
more.

I do not see any more than subgeneric difference in the group typified
by Murex haustellum Linne, though this was separated generically by Mont-
fort in 1810, and has been given equal rank ever since with the divisions
I call genera as above.

Jousseaume, in the Rev. Mag. Zool., 3rd ser.. vol. vii. 1879, p. 314 et seq.,
divided the Purpuridae (= Muricidae) into very many genera. I give
the names here, as they have not been recorded in Waterhouse's " Index
Zoologicus " until given in No. ii, where they are given as appearing in
" Les Naturalistes." 1883. Jousseaume's names read as follows : —

P. 32 : Purpura Tournefort. Type : brandaris L.

Haustellum Klein. Type : haustellum L.
P. 323 : Tubicauda nov. Type : brevispina L.
P. 324 : Acupurpura nov. (ex Bayle MS.). Type : tenuispina Lam.

Siratus nov. Type : sir at Adamson.
P. 325 : Paziella nov. Type : pazi Crosse.

Poirieria nov. Type : zelandicus Q. & G.

Biplex Perry. Type : perca Perry.
P. 326 : Naquetia nov. Type : triqueter Born.

Inermicosta nov. Type : fasciata Sow.

Muricanthus Swains. Type : radix Gmel.

470 Transactions.

P. 327 : Homalocantha Morch. Type: scorpio L.

Favartia nov. Type : breviculus Sow.
P. 328 : Muricidea Swains. Type : hexagonus L.

Hexaplex Perry. Type : cichoreus Gmel.
P. 329 : Bassia nov. (ex Bayle MS.). Type : stainforthii Reeve.

Phyllonotus Swains. Type : imperialis L.
P. 330 : EuphyUon nov. Type : monodon Sow.

Chicoreus Montf. Type : ramosus L.
P. 331 : Ocinebrellus nov. Type : eurypteron Reeve.

Tritonalia Flem. Type : erinaceus L.

Gracillipurpura nov. Type : strigosus L.
P. 332 : Lyropurpura nov. (ex Bayle MS.). Type : crassicostata
Desh. (foss.).

Ocinebrina nov. Type : corallinas Sacchi.

Hanetia nov. Type : haneti Petit.
P. 333 : Pseudomurex Monts. Type : bactreatus Brocchi.

Heteropurpnra nov. (ex Bayle MS.). Type : polymorphus
Bron. (foss.).

Vitularia Swains. Type : vitulinus Lain.

Crassilabrum nov. Type : crassilabrum Gray.
P. 334 : Forreria nov. Tvpe : belcheri Hinds.

Jatova nov. Type : jatov Adamson.

Pteropurpura nov. Type : macropteron Desh.

Cerastoma Conrad. Type : nutallii Conr.
P. 335 : Pterochelus nov. Type : acanthopterus Lam.

Marchia nov. Type : clavus Kien.
P. 336 : Pteronotus nov. Type : pinnatus Wood.

Purpurellus nov. Type : gambiensis Reeve.

Poropteron nov. Type : uncinarius Lam.

Then followed a subdivision of Typhis, which does not much concern us
at the present, and which seems to be less justified : for it must be ad-
mitted that Jousseaume's groups are fairly natural, and exist in nature,
though I do not consider them as all of generic value.

It will be noted that Jousseaume used Purpura as of Tournefort, Hau-
stellum as of Klein, and used Adamson's species-names. The three authors
named do not now enter into systematic conchological work, as they are
all pre-Linnean.

The earliest post-Linnean use of the genus-name Purpura is by Martyn,
who utilized it in the Tournefortian sense, though in connection with an
exotic species, as noted above.

The three Neozelanic species are very difficult to place, being somewhat
aberrant however they are viewed. I have been puzzled to generically
locate Murex zelandicus Quoy and Gaimard, and on Mr. E. A. Smith's
suggestion I leave it for the present under Murex as here restricted, but
would emphasize the use of Jousseaume's name Poirieria in connection
with it subgenerically, as it shows very distinct characters, and it stands
out wherever it is placed in the family Muricidae.

Murex octogonus Quoy and Gaimard is just as peculiar, and it does not
match easily with any other species. Jousseaume placed it with Murex
stainforthii Reeve in the genus Bassia proposed for this shell. Bassia is,
however, invalid. In the British Museum collection it has been placed
under Ocinebra, but it is obviously out of place, and the radula shows the

Iredale. — Suter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 471

characters of Hexaplex. It may, therefore, be so classed, but a subgeneric
name should be used to emphasize the peculiarities of this form. I there-
fore propose " Murexsul subgen. nov.,"' and name Murex octogonus Quoy
and Gaimard as type.

The small shells classed about Murex angasi (Crosse) certainly fall into
Pteronotus. Suter placed them in the section Alipurpura, but that section
differs very little from Pteronotus s. str., while the above-named shell was
described as a Typhis, and has the canal completely closed when adult.
Jousseaume proposed Poropteron for Murex uncinarius Lam., which is
undoubtedly congeneric.

The result of this determination would give the following reading of
the Neozelanic species : —

Genus Murex Linne, 1758.

Subgenus Poirieria Jousseaume, 1879.

Murex zelandicus Quoy and Gaimard, 1833.
Genus Hexaplex Perry, 1811.
Subgenus Murexsul nov.

Hexaplex octogonus (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833).

var. uttibilicatus (Ten. -Woods, 1876).

— var. espinosus (Hutton, 1886).

Genus Pteronotus Swainson, 1833.

Subgenus Poropteron Jousseaume, 1879.
Pteronotus angasi (Crosse, 1863).
var. eos (Hutton, 1873).

Trophon stangeri (Gray, 1843). [P. 406. j

This name has been rejected by Suter in favour of the prior Purpura
rugosa Quoy and Gaimard, 1833. It is pleasing to me to find that there
is a prior Purpura rugosa Lamarck, Anim. sans Verteb., vol. vii, p. 242,
1822, so that we can revert to the above well-known name.

Xymene gen. nov. [P. 410.]

I propose this genus-name, and name Fusus plebeius Hutton, 1873, as
type. Kalydon Hutton, 1884, that would otherwise be used for these shells,
is invalidated by the prior Calydon J. Thomson, Syst. Ceramb., p. 263,
1864. The two names are absolutely the same, the C and K in this case
being interchangeable. These miniature coloured ' Trophons " form an
easily recognized group to me, but, as observed in the succeeding note, my
interpretation is not coincident with that of my friend Mr. Charles Hedley.

Xymene quirindus nom. nov. [P. 415. j

This name is given to replace Trophon paivae Suter, p. 415, not Trophon
paivae Crosse, 1864.

Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii, 1913, p. 329) has written,
" By Tryon, T. paivae Crosse was united to T. hanleyi Angas, a decision
which has misled Australian collectors. . . Not only are these two

clearly distinct (from examination of types), but T. paivae . . . should
be regarded as a synonym of T. recurvus. Probably when Professor Hutton
wrote that Trpohon paivae belonged to this new genus Kalydon he intended
to refer to T. hanleyi." Then Hedley retained Trophon recurvus Philippi
in the genus Trophon, and used Kaldyon (p. 330) for a species which I con-

472 Transactions .

sider generically distinct from the Neozelanic " Kalydon," and which I
would unhesitatingly class with Purpura scobina Quoy and Gaimard in the
genus Lepsiella, with that species as type. As a synonym of "Kalydon "
vinosus (Lamarck), Hedley seems to quote Ricinula adelaidensis Crosse and
Fischer. From the series in the British Museum I -assert that this is a
distinct species : as far as I can judge, it is an impossible variation.

Under the above circumstances Trophon recurvus Philippi would replace
Trophon paivae Crosse, but two factors intervene. Hedley suggests that.
Hutton intended Fusus hanleyi Angas when he used Crosse's name. When
T studied the Australian shells named Trophon paivae in the Australian
Museum I did not recognize in them the Neozelanic shells so named. The
latter, however, resemble T. paivae more closely than they do F. hanleyi
Angas. I consequently propose the above name for the Neozelanic shells,
and thus obviate the introduction of an erroneous name into the Neozelanic
list. Suter's description does not apply to the types of paivae Crosse
= recurvus Philippi, nor hanleyi Angas, ;ill of which T have examined in
connection with this note.

Fam. Thaididae Dall. [P. 420.]

The arrangement of the Neozelanic species of this family is probably
based on Dr. Dall's paper in the U.S. Geol. Survey, Professional Paper 59,
to which Suter refers the Neozelanic student for full synonymy. That
paper will not, however, be commonly available to such ; and, moreover, it
is of such a skeletal nature as to prohibit usage in connection with austral
shells. I here give the synopsis provided by Dall. so that my criticisms
may be followed by the reader : —

Genus Thais Bolten, 1798.
Subgenus Thais s. str.

Section Thais s. str. Type : T. neritoides = M . fucus Gmel.

Tribulus H. & A. Ad., 1853. Type : T. planispira Lam.
Pinaxia H. & A. Ad., 1853. Type: T. coronata H. & A.

Ad. = adamsi Dall.
Mancinella Link, 1807. Type : T. mancinella Gmel.
Stramonita Schum., 1817. Type : T. haemastoma Linn.
Lepsia Hutton, 1853. Type : T. haustrum Maityn.
Patellipurpura Dall, nov. Type : T. patula Lam.
Plicopurpura Cossm., 1903. Type : T. coluniellaris Lam.
Subgenus Nassa Bolten, 1798. Type : T. sertitm Lam.
Subgenus Cronia H. & A. Ad., 1853. Type : T. amygdala Kiener.
Subgenus Nucella Bolten, 1798.

Section Nucella s. str. Type : T. lapillus Lam.

Trochia Swains., 1840. Type : T. cingulata Linne.

Dall has also given a general synonymy without placing the synonyms
under the sections or subgenera. He has stated that the animals vary
little, and that shell characters appear to become confused. I think this
latter statement is due to the lack of study of juveniles and their growth-
stages. If this were undertaken, probably much of the confusion would be
dispelled. It must be obvious that in a littoral genus such as Thais similar
environmental stress must have brought about similar shell-formation in
many cases. I have studied the Neozelanic and Australian species through
many stages, and I have already expressed my disapproval of the un-
satisfactory nature of Dall's classification when applied to austral species.

Iredale.— Suter' s "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 473

Dr. Dall courteously wrote me that he was really not well acquainted
with these, and hoped that Antipodean workers would deal with them.
Previous to the receipt of this letter I had proposed Lepsiella for Purpura
scobina Quoy and Gaimard and Neothais (typographical error, Neothias) for
Purpura smitki Brazier.

Suter has synonymized Lepsia Button, 1884, with Thais Bolten, 1798,
as an absolute synonym : he then admitted (p. 423) Stramonita Schumacher
as a subgenus, to which he allotted the species succinate (Martyn) and
tritoniformis (Blainville), not quoting any synonyms, though the latter
species has a generic synonymy of its own. A third subgenus, Nucella
Bolten, is recognized, and thereto is added the species striata (Martyn) and
scobina (Quoy and Gaimard). This sequence cannot be recommended,
as the conchological relationship of T. succinata (Martyn) and T. striata
(Martyn) is much greater than that between the former and T. tritoniformis
(Blainville), or between the latter and T. scobina (Quoy and Gaimard).
Suter has classed T. haustrum (Martyn) in the same subgenus as T. neri-
toides Bolten. and has quoted TroscheFs description and figure of the radula.
It might be of use to the Neozelanic student to outline TroscheFs classifi-
cation, as this was prepared solely from radular characters, no value at all
being given to shell characters. I suggest that a careful consideration of
radular characters in conjunction with shell features as governed by growth
would lead to a satisfactory arrangement. Troschel admitted five genera,
thus : —

Thais nodosa L. (neritoidea Lain.).

Purpura patula L.

Tribulus hippocastanum Lam.

deltoidea Lam.

pica Blainv.

mancinella Lam.

- bitubercularis Lam.
Polytropa la pill us L.

- dubia Kr. \schultzei Dkr.).

haustrum Q. & G.
Stramonita chocolata Duclos.

— floridana Conr.

bicostalis Lam.

uridata Lam.

haemastoma L.

rustica Lam.

blainrillei Desh.

consul Chem.

This arrangement cannot be confidentlv criticized, as it has been shown in
other groups that the nomination of the species was very inaccurate. In
order to emphasize, the fact that shell characters and radular characters do
go hand-in- hand. I would note that all the five species Troschel grouped
under Tribulus were associated together, from shell characters, by H. and
A. Adams in their subgenus Thalessa (Gen. Rec. Moll., vol. i, p. 127, 1853),
and, further, that out of the eight Troschel named in Stromonita six appear
under the same subgeneric name in H. and A. Adams's work. Further,
Troschel placed haustrum in a different genus from neritoides, associating the
former with the British lapillus. Almost as bad is Dall's subordination of
Trochia Swainson to Nucella Bolten. which he used for lapillus L. LTpon

474 Transactions.

investigation I find that Dall had overlooked the introduction by Perry in
his "ConchoJogy" (1811) of the genus Haustrum. This genus included
several species, of which one was Haustrum zealandicum Perry. By tau-
tonymy this becomes the type species of the genus, as it is the species
named Buccinum haustrum by Martyn in 1784. This name will therefore
displace Lepsia Hutton, 1883. The acceptance of generic, names to indi-
cate the groups seems the most satisfactory method to advocate, as the
shells have been so variously grouped. A study of the wanderings of
B. haustrum Martyn should convince any one of the propriety of this step.
In the family Thaididae I would therefore read, —

Genus Haustrum Perry, 1811. Haustrum Perry, " Conch ology-." pi. xliv,
1811. Type: Buccinum haustrum Martyn. Synonym: Lepsia
Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvi, p. 222, 1883 : same type.
Haustrum haustrum (Martyn, 1784). Synonyms: B. haustorium Gmelin,
1791 : Haustrum zealandicum Perry, 1811.

Genus Neothais Iredale, 1912 (em.). Neothias (error type) Iredale, Proc.

Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. x, p. 223, 1912. Type : Purpura smithi

Brazier.
Neothais succincta (Martyn, 1784). Synonyms : B. orbita Gmelin, 1791 ;

P. textiliosa Lamarck, 1816.
Neothais smithi (Brazier, 1889). Svnonvan: P. striata bollonsi Suter,

1906.
Neothais lacunosa (Bruguiere, 1789). Synonyms: B. striatum Martyn,

1784, not Pennant, 1777: P. rugosa Lamarck, 1820: P. rupestris

Valenciennes, 1833.

Genus Agnewia Tenison- Woods. 1878. Agnewia Tenison- Woods, Proc.
Roy. Soc. Tasm., 1877. p. 29 (1878). Type: Purpura tritoniformis
Blainville. Synonym : Adamsia Dunker, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.),
1856, p. 357 : same type : not Adamsia Forbes, 1840.
Agnewia tritoniformis (Blainville. 1833). Svnonvm : Adamsia typica
Dunker, 1856.

Genus Lepsiella Iredale, 1912. Lepsiella Iredale, P/oc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.),
vol. x, p. 223, 1912. Type : Purpura scobina Quoy and Gaimard.
Lepsiella scobina (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833).

- var. albomarginata (Deshayes, 1839). Synonyms : tristis
(Dunker, 1866); biconica (Hutton, 1878)
■ var. rutila (Suter, 1899).

Neothais succincta (Martyn, 1784). [P. 423.]

This species does not occur at the Cape of Good Hope, as given by Suter.
but is restricted to the east coast of Australia, as far north as the Peronian
region extends, and along the south and west in the limits of the Adelaidean
region. It does not extend to New Caledonia, as far as I have traced, but
is abundant at Norfolk Island, and very rare at the Kermadecs.

The Cape of Good Hope shell which has been confused with it is Trochia
cingulata (Linne). The adults bear a superficial resemblance, but the im-
mature and juvenile shells differ entirely, and prove that no close relation-
ship between the two shells, which I place in different genera, exists. The
variety " textiliosa " puzzles me greatly, as it occurs under the same environ-
mental conditions, and is continually a stouter shell. May the difference
be sexual ?

Iredale. — Suter' s "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 475

Agnewia tritoniformis (Blainville, 1833). [P. 424.]

This shell, described as a Purpura, was redescribed with a new generic
name Adamsia, which, being invalid, was changed to Agnewia. Writers
desirous of neglecting this name have succeeded in putting it into Comintlla
and Urosalpinx. Such diversity of opinion indicates the acceptance of
Agnewia. Kesteven, prejudiced by the presence of the sinusigera apex,
concluded that it must revert to Purpura, now Thais, where Suter has
placed it. In shell characters it stands quite alone, and Dall failed to place
it, so ignored it. It agrees with no other Thais (sensu lato) I know. It is
common on the littoral of New South Wales, where I myself collected it, and
abundant as a shore shell at Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands. Its range is
coincident with but much less extensive than the preceding, apparently
not reaching mid Western Australia, nor did I find it at the Kermadecs.

Neothais lacunosa (Brugiere, 1789). [P. 425.]

As noted by Suter, the name he used, Thais striata (Martyn. 1784), was
invalid through the prior use of Martyn's name by Pennant (Brit. Zool.,
ed. 4, vol. iv, p. 105, 1777), while that is also antedated by 0. F. Miiller
(Vermes, vol. ii, p. 149, 1774). The above name seems to have the next
choice.

I noted in another place that Bucdnum bicostatum Bruguiere, loc. ctt..
p. 248, was cited as a synonym. As this was ten pages earlier I looked it
up, and found that, although Bruguiere cited exactly the same figures and
descriptions in both places, he described two quite different shells. Suter
adds, "Also Kerguelen's Land": I have not yet seen shells so identified
from this locality, but it is almost certain that this is wrong. It appears
to replace N. succincta (Martyn, 1784) in the Neozelanic region, though
it cannot be considered an evolutionary product.

Lepsiella scobina (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833). [P. 426.]

This species is confined to New Zealand, and Suter's note, '* Tryon says
that it occurs at the Cape of Good Hope, and it appears also in Gibbons's
' List of South African Mollusca,' 1888," shows he also doubted its extra-
limital occurrence. The South African species so confused is early separ-
able, and has an earlier name than the present one. I have examined
specimens, and should class as a nearer ally to the Neozelanic shell the
Australian P. neglecta Angas, and the shell classed by Hedley (Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii. 1913, p. 330) as Kalydon vinosus (Lamarck). The
fact that the latter has been described as a Buccinum (Ricinula), Cominella,
and Purpura, and is thence transferred to Kalydon, which is not congeneric,
shows the necessity of my genus-name Lepsiella. As I have shown ante,
Kalydon is invalid, so that recourse may be to Lepsiella. for the whole group,
a course I do not advise.

Neothais smithi (Brazier, 1889). [P. 428.]

Drupa must be omitted from the Neozelanic fauna, as it is included
for this species alone. I showed that Drupa bollonsi Suter was equivalent
to the earlier Purpura smithi Brazier, and noted that it was not a Drupa
at all, but was better classed in Thais (sensu lato). Suter (p. 1083) has
accepted my specific identification, but has written, " For the present I
see no reason why it should not be retained in that genus (Drupa). " The

476 Transactions

shell is very closely related to N. lacunosa (Bruguiere), and T know of no
species classed in Drapa (sensii lato) that approaches it. The type of
Drupa is representative of a group which is well separated from the small
high-spired tuberculose species which the N. smitki Brazier vaguely recalls.
For this group, which I generieally separate. Schumacher's name Morula
is available. T will elaborate this matter in another place.

Alcira inconstans (Suter, 1906). [P. 442.]

This species was named Columbella variam by Hutton (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. xvii, 1884, p. 314, pi. 18. fig. 2 (1885) ), and as this name was invalid on
account of the prior Columbella varians Sowerby, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.),
18-32, p. 118, it was altered to the above specific nam*- liter himself

in 1906. The recognition of the species as referable to the genus Alcira
does not validate the invalid species-name.

Suter has distributed the Neozelanic " Columbellids " in four generu.
the genus-name Columbella being eliminated from our fauna. I em-
phatically approve of his action, though it may be that the generic names
selected by Suter will not prove the most acceptable when a monographic
resume of the family is undeitaken. T have many species to stud}' from
Lord Howe. Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands, and will investigate the
status of the Neozelanic species at the same time.

Ancilla novaezelandiae (Sowerby, 1859). [P. 453.]

Through an extraordinary mistake this species is named Ancilla bicolor
Gray, 1847. a remark being given, " The above synonymy is based on in-
formation kindly supplied to me by Mr. E. A. Smith. I.S.O., of the British
Museum."

Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii, p. 302, 1913) has indi-
cated how this error occurred, and that Ancillaria tricolor was described
by Grav at the place given from " Cape York, on sand : cabinet of Mr.
Cuming." He also showed that Cray's specific name fell as a synonym of
the prior Ancillaria cingulata Sowerby. 1830, but that the Australian and
Neozelanic species were quite distinct.

Confirmation of Hedley's data shows that the above name becomes
valid for the latter, and replaces Ancilla bicolor Suter, there being no such
species as A. bicolor Cray, the name being A. tricolor Gray.

Bathytoma zealandica (E. A. Smith, 1877). [P. 491.]

This name must be resumed for the species called Bathytoma checseinani
Hutton, 1878, Suter's reason reading, " As Mr. E. A. Smith's species was
never figured, I give preference to Hutton's name."

Mangilia? amoena (E. A. Smith, 1884). [P. 502.]

In the same manner this name must be used instead of Mangilia pro-
i> nsa Hutton, 1885, selected for the same reason as the preceding by Suter.
I have placed a ? after the genus used by Suter, because I have not yet
studied this difficult group sufficiently to publish the most acceptable genera
to be used for Neozelanic shells. Dall's conclusion is that Mangilia is not
applicable to the shells commonly so called, but the correct alternative in
most cases is not given, his notes only referring to North American species.

Ibedalb — Suter'& ''Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 477

Genus Bullinula (Swainson. 1840). [P. 521.]

Bullinula Swainson, Treat. Mai., p. 360, 1840, must replace Bullina
Ferussac, 1821, as there is a prior Bullinus. Suter has accepted this dictum,
as he has used Cylichnella instead of Cylichna Loven, 1846, not Cylichnus
Burmeister, 1844. The above name will be familiar, as it was used in the
." Index Faunae Novae-Zealandiae."

Bullinula ziczac (Muhlfeldt, 1818). [P. 522.]

The species-name must also be changed, as Bulla scabra Gmelin, 1791,
was antedated by 0. F. Midler's selection of the same name in the Zool.
Dan., vol. ii, p. 90, 1784. The shells in the British Museum have long liorne
Muhlfeldt's specific name

Genus Leuconopsis (Hutton, 1884). [P. 592.]

For the Neozelanic shells Suter has degraded Hutton's genus to the
rank of a section under Leuconia Gray. It has been overlooked that as long
ago as 1903 the latter name was abandoned by British malacologists for the
British species. B. B. Woodward, in his " List of Non-marine Mollusca "
(Journ. Conch., vol. x, p. 355, 1903), utilized Bivona's name Ovatella, writing
on p. 361, " Leuconia is a svnonvm. as Gray himself admits in 1847. for
Ovatella of Bivona, 1832."

As the Australasian group is at present well defined, I cannot see any
reason to recommend the adoption of Bivona's name, but would urge the
reinstatement of the absolutely correct one, Leuconopsis Hutton. As Suter
quotes, I would only admit one species as at present known in New Zealand
waters.

Genus Marinula King, 1831. [Pp. 591, 594.]

When Mr. Hedley was in England I pointed out that Cremnobates was
synonymous with Marinula King, and upon examination of the types of
the two genera he concurred in this view. My friend Mr. M. Connolly,
during the preparation of his invaluable " Reference List of South African
Non-marine Mollusca " (Annals South Afr. Museum, vol. xi, 1912), referred
to me as to the status of the Neozelanic forms. We carefully investigated
the whole matter, and Connolly will publish the results, many complications
intervening. The fact that the two species referred by Hedley and Suter
to the genus Cremnobates — viz.. M. main&roni Velain and M. nigra (Philippi)
Velain — are typical Marinula at once discredits Cremnobates ; but the
further fact that Marin "la nigra Philippi is a svnonym of M. pepita King,
the type of Marinula, must be convincing proof of its invalidity. As Con-
nolly's paper will be published in South Africa, and will not commonly
come under the notice of the Neozelanic student. I might give the following
notes suggested by Connolly's MS., which is now before me.

Marinula pepita King, gen. and sp. nov., was described from the Island
of Chiloe. South America. The distribution of typical specimens, probably
under manuscript names, caused the description of such as Auricula nigra
Philippi, King's name having meanwhile been twisted on to a Chilian shell
superficially agreeing. This transference became universal, and in the
British Museum the type set of Marinula pepita King bore on the front the
name " nigra Phil..'" whilst distinct shells, not even referable to the genus,
were named " pepita King." This confusion existed also in France and
Germany, and brought about the record of M. nigra Phillippi from Tristan
da Cunha, &c.

478 Transactions.

When Hedley and Suter reinstated Cremnobates they were confronted
with a description of the animal of Marinula probably drawn up from
some other beast. Connolly has persuaded Mr. G. C. Robson to provide
an account of the anatomy of the Tristan da Cunha form, and this agrees
fairly with that given by Hedley and Suter, but that is too incomplete to
make any useful comparisons.

Connolly has defined the limits of Marinula, including Cremnobates, as
antarctic and subantarctic, of circumpolar range, advancing very little to
the northward, reaching Moreton Bay in east Australia and the Island of
Chiloe in west South America.

The two Neozelanic species of Marinula then will be : Marinula filholi
Hutton, 1878, and M. parva (Swainson, 1855) ; and Cremnobates must be
cited in the synonymy of Marinula.

Genus Siphonaria (Sowerby, Jan., 1824). [P. 597.]

As an overlooked synonym, should be added : Mouretus Blainville,
Diet. Sci. Nat. (Levrault), vol. xxxiii, pp. 161-62, 1824 (after Sowerby).
Type : Mouretus adansonii Blainville.

Kerguelenia innominata nom. no v. [P. 601.]

Under the name Siphonaria lateralis Gould, 1846, Suter has described
a shell occurring at the subantarctic islands of New Zealand : for this shell I
provide the above name. As a subgenus-name without reference Liriola Dall,
1870, is given ; but when that name was provided Dall wrote (Am.
Journ. Conch., vol. vi, 7th July, 1870, p 32), " typified by Siphonaria,
thersites Cpr.," and the subantarctic shells do not fall into Dall's group.

Rochebrune and Mabille (Miss. Sci. Cap Horn, vol. vi, Zool., H, p. 27,
1889) introduced Kerguelenia for S. redimiculum Reeve. This name Suter
records as a synonym of S. lateralis Gould, but would separate S. tristensis
Leach.

Examination of the British Museum material, where the types of redi-
miculum Reeve, macgillivrayi Reeve, tristensis Leach, and paratypes of
lateralis Gould are preserved, gives the following results : S. lateralis Gould
is quite a distinct species from redimiculum, macgillivrayi, and tristensis,
which agree very closely, but seem to be geographical races, according to
the series available, quite constant.

The Neozelanic species does not agree, and consequently I have named
it as above.

The species of Kerguelenia, are recognizable at sight, but the genus would
seem to include S. obliquata Sowerby and S. australis Quoy and Gaimard ;
but the species S. cookiana Suter and S. zelandica Quoy and Gaimard would
be better placed in Siphonaria. Suter observes that the radular characters
of S. australis Q. & G. and S. zelandica Q. & G. notably differ.

Suterella gen. nov. [P. 618.]

As a representative of the otherwise extra-limital genus Fretum, Suter .
admits Helix novarae Pfeiffer, 1862. The synonymy given indicates the
peculiar nature of this mollusc, this being the sixth generic location quoted
by Suter, four being his own attempts to place it. This last is quite as
unsuitable as any of the preceding, as I have examined typical species of
Fretum as well as many specimens of the Norfolk Island molluscs unfor-
tunately associated by Sykes with the Fijian shells, which are the true
Fretum, and the Neozelanic shell shows discord when grouped with these.

Iredale. — Suter' a " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 479

The name above given, with Helix novarae Pfeiffer as sole species and
type, will call attention to the nature of this mollusc, and probably some
investigator will endeavour to fix its place in connection with extra-limital
species.

Fam. Flammulinidae Iredale. [P. 621.]

Suter's classification of the land Mollusca is decidedly an improvement
on anv preceding it, but still emendations must be made. Thus, Suter
diagnoses his family Phenacohelicidae, and notes, " tail with a mucous
pore," as contrasted with the family Endodontidae (p. 684), whose chief
feature is 'l no caudal mucous pore."

Study of the Neozelanic land molluscs in connection with my Kermadec
molluscs and in conjunction with the majority of Australian species led
me to suggest the above family-name (Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond ), vol. x,
p. 382, 1913). I there showed that the presence or absence of a caudal
mucous pore was not constant in the " Endodontidae" and concluded that
it was certainly valueless as a family character. 1 noted Suter himself
had previously indicated this conclusion, so that it should not have been
utilized in the present work. I further added that Suter had claimed the
nature of the jaw as characteristic of the Flammulinidae, and I suggested
that shell features would prove of more satisfying value than the evanescent
caudal mucous pore. I advocated the recognition of many genera, instead
of few, and I now see that Suter has divided the genus Endodonta into
numerous groups, but has not given these names. I have not carefully
studied all these yet, but from a close criticism of the Australian species
I found constant characters for separation in the sculpture of the nuclear
whorls, the ratio of coiling, the form of the umbilicus, and also adult
sculpture, so that I am certain easily recognized groups could be named.
I pointed out that Pilsbry's classification, upon which Suter's is based,
has been since amended by himself in the manner I propose.

A few criticisms may be hereafter given, but a monographic consider-
ation of the Neozelanic forms must be carried out under a scheme covering
Australian and Pacific' forms. The latter are very imperfectly known,
and I would again emphasize the sometimes overlooked fact that the
classification being used by Suter has already been rejected by its author
as inadequate. My own remarks in this connection in the paper quoted
above have been endorsed by most workers both here and in America.
Dr. Pilsbry has written me that recent study of the Sandwich Island
" Endodonts " has given him ground for drafting a rearrangement of the
Pacific forms, and that he agrees that too much lumping has hitherto been
done, and that the caudal mucous pore has been a " will-of-the-wisp."

Phelussa gen. nov. [P. 622.]

Phelussa is here provided to replace Phacussa Hutton, 1883, which is pre-
occupied, and I name Helix hypopolia Pfeiffer, 1853, as type of my genus.

The distribution given of the genus by Suter reads, *' New Zealand
and Tasmania." In this case Suter is probably correct, but when he
studied Tasmanian shells his generic locations were not sound, and he
has since rejected most.

In this connection he includes Lord Howe Island in the distribution of
his family Phenacohelicidae, but I have seen no species from that island
(nearly one hundred are now known to me) which could reasonably be
included in any of the fourteen genera he recognizes in his familv. Lord

480 Transactions.

Howe Island is mentioned only under the genus Flammulina (p. 671), but
I have seen no species of Flammulina from that island or Norfolk Island,
also named.

Therasia ? antipoda (Hombron and Jacquinot, 1841). [P. 655.]

Suter accepts the above name as of these authors (1854) in preference
to Helix aucklandica Le Guillou, Rev. Zool., v, 1842, 140, with the remark,
" I accept H. & J.'s. name because they figured the species." This is
not a valid reason, and we should, on the score of priority, have had to
accept Le Grflllou's name had I not observed that Hombron and Jacquinot
had published a preliminary description, which appeared before Le Guillou's
name. Consequently the above name can be preserved, the earliest re-
ference reading, ": H(elyx) antipoda Hombron and Jacquinot, Ann. Sci.
Nat., 2nd ser., vol. xvi, p. 64, 1841 : Auckland Islands." When the names,
accredited to Hombron and Jacquinot, were published in 1854 the recorder
was Rousseau, but in the above-noted paper many species were published
by Hombron and Jacquinot themselves. This paper seems to have been
overlooked.

Flammulina zebra (Le Guillou, 1842). [P. 680.]

Vitrina zebra Le Guillou, Rev. Zool., v, 1842, 136, is placed in the
synonymy of Helix phlogophora Pfeiffer, 1850, with the remark, " The
specific name zebra has, no doubt, priority ; but, as no figure of the shell
was given, I select Pfeiffer's phlogophora. as being the next in chronological
order, and which was figured by Reeve. Moreover, I have not seen Le
Guillou's species from the Auckland Islands, which is narrowly umbilicated,
and may be distinct from F. phlogophora." Only two courses are open —
the usage of Le Guillou's name zebra, or its admission into the synonymy
of phlogophora Pfeiffer with a ?. Suter suggests they are different species.
Search at the Auckland Islands is really necessary to determine such a
question, and that is not so easy a matter as to write that it should be done.

Genus Endodonta (Albers, 1850). [P. 684.]

I have proposed the rejection of this generic name from the Neozelanic
fauna, and this course will sooner or later be adopted, as the worker re-
sponsible for its introduction into that fauna has regretted his action, and
latterly repudiated it.

Suter has classed thirty-seven species, four subspecies, five varieties,
and seven formae under this genus-name. Five subgenera are recognized,
and it would have been easy simply to write that these should be recog-
nized as genera ; but unfortunately the first two subgenera used by Suter
cannot be differentiated by the descriptions he has given, which are copied
from Pilsbry's " Guide to the Helices " (Man. Conch., 2nd ser., vol. ix,
1893). In my paper quoted above (the only one I have yet written dealing
with Australasian land molluscs) I suggest their identity. I there stated,
however, that later many genera might be recognized when the animals
were carefully studied in conjunction with their shells. In the meanwhile
I would suppress Thaumatodon and simply generically use Ptychodon. The
recognition of Phenacharopa as a distinct genus cannot be denied whilst
Aeschrodomus claims generic rank. Charopa, however, covers many generic
types, and it is pleasing to read (p. 700) Suter 's memo, " In my opinion,
only very few of the Tasmanian and Australian species assigned to Charopa

Ire dale, — Sitter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 481

really belong to it,*' as I had written, " It appears doubtful whether
typical Chaw pa has yet been recorded " from Australia.

In this subgenus (Champa) Suter distinguishes five groups, and here
again he has utilized the protoconch features to a large extent, exactly
as I had done, though my work was quite independently performed.
Inasmuch as the coincidence is fairly exact, and I was working upon Aus-
tralian material, kindly loaned me by Mr. J. H. Ponsonby, whose collection
of these shells is very complete, and also extra-limital Pacific shells, while
Suter was criticizing Neozelanic shells, the groups may be considered quite
natural, and I here propose some of the generic names I had conferred in
my manuscript dealing with Australian shells. Many others will later be
proposed by other workers as well as myself. I introduce, —

Egestula gen. nov. Type : Helix egesta Gray, 1850.

Fectola gen. nov. 4 Type : H. infecta Reeve, 1852.

Mocella gen. nov. Type : H. corniculum Reeve, 1852.

Cavellia gen. nov. Type : H. biconcava Pfeiffer, 1853.

The genus Ptychodon as hereafter admitted is polyphyletic, but none of
the species assigned to Thautnatodon by Suter agree at all with the type he
has named.

My nomination of the genus Endodonta of Suter would then read, —

Genus Ptychodon Ancey, 1888.

Ptychodon cryptobidens (Suter. 1891).

Jessica (Hutton, 1883).

monoplax (Suter, 1913).

- tan (Pfeiffer, 1862).

varicosa (Pfeiffer, 1853).

iredalia (Webster, 1908).

aorangi (Suter, 1890).

— chiltoni (Suter, 1909).

hector i (Suter, 1890).

hunuaensis Suter, 1894.

leiodus (Hutton, 1883).

microundulata (Suter, 1890).

minuta (Suter, 1909).

pseudoleioda (Suter, 1890).

ureweraensis (Suter, 1899).

wairarapa (Suter, 1890).

Genus Phenacharopa Pilsbry, 1893.

Phenacharopa novoeseelandica (Pfeiffer, 1853).
Genus Aeschrodomus Pilsbry, 1892.

Aeschrodomus barbatuhis (Reeve, 1852).

stipulatus (Reeve, 1852).

Genus Charopa Albers, 1860.

Charopa anguicula (Reeve, 1852).

montivaga Suter, 1894.

benhami (Suter, 1909).

bianca (Hutton, 1883).

chrysaugeia (Webster, 1904).

coma (Gray, 1843).

ochra (Webster, 1901).

pseudocoma (Suter, 1894).

titirangiensis (Suter, 1896).

16— Trans.

482 Transactions.

Genus Egestula nov.

Egestula egesta (Gray, 1850).

- gaza (Suter, 1909).
transenna (Suter. 1901).

Genus Fectola nov.

Fectola alpestris (Suter, 1891).

- brouni (Suter, 1891).
buccinella (Reeve, 1852).

- serpentinula (Suter, 1891).
capvtspinulae (Reeve, 1852).

- colensoi (Suter, 1890).
— eremita (Suter, 1891).

infecta (Reeve, 1852).

- irregularis (Suter, 1890).

- mutabilis (Suter, 1891).

- otagoensis (Suter, 1899).

- reeftonensis (Suter, 1892).

- roseveari (Suter, 1896).

- sterkiana (Suter, 1891).
subinfecta (Suter, 1899).

- tapirina (Hutton, 1883).

- variecostata (Suter, 1890).

Genus Mocella nov.

Mocella alloia (Webster, 1904).

corniculum (Reeve, 1852).

kenepiiruensis (Suter, 1909).

- prestoni (Sykes, 1895).

- segregata (Suter, 1894).

Genus Cavellia nov.

Cavellia biconcava (Pfeiffer, 1853).

- huttoni (Suter, 1890).

- moussoni (Suter, 1890).
subantialba (Suter, 1890).

- vortex (Murdoch, 1897).

- microrhina (Suter, 1909).

The association of species is Suter's, and is open to revision.

Genus Laoma (Gray, 1840). [P. 733.]

This genus, as utilized by Suter, is obviously polyphyletic. The type
is quite unlike the majority of the species associated with it. 1 have not
studied the species sufficiently to give a correct revised grouping. Phrix-
gnaihus should be generically utilized at once, whilst my investigation of
the Kermadec land molluscs forced me to introduce a new genus Paralaoma :
the Neozelanic Laoma lateumbilicata seems to fall into this. Suter's groups
in this genus under the subgenus Phrixgnathus are very artificial, being
based on the width of the umbilicus. I believe that study of the apical
features will aid in forming a natural grouping of this family also, and I
hope to provide such when I indicate the Endodontoid genera, as well as
the groups of the Flammulinidae, where I have also found the apical features
constant and valuable.

Iredalb. — Suter's "Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 483

Vomanus subgen. nov. [P. 795. J

1 provide this name for Conophora Hutton, 1879 (em.), from Konophora,
as there is a prior Conophorus Meigen, Mag. f. Insek. (111.), ii, p. 268, 1803,
and these are undoubtedly the same word. It will be observed here that
Suter has used Conophora em. for Konophora given by Hutton, an exactly
parallel case to Calydon and Kalydon. The latter name was also given
by Hutton, who consistently used K, and, though in the present case
emendation was made, it was not in the case of Kalydon.

The inclusion of the East African Parmarion ? Kersteni ii^ the family
Athoracophoridae seems an obvious error, the geographical distribution of
the family, without the species, being quite natural. I would constantly
query such an entry as being unnatural, considering our present knowledge
of slug forms.

Nucula simplex A. Adams. [P. 833.]

From examination of the types preserved in the British Museum, Hedley
(Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii, p. 263, 1913) has shown the synonymy
of Nucula simplex A. Adams, N. strangei A. Adams, and AT. antipodum
Hanlev. He has preserved the first-named, apparently on the score of
priority, quoting the years 1856, 1860, and 1860. Suter has, however,
given the correct quotation and correct date for the second — viz., 1856.
As a matter of fact, the first two names occur on the same page. Never-
theless, Hedley's choice must be maintained, as it has place priority.

The synonymy would read then : Nucula simplex A. Adams, Proc.
Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1856, p. 52 ; Nucula strangei, id. ib. ; Nucula antipodum
Hanley. Thes. Conch.., vol. iii, p. 159, pi. 230, fig. 155, 1860.

Genus Nuculana (Link, 1807). [P. 834.]
This name must supersede Leda Schumacher, 1817, or else a new name
altogether must be provided for the genus. British conchologists have
adopted the former, but Dall advised its rejection, as being simply a sub-
stitute name for Nucula. Lamarck. Jukes-Browne (Journ. Conch., vol. xi,
p. 100, 1904) discussed the merits of the two names, but with little access
to much literature, and mainly dependent upon second-hand information,
no conclusion was reached. Dall's reason for the rejection of Nuculana
may be sound, but, as Jukes-Browne concludes, " It is, of course, quite
possible that some conchologists will dispute Dr. Dall's reading of Link,
and no doubt it is a debatable question." I was quite agreeable to accept
Dall's judgment, but was about to point out that authors accepting this
had failed to reject Nassaria, which is absolutely parallel. However, upon
referring to Schumacher, to confirm the introduction of Leda, I noted
the explanation given for its proposal read, " M. de Lamarck a etabli un
genre sous le nom de Nucule (Nucula), et prend pour type de son genre la
Nucule nacree (Nucula margaritacea) ou V Area nucleus Lin. En examinant
soigneusement cette coquille, j'ai trouve que la charniere a beaucoup plus
de rapport avec celle de la Pectoncle ; et cest pourquoi j'ai change le nom
de son genre en celui que je lui ai donned I have italicized the last sentence,
as this proves Schumacher's name to stand on exactly the same basis as
Link's ; or, rather, it is worse off, for Schumacher has admitted that his
generic name was purely a substitute for Nucula Lamarck, whereas it is
simply inferred that Link's was so proposed. Under these circumstances
Leda cannot be preferred to Nuculana, but if the latter be rejected the
former must also pass into synonymy. I advise the retention of Nucidana
in preference to the alternative of using an entirely new name.

16*

484 Transactions.

Area decussata (Sowerby, 1833). [P. 848.]

If the species Byssoarca decussata Sowerby be included in the genus
Area, the division Barbatia being considered as a subgenus only, then some
other specific name must be utilized, as there is a prior Area decussata Linne,
Syst. Nat., ed. x, 1758, p. 694.

Since the preceding lines were penned Mr. E. A. Smith has investigated
this matter, and has discovered from examination of the type that the
New Zealand shell is quite, distinct from Sowerby 's species, and is name-
less. His report will be published long before this, when he will indicate
the differences, which he has pointed out to me. and which are quite obvious
and constant when once recognized.

The range given by von Martens is altogether wrong, as the New Zealand
species is confined to New Zealand, and differs at sight from the Australian
shell.

Suter's usage of the genus Area to cover every Area-like shell is probably
due to Dall's influence, but Dall, when he made his subgenera and sections,
used these generic-ally in the same place. Such usage is confusing and per-
plexing, and, if necessary for convenience, the subgenera should be called
genera and the sections subgenera. Thus, on p. 849 Suter recognizes a
subgenus Scapharca, and on p. 850, as a section, is noted Bathyarca. The
species is then called Area cybaea Hedley. Now, Hedley is no genus-splitter,
yet he named the species Bathyarca. cybaea. This nomination convevs
some idea of the nature of the shell, whereas Area cybaea leaves only a vague
impression. The group Bathyarca is well defined and easily recognizable,
and consequently generic rank should be given it, even if only for con-
venience' sake.

Subgenus Mytilus s. str. [P. 862.]

This must be quoted instead of Eumytilus von Ihering, used by Suter.
The latter is an absolute synonym of Mytilus s. str., and cannot be used
under the present nomenclatural laws.

Mytilus maorianus nom. now [P. 865.]

I propose this name for the species described by Suter under the name
Mytilus magellanicus Lamarck, 1819. There is a prior Mytilus magellanicus
Bolten, Mus. Bolten., p. 158, 1798, based upon Chemnitz Conch. Cab.,
vol. viii, pi. 83, fig. 738, which is not the present shell. Moreover, speci-
mens in the British Museum from New Zealand differ from South American
shells, whilst Purdie showed anatomical differences also.

M. capensis Dunker, given in the synonymy by Suter, does not belong
to this species at all, and must be omitted.

Modiolus neozelanicus nom. nov [P. 866.]

Mytilus ater Zelebor is invalidated by the prior Mytilus ater Molina,
Sag. stor. nat. Chili, 1782, p. 202. The synonyms quoted by Suter — Perna
confusa Angas, P.Z.S., 1871, 21, pi. 1, f. 33, and Mytilus crassus Ten.-Woods,
P.E.S. Tasm., 1876 (1877), 157 — are not referable to this species, so the
Neozelanic species is nameless, and I provide the new name above.

Genus Musculus (Bolten, 1798). [P. 868.]

When Dall (Journ. Conch., vol. xi, pp. 294-97, 1906) reviewed the
alterations necessary through the recognition of the Boltenian genera he

Iredalk. — Sitter's e< Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 485

wrote. '" Musculus L. fl. Anodonta cygnea L.) = Anodontites Brag., 1792
+ Anodonta Lam., 171)*' + Modiolus Lam., 1799 + Modiolaria Beck, 1840."
The reference to Anodontites Bruguiere. 1792, was probably through the
mistaken idea that that genus-name was proposed for a species of Anodonta
so called. Kennard and Woodward (" List British Non-marine Mollusca,"
p. 1. 1911) have written, " An attempt having been made by Dr. Haas
(Abhandi. Senckenb. Naturf. Gesell., 1910, p. 172) to revive Bruguiere's
name of Anodontites for this genus, it may be as well to point out that the
type, A. crispata (Journ. Hist. Nat, Paris, 1, 1792, p. 131, pi. viii, figs. 6, 7),
is a Guiana shell quite distinct from the European Anodonta. and placed
by Simpson (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.. xxii. p. 919) in the genus Glabaris Gray
(1847). for which it might be used. Lamarck's better-known name is
therefore available for the European forms. Therefore Musculus cannot
be relegated to the synonymy of the earlier Anodontites, and, as it is earlier
than the other three names mentioned by Dall. demands immediate con-
sideration.

Reference to Bolten (p. 156) shows eight species ranged under the genus-
name Muscidus, thus :—

Musculus cygneus = Anodonta sp.
a not in us = Anodonta sp.
- compressus = nomen nudum.
— discors = Modiolaria sp.

novaezeelandiae = Modiolaria sp.

moduloides = Modiolus sp.
papuanus = Modiolus sp.
modulus = Modiolus sp.

It is obvious that the best usage of Musculus will be that which will
cause the least confusion, and, following the principle of elimination, this
name would replace Modiolaria. I can see no objection to this course,
and therefore designate Musculus discors Bolten as type of Musculus Bolten.
The synonymy will read,

Genus Musculus Bolten, 1798. Musculus Bolten, Mus. Bolten., p. 156,
1798. Type : M. discors - Mytilus discors Linne. Svnonyms :
Modiolaria Beck, 1840, as quoted by Suter ; Modiolarca Gray in
Dieffenbach's " Travels in New Zealand,"' vol. ii, p. 259, 1843 (not
Modiolarca Gray, 1847) : Lanistes Swainson. 1840, and Lanistina
Gray, 1847, as given by Suter.

Musculus impactus (Herrmann. 1782). [P. 869.]

To the synonymy add : Mytilus cor Martyn, Univ. Conch., vol. ii,
pi. 77. L784 ; and Musculus novaezeelandiae Bolten, Mus. Bolten., 1798,
p. 157.

Genus Pecten (Miiller, 1776). [P. 873.]

Hereunder is classed, with subgeneric rank only, Chlamys Bolten, 1798, and
Pseudamussium H. and A. Adams, 1858; as a section of the latter, Cyclo-
pecten Verrill, 1897, being cited. Although this classification is based upon
that of Dall, and has been used by Mr. E. A. Smith in the " Challenger "
Report and since, it is not only inconvenient, but I venture to suggest that
it transgresses the facts.

The genus Hinnites Defrance, 1821 (Diet, Sci. Nat,, vol. xxi, p. 169),
was proposed for fossils which lie contrasted with Ostrea and Spondylus,

186 Transactions.

and of which he knew no living representatives. These have since been
found, and in the British Museum is a fine series showing complete stages
of growth. This genus begins life as a normal Chlamys, and then settles
down and becomes an irregularly shaped Ostreiform bivalve. Fischer
(Man. de Conch., p. 945, 1886) has recorded this transformation. As
Chlamys has coincidently persisted as a free-swimming form, this proves
that Chlamys is very ancient, and is fully worthy of generic rank. The
close relationship of Chlamys and Hiioiites, two superficially different shells,
is proven, but no proof is yet forthcoming that Chlamys and Pecten, two
superficially similar forms, are as closely allied.

Cyclopectev was provided for minute species with a peculiar facies which
are recognizable at sight, and their exact relationships seem somewhat
obscure. Why such a well-defined group which shows none of the charac-
teristics of the genus Pecten should be so classed is a problem I am quite
unable to solve.

The nomenclature I would advocate reads, —

Genus Pecten Miiller, 1776.

Pecten medius Lamarck, 1819.
Genus Chlamys Bolten, 1798.
Chlamys dichrous (Suter, 1909).

imparicostatus (Bavay, 1905).
radiatus (Button, 1873).

- zelandiae (Gray. 1843).

- convexus (Quoy and Gaimard. 1835).

Genus Cyclopecten Vcrrill. 1897.

Cyclopectev aviculoides (E. A. Smith, 1885).
transenna (Suter, 1913).

In this arrangement 1 note I am in agreement with Hedley (Mem. Austr.
Mus.. iv, pp. 303 7, 1902). The reference of all the species to Pecten, as
Suter has done, would necessitate the rejection of two specific names, as
medius Lamarck, 1819, and radiatus Hutton, 1873, are antedated in the
genus Pecten (sensu latissimo), but not in my usage.

Pecten gemmulatus (Reeve, 1852). [P. 878.]
This species is recognized as a subspecies of P. zelandiae Gray, 1843,
but it must be omitted.

Mr. Edgar Smith. I.S.O., dealing with a Pecten from New Zealand, asked
me if I recognized it. I did not : but as he was getting the species together
I took the opportunity of examining the specimens. The types of Reeve's
Pecten gemmulatus at once attracted me by their strange appearance, and
it was soon decided that these were not Neozelanic, as far as we could
judge. Though Reeve gave the locality as " New Zealand,1' the type-tablet
bears the original data t- Moreton Bay ; Strange." Nothing is here known
like them, and they disagree in detail with Suter's description of his sub-
specific form.

Pecten multicostatus Reeve, included by Suter in the synonymy of
P. zelandiae Gray, must also be omitted, as it is not that shell, and the
locality " New Zealand " would appear to be incorrect.

Genus Gaimardia (Gould, 1852). [P. 894.]

This name, introduced in the U.S. Expl. Exped., vol. xii, p. 459, 1852,
for M. trapezina Lamarck, must replace Modiolarca Gray, 1847, not Modio-

Iredale. — Suter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 487

larca Gray, 1843. I have given full details concerning this alteration in
the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 173, 1914.

I doubt the identification of trapezina Lamarck from New Zealand, as
Suter's measurements do not agree with typical specimens, whilst the speci-
mens I collected at Cape Saunders are certainly not Gould's pusillus.

The genus is represented by six species, thus : —

Gaimardia acrobeles (Suter. 1913).

pusilla (Gould, 1850) ?
smithi (Suter, 1913).

tasmanica (Beddome, 1881).

- trapezina (Lamarck, 1836) ?

minutissima (Iredale, 1908).

Venericardia purpurata (Deshayes, 1854). [P. 905.]

Hedley (Zool. Res. " Endeavour," pt. i, 1911, p. 97) has drawn attention
to the obscurity of Venericardia australis Lamarck, and recorded the omis-
sion from Neozelanic synonymy of Cardita quoyi Deshayes (Proc. Zool. Soc.
(Lond.). 1852, p. 103, 1854), given to the Neozelanic shell described by
Quoy and Gaimard under Lamarck's name, and which Deshayes determined
as different from Lamarck's species. The above name, however, has priority,
and has been adopted by Mr. E. A. Smith.

Venericardia lutea (Hutton, 1880). [P. 907. J

Venericardia zelandica Deshayes, 1854, cannot be retained, as it is based
on Cardita zelandica, which has been used by Potiez and Michaud sixteen
years earlier, as Suter himself points out. The above name was used by
Hedley in his report on New Zealand bivalves dredged in 100 fathoms, as
cited by Suter.

Venericardia unidentata (Basterot, 1825). [P. 908.]

In the synonymy of Venericardia corbis Philippi, 1836, is noted the
above name without reference. I have traced this name, and it has priority
as Venericardia unidentata Basterot, Mem. Soc. Hist. Nat., vol. ii, pt. i,
1825, p. 80.

As a subgenerie name, Suter has used Miodontiscus Dal I, 1903. In the
Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, p. 177, 1914, I noted that apparently this
should be replaced by Coripia De Gregorio, proposed for the present species.
Dr. Dall has generously written me that I had overlooked his synonv-
mizing of the latter name with Pteromeris Conrad, and his consideration of
it as distinct from Miodontiscus. I must apologize for my oversight ; but,
in any case, it means the rejection of Miodontiscus in this connection, and
I suggest the acceptance of Coripia De Gregorio given to this species in
preference to Conrad's Pteromeris.

Condylocardia (Bernard, 1896). [P. 910.]

The original reference to this genus-name is incorrect. This genus was
introduced in the Bull. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. (Paris), vol. ii, p. 195, 1896, and
the first species, which in this case must be regarded as type, is Condy-
locardia sanctipauli, described on p. 196. The erroneous spelling given by
Suter, " pauliana," is due to Dall at the first reference given.

488 Transactions.

On p. 196 of the same work both Condylocardia crassicosta and C. co»-
centrica were described from Stewart Island. This number was received at
the British Museum on the 10th November, 1896. On p. 194 Hochstetteria
costata, and on p. 195 Hochstetteria meleagrina, are described from the same
place. These pages should be added to the incomplete references given on
pp. 857 and 859.

I think "St. Helena," given in the distribution of the genus, is
incorrect.

Genus Lucinida (D'Orbigny, 1847). [P. 912.]

This name, proposed in the Voy. Amer. Merid. Moll., p. 588, 1847, with
type designated as Lucina cryptella D'Orbigny, id. ib., must replace Loripes.
This name is cited by Suter as of Cuvier, 1817 ; but it was used by Oken
(Lelirb. fur Naturg., vol. iii, pt. i, p. 231, 1815) two years earlier, and it
was originally used by Poli in the Test. Sicil., vol. i, Introd., p. 31, 1795.
as a genus-name for the animal of Tellina lactea Linne, while the shell was
generieally named Loripoderma. This peculiar double usage of two generic
names — one for the animal, the other for the shell— has necessitated the
rejection of the Polian names. I find that Dall accepted Loripes, and
Suter's acceptance is due to his initiative, but in a parallel case Dall rejects
Callista of Poli. 1 cannot see any other course open than the rejection of
all of Poli"s names ; the acceptance would necessitate many unpleasant
innovations.

Modiolarca minutissima Iredale. [P. 926.]

Omit this name from the synonymy of Lasaea miliaris Phil. My shell
is a ''Modiolarca,7' and a valid species, quite unlike any other member of
the genus. I do not understand Suter' s reference of it to Lasaea.

Kellia balaustina Gould. 1861. [P. 928.]

Omit this name and reference from the synonym}' of Lasaea scalaris
Philippi, 1847. Since Suter so placed it the type has been examined by
Hedley, who has recorded (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii, 1913,
p. 268) that it is the species he had recently described as Cyamiomactra
nitida (loc. cit., xxxiii, 1908, p. 477, pi. ix. figs. 19, 20), over which name
it has, of course, priority', and has been brought into use

Tellina liliana nora. nov. [P. 948.]

I propose this name for the New Zealand shell described by Quoy and
Gaimard under the name Tellina lactea. which is invalidated by Tellina
lactea Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, p. 676, 1758. Suter has used Tellina
deltoidalis Lamarck, proposed for an Australian shell, writing, " I have
compared New Zealand and Australian specimens of the same size, and
could not find the slightest difference between the two.'" Nevertheless,
with long series the differences are well observed, and Mr. E. A. Smith,
I.S.O., of the British Museum, the greatest British authority on bivalve
molluscs, unhesitatingly separated the Australian from the Neozelanic
species when recently he had occasion to investigate their nomination. He
has not published his conclusions, but the shells are named and arranged
in the British Museum collection under Lamarck's and Quoy and Gaimard's
names

Ikkdalr. — Suter's ''Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 489

Arcopagia disculus (Deshayes, 1855). [P. 951.]

The species of the group offer such well-marked features that Arcopagia
needs generic distinction as above, and should not be submerged in Tettina.
Hedley, whom 1 have already indicated as inclining to the use of genera of
wide limits, has admitted (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.. vol. xxxiv, pp. 433-34,
1909) Arcopagia generically.

Tellina gaimardi nom. nov. [P.J952.]

This name must replace Tellina alba Quoy and Gaimard, 1835, as there
is a prior Tellina alba Martyn, Univ. Conch., vol. iv, fig. 157, 1787. All
the specimens in the British Museum have been named as above for the
last fifty years, but I have been unable to trace this name in literature.
Bertin (Nouv. Arch. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Paris, 2nd ser., vol. i, p. 285, 1878)
states that Quoy and Gaimard's type came from New Ireland; but this
is obviouslv an error for New Zealand, as that locality is given by the
authors.

Macoma edgari nom. nov. [P. 953.]

Tellina glabrella Deshayes, 1855, was anticipated in usage by Chiaje
(Mem. Anim. s. Vert. Napoli, tab. pro. v and vi, 1830, pi. 82), and I propose
to rename it as above. The reference to the genus Macoma is due to the
fact that on the back of the type-tablet Mr. E. A. Smith has noted that
the shell must be there placed.

Leptomya perconfusa nom. nov. [P. 956.]

When Mr. E. A. Smith, on Suter's inquiry, showed the shell known to
Neozelanic workers as Tellina strangei had been incorrectly identified, and
was a member of the genus Leptomya, Mr. Suter adopted Hutton's specific
name from Tellina lintea. But that combination had been utilized many
years before Hutton chose it by Conrad in the Journ. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad.,
1st ser., vol. i, p. 259, 1837. Instead of Hutton's name, I propose the above
as a suitable cognomen.

Fam. Amphidesmatidae Ireclale. [P. 956.]

I have found no worse confusion than in the present group called the
family Mesodesmatidae by Suter, following Dall. Unfortunately, an early
error having crept into Dall's researches, the whole matter must be re-
viewed, and this review has necessitated considerable rearrangement.

Mesodesma was introduced by Deshayes in the Ency. Meth. Vers., vol. ii,
p. 441, the title-page of the volume bearing the date 1830; but Sherborn
and Woodward (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 7th ser., vol. xvii, p. 579, 1906) have
shown that the page quoted, was not published until 1832. Seven species
are listed, the names and localities being, —

P. 442 : M. donacina ex Lamarck. New Zealand (Q. & G.).

P. 443 : M. chemnitzii nov. for Chen. 6, 3, figs. 19, 20. Indian Ocean.

M. quoyi nov. New Zealand (Q. & G.).

M. striata ex Linne. New Holland.
P. 444 : M. donacilla ex Lamarck. Mediterranean.

M. gaymardi nov. New Zealand (Q. & G.).

M. trigona nov. Praslin Harbour, New Holland.

490 Transactions

Deshayes indicated that his genus was proposed for the one Lamarck had
designated " Donacille " in 1812, but which that author had submerged in
Amphidesma in 1818. Lamarck, in the Extra, d'un Cours. Hist. Nat.,
p. 107, 1812, named "Donacille," but no definition was given and no Latin
name, onlv the vernacular appearing as a nomen nudum. In the Hist. Nat.
Anim. s. Vert., vol. v, p. 489, July, 1818, the genus Amphidesma is proposed
by Lamarck, with the explanation, " Depuis assez long-temps, j'avais etabli
ce genre dans mes cours, sous le nom de donacille (extrait du cours, etc.,
p. 107), parce que l'espece que. je connus d'abord avait l'aspect d'une
donace."' The first species is A. variegata, the second A. donacilla, pro-
posed for Mactra cornea Poli, Test. 2, tab. 19, figs. 9-11.

From the preceding it is clear that the name Amphidesma was simply
substituted for Donacille, which was only rejected through its inapplic-
ability to all the species admitted into the genus later. The type oiAmphi-
desma must, by tautonymy, be regarded as A. donacilla, and this name
would come into use vice Mesodesma. The earliest latinization of Donacille
I have traced is in the Diet. Sci. Nat., vol. xiii, p. 428. 1819, where is written,
' Donacille. Donacilla (Conchyl.) M. de Lamarck, dans l'extrait de son
Cours, etc., pag. 107, avait donne ce nom de genre a une coquille bivalve,
ayant l'aspect d'une donace, qu'il a fait entrer depuis dans le genre qu'il
a nomme Amphidesme. Hist. Nat. des Anim. sans Vert., 2e edit., t. 5,
p. 489. (De B.)."

In the Gen. Rec. Moll., vol. ii, p. 414, March, 1857, as a synonym of
Donacilla Lamarck is noted " Donacina Blainv. "" Reference to Scudder's
Nomenclator, p. 103, gave "Donacina Blainv., Moll. 1818, S." The S.
means that the name is one added in the supplemental list. On p. 113
of that list I find " Donacina Blainville, Diet. Sci. Nat., x, p. 216 (err.
typ. ? = Donacilla ?), 1818. Moll. Biv." No name at the end of this entry
means that Scudder himself was responsible for his addition. I may have
been unfortunate, but I have noted that many of Scudder's own entries
were erroneous, and reference to the place given shows no mention of any-
thing to do with Donacina. So far, the only reference, in connection with
the name I have found in the Diet. Sci. Nat. is the one given above.

In the Zool. Voy. " Coquille,'" vol. ii, pt. i, p. 424, 1831, Lesson pro-
posed the new generic name Paphies, a contraction for Paphioides, as shown
by the vernacular, for the Neozelanic shell " Mya novaezeelaudiac Chemnitz."

My proposition to use Amphidesma is based on the fact that the name
Paphies has priority over Mesodesma. and has exactly the same type, for.
though Deshayes fixed no type of his genus, Herrmannsen selected (Index
Moll., vol. ii, p. 40, 1847) Mya novaezeelandiae Chemn. as type, and there
is no valid objection to this type-designation. Thus, in any case. Meso-
desma passes into absolute synonymy.

Taria was proposed by Gray in the Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 2nd ser.,
vol. xi, p. 4!, 1853, for Taria siokesii n.s. This is a nomen nudum, and as
type of Taria Suter gives Mesodesma ventricosvm Gray : but in the same
place Gray placed his own ventricosa in Paphia. As two species have been
confused, it was necessary to find ou1 what T. siokesii was. Search in the
British Museum collection, when I was greatly assisted by Mr. E. A. Smith,
resulted in the recognition of the type-tablet. The specimen proved some-
what abnormal, but undoubtedly referable to ventricosa, which name it
bore, and as which it had been recognized by Gray himself : hence its non-
publication.

No other names concern us at the present as regaids the higher group-
ings of the Neozelanic shells.

Iredale. — Sitter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 491

The nomination of the species and groups would read, —
Genus Amphidesma Lamarck. 1818. Am/phidesma Lamarck, Hist. Nat.
Anim. s. Vert., vol. v, p. 489, 1818. Type (by tautonymy) : A. dmta-
cilla Lamarck-.
Subgenus Taria Gray, 1853.

Amphidesma gaymardi (Deshayes, 1832). Synonyms: Mesodesma
subtriangulata Griffiths and Pidgeon, 1834 ; M. spissa Reeve,
1854.

- quoyi (Deshayes, 1832). Synonym : Mesodesma lata Deshayes,
1843.
— ventricosum Gray, 1843. Synonym : Taria stokesii Gray,
1853, n.n.
Subgenus Paphies Lesson, 1831. Synonym: Mesodesma Deshayes, 1832.
Amphidesma australe Gmelin, 1791.
— — — ■ — var. aucldandicum Martens. 1879.

Amphidesma gaymardi (Deshayes, 1832). [P. 957.]

This is the name to be used for the species included by Suter as Meso-
desma subtriangulatum Gray, 1825.

First, " Erycina subtriangulata Gray, Thomson's Ann. Philos., xxv,
1825," does not occur. Observe that no page is given. In the Ann. Philos.
(Thomson), vol. xxv, also quoted in n.s., vol. ix. 1825, Gray gave a list of
species not noticed by Lamarck, and on p. 135 is " Ery(cina) subangulata.
< Wassatella cuneata Lam., 483 ? ' Note the spelling of the specific name,
and, as the above is the complete entry, it is quite obvious that it is a
nomen nudum. The first synonym, *' Mesodesma latum Deshayes, 1843,"
does not belong here : the figure negatives the association instantly. Des-
hayes wrote " lata." Meanwhile, in Griffith and Pidgeon's " C'uvier's Animal
Kingdom," on pi. 22, fig. 4. a shell was figured under the name Mesodesma
subtriangulata. Suter has placed this entry in the synonymy of Mesodesma
australe Gmelin. 1790. writing. " not of Gray, 1825." I know Suter has
never seen this plate, as the figure in no way resembles Mesodesma australe.
The figure shows a shell quite like the present species, and, allowing for
faulty draughtsmanship, is a fairly good illustration. The shell from which
the drawing is supposed to have been made, the name being written on
the back of the tablet, is still preserved in the British Museum, and is un-
doubtedly this species. However, in the Ency. Meth. Vers., vol. ii, p. 444,
1832, Deshayes named and fully described Mesodesma gaymardi from a
specimen brought back from New Zealand by Quoy and Gaimard. In my
opinion, no name could be more suitable. I have associated this species
with ventricosum Deshayes in the subgenus Taria, as superficially there does
not seem much distinction. Comparing A. quoyi (Deshayes) with the pre-
sent species, I note that both have the siphonal inflection small, whereas
A. ventricosum has the siphonal inflection deep. Suter, in his definition of
Taria, copied from Dall, writes, " pallial sinus well marked, sometimes
deep.*' The type of Amphidesma, though approaching this species A. gay-
mardi, has a long siphonal inflection, so that it seems a variable character.*

*I find Lamy (Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris), vol. xviii, 1912, has investigated the
nomenclature of the Neozelanic forms, and has shown that Mesodesma lata Deshayes,
1843 = M. quoyi Deshayes, 1830, and that this is quite distinct fr< m M. ventricosa Gray.
My own results were achieved in ignorance of Lamy's prior work, so that my con-
firmation is pleasing. Lamy has also gone further than myself with regard to the
present species, as he has shrwn that subtriangulata can be retained as of Wood : Index
Test. Suppl., pi. i, fig. 10, 1828 [Mactro).

492 Transactions.

The three species A. gaymardi, A. quoyi, and A. ventricosum are associ-
ated together under the subgenus Taria in the British Museum.

Amphidesma 'quoyi (Deshayes, 1832). [P. 958.]

Add: Mesodesma quoyi Deshayes, Ency. Meth. Vers., vol. ii, p. 443,
1832 ; M. lata Deshayes in Guerin's Mag. Zool. Moll., 1843, pi. 80.

This distinct species is confused in Suter's description of Mesodesma
ventricosum, while the .second name is placed in the synonymy of Suter's
Mesodesma subtriangulatum. Dall wrote that he could not trace the first
name, though it occurred in the same place as the genus-name which he
quoted as having referred to ! The description given is good, and the
words " l'impression du retracteur cles siphons est tres-courte " fixes
the identity of the species later figured by Deshayes as M. lata. Many
specimens are here collected by Bolten, Stokes, &c. : they are all named
"lata," as distinct from " ventricosa," which they superficially resemble in
size and shape. A. ventricosa Gray is longer and narrower than A. quoyi
Deshayes, and approaches A. gaimardi in shape. A. quoyi Deshayes has
the posterior slope flattened, while in A. ventricosa the posterior slope is
bicarinate. In A. quoyi Deshayes the siphonal inflection is not deep,
whilst in A. ventricosa Gray it is very deep. Suter, in his definition of
Taria (p. 958), writes, " pallial sinus well marked, sometimes deep " ;
but in the species ' M. ventricosum " he only describes the latter case.
Otherwise his description seems to apply to both species, as he does not
mention the bicarinate posterior slope, which is distinctly marked in true
" ventricosa.''

A. quoyi Deshayes would enter the same subgenus as A. gaimardi Des-
hayes, but there does not superficially seem subgeneric distinction between
these and A. ventricosum. the deeper siphonal inflection being the most
marked feature.

Fam. Veneridae Leach. [P. 975.]

In this family the nomenclature is that proposed by Dall. This remark
refers, of course, to the nomination of the higher groups only. Jukes-
Browne, just before his death, completed a synopsis of the family, based
upon and severely criticizing Dall's work. This appeared in the Proc. Mai.
Soc. (Lond.), vol. xi, pp. 58-94, 1914, and, as this is not generally accessible
to the Neozelanic student, I here give a sketch as far as it concerns Neo-
zelanic forms. I would point out that Jukes-Browne's work cannot be
accepted in toto. Nevertheless, it is possible that a study of Jukes-Browne's
papers in conjunction with Dall's results will show that some of the
former's corrections are necessary. As, however, Jukes-Brown was de-
pendent upon second-hand information for much of his data, and did not
commonly use a microscope, there is still much to be done in connection
with these shells. I have given Jukes-Browne's classification, so that com-
parison can be instituted, and that the New-Zealander may be aware that
there has been diversity of opinion regarding the grouping of these shells.
Jukes-Brown's system would therefore read-
Family Veneridae.

Genus Callista Morch (after Poli).

Callista multi striata (Sowerby. 1851).
Genus Dosinia Scopoli, 1777.

Section Austrodosinia Dall. 1902.
Dosinia amis (Philippi. 1848).

Iredale. — Sitter's ''Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 493

Family Venerj dae — continued.
Genus Dosinia — continued.

Section Phacosoma Jukes-Browne.
Dosinia caerulea (Reeve, 1850).

subrosea (Gray, 1835).

Genus Antigona Schumacher, 1817.
Subgenus Clausina Brown, 1827.
Section Ventricola Romer.

Antigona oblonga Hanley, 18 — .
Genus Venus Linne, 1758.

Subgenus Chione Megerle, 1811.
Section Chione s. str.

Venus stutchburyi Gray, 1828.
Subgenus Clausinella Gray

Section Chamelea March, 1853.

Venus crassa Quoy and Gaimard, 1835.
Subgenus Salacia Jukes-Browne, 1914.
Venus lameUata Lamarck, 1818.

yatei Gray, 1835.

Genus Protothaca Dall.

Subgenus Protothaca s. str.

Protothaca costata Quoy and Gaimard, 1835.
Genus Gomphixa March, 1853.

Gomphina maorum E. A. Smith, 1902.
Genus Tapes Megerle, 1811.

Subgenus Amygdala Romer, 1864.

Tapes intermedia (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835;.
Genus Venerupis Lamarck, 1818.
Subgenus Venerupis s. str.

Venerupis elegans Deshayes, 1854.
Subgenus Pullastra Sowerby, 1826.

Venerupis fabagella (Deshayes, 1854).
siliqua Deshayes, 1854.

The most casual glance will show the discord between the two classifications,
and I propose only to note the few errors I have observed wi h regard to
the nomenclature adopted by both. Firstly, Jukes-Browne had not studied
some New Zealand species, so chat 1 cannot indicate the positions assigned
to every New Zealand Venerid. Secondly, he has rejected Bolten's generic
names, and abrogated the law of priority when convenient to his desires.

The co-ordination of the two systems as applied to Neozelanic forms,
taking Suter's association of species as approximately correct, and making
the necessary alterations in the nomenclature, would read thus : —

Genus Dosinia Scopoli. 1777.
Section Dosinia s. str.

Dosinia lambata (Gould, 1850).
Section Dosinorbis Dall, 1902 = Phacosoma Jukes- Browne, 1914.

Dosinia caendea (Reeve, 1850).

subrosea (Gray, 1835).

Section Auslrodosinia Dall, 1902.

Dosinia anus (Philippi, 1848).
Section Dosinisca Dall, 1902.

Dosinia greyi Zittel, 1864.

494 Transactions.

Genus Macrocallista Meek, 1876.

Macrocallista multistriata (Sowerby, 1851).
Genus Antigona Schumacher, 1817.
Subgenus Clausina Brown, 1827.
Section Ventricola Romer.

Antigona creba (Hutton, 1873 .

z landica (Gray, 1835"1.

— subsulcata (Suter, 1905).
Genus Chione Megerle, 1811.
Subgenus Chione s. str.

Chione stutchburyi Wood, 1828.
Subgenus Clausinella Gray.

Section Chamelea Morch, 1853.
Chione spissa (Deshayes, 1835).

mesodesma (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835).
Genus Salacia Jukes-Browne, 1914.
Salacia disjecta (Perry, 1811).

yatei (Gray, 1835).

Genus Gomphina Morch, 1853.

Gomphina maorum E. A. Smith, 1902.
Genus Protothaca Dall, 1902.

Protothaca crassicosta (Deshayes, 1835).
Genus Paphia Bolten, 1798.

Subgenus Ruditapes Chiamenti, 1900.

Paphia intermedia (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835).

fabagella (Deshayes, 1854).

Genus Venerupis Lamarck, 1818.
Venerupis elegans Deshayes, 1854.
— — reflexa Gray, 1843.
- siliqua Deshayes, 1854.

I give notes with regard to the emendations proposed, but, as I have not
thoroughly studied these shells, the grouping of species is based upon Suter's
interpretation of Dall's results. I have, of course, critically examined all
the species and the nomination, but more than that is necessary in a difficult
group such as this.

Orbiculus (Megerle, 1811). [P. 977.]

This is sectionally used for the species Dosinia caerulea (Reeve, 1850),
but I have dispensed with it altogether, placing that species under Dosin-
orbis Dall, 1902, of which Phacosoma Jukes-Browne, 1914, upon the latter's
own premises, must be considered a synonym. He argued that Dosinorbis
was superfluous, as the characters given by Dall were of little value ; he
then proposed Phacosoma for a well-marked group, and referred the type
of Dosinorbis to his section. Further, Pectunculus Da Costa, 1778, ante-
dates, and is equivalent to Orbiculus Megerle, 1811, according to Jukes-
Browne and Dall.

Dosinia caerulea (Reeve, 1850). [P. 977.]

As synonyms, Hedley (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. xxxviii, p. 269,
1913), from examination of types, records Dosinia diana A. Adams and
Angas, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1863, p. 424 ; and Dosinia cydippe Adams,
Proc, Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1855, p. 224 (1856).

Irp.dale. — Sitter's ''Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." 495

Dosinia subrosea (Gray, 1835). [P. 979.]

As synonyms, Hedley (loc. cit., p. 270) has added Dosinia coryne A.
Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1855, p. 223 (1856) ; D. crocea Deshayes.

Genus Antigona (Schumacher, 1817). [P. 983.]

1 have recorded (Proc. Zool. Soc. (Lond.), 1914, p. 668) that when Dall
revived Cytherea of Bolten, 1798, for this genus he overlooked the fact that
it was invalid, as there was a Cytherea Fabricius, 1794. I added, Antigona
was older than Antigonus Hiibner. quoted as of 1816, but not published
until 1820, and therefore the correct name, providing that the other data
recorded by Dall and Jukes-Browne and their conclusions were accurate.

I doubt the reference of he Neozelanic shell Dosina zelandica Gray to
this genus.

Antigona zelandica (Gray, 1835). [P. 985.]

As the basis of Cytherea oblonga, Suter has given ^ Venus oblonga Hanlev
in Wood's Index Test., Suppl., ' 1828." Wood's Index Test,, Suppl., was
published in 1828, but Hanley's Descr. Cat, Rec. Shells, also described
as a 2nd edition of Wood's Index Test,, did not appear until 1842, and was
not completed until 1856. On Hanley's Supp., pi. xvi, fig. 1, "Venus oblonga
Hanley (Dosina o. Gray) " was given : this plate was published in 1844.
In 1856 the text to this appeared, and on p. 359 Venus oblonga Hanley
is described. This is simply Dosina oblonga Gray, 1843, placed in the genus
Venus, and as a synonym is quoted " Dosina zelandica Gray, 1835, fide
Deshaves."

In the Appendix to Yates Ace. New Zeal., p. 309, Gray describes some
new species of shells, one of which was Dosina zelandica. The preface
to this work is dated the 10th August, 1835. This name has priority, and
must now be used. It was dropped on account of the reference of all the
species to Venus when it clashed with Venus zelandica Quoy and Gaimard,
published in the same year as Gray's name but earlier. As, however, both
were introduced as belonging to different genera, and both are still recog-
nized as referable to distinct genera, both names must be maintained.

WThen Gray introduced his species he added, " The Dosinae have a
small anterior additional tooth on the hinge margin. Lamarck refers them
to Venus : they are intermediate between Venus and Cytherea." This is
the first introduction of the genus-name Dosina. and by monotvpy it be-
comes the type. The name is over twenty years older than Ventricola
Romer, 1857, used for this section by Jukes-Browne, but cannot be used
on account of the prior Dosinia Scopoli, 1777. Dosina Gray has been
generally cited as of 1838. and a different type noted.

Chione spissa (Deshayes, 1835). [P. 991.]

Venus crassa Quov and Gaimard. 1835, is antedated by Venus crassa
Gmelin, Syst. Nat,, 1791, p. 3288.

Suter's first synonym reads, " V. spissa, Deshayes A.s.V., ed. 2, vi,
373 (misprint for crassa)." Investigation of this name has given extra-
ordinary results. Reference to Deshayes shows that he was not aware
of the specific name given by Quoy and Gaimard, but that he described
the shell from the figure given in the " Astrolabe Atlas,'" and simply trans-
lated the vernacular there added. The title-page of the atlas is dated 1833,
which indicates that the plates were issued before the text, as that is dated
1835. The vernacular on the plate is Venus epaisse, and this Deshayes

496 Transactions.

translated as Venus spissa, and quoted it as of Quoy. When the text was
issued, however, Quoy and Gaimard had used crassa, both this word and
spissa being Latin words of similar meanings.

As Quoy and Gaimard's name proves to be invalid, Deshayes's alternative
comes into use. The extraordinary part now comes to be related. The
last page of Quoy's work bears the date 17th March, 1835, so that it could
not have been published before that date. The preface to Deshayes's book-
is dated the 22nd February, 1835, and, according to the Bibliog. France, it
was published before the 7th March, 1835. This gives clear priority to
Deshaves's name, and proves that this should have been in use all the time,
and, further, that Deshayes's name could not possibly have been a misprint.

Mr. E. A. Smith, I.S.O., of the British Museum, states that he is stil!
unable to separate this species from C. mesodesma (Quoy and Gaimard,
1835), which Suter has maintained as a distinct species. If this conclusion,
which is justified by the material here, be again confirmed, the name to be
used for the combination is Chione spissa Deshayes, as shown above.

Hedley (Zool. Ees. Fish. Exp. " Endeavour," pt. i, p. 100, 1911) has
recorded CJrione mesodesma (Quoy and Gaimard) for South Australia, noting
it as common in Tasmania, and Gatliff and Gabriel and May have also noted
its occurrence in Australian waters. " Venus spurca Sowerby, P.Z.S.,
1835, 23," included in the synonymy by Suter, was not published until
April, 1835.

As a subspecies, oiolacea (Quoy and Gaimard, 1835) is admitted by Suter
The name is invalid, as Gmelin had proposed this in the Syst. Nat., 1791.
p. 3288. 1 do not, however, think it worth while to provide a new name
for such a slight variation.

With regard to the variation, it would be interesting if Hedley. May,
or Gabriel would investigate the matter as regards Australia, and record
whether the same variation is observed there as Suter has admitted in New
Zealand, and settle the usage of spissa or the distinction of mesodesma.

Protothaca crassicosta (Deshayes, 1835). [P. 996.]

Venus crassicosta Deshayes, Anim. s. Vert., ed. 2, vol. vi, p. 373, 1835,
has priority over Venus costata Quoy and Gaimard, 1835, which is, more-
over, preoccupied by Gmelin (Syst. Nat., 1791, p. 329). This is an abso-
lutely parallel case, as regards nomination, with the preceding, the details
being identical.

Suter has omitted the reference to Deshayes, quoting this name as of
Hanley ; the date 1844 should be added to the reference.

I have followed Jukes-Browne in giving Protothaca generic rank. It
will be noted that Suter now classes the species in Paphia (= Tapes), whilst
he formerly placed it in Chione. When collecting I was puzzled at its
inclusion in Chione, as in appearance and habits it recalled Paphia, and
disagreed with Chione.

The acceptance of Protothaca as a genus seems to satisfy this shell in
the best manner.

Genus Gari (Schumacher, 1817). [P. 1002.]

I have been unable to trace a valid reason for the rejection of this name
in favour of the later Psammobia Lamarck, 1818. Gari was proposed by
Schumacher (Ess. Nouv. Syst, Test., pp. 44, 131, pi. ix, fig. 2). The type
must be Gari vulgaris = Tellina gari Linne, and this is undoubtedly a

Iredalb. — Suter's "Manual of the Neiv Zealand Mollusca." 497

member of this genus. Gari has long been used by British malacologists,
and probably has been rejected by Austral-Neozelanic workers through
the influence of Dall's writings. Under the present nomenclatural laws
I am unable to find any cause for its non-acceptance.

I would suggest that possibly the typical species of Gari may prove
generically separable from species of Psammobia, and both may later be
preserved ; but on the present basis and facts Gari claims recognition, and
Psammobia must pass into disuse generically as a synonym of Gari.

Genus Cleidothaerus (Stutchbury, 1830). [P. 1033.]

When Stutchbury proposed the above genus-name (Zool. Journ., vol. v,
1830, p. 97) for the species C. chamoides (p. 98, Tab. Suppl., xlii, figs. 5-8),
from Port Jackson, he gave a footnote reading, " Since this article was
sent to press, it has been ascertained that De Roissy has named and
characterized this remarkable genus, though evidently from incomplete
specimens. He has called it in French k Camoslree,' a name so entirely
inapplicable that I hesitate not to retain the appellation of Cleidothaerus,
by which I had designated it. There is nothing in the shell to connect it
with Ostrea." Reference to the place given by Suter as the introduction of
Chamostrea — viz., Blainville (Man. de Malac, 1825, p. 632) — shows this
to be the introduction noted bv Stutchbury of " Camoslree de Roissv" only,
no Latin name being proposed.

Stutchbury's genus-name must therefore come into use, as Chamostrea
was not validly proposed until a much later date

498 Transaction*.

Art. XLVITI. — A Comparison of the Land Molluscan Faunas of the
Kermadec Group and Norfolk Island.

By Tom Iredale.

Communicated by W. R. B. Oliver.

[Bead before the Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1914.]

I. Introduction.

In the Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London, vol. x, pp. 364-88,
1913, will be found a detailed account of the land molluscs of the Kermadec
Group. I had hoped to review this fauna as a zoogeographical item, and
contrast it with that of the other island groups which have been generally
named in connection with this group — viz., Lord Howe Island and Norfolk
Island. But my own collection consisted mostly of minutiae, and I was some-
what surprised to find that the minute molluscan fauna of these groups was
unknown. Since then, however, a very large and varied collection of the
land molluscs of Norfolk Island has been made by Mr. Roy Bell, my friend
and companion collector at the Kermadecs, who has obtained large quan-
tities of minute forms. Still, no general review can be made, as no col-
lections of minute forms are yet known from Lord Howe Island, the Fiji
Group, or New Caledonia. As, however, Norfolk Island, has always been
a favourite study of the Neozelanic zoologist, especially on account of the
former existence on that island of species of birds of the Neozelanic, other-
wise endemic, genera Nestor and Hemiphaga, I propose herewith to make
a comparison between the land molluscs known from the Kermadecs and
from Norfolk Island.

II. List of the Kermadec Group Land Mollusca.

In my collection made at the Kermadecs only twenty species were
represented ; previous to my arrival at the island six species were on record,
and, as two were not recovered by me, sixteen species were added. All
these were minute forms.

One of the most interesting results was the discovery that the molluscs
were divisible into two groups — one composed of species which lived upon
trees, and which were not found on the ground save through adverse cir-
cumstances, such as falling leaves ; whilst the other group consisted of
species which lived under stones, leaves, logs, &c, on the ground, and were
never found upon trees. The tree-dwelling molluscs were,—

Helicarion kermadecensis (Smith). Pronesopupa senex Iredale.

Ptychodon royanus Iredale.
Calymna arboricola Iredale.
Flammulina miserabilis Iredale.
Oharopa pseudanguicida Iredale.

To the. ground were confined,-

Fanulum expositum (Mousson).
Kieconcha kermadeci (Pfeiffer).
Ptychodon pseutes Iredale.

amandus Iredale.

Oharopa macgillivrayana Iredale.
exquisita Iredale.

Tornatellina sp., a slender form.

sp., near bilarnellata Anton.

Elasmias inconspicua (Brazier).

Paralaoma raoulensis Iredale.

- ambigua Iredale.
Tornatellina novoseelandica Pfeiffer

(? = si ib perforata Suter).

- sp., a conoid form.

Iredale. — Mollusca of the Kermadecs and Norfolk Island. 499

Whilst the twentieth was a semi-amphibious creature recognized as
" Barleeia " / chrysomela Melvill and Standen, described from the Lifu
Group. The reason the Tornatdlina spp. are unnamed is that just after
I had examined the species I noted that Dr. Pilsbry, of the Philadelphia
Academy of Sciences, had in preparation a monograph of this difficult
group, and I therefore at once sent him my material to incorporate in his
work. This has not yet appeared, but it will do so in the near future.

III. List of the Norfolk Island Land Mollusca.

The Norfolk Island land Mollusca were studied by Sykes from collec-
tions at the British Museum, chiefly made by John Macgillivray in 1855,
and the results published in the Proc. Mai. Soc. (Lond.), vol. iv, p. 139
et sen., 1900. Twenty-five species were recorded, and the conclusion arrived
at was, " As pointed out by Professor Tate and others, the faunal relation-
ship of Norfolk Island lies rather with New Zealand than with the
Australian Continent.'" This sentence would imply the recognition of
characteristic New Zealand forms in the Norfolk Island fauna, but the
list here given, with Sykes's nomenclature, does not show any such. Sykes
recorded, —

Microcystis nux Sykes. Charopa ? depsta Cox.

? quintali Cox.
? patescens Cox.

castaneocincta Sykes.
Trochonanina platysoma -Sykes
Fretuni phillipii Gray. Endodonta norfolkensis Hedley.

■ suteri Sykes. Succinea norfolkensis Sykes.

grayi Sykes. Vertigo norfolkensis Sykes.

Rotula campbeUii Gray. Omphalotropis breuchleyi Sykes.

Medyla insculpta Pfeiffer. albocarinata Mousson.

imitatrix Sykes. cerea Pfeiffer.

Sitala macgillivrayi Sykes. navigatorinn Pfeiffer.

Carthaea stoddarti Gray (incl. 0. flos-

culus Cox).
Charopa exagitans Cox.

suteri Sykes.
Diplommatina coxi H. Adams.
Paludestrina norfolkensis Svkes.

Accepting the generic names used by Sykes, out of fourteen genera
admitted only five have been included in the Neozelanic fauna. Two of
these five have only scare and doubtful records from the extreme north
of New Zealand, two others are the Polynesian Charopa and Endodonta,
whilst the fifth is the Neozelanic endemic Carthaea. In this last case there
is not a very close resemblance to the New Zealand shell, and the generic
location is apparently quite wrong.

It will at once be seen that there is no close relationship between
the Kermadec and Norfolk Island faunas when my list and Sykes's are
placed side by side. However, as the greater proportion of my forms
were minutiae, and as such minutiae were not represented in Sykes's Norfolk
Island collection, no critical comparison could be made. What was certain
was that Norfolk Island was inhabited by quite a different and more vigorous
shell fauna, but the sequel is altogether beyond the imagination of the
most sanguine conchologist.

Mr. Roy Bell's collection, which certainly does not include all the forms
living on the Norfolk Island group, shows that on the main island over
forty distinct species live, whilst some five or 6ix are known as subfossil

500

Transactions.

only ; from Nepean Island, a rock three-quarters of a mile away from the
main island, some half-dozen subfossil forms were obtained ; whilst the
Phillip Island Mollusca, through adverse weather, were not collected, and
four species are already known from that island. I herewith give the
Norfolk Island land molluscan fauna as known from the results of Mr. Rov
Bell's collection, worked out by H. B. Preston : —

Main Island Living Molluscs.

Dendrolamellaria mathewsi Preston.
Advena campbellii (Gray).

— — var. char on Preston.
Greenwoodoconcha mix (Sykes).

castaneocincta (Sykes).

tomi Preston.

Allenoconcha basispiralis Preston.

- belli Preston.

- mathewsi Preston.
monspittensis Preston.

- perdepressa Preston.

- royana Preston.

- congener Preston.
Roybellia platysoma (Sykes).
— ■ — depressa Preston.
Belloconcha norfolkensis Preston.

suteri (Sykes).

Fanulum insculptum (Pfeiffer).

imitatrix (Sykes).

— ■ — testudo Preston.
Quintalia stoddarti floscula (Cox).
Mathewsoconcha belli Preston.
Iredaleoconcha inopina Preston.

caloraphe Preston.

Pittoconcha concinna Preston.
Nitor retinaculum Preston.
Macgillivrayella crystallina Preston.
Cryptocharopa atlantoididea Preston.
Norfolcioconcha norfolkensis Hedley.
Charopa mathewsi Preston.

- sororcula Preston.
Paralaoma orestias Preston.

— perminnta Preston.

— depress ■tor Preston.
Succinea (Tapada) norfolkensis Sykes.
Nesopupa norfolkensis (Sykes).
Omphalotropis albocarinata Mousson.

var. brenchleyi Sykes.

suteri Sykes.

cerea Pfeiffer.

Palaina coxi (H. Adams).

- norfolkensis Preston.

belli Preston.

Tornaiellina norfolkensis norfolkensis

Preston.
Tornatellina norfolkensis moohuensis

Preston.
Paludestrina norfolkensis Sykes.

Collected by J. Macgillivray : not obtained by R. Bell.

J ohannesoconcha mutivolva Preston, j Sitala macgillivray i Sykes.
pusillior Preston.

Found Subfossil, but not Living, on Main Island.

Fretum microstriatum Preston.
Mathewsoconcha albocincta Preston.
- vexillum Preston.

J ohannesoconcha minuscula Preston.
Norfolcioconcha iota Preston.

Found Living on Nepean Island.

Tornatellina norfolkensis nepeanensis I Tornatellina duplicilamellata Preston.
Preston.

Found Subfossil, but not Living, on Nepean Island.

Advena campbellii nepeansis Preston.
Q>/ ntalia stoddarti nepeansis Preston.
Belloconcha elevata Preston.

Belloconcha compacta Preston.
Succinea nepeanensis Preston.
- humerosa Preston.

Iked ale. — Mollusca of the Kermadecs and Norfolk Island. 501

Phillip Esland Records.

Belloconcha phillipii (Gray). Advena catnpbe Hi campbellii (Gray).
grayi (Sykes). Quintalia stoddarti stoddarti (Gray).

I N D BT ERM I N ATE K ECORDS.

Charopa exagitans (Cox). Charopa ? quintali (Cox).
— ? depsta (Cox). ? patescens (Cox).

Introduced Species Living ox .Main Island and Nepeax Island.
Vallonia excentrica Sterki (recorded by Sykes as V. pulchella).

As a key to Sykes's records the following generic identities must be
carefully noted : —

Microcystis Sykes = Greenwoodo- Charopa — intermediate spp.

concha. Endodonta = A1 ' orfolcioconcha .

Trochonanina = Roybellia. Succinea = Succinea.

Fretum = Belloconcha . Vertigo = Nesopupa.

Rotula = Advena. Ompkalotrojris = Otnphalotropis.

Medyla = Fanvlum. Diplommatina = Palaina.

Sitala = Sitala. Paludestrina = " Paludestrina."
Carthaea = Quintalia.

I have had the pleasure of critically examining the whole of the material
Mr. Roy Bell collected, and I here propose to discuss the affinities of the
molluscs.

Like my own Kermadec list, the Norfolk Island list abounds in new
generic names, and it is remarkable how extraordinary the difference is
between the two lists : in the former " Endodonts " predominate, in the
latter they are almost a negligible feature. Zonitoids practically do not
exist in New Zealand ; two species occurred at the Kermadecs, while they
are omnipresent in the Norfolk Island fauna.

IV. Digest of the Kermadec Land Mollusca.

A digest of my Kermadec collection must be first made, then a similar
one of the Norfolk Island one, and the results compared. Thus, at the
Kermadecs the largest snail-shell was that of Helicarion kermadecensis
(Smith). As the animal in that genus is large, it was obviously the largest
snail. It only occurred to me in one patch at the highest point of the
island, though both to Macgillivray and Graeffe it appeared commonly.
The shell agrees quite closely in character with that of H. cuvieri (Ferussac),
the Australian shell, which is the type of the genus, and the generic location
seems correct. This is mentioned as the genus-name. Helicarion has been
used to include any glassy, loosely coiled shell, and these have been recent! y
found to cover many diverse genera of snails. I do not admit the occur-
rence of Helicarion kermadecensis (Smith) at Hobson's Glen, Auckland, as
there are too many doubtful factors in this record. It would therefore
appear that Helicarion. kermadecensis (Smith) arrived at the Kermadecs
from the north. It was the only member of the family Helicarionidae which
I consider absent otherwise from the New Zealand zoological region.

The next two largest species are referable to the family Zonitidae, as
used at the presenl time. Tins is a wide group, and future .systematic work

o

502 Transactions,

will materially restrict its limits. One species was introduced as Trocho-
nanina exposita by Mousson, the other as Helix kermandeci (recte kerma-
deci) by Pfeiffer. For the former I introduced the genus Fanulum ; for
the latter I propose the new genus Kieconcha. The peculiar features of the
former may be gauged by the fact that it was recently classed in Medyla
(the correct name of this genus is Otesia), the species of which differ
entirely in shell characters. It will probably be found to have little rela-
tionship with the species hitherto associated with it when the anatomy of
the snail is carefully considered. I might add that a report upon the
animals of these Kermadec snails is now under consideration, and will
probably later appear in these Transactions. The genus Kieconcha seemed
a necessity, as previously the species had been classed first in Microcystis
and then in Macrochlamys. The first was easily seen to differ entirely in
shell characters, whilst the latter has been shown to be restricted to India.
Kieconcha somewhat recalls the north Australian Nitor. If this suggestion
should be confirmed it may have been a companion with Helicarion from
the north. Nothing like Kieconcha or Fanulum otherwise occur in the New
Zealand biological region.

Ten species were obtained which may be classed in the family Endo-
dontidae, as that term was used by Pilsbry. I have already given my
reasons for objecting to such a group, and so far I have received little but
encouragement in the course I adopted. I am now making a conchological
survey of the Australasian l' Endodonts," so will defer my further remarks
until a future date.

I included three species in Ptychodon, pointing out that the usage of
Thaumatodon, unless restricted genera were utilized, was incorrect. My
largest species was of the aspect of Thaumatodon, whilst the two lesser were
of quite a different nature. Three species were ranked under Charopa, but
here again three different styles of shell were included, and the main reason
for so classing them was the unarmed mouth. For one flattened widely
umbilicated shell I introduced the subgeneric name Discocharopa. as I found
a similarly formed species in every detail occurred in so far away a locality
as Bass Strait. I have since recognized the same subgeneric form in
Queensland. The Ptychodon which I would consider of Thaumatodon
aspect is a Polynesian form of shell, whilst the other Ptychodon are nearly
related to New Zealand species. All significance of the latter fact is mini-
mized by our entire ignorance of the minute forms which must abound in
Polynesia. Research may show this latter Ptychodon to be quite common
in the northern island groups.

The same remarks apply to the Charopoid forms, and even more forcibly
to the two tree-dwelling species I classed in the " Flammulinoid " section
of the Endodontidae . I suggested that this section should be given family
rank as the family Flanimulinidae, but so far apparently no anatomical
features are known whereby a diagnosis can be prepared.

For two species I introduced a new generic name, Paralaonia. Since
my paper was completed I have studied the Norfolk Island molluscs, and,
making comparisons, I believe that three species of this genus may be
distinguished at the Kermadecs. However, I include this genus with mis-
giving in the family Endodontidae, and have noted its wide range through-
out eastern Australia, where it seems to be well represented. According
to one authority, the species I would allot to Paralaonia could be classed in
Pkrixgnathus, whilst another claims their near relationship to Flammulina
Such diversity of location sufficiently excuses a new generic term.

Iredale. — Mollusca of the Kermadecs (fir/ Norfolk Island. 503

A minute tree-dwelling pupoid form would have been classed in Neso-
pupa save for the fart that the mouth was unarmed. Almost facsimiles,
but with fully armed aperture, have been examined from Tahiti. I drew
attention to the lack of arming in the aperture by creating the new genus
Pronesopupa, thereby suggesting the greater antiquity of my shell. I did
this as I noted that juvenile Tahitian shells were similarly unarmed. Neso-
pupa and its allies are typically Polynesian, no form whatever being known
from New Zealand. The Tornatellinids are unnamed, for reasons given ; but
I studied them a little, and I can state that of- the five species three were
typically Polynesian, whilst Suter has recorded one as occurring at the
Kermadecs and north New Zealand. In the latter case it may have only
recently reached New Zealand, as undoubtedly the fifth, which is referable
to a very distinct genus, Elasmias, is at present hfing carried about the
Pacific. I strongly feel that it is a comparatively recent settler on the
Kermadecs, and, as it is very rare at Lord Howe Island, may have also
recently arrived there.

This review will indicate that the Kermadec land Mollusca tell us very
little, save that they apparently show their source to have been northern
in preference to southern. When contrasted with the Norfolk Island mol-
luscs much more will be seen.

V. Digest of the Norfolk Island Land Mollusca.

The Norfolk Island main-island living forms are of most interest in this
connection : and, firstly, Dendrolamellaria matthewsi is of peculiar value, as
this is a species perhaps referable to the family Helicarionidae, but of such
peculiarities in the shell alone that Dendrolamellaria would appear justifi-
able as a genus. It recalls the marine genus Lamellaria in form, and is
quite unlike the Kermadec Helicarion in every detail. Its ancestry at the
present moment is quite obscure.

Aclvena campbellii is what has been known as Rotula campbellii. The
shell differs in character from that of Rotula, which, moreover, is a genus
confined to Mauritius. It is a fine handsome shell, and its character can
be estimated from the fact that its nearest relative was ever supposed to
be the Mauritius shell. Anatomical study may later give us some clue to
its affinity.

The three species classed in Green tvoodoconcha are such as are often
referred to Microcystis, and one recalls that genus, which was first described
from Pitcairn Island, in its colour-markings. These shells are, however,
somewhat solid. The half-dozen species of AUenoconcha would probably
also have been placed under Microcystis, but they differ appreciably in
shell characters, and the shells are very fragile. One species of Microcystine
shell has been classed under the north Australian genus Nitor, as the shell
features agree quite closely with that genus. None of these Microcystine
genera closely resemble the Kermadec Kieconcha, the Nitor having the
most likeness.

A most beautiful species was called Trochonanina platysoma by Sykes.
Another species has been discovered by Mr. Roy Bell, and for these the
genus RoybeUia has been formed. The shell, in its depressed shape, recalls
Fametesta mi nihil is Pilsbry. from the Bonin Group, but upon comparison
the Norfolk Island species is found to differ in texture entirely, being a
much more beautiful and delicate shell. As animals have been preserved,
we shall later learn of the affinities of this remarkable form. It vaguely
suggests itself as a relation of Fanulum.

504 Transactions.

As above noted, I introduced this genus-name for a smooth Kermadec
shell, and at the present time three Norfolk Island shells are associated
with it under my genus-name. Two of these are heavily sculptured, but
the third is smooth. I now doubt that these are congeneric with Fanulum,
as they all have a toothed and callused columella, though varying in shape
and sculpture. The report upon the anatomy of the species will settle
this point.

Sykes proposed Fret am to cover a series of Norfolk Island shells, but
selected as type a Fijian species. This is not considered congeneric, so that
Belloconcha is made use of to indicate these Norfolk Island species, whose
generic affinity, however, would seem to be the Fijian Fret i on.

Quintalia has been introduced as a genus-name for the species Sykes
classed under the New Zealand endemic genus Carthaea. I cannot see
any reason, from a study of shell characters, for the association of these
two. Carthaea, moreover, is placed in the Endodontidae, whereas I would
not so class Quintalia.

Three extraordinary genera are represented in Mathewsoconcha, Ire-
daleoconcha, and Pittoconcha. Few specimens have yet been obtained, but
they all show quaint features. Mathewsoconcha recalls Belloconcha in form,
but it has a callused semi-toothed columella. Iredaleoconcha recalls Philip-
pine shells in general appearance, being somewhat flattened, keeled with
convex base, but it has a deeply channelled suture. A shell of verv similar
appearance has been lately obtained near Obi, in the Moluccas. Pitto-
concha is a small, somewhat conical, heavily sculptured shell, suggestive of
the style of sculpture seen in the Lord Howe species hoivinsulae.

Macgillivrayella is a crystalline flattened Zonitoid of ordinary appear-
ance, yet quite unlike anything yet known.

The preceding completes the Zonitoids as at present known living on
Norfolk Island, but Macgillivray collected three very minute forms which
Mr. Roy Bell did not obtain. One of these seems a typical Sitala as that
genus is represented in Fiji, whilst the other two are called Johannesoconcha.
and are quite remarkable minute forms, glossy and many-whorled ; nothing
has yet been collected from the north with which Johannesoconcha can be
compared.

A shell of a Charopoid facies, but which plasters itself over with
mud, has been called Cryptocharopa. It is somewhat doubtful what its
affinities are, but some molluscs in New Caledonia indulge in the same
mud-plastering habits.

The " Endodonts " are minute and very sparsely developed ; they
number six if Paralaoma be considered such, but three only otherwise.
One which has an armed aperture, and would be broadly classed in Pty-
chodon, has been generically termed Norfolcioconcha, as it does not fit well
in with either Ptychodon (typical), Thaumatodon, Nesophila, or any other
section. The other two are flat discoidal unarmed forms which are classed
in Charopa. It is somewhat remarkable that these three do not come
at all close to the Kermadec " Endodonts" ; but here again ignorance of
northern minutiae forbids investigation into their affinities.

My genus Paralaoma. instituted for Kermadec species, is represented
by three forms, but as this genus is somewhat commonly distributed in
eastern Australia no great stress can be laid upon this fact. I suggest
that its discovery in northern groups may be confidently anticipated. It
seems a well-defined and easily recognizable genus, and I look forward to
the investigation of its anatomy with great interest.

Irbdale. — Mollusca of the, Kermadecs and Norfolk Island. 505

A species of Succinea lives on Norfolk Island ; this genus is absent from
the Kermadecs and New Zealand, though present in Australia and the
northern groups.

The Polynesian genus Nesopupa is represented by a large sinistral
species with the mouth well armed, and quite unlike the Kermadec dextral
unarmed form I have called Pronesopupa. No relation of either form occurs
in New Zealand.

The Polynesian Omphalotropis is well developed, three species and one
variety being admitted ; these species are closely allied to Fijian forms.
No member of this genus was found at the Kermadecs, though one species
lias been recorded from the extreme north of New Zealand ; but the record
is somewhat doubtful.

The familv Diplommatinidae is also credited with three representatives,
all belonging to the genus Palaina. This is purely a Polynesian group ; a
solitary species appears on the New Zealand list, but will be almost certainly
omitted in the near future, and no member of the familv occurs at the
Kermadecs.

Two subspecies only of Tornatdlina have been recognized, one of which
is confined to the Moohu Stone, a rocky islet off the north coast. The
peculiar item of note is that this species is not close to any of the five
distinct species I obtained at the Kermadecs, but recalls a Fijian species.

A " Palvdestrina " concludes the list of living molluscs obtained on
Norfolk Island. I am unable to give any idea of its relations, save that
it differs obviously from the New Zealand Potamopyrgus, and no fresh-
water univalve was obtained at the Kermadecs. Of as great, or even greater,
interest were the shells collected as subfossil from the limestone quarry
at the south of the island, near Kingston.

Associated with living forms such as Succinea norfolkensis Sykes,
Omphalotropis albocarinata Mousson, Quintalia stoddarti jloscula (Cox),
Fanvlum insculptum (Pfeiffer), Fanulum onitatrix (Sykes), Advena camp-
bdlii (Gray), Greenwoodoconcha castaneocincta (Sykes), were numerous shells
apparently now quite -extinct. The largest shells are the next in size to
Ail vena campbellii (Gray), and are of remarkable interest, as being, from
a very close criticism of shell characters, strictly referable to the Fijian
genus Fretum. Smaller shells are apparently typical Matheivsoconcha ; and
in this connection it is worthy of note that the living species of this genus
is, as far as is at present known, exceedingly rare. From sand contained
in these subfossils two minute species were sorted out — one a Johanneso-
concha, the other a Norfolcioconcha — both of which differ from the living
species.

Still more peculiar is a large quantity of dead shells collected on Nepean
Island. This island is only three-quarters of a mile distant, and is apparently
devoid of vegetation. Three living species were obtained — two species of
Tornatellina, and the third Vallonia excentrica Sterki, an introduced European
form. This latter species has acclimatized itself on Norfolk Island, and by
some means has reached this inhabitable islet, and is now nourishing there.
The two species of Tornatdlina are interesting, as one of them is only sub-
specifically distinct from the Norfolk Island species, whilst the other is
quite different, yet has not been discovered on Norfolk Island. It does
not come near the Kermadec species. The dead shells are, however, of
an extraordinary nature ; the large bulk is composed of two species of
Belloconcha, differing appreciably from the main-island species.

506 Transactions.

The next most numerous shell is a large form of Quintalia stoddarti,
intermediate between Q. s. stoddarti (Gray) from Phillip Island and Q. s.
floscuTa (Cox) from the main island.

A rarer shell is a fine large variety of Advena campbellii called Ad vena
campbelli nepeansis. It is much larger and more flattened that either the
Phillip Island or main-island forms.

Succinea is well represented, and at the present time it is impossible to
decide the truth regarding these. Two species are separated, a very large
slender elongate form called Succinea nepeanensis, and a more common one
with shouldered whorls named Succinea humerosa. This might be best
considered as the representative subspecies of the mainland S. norfolkensis
Svkes, than which it averages larger in size.

Omphalotropis is also fairly well represented, but the variation in
sculpture and form known in this genus has prohibited the differentiation
of the Nepean Island subfossils.

One of the most interesting items to me was the discovery of Fanulum
insculptum (Pfeitt'er), occurring rarely; whilst one specimen of Fanulum
imitatrix (Sykes) was observed. Altogether a number of the F. insculptum
(Pfeiffer) were separated, and, though they have not been named, they
average smaller and more conical than the living main-island form.

The reason for the extinction of these Nepean Island molluscs is at
present unknown, but the facts seem to show that the species formerly
living were of larger size than the present existing species, whilst the
Fanulum seems to show the reverse — that is. the examination of the
available material, which is not small, tends to the conclusion that whereas
Advena, Quintalia, and Mathewsoconcha (probably also Succinea) have
decreased in size or become extinct, Fanulum has increased in size and
numbers, but whether at the expense of the other genera is not evident.

Mr. Roy Bell was unable to collect on Phillip Island, but four species
have been described from that locality viz., Belloconcha phillipii (Grav),
Belloconcha grayi (Sykes), Advena campbellii (Gray), and Quintalia stoddarti
(Gray). The latter two are still represented on both Nepean Island and
the main island, but the exact relationships of these are not known. The
type set of Quintalia stoddarti (Gray) are much larger than the very long
series from Nepean Island, which again greatly exceed in size the living
main-island shells, which also differ in their more conical form. These
three are ranked as subspecies only, and there seems little doubt as to the
accuracy of this determination. The type, however, of Advena campbellii
(Gray) is a small shell not much larger than the living main-island form.
As the subfossil Nepean Island shells are much larger and more depressed,
the suggestion at once occurs that the type from Phillip Island may not
be representative of the form there living.

The species Belloconcha phillipii (Gray) is the giant of the genus, whilst
Belloconcha grayi (Sykes) is also a large species. These both surpass the
subfossil Nepean Island species, whilst on the main island only one small
species has been found alive, and so far with very restricted habitat, though
two other small species have been found subfossil.

I hope later to be able to record the results of a new search for Phillip
Island molluscs, and note their relationships.

It remains to note that four species recorded by Sykes were not
obtained by Roy Bell — viz., Charopa exagitans (Cox), C. ? depsta (Cox),
C. ? quintali (Cox), and 0. ? patescens (Cox). From the published de-

Irbdale. — Mollusca of the Kermadecs and Norfolk Island. 507

scriptions and figures, none of these can be referable to Charopa as now
understood, and they can only be considered as very doubtful constituents
of the Norfolk Island fauna.

VI. Review and Conclusions.

The conclusions to be drawn from these digests can now be summarized,
and strongly indicate the different origin of the land molluscan faunas of
the two groups. Whereas the Kermadec series alone did not tell much,
when contrasted with the Norfolk Island collection quite a deal can be
determined. The apparent source of the Kermadec molluscs is Polynesia,
the Neozelanic element being quite probably also of that origin, having
arrived from the north. It might here be observed that whilst the Endo-
dontidae have been sometimes claimed as an Antarctic group, equally strong
claims have been made for their northern origin. Two masters in the
science of drawing deductions from observations made on the distribution
of land molluscs have differed on this point. I would suggest that corre-
lation might be brought about were restricted groups utilized. As far
as my own observations have yet proceeded, I find groups giving an Ant-
arctic range, whilst other groups as surely show a northern origin. Thus
in the Kermadecs the " Thaumatodon " group emphasizes a northern
source, whilst just as surely the "' Discocharopa " group suggests a southern
origin. I hope to deal with such questions in more detail later, giving
facts in support of these suggestions.

The most casual examination of the Norfolk Island land Mollusca pro-
hibits any idea of the attachment of this fauna to that of New Zealand.
The preponderance of Zonitoids and the scarcity of " Endodonts " are
equally assertive, whilst the nature of the Zonitoids suggests at once Fiji
as a source of supply. The lack of Placostylus is somewhat extraordinary,
whilst, though no species on the Fijian Group recalls Advent), it must be
remembered that the Fijian Group has also suffered such vicissitudes as
would easily account for the extinction of its relations, if any ever existed
there. The presence 'of a subfossil inseparable in shell characters from
the Fijian genus Fretum is noteworthy, especially as there appears little
doubt that Belloconcha is a closely allied genus. This genus would seem
to have been the predominant Norfolk Island mollusc, though now Fanulum
appears to have taken this place. The extraordinary Roybellia, I have
suggested, may be allied to Fanulum. The exact relationships of the other
Zonitoids is difficult to suggest, as so little is known of the Polynesian
minutiae. The Microcystine genera Greenwood ocotichn and Allenoconcha are.
certainly closely allied to " Microcystis " and the varied Polvnesian shells
commonly known under that genus-name. The Omphalotropis, Palaina,
and Nesopupa are very closely allied to Fijian and other Polynesian species.
Indeed, I suggest that longer series from other localities would cause their
degradation to the rank of subspecies only.

Though Norfolk Island is situated somewhat midway between New
Caledonia and New Zealand, and in recent charts soundings show the
presence of a submerged ridge connecting the three, the land molluscs
prohibit any direct connection between the three, whilst they just as surely
point to a junction in some way or other with the Fijian Group. I make
this reservation as, though Placostylus has reached that group, it has not
been found Recent or fossil on Norfolk Island.

Though I have not introduced any mention of the Lord Howe Island
land Mollusca, I would simply note that Hedley pointed out these were

508 Transactions.

of New Caledonian origin, and my own studies amply confirm this. I
hope to supply a detailed account of these later, but would state that they
differ totally from those of the Kermadecs, Norfolk Island, or New Zealand,
whilst they agree in much detail with New Caledonian land molluscs.

My results are, —

The Kermadec land Mollusca are few in species and very minute. The
few Zonitoids and comparative abundance of the " Endodonts," the absence
of Omphalotropis and Palaina whilst Tornatellinids are fairly abundant,
indicate the lack of any recent land connection, but suggest the recent
peopling of the group by means of drift.

The nature of the molluscs incline the direction of the drift to be from
the north. The conclusion that the present land molluscs would force
the inclusion of the Kermadec ({roup under the term " Oceanic islands "'
would also suggest its inclusion in whatever biological region the other
groups favoured. The northward-drift tendency at once suggests Poly-
nesia, but the combined results of other studies favour New Zealand. If
the latter be accepted, the separation I have indicated elsewhere of the
group as a distinct province is amply confirmed by the criticism of the
land Mollusca.

The Norfolk Island land Mollusca are numerous, varied in species and
genera ; they strongly indicate recent and practically undisturbed land
connection. The nature of the land molluscs, however, at once derides any
suggestion that this has been with either New Zealand or New Caledonia,
whilst it just as strongly formulates an immensely strong claim for this
to have been with the Fijian Group.

The Lord Howe land Mollusca are fairly numerous in species and
genera, and many of large size ; they confirm recent land connection, and
leave no doubt as to its former attachment to New Caledonia, whilst thev
prohibit any land connection thereof with New Zealand. They will be
fully discussed later ; but, as far as land molluscs are concerned, there is
not the slightest reason for their quotation in favour of a Neozelanic con-
nection. I note this as they have been so affirmed by writers ignorant
of the two land molluscan faunas, and who have simply based their con-
jecture upon the occurrence of Placostylus on both islands, though every
other land mollusc plainly indicates the contrary.

I am forwarding with this paper a series of land molluscs from Norfolk
Island to be deposited in the Auckland Museum, where those interested can
study them and criticize my assertions.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 509

Art. XLIX. — The Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands.

By W. R. B. Oliver.

[Read before (he Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1914.]

Plates IX-XIL

The Kermadec Islands form an isolated group in the south- west Pacific
Ocean, situated about midway between Xew Zealand and the Tonga Group.
They extend from Sunday Island, in S. lat. 29° 15', W. long. 177° 59'. about
S. 22° W. to French Rock. 227 km. distant. Besides these, in the interven-
ing space, and almost in direct alignment, are Macauley Island and Curtis
Island.

The present paper is based mainly on a collection of shells made bv
R. S. Bell at Sunday Island during 1909 and 1910. I have also had at my
disposal a portion of the collection made by the expedition to the Kermadecs
in 1908; while Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Curator of the Auckland
Museum, has kindly allowed me to look over the shells from the KermadiM
Islands belonging to the institution under his charge.

A number of specimens of Nudibranchs, Aplysioids. Cerithiidae, and
other small marine shells still remain to be described. Altogether 261
species, including three found only as fossils in the Kermadecs. are
enumerated in the present list, made up as follows : Species already re-
corded (including four described as new in this paper, but hitherto referred
to already-described species) — A?nphineura, 8 ; Gastropoda. 129 (1 fossil) ;
LamelUbranchia, 25 ; Cephalopoda, 16. Species already described and now
recorded for the first time from the Kermadec Islands — Gastropoda, 36
(2 fossil); LamelUbranchia, 5. New species— Gastropoda. 37; LamelU-
branchia, 5.

In the preparation of this paper I have received considerable help from
Mr. C. Hedley, F.L.S., of Sydney, to whom I showed a portion of my collec-
tion when passing through Sydney in October, 1913. For his invaluable
aid, freely given, I beg now to tender my sincere thanks. Mr. T. Iredale.
M.B.O.U., of London, has also helped in many points by consulting litera-
ture and specimens not available to workers in New Zealand. And I have
to thank Mr. H. Suter, of Christchurch, for clearing up a number of points
which I submitted to him.

I trust the information I intended to give under each species is clearly
stated, but to avoid all misunderstanding the following explanation of the
plan of the systematic account is given. In the case of already-described
species the reference to the original description is given immediately after
the name of the species, and for those species already recorded from the
Kermadecs the reference to the work where first so recorded is given. Where
no such reference is given it signifies that the species is now recorded from the
Kermadec Islands for the first time. With new species I have in all cases
described in full a single specimen, the type, which in every case has been
deposited in the Canterbury Museum, Christchurch. Also, in all cases of new
species the type specimen has been figured. " Habitat " is used strictly in the
sense in which it is employed by ecologists — namely, as meaning the station

510

Transactions .

in which an animal lives ; but for the sake of uniformity I have also re-
corded under the same heading the stations in which dead shells were obtained.
In all cases, therefore, where information is given under this head (except
where noted " Challenger " Expedition) it signifies that I have actually
seen specimens from the Kermadecs of the species in question. Under
the heading " Distribution " (as distinct from habitat) I give the places
where the species has been found. Where this heading is omitted it signifies
that the species is, so far as is known, endemic in the Kermadec Islands.

Gastropoda.

Scutellastra kermadecensis (Pilsbry).

Patella kermadecensis Pilsbry, "Nautilus," vii, 109, 1894.
Recorded, Pilsbry, I.e.

Radula. -Formula 3121213. Rhachidian tooth very small, not nearly
reaching to the ends of the laterals. 1st and 2nd laterals, together with the
rhachidian, placed anterior to the 3rd lateral and uncini, simple, obtuse ;
3rd lateral with 4 cusps, of which the inner one is smallest, the next is
largest. Uncini oblique, with 1 cusp.

Shell solid, heavy, broadly oval, narrowed in front. Apex slightly in
front of the centre. Slopes straight in all directions. Margin coarsely
and irregularly dentate. Height 0-25 to 0-40 of length. Sculpture : Shell
with raised angular, irregular, radiating ridges, usually only evident at the
margin, the greater portion of the upper surface having the ridges obliterated
by a covering of shelly matter. Young shell with close irregular high ridges.
Colour : Upper surface yellowish, but in adult shells the shelly covering
usually pale greenish-white. Inner layer porcellaneous white, the muscle-
impression often partially or wholly yellow. Margin of interior showing
the yellow of the external layer.

Measurements of various shells are here given in tabular form.

Specimen.

Weight.

Length.

Breadth.

Height.

Thickness
at Apex.

Ratio Height
to Length
(L=100).

Grm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Mm.

Young

68

54

11

16

»»

84

71

20

24

High

232

122

114

54

9

44

»»

193

1 1 r>

104

56

9

48

Average

208

142

121

48

II

34

»»

178

149

126

38

8

26

Heavy

304

142

117

61

14

43

Largest

342

174

160

46

10

26

Habitat. — Abundant living on rocks from just above low-water mark
down to 2m. or 3 m.. Sunday Island. The largest specimens have been
taken in less than 2 m. of water at low tide. This species lives on the
upper surface of the rocks, and the shells are almost invariably covered
with coralline and other algae, together with Siphonaria, Elminius, and
young examples of their own species, all likewise covered with algae. Also
found on Macauley Island, Curtis Island, and French Rock.

Fossil. — Small shells occur in fragments of volcanic tuff found on the
south-east coast of Sunday Island.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 511

Cellana H. Adams.

Extremely abundant on rocks between tide-marks throughout the
Kermadec Islands, the members of this genus constitute a highly variable
and puzzling array of forms, diverging into four distinct types, which I have
ranked as species. But though typical examples of these four species cannot
be confused, and are distinguished by characters of form and sculpture
which undoubtedly would be counted as of good specific value in any genus,
yet intermediate forms appear so frequently and of such non-characteristic
features, and any form merges by so complete a series into each of the others,
that it is impossible exactly to define the limits of the species here accepted.
But the differences between the extreme forms are so great that it is in-
conceivable that any one could produce any of the others; consequently I
have no hesitation in ranking them as species, notwithstanding the multi-
tude of intermediate variations. Especially bewildering to the despairing
systematist are young shells, where nondescript forms inseparable into well-
defined groups gradually pass into all four species. This is a suggestive
and perhaps significant fact, for it may be that there are four or more
species now in course of production in the Kermadec Group, and the form
with the least distinctive characters — that which agrees with the type of
C. craticulatus — possibly approaches most closely to the supposed ancestor.
A relationship between variation on the one hand and habitat and distri-
bution on the other is also indicated,- for, although all the forms were found
on Sunday Island, two only — 0. craticulatus prolixus and G. hedleyi — were
there dominant, and these showed a tendency to group themselves in
distinct belts, prolixus usually occurring higher up on the rocks than
hedleyi. C. vulcanicus was chiefly found on the outlying Meyer Island :
C. hedleyi corrugata was the only form found on Macauley Island : while
C. scopulinus alone was collected on French Rock.

To sum up, the examination of ample material leads me to the con-
clusion that in the Kermadec Group there exist about four species of
Cellana in process of being formed out of a single species, and the young of
all are frequently so. much alike that a satisfactory disposition is scarcely
possible. I can suggest no explanation of any value as to the cause of
this great variability. An inherent tendency to vary which must be postu-
lated for all organisms apparently has had full scope for the production of
variants, while, perhaps through the non-arrival of other competitors in the
area, selection has not acted on the variable characters. Cellana is not
the only genus in which apparent unlimited variability has taken place
in the Kermadec Islands. The case of Pterodroma neylecta is perhaps one
of the most remarkable among birds. In this species every variation of
colour between a uniformly black bird and one all white except the wings
and back may be seen during the breeding season at Sunday Island.

Cellana craticulatus (Suter).

Helcioniscus craticulatus Suter, Pro. Mai. Soc. vi. 352, 1905.
Recorded, Suter, I.e.

Shell depressed, height 0-24 to 0-32 of length, broadly elliptical, nar-
rowed in front. Apex about one-third the length from the anterior end.
Anterior slope nearly straight, posterior slope arched. Margin finely crenu-
late. Sculpture : Exterior with numerous (about 70) close, radiating, small,
slightly irregular riblets, made slightly uneven or minutely beaded by con-
centric growth-lines. Colour : Above dark green, variously marked with

512 Transactions.

blotches of grey or radiating stripes of yellowish. Interior iridescent slaty
blue, spatula brown with white centre. Dark colour-markings (seen on
holding shell to light) in narrow radiating streaks; sometimes broader bands
are faintly indicated.

Length, 25-2 mm. Breadth, 214 mm. Height, 7-0 mm.
24-2 mm. ,, 20-2 mm. ,, 5-8 mm.

27-8 mm. „ 22-7 mm. „ 8-8 mm.

This is a most variable species, to which I assign a multitude of de-
pressed shells which I cannot satisfactorily place under any other species.
I would venture to say that its variants afford ample material for the
production of all the species of Cellana in the Kermadecs.

Habitat. — Abundant living on rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island ;
most frequent about half-tide mark.

Subsp. prolixus n. subsp. Figs. 1 and la.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell depressed, height 0-29 of length,
broadly elliptical, slightly narrowed in front. Apex at the anterior fourth.
Anterior slope very slightly concave ; posterior slope convex above, the
lower half straight. Margin crenulate. Sculpture : The apical portion is
corroded and sharply marked off from the remainder of the shell, which
is ornamented by numerous (over 100) fine radiating riblets. These are
slightly irregular in size, tending to groups of threes, the central one of
which is slightly larger than the others. All are crossed by concentric
growth-lines, giving a fine beaded appearance. Colour : The apical por-
tion greyish-white with a row of brown spots at the margin. Basal portion
pale lemon-yellow, darker above, with numerous radiating narrow brown
lines. Interior iridescent lemon-yellow with radiating brown lines, spatula
brown with a white centre.

Length, 32 mm. Breadth, 28-2 mm. Height, 9-2 mm.

Variations from Type. — In its typical state this variety is very distinct.
On the ground-colour and interior becoming darker it passes over into the
typical form. The apex may be quite or not at all corroded. A corroded
apex surrounded by a whitish ring showing radiating brown bands is a
characteristic feature of this subspecies, and appears frequently in young
shells.

Length. 314 mm. Breadth, 264 mm. Height. 74 mm.

27 0 mm. ,, 22-5 mm. „ 7-2 mm.

,, 21-5 mm. ,, 18"0 mm. ,, 5-8 mm.

This subspecies I at first supposed to be the true craticulatus, and Iredale
also (Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72) has confused both this form and C. scopulinvs
with the type of craticulatus. By submitting specimens to Mr. Suter I
finally had the matter cleared up.

Habitat. — Abundant living on rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island.

Cellana hedleyi n. sp. Figs. 2 and 2a.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell depressed, height 0-24 of length,
oval, narrowed in front. Apex about one-fourth the length from the
anterior end. Anterior slope nearly straight, posterior slope convex.
Margin irregularly crenulate. Sculpture : There are 22 broad leading
ridges, each with 3 to 5 ribs nearly equal in size and regularly beaded.
Colour : Above dark yellowish-green with 9 dark brownish-green bands on
alternate leading ridges, 4 being directed forwards and 5 backwards from

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 513

the apex, thus leaving 3 leading ridges on each side of the apex dark
yellowish-green. In addition to the broad bands, there are in the interstices
between the ribs numerous narrow reddish-brown streaks leading from the
margin towards the apex (seen on holding shell to light in both light and
dark areas). Interior iridescent slaty blue, spatula brown.

Length, 42-5 mm. Breadth, 34-8 mm. Height, 10-3 mm.

Variations from Type. — The ridges vary somewhat in height and regu-
larity, and specimens in which they are almost obsolete approach those
of C. craticulatus prolixus and C. vulcanicus. The normal number is ap-
parently 22, though usually more can be counted. The colour-pattern
dividing the shell into 22 areas is characteristic of this species. Some New
Zealand species exhibit similar pattern. A perfectly regular specimen of
C. hedleyi shows the central anterior ridge light-coloured, the central
posterior ridge dark-coloured. On each side between these the order from
the anterior end is dark, light, dark, 3 light, dark, light, dark, light — thus
making 22 in all. In old specimens the external surface of the shell is usually
corroded and more or less whitish in colour ; the anterior, too, is whitish,
with the margin clearly showing the ends of the numerous dark streaks.

Length, 45*8 mm. Breadth, 37*5 mm. Height, 14-2 mm.
,, 37-5 mm. „ 28-7 mm. „ 9-3 mm.

,, 27-5 mm. ,, 21-6 mm. ,, 5-7 mm.

Habitat. — Living on rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island. This
is the most common limpet on Sunday Island, and occurs generally just
above low-tide mark.

Subsp. corrugata n. subsp. Figs. 3 and 3a.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell moderately high, height 0-32 of
length, oval, narrowed and truncated in front. Apex in the anterior third.
Anterior and posterior slopes convex. Margin irregularly dentate. Sculp-
ture : There are about 27 high angular ridges of varying heights, each
bearing 2 to 5 beaded ribs. A beaded rib often in the interstices. Colour :
Above dark yellowish-green, becoming paler towards the centre. Interior
iridescent slaty blue, central portion white. Dark colour-streaks (one in
nearly every interstice seen on holding shell to light) reddish-brown, narrow,
mostly continuous from near apex to margin.

Length, 38 mm. Breadth, 32-3 mm. Height, 12 mm.

Variations from Type. — Measurements : —

Length, 42-8 mm. Breadth, 370 mm. Height, 11-3 mm.

47-8 mm. „ 42"0 mm. „ 17 0 mm.

,, 38-8 mm. ,, 31-6 mm. ,, 15-8 mm.

Habitat. — Common living on rocks between tide-marks, Macauley Island,
and the only Cellana collected there. I have also one specimen from
Sunday Island.

Cellana vulcanicus n. sp. Figs. 4 and 4a.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Helcioniscus dirus).

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell high, height 0-42 of length, elliptical,
slightly narrowed in front. Apex more than a third of the length from
the anterior end. Anterior slope steep, nearly straight ; posterior slightly
convex. Margin finely crenulate. Sculpture : There are about 60 well-
marked radiating ribs, alternately high and low, crossed by concentric
growth-lines, giving a beaded appearance, The apex is corroded. Colour :

17— Trans.

514 Transactions.

Above light yellowish -green. Interior iridescent pearly, the muscle-
impression bluish and the spatula brown with a white centre. The margin
is marked by numerous short reddish-brown streaks.

Length, 30-2 mm. Breadth, 25 mm. Height, 12-8 mm.

Variations from Type. — The young are prominently ribbed, dark green
above and slaty blue within. Old shells are often much corroded, especi-
ally above the apex, and are of a pale pearly or whitish appearance within.

Length, 35-2 mm. Breadth, 28'0 mm. Height, 16-3 mm.
32-3 mm. „ 26-8 mm. „ 17-8 mm.

27-3 mm. „ 22-3 mm. „ 12-8 mm.

A very distinct species, which Iredale referred to H. dims Reeve. In
a later communication to me, however, he admits that it differs slightly
from that species. As Reeve's species is founded on specimens of unknown
locality, and apparently related to a North Atlantic form, I think the proper
course is to describe the Kermadec shell as new. The species of Cellana
are often very restricted in their distribution.

Habitat. — Living on rocks between tide-marks, Meyer Islet. Also col-
lected on Sunday Island.

Cellana scopulinus n. sp. Figs. 5 and 5«.

Recorded, Suter, Man. N.Z. Moll., 79, 1913 (Helcioniscus antipodum).

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell high, height 0-38 of length, ellip-
tical. Apex acute, in the anterior third. Anterior slope straight, posterior
arched. Margin finely crenulate. Sculpture : The whole upper surface
with close regular radiating ribs crossed by concentric growth-lines, giving
a faintly beaded appearance. The ribs not quite equal in size, every third
one being slightly larger than the intervening two. Colour : Above yellow,
darkening towards the apex. Interior bright orange-yellow, paler at the
margin and on the muscle-impression, spatula rich brown with white centre.
No dark colour-markings.

Length, 35 mm. Breadth, 29-4 mm. Height, 13-4 mm.

Variations from Type. — Large old specimens show the whole outer sur-
face corroded, and sometimes bearing algae and Elminius ; interior more
or less whitish, except the margin, which is yellow, and may show numerous
short reddish-brown streaks. Some young specimens show radiating dark
colour-streaks. All specimens seen from Sunday Island were young, with
radiating dark colour-streaks.

Measurements, French Rock specimens : — ■

Length, 50-0 mm. Breadth, 42-0 mm. Height, 208 mm.
50-6 mm. ,, 42-7 mm. „ 24-2 mm.

Suter records this species from the Kermadecs as Helcioniscus anti-
podum, but, though young specimens resemble that species somewhat, full-
grown examples cannot be confused. Compared with C. scopulinus, C.
antipodum has larger ribs, and the colour-pattern, including about 11 wide
dark bands, is quite different. C. trameroserica of Australia is apparently
identical with Suter's H. antipodum of New Zealand.

Habitat. — Common living on rocks between tide-marks, French Rock,
and the only species of Cellana collected there. Sunday Island ; not common.

Schismope pacificus n. sp. Figs. 6 and 6a.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell turbinate, keeled, umbilicate.
Spire flattened. Whorls 3, the last rapidly descending. Body-whorl

Trans. N.Z. [nst., Vol. XLV1 I

Plate IX.

•>

4a

5 ^

**? *

#j

^ 6'

Km: M \IM.( I -I \\n MoLLUSCA.

Face p. 514.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 515

strongly keeled midway between the periphery and the suture, the keel
double, enclosing the anal perforation, and becoming obsolete near the
outer lip. Anal perforation long and narrow, rounded behind, pointed in
front. Aperture pyriform, semi-detached. Outer lip at its posterior attach-
ment sharplv reflected and spread over the body- whorl till it joins with
the inner lip. Umbilicus large, deep. Sculpture : There are regular trans-
verse ribs on the apical whorls and part of the periphery of the body-whorl,
while the whole shell is crossed by fine spiral striae and faint transverse
growth-lines. Colour white.

Diameter, 1 mm.

Variations from Type. — The aperture is sometimes quite detached, and
the transverse ribs are more prominent in some specimens than in others,
while the keel may extend well up the spire.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m.
near Sunday Island.

Fissuridea bollonsi n. sp. Fig. 7.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell moderately elevated, height
041 of length, elongate-elliptical. Apex in anterior third. Anterior slope
straight, posterior slightly convex. Margin crenulate. Foramen elongate,
the sides parallel at each end, but bowed outwards in the middle third.
Sculpture : About 40 beaded ribs alternating with an equal number of
much smaller beaded riblets. Under the microscope the beads appear as
prominent blunt points. Colour : Above dirty white, interior white, show-
ing about 10 faint dark bands.

Length, 9-2 mm. Breadth, 6 mm. Height, 3-8 mm.

Variation from Type. — There is some variation in the proportions of the
shells, indicated by the following measurements. A few are depressed and
elongate-elliptical ; a few high, broadly elliptical, with the anterior slope
concave and the posterior slope much arched. These latter are old shells,
which, from growing normally at first, slightly alter the direction of their
sides. Sometimes a distinct horizontal suture is present, as though there
had been a resting between two growing periods. Foramen in young speci-
mens wrell in front of the apex ; in adult shells it is at the apex. In many
individuals the colour-bands are absent.

Length, 11-0 mm. Breadth, 7-8 mm. Height, 4-0 mm.
,, 10-7 mm. ,, " 6-6 mm. ,, 3-5 mm.

,, 10-2 mm. ,, 7-2 mm. ,, 6*0 mm.

Habitat. — Living on rocks under a coral-like alga, South Bay, Sunday
Island ; plentiful.

Tectus royanus (Iredale).

Trochus royanus Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 225, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Sculpture : In adult shells the upper surface is invariably covered with
algae, coralline and other, while the base usually supports a colony of
Serpulae. Young shells, however, show the sculpture. Suture well marked.
The whorls are flat, with very low rounded nodules along the lower edge,
there being about 15 at a distance of 2 cm. from the apex, but sometimes
they are so indistinct that they can scarcely be detected. The whole ex-
terior is ornamented by close spiral beaded ribs, about 10 to a centimetre,
crossed by diagonal growth-lines, and covered with a white calcareous coat-
ing. The base has diagonal growth-lines on a white calcareous covering,

17*

516 Transactions.

but near the interior, where the coating is absent, it shows regular spiral
threads, which are closest along the exterior margin. Colour white, interior
pearly iridescent, with a well-marked white margin on the exterior of the
outer lip.

Height, 77 mm. Major diameter, 84 mm.
,, 80 mm. ,, 97 mm.

A very distinct species, the occurrence of which in the Kermadecs is
as remarkable as that of Sputellastra kermadecensis, Cassidea royana, and
Spondylus raoulensis. Tectus royanus is allied to T. pyramus Born, an
Indo-Pacific species, but differs in colour and in sculpture, which is much
finer than that in T. pyramus.

Habitat. — Sunday Island and Meyer Islet. Living on rocks from low-
water mark down to 6 m. or 8 m. ; fairly plentiful in places, but difficult to
collect. One or two live specimens were taken between tide-marks.

Fossil. — A broken shell was extracted from a block of lava lying on the
shore on the east side of Sunday Island. The rock was identified as being
part of a lava-flow about 50 m. higher up the cliff. (Trochus sp. Oliver,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43, 531.)

Trochus calcaratus Souverbie.

Trochus calcaratus Souverbie, Journ. de Conch., 1875, 41, t. 4, fig. 7.

Fossil. — Fragments taken from hard sandy tuffs of submarine origin on
Dayrell Islet, off Sunday Island, agree, so far as they go, with this species.
(Trochus sp. Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 43, 527.)

Distribution (Recent). — Lord Howe Island, Australia, New Caledonia,
Philippines.

Clanculus atypicus Iredale.

Clanculus atypicus Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 225, 1912.

Recorded, Iredale, I.e.
Habitat. — Living under stones near low-water mark, Coral Bay, Sunday
Island. On stones in rock-pools, Meyer Island.

Clanculus stigmatarius A. Adams.

Clanculus stigmatarius A. Adams, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1851, 161, 1852.

Fossil. — One shell taken from hard sandy tuffs of submarine origin on
Dayrell Islet, near Sundav Island. Specimen not quite typical . (Clanculus
sp. Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43, 527.)

Distribution (Recent). — Australia, New Caledonia, Western Pacific,
Philippines.

Solariella incerta (Iredale).

Monilea incerta Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 226, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.
Habitat.- — Living among rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island.

Gena oliveri Iredale.

Gena oliveri Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 226, 1912.

Recorded, Iredale, I.e.
Habitat. — Living among rocks near low-water mark, Sunday Island.
Very closely allied to a species in Norfolk Island, which differs prin-
cipally in having fine close spiral striae.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 517

:

Angaria tyria (Reeve).

Delphinula tyria Reeve, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1842, 102, 1843.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Living among rocks near low-water mark, Meyer Island ;
not common.

Distribution. — Australia.

Angaria distorta (Linne).

Turbo distorta Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, p. 764, 1758.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — One shell found on beach, Sunday Island (Iredale).
Distribution. — Indian Ocean.

Philorene gen. now

Shell subdiscoidal, the body-whorl descending, umbilicate ; spire de-
pressed ; whorls rounded ; aperture circular ; peristome continuous.

Type. — P. texturata Oliver.

Philorene texturata n. sp. Fig. 8.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell subdiscoidal, the body-whorl
slightly descending, umbilicate, whorls 3. Spire fiat, body-whorl circular
in section, its upper portion level with the periphery of the penultimate
whorl. Aperture circular, peristome continuous, slightly expanded above
and below on the inner side. Umbilicus deep. Suture deep. Sculpture :
Protoconch smooth. Regular transverse ridges on the base of the whorls
round the umbilicus. Interior of umbilicus with spiral ridges terminating
at the lower expansion of the inner lip. Over the whole surface of the shell
are close regular low spiral threads ornamented with transverse lenticular
beads. Colour white.

Maximum diameter. 2 mm. : minimum diameter, 1-5 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells common in dredsings near Sunday Island.

Brookula stibarochila Iredale.

Broohula stibarochila Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 220, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Specimens vary considerably in the number of ribs ; the type has them
wide apart.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged near Sunday Island.

Turbo argyrostomus Linne.

Turbo argyrostomus Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 764, 1758.
Recorded (fossil), Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 43, 527, 1911.

Fossil. — Plentiful in hard sandy tuffs of submarine origin on Dayrell
Islet, off Sunday Island.

Distribution (Recent). — Australia, Pacific Ocean from New Caledonia
to Hawaii and the Paumotus, Indian Ocean.

Leptothyra picta (Pease).

Collonia picta Pease, Amer. Journ. Conch., iv, 91, 1868.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings on gravelly bottom near
Sunday Island, in 10 m. to 30 m.

Distribution. — Society Islands, Paumotus.

518 Transactions.

Nerita melanotragus E. A. Smith.

Nerita melanotragus E. A. Smith, Zool. Col. H.M.S. " Alert " (1, viii),

69, 1884.
Recorded, E. A. Smith, I.e.

Habitat. — Abundant living on rocks between tide-marks, most frequent
at half-tide mark or higher, Sunday Island, Macauley Island.

Fossil. — In fragments of volcanic tuffs at Titi Knob, on east coast of
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Zealand,
Tasmania. Australia, Henderson Island (East Pacific .

Nerita plicata Linne

Nerita plicata Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 779, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Living on rocks about half-tide mark, Sunday Island and
Meyer Island ; very rare.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island. Australia, Pacific
Ocean from New Caledonia to Hawaii, Indian Ocean.

Pronesopupa senex Iredale.

Pronesopupa senex Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 385, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on tree-trunks not moss-covered on the low ground,
chiefly on Gorynocarpus and Melicytus trees, Sunday Island.

Melarhaphe unifasciata (Gray).

Litorina unifasciata Gray, King's " Survey of Australia." ii, App.,
483, 1826.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Littorina mauritiana).
Habitat. — Living on rocks near high-water mark, north coast, Sunday
Island ; rare.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia.

Tectarius feejeensis (Reeve).

Littorina jeejeens is Reeve, Conch. Icon., fig. 82, 1857.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Living on rocks near high-water mark, north coast, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Hinea brasilianus (Lamarck).

Buccinum brasilianus Lam., Anim. s. Vert., vii, 272, 1822.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Planaxis).

Habitat. — Abundant living on rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Zealand, Australia,
Easter Island.

Haurakia kermadecensis n. sp. Fig. 9.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell ovate, apex blunt, aperture broadly
ovate. Whorls 5, rounded, suture impressed. Inner lip slightly detached,

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. ql9

giving a small umbilical depression. Sculpture : Protoconch of 1| whorls
spirally ribbed, there being 4 spirals on the lower whorl. First adult whorl
with pronounced longitudinal plications, crossed by 3 spirals, 2 near the
upper and 1 near the lower suture, and slightly beaded at the intersections.
In the succeeding whorls the three spirals are more pronounced and the
central space is faintly spirally ribbed, the axial plications remaining fairly
prominent. In the body-whorl the longitudinals become obsolete at the
periphery, while there are about 12 spiral ribs, the upper one most pro-
minent, the 4th and 5th least so. Colour : White with spiral brown lines ;
the protoconch ribs are brown, also the two upper and one lower spiral ribs
on the succeeding whorls, and 1st to 3rd and 6th to 10th spirals on the body-
whorl, leaving the peripheral two white.

Height, 1-8 mm. Diameter, 1 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged abundantly in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly
bottom off Sunday Island.

Notosetia electra n. sp. Fig. 10.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell minute, ovate, apex obtuse.
Whorls 3|, flattened, suture distinct. Aperture circular, peristome thin,
not continuous. A small umbilical depression between the inner lip and
the body-whorl. Sculpture : Protoconch smooth. Shell with microscopic
spiral striae indicated. Colour pink.

Height, 0-7 mm. Diameter, 0-4 mm.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday
Island.

Merelina pisinna (Melvill and Standen).

Alvania pisinna Melv. & Stand., Journ. Conch., viii, 305, 1896.

Habitat- -Dead shells dredged abundantly in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly
bottom near Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Loyalty Islands.

Onoba carnosa (Webster).

Rissoia carnosa Webster, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 37, 278, 1905.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Rissoa).

This species occurs in four fairly well-defined colour-varieties, which
may be characterized as under : —

1. Var. typica. — Spirally marked brown and white ; the lower half of
each whorl brown, the upper half white.

2. Var. jusca. — The whole shell brown.

3. Var. alba. — The whole shell white.

4. Var. bicolor. — Spire brown, body-whorl white.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings on gravelly bottom in
10 m. to 30 m. near Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand (varieties typica. jusca, and bicolor).

Onoba candidissima Webster.

Rissoia candidissima Webster, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 37, 278, 1905.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Rissoa).

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. near
Sunday Island.

Distribution . — New Zealand.

520 Transactions.

Rissoina angasi Pease.

Rissoina angasi Pease, Amer. Journ. Conch., vii, 20, 1872.

Habitat. — Living under stones near low-water jnark. Coral Bay. Sunday
Island.

Distribution . — New South Wales.

Rissoina plicata A. Adams.

Rissoina plicata A. Adams, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1851, 264, 1852.
Recorded. Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Guinea, Fiji, Ellice Group, Hawaii.

Zebina cooperi n. sp. Fig. 11.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell elongate - ovate, the right side
straight, the left slightly convex. Aperture ovate, slightly produced late-
rally. Whorls 7. flattened, the suture scarcely marked. Outer lip very
thick, with 3 blunt tubercles inside the anterior end. A distinct canal
between the posterior end and the body-whorl. Sculpture : Protoconch
smooth. First adult whorl with about 12 longitudinal plications. The
distance between them increases while their height decreases, until thev
become quite obsolete on the 4th whorl. On the parietal wall, near the
posterior canal, are 3 minute longitudinal plications. Otherwise the shell
is perfectly smooth and glassy, with microscopic axial striations. Colour :
Glassy white, the interior structure indicated by darker spiral bands.

Height, 5 mm. Diameter, 2-4 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings on gravelly bottom in
10 m. to 30 m. near Sunday Island.

Isselia chiltoni n. sp. Fig. 12.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell elongate-ovate, the aperture
slightly extended laterally. Whorls 5i, slightly flattened, suture deep.
Aperture ovate, notched in front. Columella obliquely truncated anteriorly.
Inner lip thickened, forming a callosity at the anterior angle of the colu-
mella. Sculpture : Protoconch of 1 whorl, smooth. First adult whorl
with about 10 longitudinal plications. On the following whorl the longi-
tudinal plications are crossed by 3 spiral ribs, the lowest only being pro-
minent, beaded at the intersections. On the penultimate whorl a 4th spiral
is added. On the body-whorl above are 9 spiral ribs, forming nodules at
the intersections of longitudinal plications ; the 2nd and 3rd spirals approxi-
mate, as do the 4th and 5th. On the under-surface these appear as 6 ribs,
the upper being double. The interstices between the four anterior spirals
about twice the width of the ribs. Colour white.

Height, 2-8 mm. Diameter, 14 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. off Sunday
Island.

Epigrus insularis n. sp. Fig. 13.

Description oj Type Specimen. - Shell elongate, apex blunt, aperture
produced, the body- whorl more than half the length of the shell. Whorls
4|, loosely coiled, rounded, shouldered above, suture deeply impressed.
Aperture oval, peristome continuous, thickened throughout, a distinct

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 521

groove separating the inner lip from the body-whorl. Sculpture : Proto-
conch smooth, shining. Shell smooth, faintly microscopically marked
spirally, also transversely, with growth-lines. Colour white.

Height, 2-8 mm. Diameter, 1 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. near
Sunday Island.

Epigrus gracilis n. sp. Fig. 14.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell elongate, slender, the whorls in-
creasing but little in size. Whorls 4|, flattened, loosely coiled, margined
above, suture deeply impressed. Aperture oval, peristone continuous, thin,
inner lip separated from body-whorl by a distinct groove. Sculpture :
Protoconch smooth. Shell with spiral threads and lines. On 1st adult
whorl about 5 narrow low threads, which broaden and increase on succeed-
ing whorls, there being on the body-whorl about 6 principal and as many
smaller spiral threads, the interstices having under a high power a rough
pitted appearance. Colour white.

Height, 1-7 mm. Diameter, 05 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Cerostraca n. gen.

Shell ovate, thin, whorls rounded, suture impressed. Aperture detached,
circular, body- whorl anteriorly having a callosity just above the produced
and expanded outer lip.

Type. — C. iredalei Oliver.

Cerostraca iredalei n. sp. Fig. 15.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell ovate, apex blunt, the body-whorl
bearing in front a prominent transverse callosity. Aperture completely
detached from body-whorl, circular, the margin thin and expanded. Sculp-
ture : Shell quite smooth. Colour : Protoconch white. Adult whorls
glassy pink, a dark -pink spiral line below the suture, and another on the
base of the whorl-shell. Anterior callosity dark pink. Peristome white.

Height, 1-3 mm. Diameter, 0-7 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Amphi thalamus sundayensis n. sp. Fig. 16.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell minute, ovate, apex blunt. Whorls
4, flattened, suture impressed. Aperture detached, broadly elliptical,
slightly angled behind. Peristome thickened, a ridge connecting its pos-
terior end with the body-whorl. Umbilical furrow wide. Sculpture : The
whole shell quite smooth. Colour : Light olive-brown, the suture, peri-
stome, and lower part of body-whorl darker.

Height, 1-2 mm. Diameter, 0-6 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 :n. to 30 m. near
Sunday Island.

Heterorissoa secunda Iredale.

Heterorissoa secunda Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 222, 1912.

Recorded, Iredale, I.e.
Habitat. — Dead shells common in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. off Sunday
Island.

522 Transactions.

Assiminea nitida (Pease).

Hydrocena nitida Pease, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1864, 674, 1865.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc., x, 370, 1913 (Barleeia chrysomela).

Habitat. — Living on rocks wetted by fresh water near the coast, Sunday
Island and Davrell Islet. (Dead shells occasionally dredged off the shore.)

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Poly-
nesia.

Royella sinon (Bayle).

Cerithium sinon Bayle, Journ. de Conch., xxviii, 243, 1880.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Cerithiopsis).

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Norfolk Island, Lifu, Bohol, Henderson Island (East
Pacific).

Cerithium bavayi Vignal.

Cerithium, bavayi Vignal. Journ. Conch., xlix, 304, 1901.

Habitat. — A few dead'shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Loyalty Islands.

Joculator pinea (Hedley).

Cerithiopsis pinea Hedley, Pro. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 34, 440, 1909.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged off Sunday Island on gravelly
bottom in 10 m. to 30 m.
Distribution. — Queensland.

Joculator aelomitres (Melvill and Standen).

Bittium aelomitres Melvill and Standen, Journ. Conch., viii, 298,
1896.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. off Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lifu.

Sundaya n. gen.

Shell pupoid, apex obtuse, sides convex. Protoconch minute, of 1 whorl.
Body-whorl contracting anteriorly, canal nearly straight, sculptured with
nodulous spiral ribs.

Type. — S. exquisita Oliver.

Sundaya exquisita n. sp. Fig. 17.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell pupoid, apex obtuse, body-whorl
more than half the length of the shell. Whorls 4, flattened, suture im-
pressed. Aperture rhomboid, angled behind, notched in front. Canal
short. Outer lip thin, slightly expanded. Sculpture : Protoconch smooth.
First adult whorl with 2, remainder with 3, spiral nodulous ribs. The
nodules arranged regularly in longitudinal as well as spiral rows, about
15 longitudinal rows on the body- whorl. Base with 3 spiral ridges 2iot
nodulous. Colour : Reddish-brown, the protoconch and lip lighter.

Height, 1 mm. Diameter, 0-5 mm.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom
near Sunday Island.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 523

Triphora granifera Brazier.

Triforis granifera Brazier, Pro. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix, 173, 1894.
Habitat. — -Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New South Wales.

Triphora jousseaumei Hervier.

Triforis jousseaumei Hervier, Journ. de Conch.. 45. 250. 1898.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. near
Sunday Island.

Distribution . — Lifu.

Triphora ampulla Hedley.

Triphora ampulla Hedley, Pro. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 27, 615, 1903.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, New South Wales.

Sinistroseila n. gen.

Shell turreted. sinistral, sculptured, with spiral ridges only.
Type. — Triforis incisus Pease.

Sinistroseila incisus (Pease).

Triforis incisus Pease, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1860, 434, 1861.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom
off Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Hawaii, Funafuti, New Guinea.

Caecum solitarium n. sp. Fig. 18.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell curved, of nearly uniform diameter
throughout, anteriorly obliquely truncate. Septum much exserted, hemi-
spherical, making an abrupt shoulder at the junction of the shell. Sculpture :
Shell smooth, but showing under the microscope regular concentric growth-
lines. Colour white.

Length, 2*7 mm. Diameter at anterior end, 0-4 mm. ; at posterior
end, 0-3 mm.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged near Sundav Island.

Alata aratrum Martyn.

Alata aratrum Martyn, Univ. Conch., i, 50, 1784.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Strombus).

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution . — Indo-Pacific region.

Strombus urceus Linne.

Strombus urceus Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 745, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Australia, Philippines,
Indian Ocean.

524 Transactions.

Strombus elegans Sowerby.

Strombus elegans Sowb., The.s. Conch., t. 7, figs. 43, 48.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71. 1910.

Habitat. — One dead shell dredged (Iredale).
Distribution . — Australia, Indo-Pacific.

Xenophora corrugata (Reeve).

Phorus corrugata Reeve, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1842, 163, 1843.
Recorded. Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat.— Dredged alive in 30 m. near Meyer Island (W. S. Bell).
Distribution. — New Zealand, Indian Ocean, Japan.

Roya nutatus (Hedley).

Capulus nutatus Hedley, Pro. Linn. Soc N.S.W., 33, 467, 1908.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 218, 1912 (R. kermadecensis).
Habitat. — Taken alive at Sunday Island by R. S. Bell.
Distribution. — New South Wales.

Hipponix foliacea Quoy and Gaimard.

Hipponix joliacea Q. & G., Voy. " Astrolabe," Zool., iii. 439. 1834.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Living on stones in rock-pools at Meyer Island ; fairly common.
Fossil. — In hard sandy volcanic tuffs of submarine origin at Davrell
Islet. [Amalthea sp. Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 43, 527.)
Distribution. — Indo-Pacific region.

Natica sagittata Menke.

Natica sagittata Menke, Moll. Nov. Holl., 10, 1843.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — A few dead shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Australia.

Natica orientalis Gmelin.

Natica orientalis Gmelin, Svst, Nat,, ed. xiii, 3673, 179!.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71. 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells rarely washed up on beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Malay Archipelago.

Polinices simiae (Deshayes).

Natica simiae Deshayes, Anim. s. Vert., viii, 522.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Philippines, Pacific
Ocean.

Lamellaria ophione Gray.

LameUaria ophione Grav, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1849, 169, 1850.
Recorded, Suter, Subantarctic Is. N.Z., i, 22, 1909.

Habitat. — Dead shells rarely found washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Ida/ids. 525

Vanikoro wallacei Iredale.

Vanikoro ivallacei Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 226, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living under stones in rock-pools, Meyer Island.

Ianthina violacea (Bolten).

Ianthina violacea Bolten, Mus. Bolt., 75, 1798.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (/. ianthina).

Specimens from the Kermadecs can be sorted out into two varieties,
a larger conoidal form and a smaller depressed form, between which it
seems impossible to draw a satisfactory line. Possibly the small depressed
shells are young, and afterwards the descent of the body-whorl gives them
a more conoidal appearance. But, of course, it must be admitted that
if only four species are recognized in the genus, then /. violacea must be
counted as very variable. I include J. communis Lam. and J. balteata
Reeve of Suter's Manual under this species.

Habitat. — Live specimens cast up on the beaches at Sunday Island in
large numbers, many having attached their rafts of eggs. Also found at
Macauley Island.

Distribution. — All tropical seas, and extending well into the temperate
zones. New Zealand, Lord Howe Island.

Ianthina globosa Swainson.

Ianthina globosa Swains., Zool. Illustr., ii, pi. 85, 1822.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Live specimens at certain times washed up in numbers on the
beaches at Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Tropical and warm temperate seas. New Zealand.

Ianthina exigua Lamarck.

Ianthina exigua Lam., Anim. s. Vert., vi, 206, 1822.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Live specimens frequently cast up on tKe beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Tropical and warm temperate seas. New Zealand, Lord
Howe Island.

Ianthina umbilicata d'Orbigny.

Ianthina umbilicata d'Orbigny, Voy. Amer. Merid., 414, 1847.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Living adult specimens rarely, young at certain timet fre-
quently, washed up on the beaches at Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Hawaii, North Pacific, Atlantic.

Recluzia lutea (Bennett).

Janthina lutea Bennett, Narr. Whaling Voy., ii, 298, 1840. -
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (R. hargravesii).

Habitat. — Live specimens occasionally washed up on the beaches at
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Australia.

F.

526 Transactions.

Cypraea caputserpentis Linne

Gypraea caputserpentis Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 720, 1758.
Recorded, Cheeseman, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 20, 165, 1888.
Habitat. — Live specimens rarely found in rock-pools and among rocks
near low- water mark, Sunday Island (R. S. Bell).

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Australia, Pacific
islands from New Caledonia to the Paumotus, Indian Ocean.

Cypraea carneola Linne.

Cypraea carneola Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 719, 1758.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, Pacific islands from New Caledonia to Hawaii,
Indian Ocean.

Cypraea isabella Linne.

Gypraea isabella Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 722, 1758.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, New Guinea, Pacific islands from New Cale-
donia to Hawaii, Indian Ocean.

Cypraea erosa Linne.

Cypraea erosa Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 723, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally washed up on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Indo-Pacific region.

Cypraea poraria Linne.

Gypraea poraria Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 724, 1758.

Habitat. — One living specimen found among rocks in Denham Bay,
Sunday Island (R. S. Bell).

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Australia, Pacific islands from New

Caledonia to Hawaii.

•

Cypraea flaveola Linne.

Cypraea flaveola Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 724, 1758.

Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally washed up on the beaches, . Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Australia, Japan.

Trivia desirabilis Iredale.

Trivia desirabilis Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 226, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Trivia napolina (Keiner).

Cypraea napolina Kiener. Coq. Viv. 144.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — One dead shell found on beach, Sunday Island (Iredale).
Distribution . — Indo-Pacific region.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 527

Erato lachryma Gray.

Erato lachryma Gray, Descr. Cat., 17, 1832.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — -Dead shells frequently dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to
30 m. off Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Australia, Tasmania, Japan.

Charonia lampas (Linne).

Murex lampas Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 748, 1758.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Septa rubicunda).

Kermadec specimens vary a good deal in the shape of the shell and
the size of the nodules. They appear to have the characters of both C. rubi-
cunda and C. nodifera as defined by Hedlev (" Endeavour " Results, 65,
1914).

Habitat. — Sunday Island. Live specimens up to 12 cm. in length on
rocks about low-water mark. Dead shells washed up on the rocks attained
a length of over 23 cm.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, south-east Australia, Medi-
terranean, Atlantic, Japan.

Cymatium exaratum (Reeve).

Triton exaratus Reeve, Pro. Zool. Soo., 1844, 116, 1845.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — A few live and many dead specimens washed up on the beaches,
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Australia.

Cymatium spengleri (Chemnitz).

Murex spengleri Chemn., Conch. Cab., xi, 117, 1795.

Recorded, Cheeseman, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 20, 165, 1888 {Triton).
Habitat. — One live and many dead shells found on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia.

Cymatium dunkeri (Lischke).

Triton dunkeri Lischke, Mai. Blatt,, xv, 219, 1868.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — A few imperfect dead shells found on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Japan.

Cymatium caudatum (Gmelin).

Triton caudatum Gmelin, Sys„t. Nat., ed. xiii, 3535, 1791.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia.

Cymatium parthenopeum von Salis.

Murex parthenopeus von Salis, Reise Neapel, 370, 1793.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (C. costatum).
Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally washed up on the beaches at Sundav
Island.

Distribution — New Zealand, Australia, Society Islands, Japan, Atlantic-
coasts.

528 Transactions.

Cymatium labiosum (Wood).

Murex labiosum Wood, Index Test. Suppl., 15, 1828.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells frequent on the beaches of Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, Philippines, Indian Ocean.

Cymatium vespaceum Lamarck.

Triton vespaceum Lain., Anini. s. Vert., vii, 185, 1822.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, Indian Ocean.

Cymatium waterhousei (Adams and Angas).

Triton waterhousei Ad. & Ang., Pro. Zool. Soc, 1864, 35, 1865.

Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally washed up on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — South Australia.

Austrotriton parkinsoniana (Perry).

Septa parkinsoniana Perry, Conch., pi. 14, fig. 1, 1811.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 {Cymatium).
Habitat. — A few broken dead shells found on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Australia.

Argobuccinum australasia (Perry).

Biplex australasia Perry, Conch., pi. 4, fig. 24, 1811.
Recorded, Cheeseman, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 20, 165, 1888 (Ranella
leucostoma).
Habitat. — Common living on rocks at low-water mark, Meyer Island.
Shells almost always much corroded.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, New Zealand.

Bursa siphonata (Reeve).

Ranella siphonata Reeve, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1844, 138, 1845.
Recorded, Suter, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 38, 328, 1906 (Tutufa californica).
Habitat. — Dead shells, rarely washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Cheeseman collected a shell on Denham Bay beach in 1887. I am aware
of only three others collected since.
Distribution . — Ph ilippines .

Bursa mammata Bolten.

Bursa mammata Bolten, Mus. Bolt. (2), 128, 1798.
Habitat. — Dead shells rarely washed up on the beaches at Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Caledonia.

Bursa papilla (Wood).

Murex papilla Wood, Index Test. Suppl., 14, 1828.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Argobuccinum).
Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches at Sunday
Island. A few live specimens also found.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 529

Cassidea royana Iredale.

Cassidea royana Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc., xi, 179, 1914.

Recorded, Cheeseman, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 20, 165, 1888 (Cassis pyrum).

Habitat. — One dead shell was found on Denham Bay beach, Sunday
Island, by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman in 1887, and is now in the Auckland
Museum. A second and imperfect specimen (the type) was brought back
by Mr. Iredale, and is now in the Canterbury Museum.

Cassidea perryi Iredale.

Cassidea perryi Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 227, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (C. cernica).

The type specimen is 41 mm. long, and has a varix exactly similar to the
outer lip, and 100° from it. I have not seen a varix on any other specimen.

Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally washed up on the beaches at Sunday
Island. One live specimen was obtained in 1908.

Cassidea pyrum (Lamarck).

Cassis pyrum Lamarck, Anim. s. Vert., vii, 226, 1822.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Cassidea pyrum
sophiae).

Habitat. — One dead shell collected on beach (Iredale).
Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia.

Tonna perdix (Linne).

Buccinum perdix Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 735, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Dolium).

Habitat. — Dead shells rarely found on the beaches at Sunday Island ;
also one live specimen was found on Denham Bay beach in 1908.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Australia, New Guinea, New Cale-
donia, Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans.

Cadium pomum (Linne).

Buccinum pomum Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 735, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Dolium).

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribidion. — Australia, New Guinea, Pacific islands from New Cale-
donia to the Society Islands, Philippines, Indian Ocean.

Architectonica radiata Bolten.

Architectonica radiata Bolten, Mus. Bolt., 1798.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (A. cingula).

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Fiji. Hawaii, Philip-
pines.

Heliacus variegatus (Gmelin).

Torinia variegatus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., ed. xiii, 3575, 1791.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution.- — New Zealand, Australia, Pacific and Indian Oceans.

530 Transactions.

Heliacus stramineus (Gmelin).

Torinia straminea Gmelin, Syst. Nat., ed. xiii, 3575, 1791.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, New Guinea, Philippines, India.

Epitonium perplexum (Pease).

Scalar ia perplexa Pease, Amer. Journ. Conch., iii, 228, 1867.
Recorded, Suter, Journ. Malac, vii, 54, 1899 (Scalaria australis).

Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Norfolk Island, Indo-Pacific region.

Pyramidella terebelloides (A. Adams).

Obeliscvs terebelloides A. Adams in Sowb. Thes. Conch., ii, 808, 1855.

Habitat. — Dead shells rarely dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Queensland, Funafuti, Hawaii.

Herviera isidella (Melvill and Standen).

Herviera isidella Melv. & Stand., Journ. Conch., ix. 186, 1898.

Habitat. — Dredged near Sunday Island (Iredale).
Distribution. — Loyalty Islands.

Turbonilla oceanica n. sp. Fig. 19.

Description of Type Specimen. ■ — Shell subulate. Whorls 8, rounded,
shouldered above, suture deeply impressed. Protoconch heterostrophe, of
1 whorl. Aperture ovate-rhomboid, the inner margin somewhat angled,
the outer rounded. Outer lip thickened, inner lip thin, anteriorly raised
above and separated from the body- whorl. Sculpture : Protoconch smooth.
Shell with regular longitudinal ribs, there being about 18 on the body-
whorl, where they terminate below the periphery. Interstices equal or
slightly wider than the width of the ribs. Colour white, shining.

Height, 3 mm. Diameter, 0-8 mm.

Variations from Type.— Most of the specimens are about the same size
as the type. One, however, has 9| whorls, and measures 3-9 mm. in length.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Turbonilla sculpturata n. sp. Fig. 20.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell thin, subulate, but little tapered.
Whorls 8|, loosely coiled, convex, suture deep. Protoconch heterostrophe,
of 1 whorl. Aperture ovate-oblong, produced and rounded in front. Outer
lip thin. Inner lip straight, produced and expanded anteriorly. Sculp-
ture : Protoconch smooth. Shell with close, slightly oblique, narrow, longi-
tudinal ribs, about 25 on the body-whorl. The interstices 2 or 3 times the
width of the ribs. Ribs smooth, interstices with fine spiral striae. Base
spirally striate. Colour white, translucent.

Height, 2T mm. Diameter, 0-5 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Oliver. — Molhisca of the Kermadec Islands. 531

Odostomia clara Brazier.

Odostomia clara Brazier, Pro. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., i, 259, 1877.
Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday Island.
Distribution . — Queensland .

Odostomia metata Hedley.

Odostomia metata Hedley, Pro. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, 503, 1907.
Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Queensland.

Miralda austro-pacifica n. sp. Fig. 21.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell ovate, apex blunt. Whorls 5|,
flattened, suture deep. Aperture ovate, peristome not continuous. Outer
lip thin. Inner lip thin, narrow. Columella with a small oblique plait,
not reaching to the margin of the inner lip. Sculpture: Protoconch of
1 whorl, smooth. Adult whorls with 3 spiral ribs, increasing to 4 on the
penultimate and with a fifth on the base. Upper two ribs nodulous, the
remainder smooth. Nodules in the upper row smaller than in the lower
row. There are faint microscopic axial growth-lines on the lower portions
of the whorls. Colour white.

Height, 2-2 mm. Diameter, 0-9 mm.

This species appears to be closely related to Odostomia scopulorum
Watson, from Hawaii.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom off
Sunday Island.

Hinemoa n. gen.

Shell ovate. Protoconch 1-whorled. Aperture ovate. Columella with
a feeble plait. Sculpture of spiral ribs only.

Type. — Hinemoa punicea Oliver.

Hinemoa punicea n. sp. Fig. 22.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell ovate, apex obtuse. Whorls 4 J.
Aperture broadly ovate. Outer lip thin. Inner lip anteriorly raised with
a slight umbilical chink between it and the body- whorl. Columella-plait
small, oblique. Sculpture : Protoconch of 1 whorl, smooth, polished. Shell
with high rounded equidistant spiral ribs, 2 on each whorl, the distance
between them equal to their width, and equal to the distance between those
on each side of the suture, which is not distinguishable. Three additional
low spiral ribs on the base. Otherwise the surface is quite smooth. Colour :
Protoconch ruby-red, shining ; shell light pink, whitish within the aperture.

Height, LI mm. Diameter, 0-6 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. off Sunday Island ; not
common, but easily overlooked.

Pyrgulina insularis n. sp. Fig. 23.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell ovate, apex obtuse. Whorls 5,
flattened, angled at the suture, which is deep. Aperture rhomboid-ovate.
Outer lip thin. Inner lip separated from the body-whorl below, leaving
a deep umbilical chink. A feeble plait on the columella within. Sculpture :
Protoconch smooth. Adult whorls with rounded longitudinal ribs, about
20 on the body- whorl. Interstices nearly twice the width of the ribs. On
the body-whorl the ribs terminate at a spiral groove below the periphery,

532 Transactions.

above .which there is another ill-defined spiral groove. Base with numerous
growth-lines. Colour white.

Height, 2 mm. Diameter, 0-9 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Raoulostraca n. gen.

.Shell elongate-ovate, obtuse. Body-whorl nearly half the length of the
shell. Protoconch of 1 whorl, apex sinistral. Whorls flat, suture scarcely
impressed. Aperture ovate. Inner lip thick, continuous to suture.

Type. — Raoulostraca inexpectata Oliver.

Raoulostraca inexpectata n. sp. Figs. 24 and 24a.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell elongate-ovate, sides nearly straight.
Apex sinistral, its convolution easily seen through the semi-transparent
covering of the first adult whorl. Whorls 6, flat, suture but slightly marked.
Aperture ovate. Outer lip thickened anteriorly. Inner lip thick, con-
tinued back to the suture with a distinct groove between it and the body-
whorl. Sculpture : Shell quite smooth. Colour a rich brown, darkest on
the upper part of the whorls.

Height, 4-4 mm. Diameter, 1-4 mm.

The type is an average-sized specimen. A single large specimen has
7 whorls, and measures — height, 6-3 mm. ; diameter, 1-7 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings on gravellv bottom in
10 m. to 30 m. off Sunday Island.

Melanella kermadecensis n. sp. Fig. 25.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell subulate, apex blunt, right side
nearly straight, left side slightly curved outwards. Whorls 6, flat, suture
scarcely distinguishable. Aperture ovate, not much produced. Lip thick.
Shell smooth, white, and shining.

Height, 2-8 mm. Diameter, 0-9 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells common in dredgings on gravelly bottom in
10m. to 30 m. off Sunday Island.

Melanella perplexa n. sp. Fig. 26.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell subulate, tapered irregularly,
apex acute. Right side nearly straight, but the apex tilted to one side ;
left side very slightly curved. Whorls 11, flat, suture scarcely marked.
Aperture broadly ovate, the outer lip produced laterally beyond the line of
the spire, and produced and expanded in front. Above the suture a spiral
line is visible. Shell smooth, white, shining, translucent.

Height, 4-8 mm. Diameter above aperture, 1-4 mm.

A perplexing species, owing to the curious appearance of specimens of
various ages of growth, caused by the tilted apex being at different angles
to the aperture.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings on gravelly bottom in
10 m. to 30 m. off Sunday Island.

Melanella spinosa n. sp. Fig. 28.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell narrow subulate, slightly curved
to the right, the greatest curvature being near the apex. Whorls 10, flat,

Trans. \ '/.. Inst.. Vol. XLVII.

Pj UK X.

h 26

h± 22

28

i 'ace /•■ ' ;

Kbkmadec Island Mollusca.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 533

sutural line distinct, body-whorl about one-third the length of the shell.
Aperture narrowly ovate. Inner lip thick, narrowing posteriorly, extending
right back to the suture with a distinct groove between it and the body-
whorl. Sculpture : Shell smooth, a spiral line above the sutural line,
dolour white, transparent, the internal structure being clearly visible through
the shell.

Height, 4-7 mm. Diameter, 1 mm.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday
Island.

Subularia perspicua n. sp. Fig. 27.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell subulate, right side straight, left
.side nearly straight from apex to periphery of body-whorl, which then
contracts towards the anterior end. Apex acute. Whorls 8, flat, suture
scarcely distinct, body-whorl a little less than half the length of the shell.
Aperture narrowly ovate. Sculpture : Shell smooth, a faint spiral line
visible above the sutural line. Colour : Protoconch white. Spire yellowish-
white, suture darker, the body-whorl white, faintly irregularly blotched
with yellowish. A diagonal yellowish band across the columella anteriorly.
Semi-transparent, the internal structure being visible through the shell.

Height, 3 mm. Diameter, 0-8 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday Island.

Cithna wallacei n. sp. Fig. 29.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell thin, glassy, ovate, apex blunt.
Whorls 5, rounded, suture deeply impressed. Aperture broadly ovate,
peristome thin. A narrow umbilical groove between the inner lip and the
body-whorl. Sculpture: The whole shell quite smooth. Colour : Proto-
conch white. Adult whorls glassy, variegated with brown blotches. On
the upper portion of the whorls these take the form of irregular brown
diagonal bands, which -at first slant forwards, then turn at right angles as
narrow bands. The lower part of the spire- whorls with a few small brown
patches. A clear peripheral band on the body-whorl, but narrow axial
brown stripes round the base.

Height, 1-7 mm. Diameter, 1 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells common in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. off Sundav
Island.

Scalenostoma suteri n. sp. Fig. 30.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell thin, turreted, sides straight,
apex bluntly acuminate. Whorls 9, angular, sloping away on each side
from the upper keel. Suture impressed. Aperture narrowly ovate, pro-
duced and truncated in front. Outer lip thick. Inner lip thick, a callosity
at its anterior end, and a slight umbilical groove between it and the body-
whorl, both lip and groove being continuous right back to the suture.
Sculpture : Protoconch of 1 whorl, smooth. On the succeeding whorls
are two high spiral keels, the upper of which is the higher. The ends of
the spirals appear as two prominent projections on the outer lip. Entire
surface of shell quite smooth. Colour white, translucent.

Height, 4-2 mm. Diameter, 1-2 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings on gravelly bottom in
10 m. to 30 m. off Sundav Island.

534 Transactions.

Atlanta fusca Eydoux and Souleyet.

Atlanta fusca Eyd. & Soul., Voy. " Bonite," ZooL, ii, 389, 1852.
Eecorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distrib ution . — All seas .

Fusinus toreuma (Martyn).

Buccinum toreuma Martyn, Univ. Conch., i, t. 56, 1784.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Coins).

Habitat. — Dredged alive in 30 m. near Meyer Island (W. S. Bell).
Distribution. — Indo-Pacific region.

Mitra mitra (Linne).

Voluta mitra var. episcopalis Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 732, 1758.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix,*71, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, Indo-Pacific region.

Mitra carbonaria Swainson.

Mitra carbonaria Swainson, Bligh Cat. Append., 10, 1822.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 77, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches at Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, New South Wales.

Mitra lanceolata Hervier.

Mitra lanceolata Hervier, Journ. de Conch., 45, 64. 1897.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches at Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lifu.

Maculotriton bracteatus (Hinds).

Triton bracteatus Hinds, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1844, 21, 1845.

Habitat. — One dead shell collected by R. S. Bell at Sunday Island.
Distribution.- — Lord Howe Island, Australia, Loyalty Islands, Malacca
Straits, Marcpiesas, New Ireland. Henderson Island (East Pacific).

Jeannea hedleyi Iredale.

Jeannea hedleyi Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 220, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living among rocks near low-water mark, Sunday Island ;
fairly common in places.

Arcularia spiratus (A. Adams).

Nassa spirata A. Adams, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1851, 106, 1852.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Alectrion).

Habitat. — Living in sand among rocks at Coral Bay, Sunday Island
(R. S. Bell).

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Zealand, Aus-
tralia.

Oliver. — Mollueca of the Kermadec Islands. 535

Arcularia gaudiosus (Hinds).

Nassa gaudiosa Hinds, Voy. " Sulphur," 36, 1844.
Recorded, Suter, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 38, 331, 1906 {Nassa zonalis).
Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches at Sunday

Island.

Fossil. — In coarse gravel cemented bv calcite, Titi Knob, Sunday Island.
(Nassau?. Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43,530, 1911.)

Distribution. — Pacific Ocean, Malaya.

Arcularia scalaris (A. Adams).

Nassa scalaria A. Adams, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1851, 108, 1852.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Alectrion).
Habitat. — A few dead and broken shells found on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Philippines.

Murex zelandicus Quoy and Gaimard.

Murex zelandicus Q. & G., Voy. 'l Astrolabe," ii, 529, 1833.
Recorded, Watson, " Challenger " Rep., xv, pt. 42, 157, 1886.
Habitat. — Dredged in 1,100 m. on hard ground north of Sunday Island
(': Challenger " Expedition).

Distribution. — New Zealand, Tonga tabu.

Hexaplex puniceus n. sp. Fig. 31.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell rhomboidal, the spire about half
the length of the shell. Aperture ovate-elliptical. Canal less than the
length of the aperture, straight, slightly deflected to the left and its anterior
end upturned. Whorls 4J, suture deep. Outer lip formed of the last axial
ridge, broad, with 4 transverse ridges. A slight umbilical fissure between
the inner lip, and a short false canal opposite the anterior end of the aper-
ture. Sculpture: Protoconch of 1 whorl, smooth. Spire-whorls with 2 high
spiral keels, crossed by prominent longitudinal ridges, forming nodules at
the intersections. Body-whorl with 9 high axial ridges (the last forming
the outer lip), and crossed by 4 spiral ridges, forming nodules at the inter-
sections. The two upper spiral ridges on the shoulder are higher than the
two lower. A fifth spiral ridge on the canal above. Colour pink.

Height, 4*6 mm. Diameter, 2-6 mm.

Habitat. — A few dead and broken shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Trophon subtropicalis Iredale.

Trophon subtropicalis Iredale. Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 227, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings on gravelly bottom in
10 m. to 30 m. off Sunday Island.

Neothais succincta (Martyn).

Buccinum succinctum Martyn, Univ. Conch., ii, fig. 45, 1784.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Thais)':
Habitat. — Living specimens taken at Sunday Island by R. S. Bell.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Zealand, Tas-
mania, Australia.

536 Transactions.

Neothais chaidea (Duclos).

Drupa chaidea, Duclos, Ann. Sci. Nat., 106, 1834.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 {Thais).

Habitat. — Living under stones near low-water mark, Coral Bay, Sunday
Island ; not common.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Aus-
tralia.

Neothais smithi (Brazier).

Purpura smithi Brazier, Mem. Aust. Mus.. ii, pi. 4, 1889 (no descrip-
tion).

Recorded, Suter, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 38, 331, 1906 (Purapura striata
bollonsii).

Habitat. — Common living on rocks between tide-marks at Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, New Zealand.

Neothais dealbata (Reeve).

Ricinula dealbata Reeve, Conch. Icon., iii, sp. 26, 1846.

Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches, .Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Philippines. South Pacific Ocean.

Columbella versicolor Sowerby.

Columbella versicolor Sowb., Pro. Zool. Soc, 1832, 1 19, 1833.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Living under stones at low-water mark, Coral Bay, Sunday
Island ; not common.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Australia, Philippines, Japan, Indian
and Pacific Oceans.

Columbella varians Sowerby.

Columbella varians Sowb., Pro. Zool. Soc, 1832, 116, 1833.

Habitat. — Dead shells collected at Sunday Island by R. S. Bell.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia
eastwards to Hawaii, Galapagos Islands, Philippines.

Coralliophila neritoidea (Lamarck).

Pyrula neritoidea Lam., Anim. s. Vert., vii, 146, 1822.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution . — Pacific Ocean.

Coralliophila nivea (A. Adams).

Rhizochilus nivea A. Adams, Mazat. Cat., 484.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Taken alive at Sunday Island by W. S. Bell.
Fossil. — In hard sandy volcanic tuffs of submarine origin, Deyrell Islet.
(Purpura sp. Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43, 527.)
Distribution. — America.

Oliver. — Mollusc k of the Ker-madec Islands. 537

Coralliophila lischkeana (l)unker).

Rapana lischkeana Dunker, Index Moll. Mar. Japan, 43, 1882.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells rarely found on the beaches at Sunday Island.
Distribution.- — Australia, Japan.

Quoyula madreporarium (Sowerby).

Purpura madreporarium Sowerby, Gen. Purpura, 1832.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Coralliophila mono-
don to).

Habitat. — Abundant, living on coral attached to rocks in 1 m. to 4 m.,
Sunday Island and Meyer Island.

Distribution. — Australia, Pacific Islands.

Magilus antiquus Montfort.

Magilus antiquus Montfort, Conch. Svst. 43, 1810.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix," 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Living in coral in 1 m. to 4 m., Meyer Island.
Distribution. — Solomon Islands, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Lyria nucleus (Lamarck).

Voluta nucleus Lam., Ann. Mus., xvii, 73, 1811.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally washed up on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Australia.

Marginella mustelina (Angas).

Hgalina mustelina Angas, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1871, 14, 1872.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Australia.

Marginella angasi Brazier.

Marginella angasi Brazier, Journ. de Conch., 304, 1870.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New South Wales.

Turris cingulifera (Lamarck).

Pleurotoma cingulifera Lam., Anim. s. Vert., vii, 94, 1822.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — A few dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Indo-Pacific region.

Mangilia bella (Pease).

Daphnella bella Pease, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1860, 147, 1861.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom near
Sunday Island.

Distribution . — Hawaii.

538 Transactions.

Mangilia hedleyi n. sp. Fig. 32.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell fusiform, the spire more than \\
times the length of the aperture. Whorls 7 §, prominently angled above the
periphery, suture deep. Aperture narrow oblong, slightly oblique, angled
behind, truncate in front. Outer lip rather thick with sharp edge, sinus
deep and broad, separated from the body- whorl by a slight callus. Inner
lip narrow and thin. Canal short, wide. Sculp/are : Protoconch of 3
whorls, the upper quite smooth, the lower two with a spiral peripheral rib,
otherwise smooth. Adult whorls with prominent axial ridges, about 15 on
the body-whorl, terminating above the slightly contracted base. The whole
shell crossed by close spiral ribs, of which one is prominent on all the whorls
at the angle above the periphery, and on the penultimate and body-whorls
two others are prominent below this. Colour : Protoconch white, shining,
the extreme tip brown. Shell creamy white, with a broad dark-brown
spiral band at the suture, and continued over the base of the body-
whorl below the periphery. The extreme anterior end of the shell, the
edge of the outer lip, and a small patch on the body-whorl near it
are similarly coloured. The brown colour passes through the shell, and
appears distinctly in the interior of the aperture.

Height, G mm. Diameter, 2-5 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom near
Sunday Island.

Glyphostoma roseocincta n. sp. Fig. 33.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell broadly fusiform the aperture
slightly less than half the length of the shell. Whorls 5|, angled at the
periphery, suture deep. Aperture narrow rhomboid-oblique. Outer lip
thickened, denticulate within. Sinus deep, its posterior edge a small callous
ridge on the body-whorl. Inner lip thin, narrow. Columella with folds
very faintly indicated. Canal wide. Sculpture : Protoconch 1| whorls,
smooth. Shell with high axial ridges, 12 on the body-whorl, becoming
obsolete on the base. The whole crossed by regular equidistant raised
spiral threads, the interstices 2 or 3 times the width of the threads. Colour
pink, a broad spiral dark brownish-pink band at the suture and extended
round the base of the body-whorl.

Height, 4 mm. Diameter, 2 mm.

Variations from Type. — In most specimens no columellar folds can he
distinguished.

Habitat. — Dead shells fairly common in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. on
gravelly bottom near Sunday Island.

Iredalea n. gen.

Shell narrow fusiform, turreted, the aperture about a third the length of
the shell. Canal short, wide. Sinus deep and broad, separated from the
body-whorl by a callosity. Protoconch of 4 whorls, sinusigera in form.

Type. — Iredalea subtropicalis Oliver.

Iredalea subtropicalis n. sp. Fig. 34.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell narrow, fusiform, truncated
anteriorly, aperture one-third the length of the shell. Whorls 9, of which
the protoconch forms 4, flatly rounded, suture impressed. Protoconch
sinusigera in form, the exposed portion of its lower lip concave. Aperture

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 539

narrow oblong, obliquely angled behind, truncated in front. Outer lip
thick, smooth within. Sinus deep, separated from the body-whorl by a
thick callous ridge. Columella smooth within. Canal short, wide. Sculp-
ture : Protoconch smooth. Shell with regular low axial ridges, about 15
on the body-whorl, slightly constricted at their upper ends near the suture.
The ridges extend on to the base of the shell, which at its anterior end has 4
oblique low ridges. Entire surface of shell smooth and shining. Colour :
Protoconch dark yellow. Shell white, with a faint brown band, dark in
patches, along the lower edge of the whorls, but not reaching the outer lip,
where, at its anterior end, 2 narrow brown bands are very faintly indicated.

Height, 6-2 mm. Diameter, 2-2 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom
off Sunday Island ; not common.

Kermia n. gen.

Shell fusiform, aperture narrow, nearly half the length of the shell. Canal
short and wide. Sinus deep, near the suture, surrounded by a thick lip.
Protoconch of 2 whorls. Outer lip thick, denticulate within. Columella
smooth.

Type. — Kermia benhami Oliver.

Kermia benhami n. sp. Fig. 35.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell fusiform, the body-whorl more
than half the length of the shell. Whorls 6|, flatly rounded, suture deep.
Aperture narrow, slightly oblique, sinuous. Outer lip thick, slightly ex-
panded, denticulate within. Sinus deep and broad, near the suture, but
surrounded by a thick lip. Inner lip thin, narrow. Columella smooth.
Sculpture : Protoconch with 1st whorl smooth, the 2nd crossed by threads
which, beginning at the upper suture, pass first longitudinally and singly,
then at the periphery bifurcate, each branch passing obliquely to the suture,
thus reticulating the lower half. Adult whorls entirely reticulated by
axial ribs, about 8 on the first whorl and 20 on the body-whorl, overridden
by less prominent and narrower spiral ribs, forming transverse beads at the
intersections. There are 2 spirals on the first adult whorl, 5 on the penulti-
mate (of which the two upper are smaller than the others), and 13 on the
body-whorl counting just behind the outer lip. Of these, the two upper
are less prominent than the others. Interstices deep, between the spirals
2 to 3 times the width of the latter, and between the axials about \\ times
the width of the ribs. At the anterior end of the body-whorl the spirals
are more prominent than the axials. The transverse ribs of the body-
whorl extend over the expanded outer lip. Under the microscope the
whole surface is seen to be finely spirally striated. Colour : Protoconch
light brown, remainder of shell uniformly dark brown. Outer lip with a
white patch at the sinus and another near the centre. Inner lip and interior
i >f aperture pale brown.

Height, 4 mm. Diameter, 1-5 mm.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly
bottom near Sunday Island.

Mitramorpha expeditionis n. sp. Fig. 36.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell broadly fusiform, broadest about
the middle, aperture equal in length to the spire. Whorls 6|, flattened,

54:0 Transactions.

suture impressed, the body-whorl ventricose, regularly tapered in front.
Aperture long, oblique, posteriorly deflected to the right. Outer lip not
thin, acute. Sinus near the suture, deep, with a thick rim. Inner lip
broad, thin. Columella flattened, with 2 obscure plications near the middle.
Canal short, wide, truncate in front. Sculpture: Protoconch of 1| whorls,
smooth. First adult whorl with 2 spiral threads on the periphery, 2nd with
10 sinuous axial ridges overridden by fine spiral threads. The succeeding
two whorls are similarly sculptured, the axial ridges and spiral threads
being more numerous. Body-whorl with low axial ridges, sinuous hear
the suture and becoming obsolete at the periphery, the whole over-
ridden by close regular spiral threads. Colour : Dark buff, a faint purple
spiral band on the lower edge of the spire-whorls. On the bodv-whorl
are sinuous brown marks near the suture.

Height, 5-2 mm. Diameter, 2-2 mm.

Variations from Type. — The colour varies from white to buff, most shells
being ornamented with a few irregular brown marks.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom off
Sunday Island.

Zafra kermadecensis n. sp. Fig. 37.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell broadly fusiform, apex obtuse.
Whorls 4|, with a flattened periphery, shouldered, suture deep. Aperture
narrow, rhomboidal, the outer and inner lips parallel, obliquely truncated
in front and behind. Outer lip with a broad and shallow sinus at the suture.
Inner lip distinct throughout, narrow and slightly thickened along its straight
central and anterior portion. Canal short, wide. Sculpture : Protoconch
of 1 whorl, smooth. Shell with low rounded axial plications, about 15 on
each whorl. Base of body- whorl with several oblique plications. Surface
of shell smooth and shining. Colour : Protoconch white. Shell glassy,
tinged with yellowish. A spiral row of rectangular light yellowish-brown
patches on the spire-whorls, one on each alternate plication, and extending
from above the periphery to the lower suture. This row is continued on the
periphery of the body-whorl. Below it is a clear spiral band, the base
being more or less coloured with the same yellowish-brown. Tip of canal
clear.

Height, 2-3 mm. Diameter, 1 mm.

Variations from Type. — In some specimens the clear bands above and
below the periphery of the body- whorl are ornamented with semicircular
brown markings, with their convexity directed towards the aperture.

Habitat.— Dead shells abundant in dredgings on gravelly bottom in
10 m. to 30 m. off Sunday Island.

Zafra fuscolineata n. sp. Fig. 38.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell broadly fusiform, truncate in front,
apex obtuse. Whorls 5, flatly rounded, suture impressed. Aperture
oblong, slightly produced in front, outer edge nearly straight, inner edge
angled above. Outer lip thin, sinus at the suture, shallow. Inner lip
thickened, straight below. Canal short, wide. Sculpture : Protoconch of
1J whorls, smooth. Adult whorls with low, slightly oblique, axial ridges,
about 15 on the penultimate whorl, and becoming obsolete on the peri-
phery of the body-whorl. Interstices very shallow, concave. Base with
oblique grooves. Over the whole shell there appears under the microscope

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XL VII

Plati M

31

t -. •* r>

"

^» *» *•

Kebmauec Island Mollusca.

Face i>. 510.]

Oliveh. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 541

fine close spiral striae. Colour : Protoconch white, with a spiral brown
band in the suture. Remainder of shell creamy white, with a white peri-
pheral band, and light-brown .spiral lines disposed as follows : On the spire-
whorls, 2, one each side of the. white median band, and with a third near
the upper suture on the penultimate whorl : on the body-whorl. 1 near
the suture, 1 (double) above the white peripheral band, 2 below it. and
3 on the base.

Height, 2-5 mm. Diameter, 1-2 mm.

Variations front Type. — The brown spiral lines vary somewhat in different
shells. The line above the periphery on the body-whorl is usually single,
while there may be as many as 6 lines on the base.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom in 10 m. to 30 m.
near Sunday Island.

Terebra venosa Hinds.

Terebra venosa Hinds, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1843, 157, 1844.
Recorded, Suter, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 38, 332, 1906.

Habitat. — Dead shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island, in large
numbers.

Distribution. — Mauritius, Seychelles.

Terebra circumcincta Deshayes.

Terebra circumcincta Desh., Journ. Conch., 77, pi. 3, fig. 9, 1857.

Habitat. — Dredged alive in 30 m. near Sunday Island (R. S. Bell).
Distribution. — Australia, Red Sea.

Conus kermadecensis Iredale.

Conus kermadecensis Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 227, 1912.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Shells somewhat variable in shape. Two type specimens are in the
Canterbury Museum — .{a.) Height, 47 mm.; diameter, 24 mm. ; spire
angle, 100°. (b.) Height, 43 mm. ; diameter, 26 mm. ; spire angle, 140°.

Habitat. — Living on rocks just below low-water mark, Meyer Island;
common.

Conus vermiculatus Lamarck.

Conus vermiculatus Lam., Anim. s. Vert., vii, 452, 1822.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix. 71, 1910.

Perhaps Cheesenian's record of C. marmoreus (Trans. N.Z. Inst., 20,
165, 1888) belongs here, as the specimens were small, but they cannot now
be found.

Habitat.— Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Pacific Ocean.

Conus minimus Gmelin.

Conus minimus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., ed. xii, 3382, 1791.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally found on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Indian Ocean, Malaya,
New Caledonia.

542 Transactions.

Conus maculosus Sowerby.

Conus maculosus Sowb., Conch. Illustr., Conns, pi. 1, fig. 3, 1833.

Habitat. — A few dead and broken shells found on the beaches at Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Australia, Philippines.

Conus virgo Gmelin.

Conus virgo Gmelin, Syst. Nat., ed. xiii, 3376, 1791.

Habitat. — One imperfect dead shell found on the shore, Sunday Island
(R. S. Bell).

Distribution. — New Caledonia, Indian and Pacific Oceans, Malaya.

Acteon flammeus (Gmelin).

Voluta flammeus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., ed. xiii, 3435, 1791.
Habitat. — Dredged alive in 35 m. near Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Indian and Pacific Oceans, Java, Philippines, Australia.

Bullinula ziczac (Muhlfeldt).

Voluta ziczac Muhl., Ges. Nat. Fr. Berlin, Mag. neu. Entdeck, viii,

5, 1818.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (Bullina scabra).

Habitat. — A few dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Norfolk Island, New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia, Pacific
and Indian Oceans, Java.

Pugnus parvus Hedley.

Pugnus parvus Hedley, Rec. Austr. Mus., ii, 106, 1896.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — A few dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday
Island.

Distribution- -New South Wales.

Tornatina apicina Gould.

Tornatina apicina Gould, Pro. Bost. Soc. N.H., vii, 139, 1859.

Habitat. — Dead shells abundant in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. on
gravelly bottom near Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New South Wales.

Cylichnella thetidis (Hedley).

Ctjlichna thetidis Hedley, Mem. Austr. Mus., iv, 395, 1903.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom near
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Australia.

Bullaria peasiana Pilsbry.

Bullaria peasiana Pilsbry, Man. Conch, (i), xv, 348, 1893.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (B. ampulla).
Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Sandwich Islands.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 513

Limacina bulimoides (d'Orbigny).

Atlanta bulimoides d'Orb., Voy. Amer. Merid., v, 17i». 1836.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — All tropical and warm temperate seas.

Limacina inflata (d'Orbigny).

Atlanta inflata d'Orb., Voy. Amer. Merid., v, 174, 1836.

Habitat. — Dead shells occasionally washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — All tropical and warm temperate seas.

Styliola subula (Quoy and Gaimard).

Cleodora subula Q. & G., Ann. Sci. Nat., x, 233, 1827.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix. 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — All tropical and warm temperate seas.

Clio pyramidata Linne.

Clio pyramidata Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. xii, 1094, 1767.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — All tropical and temperate seas.

Clio acicula (Rang).

Creseis acicula Rang, Ann. Sci. Nat., i, 318, 1828.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — All tropical and warm temperate seas.

Clio virgula (Rang).

Creseis virgula Rang, Ann. Sci. Nat., i, 316, 1828.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — All tropical and warm temperate seas.

Cuvierina columnella (Rang).

Cuvieria columella Rang, Ann. Sci. Nat. (i), xiii, 323, 1827.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix. 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand ; all tropical and warm temperate seas.

Cavolina telemus (Linne).

Monoculus telemus Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 635, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (C. tridentata).

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Zealand ; all tropical and warm temperate seas.

544 Transactions.

Cavolina trispinosa (Lesueur).

Hyalaea trispinosa Les. in Blainv. Diet. Sci. Nat., xxii, 82, 1821.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Zealand ; all tropical and warm temperate seas.

Cavolina longirostris (Lesueur).

Hyalaea longirostris Les. in Blainv. Diet. Sci. Nat., xxii, 81, 1821.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Kermadec specimens belong to the variety strangulata Hedley (Rec.
Austr. Mus., vi, 299, 1907).

Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches, Sunday

Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand ; all tropical and temperate seas.

Cavolina inflexa (Lesueur).

Hyalaea inflexa Les., Nouv. Bull. Soc. Philom., iii, 285, 1813.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Zealand ; all tropical and warm temperate seas.

Cavolina gibbosa (Rang).

Hyalaea gibbosa Rang in d'Orb. Voy. Amer. Merid., v, 95, 1836.

Habitat. — Dead shells rarely washed up on the beaches at Sunday Island.
Distribution. — All tropical and warm temperate seas.

Cavolina quadridentata (Lesueur).

Hyalaea quadridentata Lesueur in Blainv. Diet. Sci. Nat., xxii, 81,
1821.
Habitat. — Dead shells rarely washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution.— All tropical and warm temperate seas.

Theceurybia gaudichaudi (Souleyet).

Euribia gaudichaudi Soul, Voy. " Bonite," Zool., t. 2, p. 253, 1852.
Recorded, Pelseneer, " Challenger " Rep., xix, pt. 58, 55, 1887.

Habitat. — Taken on the surface of the ocean between Sunday and
Macauley Islands (" Challenger " Expedition).
Distribution. — Philippines.

Umbraculum umbellum (Martyn).

Patella umbella Martyn, Un. Conch., iii, pi. 102, 1786.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.
Habitat. — Living among rocks near low-water mark, Coral Bay, Sunday

Island.

Distribution. — Norfolk Island, New Zealand, Australia, Indian and Pacific

Oceans.

Heteroplocamus n. gen. for Euplocamus Philippi, preoccupied.
Type. — Euplocamus pacificus Bergh.

Olivek. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 545

Heteroplocamus pacificus Bergh.

Euplocamus pacificus Bergh, " Challenger " Rep., x, pt. 26, 57, 1884.
Recorded, Bergh, I.e.

Habitat. — Dredged in 1,150 m., between Sunday and Macauley Islands,
on volcanic mud (" Challenger '* Expedition).

Glaucilla atlanticus (Forster).

Glaucus atlanticus Forster, Voy. " Resolution," i, 49, 1777.

Habitat. — Live specimens frequently washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Atlantic Ocean.

Leuconopsis pacifica n. sp. Fig. 39.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell thin, ovate, apex obtuse. Whorls 4,
those of the spire flat, shouldered above, their sides nearly parallel, and,
as they decrease in size towards the apex, form a step-like series. Aperture
narrowlv pvriform. Outer lip thick in front, suddenly becoming thin
behind with a free rounded edge, thus forming a narrow posterior canal.
Inner lip a broad callous smear. Columella with 3 plaits, the central one
largest. Shell smooth with axial growth-lines, white.

Height, 2-7 mm. Diameter, 1-5 mm.

Variations from Type. — The upper columella plication, weak in the type,
is absent in all other specimens. The type is the largest specimen seen.

Habitat. — Dead shells rarely found in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island.

Melampus albus Oassies.

Melampus albus Gassies, Journ. Conch., xiii, 211, 1865.

Habitat. — Dead shells dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Caledonia.

Siphonaria.

The representatives of this genus in the Kermadec Islands recall
Cellana in the multiplicity < 2 forms and the difficulty of dividing them
into specific groups with satisfactory limits. I have a good series of speci-
mens from Sunday Island, Macauley Island, and French Rock, and on
comparing them with what specimens are available to me from Norfolk
Island, New Zealand, Australia, and Tasmania I find that all appear to
be distinct from the species of those countries. The chief affinities lie with
Norfolk Island and New Zealand. I separate the Kermadec specimens into
four species. Here, as in Cellana, there seems to be some relation
between specific divergence on the one hand, and habitat and distribution
on the other, for the three principal species found at Sunday Island affect
distinct habitats, while the dominant forms on Macauley Island and French
Rock differ from each other and from those on Sunday Island. Hiding in
crevices of rocks near high-water mark on Sunday Island is the small
S. amphibia ; lower down the high and polished S. raoulensis occurs ; while
near low-water mark is found abundantly the remarkable S. cheesemani,
usually coated with crustaceous algae, and often adhering to the great shells
of Scutellastra kermadecensis.

18— Trans.

546 Transactions.

Siphonaria raoulensis n. sp. Figs. 40 and 40a.

Recorded, Suter, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 39, 265 (S. diemenensis).

Description oj Type Specimen. — Shell ovate-elliptical, conoidal, height
0-39 of length. Right side straight in centre, then rather sharply turning
to either end. Apex a little behind the centre, directed backwards and to
the left. Anterior slope slightly arched, posterior nearly straight. Margin
fairly regular and crenulated, chiefly on the right side. Siphonal groove
not prominent. Sculpture : There are about 40 rounded smooth and
polished radiating ribs. These are irregular in size, the larger ones being
chiefly on the posterior slope, while there are 2 prominent ones on the
siphonal groove. Colour : Bluish, darker towards the centre, the ribs
nearly white, especially near the margin. Interior light-bluish, the margin
nearly black, with white transverse bands opposite the ribs. At the
siphonal groove 2 white bands extend about half-way towards the apex.

Length, 18 mm. Breadth, 12-8 mm. Height, 7 mm.

Variations from Type. — The ribs vary somewhat in prominence, and the
general shape of the shell is liable to variation, as will be seen by the follow-
ing measurements : (a.) Length, 19-6 mm. ; breadth, 15-6 mm. ; height,
6-4 mm. ; ratio height to length (L. = 100), 0-31. (b.) Length, 19-8 mm. ;
breadth, 14-5 mm. ; height, 7 mm. ; ratio height to length, 0-28. (c.) Length,
17 mm. ; breadth, 13 mm. ; height, 7 mm. ; ratio height to length, 0-24.
The colour varies somewhat. The interior is sometimes nearly white or
yellowish, with a black -banded margin. The apex is occasionally eroded
and whitish. Most of my specimens were collected on rocks adjoining
sandy beaches, and show the effects of sand-rubbing in their highly polished
surfaces.

Habitat. — Living on rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island ; plentiful
in places.

Siphonaria cheesemani n. sp. Figs. 41 and 41a.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell elliptical, slightly narrowed in
front, very depressed, height 0-21 of length, slopes nearly straight. Margin
deeply incised, the principal ribs projecting to a distance equal to their
width, slightly crenulated between the projecting ribs. Siphonal groove a
double rib, but not more prominent or projecting further than the other
large ribs. Sculpture : There are 13 high rounded radiating ridges, each
projecting beyond the margin. The anterior ridges slightly smaller than
the posterior. Ridges irregularly spaced, the largest interstice being behind
the siphonal groove, the second-largest immediately posteriorly to this.
Between the principal ribs are smaller riblets, chiefly noticeable on the right
side. The whole upper surface covered with crustaceous algae, apex eroded.
Colour : Interior nearly black, with a central white spot. Margin darker,
with white bands opposite the ribs and riblets.

Length, 17-3 mm. Breadth between parallels touching the ribs, 13-5 mm.
Height, 3-7 mm.

Variations from Type. — There being no adult specimens collected that
were not covered with algae, I am obliged to add the following particulars
from a smaller beach specimen : Apex situated behind and to the left of
the centre and directed away from the centre. Between the principal ribs
are fine close riblets. Concentric growth-lines show over the whole surface.

The number of principal ribs varies in different shells, being usually
more than in the type, while the anterior ribs are frequently smaller and
more numerous than in the type.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 547

Habitat. — Abundant living on rocks near low-water mark, Sunday
Island. The shells almost always covered with crustaceous algae, and
sometimes found attached to shells of Scutellastra kermadecensis. In its
depressed form it resembles a number of marine molluscs inhabiting the
lowest portion of the littoral belt.

Siphonaria macauleyensis n. sp. Figs. 42 and 42a.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell irregularly ovate, high, conical,
height 0-48 of length. Anterior slope long, arched ; posterior slope steep,
nearly straight. Apex nearly two-thirds the length of the shell from the
anterior end, and to the left of the central line, directed backwards. Margin
fairly regularly crenulated. Siphonal groove scarcely projecting. Sculp-
ture : About 45 close nearly regular radiating ribs, two on the siphonal
groove and a few others here and there on the posterior half larger than
the others. All crossed by concentric growth-lines. Colour : Above grey,
the ribs nearly white. Interior whitish in the centre, muscle-impression
brown, followed by a whitish band and a dark-brown margin crossed by
white bands opposite the ribs.

Length, 19'6mm. Breadth, 146 mm. Height, 9'5 mm.

Variations from Type. — There is a good amount of variation in the shape
of the shell, prominence of the ribs, and especially of the siphonal groove,
which sometimes projects a considerable distance. When this is the case
with depressed forms they come very close to the subspecies perplexa.
The depth of colour inside varies, some examples having the central portion
all brown. The following measurements show variations in the shells :
(a.) Length, 19-5 mm. ; breadth, 16-2 mm. ; height, 10 mm. ; ratio height
to length (L.=100), 0-51. (b.) Length, 19-3 mm. ; breadth (behind siphonal
groove), 15*5 mm. ; height, 6-2 mm. ; ratio height to length, 0*32.

A few specimens which I collected on French Rock apparently belong
to this species. They are larger than those from Macauley Island, and all
have the upper surface either corroded or covered by coralline algae, so
that the sculpture is obscured. The general shape and the colour of the
interior, however, agrees with Macauley Island specimens. Length, 23 mm. ;
breadth, 18-5 mm. ; height, 8*3 mm.

S. macauleyensis comes very close to S. exulorum from Norfolk Island,
differing principally in the more irregular shape and ribbing, and in the
more posterior position of the apex. S. zealandica is also allied, but easily
distinguishable from the above two.

Habitat. — Living on rocks between tide-marks, Macauley Island (type
locality) and French Rock ; common. A few specimens were also obtained
on Sunday Island.

Subsp. perplexa n. subsp. Figs. 43 and 43a.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (S. atra).

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell depressed, height 0-29 of length,
ovate, left side slightly rounded in the centre, sloping sharply away at
either end, right side semicircular. Apex subcentral. Slopes slightly
arched. Margin irregularly crenulated. Siphonal groove high, angular,
and projecting for a distance equal to one-third of that between margin
and apex. Sculpture : Irregularly spaced straight or wavy radiating ribs,
about 20 principal ones, including 2 on the siphonal groove. They are of
various sizes, those on the left side and alternate ones on the posterior half

18*

548 Transactions.

being larger than the others. There are smaller riblets in the interstices,
including those on the siphonal groove and a wide space between it and the
next posterior large rib. Colour : Above bluish-grey, the ribs nearly white.
Apex corroded. Interior bluish-brown, the margin darker, and with nume-
rous white cross-bands opposite the ribs.

Length, 17*3 mm. Breadth behind siphonal groove, 13-2 mm. Height,
5 mm.

The type specimen of this subspecies differs considerably from that of
the typical subspecies, but intermediate forms which might be referable to
eir.Der are common, so that I could not divide them satisfactorily into two
groups, hence the present arrangement under one species. S. cheesemani
also in some of its forms approaches the subspecies perplexa.

Habitat. — Living on rocks near low- water mark, Sunday Island.

Siphonaria amphibia n. sp. Fig. 44.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell small, ovate, narrowed in front,
conoidal, height 0*35 of length. Apex behind the centre, anterior slope
slightly curved, posterior slope straight. Margin irregular, siphonal groove
slightly projecting. Sculpture : The upper half of the shell corroded.
Margin with about 25 scarcely raised radiating ribs. Colour brown, the
ribs white. Interior black, the margin crossed by white bands opposite
the ribs.

Length, 7-8 mm. Breadth, 6*2 mm. Height, 2-7 mm.

Variations jrom Type. — Most of the shells have the interior entirely
black, and in many the entire upper surface is corroded.

Habitat. — This little species was found living in crevices and irregu-
larities of rocks near high-water mark at Fleetwood Bluff, Sunday Island.
In size, appearance, and habits it resembles some small species of Acmaea
which occur in similar situations in New Zealand.

Gadinia conica Angas.

Gadinia conica Angas, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1867, 115, 1868.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Living on rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Zealand, Australia.

Helicarion kermadecensis (Smith).

Vitrina kermadecensis E. A. Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xi, 288,

1873.
Recorded, E. A. Smith, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the under-surfaces of the leaves of the nikau palm
(Rhopalostylis Baueri) on the summit of Moumoukai, the highest point of
Sunday Island. Found only during wet weather, October. 1908. Also
found living under dead leaves on the ground.

Ptychodon royanus Iredale.

Ptychodon royanus Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 377, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the moss-covered trunks of trees, Sunday Island.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Eermadec Islands. 549

Ptychodon pseutes Iredale.

Ptychodon pseutes Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 378, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the ground under stones, rotten wood, and dead
palm-leaves, Sunday Island.

Ptychodon amandus Iredale.

Ptychodon amandus Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 378, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the ground under stones, wood, and dead palm-
leaves, Sunday Island.

Charopa macgillivrayana Iredale.

Charopa macgillivrayana Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 379, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the ground under stones, wood, and leaves on high
land only, Sunday Island.

Charopa exquisita Iredale.

Charopa exquisita Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 379, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the ground under stones, wood, and leaves, Sunday
Island.

Charopa pseudanguicula Iredale.

Charopa pseudanguicula Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 380, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the moss-covered trunks of trees, Sunday Island.

Flammulina miserabilis Iredale.

Flammulina miserabilis Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 383, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on moss-covered trunks of trees, Sunday Island.

Paralaoma raoulensis Iredale.

Paralaoma raoulensis Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 381, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Iredale describes a second species of Paralaoma from Sunday Island.
I have some hundreds of specimens, which, though the number of lamellae
varies, can scarcely be separated into two definable groups. I therefore
treat his species as subspecies, which, using his diagnoses, may be thus
defined : —

Subsp. typica. — Periphery rounded, lamellae on last whorl usually
exceeding 40.

Subsp. ambigua (Iredale). — Periphery semi-keeled, lamellae on last
whorl usually less than 30.

Habitat. — Living on the ground under stones, rotten wood, and dead
leaves, Sundav Island.

550 Transactions.

Calymna arboricola Iredale.

Calymna arboricola Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 383, 1913.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on moss-covered trunks of trees, Sunday Island.

Fanulum expositum (Mousson).

Trochonanina exposita Mousson, Journ. de Conch., xxi, 111, 1873.
Recorded, Mousson, I.e.

Var. moumoumkai Iredale. — Shell yellowish-white. Single specimens
only found. Possibly these are albinos. I think they scarcely justify a
name.

Habitat. — Living on the ground under rotten palm-leaves in scattered
colonies on the higher ground only, Sunday Island.

Kieconcha kermadeci (Pfeiffer).

Helix kermandeci Pfeiffer, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1856, 326, 1857.
Recorded, Pfeiffer, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the ground under rotten wood and palm-leaves.
Found sporadically over the whole of Sunday Island.

Elasmias inconspicua (Brazier).

Tomatellina inconspicua Brazier, Pro. Zool. Soc, 1872, 619, 1873.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 386, 1913.

Habitat. — In Denham Bay, Sunday Island, living on a patch of kawa-
kawa (Macropiper excelsum). Found during rain crawling on the stems
and under-surfaces of the leaves.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island.

Tomatellina novoseelandica (Pfeiffer).

Tornatellina novoseelandica Pfeiffer, Hel. Viv., iii, 524, 1853.
Recorded, Pfeiffer, 1863 (Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, x, 386, 1913).

Habitat. — Living on the trunks of trees and palms, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Zealand.

Tornatellina subperforata Suter.

Tornatellina subperforata Suter, Pro. Mai. Soc, viii, 263, 1909.
Recorded, Suter, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the ground under stones, leaves, and wood, Sunday
Island ; extremely abundant. This is the species which Iredale (Pro. Mai.
Soc, x, 364, and Trans. N.Z. Inst., 47, p. 481, ante) refers to T. novoseelandica.

Distribution. — New Zealand.

Lamellibranchia .

Pronucula kermadecensis n. sp. Fig. 45.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell small, very inequilateral, obliquely
ovate, beaks at about the posterior fourth, directed backwards. Anterior
end sloping, rounded in front, posterior end shortly rounded. Escutcheon
indistinctly marked. Hinge with a triangular resilium directed forwards, a
series of hinge-teeth on either side of the resilium, 8 anterior and 3 posterior,
decreasing in size towards the apex. Adductor-scars scarcely impressed,

Omver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 551

nearly equal, pallial line indistinct. Sculpture : There are regularly spaced
low concentric riblets, variable in size, the larger ones being nearer the
margin, crossed by fine close radiating striae. Colour yellowish-white.

Diameter — Dorso- ventral, 14 mm. ; ant. -post., 1*8 mm.

Variations from Type. — Dead shells are white ; epidermis on live shells
thin, pale olive.

Habitat. — Live shells collected at Sunday Island by R. S. Bell.

Placunanomia zelandica (Gray).

Anomia zelandica Gray in Dieff. N.Z., 260, 1843.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (P. ione).

Habitat. — Dead shells frequently washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Australia.

Area foliata Forskal.

Area foliata Forskal, Descr. Anim., p. xxxi, 1775.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.

Fossil. — In coarse volcanic gravel cemented by calcite, Titi Knob,
Sunday Island ; and in hard sandy tuffs of submarine origin, Deyrell Islet.
(A. decussata Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43, 527.)

Distribution. — Australia, Indo-Pacific region.

Area reticulata Gmelin.

Area reticulata Gmelin, Syst. Nat., ed. xiii, 3311, 1790.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910 (A. domingensis).

Habitat. — Living specimens found attached to the underside of stones
in rock-pools, Sunday Island and Meyer Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia, Japan, Atlantic coasts,
Funafuti, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island.

Philobrya costata (Bernhard).

Hochstetteria costata Bernhard, Bull. d. Nat. Musv ii, 1896.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Single valves common in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. off
Sunday Island. Colour varying from dark pink to white.
Distribution. — New Zealand.

Philobrya meleagrina (Bernhard).

Hochstetteria meleagrina Bernhard, Bull. d. Nat. Mus., ii, 1896.

Habitat. — Extremely abundant living among the densely growing alga
Pterocladia capillacea on rocks about and below low- water mark, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand.

Mytilus canaliculus Martyn.

Mytilus canaliculus Martyn, Univ. Conch., ii, fig. 78, 1784.
Recorded, Suter, Man. N.Z. Moll., 864, 1913.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania.

552 Transactions.

Modiolus auriculatus Krauss.

Modiolus auriculatus Krauss, Sudafrik. Moll., 20, 1848.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Living in rock-pools and crevices of rocks at low-water mark
(not common), Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Australia, Indian
Ocean.

Lithophaga straminea (Dunker).

Lithodomus straminea Dunker, Reeve, Concli. Icon., x, fig. 11, 1858.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 71, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, Indo-Pacific region.

Septifer bilocularis (Linne).

Mytilus bilocularis Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 705, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.
Habitat. — Living among the alga Corallina officinalis in rock -pools
between tide-marks, Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Australia, Indo-Pacific region.

Musculus impacta (Hermann).

Mytilus impactus Hermann, Naturforscher, xvii, pi. 3, figs. 5-8,

178, 1782.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910 {Modiolaria).

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Zealand, Australia.

Pinclada vulgaris (Schum.).

Perlaviater vulgaris Schumacher, Essai, 108, 1817.
Recorded, Suter, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 38, 316, 1906 {Meleagrina radiata).
Habitat. — Small live specimens found in rock-pools between tide-marks,
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Indo-Pacific region.

Melina nucleus (Lamarck).

Perna nucleus Lam., Anim. s. Vert., vii, 78, 1836.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.
Habitat. — Living in crevices of rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Indo-Pacific region.

Malleus legumen Reeve.

Malleus legumen Reeve, Conch. sIcon., xi, pi. 1, fig. 2, 1858.
Specimens from the Kermadec Islands^are^in Mr. Suter's collection.
Distribution. — Australia, Malaya.

Julia exquisita Gould.

Julia exquisita Gould, Pro. Bost. Soc. N.H., viii, 284, 1862.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.

Habitat. — Single valves of this beautiful little^shell occurred rarely in
dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. on gravelly bottom near Sunday Island.
Distributio7i. — Queensland, Hawaii, Indian Ocean.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 553

Spondylus raoulensis n. sp. Fig. 49.

Description oj Type Specimen. — Right valve attached to rock, irregular,
very deep at apex. Hinge-line straight, sides expanding at first gradually
then suddenly, forming a nearly circular outline. Planes of hinge area
and margin at right angles, contour of margin viewed laterally convex.
Hinge area triangular, slightly concave, sides sinuous. Hinge-teeth pro-
jecting, with a deep cartilage-pit between them. Sculpture : Hinge area
smooth, surface in contact with rock rough and irregular, otherwise with
indistinct radiating ribs and concentric growth-lines. Colour pink ; purplish
on the angles of the hinge area ; apex and hinge area mostly white.

Diameter — Dorso- ventral, 63 mm. ; ant. -post., 54 mm. Hinge area —
Br.se, 30 mm. : height, 27 mm.

Left valve (of another specimen) irregular, shallow. Cartilage - pit
narrow, triangular, formed by two raised ridges on hinge-plate converg-
ing at apex. Hinge-teeth high, rounded, their dorsal face overhanging a
marginal groove. Sculpture : There are 12 prominent but irregular radiat-
ing ridges, of which 6 high ones alternate with (3 lower ones. The inter-
spaces with close, wavy, lamellated. radiating ribs, slightly irregular in
size. Colour pink, darker on the ridges and ears.

Diameter — Dorso-ventral, 73 mm. ; ant. -post., 72 mm.

Variations from Type. — Large shells are massive and heavy. The angle
of the planes of hinge area and margin increase with age. The colour varies,
some shells being entirely purplish, others with much yellowish diffused
with pink, but the ears and angles of the hinge area are usually purplish.
Large right valve : Diameter — dorso-ventral, 125 mm. ; ant. -post., 98 mm.
Angle of planes of hinge area and margins, 135°. The hinge area varies
in, outline, and the apex points either forward or backward. Young
specimens have spines on the ridges ; these are probably worn off the
types, which are beach specimens.

Habitat. — Single valves, often of large size, commonly washed up on the
beaches, Sunday Island. A fragment of pumicestone with a small live shell
attached was dredged in 25 m. off Sunday Island by R. S. Bell.

Fossil. — Common in hard sandv tuffs of submarine origin, Devrell Islet.
(S. ostreoides Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 43, 527.)

Spondylus ostreoides E. A. Smith.

Spondylus ostreoides E. A. Smith, " Challenger " Rep., xiii, pt. 35,

326, 1885.
Recorded, E. A. Smith, I.e.

Habitat. — Two single valves dredged in 950 m. south of Sunday Island
(": Challenger " Expedition).

Cyclopecten kermadecensis (E. A. Smith).

Pecten kermadecensis E. A. Smith, " Challenger " Rep., xiii, pt. 35,

302, 1885.
Recorded, E. A. Smith, I.e.

Habitat. — Two valves dredged in 1,100 m. north of Sunday Island on
hard ground (" Challenger " Expedition).

Pecten medius Lamarck.

Pecten medius Lamarck, Anim. s. Vert,, vi, 163, 1819.

Habitat.— Dredged alive in 30 m. off Meyer Island (W. S. Bell).
Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia,

554 Transactions.

Chlamys cellularis n. sp. Fig. 46.

Description of Type Specimen. — Left valve triangularly orbicular, flatly
rounded. Anterior ear one-third the length of the shell, triangular, its outer
edge sinuous, a shallow groove and sinus at its inner margin. Posterior
ear narrowly triangular. Disc with the dorsal margins sharply descending,
very slightly concave ; rounded and descending somewhat along the an-
terior, basal, and posterior margins, which are slightly crenulate. Resilifer
obliquely triangular. The epidermis usually persists, especially in the
interstices between the ribs, as a cellular covering, giving the shell a cha-
racteristic honeycomb appearance. Sculpture : Anterior ear with 6 radiating
ribs, the 3 outer ones broad and flattened, the 3 inner ones about half the
width of the outer. Posterior ear with small radiating ribs. Disc with
15 principal radiating ribs, the 2 central ones are smaller than the others.
The upper surface of the ribs divided by 2 grooves into 3 riblets, of which
the central one is largest. In the interstices are 2 riblets in the angles at
the bases of the principal ribs, leaving a wide and deep channel in the centre,
and grooves the width of the riblets between them and the principal ribs.
The surface of the shell presents a microscopically reticulated appearance,
apparently due to the growth of the epidermal covering. The marginal
portion of the riblets has a series of projecting shelly scales. Interior
prominently grooved. Colour white, diffused with pink, chiefly on the ribs,
and as 3 concentric broad bands on the upper portion of the disc. Base
of ears with pink blotches.

Diameter — Ant.-post., 18-5 mm. ; dorso-ventral, 20-2 mm.

Variations from, Type. — Right valve with the anterior ear oblong,
obliquely truncated, a deep byssal sinus below ; posterior ear narrowly
triangular. The colour is variable. The irregular pink markings are present
on all the specimens seen, and are arranged in more or less defined con-
centric bands. The ground-colour on one shell is lemon-yellow.

Habitat. — The only specimens obtained were single valves found on the
beaches at Sunday Island.

Fossil. — A valve apparently referable to this species was found on Deyrell
Islet in hard sandy tuffs of submarine origin. (Pecten kermadecensis Oliver,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43, 527, 1911.)

Limatula bullata (Born).

Ostrea bullata Born, Mus. Caes. Vindobin, 110, 1780.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc., ix, 72, 1910 (Lima).

Habitat. — Valves common in dredgings in 10 m. to 30 m. near Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia, Pacific, Philippines.

Limatula insularis n. sp. Fig. 47.

Description of Type Specimen. — Shell ovate-oblong, very slightly oblique,
ventricose, posterior end slightly more convex than anterior end. Beaks
incurved, distant. Ears small, nearly equal. Hinge area straight, lenti-
cular. Sculpture : On each valve are 12 rounded radiating ribs, the inter-
stices and ribs about equal in width. These are crossed by close concentric
growth-lines, and, near the margins, projecting shelly scales, most prominent
at the posterior and anterior ends. Colour white.

Diameter — Ant.-post., 2-3 mm. ; dorso-ventral, 3-5 mm. Thickness,
2-1 mm.

Trans. \.X. Inst., Vol. XLVII.

Plate XIT.

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Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 555

Variations from Type. — The number of ribs varies a little, and may be
as high as 15 on each valve. The largest specimen collected measures
3 mm. by 4-4 mm.

Habitat. — Dredged alive near Sunday Island (E. S. Bell).

Codakia bella (Conrad).

Lucina bella Conrad, Journ. Acad. Sci. Phila., vii, 254, 1834.
Eecorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.

Habitat. — Live specimens fairly plentiful in sand in rock-pools, Meyer
Island.

Distribution. — Australia, Indo-Pacific region.

Diplodonta zelandica (Gray).

Lucina zelandica Grav in Yate's N.Z., 309, 1835.

Eecorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia.

Lasaea miliaris Philippi.

Lasaea miliaris Philippi, Wiegman's Archiv. f. Natur., 51, 1845.
Eecorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.
Habitat. — Extremely abundant living among the alga Corallina offi-
cinalis on rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Lord Howe Island, North Atlantic, Cape
of Good Hope, Magellan Straits.

Ervilia bisculpta Gould.

Ervilia bisculpta Gould, Pro. Bost. Soc. N.H., viii, 28, 1861.
Eecorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, Hawaii, Japan, Philippines.

Spisula belliana n. sp. Figs. 48 and 48a.

Description of Type Specimen. — Left valve large, solid, somewhat ventri-
cose, trigonal, slightly inequilateral. Posterior dorsal margin arched,
anterior straight. Basal margin regularly arched. Anterior and posterior
ends subangulated. Posterior dorsal area flattened and laterally bluntly
angled. Lunular area lenticular, well defined. Beak incurved, acute.
Hinge : Cardinal bifurcating below, lateral laminae high, stout, depression
between cardinal and anterior lateral deep. Eesilifer obliquely triangular,
apex acute. Ligament very short. Adductor-scars deeply impressed, an-
terior the smaller. Pallial sinus extending about half-way to the anterior
adductor, posteriorly coalescent with the pallial line. Epidermis thin,
horny. Sculpture: There are regular smooth concentric riblets, most
prominent at the margins (the apical region is worn smooth and without
epidermis). Colour white ; epidermis yellow with reddish-brown spots.

Diameter — Dorso-ventral, 64 mm ; ant.-post., 83 mm.; transverse (to
plane of margin), 17 mm.

Variation from Type. — Eight valve with 2 small cardinals coalescing
above, 2 anterior and 2 posterior lamellae, the anterior the longer.

Habitat. — Two valves found washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island
<E. S. Bell).

550 Transactions.

Chione toreuma (Gould).

Venus toreuma Gould, Pro. Bost. Soc. N.H., iv, 277, 1850.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.
Habitat. — Single valves occasionally washed up on the beaches at Sun-
day Island. '

Fossil. — In volcanic gravel cemented by calcite, Titi Knob, Sunday
Island. {Chione sp. Oliver, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 43, 530.)
Distribution. — Australia, Pacific Ocean.

Lutraria magna (Costa).

Chama magna Costa, Brit. Conch, 230. 1778.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910 (L. oblonga).

Habitat. — Valves dredged near Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Australia, Indo-Pacific region.

Protocardia pulchella (Gray).

Cardium pulchellum Gray in Dieff. N.Z., 252, 1843.
Habitat.— Dredged in 30 m. off Meyer Island (W. S. Bell).
Distribution. — New Zealand, Tasmania, Australia, Norfolk Island.

Chama foliacea Quoy and Gaimard.

Chama foliacea Q. & G., Voy. " Astrolabe," Zool., lii, 478, 1835.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix.. 72, 1910.
Habitat. — Single valves occasionally washed up on the beaches at Sun-
day Island.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, Indo-Pacific region.

Saxicava artica (Linne).

Mya arctica Linne, Svst. Nat., ed. xii, 1113, 1767.
Recorded, Suter, Subantarctic Is. N.Z., i, 48, 1909.
Habitat. — Specimens taken from logs washed up on the beaches at
Sunday Island.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Australia, cosmopolitan. .

Gastrochaena retzii Deshayes.

Gastrochaena retzii Deshayes, Moll, de Reunion, 7, 1863.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.
Habitat. — Dead shells found on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution . — Indo-Pacific region.

Uperotis clava (Gmelin).

Teredo clava Gmelin, Svst, Nat., ed. xiii, 3748, 1791.

Habitat. — Colonies attached to coconuts found washed up on the
beaches, Sunday Island.

Distribution. — Indo-Pacific region.

Nausitoria aurita Hedley.

Nausitoria aurita Hedley, Mem. Austr. Mus., iii, 507, 1899.

Habitat. — Plentiful in kauri (Agathis australis) logs washed up on the
beaches at Sunday Island.

Distribution — New Caledonia, Funafuti.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 557

Amphineura.

Lepidopleurus subtropicalis Iredale.

Lepidopleurus (Terenochiton) subtropicalis Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, xi,

28, 1914.
Kecorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living on the underside of embedded dirty stones near low-
water mark, Coral Bay, Sunday Island.

Parachiton mestayerae Iredale.

Parachiton mestayerae Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, xi, 27, 1914.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Dredged on gravelly bottom near Sunday Island in 27 m. and
45 m. (Iredale) ; also living on underside of stones near low-water mark,
Coral Bay.

Ischnochiton kermadecensis Iredale.

Isclmochiton kermadecensis Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, xi, 35, 1914.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.
This species is closely allied to /. intermedins Hedley and Hull, from
Norfolk Island. Iredale also describes a colour-variety under the name
exquisita.

Habitat. — Abundant living; on the underside of clean smooth stones near
low- water mark, Sunday Island and Meyer Island.

Eudoxochiton perplexus Iredale.

Eudoxochiton perplexus Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, xi, 29, 1914.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

This species varies considerably in the angle of divergence of the median
valves, and also slightly in the number of slits in the posterior valves.
Using these characters, Iredale separated the Kermadec shells into two
species ; but as intermediate forms are the rule, and no satisfactory line can
be drawn between the extreme forms, I consider the proper course is to
treat them as one species. Utilizing the above characters, it is perhaps
convenient to refer to Iredale's groups as varieties, which may be thus
defined.

Var. typicn. — Shell elevated, anterior and posterior valves each with
about 23 slits.

Var. imitator (Iredale). — Shell depressed, anterior valve with more than
25 slits, posterior valve with about 22 slits.

Habitat. — Living on rocks about low-tide mark, Sunday and Meyer
Islands. During the winter strong westerly winds caused the shifting of
a good deal of sand on the north side of Sunday Island ; this partly buried
the lower portions of a rocky coast, and drove numbers of marine animals,
including Eudoxochiton inshore, so that as many as sixteen of this species
were captured in a single day.

Plaxiphora mixta Iredale.

Plaxiphora (Maorichiton) mixta Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, xi, 33, 1914.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.
Habitat. — Living on rocks between tide-marks (fairly common), Sunday.
Meyer, and Macauley Islands, and French Rock.

558 Transactions.

Rhyssoplax corypheus (Hedley and Hull).

Chiton corypheus Hedley and Hull, Pro. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 37, 277,

1912.
Eecorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, xi, 41, 1914 (Rhyssoplax exasperata).

Here again I consider Iredale has overestimated the value of the dis-
tinguishing characters of the Kermadec Chitons. There is no good cha-
racter by which the Norfolk and Sunday Island shells can be differentiated,
but, recognizing the differences pointed out by Iredale, the Kermadec foim
may (as suggested by him) be ranked as a subspecies of corypheus, thus : —

Subsp. exasperata (Iredale). — Differs from the type in having the sulci
weaker and less nodulous.

Habitat. — Living on the underside of clean smooth stones near low-
tide mark, Sunday Island.

Distribution (of species). — Norfolk Island.

Sympharochiton themeropis Iredale.

Sympharochiton themeropis Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, xi, 43, 1914.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Habitat. — Living in crevices of rocks between tide-marks, Meyer Island.

Onithochiton oliveri Iredale.

Onithochiton oliveri Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, xi, 46, 1914.
Recorded, Iredale, I.e.

Closely allied to 0 . filholi Roch, of New Zealand.

Habitat. — Living in crevices of rocks between tide-marks, Meyer Island ;
not common.

Cephalopoda.
Nautilus pompilius Linne.

Nautilus pompilius Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 708, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai! Soc, ix, 72, 1910.

Habitat.- — Broken shell washed up on beach, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Austrr.Ua> New Hebrides, Fiji, Polynesia.

Nautilus macromphalus Sowerby.

Nautilus macromphalus Sowb., Thes. Conch., 464, 1848.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.

Habitat. — Broken shell washed up on beach, Sunday Island.
Distribution.- — New Caledonia.

Spirula spirula (Linne).

Nautilus spirula Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 710, 1758.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.

Habitat. — Dead shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island, often
in large numbers. Portions of the animal were also found.

Distribution. — Lord Howe Island, New Zealand, tropics generally.

Symplectoteuthis oualaniensis (Lesson).

Loligo oualaniensis Lesson, Voy. " Coquille," Zool., ii, 240, 1830.
Recorded, Berry, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 46, 148, 1914.

Habitat. — Rarely washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island
Distribution. — Australia, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 559

Sthenoteuthis bartramii (Lesueur).

Loligo bartramii Lesueur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., ii, 90, 1821.
Recorded, Berry, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 46, 148, 1914.

Habitat. — Specimens occasionally washed up on the beaches, Sunday
Island.

Distribution. — Atlantic Ocean.

Onychoteuthis banksii (Leach).

Loligo banksii Leach, Zool. Mis., iii, 141, 1817.
Recorded, Berry, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 46, 139, 1914.

Habitat. — Rarely washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Lord Howe Island (Etheridge), cosmopolitan.

Abralia astrolineata Berry.

Abralia astrolineata Berry, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 46, 145, 1914.
Recorded, Berry, I.e.

Habitat. — One specimen washed up on beach, Sunday Island.

Abraliopsis hoylei (Pfeiffer).

Enoploteuthis hoylei Pfeiffer, Abh. Nat. Virens. Hamb., viii, 17, 1884.
Recorded, Berry, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 46, 148, 1914.

Habitat. — One young specimen found on the beach, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — Mascarene Islands, Pacific coast, middle America.

Nematolampas regalis Berry.

Nematolampas regalis Berry, Biol. Bull., xxv, 208, 1913.
Recorded, Berry, I.e.

Habitat. — Two specimens found on the beach, Sunday Island.

Cirroteuthis meangensis Hoyle.

Cirroteuthis meangensis Hoyle, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), xv, 234,

1885.
Recorded, Hoyle, " Challenger " Rep., xvi, pt. 44, 104, 1886.

Habitat. — Dredged in 1,100 m. on hard ground north of Sunday Island
(" Challenger " Expedition).

Distribution. — Meangis Islands (near Philippines).

Amphitretus pelagicus Hoyle.

Amphitretus pelagicus Hoyle, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), xv, 235, 1885.
Recorded, Hoyle, I.e.

Habitat. — Dredged in 950 m. on volcanic mud between Sunday and
Macauley Islands (" Challenger " Expedition).

Eledone verrucosa Verril.

Eledone verrucosa Verril, " Blake " Report, 105, 1881.
Recorded, Hoyle, " Challenger " Rep., xvi, pt. 44, 104, 1886.

Habitat. — Dredged in 1,150 m. on volcanic mud between Sunday and
Macauley Islands (" Challenger " Expedition).
Distribution. — North Atlantic.

5(30 Transactions.

Pinnoctopus kermadecensis Berry.

Polypus (Pinnoctopus?) kermadecensis Berry, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 46.

138, 1914.
Eecorded, Berry, I.e.
Habitat. — One specimen found on beach, Sunday Island.

Polypus oliveri Berry.

Polypus oliveri Berry, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 46, 136, 1914.
Eecorded, Berry, I.e.
Habitat. — Living among rocks between tide-marks, Sunday Island.

Argonauta argo Linne.

Argonauta argo Linne, Syst. Nat., ed. x, 708, 1758.

Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.
Habitat. — A few shells washed up on the beaches, Sunday Island.
Distribution. — New Zealand, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.

Argonauta nodosa Solander.

Argonauta nodosa Sol., Portl. Cat., 96, 1786.
Recorded, Iredale, Pro. Mai. Soc, ix, 72, 1910.
Habitat. — Both animals and shells occasionally washed up on the beaches,
Sunday Island. The description by Berry of a female (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
46, 135) probably refers to this species. The largest shell collected at Sunday
Island measured 17 cm. in length, and when cast ashore contained the
animal.

Distribution. — New Zealand, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.

Geographical Relationships.

Continuous with the orographical axis of New Zealand a submarine
ridge with a steep eastern slope falling to one of the profoundest troughs
of the ocean extends in a direction about N. 22° E. as far as the Samoan
Islands, though actually separated from the elevated area on which that
group stands by a channel over 4,000 m. in depth. This ridge over the
greater part of its length is less than 2,000 m., and is nowhere over 4,000 m.,
beneath the surface of the ocean. It is on this ridge, about midway between
New Zealand and the Tongan Islands, that the Kermadec Group is situ-
ated. To the eastward is an unbroken expanse of ocean over 4,000 m. in
depth ; to the westward an area of ocean stretching to the Australian
Continent, and whose bed is most irregular, the main features being two
basins separated by a submarine ridge trending in a direction north-west
from New Zealand towards New Caledonia. The Kermadec Group, there-
fore, appears to be situated on the eastern edge of a bygone complex con-
tinental area now for the most part submerged.

In order correctly to understand the geographical relationships and origin
of a fauna it is necessary first to investigate the history of the region from
a dynamical standpoint, for conclusions as to past changes in land surfaces
based on considerations of faunal relationships must be revised if they con-
flict with results derived from geological evidence. In the case of the
Kermadec Group I have elsewhere* described the structure of the various

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 4.°, p. 525, 1911.

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands.

50 1

islands, and outlined their probable history. Briefly, my conclusions are
these : All the islands are of recent volcanic formation, two of them being
still in the solfatara stage. Sunday Island is built on a base of which part
is known to be composed of syenite, a rock usually associated with con-
tinental areas. The first eruptions were submarine, the later ones sub-
aerial. Sundav Island has thus arisen from beneath the sea in recent
geological times, and has not exceeded its present limits more than can be
accounted for by marine and subaerial denudation. Whatever portion
of the continental base was ever formerly above sea-level was entirely
submerged before the present group of islands came into existence, and any
terrestrial life it may have contained completely destroyed. Assuming
that I have interpreted the geological evidence correctly, then the whole
of the terrestrial life now found at the Kermadecs has arrived by accidental
transoceanic migration ; but among its marine forms one might expect to
find an element suggestive of a continental connection.

Owing to the vast amount of work still to be done on the Mollusca it
is not possible to speculate on their origin and relationships except by a
statistical method. The relationships of the 261 species enumerated in
the present paper may be expressed in tabular form thus : —

Total.

Per Cent.

Gastropoda.

££££ Amphlnenra.

Cephalopoda.

Endemic
Polynesian
New Zealand
Pelagic

89

34

70

7

108

42

89

19

31

12

22

9

33

12

2i

261

100

202

35

12
16

Endemic Element.

A third of the Kermadec molluscs are not known elsewhere. This
proportion will probably be decreased when the molluscan fauna of the
south-west Pacific is more closely studied. Taking first the Gastropoda,
the bulk are probably of Polynesian affinities. Half the species are small
shells, mostly under 5 mm. in length, most of them falling within the
families Rissoidae, Cerithiidae, Eulimidae, and Turritidae. About one-
fifth are fairly large shells, and these form a very remarkable collection
of species which one might hardly expect on an isolated volcanic island.
Possibly they indicate a former continental connection. Some of them
appear to have no closely related species in the adjacent regions, though
their affinities are mainly with the north (Scutellastra kermadecensis, Tectus
royanus, Conus kermadecensis, Cassidea royana, Spondylus raoulensis). The
highly variable members of the genera Cellana and Siphonaria were appa-
rently derived from the south. The land shells are, according to Iredale,
almost entirely of Polynesian origin.

Members of the class Amphineura appear to be particularly useful for
indicating the routes of migration of marine faunas, especially as they are
peculiarly sedentary in their habits, and, no doubt as a consequence,
restricted in their distribution. The affinities of the Kermadec species are,
as noted by Iredale, entirely with those of New Zealand. The presence
of a variable member of the characteristic New Zealand genus Eudoxochiton
is worthy of special notice.

562 Transactions.

Polynesian Element.

This is undoubtedly the largest element in the molluscan fauna of the
Kermadecs. The figures given above include several species which I have
in the literature at my disposal found recorded from Australia only ; but
most of them are tropical species, and no doubt extend to Polynesia as
well. According to the table, over two-fifths of the Kerrnadec Mollusca
are also found in Polynesia. But to estimate this element correctly there
should be included all those endemic species of Polynesian affinities, and
this would bring the proportion up to about two-thirds.

New Zealand Element.

Under this head I include one-eighth of the total number of molluscs
known from the Kermadecs. Of these, twenty-three extend also to Aus-
tralia, and, in addition, there are fifteen other New Zealand species dis-
tributed over the headings " Pelagic " and " Polynesian," thus making
forty-six species common to the Kermadecs and New Zealand.

Pelagic Molluscs.

These are species which frequent the surface of the open ocean. They
form about one-eighth of the total known molluscan fauna of the Kerma-
decs, a proportion which is evidently due to the situation of the group in
a wide tract of ocean. Included are several Cephalopods and Pteropods,
Recluzia, Atlanta, and four species of lanthina, besides some species found
in floating logs and coconuts.

Summary.

The Mollusca of the Kerrnadec Islands appear to be derived from two
sources ; that is, there appear to have been two main streams of migration
— one, by far the larger, from Polynesia, and another from New Zealand.
A highly peculiar group, typified by Scutellastra kermadecensis, may be taken
as evidence of a first period of dispersal along a continental shore-line, but
the bulk of the species, including all the terrestrial forms, indicate a later
period synchronous with the existence of the present islands when no con-
nection existed with other lands.

Ecology.

Although one of the most interesting branches of biological study, very
little can be written under this head. A few remarks on the dependence
of marine animals on the supply of water and food, quite obvious to the
casual observer, interspersed among brief descriptions of the molluscan
formations is all that I will attempt. These formations may conveniently
be arranged, at least for my present purpose, in four series — namely, land,
littoral rocks, sea-bottom, and surface of ocean. In abstracting the mol-
luscan element in a formation, or, as I would prefer to call it, " biological
community," one cannot get a correct view of the inter-relations of organisms,
because the whole community really consists of every plant and animal
living in and responding directly or indirectly — that is, through other
plants or animals — to the same habitat. Defined by such considerations,
two or more formations may be found in the same area. For instance, in
the littoral belt, the group of organisms found living under stones is quite
d-'stinct from that found on their upper surfaces. The habitats are different,
and few species are common to both.

Olivbe. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 563

Land Formations.

The numerous small animals and fungi living under stones and leaves
in forest, and subsisting mainly on decaying vegetation, constitute a bio-
logical communitv distinct from but coterminous with the forest formation
which gives rise to it. On Sunday Island eight small molluscs are found
in this situation. On the trunks of trees eight other species are found ; but
this habitat is practically an extension of that on the ground, one species
(Helicarion kermadecensis) being found in both. All the land molluscs
found at Sunday Island are small, but this is, no doubt, due to the means
of transportation available for them to reach the group — namely, on floating
logs or other accidental means.

One land mollusc, Assiminea nitida, affected open rocks wetted by fresh
water, which habitat was also shared by some crustaceans and cryptogamic
plants.

Littoral Rock- Formations.

Several communities of plants (algae) and animals are to be distinguished
in the marine littoral belt. Certain ecological adaptations are easily observed
when the whole belt is examined. For instance, the size of animals is found
to increase from high- water mark downwards. In other words, the more
water any station receives during the day, the greater the variety and
abundance of life found therein ; consequently, more food is available, and
therefore larger animals are found. A second and more important though
scarcely less obvious generalization is that the higher up above low-water
mark an animal lives the more it is protected from desiccation by a calcareous
shell or chitinous test. In the Kermadec Group rocks between tide-marks
support a fauna and flora much poorer in species and individuals than the
.corresponding belt in New Zealand, and this I presume to be the result of
its greater degree of insolation. In New Zealand I have observed that the
line between the submerged and emerging belts is much more pronounced
in the north' than it is in the south.

Bock Belt. — Rocks about and above half-tide mark support no algae
except crustaceous species, and in places small filamentous species, which,
by harbouring mud, form a kind of slime. Molluscs, however, are fairly
numerous. Near high-water mark are small species hiding in crevices of
rocks, as Melarhaphe unifasciata, Tectarius feejeensis, Siphonaria amphibia
■ — all able to live for more than half their time out of water. The
Siphonaria by sticking close to the rock retains a drop of water, while
Tectarius and Melarhaphe when withdrawn within their opercula are capable
of living without water for days.

Lower down, where the rocks are exposed from about six to fifteen hours
daily, are found plentifully Cellana craticulatus, C. hedleyi, Siphonaria
raoulensis, Neothais smithii, Flaxiphora mixta, Nerita melanotragus, Hinea
brasilianus, and less commonly Pinclada vulgaris, Melina nucleus, Sym-
pharochiton themeropis, Onithochiton oliveri, and Nerita plicata — al' able to
conserve moisture by pressing close to the rock surface, or withdrawing
within opercula or shelly valves.

Corallina Belt. — On rocks just above low- water mark considerable areas
are covered by a dense growth, about 15 mm. tall, of the alga Corallina
officinalis. This harbours, besides much sand and many worms, a lar^e
number of small bivalves of the species Lasaea miliaris and Septifer biio-
cularis.

564 Transactions,

Sargassum Belt. — The lowest, tract of the emerging belt being exposed
only at low spring tides, and constantly bathed by wave-action, is included
in the belt of large brown algae extending to 1 m. or more below low-tide
mark. This rocky belt, having a maximum quantity of light, supports a
rich fauna and flora of a distinctly hydrophilous character. A number
of large molluscs in no way protected against desiccation are found here.
Such are Polypus oliveri, Umbraculum umbella, and many Aplysioids ; to
which should be added those molluscs which cannot draw into their shell
behind an operculum, as Conus kermadecensis, Siphonaria cheesemani, and
Cypraea. The large limpet Scutellastra kermadecensis, which must require
a constant supply of food, is characteristic of this belt, in places almost
covering the rocks. Its massive shell is rather a protection against pre-
dacious fishes than desiccation. Other large species found in this belt
are Charonia lampas. Argobuccinum australasia, Neothais succincta, Eudoxo-
chiton perplexus, and occasionally Tectus royanus. The dominant algae
are Sargassum fissifolium and Pterocladia capillacea, the latter supporting
in great abundance the small bivalve Philobrya meleagrina.

Under Stones. — With light absent or weak, and the presence of mud and
sand, this habitat supports a distinctive fauna, composed of sponges, sea-
anemones, worms, echinoderms, and molluscs. No algae were collected
on the underside of rocks, except near the edges. The molluscs include
four species of Amphineura, some small Gastropods (Columbella versicolor,
Gadinea conica, Vanikoro wallacei, Rissoina angasi, Clanculus atypicus, and
others), and the bivalves Area reticulata and Codakia bella.

Sea-bottom.

Rocks near Shore. — In this belt, which extends from the Sargassum belt
down for a few fathoms, the dominant fixed animals are corals and com-
pound Ascidiaris. This is a difficult tract to investigate, as a dredge cannot
be used. It is extremely rich in many kinds of animal life, and through a
water-telescope presents a magnificent sight. Tectus royanus is abundant,
while on coral Magilus antiquus and Quoyula madreporarium are plentiful.
There can be little doubt that the large number of species of shells recorded
in this paper as dredged on gravelly bottom and as found washed up on
the beaches live among rocks below low-water mark.

Sand and Gravel.— A few live shells were dredged near Sunday Island
on sand and gravel in 10 m. to 30 m. They include Xenophora corrugata,
Fusinus toreuma, Terebra circumcincta, Pecten medius, Protocardia pulchella,
and, attached to pumice, Spondylus raoulensis.

Surface of Ocean.

Plankton. — Situated in a vast expanse of ocean, Sunday Island, as might
be supposed, frequently has cast up on its shore pelagic animals. Some-
times, as with Ianthina, Spirula, Velella, and Physalia, they are washed
up in large numbers. Pelagic molluscs recorded in the present list include
four species of Ianthina, Recluzia lutea, fourteen species of Pteropods, and
several Cephalopods.

Floating Logs. — Besides numerous stalked cirripedes, crabs, and worms,
there were found in logs cast up on the beaches Saxicava arctica and Nausi-
toria aurila, while Uperotis clava was taken from coconuts.

Oliver . — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 565

Literature and History.

1857.^Pfeiffer, Dr. L. " Descriptions of Fifty-eight New Species of
Helicea from the Collection of H. Cuming, Esq." Proc. Zool. Soc, 1856,
p. 324. Describes two new species of land shells from Sunday Island. Helix
kermandeci and H. chimmoi, collected by Lieut. Chimmo, presumably an
officer of H.M.S. " Herald," which surveyed the island in 1854. H. chimmoi
is omitted from the present list, as Iredale, who examined the type, is of
opinion that the locality assigned to it is erroneous.

1873. Smith, E. A. " Description of a New Species belonging to the
Genus Vitrina." Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xi, p. 288. V . kermadecensis
described from Sunday Island.

1873. Mousson. " Faune Malacologique de quelques lies de l'Ocean
Pacifique Occidental, ii, lies de Norfolk et de Kermandec." Journ. de
Conch., xxi, p. 109. Kecords Microcystis kermandeci Pfeiffer, and describes
as new Vitrina ultima, Trochonanina exposita and Patula modicella Ferussac
var. vicinalis. Of these, V . ultima is the same as V . kermadecensis Smith,
while P. modicella var. vicinalis is omitted from the present list, as the type
is lost and no specimens answering to Mousson's description have since
been collected at Sunday Island. Mousson's specimens were collected by
Dr. Graeffe.

1884. Hutton, F. W. " Revision of the Land Mollusca of New Zea-
land." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 16, p. 186. Vitrina kermadecensis recorded
from the Kermadecs, and also from Hobson's Glen, AucJdand ; but the latter
locality is almost certainly an error.

1884-87. 'w Reports on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S.
' Challenger.' " The " Challenger," on her famous voyage round the world,
passed through the Kermadec Group on the 14th and 15th July, 1874.
No landing was made on any of the islands, but the trawl was put over
three times. Two casts were made between Sunday and Macauley Islands
in 520 and 630 fathoms (Station 170), the bottom in both instances being
volcanic mud. The following species of' Mollusca were taken: Spondylus
ostreoides, Euplocamus pacificus, Amphitretus pelagicus, Eledone verrucosa,
and, on the surface, Halopsyche gaudichaudi. The trawl was again put
over north of Sunday Island (Station 171) in 600 fathoms, bottom volcanic
mud, the following Mollusca being obtained : Pecten kermadecensis, Murex
zelandicus, Cirroteuthis meangensis. The above species were recorded in the
undermentioned reports : Nudibranchiata, Dr. R. Bergh, vol. x, pt. 26,
1884 ; Lamellibranchiata, E. A. Smith, vol. xiii, pt. 35, 1885 ; Gastropoda,
R. B. Watson, vol. xv, pt. 42, 1886 ; Cephalopoda, W. E. Hoyle, vol. xvi.
pt. 44, 1886 (diagnoses of new species in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), xv, 222) ;
Pteropoda, Dr. P. Pelseneer, vol. xix, pt. 58, 1887.

1885-87. Tryon, G. W. " Manual of Conchology," 2nd series. Vol. i.
1885, p. 158, Vitrina ultima ; vol. ii, 1886, p. 47, Nanina exposita ; vol. iii,
1887, p. 38, Helix modicella.

1888. Cheeseman, T. F. " On the Flora of the Kermadec Islands,
with Notes on the Fauna." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20, p. 151. Six species
of marine Gastropods are recorded, while mention is made of a large limpet
common on the rocks.

1893. Heclley, C, and Suter, H. " Reference List of the Land and
Fresh-water Mollusca of New Zealand." Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2), vii,
p. 613. Recorded from the Kermadecs : Helicarion ultimas. Microcystis
kermadeci, Trochonanina exposita, Charopa modicella var. vicinalis.

566 Transactions.

1894-95. Proc. Linn. Soc N.S.W. The locality assigned to Sctitellastra
kermadecensis is disputed by Brazier (vol. ix, p. 18, 1894). Hedley then
states that specimens were collected at Sunday Island by the crew of the
New Zealand Government steamer " Hinemoa " (vol. ix, p. 465, 1895) ;
but Brazier refuses to believe that this large limpet is found at Sunday
Island, though he admits it occurs at Macauley Island (vol. ix, p. 566, 1895).
The question is finally settled by Cheeseman, who states that he himself
collected the type specimens at Sunday Island during his visit in the New
Zealand Government steamer " Stella " in 1887 (vol. x, p. 221, 1895).

1899. Suter, H. '' Malacological Communications from New Zealand."
Journ. Malac, vol. viii, p. 54. Scalaria australis recorded from the Ker-
madecs.

1902. Suter, H. " On the Systematic Position of Patella ker-
madecensis, Pilsbry." Journ. Malac, vol. ix, p. 111. Branchial cordon and
radula described and figured.

1905. Suter, H. " Revision of the New Zealand Patellidae, with De-
scriptions of a New Species and Subspecies." Proc. Mai. Soc, vol. vi, p. 346.
Helcioniscus craticulatus is described from the Kermadecs.

1906. Suter, H. " Notes on New Zealand Mollusca, with Descrip-
tions of New Species and Subspecies." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, p. 316.
Recorded from the Kermadecs : Meleagrina radiata, Tut a fa calif ornica,
Nassa zonalis, Purpura striata var. bollonsi, Terebra venosa.

1907. Suter, H. " Notes and Additions to the New Zealand Mol-
luscan Fauna." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 265. Siphonaria diemenensis
recorded from the Kermadecs.

1909. Suter, H. ' Descriptions of New Species and Subspecies of
New Zealand Mollusca, with Notes on a Few Species." Proc. Mai. Soc,
vol. viii, p. 254. Recorded from the Kermadecs : Drupa bollonsi, Torna-
tellina subperforata.

1909. Suter, H. " The Mollusca of the Subantarctic Islands of New
Zealand." Subantarctic Is. N.Z., vol. i, p. 1. Six species of marine
molluscs recorded from the Kermadecs. Of these, I retain Lemellaria
ophione and Saxicava arctica, but omit until authentic specimens are
obtained Cantharidus opalus, Trophon ambiguus, Chione stutchburyi, and
C. yatei.

1910. Iredale, T. " On Marine Mollusca from the Kermadec Islands
and on the Sinusigera Apex." Proc. Mai. Soc, vol. ix, p. 68 (list of species
reprinted in Proc. N.Z. Inst., 1910, p. 57). This is the first paper dealing
with the Mollusca collected by the expedition to the Kermadec Islands in
1908, of which both Iredale and myself were members. Iredale records
ninety-four species of Gastropoda, twenty-two of Lamellibranchia, and five
of Cephalopoda. In the present list I have taken account of all of his species
except Erato corrugata and Rissoina polytropa, as Iredale informs me that
the shells so named belong to other species, as yet undetermined. Critical
notes on several species of shells are given, together with a discussion on the
sinusigera apex, which is recorded for several Kermadec species.

1910. Iredale, T. " Notes on Polyplacofhora, chiefly Australian."
Proc Mai. Soc, vol. ix, p. 153. Contains an account of the Kermadec
Amphineura collected in 1908, but none are assigned definitely to described
species.

1911. Oliver, W. R. B. " The Geology of the Kermadec Islands."
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 524. The following species are recorded from

Oliver. — Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands. 567

the submarine volcanic tuffs of Sunday Island and outlying islets : Turbo
argyrostomus, Spondylus ostroides, Pecten kermadecensis, Area decussata.
The correct names for these and others only generically identified at the
time are given in the present list.

1911. Iredale, T. " On the Value of the Gastropod Apex in Classifica-
tion." Proc. Mai. Soc, vol. ix, p. 319. A discussion on Gastropod apexes,
mainly from Kermadec material, mentioning the following species : Turris
cinguiifera, Planaxis brasilianus, Cerithiopsis sinon, Bullina scabra.

1912. Iredale, T. " New Generic Names and New Species of Marine
Mollusca." Proc. Mai. Soc, vol. x, p. 217. Descriptions of thirteen new
species of Gastropoda from the Kermadecs. Seven new generic names pro-
posed for Kermadec Gastropods — Roya, Royella, Brookula, Jeannea, Quoyula,
Heterorissoa, Neothais.

1913. Berry, S. S. " Nematolampas, a Remarkable New Cephalopod
from the South Pacific." Biol. Bull., vol. 25, p. 208. Description and
figure of 2V. regalis, collected at Sunday Island.

1913. Iredale, T. " The Land Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands."
Proc. Mai. Soc, vol. x, p. 364. An account of the land shells collected at
Sunday Island in 1908. There are seventeen species enumerated, of which
eleven are described as new.

1913. Suter, H. " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca." In this
work there are recorded from the Kermadec Islands thirty-three species
of Gastropoda and nineteen of Lamellibranchia. Of these, thirty-two species
were not taken by the expedition of 1908. There are no specimens in Mr.
Suter's or any collection known to me, and Captain Bollons informs me
he cannot remember collecting any of them. I have therefore omitted
them in the present paper. They include the four species noted above
(Subantarctic Is. N.Z., vol. i, 1909), and the following twenty-eight :
Haliotis virginea, Cantharidus purpuratus, Calliostoma pellucidum, Turri-
tella carlottae, Struthiolaria papulosa, Natica zelandica, Epitonium zelebori,
Cominella huttoni. C. maculosa, C. virgata, Murex octogonus, Trophon
plebejus, Fulguraria arabica, Ancilla australis, Bathytoma cheesemani, Solemya
parkinsoni, Nucula hartvigiana, Glycymeris laticostata, G. modesta, Veneri-
cardia australis, Divaricella cumingi, Tellina deltoidalis, Mesodesma sub-
triangulatum, Dosinia lambata, D. anus, Chione mesodesma, Soletellina nitida,
Myodora striata.

1914. Iredale, T. " The Chiton Fauna of the Kermadec Islands."
Proc Mai. Soc, vol. xi, p. 25. An account of the Amphineura collected
at the Kermadecs in 1908. Nine species, all described as new. Fragments
of four other species are generically determined only — Acanthochites (2),
Cryptoconchus, Lucdina. An interesting comparison is made of the Chiton
faunas of Lord Howe, Norfolk, and the Kermadec Islands.

1914. Berry, S. S. " Notes on a Collection of Cephalopods from the
Kermadec Islands." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 134. An account of the
Cephalopods collected in 1908 and subsequently. Three new species are
described.

1914. Iredale, T. " Description of a New Species of Cassidea." Proc.
Mai. Soc, vol. xi, p. 179. C. royana, from Sunday Island.

1915. Iredale, T. "A Comparison of the Land Molluscan Faunas of
the Kermadec Group and Norfolk Island." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47,
p. 498, ante.

568

Transactions,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate IX.

Fig. 1. \GAUna craticulatus Suter subsp. Fig. 4. ] rn «uUanims n kt>

Fig. la. J prohxus n. subsp. lug. 4a. j J

Jjg ^}c7«Ibiiatenqr»n..p. Kg! 5a. } GdUrM -«9»»«™ n- "P-

Fig' 3.\ceZZarca fo<l%i Oliver subsp. Fig! 6a. } SMamope pacificus n. sp.

Fig. 3a. J corrugata n. subsp. Fig. 7. Fissuridea bollonsi n. sp.

Plate X.

Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig
Fig

Fig
Fig

8. Philorene texturata n. sp.

9. Haurakia kermadecensis n. sp.

10. Notosetia electra n. sp.

11. Zebina cooper i n. sp.

12. Issella chiltoni n. sp.

13. Epigrus insularis n. sp.

14. Epigrus gracilis n. sp.

15. Cerostraca iredalei n. sp.

16. Amphithalamu s sundayensis n.

sp.

17. Sundaya exquisita n. sp.

18. Caecum, solitarium n. sp.

Fig. 19.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
Fig. 23.
Fig. 24.
Fig. 24a.

Fig. 25.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.

Turbonilla oceanica n. sp.
Turbon.illa scnlpturata n. sp.
Miralda austro-pacifica n. sp.
Hinemoa punicea n. sp.
Pyrgulina insularis n. sp.
Raoulostraca inexpectata n. sp.
Roaulostraca inexpectata n. sp.

Apex.
Melanella kermadecensis n. sp.
Melanella perplexa n. sp.
Subularia perspicua n. sp.
Melanella spinosa n. sp.

Plate XL

Fig. 29. Cithna wallacei n. sp.

Fig. 30. Scalenostoma suteri n. sp.

Fig. 31. Hexaplex puniceus n. sp.

Fig. 32. Mangilia hedleyi n. sp.

Fig. 33. Glyphostoma roseocincta n. .<

Fig. 34. Iredalea subfropicalis n. sp.

Fig. 35.
Fig. 36.
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.
Fig. 39.

Kermia benhami n. sp.
M itramorpha expeditionis n.
Zafra kermadecensis n. sp.
Zafra fuscolineata n. sp.
Leuconopsis pacified n. sp.

sp.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

40.

40a.

41.

41a. f

42.

42a.

43.

43a.

44.

Siphonaria raoulensis n. sp.
Siphonaria cheesemani n. sp.

Siphonaria macauleyensis n. sp.

Siphonaria macauleyensis Oliver

subsp. perplexa n. subsp.
Siphonaria amphibia, n. sp.

Plate XII.

Fig. 45

Pronucula kermadecensis n. sp.

Left valve.
Fig. 46. Chlamys cellularis n. sp.
Fig. 47. Limatula insularis n. sp. Left

valve.
Fig. 48. [Spisula belliana n. sp. Left
Fig. 48a. J valve.
Fig. 49. Spondylus raoulensis n. sp.

Left valve.

Wright. — Chemistry of Flesh Foods.

569

Art. L. — The Chemistry of Flesh Foods — Part II. — (4.) The Composition
and Nutritive Value of the Retail Cuts of Mutton and Lamb.

By A. M. Wright, F.C.S., Associate Editor, Journal of Industrial and

Engineering Chen i ist ry .

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.}

Introduction.

This investigation is a continuation of the research published in the Trans-
actions of 1912.* The present study covers the results of an investigation
concerning the composition and nutritive value of the various retail cuts
of mutton and lamb.

Slaughter Tests.

In connection with this investigation ten average quality sheep and
ten average quality lambs were taken from a line received at the Christ-
church Meat Company's Islington works, and after being fasted for twenty-
four hours were weighed alive and immediately slaughtered. In Table I
will be found the weights and the percentages of the carcases and of the
various by-products, based on the live weights.

Table I. — Results of Slaughter Tests.

Ten Sheep.

Ten Lambs. Sheep. Lambs.

Live weight

Dressed carcase (warm)

(cold) . . .
Wool ..
Pelt ..
Blood ..
Head
Feet

Fat (caul, kidney, and intestinal)
Diaphragm (skirt)
Tongue
Kidneys

Sweetbreads (thymus gland)
Brains
Heart
Lungs
Liver

Trachea (windpipe)
Spleen

Gall-bladder and contents
Small intestine
Large intestine
Other intestines
Stomach . .

( 'ontents of stomach and intestines
Loss in dressing

lb.

1,097-0

5650

5540

68-2

51-8

470

33-4

10-5

6(3-5

4-1

40

2-7

"21

5-4

12-4

16-9

1-9

1-9

0-7

150

1-0

25-0

370

104-5

14-0

lb.

6750

368-0

3640

720

30-0

24-5

21-8

13-4

32-5

2-

2-

1-

0-

1-

3-

8-2

8-3

1-8

10

0-5

11-0

10

12-0

180

35-5

2-6

Per Cent. Per Cent

•4
•9

•7
•7
•9
•3

51-4
50-5
6-2
4-7
4-3
30
1-5
60
0-4
0-4
0-3

0-2
0-5
1-1
1-5
0-2
0-2
0-1
1-4
0-1
2-3
3-4
9-5
1-3

54-5

54-0

10-7

4.4

3-6
3-2
20
4-8
0-4
0-4
0-3
01
0-3
0-5
1-2
1-2
0-2
0-1
0-1
1-6
0-1
1-7
2-7
5-5
0-4

* Wright, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 45, pp. 1-17.

570

Transactions.

Retail Cuts.

On the day following a carcase of mutton weighing 55 lb., and a carcase
of lamb weighing 35 lb. (cold weights), were selected from the twenty carcases
from the slaughter test for the purpose of the main investigation. These
carcases were split, and the left half of each, weighing 281b. and 181b.
respectively, were cut into the joints usually offered for sale in the retail
shops. In addition each cut was separated into lean meat, visible fat,
and bone. In order to compare the various cuts as to their relative amounts
of lean, fat, and bone the weights have been calculated to percentages.
These figures, which represent the untrimmed cuts, are shown in Table II.

Table II. — Weights and Percentages of Lean Meat, Visible Fat, and Bone in

the Retail Cuts.

—

Lean
Meat.

Fat.

Bone.

Lean

Meat.

Pat.

Bone.

Left Half.

Per

Per

Per

Per

Mutton —

lb.

lb.

lb.

Gent.

Cent,

Cent.

lb.

Cent.

Leg

5-4

1-3

1-2

68-4

16-4

15-2

7-9

28-4

Loin

4-7

2-4

1-5

54-8

27-8

17-4

8-6

30-8

Shoulder

5-2

0-9

1-0

73-2

12-7

14-1

7-1

25-4

Neck and breast

20

0-6

1-8

45-5

13-5

41 0

4-4

15-4

28-0

Lamb —

Leg

3-4

11

1-0

61-8

200

18-2

5-5

30-6

Loin

2-1

2-0

0-9

42-0

40 0

18-0

5-0

27-8

Fore quarter

4-7

0-9

1-9

62-6

12-0

25-4

7-5

41-6

18-0

Relative Cost of the Retail Cuts.
Throughout New Zealand the prices of the various cuts differ consider-
ably, and are liable to frequent fluctuation, so that absolute figures for the
market retail price of the cuts would serve little purpose. It has been
found, however, that by taking the cheapest cut as 1 the retail market
prices bear relation to one another as follows : —

Mutton — Neck and breast . . .. .. ..1-00

,, Shoulder

Lamb — Fore quarter
Mutton — Leg

„ Loin

Lamb — Leg
Loin

1-5C
1-67
1-83
2-00
2-17
2-17

Thus, with the price of neck and breast of mutton at 3d. per pound, the
other cuts in the above order will be 4|d., 5d., 5|d., 6d., 6|d., and 6|d. per
pound.

The Chemical Composition of the Boneless Meats.

The right half of the carcases used in the previous determinations was
sampled for chemical analysis, the total boneless meat (lean and fat) of
each cut being used for this purpose.

Moisture.— The moisture found in the various cuts ranged from 57-92 per
cent, in the leg cut of the lamb to 40-12 per cent, in the loin cut of the same
carcase ; in general, the higher percentage of fat is found associated with
the lower moisture-content.

Wright. — Chemistry of Flesh Foods.

571

Ash. — The percentage of ash or mineral salts varied from 0-89 per cent,
in the leg cut of the lamb to 049 per cent, in the loin cut of the same carcase.
The ash is chiefly composed of the chlorides and phosphates of potash, soda,
lime, and magnesia, which contribute largely towards the structure of the
bone and other tissues. They also aid the digestive functions, and increase
the palatability of the cooked meats. There is no evident relation between
market prices and the palatability of the different cuts as indicated by the
amounts of mineral salts, the cheaper cuts showing as much ash as the
more expensive.

Fat. — This varies from 48-38 per cent, in the lamb loin cut to 22-60 per
cent, in the mutton leg cut. As indicated above, it is noted that in general
the higher the fat the lower will be found the moisture-content. The
amounts of fat bear no relation to the market price of the meats.

Protein. — Protein is the most important food constituent of meat, and
varies in the cuts from 16-75 per cent, in the lamb leg to 9-56 per cent, in
the lamb loin. The market prices charged for the cuts are not in proportion
to the protein-contents.

Meat Bases. — These, while possessing but slight food-value, are of im-
portance because of their influence on the palatability of the meat. They
aid in giving cooked meat its flavour, and serve in part as stimuli to the
digestive glands. No relation between the market price and the amount
of meat bases seems to exist ; indeed, one of the highest-priced joints, the
lamb loin, contains 0-52 per cent., while the lowest-priced meat, the neck
and breast of mutton, contains the same amount.

The results of the chemical analyses of the bone, less meat of the various
retail cuts, are shown in Table III.

Table III.- — Chemical Composition of the Boneless Meat of the Retail Cuts.

Moisture

Ash

Fat

Total nitrogen

Cold-water extract — ■

Total solids

Ash . .

Organic extractives

Nitrogen

Coagulable proteids

Non-coaguiable proteids

Total soluble proteids

Meat bases
Insoluble protein . .
Total protein
Crude protein

Mutton.

Lamb.

Leg.

Loin.

Shoulder.

Xtck and

Breast.

Leg.

Loin.

Fore
Quarter.

Per

Cent.
49-08

0-87
22-60

2-956

4-75

0-75

400

0-596

1-72

0-18

1-90

0-92

14-74

16-64

18-48

Per
Cent.

46-64
0-67

37-48
2-394;

3-49

0-52

2-97

0-430

1-31

0-12

1-43

0-62

12-24

13-67

14-94

Per

Cent.
55-94

0-76
27-66

2-495

3-65

0-56

3-09

0-485

1-36

0-23

1-59

0-72

12-55

14-14

15-56

Per
Cent.
43-35

0-55
42-56

2-112

3-06

0-44

2-62

0-375

1-18

0-11

1-29

0-52

10-79

12-08

1318

Per

Cent.
57-92

0-89
24-08

2-742

4-39

0-71

3-68

0-566

1-66

0-22

1-88

0-78

14-87

16-75

1711

Per
Cent.
40-12

0-49
48-38

1-688

2-47
0-43
204
0-311
0-86
011
0-97
0-52
8-59
9-56
10-56

Per

Cent.

44-42

0-64

40-54

2-283

3-31

0-51

2-80

0-421

1-21

0-16

1-37

0-63

11-62

12-99

14-27

• Conclusion.

While some of the cuts are less tender and are therefore more difficult

to prepare for use than others, yet the constituents (mineral salts and meat

bases) which give flavour to cooked meats show little difference in the

various cuts, and since the digestibility of the protein is independent of

572

Transactions.

the cut or the method of cooking* it is evident from a study of the figures
presented above that the retail market prices charged for the various cuts are
not governed by the relative food-values or by the palatability of the meats.

For permission to publish these results the author desires to express
his thanks to the Christchurch Meat Company (Limited), in whose
laboratory the work has been carried out.

Art. LI. — Note on the Determination of Milk-fat.

By A. M. Wright, F.C.S., Associate Editor, Journal of Industrial and

Engineering Chemistry.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 2nd December, 1914.]

According to Thorpe, f the official Adams process for determining the
fat-content of milk has largely been superseded by the method of Gottlieb.
The same writer states that Gottlieb's method is perhaps the easiest and
best of all methods of fat-estimation.

OlsenJ states that it is conceded that higher percentages of fat are gene-
rally obtained by the Gottlieb than by the present ether-extraction method.

While a considerable amount of data have been published showing the
comparative results obtained by the use of Gottlieb's method in determining
the fat-content of various dairy-products, including milk, the author has
been unable to find a record of any results comparing the Adams process
with Gottlieb's in the estimation of the fat-content of fresh milk.

The author recently had occasion to compare these processes in connec-
tion with the examination of a number of milk-samples, and the following
results are now put on record.

Sample No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9
10
11
12
13
14

Adams's

Gottlieb's

Process.

Method.

Fat

Fat

per Cent.

per Cent.

. . 3-76

3-84

. . 3-68

3-82

. . 3-86

4-02

. . 3-58

3-64

. . 3-98

4-14

. . 3-94

4-04

. . 3-91

4-00

. . 3-79

3-88

. . 4-06

4-18

. . 3-86

4-00

. . 3-70

3-76

. . 3-75

3-91

. . 3-80

3-94

. . 3-65

3-73

Average

3-81

3-92

* Grindley and Emmett, Bulletin 162, U.S.A. Dept. Agric. O.E.S. ; also Grindley,
Monjonnier, and Porter, Bulletin 193, U.S.A. Dept. Agric. O.E.S.
t Diet. Applied Chem., rev. ed., vol. 3, pp. 531, 532.
X Bulletin No. 105, U.S. Dept, Agric, p. 109.

Wright. — The Determination of Milk-fa/. 573

The method of Gottlieb as described by Thorpe* was used in the above
determinations, and is as follows : 10 c.c. of milk are measured into a tall,
narrow cylinder, graduated in 0-5 c.c, and holding 100 c.c. ; 1 c.c. of
ammonia (sp. gr. 0-96) is added, and then 10 c.c. of alcohol. The mixture
is well shaken ; 25 c.c. of ether, which need not be dry, are added ; and
the contents of the tube well mixed. Finally, 25 c.c. of light petroleum
are added, and the mixture again well shaken. It is essential that the con-
tents of the tube be mixed after the addition of each reagent, or the results
may be very low. The cylinder is then left for six hours, the volume of
the ethereal solution measured, and 50 c.c. removed, evaporated, and the
fat dried and weighed.

The question naturally arises as to whether or not the increased result
is due to some substances other than fat, introduced by the reagents used
in the Gottlieb method, or through their action. A blank test of the
chemicals used was made and the small amount of residue obtained on
evaporation deducted from the results.

Olsenf has shown that the results obtained by the Gottlieb method
are the true fat-content of dairy-produce, and this is of special importance
in the case of milk or other dairy-products containing only small amounts
of fat.

Art. LII. — On the Influence of Pressure on the Solubility of Tricalcic Phos-
phate in Carbonic-acid Solutions.

By P. S. Nelson, M.Sc

Communicated by Dr. Evans.

[Bead before the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, 1st July, 1914.]

Robert Wadington, in 1871 (Journ. Chem. Soc, p. 80), treated samples
of bone-ash repeatedly with a solution of carbon dioxide in water, and found
a solubility of tricalcic phosphate of 0-147 gram per litre. T. Schloesing
(Comp. Rend., 1900, vol. 131, pp. 149-53) determined the solubility of freshly
precipitated tricalcic phosphate in pure water, in carbon-dioxide solutions
of various strengths, and in similar solutions containing calcium bicarbonate.
He found in 1 litre of —

Water saturated m , , 1TT , , n Calcium-

with ^ater i W**eT& Rl,re bicarbonate

carbon dioxide saturated saturated water go,ution

91-9 48-5 6-9 1 1

milligrams of phosphoric acid, as P205. This result seemed to suggest
that the solubility of the tricalcic phosphate depended, to some extent at
least, on the amount of carbon dioxide in solution.

As no record dealing with the question could be found in the Journal
of the Chemical Society, nor in the Journal of the Society of Chemical
Industry, it was determined to ascertain the effect of carbon dioxide at
higher pressures than atmospheric upon the solubility of the phosphate.

* Diet. Applied Chem., rev. ed., vol. 3, pp. 531, 532.
f Bulletin No. 105, U.S. Dept. Agric, p. 109.

574

Transactions.

Apparatus.

After the breaking of the first apparatus, which was composed partly
of glass, the apparatus used throughout the work was that shown in fig. 1,
half in view and half in section. It consists of a heavy copper tube, fitted
with a heavy cap, through which passes a copper capillary tube. The

Heii.i

_jn_j

Union

mmr

Coj>j*r eapHmty tkU

O 0

v—,M Iflj

3

5-

j

£qu*r* cap-nut

V

JJratvn cotyer tube

f\

•s

L.

U

S=*

JL_ r-a *'"* i-H** for

JfttAle -valvt 'of

5

n

7ai7 — ft bullet)

V

Fig. 1.

latter is connected to a bomb of liquid carbon dioxide, and a pressure-gauge
registering up to 40 atmospheres. The apparatus is shaken by carrying
the bottom round in a horizontal pulley run by an electro-motor. The
tube bears at the side a small needle valve, through which the solution
can be run off.

Nelson. — Tricalcic Phosphate in Carbonic-acid Solutions.

575

Method.

A small quantity of Merck's pure precipitated tricalcic phosphate is
placed in the apparatus, and about 330 c.c. of water added. After satura-
tion at the required pressure with carbon dioxide, the whole is shaken for
five hours, then allowed to stand for eighteen hours, after which the solu-
tion, which is quite clear and bright, is run off through the needle valve.
The phosphate is estimated by an adaptation of Woy's molybdate method
(Chem. Zeit., vol. 21, p. 442). The phosphate is precipitated as ammonium
phosphomolybdate, which, after solution in ammonia and reprecipita-
tion by nitric acid, is heated in a Gooch crucible to dull redness. By
this means a dark-blue substance is formed, phosphomolybdic anhydride,
24Mo03.P205, which contains 3-946 per cent, of P203.

Experimental.

Series I. — The first series of experiments performed in the glass
apparatus was unsatisfactory, but showed an increase of solubility with
increase of pressure.

Series II. — About 0-75 gram of tricalcic phosphate was taken in 330 c.c.
of water. The range of pressures was from 0-5 atmosphere up to 18 atmo-
spheres, §X half and 1 atmosphere intervals. The solubility of the phos-
phate, in terms of grams of P205 per litre of solution, varied from 0-0995
at 1 atmosphere to 0-3804 at 18 atmospheres, the curve being shown in
fig. 2. The general trend shows a regular increase of solubility with
increase of pressure.

-4

9

s>^—*- "

9

O

.

^

>'J^

9

•3

£

i

/

•>

v»

•2

z

\3

/

■^^

1

/

-A

o

V)

e

2 3 4 5" 6

Fig. 2.

During this series of runs the enamel with which the apparatus was
lined began to flake off from the interior, until at the end practically none
remained. The surface was only very slightly attacked, and on no occa-
sion could any appreciable blue cuprammonium salt be obtained on adding
ammonium hydroxide and filtering. The tube was cleaned thoroughly
and re-enamelled.

576

Transactions.

Series III. — Experiments made to ascertain, if possible, the effect of
varying the amount of phosphate taken and the time of stirring showed
that the solubility is increased both by increasing the amount taken and
the time of shaking. Hereafter, therefore, weighed quantities of the phos-
phate were taken, the contents of the tube were shaken for five hours,
then allowed to stand until run off for estimation.

Series IV. — 0-25 gram was taken, giving results as shown in fig. 3. The
two higher results were obtained by shaking for ten hours.

Series V. — 1 gram taken. Both curves IV and V, though widely sepa-
rated, show marked regularity, as far as they were taken.

Series VI. — 0-5 gram taken. Here (see series VI, fig. 3) a very large
drop was observable between 25 and 30 atmospheres, for which there was
no accounting.

s

•}

O -If

in

if. is

Pressure.

f\t moij J)tr?5

Fig. 3.

An attempt to confirm this peculiarity was made in Series VII, but
the enamel began to flake in the second run. Later it flaked during the
first run after re-enamelling, and on evaporating the solution the solid
residue had a pale blue-green tint in the mass, and gave a slight blue colora-
tion with ammonia. The slight surface action on the copper probably had
some effect upon the solubility, which is here very irregular. After trying
varnish in the tube without success, it was plated, as continuously as its
structure would permit, with standard gold.

Series VIII was undertaken to verify, if possible, the peculiar results
of series VI. The results, at pressures from 42 down to 4-4 atmospheres,

Nelson. — Tricalcic Phosphate in Carbonic-acid Solutions. 577

while consistent with one another, were not so with those of series VI. They
show a regular increase of solubility with pressure. Here again after a
few runs the presence of copper was found on evaporating the solution,
rather more being present at high than at low pressures. The gold appeared
to be quite intact, except for a ring about | in. wide round the top, above
the part wetted by the solution during shaking.

Series IX (1 gram) and Series X (2 grams) also gave very regular
results.

In order to show more clearly the relations between amount of phos-
phate taken, pressure, and solubility, all the curves are placed together
in fig. 3.

Analyses were made of the following materials : —

A. The original material from the bottle.

B. The undissolved phosphate left in the bottom of the copper tube

was collected, and dried at 100° C. It contained a very slight
trace of copper, which was not estimated, and gave a very slight
effervescence with nitric acid.

C. The phosphate was obtained by evaporating on the water bath

the solution not required for estimation. The sample which
was analysed for copper was from several high-pressure solutions,
and contained more copper than usual. This material also gave
an effervescence on treatment with nitric acid, showing the
presence of a carbonate, derived probably from calcium bicar-
bonate in the solution. This carbon dioxide, however, was in
too small a quantity to be estimated directly.

The results of average analyses were :-

CaO

P205

Loss (at red heat)
CuO ....

98-52 98-72 99-79

The loss at red heat in A must be due to water only, and the analysis
corresponds to 3-18CaO. P205. 2-43H20. If in B the loss is assumed to be
due wholly to water, which is nearly true, the analysis shows the material
to be 3-2CaO. P205. 2-3H20. In C, the ratio of CaO to P205 is 3-44. But
the maximum of CaO which can combine with P205 is 3CaO. Hence
the remaining 0-44 CaO must be combined in some other way, which under
the circumstances may be assumed to be with C02, asCaC03. Similarly,
if the CuO is in the form of carbonate, the amount of C02 present will be
5-72 per cent., leaving 5-04 per cent, of loss at red heat as 1-07 molecule
of water. Thus the analysis gives 3CaO. P3O5.0-44CaCO3.0-02CuCO3.
l-07H2O. It is also possible that some of the CuO may be combined with
P205 instead of with C02.

The soluble compound which is formed is unstable, since it is deposited
as a precipitate when the carbon dioxide is removed, either on standing,
or more completely on boiling. The presence of calcium carbonate, or in
solution calcium bicarbonate, indicates that an interaction has taken place,
the carbonic acid having attacked the tricalcic phosphate with the forma-
tion of some calcium bicarbonate.

19— Trans.

A.

B.

C.

48-68

48-90

50-45

38-77

38-67

37-29

11-07

11-15

10-86

1-19

578 Transactions.

Conclusions.

(1.) The solubility of tricalcic phosphate in carbonic-acid solution in-
creases directly with increasing pressure of carbon dioxid"e.

(2.) The solubility also increases with increasing time of contact between
solvent and solute.

(3.) Differences of temperature appear to have very little effect.

(4.) The solubility is irregular when che surface of the solution-vessel
is not uniform throughout a series of runs.

(5.) The presence of small quantities of copper in solution causes a
small decrease in the solubility.

(6.) An interaction takes place between the tricalcic phosphate and the
carbonic acid.

Notes.

In (2) practically no difference is observable between a solution run off
after standing in the solution-vessel for eighr.oen hours and the same
solution after standing forty hours. This is due to the sinking of the
undissolved portion of the phosphate to the bottom of the vessel, and the
consequent removal from the sphere of action.

In (3) any increase in solubility with rising temperature is probably
counteracted by the concomitant lessened solubility of the carbon dioxide.

It is suggested that further work might be carried out to determine
the solubility with varying times of contact between solid and solvent, and
also to ascertain the effect of metallic salts, such as those of ammonium,
calcium, and copper. More accurate work also could be done if the vessel
were lined with a quite continuous coat of platinum.

Art. LIIL— On [the Deflection of the Plumb-line from the Vertical due to
the Spheroidal Form of the Figure of the Earth, and its Effect on the
Latitude of Station? above the Mean Sea-level.

By W. T. Neill, New Zealand Survey Department.

[Read before the Otago Institute. 22nd September, 19 J 4.]

It is now well known that the attraction of mountains and elevated regions
has a sensible influence on the plumb-line. These local deflections have
been the subject of numerous investigations since 1854, when Archdeacon
Pratt computed the effect of the attraction of the Himalaya Mountains
on the plumb-line in North India (Phil. Trans., 1854).

In modern geodetic surveys the degree of precision in the determination
of the apparent astronomical latitude by means of the zenith telescope
is so great that the station error, as it is called, or the difference between
the observed and computed latitudes, due to local causes, has become a part
of the routine work.

The deflection of the plumb-line by the attraction of mountains or by
the variation of the density of the underlying strata will not be further
discussed, the object of the present investigation being to determine the

Neill. — On the Deflection of the Plumb-line.

579

amount of deflection and its direction that a plummet will deviate from
the vertical line, or normal, at its point of suspension, in the plane of the
meridian, for any length of the suspending cord, due to the spheroidal form
of the figure of the earth.

Statics of the Problem op a Plummet suspended from a Fixed Point.

Let PEPjEj, fig. 1, represent the meridian ellipse of the earth,
PPj the axis of rotation or polar axis, and EEX the equatorial axis.

We can infer from consideration of the symmetry of the figure that a
plumb-line suspended at the Poles or at the Equator does not deviate from
the vertical, and that at all other latitudes there is a deviation.

Let A be a point at the mean level of the sea, the latitude of which is
<f>', and suppose p a plummet suspended from the point A. Such a sus-
pension can be actually obtained by means of a mine-shaft for small depths,
but for the statement of the problem the existence of an opening in the
earth need not be considered, for the solution of the problem gives the
direction that a shaft takes when sunk by means of the plumb-line.

Let C be the centre of the earth, F and Fj the foci.

The forces acting on p are the attraction of the earth and the tension of
the suspending cord, the weight of the cord being neglected.

Through p let a confocal ellipse be described, and let it generate a
spheroid by revolving about the axis PPX. It is a well-known theorem in
attractions that the potential within a spherical or ellipsoidal shell is
constant, and therefore the force acting on p is the attraction of the
above-generated spheroid, the surface of which is equipotential (Routh's
" Analytical Statics," ii, p. 104).

A second theorem in attraction is : If there be any resultant force, due
to any attracting mass, this force acts along the normal to that equi-
potential surface on which the point lies (Pierce's " Newtonian Potential
Function," p. 38).

Since the tension of the cord is the resultant force, it is normal to the
confocal ellipse, and therefore bisects the angle FpFx.

Thus for all positions of p the direction of the resultant is towards the
point A, and the angle FpFx is bisected by kp producsd.

19*

580

Transactions.

Geometry of the Problem.

The problem to be solved can be stated as follows, in its most general
form : Given the three sides of a triangle ABC, it is required to find the
locus of a point, such that the line from the angle A to the point bisects the
angle included between the lines from the angles B and C to the point.

The bisected angle contains the point A, and no restriction is placed on
the size of the angle except that it is less than four right angles.

The deviation of|the plumb-line is a particular case of the general form.

Fig. 2.

Let ABC, fig. 2, be the given triangle, and D a point such that the angles
ADB, ADC are equal.

Take A as the origin of co-ordinates and the line bisecting the angle
BAC as the axis of X.

Let r, 6 be the polar co-ordinate of D. Denote the equal angles ADB,
ADC by x.

To obtain the equation to the locus of D, we have from the triangle ABD
C =~

sin

r + c cos I ~ ^

.*.' cot x =

A
2

I „- + b

(1)

Again, from the triangle ACD we find

'A

r + b cos

cot X

6

b sin

■(2)

NeilIi. — On the Deflection of the Plumb-line. 581

Eliminating cot x We obtain

sin 2b — mr sin 6 + nr cos 6 = o (3)

Wherein m has the value —^ — cos — , and n the value — ^— - sin — ,

be 2 be 2

or 2 sin 6 — mr sin 0 + w = o, since (9 is small.

.-. sin 0 = - 5 (4)

2 — mr w

The amount of the deflection is r sin 6, and is towards the Equator, since 0
is positive.

To transform the equation to rectangular co-ordinates we substitute in (3)
the values of the variable in terms of x = r cos 6,y = r sin 6, and x2 + y2 = r2,
and we have

nx? — myx2 + 2xy + nxy2 — my3 = o (5)

When B and C are the foci of an ellipse the triangle ABC is isosceles
if A is at the extremity of the minor axis.

Then m = T cos — and n = o.
b 2

Substituting these values of the constants in equation (5) we obtain

o 2 A 2 A .

2 xy - j- cos — yxr - ^ cos — f = o.

Therefore y = o (6)

. _ / b A\ ih AV
and y- + [x - - sec —J = I - sec —J (7)

Equation (6), y = o, represents the axis of X, and for a plummet
suspended at the Pole of the earth the axis of X is the vertical, and
consequently there is no deviation from the vertical when the plummet is
suspended from the Pole of the earth considered as an oblate spheroid.

6 4
Equation (7) represents a circle whose radius is - sec — , and is therefore

the circle circumscribing the triangle ABC. ^

b A

The co-ordinates of the centre are y = o. x =- sec — .

y 2 2

When the point A coincides with the extremity of the major axis of the
ellipse the angle A vanishes, and we find

b + c ,

m = -^= — and >t = o.
be

These values of the constants substituted in equation (5) reduce it to the
following two results :■ —

y = o (8)

^(-^'-(^, ■■••»

The equation (8) represents the axis of X, and is the solution of the
problem when the plummet is suspended at the Equator, from which we
infer that for places situated on the Equator there is no deviation of the
plumb-line from the vertical.

582 Transactions.

be
Equation (9) represents a circle of radius j— — > the co-ordinates of the

, . be

centre being y = o. x = =—

w 3 b + c.

If in fig. 1 the inner ellipse represents the surface of the earth and A
a point at an elevation above the surface, from which a plummet is suspended
by a cord Ap, the line Ap produced bisects the angle FjoF1; and is normal
to the surface of the earth at p ; and the point A is therefore vertically
above p. This condition holds for any length of the suspending cord,
and the plumb-line at the earth's surface suspended from a point above
it always coincides with the vertical.

The level surface at p is at right angles to Ap, and the angle EH?) is
the geographic latitude.

The level surface at A is at right angles to the line AK, which bisects
the angle FAF15 and the geographic latitude of A is the angle EKA. The
difference of these angles is the variation of the latitude of p, due to the
spheroidal form of the earth, and the elevation pA.

The level surfaces become more spherical as we recede from the earth,
the point K moves along the major axis and ultimately coincides with the
centre.

If </>j denotes the latitude of p and <f>2 the angle EKA, then <f>1 - <f>» is
the angle 6 in equation (3), where A is the origin, and the line bisecting
FAFi the initial, or the axis of X.

Let30 = HAF. S = AFp. S'0 = HAFi. S' = AF,p.

FpFx = »//. AP = r.
¥p=U F.P^/

It is now proposed to express AF, AF,, and 80, S'Q in terms of pF, pFh
and r.

The triangle AFp gives

AF2 =ft2 + r2 + 2fs cos % (10)

jx sin S = r sin S0 (11)

S + S0 = f (12)

Similar expressions are obtained from the triangle AF,pfor AF,, S'0J and 8'.
From (11)

T

sin 8 = ~ sin o0
h

p1 sin

(|- s), where Pl = j (13)

For even the highest mountain-tops the values of px and 8 are small, and
equation (13) can be developed by Maclaurin's series, thus :

■A

1/ Pisin^ \
V1 + Vi c«s J

8 = tan

\ 1 4- 11. P.nS

2-

. if/ 1
= Pi sin 2 ~ 2 Pl' sm ^ + &c ^M)

Neill. — On the Deflection of the Plumb-line. 583

T

Similarly, if p =

4 1
8' = p sin - — - pl sin ^ + &c (15)

To take a numerical example, suppose that in latitude 45° S. it is
required to find the difference in latitude between the top of a hill,
490 metres high, and the sea-level vertically below it, using Helmert's
spheroid.

The value of 6 can be computed by equation (3), but it can be found
directly from (12), (14), and (15), as under.

t = 8 + S0 = 8'+S'0

S'0-S0 = 8-S' (16)

Now, S'c = ^ + 8.

.-.8'O-SO = 20.

or 0 = \ (S'0 - 8J (17)

And by the aid of (14) and (15) 6 in seconds of arc is

(^ Ift-Lfdn-l-l ^t-llsin^-f&c (18)

2 sin 1 2 4 sin 1 v y

yi-p = ^-J = r ^ ~ ^ = 10 -6 x 893.

Computing the first term of (18) from the known value of sin ^ we find

6 = 0"-053
Thus the latitude of the hilltop is

= 44° 59' 59"-947.

These differences of latitude are so small that in most cases they will
be masked by the greater differences due to local conditions, which deflect
the plumb-line ; they possess the advantage that they can be easily com-
puted, and the observed value can be corrected or reduced to the sea-level.

A summary of the three principal results is as follows : —

(1.) A plummet suspended from a point at the sea-level deviates from
the vertical in the plane of the meridian, except at the Poles or the Equator ;
the amount of the deviation depends on the length of the suspending cord,
and the deviation it towards the Equator.

(2.) A plummet suspended from a point above the surface of the sea-
level, when the suspending cord just reaches the surface, always coincides
with the vertical for any length of the suspending cord.

(3.) At heights above the surface the observed latitude is less than its
corresponding value at sea-level.

584 Transactions.

Art. LIV. — On Orthogonal Circles.

By E. G. Hogg, M.A., F.B.A.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1914.']

The tripolar equation of the circle of radius r, which has its centre at
the point O, whose trilinear co-ordinates are (a0(30y0), is

XJ=aa0X + b(30Y + c7oZ - 2RS0 - 2Ar2 = o (i)

where S = af3y + bya + ca/3 and A is the area of the triangle of
reference.*

Let d be the distance of O from H, the centre of the circle ABC. If
U passes through H, then

R2 K + &#. + c7o) = 2RS0 + 2 Ad2
i.e., 2RS0=2a(R2-<F);

hence (i) may be written in the form

U = aa0X + &/?0Y + c7oZ = 2A(R2 + r2-rZ2) (ii)

If d? = R'2 + r2, the equation of the circle having its centre at (a0(30y0) and
cutting the circle ABC orthogonally is

U =aa0X+ b/30Y + c7oZ = o (iii)

Its radius is given by the relation r2 = — ' " S0, and its trilinear

A
equation is

(ao + b/3 + Cy) j (cfo + by0) a + (ay0 + Ca0)/3 + {ba0 + a^0) y }
= 2 A {afiy + bya + Ca/3).

From (iii) Ptolemy's theorem may be deduced. Let r = o so that 0
reduces to a point-circle lying on the circle ABC. Suppose its centre O to
lie on the minor arc BC of the circle ABC, and let D, E, F be the feet of
the perpendiculars from O on BC, CA, AB respectively. We then have
- 2R . OD = OB . OC, 2R . OE = OC . OA, 2R . OF = OA . OB.

Substituting these for a0/50y0 in the equation aa0Xo + b(30Y0 + cy0Z0 = o,
we have

AO . BO . CO [- BC . AO + CA . OB + AB . OC] = o,

which is Ptolemy's theorem.

From the form of the equation

U = aa0X + 6/30Y + cy0Z = o,

it is seen that if U pass through the fixed point (XjYiZi), the locus of the
centre of the circles which pass through a fixed point and cut the circle
ABC orthogonally is the straight line whose equation is

Xjaa + Y^/3 + ZjCy = o.

The equation of the orthogonal circle passing through two fixed
points (X^ZO, (X.2Y2Z2) is

X YZ

X2Y2Z2

= o.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 319.

Hogg. — On Orthogonal Circles. 585

Suppose the centre of the orthogonal circle to lie on the line

pa + qB -f r-y = o at the point (-,-,- ), where A + u + v = o. The

\p q r J

equation of the circle will be

^X + >xbY + vCZ = o,
p q r

showing that the circle passes through the pair of inverse points deter-
mined by the intersections of the circles

aX bY cZ

p ~ q ~ r "

Hence the theorem "All circles having their centres on a given line
and cutting a given circle orthogonally pass through two fixed points
which are inverse with respect to the given circle."

Let A^C1 be a triangle inscribed in the circle ABC and circum-
scribed to the Brocard ellipse of the triangle ABC.

If X + fx + v = o, the trilinear ratios of A1, B1, C1 may be taken as

r-i -> -)> (-. -i v)> (-' v -) respectively, for each of these ratios satis-
A fj. v) \fji v A/ \v A fxj

fies the equation of the circle ABC, and the line joining B1^ is

~ + £- + % = o, the envelope of which is V - + V r + ▼ - = o.
aX Ofx cv a b c

Let three circles be described cutting the circle ABC orthogonally,
each circle passing through two vertices of the triangle A^C1. The
centre of the circle through B^1 is the pole of B1^ with respect to the
circle ABC, hence the trilinear ratios of the centre (a060y0) are

H-H+'Wx-HM^H)]

and the tripolar equation of the circle is

( _j+MW + (i-MW + (M-i)«-.;

\ A jx vf \A fx v / \A fx v J

i.e., -S^-Sa-f-Sg = o,

A fX v

where Si = - a2X + blY + o2Z.

Hence the envelope of the system of orthogonal circles is

Vs; + \/sT3 + VS3 = o.

It may be remarked that Sj = o is the equation of the locus of points
whose pedal triangles are right-angled, the vertex of the right angle lying
on BC.

The radical centre of the three orthogonal circles is the svmmedian

point of the triangle ABC, for if L, =— + ^- + --, L2= -- -f f- -|- X
r ° aX. b/x cv a/x bv ck

L, = — + ~ + — , then the radical axes of the circles in pairs are
av bX Cfx

L2 — L3 = o, L3 — Lj = o, L2 — L2 = o,

and it is at once seen that the equations of these lines are satisfied by the
co-ordinates (a, b, c) of the symmedian point.

586 Transactions.

The locus of the centres of these circles is the conic whose equation is

111

+ + 5 = 0-

o c c a a b

This conic is the locus of points whose polars with respect to the triangle
formed by the tangents to the circle ABC at the vertices A, B, C pass
through the symmedian poiut of the ti-iangle ABC.

To find the envelope of the circles cutting the circle ABC orthogon-
ally and having their centres on the curve whose equation is

Consider the points whose trilinear ratios are

(-, -i v)' (-» T' -)' where A + /* + v = o.

\fX V A/ \V A fJi/

These points lie on the circle ABC, and the equations of the tangents to
the circle at them are

-[A2 +r V + LXl = 0.

a b c

a b c

These lines will meet at the point

a : (3 : y = a (A4 - /*V2) : b (^ - v2X2) : c (v4 - Ay2),
which, since A2 — /xv = /a2 — vX = vl — \fx, reduces to

a : p : y = a (A2 + pv) : b (^ + vX) : c (/ + A/*).

For the locus of the intersections of the tangents we have

cab

b c a

giving . . _ __ a2 _ £y . f? _ ya . y2 _ a/3

A • ** a? be' V ca' c2 aV

and hence the locus of the intersection of the tangents is

The equation of the orthogonal circle may therefore be taken to be

a2 (A2 + fiv) X + b2 (/x2 + vX) Y + c2 (v2 + A/*) Z = o ;

or, writing — A. (it + v), — fi (v -f A), — v (A + //,) for A2, tr, v2 respectively,
the equation of the circle is

fj.v (- r/2X + /rY + c-'2Z) -f rA (a2X - b2Y + c2Z)
+ A/x («2X + 62Y - c2Z) = o,

the envelope of which is
(-a2X + Z>2Y + c2Z)4 + (a2X - b2Y + c2Z)* + (a2X + //2Y - c2Z)i = o.

Hogg. — On Orthogonal Circles. 587

Let O be the pole of a conic S circumscribing the triangle ABC, and
let P, Q be the extremities of a chord of the conic passing through O.
If circles be drawn with their centres at P. Q and cutting the circle ABC
orthogonally, they will intersect each other on the circle whose centre is
at O and which cuts the circle ABC orthogonally.

Let 0 / ' , g , h

S =J- + % + - = o ;
a (3 y

and let X + fx. -+- v = o and A1 = /* — v, fj} = v — A, v1 = A — /x. We see
by inspection that the two points wiiose triiinear ratios are (j-, -, -J,

(t, I,-) lie on S. The equation of the chord PQ is
VA1 fj} v1 )

Ut' + rfi + ^-o,

which is satisfied by (/, g, h) — the co-ordinates of the pole of the conic S.

The circles having their centres at P, Q and cutting the circle ABC
orthogonally will be

a/X , bgY chZ

A }jl v

a/X i bgY , chZ
and for their intersections we have

afX : bgY : chZ = — -. r:_n fv : ^— r — tt- = XA1 : uu1

J /av1 ^v i/A1 vxA A.//.1 AV rr

IT1

since /xv1 — /aV = vA1 — i^A = A/u1 — A1/* = — 2 (A2).

Hence the locus of the intersection of Sj and Sa is

a/X + bgY + c/iZ = o,

a circle having its centre at the pole (/, g, h) and cutting the circle ABC
orthogonally.

If a circle cutting the circle ABC orthogonally meet the latter at the
extremities of a chord passing through the symmedian point of the
triangle ABC, it will pass through the two points whose pedal triangles
are equilateral.

Any chord of the circle ABC which passes through the symmedian
point (a, b, c) of the triangle ABC may be written

a b c

where A + ^ -f- v = o.

The co-ordinates of the pole of L with respect to the circle ABC
are given by

a : fi : y = a\ : by. : cv ;

hence the equation of the orthogonal circle is

Aa2X + n&Y + vc%Z = o.
Its form shows that it passes through the pair of inverse points given by

a2X = b2Y = c2Z.

588 Transactions.

If P be one of the two points in the plane of the triangle ABC whose
pedal triangles are equilateral, then AP sin A = BP sin B = CP sin C ;
hence the points determined by the above equations have their pedal
triangles equilateral. It is at once seen that this pair of points lies on
the Brocard diameter whose tripolar equation is

a2 (b2 - c2) X + 62 (c2 - a2) Y + c2 (a2 - b2) Z = o.

We now proceed to find the equation of the circle cutting the nine-
point circle of the triangle ABC orthogonally.

Let D, E, F be the middle points of BC, CA, AB respectively, and
let Xa = PD2, Yj = PE2, Zj = PF2, where P is a point whose tripolar
co-ordinates are (X, Y, Z), then

2XX = Y + Z - |2

b2
2Y, = Z + X - -

SZ, = X + Y - |2

Let U — — aa. + fy3 + cy — o, V = aa — b(3 + cy = o, W e = aa + b(S
— cy = o, be the equations of the sides of the triangle DEF, and let
(a0/30y0) be the co-ordinates referred to the triangle ABC and (^(3^) the
co-ordinates referred to the triangle DEF of the centre of a circle cutting
the nine-point circle orthogonally, then

act! = U0, 6ft = V0, cyi - W0.

The equation of the circle referred to the triangle DEF is

aajXj + b(31Y1 + cyiZx = o,
and this, when referred to the triangle ABC, becomes

U0[y + Z-|2]+Y0[z + X-|2] +W0 [x+ Y-0-2] =o;

*■*■' aaQX + b(3QY + c7oZ - \ (a2U0 + b^Q + c2W0),

which reduces to

aaQX + 6/?0Y + c7oZ = 2R a (a0 cos A + /3C> cos B + y0 cos C).

The envelope of circles having their centres on the circle ABC and
cutting the nine-point circle of the triangle ABC orthogonally is

«(X --^bc cos A ] + hi Y - ^ca cos Bj" + c ( Z - ^ab cos Cj = o.

If circles be described cutting the nine-point circle orthogonally and
having their centres at the vertices of a triangle inscribed in the circle
ABC and circumscribed to the Brocard ellipse of the triangle ABC, their
points of intersection will lie on the curve

+ -^^ ,+^-^ t-o.

a?(x - | be cos A\ b* (y - ~ ca cos b\ c2 (z - I ab cos c)

Hogg. — On Orthogonal Circles.

589

Let Uj be the result of substituting in (i) X^Zi for X, Y, Z
respectively. Let a circle concentric with U = O pass through the point
whose tripolar co-ordinates are (X1Y1Z,), and let r' be the radius of this
circle, then

Ux = aa.X, + 6&Y, + cy0Zx - 2RS0 - 2 a r2

O—aa^ + b^Y, + cy^ - 2RS0 - 2Ar'2,

and therefore Ui = 2 A (r'2 — r2) = 2 Af2, where t is the length of the
tangent from (XjYxZj) to the circle U = O.

Let tlt t2, t3 be the tangents to the circle aa0X + bft0Y + cy0Z = o
from A, B, C respectively, then

2a^2= bpoc2 +c7ob2

+ cy0a2

2 A *22

aa0c

Hence

2Ai32 = aa062 + 6/?0a2

2a =aa0 +6)8° +cy0

^2 o c2 62

£>2 c2 o a2

o,

t2 62 a2 o
1111

which, on expansion, gives the following relation connecting the lengths
of the tangents from the vertices of a triangle to any circle cutting
orthogonally the circumcircle of the triangle, viz., —

t? sin 2A + t? sin 2B + t3a sin 2C = 4 a .

If t', t", t'" be the lengths of the tangents to an orthogonal circle
from the middle points of the sides of the triangle ABC, then

2Ar2 = aa0m12 + |2(5/30 + cy0)
•2 A t"2 = bfoll2 + -r (c7o + aa0)

2At'"* = cy0ma* + I(aa0 + bft),

where mu m2, m3 are the medians of the triangle ABC. Hence

2 a (t'2 + tm + t"'*) = aaQ \m? + — f-j + 6& (w22 + — ~— j

2 , «8 + &2

= aa.

3 (62 + c2)

+ cy0 (ni? +

7 „ 3 (c2 + a9) - b2 3 (a2 + b2) - c2

;)

+ *&

+ Cy0

4 - -r-o 4 - -,o 4

also 2 a (V + C- + f32) = aaQ (b2 + c2) + b/30 (c2 + a2) + cy0 (a3 + 62).

Hence

2 a 1 2 it2) - 2 (t'2) \ = j (aaQ + b£0 + c7o) 2 (a2) ;

i.e.,

2(t1*)-S(t'*)=±3l(a*).

590 Transactions.

Art. LV.- — The Longitude, Latitude, and Height of the Hector Observatory,

Wellington, New Zealand.

By C. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer of the

Dominion of New Zealand.

[Rend before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 28th October. 10 N.}

(A.) Longitude.

1. In 1883 the difference of longitude between the Sydney Observatory,
Australia, and the Mount Cook Observatory, Wellington,* New Zealand,
was determined by means of the electric telegraph. The late Mr. H. C.
Russell, Government Astronomer of New South Wales, observed at Sydney,
and Mr. C. W. Adams, Geodesical Surveyor, observed at Wellington. The
difference of longitude was found to be lh. 34m. 16-984s. + 0-020s.f

2. A point 198-38 links due north of the Mount Cook Observatory is the
initial point of New Zealand surveys. J

3. From this origin, and on the meridian of Mount Cook, the co-
ordinates of the Bolton Street Observatory and of the Hector Observatory
have been determined by Mr. J. D. Climie, Inspector of Surveys, Lands
and Survey Department. These co-ordinates are, —

Mount Cook initial

Bolton Street Observatory, transit instrument

Hector Observatory, transit instrument . .

4. From the co-ordinates in 3 the differences of longitude, latitude,
and azimuth have been calculated, using Clarke's 1880 Spheroid and Tables
of Geodetic Factors, || with the following results : —

North.

West.

Links.

Links.

0-00

0-00

1077-90

2081-94 §

8518-50

3535-03

Mount Cook initial - Bolton Street Ob-
servatory
Mount Cook initial - Hector Observatorv

Long.

— Differences of —
Lat.
/ //

Azi.
//

s.
1-200
2-037

1 12-238
0 55-550

11-875
20-165

* For the information of readers who have no local knowledge of New Zealand, it
ought to be stated that the " Mount Cook Observatory " was demolished shortly after
the observations were made in 1883, and a gaol built on the site; it was situated on a
small knoll in the southern part of Wellington City, and had no connection with
"Mount Cook," the highest mountain in New Zealand (12,349ft. high).

t C. W. Adams : " Report on the Surveys of New Zealand for the Years 1883-84,"
Appendix No. 1, p. 3. Wellington : George Didsbury, Government Printer, 1884.

J Plan of Mount Cook Observatory, Wellington, in above report.

§In Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1902, vol. 35, p. 441, Mr. Thos. King quotes 2097-2 links
west. This was the position of the dog-vane on the Bolton Street Observatory, and
not that of the transit instrument.

|| C. E. Adams : Rep. Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., p. 93, 1904; Dunedin.

Adams. — The Hector Observatory.

591

Bolton Street Observatory
less Bay

Doubtless Bay - Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island - Southport

Southport - Sydney

Doubt- )

5. In 1903-4 Dr. Otto J. Klotz* determined a number of transpacific
longitudes, and included in his work Sydney, Southport, Norfolk Island,
Doubtless Bay, and Bolton Street Observatory. The resulting differences
of longitude and observers were, —

Differences of Longitude. Observers.

0 5" 08-941+ 0-045 |^+om^fing'

( Otto Klotz.

Otto Klotz,

F. W. 0. Werry.

F. W. O. Weny,

Otto Klotz.

(Otto Klotz,
0 08 50-495 ± 0-016 H. A. Lenehan,

IW. E. Raymond.

0 22 15-000 + 0-021

0 58 01-364 ±0-008

H. m. s. s.

.. E.

1 34 16-984 + 0-020

.. W.

0 0 1-200

. . W.

0 5 8-941 +0-045

.. W.

0 22 15-000 + 0-021

.. W.

0 58 1-364 + 0-008

.. W.

0 8 50-495 + 0-016

6. These observations give the complete circuit between Wellington
and Sydney direct, and between Wellington and Sydney via Doubtless
Bay, Norfolk Island, and Southport, thus

Sydney-Wellington (Mount Cook)
Mount Cook - Bolton Street
Bolton Street - Doubtless Bay
Doubtless Bay - Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island - Southport . .
Southport - Sydney

Giving an error in the circuit of 0 0 0-016s.

7. The error 0-016s. is distributed over the differences of longitude,
giving the following values : —

Sydney-Wellington (Mount Cook)
Mount Cook - Bolton Street . .
Bolton Street - Doubtless Bay
Doubtless Bay - Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island -Southport . .
Southport - Sydney

8. To determine the longitude of Wellington (Mount Cook), the difference
Sydney- Wellington is applied to the longitude of Sydney.

The longitude of Sydney is given (a) as lOh. 4m. 49-54s. in the " British
Nautical Almanac," 1914; (b) as lOh. 4m. 49-355s. using Klotz, p. 194;
and (c) as lOh. 4m. 49-366s. using Klotz, p. 194, Albrecht's adjusted value
for Potsdam. |

9. Hence the following values for Wellington, Mount Cook Observatory : —

H. m. s.
From 8(a) . . . . . . . . 11 39 6-526

From 8 (b) . . .. .. .. 11 39 6-341

From 8(c) .. .. .. .. 11 39 6-352

H. m. s.

. . E.

1 34 16-986

. . W.

0 0 1-200

. . W.

0 5 8-931

. . w.

0 22 14-998

. . w.

0 58 1-363

. . w.

0 8 50-494

* Otto J. Klotz : Report of the Chief Astronomer for the year ending 30th June,
1905; Appendix 3; Ottawa, 1906. Otto J. Klotz: Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1906, vol. 39,
Article 2, p. 49 ; Wellington.

t Th. Albrecht : " Astronomische Nachrichten," No. 3993.

592 Transactions.

10. Another value for Wellington is obtained from the Canadian value
of Norfolk Island, of —

H. ra. s.

11 11 41-146 (Klotz, p. 197).
0 22 14-998 Paragraph 7.

Doubtless Bay .. .. 1133 56-144

0 5 8-931 Paragraph 7.

Bolton Street .. .. 11 39 5-075

0 0 1-200 Paragraph 7.

Wellington (Mount Cook) .. 11 39 6-275

11. The adopted value for the longitude of Wellington, Mount Cook,
is llh. 39m. 6-31s. (=174° 46' 34-65") ; Mount Cook-Hector Observatory,
2-04s., giving llh. 39m. 4-27s. (= 174° 46' 4-05") as the adopted longitude
of the Hector Observatory.

(B.) Latitude.

12. The latitude of the Hector Observatory is derived by triangulation
from that of the Mount Cook Observatory, the latitude of which was deter-
mined by Mr. C. W. Adams in 1883 by zenith telescope observations of
99 pairs of stars from the Melbourne General Catalogue for 1870.

13. The latitude of the Mount Cook Observatorv is S. 41° 18' 0-59*
+ 0-05".*

14. The latitude of the Mount Cook initial is S. 41° 17' 59-30" from
3 and 4.

15. The latitude of the Hector Observatory transit pier is S. 41° 17'
3-75//, applying the difference in latitude in 4 of 55-55s.

(C.) Height.

16. The height of the top of the transit pier at the Hector Observatory
was determined by the Public Works Department, by careful levelling from
the tide-gauge at the Wellington Harbour Board Wharf ; and was found
to be 415-643 ft. above the mean sea-level determined by the harmonic
anaylsis of the tide-gauge records for the year 1909.

* C. W. Adams : Surveys of New Zealand, Report for 1882-83, p. 11. Wellington :
Government Printer.

Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song.

593

Art. LVI. — New Zealand Bird-song: Further Notes.
By Johannes C. Andersen.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November, 1914.]

The figures accompanying this article contain the new notes observed since
publication of the paper in the Transactions of 1912 (Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 45, p. 387). As before, for convenience of reference, the variations
in the notes of each species of bird have been numbered consecutively
from (1) onwards, the earlier numbers appearing in the Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 41, p. 422; vol. 43, p. 656; and vol. 45, p. 387: reference
is at times made to these earlier-numbered variations. The notes
from the bush in the vicinity of Hokitika were noted at a time when
the birds were not yet in full spring song — from the middle of July,
through August, and into the first week of September, 1914 — the
weather being generally fine, but with only two or three really warm days.
Those noted during the summer of 1913-14 are from the Stony Bay Bush,
Banks Peninsula. This bush had been preserved uncut from the time of
settlement of the Peninsula ; but old Mr. Boleyn dying last year, the sons
have now commenced the destruction of the bush, a sawmill being erected
in 1914. When notes were heard on one day only, the date on which they,
were heard is given.

The Tui.

There was little variation of song in 1913-14, and few birds singing.
The common theme was as in (80). The full theme was heard only twice
or three times; more often it discontinued at the double bar at 3, this
portion of the song occupying three to four seconds in utterance ; less often

(80B)

£

J wok ee

'TPWi <<*&

iiffl'1

(so?)

V-

Hi

(80V(

m

±*z

&WX

(so?)

7>P7>

r

tt **■

■

1 **

^ '■f

)

i

/

/

c//ek

(SO?)

^

M

it included all up to the double bar at 4. The sound of the notes was flute-
like, the last ones only being susceptible of vocalization. The final two
notes were often uttered alone. The parts of the theme numbered 3 and 4
were extremely varied, as shown in (80a) to (80g) inclusive. Whilst singing,
the bird sat with head thrust out and upwards until the kraw was uttered,
when it was lowered and thrust downwards, and kept down for the second
four notes : these were almost always four in number ; occasionally three
or five. The themes in (81) and (81a) are variants made by using the notes

594

Transaction*

of part 3 in (80) preceded by runnel notes in triplets. The reedy note (82)
was a ninth higher than the note of last year as in (38) : it was heard on
most days, but only occasionally. The triplets in (83) are a variant of
the theme (69), one of the runnel songs : it was uttered in about a second.
No. (84) is part only of a bubbling song. Though only about 50 ft.
away from the bird, the first part was barely audible, and was led up to
by a soft click : clicks were interspersed if the song was long continued.

ifva. ..

23 -12- /3

gznz

(82)

g

^g

9 B B B

■';e-oo /re-oo ke-ao

(SS)

&

2 8 "tr~a~ ..-.-'

• TTrtfrtrr

S-3-14

Ck)

and (84) is only part of the song heard. The latter part was more deliberate
and much louder, in comparison, than the former, yet still very soft and
sweet. This seemed a greater effort to the bird than the ordinary song ;
the head was thrust well out and upwards, the throat quivering right round
the neck and down to the breast ; the beak was partly open at times. The
theme noted occupied about three seconds. The foregoing are all from
Boleyn's Bush, but these delightful sounds are now being banished by those
of the axe.

The notes of (85), uttered softly like the notes of the bubbling song,
were sounded whilst the bird dropped with closed wings from a height into
the tree : they occupied little over a second. Many bubbling songs were
heard on occasional days, differing from those recorded, but they were not
repeated often enough for their sequence to be caught and noted. The
sounds kree, kraw, krurr, tsrr, and other unmusical sounds, were never heard
at Hokitika ; and, instead of the common bell notes of the Peninsula, a
guggle on d was sounded (86), the sound being that of a wooden mallet
striking a bell quickly.

The Bell-bird.

During the summer of 1913-14 only one bell-bird was seen in the Stony
Bay Bush, but no note whatever was heard. In the bush on the south side

gin?

tt2)i

cr ■- g r g r g

&

&

I

y/ir

36-9- r*

AAA

m , y *

of the Hokitika Eiver, a mile from the town, the pleasing cheery theme of
(22) was heard on several occasions. In (23), heard at Bluespur, the pro-
longed/ was a vibrato containing four or five notes.

Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song.

595

The Grey "Warbler.

No. (21) is rather a little soliloquy than a song : it sounded tentative,
as if the bird were trying its voice, and might break into song at any part
of this uncertain prelude ; but the song rarely followed. The opening
was varied as in (21a), and the whole was sung more softly than the ordinary
song. The usual rambling indeterminate song was heard many times on

<*'>l> JjN* y»"

J J J ■ J aiEiaBaEali J J J

ggnigfejgjig

*-*-*

■ etc.

°w^

2s~a — - --- ••••••" i "i" I " r ' 1

2 8va.

&#xe£i

U=¥^

2S*

ff-g- lO.

(ZSJ

tttUtifl

the West Coast, and a few new definite themes were noted. That of (22)
was repeated, twice or more in succession, and was heard on different days
at Mahinapua ; (23), heard at Bluespur, was repeated several times, as were
(24), the opening varied as in (24a), and (25) ; the last two themes were
heard at Fisherman's Creek, opposite Hokitika, on the south side of the
The notes of (24a) were at times sounded alone.

river.

The Yellow-breasted Tit.

The ordinary song (1) was varied as in (8), at Stony Bay Bush, the song
occupying about two seconds. The variation (9), one and a half seconds,
was heard at Fisherman's Creek, Hokitika.

« -3 -A*.

M

a

2*1

<pA aA esA eA &

2***

t

U A

A -^—^

fs)

■"

■

■

9 am

9

6S

*i~ ■

U7/

*F

"#

ff

e*

s5

-—fe*

The Long-tailed Cuckoo.

This was not heard in 1913-14 ; but whilst at Hokitika I was several
times conversing with Mr. J. Cunningham, surveyor, who has had long
experience in both North and South Island bush, and he informed me that
on one occasion he was camped on the western slope of a sharp ridge
between Coromandel and Thames : hearing a great twittering, and attracted
by its unusual sound, he investigated, and found large numbers of long-
tailed cuckoos gathered together. Suspecting they might be assembling
for migrating, he watched all night, but they remained that night and next
day, when still more came, till they were there " in hundreds." He watched
next night too, but knew he must have dozed for a short time, as in the
morning all were gone : they must have left between 2 o'clock and dav-
break.

596

Transactions.

The Shining Cuckoo.

Five years ago the notes of (1) and (2) were taken down, and the bird
noted as unknown, as it was elusive and would not permit itself to be seen ;
but on speaking to another North-Islander I discovered the notes were
those of the shining cuckoo. They have been heard every year in Boleyn's
Bush, Stony Bay, being noted on the 28th December, 1913, as in (3). The
notes start fairly loudly, in a clear open whistle, and gradually increase in
loudness, dying off on the final slur ; the interval of the slur varies, as in-
dicated. In each couple of notes the first is accented, the second staccato.
The number of upward slurs constantly varies. The theme (3) may be
whistled independently, or continued into (4) or (5) ; and again (4) and (5)
may be whistled independently. The Maori called the shining cuckoo " the
bird of Hawaiki," as though they had known it before their migration to

Sr<x

- (Z)

— ^ — 0 — {*****/ /-"nesj 9- —

(4

*A * A >,A ? *1 >'A

*y *y *z£ *y ivfr «

%

f

r

Stra-

TLTi^

^z

J N^J V«P^

-¥-•

-f^-m

*•/":

J J J y J j

S-ra.

M

a

g j i ;j a j, &=&}

/■/'«

f-it-t /-,}

^1

e/c e-Ac -

New Zealand : it is hardly probable that they knew of its migratory habits
— at any rate, it is not known that they knew of them ; and, as regards
the long-tailed cuckoo, they said, through probably they did not believe,
that as the cold days approached the bird cast its feathers and took on the
shape of a lizard, changing to a bird again as the warm summer nights caused
a new growth of feathers. They say the cry of the shining cuckoo changes
as the days grow warmer, from kui kui te ora, kui kui te ora, to witi ora, witi
ora. The variants (4) and (5) were more frequent on hot north-west days,
and on those days the bird seemed most lively in song ; the upward slurs
of (5) might be vocalized wit, and all the downward slurs tin, but I have
heard no notes that could be vocalized either kui kui te ora or witi ora.

The Haurikiriki.

In the bush close to Hokitika I heard the theme (4), and thought I
recognized the slurred note, though the others, except in quality, were new.
There were several birds, feeding and travelling together : one would start
the song, others would join in on the second or third note, and all the birds,
apparently, come in on the slur. It was a bright, cheerful call, and as soon
as I saw the singers I recognized them at once as the bird I have doubt-
fully called a hedge-sparrow in previous notes : some have suggested it may

Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song.

597

be a brown creeper. I described the bird and its call to Mr. Cunningham,
the surveyor, and he said it was known in the North Island as the hauriki-
riki, and that its liveliness was always a sign of spring and a spell of fine

01TO-- •

»l *pf FC'T

<xcce/-

gVTL

(S)

Jyj > ■ j v j j v* Jv^y=

r<s

'£

g » <r^

JJJJjVr^ff^^^g

weather. The song (6) was heard in the Stony Bay Bush on the 13th
January, 1912, and other days : the full song only occasinally ; more
often it would break off after the first or second slur. In the achromatic
drop ending the song seven or eight notes were sounded, so there may
be intervals here even less than quarter-tones ; the run had the sound of
whistling through water, and occupied about one second.

The Bush-canary.

I saw one bush-canary whilst travelling on the coach towards Kanieri
Township, and it uttered the pleasant slurred note (1), which sounded very
like the familiar sweet of its cage namesake.

(0

tr

Srve&f-

The Blight-bird.

The common call, always heard when the bird moves about searching
for food, is as in (3), a clear, plaintive slur.

Z8V^' ; . Z8'

A soft conversational call

<*)

(4) was heard at Mount Misery, Hokitika, whilst two birds sat in a tree
preening themselves and moving about : it was the faintest twitter, barely
audible, though the birds were only 10ft. to 12 ft. distant.

The Sea-marten (Tern).

Two sea-martens, or sea-swallows, were flying above the shingly Hokitika
River bed on the 6th September, 1914, uttering the notes in (4) and (5

(+J

~#r

■y &~

tsit

7377 TsTF

(e)

zri £r.

-trz.i

,1

Q 7 Q

sometimes the single whistling notes of (4), and sometimes a single vibrato
drop from c to a (five notes to the vibrato) uttered more loudly. The notes

598 Transactions.

differ slightly in pitch from those recorded on the Fork River bed, Mackenzie
Plains, in 1910. When the birds flew nearer, the tsit sounded on g. One
plunged into the water, was under for about a second, and emerged uttering
the cries of (6) very forcibly : the Jceeahk sounded like a cry of aggravation.

Addendum.

Mr. C. Howard Tripp, of Timaru, has been good enough to send the
following note on tuis singing in harmony :—

" Though I was brought up close to native bush, and amongst native
birds, particularly the tui, or parson-bird, I have only twice heard them
singing in harmony, and have only met one other person who had also heard
them. The first time was many years ago when camping in the bush up
the gorge of the Orari River, when, shortly after sunrise in the summer
holidays, about fifty or more tuis in the trees over and adjacent to our tent
commenced to sing in most perfect harmony, and continued to do so for
fully half an hour, and without leaving their perches. The second occasion
was at the Orari Gorge homestead, a few years later, again on a bright
sunny early summer morning ; but then the harmony lasted for only about
five minutes. As the bush near the Orari used to be favourite places for
tuis, I have, of course, many times heard large numbers of tuis singing
together, and have listened attentively for this harmony, but failed to
hear it. Captain Cook, in his ' First Voyage,' describing Queen Charlotte
Sound, writes as follows : ' The ship lay at the distance of somewhat less
than a quarter of a mile from the shore ; and in the morning we were
awakened by the singing of the birds ; the number was incredible, and
they seemed to strain their throats in emulation of each other. This wild
melody was infinitely superior to any that we had ever heard of the same
kind. It seemed to be like small bells most exquisitely tuned, and perhaps
the distance and the water between might be no small advantage to the
sound.' Sir Walter Buller, I notice, in his noted book on ' The Birds of
New Zealand,' quotes the above in the description of the makomako, or bell-
bird. I am inclined to venture to doubt his correctness. If Captain Cook
had spoken of slightly muffled bells I should have said that Captain Cook
was listening to a similar harmony of tuis that I have heard twice, and
not the makomako. You will notice that both the occasions I heard the
harmony, and when Captain Cook did, was early morning. If any of the
members have ever heard a similar harmony I would be much obliged if
you would communicate with me."

I have not heard tuis singing in harmony in the way described by Mr.
C. H. Tripp in the above note, but from the nature of many of the notes
both of the tui and bell-bird it must often happen that, when numbers of
the birds are singing, harmony will emerge from the body of sound. If
the notes of such tui themes as (63) and (67) on page 389, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 45, or such a bell-bird theme as (22) recorded in the present
volume, be sounded, it will be found that they form perfect chords ; so
that however many birds were singing, and no matter in what sequence
the different notes were sung by the different birds, the result must be
harmonious, whether the birds intended it or not. Mr. Tripp inclines to
the opinion that the birds heard by Captain Cook whilst lying in Queen
Charlotte Sound were tuis, rather than bell-birds ; but, so far as my limited

Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song. 599

experience goes, they might have been either, or both in concert, for both
have notes and themes to which Captain Cook's description might apply.
Whilst much of the harmony heard is probably not produced intentionally.
I think it quite as probable that occasionally it is intentional, for I have
on one occasion heard a duet between a tui and a bell-bird, as recorded on
page 666, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43. There was absolutely no doubt of the
fact, for both birds were in view, sitting in the same tree, and the bell-bird
repeatedly came in at the right moment — on the very beat. The tui sang
his bell notes, and at once the bell-bird sang his theme to the bass of the
tui's aurr aurr.

Art. LVII. — Notes on Nothopanax arboreum, with some Reference to the

Development of the Gametophyte.

By Elizabeth M. Pigott, M.A.

Communicated by Professor H. B. Kirk.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 28th October, 1914.]

General Notes.

Closely allied to the order Umbelliferae is the order Araliaceae, differing
from it chiefly in being arboraceous in habit and tropical in distribution,
though it is found in Japan, Canada, north-west America, and New Zealand.
Among other differences between the two orders is the presence of usually
three or more carpels in the ovary. In SchefpZera digitata, a New Zealand
species, there are five carpels. This plant also bears its flowers in strongly
scented racemes. In another New Zealand member of the order, however,
Nothopanax arboreum, the appearance of three carpels, though not un-
common, is not usual : it usually produces only two. Moreover, the fruit
does not, as in Umbelliferae, split up into separate mericarps, but remains
somewhat fleshy when mature. The three orders, Umbelliferae, Araliaceae,
and Cornaceae, agree in having the ovules solitary in each carpel. Bracts,
also, are absent in Nothopanax arboreum, though, indeed, they are not
always present in all members of Umbelliferae. There are no vittae in the
seed.

Life-history of Nothopanax arboreum.

Nothopanax arboreum usually begins life as an epiphyte on tree-ferns,
though one was observed growing on the felled stump of a large timber-
tree. Young seedlings are, however, quite able to grow on the ground,
and frequently do so in nature when sufficient light is available on the
ground. The plant was not observed to bear flowers while still an epiphvte.
In the epiphytic trees roots are given off often at a great height. These
seek the ground, clinging closely to their support. Later they completely
envelope the host, as in rata, and when the host dies away the plant remains
as a Nothopanax tree.

600

Transactions.

Juvenile Forms.

The mature fruit-bearing form has leaves 5-7-f oliate, with serrate edges .
The seedlings show, however, that, as in many other New Zealand plants,
this condition is not the original one. The cotyledons are usually small
and rounded (occasionally longer and narrower), with entire margins
(fig. 1, A). These remain till eight leaves are formed. The first foliage
leaves are unifoliate, and, though produced singly, can easily be regarded
as pairs. They are larger than the cotyledons, and have serrate margins
(fig. 1, A-E). Four other pairs of leaves are produced closely resembling
these, but when the sixth pair is produced it is found to be trifoliate, the

Long narrow cotyledons

Stem ridged
4-sided

FlG. 1. — Stages in leaf -development in Xothopanax arboreum.

two lateral leaflets being much smaller than the terminal leaflet. The
seventh and eighth pairs are also trifoliate (fig. 1, F-G). When the ninth
pair appears it is seen to be 5-foliate (fig. 1, H). The terminal leaflet is the
largest, and the two lowest the smallest, as in the trifoliate leaves. In the
mature forms the leaves are 5-7-foliate, and this condition is attained at
about this stage ; some when they have achieved the 5-foliate condition do
not alter further, others form 6- or 7-foliate leaves straight away (fig. 1, I).
In the specimens examined the variations were for the most part constant,
though in one or two the sixth pair of leaflets was normally trifoliate,
the seventh returning to the unifoliate condition.

Pigott. — Notes on Nothopanax arboreum. 601

Inflorescence.

The inflorescence of Nothopanax arboreum is composed of compound
umbels, three times divided. These spring from the tips of the branches,
and are shorter than the leaves. Quite often two peduncles spring laterally
from below the origin of the others. The number of branches in each umbel
is very irregular — the primary peduncles numbering from twelve to fifteen,
the secondary branches from fifteen to thirty, and the actual flower-pedicels
from five to fifteen. Though very irregular in number, these stalks are
very uniform in length. In some of the male trees examined the peduncles
and pedicels were much flattened.

Male Tree.

The plant is dioecious, male trees bearing brown rounded buds with five
microscopic sepals, five petals, five stamens, and a gynoecium with two
carpels and two style-arms. The petals, which are valvate in the bud,
are brown on the outer surface and greenish-brown on the inner, small, and
pointed. The stamens have large anthers packed upright in the buds, and
there are corresponding depressions in the disc to accommodate their bases.
They alternate with the petals. The style-arms are two, upright in the bud,
small and thick, which diverge when the flower opens. The buds are pro-
tected in the young stage by masses of colourless mucilage, which later
falls away. This is said to arise from hairs which are developed with the
flower-buds. In about three months (April-June) from their first appear-
ance the buds open. The petals expand like a star, the filaments of the
stamens lengthen considerably till about as long as the petals, and the
stigmas diverge somewhat. They possess a red colour, which was also seen
while in the bud.

Pollination.

The flower soon becomes distinctly scented, and small quantities of
nectar are seen on the disc. They are then visited by blow-flies, and very
occasionally by bees. The latter, however, on account of the length of the
proboscis, cannot make use of the nectar. A short time after the opening
of the flower the ovaries become compressed, and often much deformed.
When all the pollen is shed, an absciss layer is formed at the base of the
receptacle, and the flower is cast off. Later the pedicels and peduncles
are also cut off. The ground below male trees becomes strewn with flowers,
especially after rain.

On one male tree examined there was found an umbel of seven well-
formed fleshy fruits, with two seeds each. Also, later in the season
(September), when the crop of male flowers had all fallen, an inflorescence
of hermaphrodite buds was found on the same tree.

Compression of the receptacle is accompanied by a swelling in the ovary-
wall, but the ovule itself withers before the flower falls.

Female Trees.

On female trees the buds are compressed from very early stages, and
consist of an enlarged receptacle enclosing the ovary and a small perianth-
cap consisting of five microscopic sepals, five petals (smaller than those
of the male plant), usually five staminodes (though it is not uncommon to
find that there are four or only three formed) . These staminodes have very

602 Transactions.

short thick filaments and two anther-lobes as in the stamens of the male
flower. Certain cells are seen, under the microscope, to form mother cells of
the pollen-grains but in no case examined were actual pollen-grains formed.
The gynoecium in the female flower consists, as in the male flower, of
two carpels each with a single ovule and two style-arms. Sometimes buds
with three carpels are found. The ovary is then triangular, with slight
depressions between the ridges. In the flowers with two carpels the ovary
is compressed. In one tree observed the buds and fruit" were mottled,
green and brown, while in all others they were brown, the colour being
constant for each tree.

Opening of Flower.

When the flower is about to open, one of two methods is adopted : either
the perianth is shed without opening as a cap — that is almost invariable in
the mottled variety — or the petals may open as in'the male flowers. Enclosed
within the perianth-cap thus shed are the staminodes. When the petals
are spread they do not persist, the typical flower consisting only of sepals
and the gynoecium. The two stigmas diverge shortly after the flower
opens, and the petals are smaller than those of the male flower. In the
female flower there is no scent ; nor have any insects been seen visiting the
flowers in search of nectar or pollen, though nectar is produced in small
quantities. Occasionally there are three carpels, with the corresponding
styles and stigmas. The ovary is then triangular. Intermediate stages
were often noted in which there were three carpels, but only two well-formed
styles, the third being nearly abortive. In others, again, only two carpels
were formed, with their respective styles, occupying positions as in the
trilocular ovary. This seems to bear on the gradual evolution of the
V 'mbelliferae among the Archichlamydeae making for combined simplicity
of structure and effectiveness in achieving pollination.

An article on " Floral Evolution " which appeared in the New Phyto-
logist, vol. 10, April, 1911, p. 113, points out the importance of progressive
reduction in the number of ovules in each carpel. In U mbelliferae the climax
of economy is reached in the invariable production of one ovule only for
each carpel. The article goes on to show the importance of floral aggrega-
tion in economy, and also of the inferiority of the ovary. In the matter of
aggregation and in bicarpellarity of the ovary Nothopanax seems to mark
an advance on another member of its order, Scheffiera digitata. In the
matter of insect- visits it does not appear to have attained any distinction.

In the female flower of Nothopanax arbor eum the disc may grow up as
a conical structure, but usually it remains more or less flat. Pollen-grains
have been seen on the stigmas and in the axils of the pedicels and peduncles.
In some ^ases the grains were undoubtedly those of Nothopanax arboreum,
but in no case was a pollen-grain seen to germinate. No nectar is produced
in the conical-disced flowers ; there is, therefore, little or no apparent
reason why insects should visit the flowers.

The plant is the food plant of the caterpillar of a moth, Declaim
artronivea. This caterpillar is mottled like the fruit among which it lives,
and is therefore protected from attack, being very difficult to detect. On
the trees bearing brown fruit a very similar brown caterpillar was found.
Being unable to move from tree to tree, the caterpillar cannot assist in
pollination.

All the flowers of the inflorescence are of the same value and structure
both in male and in female plants. In this respect Nothopanax differs

Pigott. — Notes on Nothopanax arboreum. 603

from manv of the Umbellijerae which have reached the advanced stage
of having hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers in the same umbel. There
the hermaphrodite flowers open before the unisexual (male) ones of the
same umbel. In Nothopanax arboreum the outer flowers of the umbel
open first. Geitonogamy is here not possible, as the pedicels separate the
flowers too much.

Pollen.

The pollen-grains are boat-shaped, with three radiating grooves. A
few experiments were made with the pollen-grains. An attempt was made
to pollinate the male flowers (pseudo-hermaphrodite) with pollen from their
own stamens, with pollen from stamens of adjacent flowers of the same
umbels, from different umbels, and from different trees — with no result.
All fell at about the same time as the other male flowers.

Several attempts were also made to germinate the pollen-grains in a
sugar solution of about 10 per cent., but none was successful.

Flowers of the female tree were also protected with muslin to ensure
against external pollination. Only one of these bunches remained, held
by a thread of cotton, and in it the flowers had one and all withered and
fallen. The other bunches had, apparently, all fallen. The flowers are
evidently cross-pollinated. Their own stamens being functionless, these
flowers exhibit physiological femaleness.

Some of the hermaphrodite buds found on the male tree were protected
while yet unopened, several of them being under one enclosure. These
opened and formed the early stages of fruit while under the muslin quite
as well developed as those outside. Of these hermaphrodite buds, three
or four only hSd withered, as had also some of those unprotected, confirm-
ing the opinion that some few were pseudo-hermaphrodite male flowers
as the normal flowers on the tree, which they closely resembled. These
hermaphrodite flowers all opened and spread their petals and stamens.
The filaments were shorter than those of the male flowers. Both petals
and stamens were cast off later, leaving the flower with the characteristic
appearance of the female flower. There is the difference here, however,
that pollen-grains are actually formed.

There is no definite arrangement of hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers
in the umbels. In those umbelliferous plants in which there are pseudo-
hermaphrodite male flowers and true hermaphrodite flowers — e.g., Venus's
comb— the latter open first, the former not until the latter have cast their
stamens and petals. Directly the petals open in these hermaphrodite
flowers, a finely granular honey-secreting disc and two short styles are
revealed in the centre of the flower. The stigmas mature, but the stamens
are incurved like hooks.

The fruit of the previous season remains on the tree for some time after
the flowers open. Later it falls in whole clusters, though the individual
fruits are easily detached. The receptacle is enlarged and fleshy, and
contains two seeds protected in a hard pericarp.

Stamens.

The anthers are large and versatile, 2-lobed, with two pouches to
each lobe. Dehiscence takes place by longitudinal slits. The inner cells
of each lobe are highly granular and protoplasmic. They become free
from their neighbours while still enclosed in their cell-walls. Each
mother cell forms a tetrad of pollen-grains, which are finally liberated

604

Transactions.

in the anther-sac. They are three-sided in cross-section, and have,
when ripe, a pale-yellow colour. The external wall is marked by regular
sculpturings, in addition to three prominent longitudinal ridges. The cells
bordering the connective tissue and the epidermis do not form mother cells,
but form the tapetum — a layer which becomes disorganized, helping in
the development of the pollen-grains. Each pollen-grain consists of two
cells, with clear nuclei, which can occasionally be seen through the walls.
Development here is the typical development of a dicotyledon. In the
male flowers the anthers are yellow, but in the female flower the staminodes
never lose their greenish colour. The anthers become broken off, and often
all that is left is a portion of the thickset filament alternating with the
petals.

Stigmas.

The stigmas are bifid, the outer surface of each lobe being protected
by a continuous epidermis. The inner surfaces, however, on diverging,
present a slightly papillate stigmatic surface (fig. 2). The cells immediately
below the stigmatic surface are vertically long and narrow, with thin walls,
and are ioosely packed. In many sections this tissue tended to break down,
owing to its delicacy. It thus facilitates in every way the entrance of a
pollen-tube ; yet in no case was one seen, even when pollen-grains were ob-
served on the stigma. The style-arms, still in their divergent position,

Fig. 2. — Stigmatic surfaces and tissue of style of mature fruit. X 175.
Fig. 3. — Longitudinal section of portion of young fruit, showing X-snaPec' mass of
thick -walled tissue at the base of the style. X 28.

persist through the formation of the fruit, but are, of course, relatively
much smaller. The tissues of these arms, surrounding the central column
of long cells, comprises a cylinder of loose irregular cells. In some cases
the tissue below the style was of thick-walled regular cells, the thickening
being of cellulose. The characteristic shape of this mass of tissue was that
of an inverted stool, the disc extending towards the funicles of the ovules.
This tissue was not observed till after the earliest stages in the development
of the endosperm (fig. 3).

Ovary-wall.

Very shortly after the male flowers have all fallen the ovary of the
female flower begins to increase greatly in size, and microscopic examination
showed that the cavity of the ovary is lined in the young flowers and buds

Pigott. — Notes on Nothopanax arboreum.

605

of both male and female plants by transversely elongated cells, rectangular
in longitudinal section. These cells are at first from five to nine layers deep,
but the number of rows increases with further development, extending almost
to the axial bundle in the fully grown fruit. In the young buds and flowers
the carpels are seen to be oval in cross-section. Soon, however, this shape
is altered, owing to the appearance of longitudinal ridges traversing the
cavity on both sides near the middle. The cavity is thus almost divided
into two compartments, and presents a dumb-bell shape in cross-section.
In the male flower this wall does not achieve any great thickening of its
cell- walls, although the ridges are formed (fig. 4). In the female flower
the ovarv-wall gradually thickens its cell-walls, which later become ex-
tremely hard and wooden (fig. 5). The cells are fairly regular in shape
and position, being arranged in rows. In the thin-walled stage they have
protoplasmic contents, and usually a single nucleus, though occasionally
two or more have been noticed. The end walls of these cells are at right
angles to the lateral walls, although, at the curves in the ovary-wall, from

fv.b.

Fig. 4. — Longitudinal .section of ovary-wall in young male and female flowers with
unthickened cell-walls, x 175.

Fig. 5. — Longitudinal section of ovary-wall in mature fruit with much-thickened cell-
walls. X 175.

Fig. 6. — Cross-section of developing ovary-wall, showing frayed cell-walls and multi-
nucleate cells. X 175.

the irregular manner in which the cells here fit into each other, the ends
appear to be more or less tapering. These long cells of the wall are inter-
rupted by columns of parenchyma cells at the outer edges, and at the axis
connecting the two carpels, running between the two branches of the axial
fibro-vascular bundle. Near the top these parenchyma cells extend right
to the cavity of the ovary, but for the greater part of the length of the ovary
at least one layer of woody cells is continuous. As the cavity enlarges,
the inner layers of cells become stretched to their utmost capacity, and
are often frayed in the process (fig. 6). In the mature ovary the only dis-
continuity in this wall is seen at the origin of the funicle and arillus, where
their place is taken by large-celled parenchyma.

606 Transactions.

In the female flower, even in cases where one ovule is aborted, the wall
becomes thickened, though no stage has been noticed in which it has done
so if neither of the ovules matured. Some of the flowers had withered and
fallen, from no apparent mechanical injuries, and this pointed to the con-
clusion that when neither of the ovules reached maturity the flower was
cast off by an absciss layer being formed at the base of the pedicels.

Ovule.

Coming now to the development of the ovule, we find a pendulous ovule,
the funicle arising from the axial placenta, not, as at first appears, from the
top of the ovary. The ovules turn from each other, as is usual. In the
young buds examined the ovules had not completely achieved the anatropous
condition typical of the mature form. The micropyle is in these young
stages seen to be wide, and situated laterally, being almost at right angles
to the funicle. Later, by unequal growth of the cells of the funicle, the
ovule becomes truly anatropous. The micropyle is then almost entirely
roofed over by the arillus, a structure arising from the funicle. This in
the young bud is as large as the body of the ovule itself, and presents there
a rounded bulgy appearance (fig. 8). Its cells are larger than those of the
funicle from which it springs. As the flower develops, the cells of the arillus
are seen to acquire a radiating appearance, while the outer cells become
papillate (fig. 16). As the ovule reaches maturity these cells collapse and
the whole structure degenerates. It does not increase much in size through-
out the life of the ovule. It is present in both male and female flowers,
and is also seen in the hermaphrodite flowers. Here it has not the rounded
character, as in the male and female flowers, formed earlier, but it is more
gently sloping. In the female flower it completely overarches the micropvle
of the ovule, its papillate cells seeming to lead to the micropyle.

Integument.

As in UmbeUiferae generally, there is only one integument. In the
young ovule it is seen on both sides of the nucellus, from which it is entirely

Fig. 7. — Longitudinal section of ovule in male bud, showing crescent-shaped integu-
ment. X 175.

Fig. 8. — Longitudinal section of ovule in male bud, showing arillus and undifferentiated
nucellus. X ] 75.

free, leaving a very wide micropyle. In some male buds sectioned the
arillus formed the largest part of the ovule, the integument being scantily
developed and crescent-shaped in longitudinal section (fig. 7). Later the

Pigott. — Notts on Nothopanax arboreuin.

607

Fig. 9. — Longitudinal section (slightly tan-
gential) of ovule, showing general effect
of the invaginations of ovule-walls.
X28.

integument grows up. and encloses the nucellus while yet an undifferenti-
ated mass of cells, leaving the micropyle now long and narrow (fig. 8).
The integument where it borders the funicle becomes very closely con-
nected with it. The cells are angular, deeper above the nucellus than at
the sides. In the young ovule the
ir.tegument constitutes a large pro-
portion of its size, but when endo-
sperm begins to be formed, and the
ovule increases greatly in size, the
integument becomes thinner, and
spreads over the surface of the
rapidlv growing ovule. The body
of the ovule undergoes many con-
tortions, forming invaginations al-
ways lined by the integument. The
ovule has thus a very large surface
area compared to its volume. Two
chief and characteristic invaginations
correspond to the ridges in the
ovary - wall. There are, however,
other smaller invaginations with
which there seems to be no corre-
spondence in the wall of the ovary.

Soon the micropyle gives the appearance of being plugged up by the in-
tegument, though this may be due to an invagination immediately below
it. The cells of the integument are small, and, in the young ovule, uniform
in size. During development, however, there are seen one or two layers
of much larger, thin-walled cells between the ordinary cells of the integu-
ment and the nucellus. These are interrupted at the base, and do not
extend quite to the micropyle. They form, therefore, a hollow irregular
cylinder open at both ends. These cells are irregular in shape. Their
origin was not determined (fig. 13). The demands made upon the integu-
ment in the growing ovule by the formation of so many invaginations are
quite sufficient to explain its rapidly increasing thinness (figs. 12 and 17).
In ovules in which endosperm has been fully formed, the integument consists
of cells of two kinds — large outer cells, usually one or occasionally two cells
deep. These are turgid, and contain a diffuse green colouring-matter.
The inner cells are several cells deep, regular in outline, and with dense
protoplasmic contents. The large cells before mentioned (fig. 12) render
the connection between the integument and endosperm easily severed,
and the two can be easily separated under the dissecting-microscope when
the endosperm has reached the " milky " stage. The integument in the
seed is brown, and consists of a single layer of large cells (fig. 21). When
the section is through the floor of an invagination the cells of the integument
are seen to be large and regular. In the seed (when it has been removed
from the wall of the ovary, which breaks away from the tissue of the
receptacle to enclose it) there are seen to be two chief invaginations.

Nucellus.

The nucellus consists at first of an undifferentiated mass of cells loosely
surrounded by the integument. The next stage obtained in sectioning
was the archesporial stage, in which a central cell of the nucellus had divided

608

Transactions.

into a tier of four cells not separated by cell-walls (fig. 10). Both ovules in
the bud showed exactly the same stage in development. This stage was
also seen in other buds, but all were male. No corresponding stage was
observed in female buds of the same date. The female buds also showed
that both ovules were at the same stage in development until the opening
of the flowers, when often one is aborted. In flowers with three carpels
one or two may be aborted or all may mature. In any case, all the carpels
are developed, and the fruit appears normal externally.

Fiu. 10. — Longitudinal section of ovule in male flower.
Fig. 11. — Cross-section of same stage. X 175.

Archesporium. X 175.

The nucellus finally consists of a single row of cells, regular and rectangular
in both cross and longitudinal sections. It is drawn up, the micropyle
leaving the embryo-sac exposed. The contents of the embryo-sac in these
early stages were not made out. There was, however, a possible indication
of synergidae and a probable ovum, though there was no appearance of
antipodal cells.

Hypostase.

At the base of the embryo-sac, supporting it and interrupting the
nucellus, was found a funnel-shaped structure consisting of cells resembling
those of the nucellus, but staining less deeply with Erhlich's acid haema-
toxylin. They had clear walls and large nuclei (figs. 12 and 13). This
structure was identified with the hypostase which Van Teighem notes in
Rosaceae and allied polypetalous dicotyledons. He says, " It consists of
a small cupule of isodiametric cells which have strongly lignified but not
much thickened membranes, and is found in the nucellus below the embryo-
sac, its object being to arrest the longitudinal growth of the embryo-sac
and endosperm towards the base of the ovule. Owing to its strong ligni-
fication, it resists the various diastatic agencies at work during the formation
of the embryo and endosperm, and for the same reason is incapable o-
growth. Hence it appears in the ripe fruit exactly as in the pistil, but, being
relatively much smaller, it is difficult to find. By arresting the basal deT

Piqott. — Notes on Nothopanax arboreum.

609

velopment of the endosperm it protects^ from destruction the region of the
nucellus between itself and the chalaza.j^ This in the ripe seed is intercalated
between the integument and the endosperm or embryo. Hence in those
cases?a' 'greater or less amount oi'Jperisperm is formed."

Fig. 12. — Longitudinal section of embryo-sac, showing
position of hypostase and large inner cells of the
integument, arillus, and relative size of the ovule
and ovary-cavity near the beginning of the forma-
tion of endosperm, x 28.

Fig. 13. — Lower portion of 12. X 175,

The hypostase found in Nothopanax arboreum was traced for some time
after the formation of endosperm, but was lost sight of later, and could not
be seen in the seed. In many radial longitudinal sections in the endosperm
stage the hypostase could not be seen at all.

Embryo-sac.

Many intermediate stages in the development of the embryo-sac were
missed, owing to the extreme difficulty of sectioning the hard-walled ovary
with the ovule in situ. Every precaution was taken. In the younger ones
the base of the ovary-wall was cut immediately and before fixing. Later,
when the ovule had achieved full size, it was removed from the ovary, and
fixed in acetic acid, in place of osmic chromic formerly used. A vacuum
process was also adopted. The results were, on the whole, better.

20— Trans.

610

Transactions.

en.

nu

m.

en.

ar

i.n.v.

16

Fig. 14. — Longitudinal section of embryo-sac (female^flower), showing early stages in
development of endosperm before the appearance of an embiyo. X 175.

Fig. 15. — Longitudinal section of ovule (female flower), showing continuous endosperm
and no embryo. X 28.

Fig. 16. — Longitudinal section of ovule (female flower), showing early invaginations
of integument, also arillus. X 28.

f.v.b

e n.

18

Fig. 17. — Longitudinal section of ovule, showing fibro-vascular strands

traversing the endosperm. X 28.
Fig. 18. — Fibro-vascular strand. X 175.

Pigott. — Notes on Nothopanax arboreum.

611

Endosperm.

The early stages in the development of endosperm were seen, in which
the nuclei had become scattered through the vacuolate protoplasm. Later,
cell- walls were formed about them (fig. 14). By successive division of the
cells a dense endosperm is finally formed. This endosperm is continuous
through a number of consecutive sections both radial and tangential, the
only visible discontinuity being a very small break just below the micropyle
in one section (fig. 11). There was no appearance of any embryo in any of
these sections. It thus seems that here we have the formation of continuous
endosperm before any pollination was observed and before the appearance
of anv distinct embrvo.

In several cases of endosperm viewed under the dissecting-microscope
there was the appearance of fibro- vascular strands traversing the endosperm.
This was also confirmed in several ovules sectioned. The fibro-vascular
strand is branched, and consists of annular xylem elements and phloem
elements with large elongated nuclei and square ends to the cells. The
fibro-vascular bundle of the funicle has annular vessels and phloem elements,
but no connection was established between the two (figs. 17 and 18).

Embryo.

At the earliest stage at which an embryo was observed it already con-
sisted of several cells — five to seven concentric rings of regular cells wholly
embedded in the endosperm (figs. 19 and 20). It was very small, and was

Fig. 19. — Longitudinal section of ovule, showing embryo (e)

immersed in endosperm, x 28.
Fig. 20. — Longitudinal section of embrvo. X 175.

situated near the funicle, though whether at the micropylar or antipodal end
is uncertain owing to the complete disappearance of the micropyle. In
Umbelliferae generally, the hypocotyl points to the top of the ovule; in

20*

612

Transaction*.

Nothopanux arboreum the cotyledons, borne on the lengthening hypocotyl,
point towards the [integument where it is nearest, and away from the
funicle.

A cross-section of the embryo of the seed shows the cot}''ledons, which
are concave on their inner surfaces, and the body of the embryo showing
delicate cell wa' Is, which are not clearly defined. In a seed which had lain

Fig. 21. — Cross-section of seed with embryo. X 28.

Fig. 22. — Cross-section of embryo cotyledons. X 175.

Fig. 23. — -Longitudinal section of embryo from seed. X 175.

in the ground apparently for a whole season, and was found among seed-
lings, the ovary-wall pericarp was softening, but the embryo had achieved no
very great size. Seeds which were planted for three months showed no
signs of germination.

EXPLANATION OF LETTERING IN FIGURES.

a. archesporium.

ar. arillus.

c. cotyledons,

e. embryo.

e.s. embryo-sac.

era. endosperm.

fu. funicle.

f.w. frayed walls of broken-down lining

cells.

fv.b. fibro-vascular bundle.

j'v.b.e. fibro-vascular bundle in endo-
sperm.

hy. hypostase.

in. integument.

inv. invagination.

l.i. large oells in integument.

lig. obliquely placed cells with lignum!

walls.

lin. cells lining cavity of ovary.

m. micropyle.

n. nucleus,

raw. nucellus.

o.c. ovary-cavity.

o.w. ovary-wall.

p. phloem.

par. parenchyma cells.

s. sepal.

st. stigmatic surfaces.

t.s. tissue of style.

xy. xylem.

Hetherington. — Record of Borings at Horotiu.

613

Art. LVIII. — Record of Borings at Horotiu, near Ngaruawahia.

By J. R. Hetherington.

Communicated by D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 16th December, 1914.]

Horotiu is seventy-eight miles south of Auckland, and the railway-station
there is 78 ft. above sea-level. Four separate bores were sunk in the hope
of discovering workable coal-seams. They were located at spots generally
about 20 ft. below the level of the railway-station. Bores I and II reached
a depth of 446 ft. and 450 ft. respectively. The latter ended at an old
beach formation filled with well-preserved marine shells. The data given
below belong to Bores III and IV, which were put down on Mr. Gallagher's
land. Bores I and II gave off abundant inflammable gas, and also threw
up|water at a high pressure.

Bore

No. Ill

.

The depths are in feet and inch*

Ft.

in.

Ft.

in.

0

6

Black soil.

0

6 to

6

Subsoil.

2

6 ,

8

6

Shingle.

8

6 ,

, 23

6

Sand.

23

6 ,

, 28

6

Firm white pumice.

28

6 ,

, 48

6

White clay and swamp mixed.

48

6 ,

, 51

10

Sand.

51

10 ,

, 81

0

Blue fireclay and shingle.

81

0 ,

, • 93

0

Hard pumice.

93

0 ,

, 103

0

Swamp and timber.

103

0 ,

, 117

0

Hard sandstone.

117

0 ,

, 120

0

Brown fireclay.

120

0 ,

, 129

0

Sand.

129

0 ,

, 139

0

Pumice.

139

0 .

, 172

0

Light fireclay.

172

0 ,

, 176

0

Dark fireclay.

176

0 ,

, 181

0

Brown fireclay.

181

0 ,

, 212

0

Blue fireclay and marl.

212

0 ,

, 226

0

Sandstone.

226

0 ,

, 244

0

Running sand.

244

0 ,

, 265

0

Blue fireclay.

265

0 ,

, 265

6

Very hard sandstone.

265

6 ,

, 273

6

Blue fireclay and marl.

273

6 ,

, 278

6

Lignite.

278

6 ,

, 349

0

Blue fireclay.

349

0 ,

, 360

0

Blue fireclay and poor coal.

360

0 ,

, 366

0

Very soft mud.

366

0 ,

, 400

0

Sand.

400

0 ,

, 408

0

. Blue fireclay and poor coal.

408

0 ,

, 416

0

Blue fireclay.

614;

Transactions.

-

I

Sore No. Ill — continued.

Ft.

in.

Ft.

in.

416

0 to 430

0

Brown fireclay.

430

o ,

, 433

0

Lignite.

438

0 ,

, 435

0

Very soft sand and mud.

435

0 ,

, 468

0

Blue fireclay.

468

0 ,

, 473

0

Coarse sand.

473

0 ,

, 480

0

Brown fireclay.

480

0 ,

, 532

0

Blue fireclay and lignite.

532

0 ,

, 543

0

Strata of sand and soft countr\

543

0 ,

, 552

0

Blue fireclay and lignite.

552

0 ,

, 573

0

Very soft sand and mud.

573

0 ,

, 610

0

Lignite and soft mud.

610

0 ,

, 640

0

Sandstone.

Bore No. IV

■ (B

ecord starts at 640 ft., the strata above be

as in Bore III.)

Ft.

in.

Ft.

in.

640

0 t

o 643

0

Sandstone.

643

o ,

, 687

0

Soft running sand.

687

o ,

, 688

0

Stratified sandstone.

688

o ,

, 700

0

Blue fireclay.

700

o ,

, 714

0

Brown fireclay.

714

o ,

, 735

0

Sand.

735

o ,

, 740

0

Brown clay.

740

o ,

, 752

0

White clay.

PROCEEDINGS.

617

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE,

1914.

TWELFTH ANNUAL MEETING.

Wellington, 29th January, 1915.

The annual meeting of the New Zealand Institute Board of Governors was
held in the Parliamentary Buildings on Friday, the 29th January, 1915,
at 10 a.m.

Present : Professor C. Chilton, President (in the chair), Dr. L. Cockayne,
Professor Easterfield, Mr. C. A. Ewen, Professor Parr, Dr. Hatherly, Mr. H.
Hill, Professor Kirk-, Professor Marshall, Mr. D. Petrie, Professor Segar,
Mr. R. Speight, Mr. G. M. Thomson, Dr. Allan Thomson, Mr. A. H
TurnbulL and Mr. K. Wilson

Change in Representation. — The Secretary announced that the only
change in the representation on the Board was that caused by the election
of Professor Segar as representative of the Auckland Institute in place of
the late Mr. James Stewart.

Apologies for Non-attendance. — Apologies for non-attendance were received
from the Hon. H. D. Bell, Minister of Internal Affairs, and from Professor
von Zedlitz.

The late Mr. Stewart. — On the motion of Mr. D. Petrie, seconded by
Mr. H. Hill, it was unanimously resolved that the Board of Governors of
the New Zealand Institute record their appreciation of the services to the
Institute of the late Mr. James Stewart, C.E., of Auckland, and express
their regret at his loss.

President's Address. — The President then read his annual address. (See
p. 626.)

Reports of the Incorporated Societies. — The annual reports of the incor-
porated societies were laid on the table. — r^)3ived.

618 Proceedings.

Standing Committee's Report.— The annual report of the Standing Com-
mittee was received, as follows : —

Report of Standing Committee.

Five meetings of the Standing Committee have been held during the past year,
the attendance being as follows : Professor Chilton, 4 ; Dr. Cockayne, 4 ; Professor
Easterfield, 4 ; Mr. Ewen, 2 ; Mr. Hill, 1 ; Professor Kirk, 4 ; Professor Marshall, 1 ;
Dr. Petrie, 1 ; Mr. Stewart, 1 ; Mr. G. M. Thomson, 2 ; Dr. Allan Thomson, 2 ; Mr.
Turnbull, 1 ; Mr. Wilson, 1 ; Professor von Zedlitz, 4.

Hector Memorial Award. — The presentation of the medal to Mr. Elsdon Best took
place in the Town Hall, Wellington, on the 5th September, 1914, the President, Pro-
fessor Chilton, making the presentation.

Deed of Trust. — The alteration of the Hector Memorial Deed of Trust to make it
rigidly conform to the conditions laid down by the Hector Memorial Committee when
handing over the fund to the New Zealand Institute has now been completed. The
firm of Chapman, Skerrett, Tripp, and Blair submitted a draft of the proposed amended
deed, which was referred to a sub-committee, consisting of Professors Easterfield and
von Zedlitz, who reported to the Standing Committee on the 27th June, 1914, as
follows : —

" The Committee set up to report on the letter dated the 20th March from the firm
of Chapman, Skerrett, Tripp, aud Blair, and the draft resolution enclosed therewith,
beg to report as follows : —

" 1. The latter part of the letter in question made it appear that in the opinion
of the legal expert the Governors were to take into consideration the scientific work
done in some particular year. Mr. Skerrett has been further consulted on this point,
and in a letter dated the 1st May makes it clear that the investigation in any particular
subject, so as to qualify for the prize, may take place in any year or number of years
preceding the year in which the prize is awarded.

" 2. The Committee has carefully compared the draft resolution amending the
regulations and the draft deed of covenant submitted by the Institute's legal advisers
with the conditions imposed by the Hector Memorial Committee before the funds were
vested in the Institute. They detected certain minor discrepancies, and suggested
to Mr. Skerrett that these should be rectified. Mr. Skerrett agreed to this in his letter
of the 1st May, 1914, and the committee is now of opinion that the deed should be
executed."

The amended deed was duly executed by the President and the Public Trustee
on the 31st July, 1914.

Hutton Memorial. — The presentation of the Hutton Memorial Medal to the recipient
for the year 1914, Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., was made at the same time as the Hector
Medal. The research grants made at the last annual meeting to Messrs. Hilgendorf (£10)
and T. Hall (£20) were duly paid.

Publications.- — Volume 46 of the "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute" was
issued on the 15th June, 1914, and was laid on the table of the House of Representatives
and that of the Legislative Council on the 23rd July, 1914.

Bulletin No. 3, Part II, " Studies in the Bryology of New Zealand," by Mr. H. N.
Dixon, was issued on the 7th September, 1914.

Bulletin No. 1, Part IT and Part III, "Description of New Genera and Species of
Coleoptera" was issued on the 20th May, 1914. Part IV is now in the press.

Finances of the Institute. — The incorporated societies have been duly circularized
in connection with the motion of the Hon. Treasurer, Mr. C. A. Ewen, at the last annual
meeting, which reads, "That, in terms of Regulation 5, section (e), the Institute, on and
after this date, will require from each of the incorporated societies a contribution of
2s. 6d. per member," to which motion Professor Marshall moved the following amend-
ment, which was carried : " That the question raised in the motion be referred to the
different Institutes for consideration and report." Replies of a favourable nature have
already been received from the Otago Institute and the Wellington Philosophical Society.

British Association Reception Committee. — Arrangements had been made to publish,
in co-operation with the Reception Committee, the proceedings of the Congress, but,
as it was found impossible to hold the meetings, no further action was taken. A report
of the Committee will be published elsewhere.

Decisions of the Standing Committee. — The only other decision of the Standing Com-
mittee that is of any importance is that the amount of the Hector Prize for 1914 shall
be £45.

Twelfth Annual Meeting.

619

Annual Reports of Societies. — The annual reports and balance-sheets of the following
societies have been received: Auckland Institute, to 19th February, 1914; Manawatu
Philosophical Society, to 31st October, 1914; Philosophical Institute of Canterbuiy,
to 31st October, 1914; Wellington Philosophical Society, to 30th September, 1914;
Nelson Institute (Scientific and Literary Branch), to 31st March, 1914; Wanganui
Philosophical Society ; and Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute.

Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Francisco. — An exhibit of all the publications of
the Institute avadable, and those of the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, was got
together and handed over to the Secretary to the New Zealand Government Com-
missioner to the Panama Exposition for exhibition in the New Zealand Pavilion.

Memorial to the late Mr. Hamilton. — The Wellington Philosophical Society early
last year undertook to collect funds for the erection of a memorial to the late Mr.
Hamilton, Director of the Dominion Museum, and at the last meeting of the New Zealand
Institute Board ol Governors the action of the Wellington Philosophical Society was
approved. The committee appointed by the Council of the Wellington Philosophical
Society to deal with the matter now reports that the sum of one hundred guineas is in
hand, and has ascertained from Mr. Harold Hamilton that the wishes of the family are
that a stone should be erected on the grave at Russell. A plain monolith of Whangaroa
basalt is suggested, with a reference thereon to the late gentleman's keen interest in the
Maori race.

^ Leave of Absence. — During the year some changes were necessitated through leave
of absence being granted to the Hon. Treasurer and the Secretary, to enable them to
visit England. Professor G. W. von Zedlitz kindly undertook to carry on the duties
of Hon. Treasurer, and Dr. J. Allan Thomson acted as Hon. Secretary, and Mr. Leighton
was Assistant Secretary for six months.

,^ Numbers of Volumes of the Transactions in Stock. — During the year the custodian
has taken careful stock of the immense number of Transactions now stored in the cellar
of the Parliament Buildings, as well as a small number kept in the Museum for curreht
sales and exchange. The labour of turning over, examining, counting, and storing this
number of books, each weighing a few pounds, will be appreciated when it is seen that
the total amounts to 15,041 volumes.

The following is a complete list of the Transactions in stock : —

Number of
Copies.
549
r,32
.597
699
664
565
659
702
679
617
586
445
532
289
191
212
46
J 63
165
.47
58
73
273

The report was considered and adopted.

Hector Deed of Trust. — On the motion of Mr. G. M. Thomson, seconde'd
by Mr. K. Wilson, a hearty vote of thanks was passed to Messrs. Chapman,
Skerrett, Tripp, and Blair for the legal services which they have gratuitously
rendered to the New Zealand Institute in connection with the Hector Deed
of Trust.

Volume.

Number of
Copies.

Volume.

1 ..

.

24 .

2 ..

. Nil

25 .

3 ..

9 J

26 .

.

4 ..

'

27 .

5 . .

26

28 .

6 ..

6

29 .

7 . .

. 135

30 .

8 ..

. 14

3] .

9 ..

. 170

32 .

.

10 ..

. 188

33 .

.

11 ..

. 411

34 .

,

12 ..

. 330

35 .

.

13 ..

. 137

36 .

m

14 ..

. 104

37 .

.

15 ..

. 232

38 .

16 ..

. 319

39 .

17 ..

. 474

40 .

18 ..

. 295

41 .

.

19 ..

. • 485

42 .

20 ..

. 428

43 .

21 ..

. 495

44 .

.

22 ..

. 510

45 .

.

23 ..

. 590

46 .

.

620

Proceedings.

Financial Statements. — The Hon. Treasurer (Mr. C. A. Ewen) presented
his statement of receipts and expenditure, and statement of assets and
liabilities, for the year ending the 31st December, 1914, duly audited by
the Deputy Auditor-General ; and the Public Trustee's statements of the
Carter Bequest, the Hutton Memorial Fund, and the Hector Memorial
Fund, for the year ending the 31st December, 1914, duly audited by the
Deputy Auditor-General. All of these statements were, on the motion of
Mr. Hill, seconded by|Mr. Turnbull, adopted.

Statement oi Receipts and ^Expenditure (for the Year ending 31st [December,

1914.'

Receipts.

Balance at credit in Bank of
New Zealand

Government grant

Transactions sold locally . .

" Maori Art " sold

Bulletins sold

Authors' reprints

Wesley and Son, London :
Transactions sold

Refund by Customs, account
Dixon's bulletin

refunded by so-
cieties

Hector Memorial Award

Postages

■i s. d.

452 14 1

500 0 0

3 0 7

4 15 6
1 15 3

0 10 3

13 6 3

1 2 0

14 11 6

40 0 0

Expenditure.

Governors' travelling - ex-
penses

Fire - insurance premium,
library, £1,500

Secretary's salary. .

Assistant Secretary's salary

Custodian's salary, 1913-14

Compiling catalogue scientific
literature

Bank charge

Covers for posting Trans-
actions

Government Printer, account
vol. 45 and pamphlets . .

Hon. Editor, petty cash

Postage on Transactions . .

Whitcombe and Tombs,
stationery

Secretary, petty cash

Hector Award to Professor
Easterfield

£ s. d.

45 15 8

5 0 0

25 0 0

25 0 0

10 0 0

10 0 0

0 10 0

7 12 6

334 2 6

3 0 0

19 14 6

1 2 0
10 0 0

40 0 0

536 17 2
Balance in Bank of New

Zealand . . . . 494 18 3

£1,031 15 5

£1,031 15 5

Balance at credit of the Institute in the Bank of New Zealand, Wellington £494 18 3

Dec. 31.

Statement of Liabilities and Assets at 31 st December, 1914.

Liabilities. Assets.

To Balance due Government Printer

Cost compiling catalogue scientific literature

By Transactions, &c, sold, not paid for . .
Authors' reprints not yet paid for
Balance in Bank of New Zealand

Credit balance

By Balance

£ s.

.. 416 7

10 0

d.
3

0

£ s.

37*17

5 5

494 18

d.

8
5
3

426 7
111 14

3
1

538 1

4

£538 1

4

£538 1

4

£111 14

1

In addition to the above assets, the Institute has a large stock of Transactions for
sale, and possesses a very valuable library.

Twelfth Annual Meeting.

621

Carter Bequest. — Statement of Accounts, 3lst December, 1913, to 31st December,

1914.

By Balance as at 31st December, 1913
Debentures —

Prior lien debenture stock fractional scrip
A and B stock fractional scrip
Interest, N.Z. Loan and Mercantile Agency
Dividends, N.Z. Loan and Mercantile Agency
Public Trust Office, interest
To Public Trust Office, commission and postages
Balance

Dr.

Cr.

£

s.

d.

£ s. d.

3

,411 0 8

15 0 11
2 1 6

. • .

0 10 6

•

0 7 9
153 13 9

0

10

0

B t

.. 3,582

5

1

£3,582

15

1

£3

,582 15 1

By Balance

£3,582 5 1

Hutton Memorial Research Fund. — Statement of Accounts, 31st December, 1913,

to 31st December, 1914.

By Balance as at 31st December, 1913

Public Trust Office, interest
To Beneficiary's Account. New Zealand Institute —
Grant to J. Hall
Grant to Dr. Hilgendorf
Balance

Bv Balance

Dr.

£ s.

d.

Cr.

£ s.

721 5

31 10

d.
5
4

20 0
10 0

722 15

0
0
9

£752 15

9

£752 15

9

£722 15

9

Hector Memorial Fund.

■Statement of Accounts, 31st December, 1913, to 31st
December, 1914.

By Balance as at 31st December, 1913

Public Trust Office, interest
To Beneficiary's Account, New Zealand Institute : Award
to Professor Easterfield

Balance

By Balan g

Cost of Transactions. — On the motion of Professor Marshall, seconded
by Mr. Speight, it was resolved, That the Hon. Treasurer be asked to make
a statement of the cost of the volume each year of the New Zealand
Institute Transactions and Proceedings, and of other publications issued
by the Institute, for the last ten years ; and that a statement of the cost
of each volume be issued annually.*

Dr.

£ s.

d.

Cr.

£ s.
1,077 7

47 1

d.
3
3

40 0
1,084 8

0
6

, .

£1,124 8

6

£1,124 8

6

£1,084 8

6

* In accordance with this resolution the following return has been supplied by
the Hon. Treasurer : —

The cost of printing the last ten volumes of Transactions of the New Zealand
Institute is as follows-. Vol. 37 (1904), £276 9s. 6d. ; Vol. 38 (1905), £280 7s. 9d. :
Vol. 39 (1906), £359 18s. 6d. ; Vol. 40 (1907), £388 13s. ; Vol. 41 (1908), £461 14s 9d. ;
Vol. 42 (1909), £570 15s. 6d. ; Vol. 43 (1910), £412 10s. ; Vol. 44 (1911), £427 ; Vol. 45
(1912), £374 10s. ; Vol. 46 (1913). £323 5s. These amounts included the cost of printing
the Proceedings separate and with the volumes.

622 Proceedings.

Hutton Fund Grants for Research. — Reports from Dr. Hilgendorf and
Mr. T. Hall on the progress of the work for which grants were made to
them last year were received.

Grants for the Present Year. — Several applications for grants from the
fund, which had been received and referred to a special Committee, were
dealt with by that Committee, who recommended that £15 be granted
to Dr. C. A. Cotton as a contribution towards his travelling-expenses in
an investigation of the physiographic features of the New Zealand coast,
and £15 to Mr. W. R. B. Oliver, to defray expenses of travelling and ap-
paratus for a visit to Lord Howe Island, undertaken in November, 1913.

Hector Award Committee.— The report of the Committee of Award was
received, recommending the award for 1915 be made to Professor P. Mar-
shall for his work on the geology of New Zealand. The recommendation
of the Committee was unanimously adopted, and the President congratu-
lated Dr. Marshall, who suitably replied.

Publication Committee's Report. — The report of the Publication Com-
mittee was received and approved, as follows : —

Report of the Publication Committee.

The Publication Committee begs to submit the following report for the year : —
• Fifty-five papers were forwarded for the consideration of the Committee, and, of
these, fifty were published in the Transactions, vol. 46, which was issued on the 15th
June. It contains 436 pages, 12 plates, and a large number of illustrations in the
text.

Bulletin No. 3, Part II, " Studies in the Bryology of New Zealand," by H. N.
Dixon, M.A., F.L.S., was issued on the 7th September, and contains 43 pages and
2 plates, the blocks for which were prepared in England by West, Newman, and Co.,
under the superintendence of the author.

The two papers on New Zealand Coleoptera by Major Broun mentioned in last
year's report were issued as Parts II and III of Bulletin No. 1 on the 29th May ; a
further paper on the same subject is now in the press, and will shortlv be issued as
Part IV of Bulletin No. 1.

Sixty-eight papers have been sent in for vol. 47 of the Transactions, and a con-
siderable number of these are already in the hands of the printer.

At the last annual meeting of the Board of Governors two questions were referred
to the Publication Committee — viz., the possibility of issuing the Transactions more
frequently than once a year, and the advisability of recommencing the separate issue
of the Proceedings — which will be dealt with in separate reports.

For the Committee.

Chas. Chilton, Hon. Editor.

Publication of Proceedings. — The Publication Committee begs to report that it has
considered the question of reissuing the Proceedings separately, and considers the
Institute would not be justified in incurring the additional expense necessary during the
present crisis.

Publication of Transactions. — The Committee appointed to consider the question
of publishing the Transactions oftener than once a year begs to report that, as the
change would probably lead to some additional expense, it recommends that no action
be taken this year.

Major Broun's Work on Coleoptera. — The President read a letter from
Major Broun, and asked for instructions regarding a further paper. On
the motion of Professor Marshall, seconded by Mr. Petrie, it was resolved,
That the question of publishing Major Broun's paper on Coleoptera be re-
ferred to the Publication Committee to make all necessary inquiries and
to report to the Standing Committee before action is taken.

Twelfth Annual Meeting. 623

Librarians Report. — The Hon. Librarian's report was read and adopted,

as follows : —

Hon. Librarian's Report.

Owing to the congestion in the room, of the Museum, used jointly for the library
of the New Zealand Institute and of the Wellington Philosophical Society, it has been
found necessary to remove and store a large number of old books. This operation has
been delayed owing to the use of this room during the greater part of the year for other
Museum purposes, and is not yet completed, but it has enabled the majority of the
current journals to be assembled, tied up in volumes, and placed on the shelves. At
the same time I have introduced a partial geographical classification in the arrangement
of the journals, making it easier to trace and find them. I propose also to supply an
additional number of light ladders to enable more ready access to the higher shelves.
When these arrangements are completed the library will be much more easy to work
and use.

It must not be forgotten, however, that the placing of the volumes in the shelves
without binding is not only an unsatisfactory procedure, but is one that makes the
ultimate putting of the library in order a more difficult and costly matter with every
year that passes. As proposals regarding the library will come before the Board of
Governors in the form of a report from the Standing Committee, it is not necessary to
make any remedial suggestions at this juncture.

Library Committee. — It was proposed by Dr. Allan Thomson, seconded
by Professor Farr, That a Library Committee of three, including ^the Hon.
Librarian, be appointed. — Carried.

Dominion Scientific, Art, and Historical Library. — -The following report
was received from the sub-committee (appointed by the Standing Com-
mittee) to draw up conditions under which the library of the Board of
Governors should be offered to the proposed Dominion Scientific, Art,
and Historical Library : —

Conditions under which it is recommended that the Library of the New
Zealand Institute be handed over to the Board or Science and Art.

The Board of Governors hereby offer to hand over their library to the custody of
the Board of Science and Art, to form an integral part of the Dominion Scientific, Art,
and Historical Library as constituted under the Science and Art Act of 1913, on the
following conditions : — "

(1.) That the transfer of books do not take place until a fireproof building of modern
design has been erected for the housing of the books and a competent librarian has' teen
appointed to give his whole time to the management of the library.

(2.) That the library be a reference library, the books or periodicals of which do
not circulate for home use ; but that members of the New Zealand Institute shall have
access to the library at reasonable hours, and that any member of the New| Zealand
Institute who is engaged in research may, upon recommendation of two Governors of
the Institute, receive from the Librarian a special permit to take out): books; and
periodicals for home use.

(3.) That in the event of the Science and Art Board being disbanded, or its constitu-
tion being reorganized under a new Act of Parliament, the Institute have the right to
withdraw its collection of books in whole or in part from the Dominion Science' and
Art Library.

(4.) That the Board of Science and Art shall make provision in the new Dominion
Museum and Library building for a. board-room for the use of the Board of Governors
of the Institute,

Professor Easterfield presented the report, which was considered, and
on the motion of Mr. Ewen, seconded by Professor Kirk, it was resolved,
That the Board of Governors hereby offer to hand over their library to
the custody of the Board of Science and Art, to form an integral part of
the Dominion Scientific, Art, and Historical Library as constituted under
the Science and Art Act of 1913, on conditions to be agreed to by the
Institute and the Board of Science and Art, and that the transfer of the

624 Proceedings.

library do not take place until a fireproof building of modern design has
been erected for the housing of the books and a competent librarian has
been appointed to give his whole time to the management of the library.

A motion by Puefessor Farr, seconded by Mr. Petrie, That the question
of handing over the Institute library to the Science and Art Board be
referred to the various local Institute Councils for consideration, and that
these Councils be asked to report before June to the Standing Committe,
was losU

Professor Easterfield moved, and Mr. G. M. Thomson seconded, and it
was carried, That clauses (2), (3), and (4) of the recommendations of the
sub-committee be the basis upon which negotiations with the Science and
Art Board be based, and that these clauses be referred back to the Standing
Committee, with power to act.

On the motion of Mr. Petrie, seconded by Professor Marshall, it was
resolved, That the words "That the books handed over by the Institute"
be substituted for the first three words of clause (2), and that " these
books " be substituted for " the library " in line 3.

Finances of the Institute. — On the motion of Mr. G. M. Thomson, seconded
by Mr. Hill, it was resolved, That this Institute bring under the notice of
the Government the fact that its work is constantly hampered and limited
by lack of adequate funds, and urge that as early as possible the statutory
grant of £500 be increased to £750.

On the motion of Mr. H. Hill, seconded by Dr. L. Cockayne, it was
resolved, That the question of levy as recommended by the Treasurer be
deferred for consideration until the next annual meeting of the Institute.

Correspondence. — Correspondence was received as follows : —

Tongariro National Park. — A letter dated the 12th January, 1915, from
the General Manager, Tourist and Health Resorts, stating that action was
being taken to enlarge the boundary of the park, was received. It was
resolved, on the motion of Professor Kirk, That the letter be received, and
the matter be kept steadily in view by the Standing Committee.

Grasses of New Zealand. — A letter dated the 12th January, 1915, was
received from the Secretary of the Agricultural Department, to the effect
that the proposed work by Mr. Petrie would have to stand over until times
were normal again

Plumage Bill. — A letter dated the 1st December, 1914, from the Royal
Zoological and Acclimatization Societv of Victoria was received, and, on
the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by Mr. G. M. Thomson, it was
resolved, That the Institute again ask the Government to bring in a Bill
on the fines of the British Plumage Act.

Replies from Dr. R. McNab and Professor Engler in response to con-
gratulatory motions passed at the last annual meeting were received.

Gape Kidnappers Gannets Reserve. — A letter dated the 21st December,
1914, was received from the Under-Secretary of Internal Affairs, advising that
arrangements are now being made with the owners of the land to convey
the area to the Crown to be set apart as a reserve. It was resolved that
the thanks of the Institute be tendered to Mr. Gordon for his gift and to
the Government for its action.

Twelfth Annual Meeting. 625

Dr. Mortensen's Report on New Zealand Eohinoiermata. — The President
read a letter from Dr. Mortensen concerning the publication of papers
by him on the Echinodermata of New Zealand, and it was resolved, on
the motion of Professor Easterfield, seconded by Mr. Petrie, That the
Publication Committee be authorized to make arrangements for the publica-
tion of the work.

Cost of Illustrations in Transactions. — A report from the Secretary, with
quotations from London firms showing the cost of producing coloured
illustrations, was referred to the Publication Committee for consideration
and report

Fishes of New Zealand. — On bhe motion of Mr. G. M. Thomson, seconded
by Professor P. Marshall, it was resolved, That, in consideration of the
vast importance of the fishing industry, this Institute again brings before
the Government the desirability of having a catalogue of the fishes of New
Zealand prepared at as early a date as possible.

Thermal Regions of New Zealand. — On the motion of Mr. Speight,
seconded by Professor Marshall, it was resolved, That the Government be
urged to undertake the preparation of a complete scientific report on the
thermal regions of the North Island, and that the matter of choosing a
time for approaching the Government be left in the hands of the Standing
Committee, with power to act.

Honorary Member. — Dr. W. Bateson, F.R.S., was elected an honorary
member of the Institute.

Election of Officers. — The following officers for the year were elected :
President — Mr. D. Petrie ; Hon. Treasurer — Mr. C. A. Ewen ; Hon. Editor —
Professor C. Chilton ; Library Committee — -Dr. Cockayne, Dr. Cotton, and
the Hon. Librarian ; Hon. Librarian — Dr. J. Allan Thomson ; Publication
Committee — 'Professors Benham, Chilton, Farr, and Messrs. Speight and
G. M. Thomson ; Secretary — Mr. B. C. Aston ; Hector Award Committee
for 1915 — Professor Pollock, (Sydney), Professor Carslaw (Sydney), Professor
W. E. Cooke (Sydney), and Rev. Father Piggott (Sydney).

Salaries. — It was resolved that the Secretary's salary be the same as
last year.

Travelling-expenses. — It was resolved that the hotel and travelling
expenses of the Governors should be paid.

Date and Place of next Annual Meeting. — It was resolved that the meeting
be held on the last Friday in January, 1916, in Wellington.

Votes of Thanhs to the Hon. Editor and President (Professor Chilton),
to the Hon. Treasurer (Mr. C. A. Ewen), to the Hon. Acting-Treasurer
(Professor von Zedlitz), and to the Hon. Librarian and Hon. Acting-Secretary
(Dr. Allan Thomson), were passed.

Confirmed, 30th January, 1915. ^ „ ^ ■

D. Petrie, President.

626 Proceedings.

PEESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

The following is the presidential address delivered at the annual meeting
of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, at Wellington,
on the 29th January 1915, by Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.L.S.,
Professor of Biology, Canterbury College : —

Gentlemen of the Board or Governors of the New Zealand Institute, —
Before we commence the business of our meeting it is our sad duty to record the loss
of one of our number — Mr. James Stewart, C.E., of Auckland. Mr. Stewart had been
a member of this Board from its reconstitution in 1903, and was with us at our last
annual meeting, and, though well advanced in years, he appeared then in his usual health,
and followed the business with his customary care and keeness. Very shortly after
our meeting, however, he passed suddenly away. In the name of the Institute I sent
an appropriate message to his relatives, and a brief obituary notice was inserted in the
last volume of the Transactions. Our aged members must in the course of nature be
taken from us one by one, and, while we mourn their loss and rejoice in the results of
their labours, we should be reminded thereby of the greater responsibility that rests
on those of us that are left, and be stimulated to renewed effort while we still have the
opportunity.

Early last year we were able to join our scientific brethren of Australia in rejoicing
at the safe return from the Antarctic Continent of Dr. Mawson — now Sir Douglas
Mawson — and his companions, and later on we had the pleasure of hearing from his
own lips an account of the splendid results achieved notwithstanding the extraordinary
difficulties and dangers that were met with, and of getting a vivid and accurate idea of
life in the Antarctic from the exceptionally beautiful and varied series of pictures that
he was able to display. Judging from what I have seen of some of his collections, I feel
confident that the biological results of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition will equal,
if they do not surpass, those of any other Antarctic expedition in their interest and
completeness. I trust that Sir Douglas Mawson's endeavour to obtain sufficient funds
for the adequate publication of the results of his researches will soon be rewarded with
success.

But from Australia there comes also cause for sorrowful condolence. Some two
or three months ago the Commonwealth Federal Investigation Steamer " Endeavour,"
which has done so much good work in bathymetrical and biological observations round the
coasts of Australia, was sent on a mission to Macquarie Island, and has not since been
heard of, and there seems little doubt that she has been lost with her crew and scientific
staff — another sacrifice to the claims of science and the destructive seas of sub-
antarctic regions.

Sir Ernest Shackleton's expedition has gone to the far South in its adventurous
effort to cross the Antarctic Continent from the shores of the Weddell Sea to those of
the Ross Sea, and later on we shall be anxiously looking for news of the welfare of the
leader and of those who are with him.

It gives me great pleasure to announce that the long-expected illustrations to
Mr. Cheeseman's "Manual of the New Zealand Flora" have been recently published
in two handsome and valuable quarto volumes. The work has been in preparation
for several years ; it has cost much both in human exertion and in money, and the
result is highly creditable both to the author and to the Dominion. We can heartily
congratulate Sir. Cheeseman on the publication of another noteworthy contribution
to the botany of New Zealand.

I regret to say that the similar series of plates to illustrate Mr. Suter's " Manual
of the New Zealand -MoWwsca," to which I referred last year, has not yet been issued,
though the work connected with their preparation has been completed, and it is hoped
that they will very soon be printed.

Last year we took pleasure in conveying to a distinguished foreign botanist — Pro-
fessor Engler, of Berlin — on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, our congratulations
on his long years of service to botanical science, and an appropriate reply from him
will be found among the correspondence to be presented to you later on.

To-day we are engaged in a life-and-death struggle with the German nation ; inter-
national courtesies and schemes of co-operation for scientific work are suspended, and
the resources and inventions of science are being used to carry death and destruction
to thousands and tens of thousands of the finest individuals of the manhood of the
nations, while as incidents in the struggle — incidents that are scarcely apologised for as
regrettable — ancient and famous universities and libraries are destroyed, beautiful
and historic cathedrals are laid in ruins, and town-halls and other public buildings,
the pride and glory of the citizens, are battered to pieces. It is a ghastly and pitiful

Twelfth Annual Meeting. 627

spectacle, and it is a poor consolation to the evolutionary biologist to be able to recog-
nize the war as only a part of that great and grim, struggle for existence, universal
among organisms, by which nature evolves to higher things. We can only hope
that as the final result nations will arise with loftier ideals, and a higher and nobler
appreciation of the claims of humanity, righteousness, and justice. In the meantime,
we must all sympathize with one of our number, Dr. Cockayne, the result of whose
years of labour spent in the preparation of a work on the vegetation of New Zealand
for the German series " Die Vegetation der Erde " seems likely to be lost beyond recovery.
Of the business arising out of our last meeting that will come again before you,
perhaps the most important is that dealing with the proposed contribution by the
district Institutes towards the funds of the New Zealand Institute. I am glad to say
that practically all the Institutes have agreed to the principle of the contribution,
some of them, naturally enough, restricting their acceptance of it to one year only. Not
only will the levy be a valuable means of assisting the scanty funds of the central body,
but it will, I feel sure, strengthen the connection between the Institutes and this Board,
and make the district Institutes feel that they are really, as they are legally, an
integral part o* the New Zealand Institute. In case there may be any misapprehension
on the point, let me say at once that in my opinion the payment of this contribution
will not in any way lessen the necessity or the justice of appealing to the Government
at the proper time to increase the amount of the statutory grant ; it will show, rather,
that we are prepared to contribute from our funds as readily as we have always con-
tributed by our labours towards the requirements of the Institute, and thus demonstrate
that we are deserving of further assistance. Even for the work that we now do, our
funds are far from adequate, and the Institute could easily widen its sphere of work
and of usefulness if it were assured of adequate funds ; for example, our publications,
creditable through they are, appear small and unimportant in comparison with those
of many other similar societies.

Last year I endeavoured to draw attention to the condition of our library, and of
the collections housed in the Dominion Museum. I regret to say that things are pretty
much in the same unsatisfactory condition still. The Museum is stdl standing in the
same place, and, though one or two minor alterations have been effected to make it
more habitable, there has been no real improvement, and the valued collections are no
safer from destruction than they were when I addressed you on the subject last year.
The Science and Art Board appointed by the Act of 1913 was constituted in May, 1914,
by the appointment of its members, and it is gratifying to know that in addition to
the President of the Institute, who is a member ex officio, two other members of this
Board have been appointed to the Science and Art Board. As yet, however, the Board
has not been called together, and no steps have been taken to carry out the work for
which it was established.

Under the Science, and Art Act of 1913 provision is made for the formation of a
Dominion Library, and proposals were made at your last annual meeting by. which,
under proper conditions and safeguards, the Institute might be willing to allow its
library to form a part of this Dominion Library. Further and more detailed sugges-
tions in the same direction will be laid before you at this meeting, and will require your
earnest and careful consideration.

The genuine worker in any department of knowledge — in science, history, economics,
or literature — requires books, not because of any pride he may take in their possession
but for the use he can make of them. Provided he can have ready access to them, and
make full use of the information contained in them, it is a matter of indifference to him
whether they are owned by himself or by some one else. Similarly, as the Institute
is never likely to want to sell its library, it does not matter whether the books legally
belong to the Institute or to the Dominion Library; all that is necessarj7 is that the
working members shall be allowed to use the works with no restrictions other than those
that are absolutely necessary for the safety of the volumes and for securing similar
privileges to other members. It is important that we should definitely make up our
minds as to the kind of library we want. It was pointed out clearly by one of our
members at a meeting of the Standing Committee that what we require is a library
that will be used for the purposes of research — a library, therefore, partaking largely of
the character of what is generally known as a reference library, and as unlike the
ordinary circulating library as possible ; and yet if the library is to be of any real use
there must be adequate provision for sending its volumes freely to those who wish to
make use of them.

Much has been said about the erection of a suitable building in which the library
could be safely housed. The difficulty of providing the funds that were deemed to be
necessary for this purpose is the chief cause of our want of progress in this matter in the
past, and during the present European crisis, while all our available resources must

628 Proceedings.

necessarily be used in the first place for securing the maintenance and ultimate victory
of the Empire in its great struggle, it is not to be expected that funds can be provided
for a costly library building.

But is such a building necessary at all ? Let us consider what we mean by a library
— a research library. .. Such a library consists of books or papers, printed or written
containing information of value. The building is no essential part of the library, and
has no value or interest to the investigator apart from the fact that it is the place where
he can find the books containing the information he wants. Naturally, the books must
be stored somewhere ; but it is a matter of indifference whether they are all in one building
or scattered in many buildings, whether all in one centre or widely separated, provided
only they are readily accessible to those who require them.

In biology we are famdiar with what we call vestigial organs — remnants or survivals
of organs or structures that once were useful to their possessors, but have long since
ceased to have any useful function. By the struggle for existence among organisms
these survivals are finally got rid of altogether, or so greatly reduced that their presence
causes no inconvenience ; but among the institutions and customs of civdized societies
we have many survivals that, unfortunately, are much more difficult to get rid of, and
form serious hindrances to progress. The idea that a building is an essential part of a
library is a survival from previous centuries, when books were scarce and consequently
of great value, and were housed in some building near the centre of the vdlage or the
community, and when the rapid means of transport and of intercommunication from
one end of a country to the other that we enjoy in the twentieth century were not
dreamed of.

I will endeavour to apply this line of argument to the question of our own Institute
library in greater detail presently, but first let me remind you of another commonplace
biological principle — every organism is more or less perfectly adapted to its environ-
ment, and if the environment changes, and the organism is not sufficiently plastic to
change with it, then the organism necessardy falls behind in the struggle, and is doomed
to ultimate destruction.

Now our social, political, and scientific institutions or societies are organisms —
they are composed of living members or units, just as an animal or plant is composed of
living cells, but in many cases the struggle to which they are subject is not keen enough
to bring about perfect adaptation to changed circumstances. Our Institute, for example,
has grown up largely on the model of scientific societies in England, in the countries of
Europe, or in the States of Australia, where there is one dominant centre of population
and of activity in which the great majority of the members reside, or to which they
are naturally and readdy attracted. Consequently, these societies can with advantage
have a central and permanent home, where the office and library can naturally be placed.
But the condition of things is altogether different in New Zealand, where we have
no dominating centre, but at least four centres of activity of approximately equal
importance, and our Institute will always fall short of complete success so long as it
fails to adapt itself to the pecubarities of its New Zealand environment.

You can easdy follow out the parallel for yourselves, but what I want to urge upon
you is that in our policy for the future control of the Institute we should endeavour to
get rid of the idea that it must necessardy be permanently associated with any single
geographical locality, and must arrange the machinery for its management so that
it can adapt itself to varying conditions as they arise, our great object being to see
that the influence of the Institute is exerted and its advantages enjoyed wherever they
wdl be most effective in promoting the objects for which it was established.

All the meetings of this Board, with two exceptions, have been held in Wellington,
and all the members of the Board nominated by the Government since the reconstituticn
of the Board in 1903 have been residents in Wellington. There is no justification fcr
either of these courses unless they have been desirable in the best interests of the Institute.
Our Institute is composed of the members of the district Institutes incorporated with it,
and these are scattered over the whole of New Zealand ; and where the members are,
there should the Institute be. To keep in touch with our members, to help them in
their work, and to learn what they can teach us, we should endeavour to meet in rotation
in the different centres where the district Institutes have their headquarters. These
Institutes differ in character, constitution, and methods of work; and it is not desirable
that they should be otherwise, or that we should endeavour to impose any uniformity
upon them — each wdl do its work best by adapting itself to the particular needs of its
special environment. But it is essential that this Board, which has the general control
of them all, should be thoroughly acquainted with the special characters of the Institutes,
and that the members of one Institute should have some opportunity of meeting those
of other Institutes, and of receiving the stimulation and encouragement that arises
therefrom. There mav be practical difficulties in the way, but I am endeavouring to

Twelfth Annual Meeting. 629

put before you the ideal that we should aim at ; and if we fully realize that, and strive
to reach it, some way of overcoming the difficulties will readily be found. If we are
to become acquainted with the Institute as a whole, we must endeavour to meet
periodically at least in the four chief cities — Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and
Dunedin. A suggestion was made some years ago that we might meet at the same
place and about the same time as the Senate of the New Zealand University. On the
Senate are usually some who are also members of this Board ; at present there are three,
and there might be more if it were possible to attend the meetings of both bodies without
inconvenience. These members, being present at the Senate meeting, could attend the
Institute meeting without additional travelling or expense, and the opportunities that
would be afforded for the meeting of the learned members of two bodies having so many
objects in common would exert a widening and invigorating influence on both.

But we must do much more than this if we are to reach our individual members
effectively. In the New Zealand Institute Act it is provided that " The Beard of
Governors may from, time to time, as it sees fit, make arrangements for the holding of
general meetings of members of the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for
the reading of scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion
of science in New Zealand by any means that may appear desirable." That clause was,
I believe, inserted on the suggestion of the late Captain Hutton, who hoped that the
Institute would one day be able to hold meetings something like those of the British
and Australasian Associations for the Advancement of Science. We have made no
effort to hold such general meetings, and I am afraid we are in danger of looking upon
the annual meeting of the Board of Governors as being held almost entirely for the
purpose of making arrangements for the publication of the Transactions, the presentation
of an annual report and balance-sheet, the payment of accounts, and of other routine
business ; and the result is that the existence of the New Zealand Institute is unknown
to the great majority of the people of New Zealand. Extension of cur work would
be beneficial to the community generally and to ourselves, for we are doing valuable
and useful work, and if we can only make this evident to the electors we shall have
no difficulty in procuring funds for further extension of the work. If the Board of
Governors were to hold its annual meetings at various centres in rotation, we could
easily arrange for general meetings of the members at the same time, to which the public
could be freely invited. The details of the necessary arrangements could be left to the
district Institute at the place where the meetings were held, and the stimulus of the
work of preparation and of the healthy competition between the different Institutes in
the effort to hold the most successful meetings possible would, I feel sure, speedily cause
greatly increased growth of the whole Institute. At present there are many persons
in the general community genuinely interested in scientific matters who are ignorant
of the work of the Institute, and who receive no assistance from it.

We can now return to the consideration of our library. The present position is
that, although we have a library of considerable size and value, it is stored in such a way
that it is practically inaccessible and of no use to the members. We have often been
told that research in New Zealand is greatly hindered by the want of properly equipped
libraries. There is, of course, considerable truth in this statement; but, on the other
hand, it is equally true that we do not make anything like the use we should of the
books that are in New Zealand, and this is especially true in the case of the Institute
library.

Our library consists mainly of the scientific journals and periodicals that have been

received during the last forty-five years in exchange for our Transactions. If these

were available for use, we would have a library of fair completeness and of extreme

• value, especially to the workers in zoology, botany, or geology, the sciences in which

research is most urgently needed and is most easily carried out.

Now, as you know, these books are not available. Some of them are in the library -
room of the Museum ; others are stored away somewhere else in the Museum, either on
shelves or in cases ; but it is impossible to' tell what books are in the library, or in many
instances to find any particular volume that is required. What have we done to try
to improve matters ? For the last twelve years we have appointed Library Com-
mittees and Librarians, and we have received reports, but we have not succeeded in
making any real improvement, and the condition of affairs appears to be growing worse
instead of better. What can be done ? The first thing that is necessary is to overhaul
the library, and find out what books we have. One member of this Board now resident
in Wellington, Dr. Cockayne, has offered to devote part of his valuable time to assisting
in this work. At first sight, and judging from our want of success in the past, it would
appear to be a hopeless task, but I have little doubt that if he were assisted by two or
three others as enthusiastic as himself, and were allowed the use of a few clerks or typists,
tbe great part of what is necessary could be accomplished in a fortnight, and at a cost
small in itself and trivial in comparison with the value of the work done.

630 Proceedings.

What are we going to do with them when we have found out what books we
possess ? We have no room to store them in the Museum in the way they should
be stored — accessible for use — and we are not likely to have a building in Wellington
suitable for the purpose placed at our disposal for a long time to come. Moreover, as
I have tried to show you, it is neither necessary nor desirable that we should continue to
try to store them all in any one place. The books belong to the members of the Insti-
tute, and are required by the working members scattered all over New Zealand ; and
where these members are, there should the books be. Let us decentralize our library :
send the geological journals and books, for example, to Dunedin, or to any other place
where they are likely to be most used ; the botanical to Auckland ; and so on. In the
four large centres it would probably be easy to find some library belonging either to
the district Institute or to some other institution in which the books could be stored,
and to get the librarian or some other person interested in the particular subject to take
charge of them. In this way we could at once get rid of the difficulties about the
library building and the want of funds to employ a librarian with sufficient time
to attend to the duties of the position. But how are we going to manage even if we
separate our library this way ? You will perhaps say that we must, first of all, have
a complete catalogue, so that any member may know what work is in the library, and
where it is to be found. But this is quite unnecessary, if by a catalogue you mean an
ordinary printed catalogue giving a list of the whole of the books. Such a catalogue
may be desirable in a circulating library, the subscribers of which do not know what
book they wish to consult, and use the catalogue to find some book suitable to their
taste. But for a research library such a catalogue is unnecessary, and is only a useless
" survival." I well remember years ago going into the library of the University of
Edinburgh and being shown the catalogue which was being prepared. It then con-
sisted of about thirty large manuscript volumes ; it was far from completion, and it
had been found impossible to go to the expense of getting it printed. It would be quite
unnecessary for the person engaged in special research if it could be printed, because
during the progress of his research he always finds out the particular works that he wishes
to consult, and all he wants is some method of ascertaining if they are in the library
or not. If I want to find out whether a particular work on Crustacea is to be found
in the library, it is only a hindrance to offer me a large printed volume containing
a complete list of works on all subjects, and to waste my time in making me turn over
many pages containing lists of works on geology, botany, and other subjects, until I
come to the special page devoted to the Crustacea.

If you agree with this you will probably say that what we want is a card catalogue,
and that if our library is decentralized there should be a complete card catalogue of the
whole of it in each of the four large cities. But even this, though it might be useful
in some cases, is by no means necessary. The person who is in charge of any portion
of the library must, of course, be able to find out what books he has under his care, and
to get them when wanted, and for this he may make a card catalogue or adopt any other
suitable method he pleases. But all that is necessary for the worker is that he should
know where the section of the library dealing with the subject in which he is working
is kept, so that when he finds he wants a particular volume or paper he can send a
post-card asking if the volume is there and, if so, if he could have it, and receive an
answer or the volume by return of post.

It might be thought that all this will require elaborate organization, and will lead
to a large amount of clerical work ; but if you consider the small number of men in
New Zealand who are engaged in research in each particular science or branch of science,
and if you remember that the library may be subdivided to any extent that may be
found desirable, you will see that the work required will also be so divided that it could
be accomplished without difficulty, and without appreciably increasing the labours of
the persons in charge of the different sections. For instance, if you send the books
dealing with geology to the place where the greatest amount of geological work is being
done, they will be accessible without trouble to the workers there, and probably there
will not be more than a score of applications by workers from other districts in the
whole of the year ; and it would not be a difficult or arduous task to reply to a score
of post-cards in the course of twelve months. As a matter of fact, this method is
already in operation to a limited extent, and in a few cases books have been sent from
the local Institute libraries to workers in other districts on the few occasions on which
they have been asked for.

It will be objected that if we scatter our library in this way we run the danger
of losing many of the volumes. Naturally, we should stamp the books and take the
usual elementary precautions to ensure the safety of the volumes, and a list of the
works at each particular place would be made and a record kept of the books sent on
to individual workers. It is, however, possible that, notwithstanding such checks, a

Twelfth Annual Meeting. 631

few books, from, time to time, might be lost in transit, or by the failure of those to
whom they had been sent to return them ; but with ordinary checks these losses
could be kept to a minimum, and it is far better to use your library even if a book is
occasionally lost than not to use it at all. It is not good policy to preserve your books
by destroying their use. For all practical purposes the great part of the Institute
library has been lost for many years.

I am afraid I have kept you too long, and that, instead of giving you a presidential
address dealing in general terms with the work of the Institute, I have brought before
you debatable matters and detailed methods which would be better discussed by the
executive committee. But in doing so I have been trying to carry out the principle
of adaptation to the environment. A presidential address delivered to a large gathering
of general members of a society who are not directly concerned in its working can
appropriately deal in a wide and general manner with the objects or aspirations of the
society, while the details of its management are left to an executive committee, and
are therefore not dealt with in the address. But this Board is the executive committee
of the Institute, and I have, therefore, endeavoured to place before you some definite
suggestions for the more efficient carrying out of our duties, and, as my term of office
as President will naturally end at the conclusion of this meeting, I have been anxious
to take this opportunity of doing so.

I have to thank you for the patience with which you have listened to me, and for
your assistance and courtesy during my term of office as President. I have been con-
nected with the Institute for a long period, and many of my most pleasurable experiences
have been associated with its work. In resuming my position as an ordinary member
I shall do so with the full intention of performing to the best of my ability the duties
appropriate thereto— that is, I shall endeavour to continue to be an active and, I hope,
a vigorous and efficient cell in the organism that we call the New Zealand Institute.

Vc

(>32 Proceedings.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

First Meeting : 8th June, 1914.

Professor H. W. Segar, Vice-President, in the chair.

New Members. — Miss Adlington, J. Barr, J. A. Bartrum, Dr. Marsack,
Miss K. Edgerley, Professor J. C. Johnson, T. L. Lancaster, Dr. K. McKenzie,
Professor G. Owen, S. H. Pry or, Dr. Carrick Kobertson, S. C. Rountree,
J. L. Strevens, Professor F. P. Worley.

Lecture. — " The Art of Road-making : Past, Present, and Future," by
Mr. F. E. Powell, C.E.

The lecturer traced the development of road-making from the time of the Romans
up to the advent of the motor vehicle, when the older methods failed and road-builders
were forced to use new types of construction and to experiment with new materials.
He then endeavoured to show the probable trend of road-construction in the future,
accompanying his remarks with numerous diagrams and lantern-slides.

Second Meeting : 6th July, 1914.

Professor H. W. Segar, Vice-President, in the chair.

Lecture. — " Petroleum and its Occurrence in New Zealand," by Mr.
J. L. Strevens, late chief chemist to the Taranaki oil-field.

This was an attempt to explain the principles of ( oil-finding and its exploitation
as followed in other countries, and to show how far such principles are applicable to
New Zealand. The lecture was fully illustrated with limelight views.

Third Meeting : 17th August, 1914.

Professor H. W. Segar, Vice-President, in the chair.

New Member. — J. G. H. Mackay.

Lecture. — " The European Crisis : its Historical Aspects," by Mr. J. P.
Grossmann, M.A., Lecturer on Economics and History at the Auckland
University College.

Fourth Meeting : 31st August, 1914.
(British Association Lecture.)
C. J. Parr, C.M.G., President, in the chair.
Lecture. — " Heredity and Eugenics," by Dr. C. B. Davenport.

Fifth Meeting : 3rd September, 1914.

(British Association Lecture.)

Professor H. W. Segar, Vice-President, in the chair.

Lecture. — "Heredity and R nsibility," by Professor E. G. Conklin,
Princetown University.

Auckland Institute. 633

Sixth Meeting : 8th September, 1914.
(British Association Lecture.)
Professor H. W. Segar, Vice-President, in the chair.
Lecture. — " English Universities and Public Schools," by Dr. H. B. Grayj

Seventh Meeting : 9th September, 1914.

Professor H. W. Segar, Vice-President, in the chair.

New Members.— -S. B. Bowyer, W. Todd Smith, Dr. A. G. Talbot.

Lecture.—" Some of the Properties of an Electric Current," by Mr.
A. Wyllie, Electrical Engineer to the City of Auckland.

The lecture dealt chiefly with the fundamental phenomena of electro-magnetic
induction, and was illustrated by copious experiments.

Eighth Meeting : 10th September, 1914.

(British Association Lecture.)

Professor H. W. Segar, Vice-President, in the chair.

Lecture. — " Explosions," by Professor H. P. Dixon, F.B.S., Professor
of Chemistry at the University of Manchester.

Ninth Meeting : 22nd ^September, 1914.

(British Association Lecture.)

Professor H. W. Segar, Vice-President, in the chair.

Lecture.- — " Anaesthetics in Militaiy Surgery," by Professor A. Waller,
F.R.S., London University.

Tenth Meeting : 16th December, 1914.

C. J.gParr, C.M.G., President, in the chair.

New Members.— J. M. Blair, E. Wake, G. W. Wilton.

Papers.— I. " The Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods," bv Miss
K. V. Edgerley, M.A.

2. " Descriptions of New Species of Flowering-plants," bv T. F. Cheese-
man, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

3. " Notes on Aciphylla, with Descriptions of New Species," by T. F.
Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

4. " The Ferns of Mangonui County," by H. Carse ; communicated by
T. F. Cheeseman.

634 Proceedings.

5. " Descriptions of New Native Phanerogams," by D. Petrie.

6. " Some Additions to the Flora of the Subantarctic Islands of New
Zealand," by D. Petrie.

7. " Kecords of Borings at Horotiu," by J. E. Hetherington ; com-
municated by T>. Petrie.

8. " The Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands," by W. E. B. Oliver.

9. " A Comparison of the Land Molluscan Faunas of the Kermadec
Group and Norfolk Island," by T. Iredale ; communicated by W. E. B.
Oliver.

10. "A Commentary on Suter's ' Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca' "
by T. Iredale ; communicated by W. E. B. Oliver.

11. " New Genera and Species of Coleoptera" by Major T. Broun.

Annual Meeting : 22nd February, 1915.

C. J. Parr, Esq., C.M.G., Mayor of Auckland, President, in the chair.

Annual Report.- — The annual report and audited financial statement
was read to the meeting, and ordered to be printed and distributed among
the members.

Abstract.

Members. — The number of members elected during the year has been twenty-two.
The number of names withdrawn from the roll has been thirty-six — four from death,
twenty-six from resignation, and six from non-payment of subscription for more than
two consecutive years. There has thus been a net loss of fourteen, the number on the
roll having been reduced from 370 to 356.

Among the members removed by death the Council regret to mention the names
of Archdeacon Walsh, who has been a frequent contributor to the Transactions during
the twenty-seven years he has been associated with the society, and who has made
many important donations to the collection of Maori antiquities in the Museum ; of
Mr. W. R. Bloomfield, who was lost in the disastrous wreck of the " Empress of Ireland " ;
of Mr. W. S. Cochrane, and Mr. E. Bond.

Finance. — The total revenue of the Working Account, excluding the balance in
hand at the commencement of the year, has been £1,530 17s. 7d. Last year the amount
was £1,862 0s. 2d. ; but, as pointed out at the time, that sum included the exceptional
item of a Government subsidy for £250, in addition to arrears of interest and rents pro-
perly belonging to the previous year. Taking these items into consideration, it will
be found that the revenue for the year is not far below that for 1913-14. The amount
received under the head of members' subscriptions has fallen from £354 18s. to £322 7s. ;
and there is an apparent reduction of £37 12s. 6d. in the receipts from the Costley
Bequest, and of £16 10s. 8d. in the returns from the Museum Endowment, but both are
mainly caused by the payment of arrears in the previous year. On the other hand,
a new item of revenue appears in the returns from the Campbell Bequest. The expendi-
ture has been unusually large, amounting to £1,692 19s., as against £1,590 10s. 2d.
for the previous year. The increase is due to the numerous purchases made for the
Museum, and to the cost of the show-cases required for their exhibition. The balance
in hand amounts to the satisfactory sum of £218 9s. 7d.

The position of the invested funds of the society must be regarded as satisfactory.
The legacy of £1,000 bequeathed by the late Sir John Campbell, paid over by the
Campbell Trustees during the previous year, has been suitably invested, and is now
yielding its full revenue of 6 per cent. A further sum of £555 has been derived from the
sale by the Government of certain Museum endowments, and has also been invested.
From these two sources the capital funds of the Institute have been raised to the sum
of £18,181, thus securing an increased revenue in the future of nearly £100 per annum.

Visit of the British Association. — In last year's report it was stated that arrange-
ments had been made by the New Zealand Government to invite a number of the leading
members of the British Association to visit New Zealand after the close of the Australian
meeting, with the object of holding a short supplementary meeting in New Zealand ;
but the unforeseen outbreak of war, and the military preparations that at once became
necessary, compelled the Government to cancel the greater part of these arrangements,

Auckland Institute. 635

and, in particular, to abandon the idea of an official meeting of the Association in the
Dominion. After the break-up of the Australian meeting, however, a considerable
number of members of the Association were able to visit New Zealand, and no small
number of lectures or addresses were delivered in the various centres. Six of these were
given in Auckland under the auspices of the Institute, and were fully appreciated by
the citizens, securing in each case a large and representative audience.

Meetings. — Including the British Association lectures just alluded to, eleven
meetings have been held during the year, at which twenty-one lectures and papers were
given by members and others.

Museum. — The attendance of visitors has been good, although not quite equal
to the standard of the two previous years.

Much progress has been made in the Museum during the year. The additions
received by purchase or donation have been numerous and important, while a large amount
of material has been derived from collecting-trips made to various portions of the coast.
Perhaps the most attractive addition to the zoological department is a special group
illustrating the life-history of the spotted shag {Phalacrocorax punctatus). It contains
numerous specimens of adult males and females in full breeding plumage, together with
young birds in various stages of growth, nests, and eggs, and is an exact representation
of a portion of Shag Eock, in the Firth of the Thames, which is a great breeding colony
of the species.

Two other conspicuous additions consist of a fine specimen of the mako shark
(Lamna glauca), and an equally good example of the singular thresher shark {Alopecias
vulpes), in which the length of the tail greatly exceeds that of the body.

Another important addition is an exhibit prepared by the Auckland Harbour Board
for the recent Exhibition, showing the damage caused to wooden wharves by the Teredo,
Limnoria, and other genera of marine borers. This was very kindly presented to the
Museum by the Harbour Board.

Several important donations have been made to the geological department, including
a large series of auriferous -lode specimens and minerals presented by the Talisman
Gold-mining Company, and an extensive set of named New Zealand fossils presented
by the Geological Survey.

The Maori collection has been largely increased during the year. The most important
accession is a series of 336 greenstone, bone, and ordinary stone articles collected by
Mi-. F. R. Smith, with the assistance of Mr. C. Arnold and others, at Murdering Beach
and other localities near Dunedin, in the years between 1874 and 1878. After the
death of Mr. Smith the collection passed into the hands of his widow, from whom it has
now been purchased. The other additions include a superbly carved whakapapa, or
genealogical tree, originally obtained many years ago by Captain Preece in the Urewera
country during the Maori War, and an unusually large and boldly carved hei-tiki,
formerly in the possession of the well-known chief Honga Hika. Important donations
have been received from Mr. John Kenderdine, Mr. G. Graham, and Captain Bollons,
of the s.s. " Hinemoa."

Library. — The annual balance-sheet shows that an expenditure of £197 2s. 8d. has
been incurred in the library during the year, £105 of which has been derived from the
Mackechnie Library Bequest and the remainder from the ordinary revenue of the
society. A consignment of about sixty volumes ordered from London was received last
June, catalogued, and placed in the library.

Election of Officers for 1915. — President — Hon. E. Mitchelson ; Vice-
Presidents — C. J. Parr, C.M.G., Professor H. W. Segar ; Council — Professor

C. W. Egerton, J. Kenderdine, E. V. Miller, Professor G. Owen, T. Peacock,

D. Petrie, J. A. Pond, Professor A. P. W. Thomas, J. H. Upton, Professor
F. P. Worley, H. E. Vaile ; Trustees— T. Peacock, J. Eeid, J. H. Upton ;
Auditor — S. Gray.

636 Proceedings,

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

First Meeting : 22nd April, 1914.

Dr. C. Monro Hector, President, in the chair, and about forty members

present.

New Members. —Mr. E. G. Jones, B.A., and Mr. J. McDonald.

Exhibits. — Dr. Thomson exhibited and described a number of interesting
specimens of Native work received from New Guinea.

Dr. Newman discussed the exhibits, and contrasted them with Maori work.

Dr. Thomson drew attention to the publication of an important work on
New Zealand Palaeontology, the first of a new series on the subject.

Presidential Address.- — Dr. Hector delivered his presidential address,
on the history and functions of the New Zealand Institute, and notes on
the Cawthron Observatory scheme, illustrated by lantern-slides.

A hearty vote of thanks was carried to Dr. Hector for his interesting address.

Second Meeting : 27th May, 1914.

Dr. C. Monro Hector, President, in the chair, and about forty members

present.

New Members.— Dr. H. E. Gibbs, Mr. L. G. James, Mr. H. M. Miller,
Mr. J. E. L. Cull, Mr. W. H. Gavin, Mr. J. W. Jack, Mr. E. H. Wilinot,
Mr. T. Humphries, Mr. D. C. Bates, Dr. T. D. M. Stout, and Rev. I. von
Gottfried.

Exhibits.- — Dr. Thomson exhibited and described a kiwi mat with a
white border, and two preserved Maori heads.

Mr. Harold Hamilton, by the invitation of the President, exhibited
and described a peculiarly marked specimen of stone from the Macquarie
Islands.

Wireless Time Service. — -Professor Laby moved, That in the opinion of
this society it is desirable — (1) That the Government should institute a
wireless time service, such as is now maintained by international arrange-
ment in Europe and America ; (2) that licenses should be issued to amateur
wireless operators on similar conditions to those upon which the English
Government issues such licenses ; and (3) that the above resolution be
communicated to the Government by the President.

The resolution was seconded by Mr. A. C. Gifford, President of the Astronomical
Section, and carried unanimously.

Address. — Professor Laby delivered an interesting address on " Recent
Advances in Physics."

Mr. Morgan, Professor Kirk, Mr. Gifford, Dr. Thomson, and the President took
part in the discussion.

Wellington Philosophical Society. 637

Paper.— Professor Laby communicated a paper by Mr. Stewart and
Mr. Dall on " Earth-movements due to the Earthquake on the 8th Feb-
ruary."

Dr. Thomson, Mr. Morgan, Mr. Adams, Mr. Humphries, Mr. Spencer, and the
President discussed the paper.

Mr. Adams announced that a new bright comet had been discovered by

Zlatinsky.

He gave particulars of its orbit, and a search ephemeris supplied by the Central-
stelle, and forwarded from the Melbourne Observatory.
Mr. Gifford described the path of the comet.

Special Meeting : 4th June, 1914.

Dr. C. Monro Hector, President, in the chair, and an attendance of about 200.

Professor W. M. Davis, of Harvard University, and an honorary member

of the New Zealand Institute, delivered a very interesting and instructive

address on the " Origin of the Coral Reefs of Fiji."

Professor Davis was listened to with the closest attention, and on the conclusion
of his lecture a hearty vote of thanks was accorded him.

Third Meeting : 24th June, 1914.

Dr. C. Monro Hector, President, in the chair, and about sixty members

and friends present.

New Members.— Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S. ; Miss G. F. Gisbon, M.A. ;
Mr. H. F. Von Haast, M.A... LL.B. ; and Miss Grace Crawford.

Lecture. — Miss B. Pullen-Burry, F.R.A.Inst., F.R.G.S., delivered a lecture
on New Britain (German New Guinea), illustrated by a number of lantern-
slides.

Fourth Meeting : 22nd July, 1914.

Dr. C. Monro Hector, President, in the chair, and about forty members

and friends present.

New Members.— Mr. W. Gibson, B.E. ; Mr. M. Ongley, M.A. ; Mr. F. K.
Broadgate, B.Sc.

Papers. — 1. "Generalization of certain Elementary Propositions of
Geometry," by Professor D. K. Picken.

2. " Notes on Personal Equation."

3. " Longitude of New Zealand," by Mr. C. E. Adams.

638 Proceedings.

Exhibits. — Exhibits by Mr. J. McDonald, Acting Director of the Museum,
of Japanese articles presented to the Museum ; of photographs of moa,
Cygnus, and Notornis bones found recently in a cave near Pahiatua, and of
a skull of Notornis.

Fifth Meeting : 23rd September, 1914.

Dr. C. Monro Hector, President, in the chair, and about 160 members

and friends present.

Lecture.— Protease* Ernest W. Brown, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,

Professor of Mathematics in the Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
U.S.A., delivered a lecture on " The Moon," in which he gave an interest-
ing account of his recent work on the motion of the moon, and .showed
a number of lantern-slides illustrating the result of his work.

Special Meeting : 24th September, 1914.

Dr. C. Monro Hector, President, in the chair, and about sixty members

and friends present.

Lecture. — Professor Ernest W. Brown delivered a lecture on ' The
Asteroids."

The lecture was illustrated by lantern-slides, and the most recent researches on
the motions of the asteroids were presented, and explanations given of periodic orbits.

Annual General Meeting : 28th October, 1914.

Dr. C. Monro Hector, President, in the chair, and eighteen members

present.

New Members. — Mr. C. J. Freeman, Mr. W. Earnshaw, and Mr. H.
Hamilton.

Annual Report and Balance-sheet. — The Secretary read the annual

report and balance-sheet.

Professor Kirk, commenting on the reply received by the Society from the Post-
master-General as to wireless amateurs, stated that the society heard this reply with
regret, and that the reply showed inability to grasp the position ; and on his motion it
was agreed that the incoming Council should raise the question again when conditions
were normal.

The reports of the Astronomical, Technological, and Geological Sections
were read and adopted.

The President congratulated all sections on the valuable work done.

Election of Officers for 1915. — President- — Mr. Thomas King : Vice-Presi-
dents— Dr. C. Monro Hector, Professor Kirk : Council — Mr. A. C. Gifford
(Chairman, Astronomical Section), Mr. R. W. Holmes (Chairman, Techno-
logical Section), Mr. J. Allan Thomson (Chairman, Geological Section), ex
officio; Mr. P. G. Morgan, Mr. G. Hogben, Dr. Cockayne, Mr. B. C. Aston,
Mr. E. Parry, Professor Easterfield, Mr. S. H. Jenkinson : Secretary and
Treasurer — Mr. C. E. Adams : Auditor — Mr. E. E. Dymock.

Wellington Philosophical Society. 639

Papers. — 1. " Notes on Notopanax arboreum," by Miss E. M. Pigott ; com-
municated by Professor Kirk.

Miss Pigott was congratulated on her paper by the President and by Dr. L. Cockayne.
Professor Kirk gave a general review of the paper.

2. " Brachipod Genera : The Position of Shells with Magaselliform
Loops, and of Shells with Bouchardiform Beak Characters."

3. " Additions to the Knowledge of Kecent Brachiopoda of New Zea-
land."

4. " A Geological Map of the Waipawa District," by Dr. Thomson.

5. " The Longitude, Latitude, and Height of the Hector Observatory,"
by Mr. C. E. Adams.

6. " Plant-habitats Hitherto Unrecorded," by Mr. B. C. Aston.

7. " Notes on the Taupo District," by the Bev. H. J. Fletcher.

8. " On Ascidioclava parasitica" by Professor Kirk.

640 Proceeding*.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

First Meeting : 6th May, 1914.

Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about fifty members and

friends.

Ex-Presidential Address.- — " Animal-life in Underground Waters," by Dr*
Charles Chilton.

Special Meeting : 25th May, 1914.

Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about 100 members.

Address.—" The Origin of the Coral Keefs of Fiji," by Dr. W. M. Davis,
of Harvard University.

Second Meeting : 3rd June, 1914.

Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about twenty-five

members.

New Members. — Professor R. J. Scott, Messrs. C. B. Morris, H. Lang,
and S. L. Blackburne.

Address.—" Maps," by Mr. W. F. Robinson.

Third Meeting : 1st July, 1914.
Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about fifty members.
New Member.— Mrs. H. T. Ferrar.

Papers.- — 1. " Some New Coccidaer by Mr. Guy Brittin.

2. " The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury," by Mr. R. Speight.

3. " The Influence of Pressure on the Solubility of Tricalcic Phosphate
in Carbonic-acid Solutions," by Mr. P. S. Nelson.

Exhibits. — Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf exhibited a specimen of curious growth
in wood.

Mr. L. Birks reviewed the recent progress at Lake Coleridge, illustrating
this with lantern-slides and exhibits.

Fourth Meeting : 5th August, 1914.
Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about sixty members.
Address. — " Problem Plays of Ancient Athens," by Professor H. Stewart.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 641

Special Meeting : 9th September, 1914.

Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about 250 members and

friends..

Address.--- Heredity and Eugenics," by Professor Davenport.

Special Meeting : 10th September, 1914.

Present : Mr. A; D. Dobson, in the chair, and about 200 members and

Mends

Address. — " Agricultural Education," by Professor Creelman.

Special Meeting : 11th September, 1914.

Present : Dr. Charles Chilton, Vice-President, in the chair, and about 200

members and friends.

Address.- — " Irrigation and Agricultural Practice in Egypt," by Mr.
H. T. Ferrar.

Special Meeting: 23rd September, 1914.

Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about 400 members and

friends.

Address. — " Explosions," by Professor Dixon.

Special Meeting : 15th October, 1914.

Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about 400 members and

friends.

Address. — " The Evolution of Elements," by Sir Ernest Eutherford.

Fifth Meeting : 4th November, 1914.

Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about thirty members.

Papers.— 1. " Kevised List of the Norfolk Island Flora," by Mr. R. M.
Laing.

2. " Recent Changes in the Position of the Terminal Face of the Franz
Josef Glacier," by Mr. R. Speight.

3. " A Fresh-water Crab, and its Distribution in Australia and New
Zealand," by Dr. Charles Chilton.

4. " On Orthogonal Circles," by Mr. E. G. Hogg.

5. " New Zealand Bird-song," by Mr. Johannes C. Andersen.

6. " On Tuis singing in Harmony," by Mr. C. H. Tripp.

21— Trans.

642 Proceedings.

Special Meeting : 4th November, 1914.

Present : Dr. Charles Chilton, Vice-President, in the chair, and about thirty

members.

Address.— "The Wild Flowers of New Zealand," by Mr. J. Crosby
Smith.

Special Meeting : 25th November, 1914.

Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and a large number of members

and friends.

Address. — " The Electrical and Mechanical Characteristics of the Lake
Coleridge Transmission- wire," by Mr. E. Parry.

Annual Meeting : 2nd December, 1914.
Present : Dr. Evans, President, in the chair, and about twenty-five members.
Neio Members.' — C. E. Christensen and W. G. Morrison.
Annual Report. — The annual report and balance-sheet were adopted.

Abstract.

The Council, in endorsing the suggestion, made by the Wellington Philosophical
Society, that a memorial to the late Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of the Dominion Museum,
should be erected, made a grant of £5 5s. to the fund.

Consideration has been given to a proposal to send a party to the Chatham Islands
to investigate the natural science of the islands, and ultimately to publish the results
of the investigations, but owing to the war the matter has been held in abeyance for
the present.

The Council has taken action to support the endeavours of the Manawatu Philo-
sophical Society to extend the boundaries of the Tongariro National Park to at least
those suggested by Dr. L. Cockayne in his report to the Government on the subject.

The Council actively supported the appeal of Sir Douglas Mawson to the New Zealand
Government for the sum of £500 to enable him to publish the physical results of the
expedition.

Meetings of the Institute. — In addition to the meetings held in connection with the
visit of the British Association members, nine meetings of the Institute have been held
during the year, at which the following addresses were delivered : " Animal-life in
Tnderground Waters," ex-presidential address by Dr. Charles Chilton ; "The Origin of
the Coral Reefs of Fiji," by Professor W. M. Davis, Harvard University ; " Maps,"
by Mr. W. F. Eobinson ; " Problem Plays of Ancient Athens," by Professor H. Stewart ;
"Wild Flowers of New Zealand," by Mr. J. Crosby Smith; "The Electrical and
Abchanical Characteristics of the Lake Coleridge Transmission-wire," by Mr. E. Parry.

In addition to these, twenty-six papers have been read, which may be classified
as follow: Botany, 5; chemistry, 3; geology, 3; mathematics, 1; zoology, 12;
miscellaneous, 2.

Visit of Members of the British Association. — In consequence of the war, the pro-
posed Christchurch meetings of the New Zealand Science Congress, which were being
organized by a special local committee, were abandoned by the central comrrittee, and
the Council of this Institute undertook the entertainment of visiting members, and the
arrangement of various public meetings, at which a number of the British and American
visitors gave addresses as follow : " Heredity and Eugenics," by Dr. C. Davenport ;
" Agricultural Education," by Professor C. G. Creelman ; "Irrigation and Agricultural
Practice in Egypt," by Mr. H. T. Ferrar ; " Explosions," by Professor H. B. Dixon ;
li The Evolution of Elements," by Sir Ernest Rutherford.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 643

The Council entertained a number of the visitors at dinner, and in co-operatic n
with the Mayor accorded a civic reception to Sir Ernest Rutherford.

Membership. — During the year seven new members have been elected, and twenty-
three have either resigned or have been struck off the roll, so that the number now stands
at 164. The Council regrets to record the loss by death of Mr. F. L. Mouldey, who had
for a number of years been associated with this Institute.

Riccarton Bush. — The Council expresses its appreciation of the action of the Dean^
family in handing over this bush to the public, and the recognition of this Institute
in relation to the control of the gift, which is of great historical and scientific interest
to the community.

Arthur's Pass Tunnel Investigation. — The usual temperature observations have
been continued, and specimens of the rocks were received for examination, thus keeping
the series complete.

Library. — During the past year the library has been maintained in an efficient
condition. A large sum has been expended on binding, and it is expected that all arrears
of binding will be made up by the close of the current year.

Many valuable additions have been made to the library by gift or purchase. To
Dr. Cockayne, F.R.S., the library is indebted for a number of scientific works, including
the " Journal " and " Proceedings and Transactions of the Linnean Society " (30 volumes
and parts), " Bibliotheque de l'ecole des Hautes Etudes" (15 volumes), " Amoenitates
Academicae " (10 volumes), and " Verhandlungen d. K.K. Zool. Bot. Gesellschaft in
Wien," 1855-73 (19 volumes).

With a view to providing magazines of a less technical character and more general
interest, the Council have decided to subscribe to " Knowledge," " Science Progress,"
and " Bed-rock." The back numbers of the two latter publications since their inception
have been presented to the library by Mr. R. Speight and Dr. Chilton respectively.

Balance-sheet. — The Institute commenced the financial year with a credit balance
in the Bank of New Zealand of £69 2s. 9d. ; and the receipts for the year amount to
£160 lis. 4d. ; the expenditure to £207 2s. 8d., of which £112 lis 6d. has been spent
in connection with the library, principally on periodicals and binding, and a sum of
£50 has also been placed on fixed deposit with the Permanent Investment and Loan
Association as an instalment towards liquidating the amount borrowed from the Tunnel
Account ; the balance in the Bank of New Zealand stands at £22 lis. 5d.

Papers. — 1. " New Coccidae," by Mr. G. Brittin.

2. " The Increase in Size of certain Crustacea in High Latitudes," by
Dr. Charles Chilton.

3. " Some Southern Amphipoda belonging to the Genus Ampelisca,"
by Dr. Charles Chilton.

4. " The New Zealand Species of the Amphipodan Genus Elasmopus,"
by Dr. Charles Chilton.

5. " Some Amphipoda from Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands," by Dr.
Charles Chilton.

6. " The Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand," by Mr. G. E. Archey.

7. The Occurrence in New Zealand of Myriapoda of the Genus Scidi-
gerella, Order Symphyla" by Mr. G. E. Archey.

8. " A Note on the Occurrence of Petroleum in New Zealand," by Mr.
R. Speight.

9. " The Chemistry of Flesh Foods, Part II," by Mr. A. M. Wright.

10. '' Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station,
Cass. — No. 1 : Introduction and General Description of Station," by Dr
Charles Chilton.

11. " The Species and Varieties of Phwmium," by Miss B. D. Cross.

12. " Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand," by Mr. L. S. Jennings.

13. " Preliminary Note on the Protocorm of Lycopodium laterale^ by
Rev. J. E. Holloway.

644 Proceedings.

14. " An Undescribed Species of Cotula from the Chatham Islands," by
Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S. ; communicated by Dr. Charles Cbilton.

15. " Note on the Determination of Milk-fat," byAMr. A. M. Wright.

16. " Description of New Zealand Lepidoptera," by Mr. E. Meyrick ;
communicated by Dr. Chilton.

17. " Revision of New Zealand Tineina," by Mr. E. Meyrick, F.R.S. ;
communicated by Dr. Chilton.

Election oj Officers jor 1914. — President — Mr. A. D. Dobson ; Vice-
Presidents — Dr. W. P. Evans and Mr. L. Birks ; Hon. Secretary — Mr. A. M.
Wright ; Hon. Treasurer — Mr. R. Speight ; Hon. Librarian — Mr. E. G. Hogg ;
Council — Dr. Charles Chilton, Dr. C. Coleridge Farr, Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf,
Mr. S. Page, Mr. W. F. Robinson, Mr. G. E. Archey ; Hon. Auditor — Mr.
G. E. Way, F.P.A.N.Z.

Otago Institute. B45

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

First Meeting : 5th May, 1914.
Dr. J. Malcolm, Vice-President, in the chair.
New Member.— Mr. C. E. Clarke.
Address.—" The Geology of Tahiti," by Dr. P. Marshall, F.G.S.

Special Public Meeting : 20th May, 1914.

Mr. G. M. Thomson, M.P., in the chair.

Professor W. M. Davis, of Harvard University, delivered an address,
illustrated with fine diagrams, on " The Origin of the Coral Eeefs of Fiji."

Special Public Meeting : 23rd May, 1914.

Mr. G. M. Thomson, M.P., in the chair.

An address on " The Fisheries of Canada and New Zealand : a Contrast
was given by Professor E. E. Prince, Commissioner of Fisheries, Canada.

Second Meeting : 2nd June, 1914.

Mr. E. Gilkison, Vice-President, in the chair.

New Members. — Messrs. L.D. Coombs, A.R.I. B.A.; W. J. Kerr; J. L.
Salmond ; S. Solomon, K.C. ; and Professor R. Jack, D.Sc.

Address.—" The Agricultural Development of the West Indies," by

Mr. D. Tannock.

The paper dealt with the work that the Imperial Department of Agricultural
Development is doing in the islands by means of its botanic station, its agricultural
school, its travelling inspectors, and its experimental plots in the country districts.
The second part of the paper was concerned more particularly with the island of
Dominica and its industries.

Third Meeting : 7th July, 1914.

Dr. J. Malcolm, Vice-Pre?ident, in the chair.

Exhibits. — Fine metal castings of biological and botanical specimens,
by Mr. C. E. Clarke.

Papers. — 1. " Oligochaetae on the Kermadec Islands," by Dr. W. B.
Benham, F.R.S.

646 Proceedings.

2. " Note on the Littoral Polychaetae of the Kermadec Islands," by
Dr. W. B. Benham, F.E.S.

3. " Dunedin Weather," by Mr. D. Tannock.

An interesting comparison of the local records-, especially those for 1913, with the
records from the other chief centres of the Dominion.

4. " How a Muscle works," by Dr. J. Malcolm.

A short address, illustrated by demonstrations with a frog's muscle, explaining
simple and compound muscular movements.

5. "The Three Species of Rat found in New Zealand," by Dr. W. B.
Benham, F.R.S.

Fourth Meeting : 4th August, 1914.

The President, Mr. F. W. Payne, in the chair.

New Members.— Professor F. W. Dunlop, M.A., Ph.D., and Mr. W. A.
Thomson.

Address. — The President delivered his presidential address, entitled
" Natural Sources of Power."

Papers. — 1. " Notes on a Pure-white Form of Anas superciliosa," by
Mr. D. L. Poppelwell.

2. " Notes of a Botanical Visit to Herekopere Island," by Mr. D. L.
Poppelwell.

3. " Notes on the Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains," by Mr.
D. L. Poppelwell.

Fifth Meeting; : 1st September, 1914.
The President, Mr. F. W. Payne, in the chair.

Address. — " The Shakespeare-Bacon Controversy," by Mr. T. W. Whitson.

An interesting account of the whole history of the controversy, and a very able
exposition of the futility of the Baconian claims.

Sixth Meeting : 6th October, 1914.

The President, Mr. F. W. Payne, in the chair.

Papers and Addresses. — 1. " The Food Value of New Zealand Carrageen,"
by Dr. J. Malcolm.

2. " Description of New Species of Lepidoptera," by Mr. A. Philpott ;
communicated by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S.

3. "The Malay States and the Tin-mining Industry," by Mr. F. W.
Payne.

4. " The Smelting of Tin," by Professor D. B. Waters.

Otago Institute. 647

Seventh Meeting : 1st December, 1914.

Mr. E. Gilkison, Vice-President, in the chair.

Papers. — 1. "A Remarkable Case of Bifurcation in Lumbricus rubellus,"
by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S.

2. " On Lumbricillus macquariensis," by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S.

3. " Notes on some New Zealand Polychaetes," bv Dr. W. B. Benham,
F.R.S.

4. " Cainozoic Fossils from near Oaruara," by Professor P. Marshall,
D.Sc, F.G-.S.

5. " The Geology of Tahiti," by Professor P. Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S.

6. " Ainbrym Island and its Recent Eruptions," by Professor P. Marshall,
D.Sc, F.G.S.

7. " Graptolites from Golden Ridge, near Collingwood," by Dr. T. S.
Hall ; communicated by Dr. P. Marshall.

Annual Report.— The annual report and the balance-sheet for 1914 were
read and adopted.

Abstract of Annual Report.

During the year the Council has met nine times for the transaction of the business
of the Institute.

The Council supported the Manawatu Philosophical Society and the New Zealand
Forest and Bird Protection Society in their endeavours to induce the Government to
adopt and pass a private Bill having for its object the extension of the boundaries of
Tongariro National Park. The attention of all local Members of Parliament was drawn
to the proposal, and their co-operation in the matter sought. As a result, presumably,
of the efforts of this and kindred societies the Government has, by an Order in Council,
we understand, enlarged the park to the desired extent.

It is to be regretted that the efforts made by the Institute last year to secure the
restoration of the protection accorded to the fur seal in New Zealand waters have not
borne fruit, as the present Government still adheres to its policy of licensing sealers
to pursue their calling among the southern islands. M such a policy is persisted in,
the extinction of the fur seal in these waters will, it is to be feared, be a matter of only
a very few years.

During the year the Council, on behalf of the Institute, contributed the sum of £50
towards the sum required to purchase for the Museum the specimens placed there on
deposit some years ago by the late Mr. Hamilton. The result has been a valuable
addition to the collection of moa remains, for which the Otago University Museum
has so long been noteworthy. A donation of £15 was also made to the Augustus Hamilton
Memorial Fund, and one of three guineas to the Alfred Russell Wallace Memorial Fund.

During the year the New Zealand Institute has remitted to the incorporated societies
for their consideration a proposal that each society should hereafter contribute 2s. 6d.
per member to the funds of the Institute. Your Council, believing that the statutory
grant received by the Institute is quite inadequate to enable it to carry on its work
successfully, has agreed to the proposed levy being made for at least one year.

Meetings. — Seven ordinary and two special meetings of the Institute have been
held during the year. At the ordinary meetings there have been read or received fifteen
papers embodying the results of original research.

Of more general interest to members were the following addresses : " Natural
Sources of Power " (presidential address), by Mr. F. W. Payne ; " The Geology of
Tahiti," by Professor P. Marshall, D.Sc. ; " The Agricultural Development of the West
Indies," by Mr. D. Tannock ; " How a Muscle works," by Professor J. Malcolm, M.D. ;
and " The Shakespeare-Bacon Controversy," by Mr. T. W. Whitson, the last-named
a paper of exceptional merit.

Taking advantage of the presence in Dunedin of two distinguished visiting scientists
(Professor W. M. Davis, of Harvard University, and Professor E. E. Prince, Commis-
sioner of Fisheries, Canada), your Council arranged for two special public meetings
in the Y.M.C.A. Hall, Professor Davis speaking on " The Origin of the Coral Reefs of
Fiji," on the 20th May, and Professor Prince on " The Fisheries of Canada and New

648 Proceedings.

Zealand: a Contrast," on the 23rd May. These two meetings were very successful,
both our own members and the general public attending them in satisfactory numbers.
The Institute has been called upon at its meetings during the past year to place
on record its deep regret at the death of three of its former Presidents — Dr. J. H. Scott,
Dr. John Shand, C.M.G., and Mr. J. C. Thomson. Dr. Scott, who was President as far
back as 1885, had for over twenty years taken an active part in the work of the Institute,
and had contributed to the Transactions original work of great value.

Technological Branch. — The year 1914 has been productive of good and useful work.
A full course of seven ordinary meetings was held, at which valuable and interesting
lectures were delivered.

Astronomical Branch. — Five ordinary meetings of the branch have been held during
the season, when numerous important papers were read and discussed.

Presentations to the library have been made by Mr. E. B. M. Walmsley (books
and magazines), and Mr. J. W. Milnes (" Observer's Atlas of the Heavens ").

An arrangement has been made with the Wellington Philosophical Society (Astro-
nomical Branch) for the exchange of papers read at the two societies. As a result, two
papers have been forwarded from Dunedin to Wellington, and one, on " Variable Stars,'"
has been received. It is hoped that this plan will be found of benefit to both societies.

During the year a transit instrument, as previously promised, was kindly hand* d
over to the society by Mr. J. Blair Mason. The instrument has been repaired by Mr.
Bremner, and is now erected, and will be oriented by Professor Park.

Membership. — During the year eight new members have been elected, three of whom
entered through the Technological and one through the Astronomical Branch. On the
other hand, twenty-seven members have either resigned or been struck off the member-
ship list owing chiefly to removals from Dunedin, and six members (Dr. J. H. Scott.
Dr. John Shand, and Messrs. John Blair, James Nichol, J. C. Thomson, and J. F. Wood-
house) have been removed by death. The membership roll, therefore, has suffered a net
decrease of twenty-five, and now stands at 201. |

Librarian's Report. — During the session, twelve new works have been purchased,
and six are on order with our agent. Of these, nine are technical works in zoology,
botany, evolution, heredity, and so forth; three are geological; three on natural
history in the popular sense, and are suitable for general readers who may be interested
in the history of prehistoric or primitive man.

The Institute has also commenced to subscribe to a botanical periodica], " The
New Phytologist," and is arranging to obtain the earlier volumes.

A number of works added are due to the generosity of certain gentlemen. Mr.
E. B. M. Walmsley presented seven astronomical books, most of which are suitable for
general reading, and two periodicals of a technical nature. Mr. J. W. Milnes presented
a valuable atlas to the heavens. To Mr. F. H. Statham we are indebted for a large series
of the back numbers of the Journal of the Institute of Civil Engineers, which should bo
useful to members of the Technological Branch. Owing to lack of accommodation,
these are at present stored in the basement.

During the past year fifty-one volumes have been bound, most of which are periodicals
and other serials.

Balance-sheet. — The balance-sheet, presented by the Treasurer (Mr. R. N. Vanes),
showed a credit of £30 6s. lOd. The gross receipts totalled £859, including subscriptions
amounting to £175, deposits at call amounting to £533 10s.

Election of Officers jor 1915. — President- — Mr. E. Gilkison ; Vice-Presidents
—Dr. P. Marshall and Dr. W. B. Benliam ; Hon: Secretary— Mr. E. J. Parr ;
Hon. Treasurer — Mr. E. N. Vanes; Hon. Auditor — Mr. H. Brascli ; Hon.
Librarian — Dr. Benham ; Council — Dr. E. V. Fulton, Dr. J. K. H. Inglis,
Dr. E. Jack, Dr. J. Malcolm, Messrs. H. Brascli, G. M. Thomson, and
Professor J. Park.

Otago Institute. 649

TECHNOLOGICAL BRANCH.

First Meeting : 19th May, 1914.

Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.

Address. — t; The Law of Building and Engineering Contracts," by Mr.
H. Brasch.

The legal powers of local bodies, corporations, and joint-stock companies in regard
to entering into contracts for erecting buildings were set forth very fully. The legal
status and powers of architects were also ably summarized.

Second Meeting: 16th June, 1914.

Professor D. B. Waters in the chair.

Paper. — " Sand Movements and Banks at the Entrance to the Otago

Harbour," by Mr. J. B. Mason.

An interesting record of all the changes that have taken place in the configuration
of the harbour-entrance since 1844, and a description of the means employed to control
or prevent such changes ; well illustrated by charts and lantern-slides.

Third Meeting : 21st July, 1914.
'Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.

Paper. — " The Generation and Utilization of Electric Energy from
Waipori," by Mr. E. E. Stark.

A full description of the Waipori power-generating apparatus, transmission -line,
sub-stations, stand-by plant, and distributing system, with an analysis of the cost of the
enterprise. Illustrated by a large number- of slides.

Fourth Meeting : 18th August, 1914.

Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.

Paper. — '; The Evolution of Domestic Architecture," by Mr. B. B.
Hooper, A.E.I.B.A.

Fifth Meeting : loth September, 1914.

Mr. E. E. Stark in the chair.

Papers. — 1. " Oils and Oil-testing," by Professor D. B. Waters.

2. " Indicator Diagrams and Steam Efficiencies," by Mr. R. McLintock.

Sixth Meeting : 20th October, 1914.
Professor J. Park in the chair.
Paper. — " Friction and Lubrication," by Mr. E. E. Stark.

Seventh Meeting : 17th November, 1914.
Professor J. Park in the chair.
Paper.—" Waterworks," by Mr. W. D. R. McCurdie.

650 Proceedings.

Eighth Meeting : 15th December, 1914.

Professor J. Park in the chair.

The annual report was read and adopted, and the following office-bearers
for 1915 were elected : Chairman — Mr. J. B. Mason ; Vice-Chairmen —
Professors J. Park and D. B. Waters ; Hon. Secretary — Mr. H. Brasch ;
Committee — Messrs. G. W. Davies, B. B. Hooper, W. D. B. McCurdie,
B. McLintock, G. Simpson, and B. N. Vanes.

ASTRONOMICAL BRANCH.

First Meeting : 26th May, 1914.
Mr. B. Gilkison in the chair.
Address.—" Ball's Theory of the Ice Age," by Mr. B. Gilkison.

Second Meeting : 23rd June, 1914.
Mr. B. Gilkison in the chair.
Address. — " The Characteristics of certain Familiar Stars," by the Bev.
D. Dutton, F.G.S., F.B.A.S.

Third Meeting : 28th July, 1914.
Mr. B. Gilkison in the chair.
Address. — " The Elimination of Errors in Astronomical Observations,'
by Dr. P. D. Cameron.

Fourth Meeting : 25th August, 1914.
Mr. B. Gilkison in the chair.
Address.—" The Glacial Period," by Professor P. Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S.

Fifth Meeting : 22nd September, 1914.
Mr. B. Gilkison in the chair.
Papers.- — 1. " On the Deflection of the Plumb-line due to the Spheroidal
Form of the Earth," by Mr. W. T. Neill.

2. " Becent Astronomy," by the Bev. P. W. Fairclough, F.B.A.S.

Sixth Meeting : 27th October, 1914.
Mr. B. Gilkison in the chair.
Paper. — " Southern Variable Stars," by Mr. Westland (by arrangement
with the Wellington Philosophical Society, Astronomical Branch).

The annual report was read and adopted, and the following officers
for 1915 were elected : Chairman- — Mr. B. Gilkison ; Vice-Chairmen —
Professors J. Park and D. J. Bichards, and Bev. D. Dutton, F.B.A.S. ;
Hon. Secretary- — Mr. J. Bremner ; Committee — Dr. P. D. Cameron, Messrs.
H. Brasch, J. W. Milnes, W. T. Neill, and S. W. Wilson.

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute. 651

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.

First Meeting: 7th May, 1914.

Mr. W. Dinwiddie, President, in the chair, and a number of members and

the public.

New Members. — H. W. Lee and Eev. T. Richards.

Address. — " Heredity and Eugenics," by W. Dinwiddie.

The speaker gave the views of authorities on the subject, and an account of work
undertaken in compiling statistics.

Hamilton Memorial. — The Council voted £5 in aid of this memorial.

Second Meeting : 5th June, 1914.

Mr. W. Dinwiddie, President, in the chair, and fifty others.

Lecture. — " The Honey-bee and the Modern Honey Industry," by Mr.
Bostock.

This was a description of the life and work of the bee and of the treatment of honey,
and was illustrated by 160 of the author's own slides. In showing these the Institute's
new arc lamp was used for the first time, and gave much satisfaction.

Third Meeting: 17th- June, 1914.

Mr. W. Dinwiddie, President, in the chair, and 100 others.

Address. — " The Evolution of Life," by Sir Robert Stout.
This was published in full in the Hawhe's Bay Herald.

Fourth Meeting : 10th July, 1914.
Mr. W. Dinwiddie, President, in the chair, and 70 others.

Address. — " The Southern Alps," by Mr. Mannering.

This was illustrated by many fine enlargements of scenes in the Southern Alps
and by a series of beautiful slides.

Tongariro Park. — The Manawatu Philosophical Institute's action in
trying to get the reserve increased was supported.

Fifth Meeting : 18th September, 1914.

Mr. W. Dinwiddie, President, in the chair, and about thirty others.

Paper. — " The Navigation and Exploration of the Ancient Maori," by

Mr. Skinner.

The author gave his views of the origin of the Maori, and explained how the journeys
were made in the canoes.

652 Proceedings.

Sixth Meeting : 23rd October, 1914.

Mr. W. Dinwiddie, President, in the chair, and twenty others.

Papers. — 1. " La Perouse's Expedition and its Fate," by Mr. W.
McCarthy.

2. " King Lear," by Mr. H. W. Lee.

Annual Meeting : 11th December, 1914.
Mr. W. Dinwiddie, President, in the chair, and a small number of members.

Annual Report.

This shows a small addition to the membership and the loss of a few members.
Support was given to the Wellington Institute's proposal for a memorial to the late
A. Hamilton, and to the Manawatu Institute's proposed increase in the Tongariro Park.
The balance-sheet shows a satisfactory credit balance.

. Election of Officers for 1915. — President— F. Hutchinson ; Vice-President —
F. Heaton ; Secretary — J. Niven ; Treasurer — J. Wilson Craig ; Council —
W. Kerr, D. Strachan, T. Hyde, W. Dinwiddie, H. Hill, T. C. Moore ; Auditor
— J. Large ; Lanternist — E. G. Loten.

Manawatu Philosophical Society. 653

MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

First Meeting : 19th March, 1914.

Paper.—1' The Evolution of the English House," by Mr. C. R. Ford.

Tracing its gradual development from early Saxon times to the present, with
numerous lantern illustrations.

Second Meeting : 16th April, 1914.

Paper. — " Some Interesting Facts in Connection with the Geology of
New Zealand," by Mr. J. W. Poynton, S.M.

The paper spoke of the antiquity of the rock-formation of New Zealand, the fre-
quency of faults therein ; the peculiarities of the flora and fauna — specially mentioning
among the latter the peripatus and the tuatara — and the evidence which they afforded
of a land connection in prehistoric times with South America by way of the Antarctic
Continent, and also with the tropical regions to the north.

Third Meeting : 21st May, 1914.

Paper. — " The Effect of Wet and Dry Epochs upon Ancient Civilizations,"
by Mr. W. Welch, F.R.G.S.

The paper maintained the theory that the humidity of different regions of the earth
varied by more or less regular pulsations, and supported the theory by the results of
recent investigations into the physical geography of Transcaspia, Palestine, and the
south-west of North America, and also by apparent variation in the growth of trees
as shown by the variation in their rings. The theory, if true, would account for the
disappearance of certain ancient civilizations.

Fourth Meeting : 18th June, 1914.

Paper. — " Othello, Macbeth, and Hamlet : a Comparison and a Contrast,"

by Mr. G. D. Braik, M.A.

The paper, dealing chiefly with the working-out of the different temperaments
and motives of the three protagonists, was illustrated by selected passages read by Mr.
J, H. Primmer.

Fifth Meeting : 29th June, 1914.

Lecture. — " Sun-spots and Solar Physics," by Mr. J. Taylor.

The paper maintained that the sun was simply " a vacuous central vortex where
all physical characteristics have entirely vanished " ; that so-called sun-spots were the
shadows of aggregations of numerous small bodies moving in the line of vision between

us and the sun.

Sixth Meeting : 8th July, 1914.

Paper.—" The Evolution of Maori Art," by Mr. H. D. Skinner, B.A.

The paper, illustrated by numerous lantern-slides, showed the gradual development
in the forms of Native weapons, instruments, and architecture.

654 Proceedings.

Seventh Meeting : 17th September, 1914,

Paper. — " Further Notes on the Geology of New Zealand," by Mr.

J. W. Poynton, S.M.

Showing how the recent discoveries of fossil forms, both animal and vegetable,
in Antarctica supported the theory of a land connection between that continent and
New Zealand on the one hand, and South America on the other, during the Tertiary
period.

Eighth Meeting : 15th October, 1914.

Paper. — " Plant-life in the Solomon Islands," by^the Ven. Archdeacon

Comins, D.D.

After a brief sketch of the history of the islands from their discovery by Mendena
in 1567, the paper, which was illustrated by many exhibits and photographs, described
the leading characteristics of the island flora, which bears a close affinity with that of
Papua, with which the islands have probably at one time been connected.

Annual Meeting : 26th November, 1914.

Abstract of Annual Report.

The report referred to the efforts which had been made by the Council during the
past year to secure the enlargement of the Tongariro National Park, with a view to the
preservation of the native bush, at present greatly endangered by the introduction of
sawmills, &c, and also to the provision of better accommodation for tourists. Inquiries
had also been made into the tenure of the land on the summit of Mount Wharite, with
a view of getting it proclaimed as a scenic reserve ; and the Council pressed upon their
successors the urgent necessity of continuing the advocacy of both these measures.

The Museum was being slightly rearranged, on the advice of Mr. T. W. Kirk, F.L.S.,
in order to bring together the exhibits which illustrate the natural products and
industries of the country, and thereby to increase their direct educational value. The
time was fast approaching when increased and more secure accommodation must be
provided if the Museum was to do its work properly.

Election of Officers for 1915.— President— Mr. J. W. Poynton, S.M. ;
Vice-Presidents — Messrs. J. L. Barnicoat and M. A. Eliott ; Officer in charge
of the Observatory — Mr. C. T. Salmon ; Secretary and Treasurer — Mr. K.
Wilson, M.A. ; Council — Miss Ironside, M.A., and Messrs. K. Gardner,
J. B. Gerrard, W. Park, H. D. Skinner, B.A., and J. E. Vernon, M.A. ;
Auditor— Mr. W. E. Bendall.

On the motion of the Secretary, seconded by Mr. Park, it was resolved,
That the Council be authorized to contribute annually, if required, to the
funds of the New Zealand Institute a sum not exceeding 2s. 6d. per member.

Wangcmui Philosophical Society, 655

WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Special Meeting : 8th December, 1913.

Dr. Hatherly, President, in the chair.

Lecture. — " New Zealand Glaciers, Lakes, and Fiords," by Professor
P. Marshall.

In addition to the members, a large number of friends attended this lecture, which
was profusely illustrated with fine lantern-slide?.

First Meeting : 20th April, 1914.
Rev. J. LI. Dove, M.A., Vice-President, in the chair.

Address. — " The Aims of a Philosophical Society," by Dr. Hatherly.

The lecturer included in his paper an interesting account of the history and aims
of the New Zealand Institute.

Paper. — " The Jonrneyings of Tamatea," by Mr. T. W. Downes.

Second Meeting : 13th May, 1914.

Lecture.—" The Evolution of the English House," by Mr. C. R. Ford,
F.R.G.S.

This lecture was illustrated by numerous lantern-slides, and the gradual develop-
ment of the modern house under the influence of improving social conditions, and
aided by absorption of ideas from all quarters, Was fascinatingly traced from the one-
apartment hut to the palatial structures of modern times.

Third Meeting : 8th June, 1914.
Dr. Hatherly, President, in the chair.

Lecture. — " Shakespeare's Othello, Hamlet, and Macbeth : a Comparison
and a Contrast," by Mr. G. D. Braik, M.A., Director of Education, Wanganui
Education Board.

The lecture was illustrated by readings given by Mr. J. B. Reid.

Fourth Meeting : 20th July, 1914.
Dr. Hatherly, President, in the chair.

Papers.— 1. " The Stars," by Mr. Thomas Allison.

2. " Some Notes on Bergson," by Mr. C. P. Brown, M.A., LL.B.

3. " R. L. Stevenson," by Mr. W. A. Armour, M.A., M.Sc.

6I;6 Proceedings.

Fifth Meeting: 24th August, 1914.

Dr. Hatherly, President, in the chair.

Lecture.-—'1 Sun-spots and Associated Solar Phenomena," by Mr. J. T.
Ward, Hon. Director, Wanganui Observatory.

This lecture was illustrated with numerous splendid lantern-slides.

Sixth Meeting : 28th September, 1914.

Dr. Hatherly, President, in the chair.

Address. — " Tolstoy's Attitude towards Modem Civilization," by Mr.
H. E. Sturge, M.A., Oxon.

Mr. Sturge pointed out the fundamental character of Tolstoy's criticism, and sug-
gested that it at least merited serious consideration.

Seventh Meeting : 12th October, 1914.

Mr. H. W. Hesse, M.A., in the chair.

Exhibit. — Monochrome photographic lantern-slides of British scenery,
by Mr: James Crichton.

Paper. — " The Scientific Principles of Colour Photographv," by Mr.
W. A. Armour, M.A., M.Sc.

Exhibit.- — Colour photography, including lantern-slides, &c, lent by
Mr. James Crichton, Mr. E. H. Clark, Mr. T. W. Downes, and Mr. T. Allison,
representing the fohWing processes : Sanger-Shepherd, Lumiere, Thames,
and Paget.

~©v

Eighth Meeting : 26th October, 1914.
Dr. Hatherly, President, in the chair.
Lecture.—'1 Problems of Soil- fertility."" by Mr. L. J. Wild, M.A., F.G.S.

Papers.— 1. " The Soils of Wairau Plain, Marlborough," by Mr. L. J.
Wild, M.A., F.G.S.

2. 'l Some Eecent Theories of Plant-nutrition," by Mr. L. J. Wild,
M.A., F.G.S., and Mr. W. S. Hill, B.Agric.

Ninth Meeting : 23rd November, 1914.

Dr. Hatherly, President, in the chair.

Lecture.— u Sidelights on the Life-historv and Habits of the Insect,"
by Mr. Morris N. Watt, F.E.S.

The lecture was illustrated with numerous lantern-slides.

Paper.— " Contributions to the Study of New Zealand Etomology from
an Economical and a Biological Standpoint " : Nos. 1, 2, and 3, by Mr.
Morris N. Watt, F.E.S. ; and Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7, by Messrs. Morris N. Watt,
F.E.S., and David Miller.

Wanganui Philosophical Society. 657

Tenth Meeting : 7th December, 1914.
Mr. C. P. Brown, M.A., LL.B., in the chair.
Lecture. — " Experimental Psychology," by Professor Hunter, M.A., M.Sc.

Annual Meeting : 27th January, 1915.

The animal report and balance-sheet were adopted.

The financial position was satisfactory, showing a balance of £34 8s. 2d., after paying
a subsidy to the Museum of £20 8s. 2d.

Abstract of Report.

Membership. — -The roll of the society includes at date sixty-five ordinary and
sixty-one associate members. Dming the year the society has had to regret the los^
of two members of its Council through their leaving Wanganui — the Rev. J. LI. Dove,
Vice-President, and Mr. H. B. Watson, member of Council. Both gentlemen were officers
of the society from its inception, and took an active part in its work, and their removal
will be much felt. By the lamented death of Mr. G. D. Braik, Director of Education to
the Wanganui Education Board, our society has suffered a severe blow. Mr. Braik
contributed regularly papers of great interest and value on literary and educational
subjects, and his contributions to our discussions were always useful and stimulating.
Mr. J. T. Ward, whose work on behalf of the society has been most useful, Avas elected
a life member, the first member to be so honoured.

Meetings. — Eleven meetings were held, at which fourteen papers were read and
numerous exhibits shown, the lantern being used successfully at six meetings. The
contributors were in geneial our own members, but the society was placed under a debt
of gratitude by Professor Marshall and by Professor Hunter for their valuacle lectures.

Election of Officers for 1915. — President— H. E. Hatherly, M.E.C.S. :
Vice-Presidents— J '. T. Ward; H. Latter, M.A. : Council — T. Allison; J. A.
Xeame, B-A. ; Morris N. Watt, F.E.S. ; W. A. Armour, M.A., M.Sc. ; C. P.
Brown, M.A., LL.B.; T. W. Downes; E. Murdoch; H. W. Hesse, M.A.,
B.Sc, F.L.S. : Hon. Treasurer— P. P. Talboys : Hon. Secretary— J. P.
Williamson : Representative on Board of Governors, New Zealand Institute —
Dr. Hatherly.

658 Proceedings.

NELSON INSTITUTE.

Annual Meeting : 27th April, 1914.

Mr. T. A. H. Field, President, in the chair.

The annual report and balance-sheet was adopted. The^ financial
position showed a credit balance of £2 7s. lid.

Abstract or Report.

Reference was made to the revival of the Scientific Branch and to the series of
meetings held during the year. At one of the meetings an instructive lecture was de-
livered l>y Mr. John Evershed, of Kodaikanal Observatory, India. The lecturer dealt
with the subject of sun-spots, but incidentally he made numerous references to methods of
observation, &c. Mr. Evershed stated that the scientific world owed a debt of gratitude
to Mr. Thomas Cawthron for his offer of a solar observatory. The Royal Astronomical
Society had passed a resolution appreciating the gift. The observatory would be admir-
ably placed at Nelson, and the results obtained would be most useful.

Meetings. — The following papers have been read during this year (1914) : Mr. F. G.
Gibbs, M.A., on " The Proposed Cawthron Observatory, and explaining Mr. J. Ever-
shed's Methods of Observation."

Mr. W. F. Worley read two papers at successive monthly meetings, dealing with the
bulletin on the Dun Mountain district, in which his observations led him to differ
materially from the conclusions of those responsible for the bulletin.

Mr. F. V. Knapp dealt with " Shell-breaking Implements of the Maori," and
exhibited specimens from Rabbit Island. It was decided to forward the paper for
publication in the Transactions.

Mi. E. L. Morley showed a cardboard model illustrating the relation of the orbit
of the recent comet to the orbit of the earth.

Mr. Frank Whitwell gave an account of various rusts found in plants in the Nelson
district.

Mr. H. P. Washbourn gave an interim report on his investigations into the habits
of the New Zealand eels.

Museum. — Thanks to the generosity of Mr. Thomas Cawthron, new cases with
plate-glass fronts have been provided, and the exhibits are now shown to advantage.
The attendance of visitors has been very satisfactory.

The Atkinson Observatory. — Mr. Morley continues in charge, and he reports a good
attendance of visitors during the year.

APPENDIX.

660

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACTS.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903.

The following Act reconstituting the Institute was passed by Par-
liament : —

1903, No. 48.
An Act to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute.

[18th November, 190S.

Whereas it is desirable to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute with
a view to connecting it more closely with the affiliated institutions :

Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in
Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : —

1. The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute Act
1903.

2. The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867, is hereby repealed.

3. (1.) The body hitherto known as the New Zealand Institute
(hereinafter referred to as "the Institute") shall consist of the Auck-
land Institute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philo-
sophical Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the
Southland Institute, and such others as may hereafter be incorporated in
accordance with regulations to be made by the Board of Governors as
hereinafter mentioned.

(2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be
ipso facto members of the Institute.

4. The control and management of the Institute shall be in the hands
of a Board of Governors, constituted as follows : —

The Governor ;

The Colonial Secretary ;

Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council during

the month of December, one thousand nine hundred and three,

and two members to be similarly appointed during the month

of December in every succeeding year ;
Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies

at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during the

month of December in each alternate year ;
One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated

societies during the month of December in each alternate year.

5. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council two
shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors ; the first two
members to retire shall be decided by lot, and thereafter the two mem-
bers longest in office without reappointment shall retire.

(2.) Subject to the provisions of the last preceding subsection, the
appointed members of the Board shall hold office until the appointment
of their successors.

New Zealand Institute Acts. 6G1

6. The Board of Governors as above constituted shall be a body cor-
porate, by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name
they shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue
and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and
hold lands for the purposes hereinafter mentioned.

7. (1.) The Board of Governors shall have power to appoint a fit
person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all
necessary work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to pro-
vide him with such further assistance as may be required.

(2.) It shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to
be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a com-
mittee to assist him in the work of editing the same.

(3.) It shall have power to make regulations under which societies
may become incorporated to the Institute, and to declare that any
incorporated society shall cease to be incorporated if such regulations
are not complied with, and such regulations on being published in the
Gazette shall have the force of law.

(4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or
specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose
of them as it thinks fit.

(5.) The Board shall have control of the property hereinafter vested
in it, and of any additions hereafter made thereto, and shall make
regulations for the management of the same, for the encouragement
of research by the members of the Institute, and in all matters, speci-
fied or unspecified, shall have power to act for and on behalf of the
Institute.

8. Any casual vacancy on the Board of Governors, howsoever
caused, shall be filled within three months by the society or authority
that appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if
not filled within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board of
Governors.

9. (1.) The first annual meeting of the Board of Governors herein-
before constituted shall be held at Wellington on some day in the
month of January, one thousand nine hundred and four, to be fixed
by the Governor, and annual meetings of the Board shall be regularly
held thereafter during the month of January in each year, the date
and place of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual
meeting.

(2.) The Board of Governors may meet during the year at such other
times and places as it deems necessary.

(3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting
a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance-
sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the
Institute.

10. The Board of Governors may from time to time, as it sees fit,
make arrangements for the holding of general meetings of members of
the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of
scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion
of science in the colony by any means that may appear desirable.

11. The Colonial Treasurer shall, without further appropriation than
this Act, pay to the Board of Governors the annual sum of five hundred
pounds, to be applied- in or towards payment of the general current
expenses of the Institute.

662 Appendix.

12. (1.) On the appointment of the first Board of Governors under
this Act the Board of Governors constituted under the Act hereby
repealed shall cease to exist, and the property then vested in, or belong-
ing to, or under the control of that Board shall be vested in His Majesty
for the use and benefit of the public.

(2.) On the recommendation of the President of the Institute the
Governor may at any time hereinafter, by Order in Council, declare that
any part of such property specified in the Order shall be vested in the
Board constituted under this Act.*

13. All regulations, together with a copy of the Transactions of the
Institute, shall be laid upon the table of both Houses of Parliament
within twenty days after the meeting thereof.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.

1908, No. 130.

An Act to consolidate certain Enactments of the General Assembly
relating to the New Zealand Institute.

Be it enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : —

1. (1.) The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute
Act, 1908.

(2.) This Act is a consolidation of the enactments mentioned in the
Schedule hereto, and with respect to those enactments the following pro-
visions shall apply : —

(a.) The Institute and Board respectively constituted under those
enactments, and subsisting on the coming into operation of this
Act, shall be deemed to be the same Institute and Board respec-
tively constituted under this Act without any change of consti-
tution or corporate entity or otherwise ; and the members
thereof in office on the coming into operation of this Act shall
continue in office until their successors under this Act come into
office.
(6.) JAU Orders in Council, regulations, appointments, societies incor-
porated with the Institute, and generally all acts of authority
which originated under the said enactments or any enactment
thereby repealed, and are subsisting or in force on the coming
into operation of this Act, shall enure for the purposes of this
Act as fully and effectually as if they had originated under the
corresponding provisions of this Act, and accordingly shall,
where necessary, be deemed to have so originated,
(c.) All property vested in the Board constituted as aforesaid shall
be deemed to be vested in the Board established and recognized
by this Act.
(d.) All matters and proceedings commenced under the said enact-
ments, and pending or in progress on the coming into opera-
tion of this Act, may be continued, completed, and enforced
under this Act.

* See Neiu Zealand Gazette, 1st September, 1904.

Neiu Zealand Institute Acts. 663

2. (1.) The body now known as the New Zealand Institute (herein-
after referred to as " the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland Insti-
tute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical
Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland
Institute, and such others as heretofore have been or may hereafter be
incorporated therewith in accordance with regulations heretofore made
or hereafter to be made by the Board of Governors.

(2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso
facto members of the Institute.

3. The control and management of the Institute shall be vested in a
Board of Governors (hereinafter referred to as " the Board "), constituted
as follows : —

The Governor :

The Minister of Internal Affairs :

Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council, of
whom two shall be appointed during the month of December
in every year :

Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies
at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during
the month of December in each alternate year ; and the next
year in which such an appointment shall be made is the
year one thousand nine hundred and nine :

One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated
societies during the month of December in each alternate
year ; and the next year in which such an appointment shall
be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine.

4. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council, the
two members longest in office without reappointment shall retire annually
on the appointment of their successors.

(2.) Subject to the last preceding subsection, the appointed members
of the Board shall hold office until the appointment of their successors.

5. The Board shall be a body corporate by the name of the " New
Zealand Institute," and by that name shall have perpetual succession
and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and
authority to take, purchase, and hold lands for the purposes hereinafter
mentioned.

6. (1.) The Board shall have power to appoint a fit person, to be
known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all necessary
work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to provide him
with such further assistance as may be required.

(2.) The Board shall also appoint the President or some other fit
person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint
a committee to assist him in the work of editing the same.

(3.) The Board shall have power from time to time to make regu-
lations under which societies may become incorporated with the
Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be
incorporated if such regulations are not complied with ; and such regu-
lations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law.

(4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books
or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and
dispose of them as it thinks fit.

(5.) The Board shall have control of the property from time to time
vested in it or acquired by it ; and shall make regulations for the

664 Appendix.

management of the same, and for the encouragement of research by the
members of the Institute ; and in all matters, specified or unspecified,
shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute.

7. (1.) Any casual vacancy in the Board, howsoever caused, shall be
filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed
the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that

ime the vacancy shall be filled by the Board.

(2.) Any person appointed to fill a casual vacancy shall only hold
office for such period as his predecessor would have held office under
this Act.

8. (1.) Annual meetings of the Board shall be held in the month of
January in each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be
fixed at the previous annual meeting.

(2.) The Board may meet during the year at such other times and
places as it deems necessary.

(3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the
meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and
a balance-sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf
of the Institute.

9. The Board may from time to time, as it sees fit, make arrange-
ments for the holding of general meetings of members of the Institute,
at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers,
the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in New
Zealand by any means that may appear desirable.

10. The Minister of Finance shall from time to time, without further
appropriation than this Act, pay to the Board the sum of five hundred
pounds in each financial year, to be applied in or towards payment of the
general current expenses of the Institute.

11. Forthwith upon the making of any regulations or the publica-
tion of any Transactions, the Board shall transmit a copy thereof to the
Minister of Internal Affairs, who shall lay the same before Parliament if
sitting, or if not, then within twenty days after the commencement of the
next ensuing session thereof.

Schedule.
Enactments consolidated.
1903, No. 48.— The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903.

EEGULATIONS.

The following are the regulations of the New Zealand Institute under
the Act of 1903 :— *

The word "Institute" used in the following regulations means the
New Zealand Institute as constituted by the New Zealand Institute
Act, 1903.

Incorporation of Societies.

1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the pro-
visions of the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903, unless such society shall
consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate

* New Zealand Gazette, 14th July, 1904.

Regulations. 665

a sum of not less than £25 sterling annually for the promotion of art,
science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to
be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors
of the Institute by the President for the time being of the society.

2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated
with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society
shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money
annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less
than £25.

3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall
provide for the expenditure of not less than one -third of the annual
revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public
museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not
less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main-
tenance of the New Zealand Institute.

4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year
fail to expend the proportion of revenue specified in Eegulation No. 3
aforesaid in manner provided shall from henceforth cease to be incor-
porated with the Institute.

Publications.

5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated
with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti-
tute, and then may be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the
Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Institute
regarding publications : —

(a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of —

(1.) A current abstract of the proceedings of the societies
for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be
intituled "Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute";

(2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the
incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as herein-
after mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of
Governors shall from time to time determine to publish, to
be intituled " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."

(b.) The Board of Governors shall determine what papers are to be
published.

(c.) Papers not recommended for publication may be returned to their
authors if so desired.

(d.) All papers sent in for publication must be legibly written, type-
written, or printed.

(e.) A proportional contribution may be required from each society
towards the cost of publishing Proceedings and Transactions
of the Institute.

(/.) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor-
tional number of copies of the Transactions and Proceedings
of the New Zealand Institute, to be from time to time fixed
by the Board of Governors.

Management of the Property of the Institute.

6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor-
porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested
in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of

666 Appendix.

Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the
property of the Institute.

7. All donations by societies, public Departments, or private indi-
viduals to the Institute shall be acknowledged by a printed form of
receipt and shall be entered in the books of the Institute provided for
that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may
direct.

Honorary Members.

8. The Board of Governors shall have power to elect honorary
members (being persons not residing in the Colony of New Zealand), pro-
vided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed
thirty.

9. In case of a vacancy in the list of honorary members, each incor-
porated society, after intimation from the Secretary of the Institute, may
nominate for election as honorary member one person.

10. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated)
together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members
is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the President of the
New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors
at the next succeeding meeting.

General Begulations.

11. Subject to the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, and to the
foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be
entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws
for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs.

12. Upon application signed by the President and countersigned by the
Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under
Begulation No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under
the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the fore-
going regulations of the Institute are complied with by the society.

13. In voting on any subject the President is to have a deliberate as
well as a casting vote.

14. The President may at any time call a meeting of the Board, and
shall do so on the requisition in writing of four Governors.

15. Twenty-one days' notice of every meeting of the Board shall be
given by posting the same to each Governor at an address furnished by
him to the Secretary.

16. In case of a vacancy in the office of President, a meeting of
the Board shall be called by the Secretary within twenty-one days to
elect a new President.

17. The Governors for the time being resident or present in Wellington
shall be a Standing Committee for the purpose of transacting urgent
business and assisting the officers.

18. The Standing Committee may appoint persons to perform the
duties of any other office which may become vacant. Any such appoint-
ment shall hold good until the next meeting of the Board, when the
vacancy shall be filled.

19. The foregoing regulations may be altered or amended at any
annual meeting, provided that notice be given in writing to the Secretary
of the Institute not later than the 30th November.

Hutton Memorial Fund. 667

THE HUTTON MEMORIAL MEDAL AND RESEARCH FUND.

Declaration of Trust.

This deed, made the fifteenth day of February, one thousand nine hundred
and nine (1909), between the New Zealand Institute of the one part, and
the Public Trustee of the other part : Whereas the New Zealand Institute
is possessed of a fund consisting now of the sum of five hundred and fifty-
five pounds one shilling (£555 Is.), held for the purposes of the Hutton
Memorial Medal and Research Fund on the terms of tbe rules and regu-
lations made by the Governors of the said Institute, a copy whereof is
hereto annexed : And whereas the said money has been transferred to the
Public Trustee for the purposes of investment, and the Public Trustee
now holds the same for such purposes, and it is expedient to declare the
trusts upon which the same is held by the Public Trustee :

Now this deed witnesseth that the Public Trustee shall hold the said
moneys and all other moneys which shall be handed to him by the said
Governors for the same purposes upon trust from time to time to invest
the same upon such securities as are lawful tor the Public Trustee to
invest on, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the purposes
set out in the said rules hereto attached.

And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee
to pay all or any of the said moneys, both principal and interest, to the
Treasurer of the said New Zealand Institute upon being directed so to do
by a resolution of the Governors of the said Institute, and a letter signed
by the Secretary of the said Institute enclosing a copy of such resolution
certified by him and by the President as correct shall be sufficient
evidence to the Public Trustee of the due passing of such resolution :
And upon receipt of such letter and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for
the time being of the. said Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the
Public Trustee : And in no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to
inquire into the administration of the said moneys by the Governors of
the said Institute.

As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year
hereinbefore written.

Resolutions of Board of Governors.

Resolved by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute
that —

1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the committee of
subscribers to the Hutton Memorial Fund be called "The Hutton
Memorial Research Fund," in memory of the late Captain Frederick
Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys sub-
scribed and granted for the purpose of the Hutton Memorial, and all
other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose.

2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of
Governors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys,
and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-
moneys.

3. A sum not exceeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronze
medal to be known as " The Hutton Memorial Medal."

6(58 Append i.e.

4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as aforesaid as '.nay be approved of by
the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment
shall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund.

5. The Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded from time to time
by the Board of Governors, in accordance with these regulations, to
persons who have made some noticeable contribution in connection with
the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.

6. The Board shall make regulations setting out the manner in which
the funds shall be administered. Such regulations shall conform to the
terms of the trust.

7. The Board of Governors may, in the manner prescribed in the
regulations, make grants from time to time from the accrued interest to
persons or committees who require assistance in prosecuting researches
in the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.

8. There shall be published annually in the " Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute" the regulations adopted by the Board as afore-
said, a list of the recipients of the Hutton Memorial Medal, a list of the
persons to whom grants have been made during the previous year, and
also, where possible, an abstract of researches made by them.

Begulations under which the Hutton Memorial Medal shall be
awarded and the besearch fund administered.

1. Unless in exceptional circumstances, the Hutton Memorial Medal
shall be awarded not oftener than once in every three years ; and in no
case shall any medal be awarded unless, in the opinion of the Board,
some contribution really deserving of the honour has been made.

2. The medal shall not be awarded for any research published previous
to the 31st December, 1906.

3. The research for which the medal is awarded must have a distinct
bearing on New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology.

4. The medal shall be awarded only to those who have received the
greater part of their education in New Zealand or who have resided in
New Zealand for not less than ten years.

5. Whenever possible, the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.

6. The Board of Governors may, at an annual meeting, make grants
from the accrued interest of the fund to any person, society, or commit-
tee for the encouragement of research in New Zealand zoology, botany,
or geology.

7. Applications for such grants shall be made to the Board before the
30th September.

8. In making such grants the Board of Governors shall give preference
to such persons as are defined in regulation 4.

9. The recipients of such grants shall report to the Board before the
31st December in the year following, showing in a general way how the
grant has been expended and what progress has been made with the
research.

10. The results of researches aided by grants from the fund shall,
where possible, be published in New Zealand.

11. The Board of Governors may from time to time amend or alter
the regulations, such amendments or alterations being in all cases in con-
formity with resolutions 1 to 4.

Hutton Memorial Fund. 669

Award of the Hutton Memorial Medal.

1911. Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.E.S., University of Otago—
For researches in New Zealand zoology.

1914. Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., F.L S. — For researches on the
ecology of New Zealand plants.

Grants from the Hutton Memorial Research Fund.

1915. (1.) To Dr. C. A. Cotton — £15 as a contribution towards his
travelling-expenses in an investigation of the physiographic features of
the New Zealand coast."

(2.) To Mr. W. R. B. Oliver — £15 to defray expenses of travelling
and apparatus for a visit to Lord Howe Island undertaken in November,
1913.

HECTOR MEMORIAL RESEARCH FUND.

Declaration of Trust.

This deed, made the thirty-first day of July, one thousand nine hundred
and fourteen, between the New Zealand Institute, a body corporate
duly incorporated by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, of the one
part, and the Public Trustee of the other part : Whereas by a declara-
tion of trust dated the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand
nine hundred and twelve, after reciting that the New Zealand Institute
was possessed of a fund consisting of the sum of ,£1,015 10s. 2d., held
for the purposes of the Hector Memorial Research Fund on the terms of
the rules and regulations therein mentioned, which said moneys had been
handed to the Public Trustee for investment, it was declared (inter aha)
that the Public Trustee should hold the said moneys and all other moneys
which should be handed to him by the said Governors of the Institute
for the same purpose upon trust from time to time, to invest the same
in the common fund of the Public Trust Office, and to hold the principal
and income thereof for the purposes set out in the said rules and regula-
tions in the said deed set forth : And whereas the said rules and regu-
lations have been amended by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute,
and as amended are hereinafter set forth : And whereas it is expedient
to declare that the said moneys are held by the Public Trustee upon the
trusts declared by the said deed of trust and for the purposes set forth
in the said rules and regulations as amended as aforesaid :

Now this deed witnesseth and it is hereby declared that the Public
Trustee shall hold the said moneys and all other moneys which shall be
handed to him by the said Governors for the same purpose upon trust
from time to time to invest the same in the common fund of the Public
Trust Office, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the pur-
poses set out in the said rules and regulations hereinafter set forth :

And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public
Trustee to pay, and he shall pay, all or any of the said moneys, both
principal and interest, to the Treasurer of the said New Zealand Insti-
tute upon being directed to do so by a resolution of the Governors of

* This grant has been surrendered hy Dr. CoSton.

670 Appendix.

the said Institute, and a letter signed by the Secretary of the said Insti-
tute enclosing a copy of such resolution certified by him and by the
President as correct shall be sufficient evidence to the Public Trustee
of the due passing of such resolution : And upon receipt of such letter
and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said
Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the Public Trustee : And in
no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to inquire into the adminis-
tration of the said moneys by the Governors of the said Institute.

As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year first
hereinbefore written.
•
Hides and Regulations made by the Governors of the New Zealand
Institute in relation to the Hector Memorial Research Fund.

1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington
Hector Memorial Committee be called " The Hector Memorial Research
Fund," in memory of the late Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Ihe object of such fund shall be the encouragement of scientific research
in New Zealand, and such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed
and granted for the purpose of the memorial and all other funds which
may be given or granted for the same purpose.

2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Go-
vernors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and
may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.

3. A sum not exceeding one hundred pounds (£100) shall be expended
in procuring a bronze medal, to be known as the Hector Memorial Medal.

4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as may be approved by the Board
of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be
used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund by providing thereout
a prize for the encouragement of such scientific research in New Zealand
of such amount as the Board of Governors shall from time to time
determine.

5. The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize shall be awarded annually
by the Board of Governors.

6. The prize and medal shall be awarded by rotation for the follow-
ing subjects, namely — (1) Botany, (2) chemistry, (3) ethnology, (4) geo-
logy, (5) physics (including mathematics and astronomy), (6) zoology
(including animal physiology).

In each year the medal and prize shall be awarded to that investi-
gator who, working within the Dominion of New Zealand, shall in the
opinion of the Board of Governors have done most towards the advance-
ment of that branch of science to which the medal and prize are in such
year allotted.

7. Whenever possible the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.

Award of the Hector Memorial Research Fund.

1912. L. Cockayne. Ph.D.. F.L.S., F.R.S. —For researches in New

Zealand botany.

1913. T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D.— For researches in chemistry.

1914. Elsdon Best — For researches in New Zealand ethnology.

1915. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.— For researches in New

Zealand geology.

Tlie Carter Bequest. 671

THE CARTER BEQUEST.

Extracts from the Will of Charles Rooking Carter.

This is the last will and testament of me, Charles Rooking Carter, of
Wellington, in the Colony of New Zealand, gentleman.

1 revoke all wills and testamentary dispositions heretofore made by
me, and declare this to be my last will and testament.

******

I give to the Colonial Museum in Wellington the large framed
photographs of the members of the General Assembly in the House of
Representatives in the year 1860, and the framed pencil sketch of the
old House of Commons, and the framed invitation-card to the Lord
Mayor's dinner.

******

As regards the following books, of which I am the author, and which
are now stored in three boxes — namely, (1) " The Life and Recollections
of a New Zealand Colonist," (2) "A Historical Sketch of New Zealand
Loans," and (3) "Round the World Leisurely" — I direct that my
executor shall retain possession of the same for a period of seven years,
commencing from the date of my death, and that at the end of such
period my executor shall place the same in the hands of Messrs. Whit-
combe and Tombs (Limited) or some other capable and responsible book-
sellers in the City of Wellington, for sale, and so that the same shall
be sold at such a price as will yield to my estate not less than six shillings
per volume in respect of the first-named and second-named, and two
shillings and sixpence in respect of the last-named works; and I further
authorize my executor to sell and dispose of the copyright or right to
reprint such works; and I direct that the moneys to be derived from
the sale of such works and the privileges connected therewith shall be
added to the sum provided for the purchase of a telescope as hereinafter
mentioned.

******

I direct my executor to subscribe the sum of fifty pounds towards the
erection of a suitable brick room in which to house the priceless collec-
tion of books on New Zealand some time since given by me to the
Colonial Museum and the New Zealand Institute.

******

I give and devise unto the Public Trustee appointed under and in
pursuance of an Act of the General Assembly of New Zealand intituled
the Public Trust Office Act. 1894 (hereinafter called "my trustee"),
all the rest, residue, and remainder of ray property whatsoever and
wheresoever situate, both real and personal, and whether in possession,
reversion, expectancy, or remainder, upon trust, as to my freehold pro-
perty at East Taratahi, containing by admeasurement two thousand one
hundred and seventy-two acres, and being and comprising the whole of
the land included in certificate of title, volume 51, folio 79, of the books
of the District Land Registrar for the Registration District of Welling-

672 Appendix.

ton (save and except such part of the said land, being portion of the
section numbered 117 in the Taratahi Plain Block, as is hereinafter
devised to my trustee for the purposes hereinafter appearing), and direct
that my Trustee shall stand possessed of the same lands upon trust, to
let and manage the same, and to pay and apply the rents and annual
income in manner following, namely : —

*

And as to all the residue and remainder (if any) of the said net pro-
ceeds of the sale, conversion, and getting-in of my estate as aforesaid,
my trustee shall transfer the same to the Governors for the time being of
the New Zealand Institute at Wellington, to form the nucleus of a fund
for the erection in or near Wellington aforesaid, and the endowment of
a Professor and staff, of an Astronomic Observatory fitted with telescope
and other suitable instruments for the public use and benefit of the
colony, and in the hope that such fund may be augmented by gifts from
private donors, and that the Observatory may be subsidized by the
Colonial Government; and without imposing any duty or obligation in
regard thereto I would indicate my wish that the telescope may be ob-
tained from the factory of Sir H. Grubb, in Dublin, Ireland.

673

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED
THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867 J RECONSTITUTED BY AN ACT OF THE
GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND UNDER THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
ACT, 1903, AND CONTINUED BY THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.

Board of Governors.

EX OFFICIO.

His Excellency the Governor.
The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs.

NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT.

Charles A. Ewen (December, 1912) ; A. H. Turnbull (December, 1912) ;
Dr. J. Allan Thomson (December, 1913) ; Professor G. W. von
Zedlitz, M.A. (December, 1913).

ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES (DECEMBER, 1913).

(Professor T. H. Easterfield,
Wellington Philosophical Societv ... \ M.A., Ph.D.

(Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A.

(D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.

| Professor H. W. Segar, M.A.

C. Coleridge Farr, D.Sc.

E.Speight, M.A.,M.Sc,F.G.S.

Professor Marshall, D.Sc, F.G.S.

G. M. Thomson, F.C.S.

H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.

L. Cockavne, Ph.D., F.L.S.,
F.E.S. *

K. Wilson, M.A.

Dr. H. E. Hatherlv, M.E.C.S.

Auckland Institute ...

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury

Otago Institute

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute
Nelson Institute

Manawatu Philosophical Society
Wanganui Philosophical Society

OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1915.

President : D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.
Hon. Treasurer: C. A. Ewen.
Hon. Editor : C. Chilton, D.Sc., M.A., M.B., LL.D., F.L.S.
Secretary: B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S.

(Box 40, Post-office, Wellington.)

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.

Name of Society.

Secretary's Name and Address.

Date of Affiliation.

Wellington Philosophical

Society
Auckland Institute
Philosophical Institute of

Canterbury
Otago Institute
Hawke's Bay Philosophical

Institute
Nelson Institute
Manawatu Philosophical

Society
Wanganui Philosophical

Society

A. 0. Gifford, 6 Shannon Street 10th June, 1868.

T. F. Cheeseman, Museum
A. M. Wright, Box 617, Christ-
church
E. J. Parr, Boys' High School . .
James Niven, Technical College

E. L. Morley, Waimea Street . .
K. Wilson, Palmerston North . .

J. P. Williamson

10th June, 1868.
22nd October, 1868.

18th October, 1869.
j 31st March, 1875.

20th December, 1883.
6th January, 1905.

2nd December, 1911.

22— Trans.

674

Appendix.
FORMER HONORARY MEMBERS.

1870.

Agassiz, Professor Louis.
Drury, Captain Byron, R.N.
Flower, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
Hochstetter, Dr. Ferdinand von.
Hooker, Sir J. D., G. C.S.I. , C.B., M.D.,
F.R.S. , O.M.

1871.

Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.S.,

C.M.G.
Owen, Professor Richard, F.R.S.
Richards, Rear-Admiral G. H.

Darwin, Charles. M.A., F.R.S.
Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.

Grey, Sir George, K.C.B.

Huxley, Thomas H., L.L.D., F.R.S.

Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G. C.M.G.
Giinther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.

McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S.
Newton, Alfred, F.R.S.

Filhol, Dr. H.

Rolleston, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S.

Clarke, Rev. W. B., M.A., F.R.S.
Baird, Professor Spencer F.

Garrod, Professor A. H., F.R.S.
Miiller, Professor Max, F.R.S.

Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S.E.

1872.

I Stokes, Vice-Admiral J. L.

1873.

Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.

1874.

Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S.

1875.

Sclater, P. L., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.

1876.

| Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S.

1877.

| Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G.

1878.

Tenison-Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S.

1880.
The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G.C.M.G.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S.
Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.

Gray, Professor Asa.

Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., F.R.S.

Beneden, Professor J. P. van.
Ettingshausen, Baron von.

1883.

Thomson, Sir William, F.R.S.

1885.

Wallace, A. R., F.R.S., O.M.

1888.

McCoy, Professor F., D.Sc, C.M.G.
F.R.S.

1890.
Riley, Professor C. V.

1891.
Davis, J. W., F.G.S., F.L.S.

Former Honorary Members. 675

1895.
Mitten, William, P.R.S.

1896.
Langley, S. P.

1900.
Agardh, Dr. J. G. | Avebury, Lord, P.C., P.R.S.

1901.
Eve, H. W., M.A. j Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S.

1906.
.' Milne, J., P.R.S.

1909.
Darwin, Sir George, F.R.S.

FORMER MANAGER AND EDITOR.

[Under the New Zealand Institute Act, 1867.]

1867-1903.
Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., P.R.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS.

1903-4.
Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S.

1905-6.
Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.

1907-8.
Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., F.C.S.

1909-10.
Hamilton, A.

1911-12.
Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., P.Z.S.

1913-14.
Chilton, C, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.L.S.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

1870.
Pinsch, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Braunschweig, Germany

1873.
Pickard-Cambridge, The Rev. O., M.A., C.M.Z.S.

22*

676 Appendix.

1876
Berggren, Dr. S., Lund, Sweden.

1877.

Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge.

1890.

Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., F.R.S.,
Fieldbead, Coombe Warren, Kingston
Hill, England.

Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Uni-
versity of Lund, Sweden.

1891.

Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1894.

Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadhurst ! Thiselton - Dyer, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G.,
Rectory, Sussex, England. CLE., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., Royal

' Gardens, Kew.

1896.
Lydekker, Richard, B.A., P.R.S., British Museum, South Kensington.

1900.
Massee, George, P.L.S., F.R.M.S., Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

1901.
von Goebel, Professor Dr. Carl, University of Munich.

1902.

Sars, Professor G. O., University of Christiania, Norway.

1903.
Klotz, Professor Otto J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada.

1904.

Rutherford, Professor Sir E., D.Sc, I David, Professor T. Edgeworth, F.R.S.,
F.R.S., University of Manchester. C.M.G., Sydney University, N.S.W.

1906.

Beddard, F. E., F.R.S., Zoological
Society, London.

Brady, G. S., F.R.S., University of Dur-
ham, England.

1907.

Dendy, Dr., F.R.S., King's College,
University of London, England.

Diels, Professor L., Ph.D., University of
Marburg.

Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough
College, England.

Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S., Tun-
bridge Wells, England.

1910.
Bruce, Dr. W. S., Edinburgh.

1913.

Davis, Professor W. Morris, Harvard j Hemsley, W. Botting, England.
University. '

1914.
Arber, Dr. E. Newell, Cambridge, Eng. Haswell, Professor W. A., F.R.S, Uni-

Balfodr, Professor J. Bayley, F.R.S.,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.

versity, Sydney.

1915.

Bateson, Professor W., F.R.S., England.

Boll of Members.

677

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

[* Life members, -j

Acland, E. W., P.O. Box 928, Wel-
lington

Adams, C. E., D.Sc, A. I. A. (Lon-
don), F.R.A.S., Hector Observa-
tory, Wellington

Adams, C. W., Bellevue Road,
Lower Hutt

Adamson, Professor J., Victoria
College, Wellington

Adkin, G. L., Queen Street, Levin

Alabaster, A. H., care of District
Engineer, Railwavs, Wellington

Anderson, W. J.,' M.A., LL.D.,
Education Department, Welling-
ton

Aston, B. C, F.I.C., F.C.S., Do-
minion Laboratory, Wellington

Atkins, A., F.R.I.B.A., Assoc. M.
Inst.C.E., Grey Street, Wellington

Atkinson, E. H., Agricultural De-
partment, Wellington

Bagley, G., Young's Chemical Com-
pany, 14 Egmont Street, Welling-
ton

Bakewell, F. H., M.A., Education
Board, Mercer Street, Wellington

Baldwin, E. S., 215 Lambton Quay,
Wellington

Bates, Rev. D. C, Weather Office,
Wellington.

Beere, W. C, 155 Featherston
Street, Wellington

Beetham, W. H., Masterton

Begg, Dr. C. M., 164 Willis Street,
Wellington

Bell, E. D., Panama Street, Wel-
lington

Bell, Hon. Sir H. D., K.C., B.A.,
Panama Street, Wellington

Berry, C. G. G., 35 Bolton Street,
Wellington

Blair, David K., M.I.Mech.E., 9
Grey Street, Wellington

Blake, V., District Lands and Sur-
vey Office, Wellington

Blow, H. J. H., Public Works De-
partment, Wellington

Honorary members.]

Brandon, A. de B., B.A., Feathers-
ton Street, Wellington

Bridges, G. G., 2 Wesley Road,
Wellington

Broadgate, F. L. K., B.Sc, Do-
minion Museum, Wellington

Browne, M. H., Education Depart-
ment

Burnett, J., M.Inst. C.E., Head
Office, Railways

Campbell, J., F.R.I.B.A., Public
Works Department, Wellington

Carter, F. J., M.A., Diocesan
Office, Wellington

Carter, W. H., care of Dr. Henry,
The Terrace, Wellington

Chapman, Martin, K.C., Brandon
Street, Wellington

Chudleigh, E. R., Orongomairoa,
Waihou

Cockayne, Dr. L., F.R.S., 13 Co-
lombo Street, Wellington

Cook, H. D., M.Sc, B.E. (Elect.),
Bank Chambers, Lambton Quay,
Wellington

Cotton, C. A., D.Sc, Victoria Col-
lege, Wellington

Crawford, A. D., Box 126, G.P.O.,
Wellington

Crawford, Miss Grace A., Box 813,
G.P.O., Wellington

Crewes, Rev. J., 90 Owen Street,
Wellington

Dougall, Archibald, 34 Austin Street,
Wellington

Dymock. E. R., A. I.A.N. Z., Wood-
ward Street, Wellington

Earnshaw, W., 4 Watson Street,
Wellington

Easterheld, Professor T. H., M.A.,
Ph.D., Victoria College, Welling-
ton

Ewen, C. A., 126 The Terrace, Wel-
lington

Ferguson, William, M.A., M.Inst.
C.E., M.Inst.Mech.E., 131 Coro-
mandel Street, Wellington

678

Appendix.

Field, W. H., 160 Featherston
Street, Wellington

FitzGerald, Gerald, A.M.Inst.C.E.,
Government Insurance Building,
Wellington

Fleming, T. E., M.A., LL.B., Edu-
cation Board Office, Wellington

Fletcher, Bev. H. J., The Manse,
Taupo

Fox, T. O., Borough Engineer, Mira-
mar, Wellington

Fraser, G. V. B., Bailway Buildings,
Wellington

Freeman, C. J., Webb Street, Wel-
lington*

Freyberg, C, Macdonald Crescent

Fulton, J., 14 North Terrace, Kel-
burne

Furkert, F. W., M.Inst. CE., Public
Works Department, Wellington

Garrow, Professor J. M. E., B.A.,
LL.B., Victoria College, Welling-
ton*

Gavin, W. H., Public Works De-
partment, Wellington

Gibbs, A., Telegraph Department,
Wellington

Gibbs, Dr. H. E., 240 Willis Street,
Wellington

Gibson, Miss G. F., M.A., 10 Hill
Street, Wellington

Gibson, W., B.E. (Mining), Geo-
logical Survey Department, Wel-
lington

Gifford, A. C, M.A., 6 Shannon
Street, Wellington*

Girdlestone, H. E., Lands and Sur-
vey Department, Wellington

Gottfried, Bev. I. von, Boulcott
Street, Wellington

Goudie, H. A., Whakarewarewa

Haast, H. F. von, M.A., LL.B.,
41 Salamanca Boad, Wellington

Hamilton, H., 58 Bowen Street,
Wellington

Hanify, H. P., 18 Panama Street,
Wellington

Harding, B. Coupland, 63 Matai
Road, Haitaitai*

Hastie, Miss J. A., care of Street and
Co., 30 Cornhill, London, E.C.*

Hay ward, Captain J. A., 113 Tasman
Street, Wellington

Hector, Barclav, Lower Hutt

Hector, Dr. C. Monro., M.D., B.Sc,
Lower Hutt

Helyer, Miss E., 13 Tonks Grove,
Wellington

Henderson, J., M.A., D.Sc, B.Sc
in Engineering (Metall.), Geo-
logical Survey Department, Wel-
lington

Hislop, J., Department of Internal
Affairs, Wellington

Hodson, W. H., 40 Pirie Street,
Wellington

Hogben, G., M.A., F.G.S., C.M.G.,
Education Department, Welling-
ton

Holmes, B. L., F.R.Met.S., Kaiora,
Fern Street, Bandwick, Svdney*

Holmes, B. W., M.Inst.C.E., Pub-
lic Works Department, Welling-
ton

Hooper, Captain G. S., Grant Boad
North, Wellington

Hudson, G. V., F.E.S., Inspector's
Office, G.P.O., Wellington

Humphries, Thomas, Laery Street,
Lower Hutt

Hursthouse, E. W., Bouth's Build-
ings, Wellington

Isaac, E. C, Education Depart-
ment, Wellington

Jack, J. W., Featherston Street,
Wellington

James, L. G., 31 Hunter Street,
Wellington

Jenkinson, S. H., Railway Build-
ings, Wellington

Johnston, C. G., Railway Offices,
Wellington

Johnston, Hon. G. Randall, care of
Martin Chapman, K.C., Welling-
ton*

Jones, E. G., B.A., Wellington Col-
lege, Wellington

Joseph, Joseph, Grant Boad, Wel-
lington

Kennedy, Bev. Dr. D., F.R.A.S.,
St. Patrick's College, Welling-
ton

Kilroe, Miss F. C, B.Sc, 7 Hay
Street, Wellington

King, G. W., B.E., Public Works
Department, Dunedin

King, Thomas, F.R.A.S., 58 Ellice
Street, Wellington*

Boll of Members.

679

Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A., Vic-
toria College, Wellington

Laby, Professor T. H., B.A., Vic-
toria College, Wellington

La Trobe, W. S., M.A., Technical
College, Wellington

Levi, P., M.A., care of Wilford and
Levi, 15 Stont Street, Wellington

Lomas, E. K., M.A., M.Sc, Training
College, Wellington

Lomax, Major H. A., Araruhe, Ara-
moho, Wanganui

Luke, J. P., Hiropi Street, Welling-
ton

Luke, K. E., Town Hall, Wellington

McCabe, Ultan F., care of Richard-
son and McCabe, 11 Grey Street,
Wellington

McDonald, J., Dominion Museum,
Wellington

Mackay, J., Government Printing
and Stationery Department, Wel-
lington

McKenzie, Donald, Carnarvon,
Feilding

Mackenzie, Professor H., M.A.,
Victoria College, Wellington

Mackenzie, J., Lands and Survey
Department, Wellington

Maclaurin, Dr. J. S., D.Sc, F.C.S.,
Dominion Laboratory, Wellington

MacLean, F. W., M.Inst.C.E., Rail-
way Department, Wellington

Marchbanks, J., M.Inst.C.E., Har-
bour Board, Wellington

Mason, Dr. J. Malcolm, M.D.,
F.C.S., D.P.H., Lower Hutt

Mason, Mrs. K., care of Bank of
New Zealand, Wellington

Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E., 145
Dixon Street, Wellington

Mestayer, R. L., M.Inst.C.E., 139
Sydney Street, Wellington

Miles, P' H. R., Telegraph Depart-
ment, Wellington

Miller, H. M., Public WTorks De-
partment, Wellington

Moore, G., Eparaima, via Masterton

Moore, W. L., Bank Chambers,
Lambton Quay, Wellington

Moorhouse, W. H. Sefton, 134 Dixon
Street, Wellington

Morgan, P. G., M.A., Geological
Survey, Wellington

Morice, J. M., B.Sc, Town Hall,
Wellington

Morison, C. B., 180 Featherston
Street, Wellington

Morrison, J. C, Box 8, P.O., Eltham

Morton, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., Town
Hall, Wellington

Myers, Miss P., B.A., 26 Fitzher-
bert Terrace, Wellington

Newman, A. K., M.B., M.R.C.P.,
M.P., 56 Hobson Street, Wel-
lington

Nicol, John, Cuba Street, Welling-
ton

Ongley, M., M.A., Geological Sur-
vey, Wellington

Orchiston, J., M.I.E.E., Telegraph
Office, Wellington

Orr, R., 176 Featherston Street,
Wellington

Patterson, Hugh, Public Works
Office, Catlin's

Parry, E., B.Sc, M.I.E.E.,
A.M.Inst.C.E., Public Works De-
partment, Wellington

Pearce, A. E., care of Levin and Co.
(Limited), Wellington

Phillips, Coleman, Carterton

Phipson, P. B., F.C.S., care of J.
Staples and Co. (Limited), Wel-
lington

Pomare, Hon. Dr. M., M.P., Wel-
lington

Porteous, J. S., 9 Brandon Street,
Wellington

Powles, C. P., 219 Lambton Quay,
Wellington

Reakes, C. J., D.V.Sc, M.R.C.V.S.,
Agricultural Department, Wel-
lington

Reed, Frank, M.I.M.M., M.I.M.E.,
L.S., Mines Department, Wel-
lington

Reid, W. S., 189 The Terrace, Wel-
lington

Richardson, C. E., 11 Grey Street,
Wellington

Richardson, J. M., 132 The Ter-
race, Wellington

Robertson, J. B., Public WTorks De-
partment, Wellington

Robertson, R. E., 41 Grove Road,
Kelburne

Roy, R. B., Taita, Wellington*

680

Appendix.

Salmond, J. W., M.A., Crown Law
Office, Wellington

Shrimpton, E. A., Telegraph De-
partment, Wellington

Sladden, H., Lower Hutt

Smith, J. E., Telegraph Depart-
ment, Wellington

Smith, M. Crompton, Lands and
Survey Department, Wellington

Spencer, W. E., M.A., M.Sc,
Education Department, Welling-
ton

Strachan, J. E., District Survey
Office, Wellington

Stewardson, G., Telegraph Depart-
ment, Wellington

Stout, T. Duncan M., M.B., M.S.,
F.E.G.S., 164 Willis Street, Wel-
lington

Stuckey, F. G. A., M.A., 21 Hobson
Crescent, Wellington

Sunley, E. M., Karon

Swinburne, C. G., Town Hall, Wel-
lington

Tennant, J. S., M.A., B.Sc, Train-
ing College, Wellington

Thomson, John, B.E., M.Iust.C.E.,
17 Dorking Eoad, Brooklyn

Thomson, J. Allan, M.A., D.Sc,
F.G.S., Dominion Museum, Wel-
lington

Tolley, H. E., 34 Wright Street,.
Wellington

Tombs, H. H., Burnell Avenue,
Wellington

Turnbull, A. H., care of W. and G.
Turnbull and Co. (Limited), Wel-
lington

Turnbull, W., Oriental Terrace,
Wellington

Turner, E. Phillips, Lands and
Survey Department, Wellington

Vickerman, H., M.Sc, Assoc. M
Inst.C.E., Public Works Depart-
ment, Wellington

Ward, Thomas, Assoc. M.Inst. C.E.,
Grey Street, Wellington

Welch, J. S., Wright Street, Wel-
lington

Widdop, F. C, Eailway Depart-
ment, Wellington

Wilmot, E. H., Survey Department,
Wellington

Wilson, Sir J. G., Kt., Bulls

Wynne, H. J., Eailway Depart-
ment, Wellington

Zedlitz, Professor G. W. von, M.A.,
Victoria College, Wellington

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

[* Honorary and

Abbott, E. H., Elliott Street, Auck-
land

Abel, E. S., care of Abel, Dykes, and
Co., Shortland Street, Auckland

Adlington, Miss H., District High
School, Paeroa

Aickin, G., Queen Street, Auckland

Aldis, M., 32 Empire Buildings,
Swan son Street

Alexander, L. W., Beauvoir, Hurst-
mere Eoad, Takapuna

Alison, A., Devonport Ferry Com-
pany, Auckland

Alison, E. W., Devonport Ferry
Company, Auckland

Allen, John, Cheltenham, Devon-
port

Ardern, P. S., Eemuera

life member?.]

Arey, W. E., Victoria Arcade,
Auckland

Armitage, F. L., Gleeson's Build-
ings, High Street, Auckland

Arnold, C, Swanson Street, Auck-
land

Arnoldson, L., Quay Street, Auck-
land

Bagnall, L. J., Wynyard Street,
Auckland

Baker, G. H., Commerce Street,
Auckland

Ball, W. T., Sylvan Avenue, Mount
Eden

Bamford, H. D., LL.D., Bank of
New Zealand Buildings, Auckland

Bankart, A. S., Shortland Street,
Auckland

Boll of Members.

681

Barr, J., Public Library, Wellesley

Street, Auckland
Bartrum, J. A., University College,

Auckland
Bates, T. L., Brookfield, Alfred

Street, Waratah, Newcastle, New

South Wales*
Batger, J., Mount Eden Eoad,

Auckland
Bell, T., care of Union Oil, Soap,

and Candle Company, Albert

Street, Auckland
Benjamin, E. D., care of L. D.

Nathan and Co., Shortland Street,

Auckland
Benjamin, L., care of Hayman and

Co., Custom Street East, Auck-
land
Biss, N. L. H., Shortland Street,

Auckland
Blair, J. M., Market Eoad, Epsom
Bloomfield, J. L., St. Stephen's

Avenue, Parnell
Bond, Elon, Commerce Street,

Auckland
Bowyer, S. B., care of Auckland

Institute, Auckland
Bradley, Samuel, Onehunga
Brett, H., Star Office, Shortland

Street, Auckland
Briffault, E., M.B., Mount Eden

Eoad, Auckland
Brooke-Smith, E., Manukau Eoad,

Parnell
Broun, Major T., F.E.S., Mount

Albert, Auckland
Brown, Alan, care of Bamford

and Brown, Bank of New Zea-
land Buildings, Auckland
Brown, E. A., Cleave's Buildings,

High Street, Auckland
Brown, Professor F. D., care of

Auckland Institute, Auckland
Brown, John, Beresford Street,

Bayswater, Devonport
Bruce, W. W., Swanson Str-eet,

Auckland
Buchanan, A., Victoria Avenue,

Eemuera*
Buddie, C. F., Wyndham Street,

x\uckland
Buddie, T., Wyndham Street, Auck-
land
Burns, E., Custom Street East,

Auckland

Burnside, W., Education Offices,
Auckland

Burt, A., care of A. and T. Burt
and Co., Custom Street West,
Auckland

Burton, Colonel, The Grove, Brank-
some Park, Bournemouth, Eng-
land*

Bush, W. E., City Engineer's Office,
Town Hall, Auckland

Butler, Miss, Girls' Grammar School,
Auckland

Buttle, J., New Zealand Insurance
Company, Queen Street, Auck-
land

Campbell, J. P., care of Thorne,
Campbell, and Thorne, Wyndham
Street, Auckland

Casey, Maurice, Hamilton Eoad,
Ponsonby

Cheal, P. E., Upper Queen Street,
Auckland

Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S.,
Museum, Auckland

Choyce, H. C, Eemuera Eoad,
Eemuera

Clark, A., Wellesley Street, Auck-
land

Clark, H. C, care of Arch. Clark
and Sons, Wellington

Clark, M. A., Wellesley Street,
Auckland

Clay, T. B., care of S. Vaile and
Sons, Queen Street, Auckland

Clifford, J. M., P.O. Box 756, Auck-
land

Coates, T., Orakei, Auckland

Coe, James, Mount Eden Eoad,
Auckland

Cole, Eev. E. H., Walford, Glad-
stone Eoad, Parnell

Cole, W., Mount Eden Eoad, Auck-
land

Coleman, J. W., Lower Queen
Street, Auckland

Coleman, W., Imperial Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland

Combes, F. H., Victoria Avenue,
Eemuera

Commons, W. M., Wilson's Portland
Cement Company, Shortland
Street, Auckland

Cooper, C, Bourne Street, Mount
Eden

682

Appendix.

Cooper Mr. Justice, Judges' Cham-
bers, Auckland

Cory- Wright, S., B.Sc, University
College, Auckland

Court, G., Karangahape Eoad, Auck-
land

Court, J., Ponsonby, Auckland

Cousins, H. G., Normal School,
Wellesley Street, Auckland

Craig, J. J., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Cranweil, R., Crescent Road, Par-
nell

Cuff, J. C, F.S.A., Emerald Hill,
Epsom, Auckland

Curne, J. G., care of J. Currie,
Queen Street, Auckland

Davis, Elliot R., care of Hancock
and Co., Custom Street East,
Auckland

Davis, Ernest, care of Hancock and
Co., Custom Street East, Auck-
land

Dearsly, H., P.O. Box 466, Auck-
land

De Clive Lowe, Dr., Symonds
Street, Auckland

Dempsey, J., Newmarket

Dennin, John, care of Hon. E.
Mitchelson, Waimauku

Dettmann, Professor H. S., Univer-
sity College, Auckland

Devereux, H. B., Market Road,
Epsom, Auckland

Devore, A. E. T., Wyndham Street,
Auckland

Dickenson, J. C, Public School,
Ponsonby

Dove, J. C, Australian Hardwood
Company, Mechanics Bay, Auck-
land

Downard, F. N. R., Public School,
Kuaotunu

Duthie, D. W., National Bank of
New Zealand, Queen Street, Auck-
land

Earl, F., Swanson Street, Auckland

Edgerley, Miss K., Girls' Grammar
School, Auckland

Edson, J., Waimarama, Tudor
Street, Devonport

Egerton, Professor C. W., University
College, Auckland

Ellingham, W. R., Custom Street
East, Auckland

Elliott, G., Bank of New Zealand
Buildings, Queen Street, Auck-
land

Ellis, J. W., Hamilton, Waikato

Ellison, T., Ellison's Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland

Endean, J., Jermyn Street, Auck-
land

Entrican, A. J., Custom Street East,
Auckland

Ewington, F. G., Durham Street,
Auckland

Fairclough, Dr. W. A., Watson's
Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland

Farrell, R., Anglesea Street, Auck-
land

Favell, Rev. H. A., Picton Street,
Auckland

Fenwick, Dr. G., Premier Build-
ings, Queen Street, Auckland

Fleming, J., 142 Grafton Road,
Auckland

Florance, R. S., S.M. Court, Gis-
borne

Fowlds, Hon. G., Queen Street,
Auckland*

Frater, J. W., care of R. Frater,
Stock Exchange, Auckland

Garrard, C. W., M.A., Education
Office, Auckland

George, G., Technical College, Wel-
lesley Street, Auckland

George', Hon. S. T., St. Stephen's
Avenue, Parnell

Gerard, E., Custom Street East,
Auckland

Gilbert, T., Manukau Road, Parnell

Gilfillan, H., St. Stephen's Avenue,
Parnell

Girdler, Dr., Khyber Pass Road,
Auckland

Gleeson, J. C, Selwyn Lodge,
Parnell

Gleeson, P., Selwyn Lodge, Parnell

Goldie, D., Breakwater Road, Auck-
land

Gordon, H. A., Ranfurly Road,
Epsom

Gorrie, H. T., care of A. Buckland
and Sons, Albert Street, Auckland

Gould, A. M., care of Parr and
Blomfield, Shortland Street,
Auckland

Graham, G., Tudor Street, Devon-
port

Boll of Members.

683

Graham. J. B., Tudor Street, Devon-
port
Grant, Miss J., M.A., Devonport
Gray, A., Smeeton's Buildings,

Queen Street, Auckland-
Gray, M. D., 93 Queen Street, Auck-
land „ _ .
Gray S., Mount Eden Borough

Council Offices, Mount Eden
Gribbin, G., Nicholson and Gribbm,

Queen Street, Auckland
Griffin, L. T., Museum, Auckland

Holderness, D., Harbour Board

Offices, Auckland
Holgate, Colonel, care of Northern

Coal Company, Custom Street,

Auckland
Horton, E., Herald Office, Queen

Street, Auckland
Horton, H., Herald Office, Queen

Street, Auckland
Houghton, C. V., New Zealand

Shipping Company, Quay Street,

Auckland

Griffin, L. T., Museum, AucKianct H;tchinsonj G R>> care of Hutchm
Gunson, J. H., Custom Street West, gon g Custom street, Auck

Auckland

Gunson, R. W., Custom Street
West, Auckland

Haddow, J. G., Wyndham Street,
Auckland

Haines, H., F.E.C.S., Shortland
Street, Auckland

Hall, Edwin, Carlton Street, Hills-
borough, Onehunga

Hamer, W. H., C.E., Harbour
Board Offices, Auckland

Hanna, A., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Hansard, G. A., Shortland Street,

Auckland

Hansen, P. M., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Hardie, J. C, care of Hardie Bros.,
Queen Street, Auckland

Harding, A. E., Mangawhare,
Northern Wairoa, Auckland

Hardy, C. J., 23 Hobson Park Road,
Parnell

Hawkins, Rev. Archdeacon H. A.,

Remuera

Hay, Douglas, Stock Exchange,
Queen Street, Auckland

Hay, D. A., Montpellier Nurseries,
Remuera

Hazard, W. H., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Heath, H. W., Alfred Street, Auck-.
land

Heather, H. D., Custom Street
East, Auckland

Herbert, T., Shortland Street, Auck-
land

Hesketh, H. R., Wyndham Street,
Auckland

Hesketh, S., Wyndham Street,
Auckland

son Bros., Custom Street, Auck-
land
Hutchinson, W. E., Hobson Street,

Auckland
Inglis, Dr. R. T., Maroondah, Pon-

sonby Road, Auckland
Jackson, J. H., Custom Street

East, Auckland
Jagger, A. T., care of Jagger and

Harvey, Queen Street, Auckland
Jagger, Frank, Arney Road,

Remuera
James, J. W., Mount Albert

Johnson, H. Dunbar, Mangauhenga,
Te Aroha

Johnson, Professor J. C, University
College, Auckland

Johnstone, Halliburton, Howick

Jones, H. W., Public School, Papa-
kura

Kenderdine, J., Sale Street, Auck-
land

Kent, B., Gladstone Road, Parnell

Kent, G. S., St. Stephen's Avenue,
Parnell

Keyes, A., Birkenhead

Kronfeld, G., Custom Street, Auck-
land

Lamb, R. S., 55 Pitt Street, Sydney,
New South Wales

Lamb, S. E., B.Sc, University
College, Auckland

Lancaster, F. L., University Col-
lege, Auckland

Lang, Hon. F. W., M.P., Onehunga

Lan°<mth, E., Custom Street West,
Auckland

Larkin, H., Harbour Board Offices,

Auckland
Leighton, F. W., High Street, Auck-
land
Lennox, J. M., Remuera

684

Appendix.

Lennox, N. G., care of Auckland

Institute, Auckland*
Lewis, Dr. T. H., Eemuera
Leyland, W. B., care of Leyland

and O'Brien, Custom Street West,

Auckland
Leys, Cecil, Star Office, Shortland

Street, Auckland
Leys, T. W., Star Office, Shortland

Street, Auckland
Lindsay, Dr. P. A., O'Rorke Street,

Auckland
Lloyd, Trevor, Herald Office, Queen

Street, Auckland
Lunn, A. G., care of Collins Bros.,

Wyndham Street, Auckland
McDowell, Dr. W. C, Eemuera
Macfarlane, T., C.E., Victoria

Arcade, Queen Street, Auckland
McGregor, M. G., Shortland Street,

Auckland
Mackay, J. G. H., Ellison Cham-
bers, Queen Street, Auckland
McKenzie, Captain G., Devonport
McKenzie, Dr. Kenneth, O'Rorke

Street, Auckland
Maclean, Murdoch, Mount Albert
Macmillan, C. C, care of Gibson

Macmillan, Waingaro
McMurray, Rev. G., St. Mary's

Vicarage, Parnell
McVeagh, R., care of Russell and

Campbell, High Street, Auckland
Mahoney, E., Shortland Street,

Auckland
Mahoney, T., Swanson Street, Auck-
land
Mair, Captain G., Waiotapu, Roto-

rua
Mair, S. A. R., Hunterville, Wel-
lington
Major, C. T., King's College, Re-

muera
Makgill, Dr. R. H., Public Health

Office, Auckland
Marriner, H. A., New Zealand

Insurance Company, Queen

Street, Auckland
Marsack, Dr., care of Auckland

Institute, Auckland
Martin, J., Victoria Arcade, Queen

Street, Auckland
Mennie, J. M., Albert Street, Auck-
land

Metcalfe, H. H., C.E., Palmerston
Buildings, Queen Street, Auck-
land

Miller, E. V., Chelsea, Auckland

Milnes, H. A. E., Training College,
Wellesley Street. Auckland

Milroy, S., Kauri Timber Company,
Custom Street West, Auckland

Milsom, Dr. E. H. B., 18 Waterloo
Quadrant, Auckland

Mitchelson, Hon. E., Waitaramoa,
Remuera

Moore, J. E., Esplanade Road,
Mount Eden

Morrison, A. R., Palmerston Build-
ings, Queen Street, Auckland

Morrison, W. B. A., Hobson Build-
ings, Shortland Street, x\uckland

Morton, E., Custom Street East,
Auckland

Morton, H. B., One Tree Hill,
Epsom

Moss, E. G. B., Swanson Street,
Auckland

Mowlem, A. M., National Insurance
Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland

Mulgan, E. K., Education Office,
Auckland

Myers, A. M., M.P., Campbell-
Ehrenfried Company, Queen
Street, Auckland

Napier, W. J., A.M. P. Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland

Nathan, D. L., care of L. D. Nathan
and Co., Shortland Street, Auck-
land

Nathan, N. A., care of L. D. Nathan
and Co., Shortland Street, Auck-
land*

Nathan, S. J., Princes Street, Auck-
land

Neve, F., Technical College,
Wellesley Street, Auckland

Newton, G. M., Herald Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland

•Niccol, G., Custom Street West,
Auckland

Nichol, J. W., 205 Victoria Arcade,
Queen Street, Auckland

Nicholson, O., Imperial Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland

Oliphant, P., 24 Symonds Street,
Auckland

Oliver, W. R. B., H.M. Customs,
Auckland*

Boil of Members.

685

Osmond, G. B., Royal Insurance
Buildings, Queen Street, Auck-
land

Owen, Professor G., University
College, Auckland.

Pabst, Dr., Hobson's Buildings,
Shortland Street, Auckland

Parr, C. J., C.M.G., care of Parr
and Blomfield, Shortland Street,
Auckland

Partridge, H. E., Queen Street,
Auckland

Patterson, G. W. S., Shortland
Street, Auckland

Peacock, T., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Peak, A., care of Walker and Peak,
Wyndham Street, Auckland

Petrie, D., Rosmead, Epsom

Philson, W. W., care of Colonial I
Sugar Company, Quay Street,
Auckland

Player, Dr. C. E., Birkenhead,
Auckland

Pond, J. A., F.C.S., Queen Street,
Auckland

Porter, A., care of E. Porter and Co.,
Queen Street, Auckland

Porter, Dr. A. H., Dominion Eoad,
Mount Eden

Pountney, W. H., Commerce Street,
Auckland

Powell, F. E., C.E., Ferry Build-
ings, Queen Street, Auckland

Price, E. A., care of Buchanan and
Co., Albert Street, Auckland

Pryor, S. H., 26 Pencarrow Avenue,
Mount Eden

Purchas, Dr. A. C, Carlton Gore
Road, Auckland

Py croft, A. T., Railway Offices,'
Auckland

Ralph, W. J., Princes Street, Auck-
land

Rangihiroa, Dr., Bay of Islands

Rawnsley, S., Quay Street, Auck-
land

Reid, J., 45 Fort Street, Auckland

Renshaw, F., care of Sharland and
Co., Lome Street, Auckland

Rhodes, C, Ronaki, Remuera

Robb, J., Victoria Avenue, Mount
Eden

Roberton, A. B., Custom Street
East, Auckland

Roberton, Dr. E., Market Road,

Remuera
Robertson, Dr. Carrick, Alfred

Street, Auckland
Roche, EL, Horahora, near Cam-
bridge, Waikato
Rolfe, W., care of Sharland and

Co., Lome Street, Auckland
Rollett, F. C, Herald Office, Queen

Street, Auckland
Rountree, S. G. Auckland Savings-
bank, Queen Street, Auckland.
Savage, Dr. T. C, Princes Street,

Auckland
Scott, Rev. D., The Manse, One-

hunga
Segar, Professor H. W., M.A.,

Manukau Road, Parnell
Seegner, C, St. Stephen's Avenue,

Parnell
Shakespear, Mrs. R. H., Whanga-

paroa, near Auckland.
Shaw, F., Vermont Street, Ponsonby
Shaw, H., Vermont Street, Ponsonby
Shepherd, H. M., Birkenhead
Simrnonds, Rev. J. H., Wesley

Training College, Epsom
Simson, T., Mount St. John Avenue,

Epsom
Sinclair, A., Kuranui, Symonds

Street, Auckland
Sinclair, G., care of Pilkington and

Co., Queen Street, Auckland
Skelton, A. E., care of Wynyard and

Skelton, Fort Street, Auckland
Skelton, Hall, Watson's Buildings,

Queen Street, Auckland
Smallfield, Rev. P. S., Liverpool

Street, Epsom
Smeeton, H. M., Binswood, View

Road, Mount Eden
Smith, Captain James, Franklin

Road, Ponsonby
Smith, H. G. Seth, Victoria Avenue,

Remuera
Smith, S. Percy, F.R.G.S., New

Plymouth*
Smith, W. Todd, Brooklands, Alfred

Street, Auckland
Somerville, Dr. J., Alfred Street,

Auckland
Somerville, J. M., Chelsea, Auck-
land
Spencer, Percy, Imperial Buildings,

Queen Street, Auckland

686

Appendix.

Spencer, W. C. C, Grafton Road,
Auckland

Spragg, Wesley, Mount Albert

Stewart, James, care of Stewart
Bros., Helensville

Stewart, John A., Kainga-tonu,
Ranfurly Road, Epsom

Stewart, J. W , Wyndham Street,
Auckland

Stewart, R. Leslie, care of Brown
and Stewart, Swanson Street,
Auckland

Streeter, S. C, Eden Street, Mount
Eden

Strevens, J. L., care of F. L. Armi-
tage, Gleeson's Buildings, High
Street, Auckland

Swan, H. C, Henderson

Swanson, W., Church Street,
Devonport

Talbot, Dr. A. G., A.M. P. Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland

Taylor, W., care of Kempthorne,
Prosser, and Co., Albert Street,
Auckland

Thomas, Professor A. P. W., Moun-
tain Road, Epsom

Thornes, J., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Tibbs, J. W., M.A., Grammar
School, Auckland

Tinne, H., Union Club, Trafalgar
Square, London*

Tole, Hon J. A., K.C., Queen
Street, Auckland*

Trounson, J., Northcote

Tunks, C. J., care of Jackson and
Russell, Shortland Street, Auck-
land

Upton, J. H., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Urquhart, A. T., Karaka, Drury

Vaile, E. E., Broadlands, Waio-
tapu

Vaile, H. E., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Wade, H. L., Queen Street, Auck-
land

Wake, E., Wyndham Street, Auck-
land

Walker, Professor Maxwell, Uni-
versity College, Auckland

Walker, S., Melrose, Devonport

Walklate, J. J., Electric Tram
Company, Auckland

Wallace, T. F., Waihi Gold-mining

Company, Shortland Street, Auck-
land
Walters, J. R., Onslow Road,

Kingsland, Auckland
Ward, Percy, Mountain Road, Re-

muera
Ware, W., Portland Road, Remu-

era
Watson, Rev. C. A. B., St. Paul's

Vicarage, Auckland
Webster, J. D., Lower Queen

Street, Auckland
Wells, T. U., Westbourne Road,

Remuera
White, R. W., Wellington Street,

Auckland
Whitley, W. S., Albert Street,

Auckland
Williams, Right Rev. W. L., D.D.,

Napier
Wilson, Albert, St. Stephen's School,

Parnell
Wilson, A. P., Victoria Arcade,

Queen Street, Auckland
Wilson, F. W., Herald Buildings,

Queen Street, Auckland
Wilson, H. Munro, C.E., Palmer-

ston Buildings, Queen Street,

Auckland
Wilson, John, Portland Cement

Company, Shortland Street, Auck-
land
Wilson, J. M., Beach Road, Re-
muera
Wilson, Liston, Mountain Road,

Remuera
Wilson, Martin, Rozelle, Lower

Remuera
Wilson, R. M., Russell Road,

Remuera
Wilson, W. R., Herald Office,

Queen Street, Auckland
Wilton, G. W., Shortland Street,

Auckland
Winkelmann, H., Victoria Arcade,

Queen Street, Auckland
Winstone, F. B., Custom Street,

Auckland
Winstone, G., Custom Street, Auck-
land
Wiseman, A., Hobson's Buildings,

Shortland Street, Auckland
Wiseman, J. W., Albert Street,

Auckland

Roll of Members.

687

Withy, E., care of Public Trustee,
Auckland*

Woodward, W. E., Union Bank of
Australia, Queen Street, Auckland

Woolcott, A. C, South British In-
surance Company, Queen Street,
Auckland

Worley, Professor F. P., University
College, Auckland

Wright, R., care of A. B. Wright and
Sons, Comnaerce Street, Auckland

Wyllie, A., C.E., Electrical Power
Office, Breakwater Eoad, Auck-
land

Yates, E., Albert Street, Auck-
land

Young, J. L., care of Henderson
and Macfarlane, Fort Street,
Auckland

Young, Captain C. A., General Post
Office, Auckland

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OP CANTERBURY.
[* Life members.]

Acland, Dr., 381 Montreal Street,

Christchurch
Acland, H. D., 42 Park Terrace,

Christchurch
Adams, T. W., Greendale
Aldridge, W. G., M.A., Technical

College, 13 Barbadoes Street,

Christchurch
Allison, H., care of Harman and

Stevens, Christchurch
Amess, A. H. R., M.A., Collegiate

School, Wanganui
Andersen, Johannes C, Assembly

Library, Wellington
Anderson, Dr. C. Morton, 142 Wor-
cester Street, Christchurch
Anderson, Gilbert, care of Bank of

New Zealand, 1 Queen Victoria

Street, London*
Archey, G. E., B.A., Canterbury

Museum, Christchurch
Baker, T. N., care of Baker Bros.,

Manchester Street, Christchurch
Baughan, Miss B. E., Sumner
Beaven, A. W., care of Andrews

and Beaven, Moorhouse Avenue,

Christchurch
Bell, N. M., M.A., Muspratt La-
boratory, Liverpool, England
Berkeley, Miss F., 57 Armagh

Street, Christchurch
Bevan-Brown, C. E., M.A., Boys'

High School, Christchurch
Bird, J. W., Canterbury College,

Christchurch
Bishop, F. C. B., 101 Armagh

Street, Christchurch

Bishop, R. C, Gas Office, 77 Wor-
cester Street, Christchurch

Blackburne, S. L., Rolleston Ave-
nue, Christchurch

Boag, T. D., Webb's Road, Brynd-
wyr

Booth, G. T., 14 Car yle Street,
Sydenham

Borrie, Dr. F. J., 236 Hereford
Street, Christchurch

Bowen, Hon. Sir Charles C,
F.R.G.S., Middleton

Bradley, Orton, Charteris Bay

Brittin, Guy, 146 Armagh Street,
Christchurch

Brock, W., M.A., Education Office,
Christchurch

Brown, Professor Macmillan, M.A.,
LL.D., Holmbank, Cashmere
Hills*

Bruce, H. A., Opawa

Buddo, Hon. D., M.P., Rangiora

Birks, L., B.Sc, care of Public
Works Department, Christchurch

Bullen, Miss Gertrude, care of Mrs.
Nixon, Harakeke Street, Christ-
church

Burnett, T. D., Cave, South Can-
terbury

Chilton, Professor C, D.Sc, M.A.,
LL.D., M.B., F.L.S., Canterbury
College*

Christensen, C. E., Hanmer

Clark, W. H., 100 Bealey Avenue,
Christchurch

Cocks, Rev. P. J., B.A., St. John's
Vicarage, Christchurch

688

Appendix.

Cocks, Miss, Colombo Eoad South,

Christchurch
Coles, W. E., 256 Wilson's Eoad,

Christchurch
Colee, W. C, M.A., Schoolhouse,

Opawa
Corkill, F. M., B.Sc, Canterbury

College
Cross, Miss B. D., M.A., Girls' High

School, New Plymouth
Dash, Charles, 155 Norwood Street,

Beckenham, Christchurch.
Deans, J., Kirkstyle, Malvern
Denniston, Mr. Justice, 58 Eolleston

Avenue, Christchurch
Dobson, A. Dudley, M.Inst.C.E.,

City Council Office, Christchurch
Dorrien-Smith, Captain A., D.S.O.,

Tresco Abbey, Scilly, England
Dougall, J. J., 89 Worcester Street,

Christchurch
Drummond, James, F.L.S., Lyttel-

ton Times, Christchurch
English, E., F.C.S., M.I.M.E., Gas

Office, 77 Worcester Street, Christ-
church
Evans, Professor W. P., M. A., Ph.D.,

Canterbury College, Christchurch
Fairbairn, A., 53 Fendalton Eoad,

Christchurch
Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc,

A.M.Inst.C.E., Canterbury College,

Christchurch
Farrow, F. D., M.A., care of A. P.

Farrow, Ensor's Eoad, Opawa
Ferrar, Mrs. H. T., " Merchiston,"

Opawa
Finlayson, Miss, M.A., West Christ-
church School, Lincoln Eoad,

Christchurch
Firman, Henry, 95 Eiver Eoad,

Beckenham
Fletcher, T., Public School, Syden-
ham
Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc, Christ's

College, Christchurch
Foster, T. S., M.A., 19 Cashel

Street, Christchurch
Foweraker, C. E., Canterbury Col-
lege, Christchurch
Gabbatt, Professor J. P., M.A.,

M.Sc, Canterbury College
Garton, W. W., Elmwood School,

Christchurch

Gibson, Dr. F. Goulburn, 121 Papa-

nui Eoad
Godby, M. H., Hereford Street,

Christchurch
Goss, W., Eossal Street, Fendalton
Gray, G., F.C.S., Lincoln
Grigg, J. C. N., Longbeach
Grimes, Et. Eev. Bishop, D.D.,

Barbadoes Street, Christchurch
Gudex, M. C, M.A., B.Sc, Boys'

High School, Christchurch
Hall, J. D., Middleton
Hall, Miss, Gloucester Street West,

Christchurch
Hansford, G. D., 17 Surrey Street,

Linwood Extension
Haynes, E. J., Canterbury Museum,

Christchurch
Herring, E., 46 Paparoa Street,

Papanui
Hight, Professor J., M.A., Litt.D.,

Canterbury College, Christchurch
Hilgendorf, *F. W., M.A., D.Sc,

Canterbury Agricultural College,

Lincoln
Hill, Mrs. Carey, Papanui Eoad,

Christchurch
Hitchings, F., 69 Durham Street,

Sydenham
Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S., Science and

Art Museum, Plymouth, England
Holloway, Eev. J., M.A., Oxford
Hogg, E. G., M.A., F.E.A.S.,

Christ's College, Christchurch
Hogg, H. E., M.A., F.Z.S., 13 St.

Helen's Place, London, E.C.
Holland, H., 108 St. Asaph Street,

Christchurch
Hughes, T., B.A., Geraldine
Humphreys, G., Fendalton Eoad,

Fendalton
Hutton, Mrs., Gloucester Street,

Christchurch
Ingram, John, 39 Mansfield Avenue,

St. Albans, Christchurch
Irving, Dr. W., 56 Armagh Street,

Christchurch
Jackson, T. H., B.A., Boys' High

School, Christchurch
Jameson, J. O., Hereford Street,

Christchurch
Jamieson, J., Hereford Street,

Christchurch
Jennings, L. S., M.Sc, B.A., Wai-

taki Boys' High School, Oamaru

Boll of Members.

689

Kaye, A., 429 Durham Street,
Christchurch

Kidson, B. R., M.Sc, Department
of Terrestrial Magnetism, Wash-
ington, D.C., U.S.A.*

Kirkpatrick, W. D., Redcliffs, Sum-
ner

Kitchingman, Miss, Hackthorne
Road. Cashmere

Laing, R. M., M.A., B.Sc, Boys'
High School, Christchurch

Lang, H., Christ's College, Christ-
church

Lester, Dr. G., 2 Cranmer Square,
Christchurch

Louisson, Hon. C, M.L.C., 71
Gloucester Street, Christchurch

Macbeth, N. L., Canterbury Frozen
Meat Company, Hereford Street,
Christchurch

McBride, T. J., 15 St. Albans
Street, Christchurch

MacGibbon, Dr. T. A., Armagh
Street, Christchurch

Macleod, D. B., M.A., B.Sc, Can-
terbury College, Christchurch

Marsh, H. E., Cashmere

Marshall, Mrs., New Brighton

Mavne, J. B., B.A., Cashmere
Hills

Meares, H. 0. D., Fendalton

Mills, Miss C. B., M.A., B.Sc,
Technical College, Christchurch

Mollett, T. A. (address unknown)*

Morris, C. Barham, F.R.M.S., 78
Andover Street, Christchurch

Morrison, W. G., Hanmer

Murray- Ay nsley, H. P., Clyde Road,
Riccarton

Nairn, R., Lincoln Road, Spreydon

Newton, I. E., M.A., Technical
College, Christchurch

Oliver, F. S., care of A. E. Craddock,
Manchester Street, Christchurch

Olliver, Miss F. M., M.A., M.Sc,
Waimate

Page, S., B.Sc, Canterbury Col-
lege, Christchurch
Pairman, Dr., Governor's Bay

Pannett, J. A., Cashmere Hills

Poulson, John, Styx

Powell, P. H., M.Sc, Canterbury

College, Christchurch
Purchas, A. C, Canterbury College,
Christchurch

Purnell, C. W., Ashburton

fteece, W., Colombo Street, Christ-
church

Relph, E. W., "Chilcombe," Fen-
dalton Road, Christchurch

Rhodes, A. E. G., B.A., Fendalton

Rhodes, Hon. Colonel R. Heaton,
M.P., Tai Tapu

Robinson, W. F., F.R.G.S., Canter-
bury College, Christchurch

Ross, R. G., Telegraph Department,
Wellington

Rowe, T. W., M.A., LL.B., 77
Hereford Street, Christchurch

Seager, S. Hurst, F.R.I.B.A.,
Cathedral Square, Christchurch

Seth- Smith, B., 25 Stratford Street,
Fendalton

Sheard, Miss F., M.A., B.Sc, Girls'
High School, Christchurch

Sims, A., M.A., care of Sims,
Cooper, and Co., Hereford Street,
Christchurch

Skey, H. F., B.Sc, Magnetic Ob-
servatory, Christchurch

Scott, Professor R. J., Canterbury
College, Christchurch

Sloman, C. J., Crown Brewery,
38 St. Asaph Street, Christ-
church

Snow, Colonel, Holmwood Road,
Christchurch

Speight, R., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.,
Canterbury College, Christchurch

Stead, E. F., 347 Papanui Road,
St. Albans

Stevenson, Dr. J., Fendalton

Stone, T., Lyttelton Times Office,
Christchurch

Suter, Henry, 559 Hereford Street,
Linwood

Symes, Dr. W. H., 176 Worcester
Street, Christchurch*

Symes, Langford P., 20 May's
Road, St. Albans

Tabart, Miss Rose, 97 Papanui Road,
Christchurch

Taylor, A., M.A., M.R.C.V.S., Can-
terbury Agricultural College, Lin-
coln

Taylor, G. J., 440 Madras Street,
St. Albans

Thomas, Dr. W., 579 Colombo
Street, Christchurch*

Tripp, C. H., M.A., Timaru*

690

Appendix.

Waller, F. D., B.A., West Christ-
church District High School

Wallich, M. G., Manchester Street,
Christchurch

Waymouth, Mrs., care of Mrs. B. M.
Hughes, St. Buryan, S.O., Corn-
wall, England

Weston, G. T., B.A., L.L.B., 173
Cashel Street, Christchurch

Whitaker, C. Godfrey, care of
Booth, Macdonald, and Co., Car-
lyle Street, Christchurch

Whitehead, G., B.A., Boys* High

School, Christchurch
Wigram, Hon. F., M.L.C., 1 Armagh

Street, Christchurch
Wilding, Frank S., Hereford Street,

Christchurch
Wilkins, C, Public School, Jerrold

Street, Addington
Williams, C. J., M.Inst.C.E.,

Knowles Street, St. Albans
Wright, A. M., F.C.S., Box 617,

Post-office, Christchurch

Allan, Dr. W., Mosgiel

Allen, Hon. James, M.P., Clyde

Street
Allen, Dr. S. C, 220 High Street
Anscombe, B., 171 Princes Street
Balk, O., Driver Street, Maori Hill
Barnett, Dr. L. E., Stafford Street
Barr, Peter, 3 Montpellier Street
Batchelor, Dr. F. 0., 368 George

Street
Bathgate, Alexander, Neidpath

Boad, Mornington:;:
Beal. L. 0., Stock Exchange Build-
ings, Princes Street
Bell/ A. Dillon, Shag Valley*
Benharn, Professor W. B., M.A.,

D.Sc, F.R.S., Museum
Black, Alexander, 82 Clyde Street*
Black, James, care of Cossens and

Black
Boys-Smith, Professor, University
Braithwaite, Joseph, care of Museum,

Dunedin
Brasch, H.. 55 London Street
Bremner, James, 95 Princes Street
Brent, D., M.A., 19 New Street,

Musselburgh*
Brent, H. C, Telegraph - office,

Christchurch
Brown, W., 99 Clyde Street
Browne, Bobert, Technical School,

Hawera
Buchanan, N. L., 44 Bronte Street,

Nelson*
Buckland, Mrs., Waikouaiti
Buddie, Dr. Boger, care of Buddie

and Button, Wyndham Street,

Auckland

OTAGO INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]

Burt, Boss

D., 145 Leith
W.,
S. T
135 Town Belt,
Supreme

6 Begent
6 Heriot

care of A. and T. Burt

(Limited)
Cameron, Dr. P

Street
Chamberlain, C.

Boad
Champtaloup, Dr

Bow
Chapman, C. B.,

Boslyn
Chapman, Mr. Justice,

Court, Christchurch
Chisholm, W. E., Telegraph-office
Church, Dr. B., High Street
Clarke, C. E., King Edward Boad
Clarke, E. S., Woodhaugh
Collier, E. E., 30 Crawford Street
Colquhoun, Dr. D., High Street
Coombs, L. D., A.B.I.B.A. Stuart

Street and Octagon
Crawford, W. J., 179 Walker Stree
Dalrymple, Bev. A. M., M.A., 65

District Boad, Mornington
Davidson, B. E., Hawthorn Boad,

Mornington
Davies, G. W., 9 Gladstone Street.

Belleknowes
Davies, O. V., 109 Princes Street
Davis, A., Test Boom, Cumberland

Street
De Beer, I. S., London Street
Drew, E. H., care of A. and T. Burt

(Limited)
Duncau, P., " Tolcarne," Maori

Hill
Dutton, Bev. D., F.G.S., F.B.A.S.,

Caversham
Edgar, G. C, Market Street

Boll of Members.

691

Edgar, James, 144 York Place
Fairclough, Eev. P. W., F.B.A.S.,

Kaiapoi
Fels, W., 48 London Street*
Fenwick, Cuthbert, Stock Exchange
Fenwick, G., Otago Daily Times
Ferguson, Dr. H. L., 434 High

Street
Fisher, T. E., Alexandra Street, St.

Clair
Fitchett, Dr. F. W. B., Pitt Street
Frye, Charles, Gasworks, Caver-
sham
Fulton, H. V., A. and P. Society,

Crawford Street
Fulton, Dr. E. V., Pitt Street
Fulton, S. W., The Exchange,

Collins Street, Melbourne*
Gall, N. W., care of John Chambers

and Sons
Garrow, Professor J. M. E., LL.B.,

Victoria College, Wellingtons-
Gibson, G. W., Silverton, Ander-
son's Bay
Gilkison, E., 14 Main Eoad, North-
east Valley*
Glasgow, W. T., Dunblane Street,

Eoslvn
Goyen,' P., F.L.S., 136 Highgate,

Eoslyn
Grave, W. G., M.A., care of

Museum, Dunedin
Green, E. S., Education Office
Gully, G. S., care of J. Eattray and

Sons
Guthrie, H. J., 426 Moray Place E.
Hall, Dr. A. J., Stuart Street
Hamilton, T. B., M.A., B.Sc, Uni-
versity
Hanlon, A. C, Pitt Street
Hart, H. E., Eoyal Terrace
Henderson, M. C., Electrical Engi-
neer's Office, Market Street
Henton, J. W., 140 York Place
Hercus, G. E., 20 Albert Street
Hodgkinson, Miss E., 29 Serpentine

Avenue
Hooper, B. B., A.E.I.B.A., A.M.P.

Buildings
Hosking, Mr. Justice, Supreme

Court, Wellington
Howes, Miss Edith, School, Gore*
Howes, W. G., F.E.S., 432 George
Street

Hungerford, J. T., Gasworks
Inglis, Professor J. K. H., M.A.,

D.Sc, P.I.O., University
Jack, Professor E., D.Sc, Uni-
versity
Jeffrey, J., Anderson's Bay
Joachim, G., Eandall Street, Morn-

ington*
Johnson, J. T., 13 Littlebourne

Eoad, Eoslyn
Johnstone, J. A., Driver Street,

Maori Hill
Jones, E. C, Dunblane Street,

Eoslyn
Kempthorne, T. W., Albert Street
Kerr, W. J., National Bank
King, Dr. F. Truby, Seacliff
Laing, John, 86 Queen Street
Lee, G. A., care of Museum, Dunedin
Lee, Eobert, P.O. Box 363
Livingston, W., London Street
Loudon, John, 43 Crawford Street
Lough, F. J., 12 Queen's Drive,

Musselburgh
Lusk, T. H., Black's Eoad, Opoho
McCurdie, W. D. E., Town Hall*
Macdougall, W. P., jun., 642 George

Street
McEnnis, J. E., Public Works

Office
McEvoy, W. L., care of Museum,

Dunedin
McGeorge, J. C, Eglinton Eoad,

Mornington
McKellar, Dr. T. G., Pitt Street
McKerrowT, James, F.E.A.S., 142

Ghuznee Street, Wellington
Mackie, A., Test Eoom, Cumber-
land Street
McKnight, Miss S., M.A.. M.Sc,

Girls' High School
McLmtock, E., 90 Princes Street
McEae, H., 23 City Eoad, Eoslyn
Malcolm, Professor J., M.D., Uni-
versity
Mandeno, H., New Zealand Express

Company's Buildings
Marriott, C. H., 170 Eattray Street
Marshall, x^ngus, B.A., Technical

School
Marshall, Professor P., M.A., D.Sc,

F.G.S., University
Mason, J. B., Otago Harbour Board
Massey, Horatio, care of Museum,
Dunedin

Appendix.

Megget, Alexander, Town Belt,
Eoslyn

Melland, E., Arthog Road, Hale,
Cheshire, England*

Miller, David, care of Museum,
Dunedin

Milnes, J. W., 39 Lees Street*

Mitchell, W. J., U.S.S. Company,
Port Chalmers

Morrell, W. J., M.A., Boys' High
School

Morris, J. Fairly, Port Chalmers

Munro, Watson, P.O. Box 519

Neill, W. T., Survey Office

Nevill, Rt. Rev. S.T., D.D., Bishops-
grove

Newlands, Dr. W., 12 London
Street

Oakden, F., N.S.W. Cement, Lime,
and Coal Company, Mutual Life
Buildings, Sydney

Ogston, Dr. F., 236 High Street

O'Neill, Dr. E. J., 219 High Street

Orchiston, G. J., Test Room, Cum-
berland Street

Overton, T. R., Test Room, Cumber-
land Street

Park, Professor J., F.G.S., Uni-
versity

Parr, E. J., M.A., B.Sc, Boys' High
School

Payne, F. W., 90 Princes Street

Rutherford, R. W., Playfair Street,

Caversham
Salmond, J. L., National Bank

Buildings
Sandle, Captain S. G., Onslow

House, St. Kilda
Sargood, Percy, " Marinoto," New-

ington
Scott, J. H., Converter Station,

Cumberland Street
Shacklock, J. B., Bayfield, Ander-
son's Bay
Shennan, Watson, 367 High Street
Shepherd, F. R., P.O. Box 361
Shortt, F. M., care of John

Chambers and Sons
Sidey, John, Caversham
Sim, Mr. Justice, Musselburgh.
Simpson, F. A., care of John

Chambers and Sons
Simpson, GeOrge, 98 Russell Street
Simpson, George, jun., 9 Gamma

Street. Roslyn
Smith, C. S., Star Office
Smith, J. A., care of Rae Culpan,

Custom Street W., Auckland
Smith, J. C, 196 Tay Street, Inver-

cargill
Solomon, S., K.C., 114 Princess

Street
Somerville, W. G., 18 Leven Street,

Roslyn

Petrie, D., M.A., F.L.S., Education Stark, E. E., B.Sc, City Engineer's

Office, Auckland*
Pickerill, Professor H. P., M.B.,

B.D.S., University
Poppelwell, D. L., Gore
Price, W. H., 55 Stuart Street*
Reid, Donald, jun., Dowling Street
Richards, Professor D. J., M.A.,

University
Richardson, C. R. D., B.A., Educa

tion Office
Riley, Dr. F. R., Pitt Street
Ritchie, Dr. Russell, 400 George

Street
Roberts, E. F., 128 Highgate

Roslyn
Roberts, John, C.M.G., Little-
bourne
Ross, H. I. M., Willis Street
Ross, T. C, care of Ross and Glen-
dining (Limited)
Russell, G. Gray, care of Trustees,
Executors, and Agency Company

Office, Christchurch

Stark, James, care of Kempthorne,
Prosser, and Co.

Statham, F. H., A.O.S.M., 26 Dow-
ling Street

Stewart, R. T., 21 Gamma Street,
Roslvn

Stewart, W. D., M.P., LL.B., 62
Heriot Row

Stout, Sir Robert, K.C.M.G., Wel-
lington

Symes, H., Hill Street, Morning-
ton

Tannock, D., Botanical Gardens

Theomin, D., 42 Royal Terrace

Thompson, G. E., M.A., care of
Museum, Dunedin

Thompson, R. S., Harbour Board,

Thomson, G. M., F.L.S., 5 Sheen

Street, Roslyn*
Thomson, T., Ngaruahia, Mangere

Boll of Members.

693

Turner, G., care of Turnbull and
Jones

Uttley, G. H., M.A., M.Sc, Presby-
terian Ladies' College, East Mel-
bourne

Vanes, E. N., A. R.I. B. A., National
Bank Chambers

Walden, E. W., 12 Dowling Street

Wales, P. Y.,2 Crawford Street

Walker, A., Lloyd's Surveyor, Wei
lington

Waters, Professor D. B., A.O.S.M.
University

White, Professor D. E., M.A.,

83 St. David Street
Whitson, T. W., 584 George Street
Whyte, W. J., care of Joseph

Sparrow and Sons
Williams, Sir Joshua S., M.A.,

LL.D., K.C.M.G., Supreme Court*
Williamson, W. J.. 27 Octagon
Wilson, W. S.. 132 Bond Street
Young, Dr. James, Don Street,

Invercargill

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]

Andrews, E. W., B.A., Napier

Antill, H. W., Kumeroa

Armstrong, C. E., Gisborne

Asher, Rev. J. A., Napier

Bernau, Dr. H. F., Napier

Boyd, G. G., Market Street, Hast-
ings

Bull, Harry, Gisborne

Burnett, H., Woodville

Chambers, Bernard, Te Mata

Chambers, J., Mokopeka, Hastings

Clark, Gilbert, Neave Eoad, Tara-
dale

Clark, Thomas, Eskdale

Coe, J. W., Napier

Cooper, S. E., Napier

Cornford, Cecil. Napier

Craig, J. Wilson, Napier*

Dinwiddie, P., Napier

Dinwiddie, W., Napier

Donnelly, G. P., Napier

Duncan, Eussell, Napier

Edgar, Dr. J. J., Napier

Edmundson, J. H., Napier

Fitzgerald, J., Napier

Fossey, W., Napier

Grant, M. E., Napier

Guthrie-Smith, H., Tutira

Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon,
Waipukurau

Heaton, F., M.A., B.Sc, Napier

Henderson, E. H., Te Araroa

Henley, Dr. E. A. W., Napier

Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S., Napier
Hislop, J., Napier*
Holdsworth, J., Havelock North
Humphrey, E. J., Puketapu
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Hyde, Thomas, Napier
Kennedy, C. D., Napier
Kerr, W., M.A., Napier
Large, J. S., Napier::
Large, Miss, Napier
Leahy, Dr. J. P., Napier
Lee, H. W., Napier
Loten, E. G., Napier
Lowry, T. H., Okawa
McLean, E. D. D., Napier
Mayne, Eev. Canon, Napier
Matthews, E.G., Gisborne
Metcalfe, W. F., Kiritaki, Port

Awanui
Moore, Dr. T. C, Napier
Morris, W., Hastings
Murphy, W., Woodlands Eoad,

Woodville
Niven, J., M.A., M.Sc, Napier
Oates, William, J. P., Tokomaru

Bay
Ormond, Hon. J. D., M.L.C., Napier
O'Eyan, W., Waipiro Bay
Piper, G. M., Pakowhai
Poole, M. P. Loftus, Tupuroa Bay

Bast Coast
Eichards, Eev. T. R., Napier
Sinclair, G. K., Mahora, Hastings

694

Appendix.

Sheath, J. H., Napier

Sherwood, T. E., Makarika, Wai-

piro Bay
Skinner, W. H., Napier
Smart, D. L., Napier
Smith, J. H., Olrig*
Smith, W., B.A., Pakipaki
Spencer, Miss, M.A., Rissington
Stephenson, A., Woodville
Strachan, D., M.A., Napier

Tanner, T., Havelock North

Thomson, J. P., Napier

Tiffen, G. W., Aberdeen Road, Gis-

borne
Townley, J., Gisborne
Townson, W., Pukekohe, Auckland
Whyte, D., Hastings
Williams, F. W., Napier
Williams, J. N., Frimley, Hastings
Williams, Rev. H., Gisborne

NELSON INSTITUTE.

Bett, Dr. F. A., Trafalgar Square
Boor, Dr. L., Alton Street
Cooke, Miss, Examiner Street
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Dimant, J., Trafalgar Street
Duncan, H. R., Hardy Street
Fell, C. Richmond, Brougham

Street
Field, T. A. H., M.P., Ngatitama

Street
Gibbs, F. G., Collingwood Street
Glasgow, J., Trafalgar Street
Graham, Mrs. C, Bridge Street
Harley, Charles J., Milton Street
Hornsby, J. P., Weka Street
Jackson, R. B., Examiner Street
Kuapp, F. V., Alfred Street

Lancaster, G. J., M.A., B.Sc, Nel-
son College
Morley, E. L., Waimea Street
Mules, Bishop, Trafalgar Square
Redgrave, F. B., Hardy Street
Short, William, Examiner Street
Snodgrass, W. W., Hardy Street
Taylor, Joseph, Haven Road
Thompson, F. A., Commissioner of
Crown Lands, Government Build-
ings
Ward, W. T., Chief Postmaster
Washbourn, H. P., The Port
Whitwell, F., Drumduan, Waka-

puaka
Wise, G. R., care of Pitt and Moore,

Solicitors, Nelson
Worley, W. F., Trafalgar Street
South

MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life members.]

Akers, H., Duke Street
Armstrong, E. J., C.E., The Square
Barnicoat, J. L., Union Bank
Batehelar, J. 0., Willow Bank
Baylis, G. de S. , Department of

Agriculture
Beale, J. Bruce, The Square
Bendall, W. E., College Street
Bett, Dr., M.B., Ch.B., M.R.C.S.,

L.R.CP., Broad Street
Buick, D., M.P., Cloverlea
Cohen, M., Broad Street
Colquhoun, A. J., M.Sc, High School
Cooke, F. H., The Square

Doull, Rev. A., M.A., Church Street
Drake, A., Manakau
Eliott, M. A., The Square
Gardner, R., Terrace End
Gerrand, J. B., The Square
Graham, A. J., The Square
Greer, S., Broad Street
Hankins, J. H., Main Street
Hannay, A., care of Manson and

Barr
Haslam, Rev. F. W., Cuba Street
Hodder, T. R., Rangitikei Street
Ironside, Miss, M.A., High School
Johnston, J. Goring, Oakhurst

Boll of Members.

695

Low, D. W., College Street
McNab, R., M.P., Lit.D., F.R.G.S.,

Palmerstou North
Manson, T., Rangitikei Street
Martin, Dr. A. A., M.D., Ch.M.,

Fitzherbert Street
Morgan, A. H., M.A., High School
Mounsey, J., Rangitikei Street
Murray, J., M.A., High School
Natusch, G. A., Church Street
Park, W., F.R.H.S., The Square
Peach, Dr., M.B., CM., Broad

Street
Poynton, J. W., S.M., Featherston

Street
Primmer, Captain J. H., North

Street
Rainforth, J., Bait Street
Robertson, J., Rangitikei Street
Roth, C, Rongotea

Salmon, C. T., Assoc, in Eng.,

Rangitikei Street
Scott, G. J., The Square
Sinclair, D., C.E.. Terrace End
Smith, W. H., The Square
Smith, W. W., F.E.S., New Ply-
mouth
Stevens, J., Church Street
Stowe, Dr. W. R., M.R.C.S., M.R.C.P.,

Linton Street
Sutherland, A., Boundary Road
Tapiin, C. N., George Street
Vernon, J. E., M.A., B.Sc.: High

School
Waldegrave, C. E., Broad Street
Welch, W., F.R.G.S., Mosman's

Bav, N.S.W.*
Williams, G., Farmer, Sandon
Wilson, K., M.A., Rangitikei Street:;:
Wollerman, H. , Fitzherbert Street
Young, H. L., Cuba Street

WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Iuj( L||

Allison, Alexander

Allison, Thomas

Armour, W. A., M.A., M.Sc.

Atkinson, W. E.

Ball, J.

Basset, W. G.

Battle, T. H.

Bourne, F., F.I.A.N.Z.

Braik, G. D., M.A.

Brown, C. M. Bevan, B.A.

Brown, C. P., M.A., LL.B.

Burnett, J. H.

Cave, Norman

Ciark, E. H.

Cohen, Louis, M.A.

Crichton, James

Crow, E.

Cruickshank, Miss, M.A., M.Sc.

Currie, Miss J. R, M.A.

D'Arcy, W. A.

Downes, T. W.

Dunkley, R., F.I.A.N.Z.

Dunn, Richmond

Enderbv, H. H.

Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S.

Gibbons, Hope
Gordon, Miss
Hall, William
Hatherly, Henry R.,
Helm, H. M.
Hesse, H. W., B.A.,
Hill, W. S., B.Agnc
Hutchison, George
Hutton, C. C, M.A.
Innes, C. B., M.D.
Jack, Judge J. B.
Jones, Lloyd
Kerr, William, S.M.
Latter, Hugh, M.A.
Liffiton, E. N.
McBeth, J. D. W.
McFarlane, D.
Mackay, C. E.
Muir, A. G., B.Sc.
Murdoch, R.
Murray, J. B.
Neame, J. A., M.A.
Nixon, A. E. T.
Payne, H. M.
Peck, F. L.

M.R.C.S.
B.Sc, F.L.S.

696

Appendix.

Poison, D. G.
Prowse, W. A.
Eitchie, David, M.A.
Robinson, Allan
Saywell, T. R.
Spurdle, M.
Staveley, N. C, C.E.
Sturge, H. E., M.A.
Talboys, F. P.

Thompson, H. H.
Ward, J. T.
Watson, H. B., M.A.
Watt, J. P., B.A., LL.B.
Watt, M. N., F.E.S.
Wild, L. J., M.A., F.G.S.
Williamson, J. P.
Wilson, Alexander, M.D.

List of Free Copies.

697

LIST OF INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH

THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE AEE PRESENTED BY THE
GOVERNORS OP THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, 30.

Neio Zealand.

Cabinet, The Members of, Wellington.
Executive Library, -Wellington.
Free Public Library, Auckland.

„ Christchurch.

„ Dunedin.

„ Wellington.

Government Printer and publishing staff (6 copies).
Library, Auckland Institute, Auckland.

Auckland Museum, Auckland.

Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College, Christchurch.

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Biological Laboratory, Victoria College, Wellington.

Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.

Dunedin Athenaeum.

General Assembly, Wellington (2 copies).

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier.

Manawatu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North.

Nelson College.

Nelson Institute, Nelson.

New Zealand Geological Survey.

New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.

Otago Institute, Dunedin.

Otago Museum, Dunedin.

Otago School of Mines, Dunedin.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Polynesian Society, New Plymouth.

Portobello Fish-hatchery, Dunedin.

Eeefton School of Mines.

Thames School of Mines.

University College, Auckland.

University College, Christchurch.

University of Otago, Dunedin.

Victoria College, Wellington.

Wanganui Museum.

Wellington Philosophical Society.

698 Appendix.

Great Britain.

Bodleian Library, Oxford University.

British Association for the Advancement of Science, London.

British Museum Library, London.

Natural History Department, South Kensington,
London S.W.
Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge University.
Colonial Office, London.
Clifton College, Bristol, England.
Geological Magazine, London.
Geological Society, Edinburgh.

„ London.

Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
Hish Commissioner for New Zealand, London.
Imperial Institute, London.
Institution of Civil Engineers, London.
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, 34 Southampton

Street, Strand, London.
Leeds Geological Association, Sunnyside, Crossgate, Leeds.
Linnean Society, London.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool.
Liverpool Biological Society.

Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth.
Natural History Society, Glasgow.
Nature, The Editor of, London.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich.
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Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Patent Office Library, 25 Southampton Street, London W.C.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,

59 Great Russell Street, London W.C.
Royal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh.
Royal Colonial Institute, London.

Royal Geographical Society, 1 Savile Row, London W.
Royal Institution, Liverpool.
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Royal Society, Dublin.

„ Edinburgh.

London.
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Royal Statistical Society, London.
University Library, Cambridge, England.

„ Edinburgh.

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List of Free Copies. 699

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India.

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Natural History Society, Bombay.
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Queensland.

Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.

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Boyal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.

Neiv South Wales.

Agricultural Department, Sydney.

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Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

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Public Library, Sydney.

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University Library, Sydney.

Victoria.

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Legislative Library, Melbourne.

Public Library, Melbourne.

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University Library, Melbourne.

Tasmania.

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700 Appendix.

South Australia.

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Western Australia.
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Russia.

Finskoie Uchonoie Obshchestvo (Finnish Scientific Society), Helsing-
fors.

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Moscow Society of Naturalists).

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ists).

Norway.

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Sweden.

Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm.
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Denmark.

Natural History Society of Copenhagen.

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Gennany.

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Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.

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Prussia.
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Museum, Dresden.
Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn.
Naturhistorischer Museum, Hamburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfort-an-der-Oder.
Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum (Stadtisches Museum fur Volkerkunde),

Cologne.
Redaction des Biologischen Central-Blatts, Erlangen.
Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfort-am-Main.
Verein fur Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wiirttemburg, Stuttgart.
Zoological Society, Berlin.

Austria.

K.K. Central- An stalt fur Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, Vienna.
K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna.

List of Free Copies. 701

Belgium and the Netherlands.

Musee Tevler, Haarlem.

Academie Royal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux- Arts de

Belgique, Brussels.
La Societe Eoyale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.
Netherlands Entomological Society, Botterdam.

Switzerland.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Societe des Sciences Naturelles), Bern.

France.

Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Societe Zoofogique de France, Paris.

Italy.

Biblioteca ed Archivio Tecnico, Rome.

Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della R. Universita,

Turin.
Orto e Museo Botanico (R. Instituto di Studi Superiori), Florence.
R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti, Modena.
R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome.
Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples.
Societa Africana d'ltalia, Naples.
Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.

United States of America.

Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York.

„ Davenport, Iowa.

„ Library, Philadelphia.

„ San Francisco.

American Geographical Society, New York.
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
Boston Society of Natural History.
Connecticut Academy, New Haven.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Leland Stanford University, California.
Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
National Geographical Society, Washington, D.C.
New York Academy of Sciences.

F02 Appendix.

Philippine Museum, Manila.

Rochester Academy of Sciences.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Stanford University, California.

Tufts College, Massachusetts.

United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

University of Montana, Missoula.

Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

Brazil.
Museo Paulista, Sao Paulo.
Escola de Minas, Eio de Janeiro.

Argentine Republic.
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres.

Uruguay.
Museo Nacional, Monte Video.

Japan.
College of Science, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo.

Haivaii.

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
National Library, Honolulu.

Java.
Society of Natural Science, Batavia.

703

INDEX

AUTHORS OF PAPERS.

Adams, C. E. — The Longitude, Latitude, and Height of the Hector Observatory, page

Wellington, New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . 590

Andersen, Johannes C. — New Zealand Bird-song . . . . . . . . 593

Archey, Gilbert —

The Occurrence in New Zealand of Myriapoda of the Genus Scutigerella, Order

Symphyla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

The Fresh-water Crayfish of New Zealand . . . . . . . . 295

Aston, B. C- — Plant-habitats Hitherto Unrecorded . . . . . . 67

Benham, W. B. —

Notes on some New Zealand Polychaetes . . . . . . . . 161

Preliminary Report on the Polychaetous Annelids from the Kermadec Islands 170

Oligochaeta from the Kermadec Islands

A Remarkable Case of Bifurcation in Lumbricus rubellns

On Lumbricillus macquariensis

Brittin, G. —

Some New Coccidae
New Coccidae

Carse, H. — The Ferns and Fern Allies of Mangonui County, with some Notes on
Abnormal Forms

Cheeseman, T. F. —

Notes on Aciphylla, with Descriptions of New Species
New Species of Flowering-plants

Chilton, C—

A Fresh-water Crab, and its Distribution in Australia and New Zealand
The New Zealand Species of the Amphipodan Genus Elasmopus
Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass : No. 1 —
Introduction and General Description of Station

Cockayne, L. —

Some New Species of New Zealand Flowering-plants

An Undescribed Species of Cotula from the Chatham Islands

Cross, Miss B. D. — -Investigations on Phormium

Edgerley, Miss K. V. — The Prothalha of Three New Zealand Lycopods

Fletcher, H. J. — Notes on Comparatively Rec'ent Changes in the Vegetation of
the Taupo District

Hall, T. S.—

On the Occurrence of Lower Ordovician Graptolites in Western Otago
The Golden Ridge Graptolites

Hetherington, J. R. — Records of Borings at Horotiu

Hogg, E. G.— On Orthogonal Circles

Holloway, J. E. — Preliminary Note on the Protocorm of Lycopodium laterale R. Br
Prodr.

Iredale, T.—

A Commentary on Suter's " Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca "
A Comparison of the Land Molluscan Faunas of the Kermadec Group and
Norfolk Island

Jennings, L. S. — Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand and Neighbouring
Islands

Klrk, H. B. — On Ascidioclava, a New Genus of Gymnoblastic Hydroids .

174
185
189

149
156

76

39
45

316
320

331

111
119

61

94

70

410
411

613

584

73

417

498

285
146

704 Index.

Laing, R. M. — Revised List of the Norfolk Island Flora, with some Notes on the page
Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Marshall, P. —

The Geology of Tahiti . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru . . . . . . . . . . 377

The Recent Volcanic Eruptions on Ambrym Island . . . . . . 387

Meyrick, E. —

Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . . . . . . . . 201

Revision of New Zealand Tineina . . . . . . . . . . 205

Miller, D., and Watt, M. N. — Contributions to the Study of New Zealand Ento-
mology, from an Economical and Biological Standpoint : No. 4 — Phorocera
nefaria Hutt. ; No. 5—Psychoda conspicillata Hudson ; No. 6 — Syrphus
ropalus Walk. ; No. 7 — Phytomyza albiceps Mg. (Diptera) . . . . . . 274

Neill, W. T.— On the Deflection of the Plumb-line . . . . . . . . 578

Nelson, P. S. — The Influence of Pressure on the Solubility of Tricalcic Phosphate

in Carb;mic-acid Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 573

Oliver, W. R. B. — The Mollusca of the Kermadec Islands . . . . . . 509

Petrie, D. —

Descriptions of New Native Phanerogams, with other Short Notices . . 48

Some Additions to the Flora of the Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand . . 59

Philpott, A. — Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera .. . . „ 192

Pig ott, Miss E. M. — Notes on Nothopanax arboreum, with some Reference to the

Development of the Gametophyte . . . . . . . . . . 599

Poppelwell, D. L. —

Notes on the Plant Covering of the Garvie Mountains, with a List of Species 120

Notes on a Botanical Visit to Herekopere Island, Stewart Island . . . . 142

On a Pure-white Form of Anas superciliosa Gmel. . . . . . . 145

Speight, R. —

The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury . . . . . . . . 336

Recent Changes in the Position of the Terminal Face of the Franz Josef

Glacier .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..353

Note on the Occurrence of Petroleum in New Zealand . . . . . . 355

Thomson, J. Allan —

Brachiopod Genera : The Position of Shells with Magaselliform Loops, and

of Shells with Bouchardiform Beak Characters . . . . . . 392

Additions to the Knowledge of the Recent Brachiopoda of New Zealand . . 404

Watt, Morris N. — Contributions to the Study of New Zealand Entomology,
from an Economical and Biological Standpoint : No. 1 — Plusia chalcites Esp. ;
No. 2 — Nyctemera annulata Boisd. ; No. 3 — Venusia verriculata Feld. (Lepi-
doptera) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 245

Watt, M. N., and Miller, D. — Contributions to the Study of New Zealand Ento-
mology, from an Economical and Biological Standpoint : No. 4 — Phorocera
nejaria Hutt. ; No. 5 — Psychodq conspicillata Hudson ; No. 6 — Syrphus
ropalus Walk. ; No. 7 — Phytomyza albiceps Mg. (Diptera) . . . . . . 274

Wild, Leonard J. — Notes on the Soils of the Wairau Plain, Marlborough . . 413

Wright, A. M. —

The Chemistry of Flesh Foods : Part II . . . . . . . . 569

Notes on the Determination of Milk-fat .. .. .. .. 572

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