tieyistered for transmissivn by post as a iiuujaziiu.
TRANSACTIONS
ANH
PKOCEEDINGS
OV THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
VOL. LII
(Nkw Issuk)
EDITED AND PUDLISHKD UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE mk^\) OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
ISSUED 9th august, 1 920
Jgfttlliugtoii, |.^.
MAKCUS F. iMAKKS, GOVBRNMENT PKINTING OB'FICK
WiLJviAM Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Strekt, Stband, Lonpon \\.C j
<•
*• * t
- jk k
IW
* m
fe^.H
|
v |
t^^> |
|
|
*■ |
i |
^'^#
». *.
t^
' f TTi
♦"♦
Reyintered fur traitxiitissivn by post as a nuujaziiit.
TRANSACTIONS
AND
PEOCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
V^nOR Ay
VOL. LIT [^ ^"^ ^■^^''^'^ "^
(New Is«uk) V^tX I C" ,
EDITED AND PUHLI8HED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
ISSUED 9th august, 1920
J^tlUugtou, 1^..%.
MAKCUS K. MAKKS, C.OVKRNMBNT PRINTING OFFICK WlLJ^lAM WESLKT and SoN, -28 EsSEX STREET, STKAND, LoNPON W.C
\'a
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. /QTo^^^ ^O V
uu ; L I 8 f? A R Y ^
NOTICE TO MEMBEBS. X^ »" k5 '
The publications of the New Zealand Institute consist of —
1. Transactions, a yearly volume of scientific papers read before the
local Institutes. This volume is of royal-octavo size.
2. Proceedings, containing reports of the meetings of the Board
of Governors of the New Zealand Institute and of the local Institutes, abstracts of papers read before them and of papers dealing with New Zealand scientific matters and published else- where^ list of members, &c. The Proceedings are of the same size as the Transactions, and are bound up with the yearly volume of Transactions supplied to members.
3. Bulletins. Under this title papers are issued from time to time
which for some reason it is not possible to include in the yearly volume of the Transactions. The bulletins are of the ' same size and style as the Transactions, but appear at irregular
intervals, and each bulletin is complete in itself and separately paged. The bulletins are not issued free to members, but may be obtained by them at a reduction on the published price.
Library Privileges of Members. — Upon application by any member to the Librarian of the New Zealand Institute or of any of the affiliated Societies such works as he desires to consult which are in those libraries will be forwarded to him, subject to the rules under which they are issued by the Institute or the Societies. The borrower will be required to pay for the carriage of the books. For a list of the serial publications received by the Library of the New Zealand Institute during 1919 see p. 534.
Addresses op Members. — Members are requested to notify the Secretary of any change of address, so that the same may be noted in the List of Members.
'/
MEMORANDUM FOR AUTHORS 0¥ PAPERS.
1. All papers must be typewritten, unless special permission to send in written papers has been granted by the Editor for the time being.
2. The author should read over and correct the copy before sending it to the Editor of the Transactions.
3. A badly arranged or carelessly composed paper will be sent back to the author for amendment. It is not the duty of an editor to amend either bad arrangement or defective composition.
4. In regard to underlining of words, it is advisable, as a rule, to underline only specific and generic names, titles of books and periodicals, and foreign words.
5. In regard to specific names, the International Eules of Zoological Nomenclature and the International Eules for Botanical Nomenclature must be adhered to.
6. Titles of papers should give a clear indication of the scope of the paper, and such indefinite titles as, e.g., "Additions to the New Zealand Fauna " should be avoided.
7. Papers should be as concise as possible.
8. Photographs intended for reproduction should be the best pro- curable prints, unmounted and sent flat.
9. Lijie Draioings. — Drawings and diagrams may be executed in line or wash. If drawn in line — i.e., with pen and ink — the best results are to be obtained only from good, firm, black lines, using such an ink as Higgin's liquid India ink, or a freshly mixed Chinese ink of good quality, drawn on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board. Thin, scratchy, or faint lines must be avoided. Bold work, drawn to about twice the size (linear) of the plate, will give the best results. Tints or washes may not be used on line drawings, the object being to get the greatest contrast from a densely black line drawn on a smooth, white surface.
10. Wash Drawings. — If drawing in wash is preferred, the washes should be made in such water-colour as lamp-black, ivory black, or India ink. These reproduce better than neutral tint, which inclines too much to 'blue in its light tones. High lights are better left free from colour, although they may be stopped out with Chinese white. As in line drawings, a fine surface should be used (the grain of most drawing- papers reproduces in the print with bad effect), and well-modelled contrasted work will give satisfactory results.
11. Size of Drawings. — The printed plate will not exceed 7^ in. by 4^ in., and drawings for plates may be to this size, or preferably a multiple thereof, maintaining the same proportion of height to width of plate. When a number of drawings are to appear on one plate they should be neatly arranged, and if numbered or lettered in soft pencil the printer will mark them permanently before reproduction. In plates of wash
iv Memorandum for Authors of Papers.
drawings, all the subjects comprising one plate should be grouped on the same sheet of paper or cardboard, as any joiuing-up shows in the print. Text figures should be drawn for i-eduction to a width not exceeding 4^ in. If there are a number of small text figures they should be drawn all for the same reduction, so that they may be arranged in groups.
12. Maps. — A small outline map of New Zealand is obtainable at a low price from the Lands and Survey Department, Wellington, upon which details of distribution, &c., can be filled in according to the instructions given above for line drawings.
13. Citation. — References may be placed in a list at the end of an article or arranged as footnotes. The, former method is preferable in long papers. In the list references are best arranged alphabetically, reference in the text being made by writing after the author's name, as it occurs, the year of publication of the work, adding, if necessary, a page number, and enclosing these in parentheses, thus: "'Benham (1915, p. 176)." Example of forms of citation for alphabetical list : —
Benham, W. B., 1915. Oligochaeta from the Kermadec Islands, Trans, N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 47, pp. 174-85. Park, J., 1910. The Oeology of Neiv Zealand, Christchurch, Whitcombe and
Tombs.
When references are not in alphabetical order the initials of the author should precede the surname, and the year of publication should be placed at the end.
14. In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Governors, authors are warned that previous publication of a paper may militate against its acceptance for the Transactions.
15. In ordinary cases twenty-five copies of each paper are supplied gratis to the author, and in cases approved of by the Publication Com- mittee fifty copies may be supplied without charge. Additional copies may be obtained at cost price.
TRANSACTIONS
AND
PROCEEDINGS
OP THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
VOL. LII
(New Issue)
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHOKITY OE THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
ISSUED 9th august, 1 920
MARCUS F. MAKKS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Weslky and Son, 28 FIsskx Street, Strand, London W.C.
CHARLES WILLIAM ADAMS.
Face p. ru.l
OBITUARY.
CHARLES WILLIAM ADAMS, 1840-1918.
Charles William Adams was born at Bucklands, Tasmania, on the 7th July, 1840. His parents, the Eev. Henry Cay Adams and his wife {nee Maiden), were early settlers in Tasmania. He was educated at the CampbeUtown Grammar School under Dr. W. Carr Boyd, of Trinity College, Dublin.
After some experience in land-surveying in Victoria and Tasmania he came* to New Zealand in "1862 and entered the Provincial Survev Depart- ment of Otago, being appointed in 1865 to the Wellington Provincial Survey Department. In 1867 he returned to the Otago Survey Depart- ment, and on the abolition of the provinces in 1876 he was appointed Geodesical Surveyor in the General Government.
In 1877, when engaged in latitude observations on the west coast of the South Island, Mr. Adams discovered an error in the British Admiralty Nautical Almanac. His programme included observations to eight stars — four north and four south of the zenith — and at each of three stations Alpha Centauri was one of the stars observed to the south of the zenith. The observations were made in April, May, and June, and when reduced the observations on Alpha Centauri were not consistent with the others. It is to be remembered that the observations were made with a portable field theodolite with 8 in. circles, and not with the large instruments of an observatory. •
The difference disclosed was of the order of 12", whilst his probable error of each of the other results was about 1". Mr. Adams thereupon corresponded with the Astronomer Royal (Sir G. B. Airy), Greenwich, and the Government Astronomer (Mr. R. L. J. Ellery), Melbourne, with the result that the error was admitted, and the declination of Alpha Centauri was afterwards corrected.
It should be stated that the Nautical Almanac p&sition of Alpha Centauri depended on Herschel's observations at the Cape of Good Hope in 1834-38, and that a small proper motion had been accumulating for about forty years, and, not being taken into account, the position in 1877 was some 11" in error.
In 1882 a temporary observatory was built at Mount Cook, Wellington, to prepare for the observation of the Transit of Venus on the 7th December, 1882. -Previous to this event, and in preparation for it, Mr. Adams under- took extensive observations for time and azimuth, and exchanged time signals with the British and other astronomers who observed the Transit of Venus in New Zealand.
In 1883 Mr. Adams observed over one hundred pairs of stars with the zenith telescope for latitude at Wellington. In September he visited the observatories at Melbourne and Sydney to prepare for the exchange of time signals by the submarine cable between Sydney and Wellington for the determination of the difference of longitude. The astronomical observations were made and the time signals exchanged in December, 1883. Mr. Adams was the astronomer at the Wellington Observatory, whilst Mr. Russell, Government Astronomer of New South Wales, was in charge at Sydney.
viii Obifuary.
» Twenty years later another determination of the difference of longitude between Sydney and Wellington was obtained by the Canadian Astronomer, Dr. Otto Klotz, and by Mr. Thomas King, the New Zealand Astronomer, and so accurately was the work performed by all the astronomers that the two determinations differed only some 17 ft. in a distance of over 1,200 nautical miles!
Mr. Adams was engaged in other astronomical work mitil 1885, and took part in the observations of the total solar eclipse on the 8th Septem- ber, 1885. In that year he was appointed Chief Surveyor of Otago ; in 1896 he was transferred to Marlborough ; and he retired from the Public Service in May, 1904.
His scientific activities were wide and varied. For twenty years he was the editor of the New Zealand Surveyor, and almost every number of that periodical contains some scientific article from his pen. He was a life member of the New Zealand Institute, and was a past President of the Otago Institute.
He addressed the Wellington Philosophical Society on " Daylight-saving," a device to which he strongly objected ; but he was an energetic advocate for a permanent alteration of the clock of half an hour, so as to make New Zealand standard time twelve hours in advance of Greenwich mean time.
He was connected with the Hector Observatory, and was in charge of the time service during the interval when the Observatory was being moved from Bolton Street to Kelburn. It was during this period that he developed the almucantar method of time observation with a 12 in. transit theodolite. His ripe experience in astronomy was invaluable to the Hector Observa- tory, to which institution he acted as honorary scientific adviser. It is interesting to note that the transit instrument and astronomical clock used by Mr. Adams in 1883 are now in use at the Observatory.
The alcove details of Mr. Adams's scientific activities were supplied by his son, Dr. C. E. Adams, of the Hector Observatory ; and whilst the writer, during his twenty-five years in the Lands and Survey Department, knew Mr. Adams through such papers as those dealing with the sag of steel bands and calculations in connection therewith, and other like technical papers, it was not until comparatively recently that he came into personal contact with him, and then it was in an entirely different department of mental activity, the department of poetry and literary criticism, where again his bent of original thought gave value to such acute observations as he occasionally made : this side of his nature is well represented in his son Arthur H. Adams.
Those who knew him characterize him as a hard and conscientious worker, methodical and orderly ; a rugged personality, who lived intensely in the present. His life and work taught the lesson — do everything in the best way possible, and by' unremitting labour improve upon it the next time. He was always good company, his tenacious and ready memory supplying him with a fund of anecdotes, so that he was always able to introduce one or more, quite apropos, whatever the subject of conversation. He retained his scientific activities right to the end, and less than a month before he died he read a paper on a novel star atlas before the Astronomical Section of the Wellington Philosophical Society.
Mr. Adams died at his residence, Bellevue Road, Lower Hutt, on Tuesday, the 29th October, 1918, from heart-failure, his widow (sister of the late E. T. Gillon) and a family of six (five sons and one daughter)
g mi. Johannes C. Andersen.
MAJOR THOMAS BROUN.
face p. ta.J
Obituary. ix
MAJOR THOMAS BROUN, 1838-1919.
Major Thomas Broun, a member of an old titled Scottish family, was born in Edinburgh on the 15th July, 1838, and died in Auckland on the 24:th August, 1919. Both his father and an uncle (Captain Thomas Broun) were naturalists of considerable repute in their day, and no doubt it was from them that he inherited his scientific tastes.
Intended for the Army, he was educated by a private tutor in Edin- burgh, and leceived his first commission at the age of sixteen, during the Crimean War. After the close of that war he accompanied his regiment (the 35th Royal Sussex Infantry) to Buima. Heie the large size and brilliant colours of many of the tiopical insects attracted his attention, arid he commenced to form a collection for the British Museum. But the outbreak of tlie Indian Mutiny in May, 1857, put an end to this project, and his legiment was despatched to Calcutta. Immediately on arrival it was sent to succour the French settlement of Chandernagore, whose existence was then threatened bv a large bodv of mutineers ; and for .services rendered during this expedition he many years afterwards received the distinction of Knight of the Legion of Honour. He served in India during tlie whole period of the Mutiny. He was present at the assault and capture of Delhi, at the relief of Lucknow, and was attached to Lord Clyde's main force through most of his campaigns. He received the Indian Mutiny medal and other decorations. Towards the close of 1861 he was struck down with cholera, and narrowly escaped death. He was invalided home in 1862, and retired from the Army in the same year.
In 1863 he married, and after a brief stay in Scotland emigrated to New Zealand. He brought with him letters of introduction from the Duke of Ha;nilton to Sir George Grey, who at once offered him a commission as Captain in the 1st Waikato Regiment, then being formed for service during the Maori War. He served through the whole of the war, partly in the Waikato and partly on the East Coast, and was awarded the New Zealand medal. Shortly afterwards he took up land in the Opotiki district, and remained there for some years. His attempts at farming, however, did not jirove remunerative, and on the advice of the Hon. Colonel Haultain, who, as Defence Minister, was well acquainted with him, he in 1876 accepted educational work under the Auckland Board of Edrrcatiou, and remained in the service of the Board imtil 1888. He was appointed Government Entomologist in 1890, a post which he held for several years.
Major Brouu's active work in New Zealand entomology commenced immediately after the close of the Maori War, and continued to within a few weeks of his death. Although he collected a considerable number of Hemiptera and Orthoptera for various correspondents, and had a good working knowledge of most other families, his chief effoi-ts were always .devoted to the Coleoptera. When the writer first met him, in 1875, he stated his desire to prepare a general work on the New Zealand species, and described the preparations he had already nrade iir amassing luaterial and obtaining works of reference. A few years later he applied to the Auckland Institute for assistance in jjirblishing his work. The Institute, having no firnds that it could devote to such a purpose, forwarded ]iis application to Sir James Hector, as Director of the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey. After some little delay the publication of the work
X Obituary.
was authoiized, and it appeared in 1880. An opinion given by Captain Hutton to Sir James Hector may be appropriately quoted here : " I regard this as a most excellent work, containing 1,140 species, a large part of which are described for the first time. No country outside Europe and the United States has produced such a catalogue." Sir James Hector refers to it as " a monument of the zeal and industry of an aident naturalist."
The pubhcation of the Manual not only spurred the author to renewed efforts, but brought to the front collectors in all parts of the Dominion. Five supplementary parts were issued between 1881 and 1893. Seven memoirs of considerable length appeared in volumes 41 to 45 of the Transactions of the New Zealayid Institute, while six Bulletins have since been separately printed. In these publications the authoi has incieased the 1,140 species of the Manual to 3,979 ; and it is understood that much additional manuscript remains in the hands of the Institute. There a^e few countiies, if any, where a single individual has so fuUy and completely described a branch of the fauna equivalent in numbers to that of the Coleoptera of New Zealand.
Major Broun devoted himself to his work with a conscientious single- mindedness, and with inexhaustible energy ; and it was not until he had long passed the ordinary span of life that he knew what it was to be tired either in body or in mind. As for his chaiacter, he was mainly distinguished by being thoroughly honest and outspoken ; and, from his naturally inde- pendent spirit and bearing, he was sometimes misunderstood. He had a warm and feeling heart, and to his friends he was a genial companion, full of anecdotes, which he often related with much felicity of expression.
T. F. Cheeseman.
GEORGE HOGBEN.
[•'ace p. xi.]
Obituary. xi
GEORGE HOGBEN, 1 853-1 920.
George Hogben, whose death occurred on the 26th April, 1920, will be remembered for two things : as being one of the most eminent educationists the Dominion has produced, and as being the outstanding pioneer of seismology in the Southern Hemisphere.
Born in Islington, London, in 1853, the son of a Congregational minister, he was educated at the Congregational School, Lewisham, Kent (now Caterham School), from 1864 till 1868, and at the University School, Nottingham, where he held a scholarship from 1869 to 1871. (In the interval he was a pupil-teacher in a private school for boys.) He then entered the English Civil Service, and attained the high position of junior auditor in the Accountant and Controller-General's Department. He left the Service to enter at Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1877 and M.A. in 1881, after fighting the battle of the non-conformists with the sectarian conservatism of the old university. He was Mathematical Scholar and Prizeman at St. Catherine's College, Cambridge, with the added dis- tinction of Exliibitioner of the Goldsmiths' Company. While at Cambridge he rowed on the Cam three years for his college, and proved himself a good exponent at cricket and football, besides achieving the distinction of being president of the College Debating Society. After graduating with first-class mathematical honours, he took post-graduate work in physics. He entered the teaching profession as mathematical and science master at Oldenham Grammar School, to which appointment he went immediately after leaving Cambridge.
In 1881 he was selected by commissioners in England as mathematical and science master in the Christchurch Boys' High School. , Five years later he was appointed by the North Canterbury Education Board to the position of Inspector of Schools, and he held this post till 1889, when he was appointed headmaster of the Timaru Boys' High School, where he remained for ten years. During all this time he had taken a keen interest in all matters pertaining to education^ being for three years president of the North Canterbury Educational Institute, and in 1886 president of the New Zealand Educational Institute.
In 1899 he was appointed to the position of Inspector-General of Schools under the New Zealand Education Department, and he held this post until his retirement in 1915. During his tenure of office were carried .out very many important educational reforms, for most of which he was directly responsible. It has been said by a teacher who was much associated with him, especially in the fixing of the scale of salaries of primary-school teachers, and in the drawing-up of the teachers' super- annuation scheme, " No other man who has ever been associated with the administration of the education system of this Dominion has left a deeper and more permanent impression upon it, nor can any other man of his time lay claim to have done more to further the cause of educational progress than did the late George Hogben." His plans were all most carefully thought out and most thoroughly presented ; he would justify and defend his schemes with skill and vigour, but would accept his occasional defeats with unfailing good spirit. The same teacher has said of him, ■■' He was a 'hard fighter, but a fair fighter, and was absolutely without vindictiveness." This w^s, indeed, one of the most charming features in his character.
xii ' Obituary.
He represented New Zealand at the Empire Bducational Conference in London in 1907, at the International Conference of School Hygiene, the International Conference on the Teaching of the Deaf, and the International Conference on Moral Education — all in the same year. On his return his valuable report on " Schools and other Educational Institutions in Europe and America " was published as a parliamentary paper.
Upon his retirement from the Public Service Mr. Hogben continued to render good service as a member of the Council of Education. He was also a member of the University Senate for some years, and was always radical in his idea of reforms. He was largely responsible for the intro- duction of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Home Science, and this is one of th6 reforms which has already justified itself. His public services were acknowledged by the bestowal of the C.M.G. in 1915.
His activity in the educational sphere did not prevent his indulging an original bent in mathematics and physical science.
His first contribution to the New Zealand Institute was a paper, read before the Canterbury Philosophical Society on the 7th October, 1886, entitled " Transcendental Geometry : Remarks suggested by Mr. Frankland's paper ' The Non-Euclidian Geometry vindicated.' " His last paper was-" A Note on Eapt Coast Earthquakes, 1914-17," contributed to the Wellington Philosophical Society on the 12th December, 1917. Of his numerous papers published in volumes 20 . to 40 of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, eighteen dealt with earthquakes, and he was the recognized authority on seismology in the Dominion. It should be noted that the last paper from his pen actually published appeared in the New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology in the very month of his death — April, 1920. It dealt with the subject he had made peculiarly his own, and was entitled " The Interpretation of a Typical Seismogram." This shows that the keenness of his mental faculties was unimpaired to the last.
He was President of the Canterbury Philosophical Institute in 1887. From ] 891 he was Secretary of the Seismological Committee of the Austral- asian Association for the Advancement of Science. For many years he was correspondent for Australasia of the American journal Science. He was a Fellow of the Geological Society of London, and in 1919 was elected one of the original Fellows of the New Zealand Institute.
He was a strong advocate of proportional representation, and in September, 1913, read a paper before the Wellington Philosophical Society on " Preferential Voting in Single-member Constituencies, with Special Reference to the Counting of Votes." When some time later the Christ- church City Council held an election under that system he went there to conduct the election for the authorities.
During the war he wrote a valuable little paper, which was printed in November, 1916, on " Night Marching by the Stars." Two methods were given, one of which was recommended to members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, who were provided with copies of star-maps and brief directions how to use them.
In 1917, when the question of the relation of scientific and industrial research to national efficiency was under serious consideration, a committee (the New Zealand Institute's Scientific and Industrial Research Committee) was set up, and Mr. Hogben was appointed chairman by a unanimous vote. He was a joint author of a report on " The Organization of Scientific and Industrial Research," publislied as a parliamentary paper. The report of the committee, which owed much to Mr. Hogben's care and fairness to
Obituary. xiii
all views, both provincial and departmental, was adopted by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, and, with slight amendment, by the National Efficiency Board, and was forwarded to the Government.
Of his best-known publications, the following might be mentioned : A French text-book, Methode naturelle ; Four-figure Logarithms ; and Notes on the Teaching of Mathematical Geography. Since his retirement he had been revising a Table of Logarithms, and this work is now in the press.
Mr. Hogben was happy in his marriage with a daughter of the late Mr. Edward Dobson, C.E., of Ghristchuroh, who, with her two sons, sur- vives him. Six sons were born to them, two of whom died in childhood. Of the four remaining, three gave their services and two gave their lives to the Empire during the Great War ; and there is little doubt that their loss, borne without murmuring, contributed to his final illness.
George Hogben was a man of wide reading and scholarship, a thorough and indefatigable worker. He was a true and warm friend, and, through his fairness and broadmindedness, a benefactor to his fellow-men.
G. M. Thomson.
CONTENTS.
Roll of Honour Presidential Address
PAGES
xxi-xxiii
XXV— XXX
ANTHROPOLOGY.
Art. XII. The Southern Maori, and Greenstone. By H. Beattie XIII. Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. By H. Beattie
45-52 53-77
BOTANY.
Art. II. Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the Flora of New- Zealand: No. 7. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S.. F.N. Z.Inst., Curator of the Auckland Museum . . . . 9-16
III. Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants. By D. Petrie,
M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst. . . . . . . . . 17-19
XV. Ranimculus paucifoUus T. Kirk : its Distribution and Ecology, and the Bearing of these upon certain Geological and Phylo- genetic Problems. By A. Wall, M.A., Professor of English, Canterbury College . . . . . . . . . . 90-105
XVI. Helichrysum dimorphum Cockayne — a Hydrid ? By A. Wall,
M.A., Professor of English, Canterbury College . . . . 106-107
XXVII. Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium : Part IV — The Structure of the Prothallus in Five Species. By the Rev. J. E. Holloway, D.Sc, Hutton Memorial Medallist . . . . . . . . . . . . 193-239
XXVIII. Notes on the Indigenous Vegetation of the North-eastern Portion of the Hokonui Hills, with a List of Species. By D. L. Poppelwell . . . . . . . . . . . . 239-247
XXIX. Notes on the Indigenous Vegetation of Ben Lomond, with a List
of Species. By D. L. Poppelwell . . . . . . 248-252
XXX. Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass. No. 7— The Rosette Plants : Part I. By M. Wini- fred Betts, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . 253-275
XXXI. Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite Belt, Nelson : Part I — Structure of some of the Plants (No. 3). By M. Winifred Betts, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . 276-314
XXXII. Pteridophytes of Banks Peninsula (Eastern Portion). By W.
Martija, B.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 315-322
Art.
CHEMISTRY.
V. The Distillation of Waikaia Oil-shale, and G. C. Burton
By W. Donovan, M.Sc,
VL Stmg-ray-liver Oil. By W. Donovan, M.Sc.
XXVI. The Lifluence of Salts of the Alkali and Alkaline-earth Metals on the Solubility in Water of Calcium Carbonate (a) in the Presence of Air free from Carbon Dioxide, (b) in the Presence of Excess of Carbon Dioxide. By E. A. Rowe, M.Sc.
27-29 29
192
32780
XVI
Contents.
GEOLOGY.
Art. XVII. On the Occurrence of Striated Boulders in a Palaeozoic Breccia pages near Taieri Mouth, Otago, New Zealand. By Professor James Park, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . . . 107-108
XVIII. The Tawhiti Series, East Cape District. By P. Marshall, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton Medallist . . 109-110
XIX. The Hampden Beds and the New Zealand Tertiary Limestones. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.'inst., Hector and Hutton Medallist.. .. .. .. '.. 111-114
XX. The Tertiary Rocks near Wanganui. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton Medallist, and R. Murdoch . . . . . . . . 115-128
XXI. Some Tertiary Mollusca, with Descriptions of New Species. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton Medallist, and R. Murdoch . . . . 128-136
XXII. Tertiary Geology of the Area between the Otiake River (Kurow District) and Duntroon, North Otago. By G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Scots College, Wellington . . . . 137-153
XXIII. Tertiary Geology of the Area between Wharekuri and the
Otiake River, North Otago. Bv G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc,
F.G.S., Scots College, Wellington . . ' . . . . 154-168
XXIV. Remarks on Bulletin No. 20 (New Series) of the New Zealand
Geological Survey. By G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.,
Scots College, Wellington . . . . . . . . 169-182
XXV. Examples of Readjustment of Drainage on the Tararua Western
Foothills. By G. Leslie Adldn " .. .. . . 183-191
XXXIII. The Notocene Geology of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass
District, North Canterbury, New Zealand. By Dr. J. Allan Thomson, F.G.S., FN.Z.Inst., Director of the Dominion Museum . . . . . . . . ^ . . . . 322-415
XXXIV. Additional Facts concerning the Distribution of Igneous Rocks
in New Zealand : No.' 2. By J. A. Bartrum, M.Sc .. 416-422
XXXV. The Conglomerate at Albany, Lucas Creek, Waitemata Harbour.
By J. A. Bartrum, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . 422-430
ZOOLOGY.
Art. I. Some New Zealand Amphipoda : No. 1. By Charles Chilton, M. A., D.Sc, LL.D., C.M.Z.S., Hon. Member Roy. Soc N.S.W., F.N.Z.Inst., Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, N.Z. 1-8
VII. Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. By E. Meyrick,
B.A., F.R.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-32
VIII. Illustrated Life-histories of New Zealand Insects : No. 1. By
G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst. . . 32-34
IX. New Lepidoptera. By Charles E. Clarke . . . . . . 35
X. Lepidoptera of Auckland and the King-country. By Charles E.
Clarke .. .. .. .. .. .. 36-41
XI. Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. By
Arthur Philpott . . . . . . . . . . 42^4
XXXVI. On some Examples of New Zealand Insects illustrating the Darwinian Princij)le of Sexual Selection. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst. .. .. .. .. .. 431-438
XXXVII. Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. By M. N. Watt .. 439-466
Contents.
xvn
MISCELLANEOUS.
Art. IV. The Food Values of New Zealand Fish : Part 1. By (Mrs.) pages
Dorothy E. Johnson, B.Sc. in Home Science . . . . 20-26
XIV. The Mission of the " Britomart " at Akaroa in August, 1840.
By Johannes C. Andersen . . . . . . . . 78-89
PROCEEDINGS.
Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors
Wellington Philosophical Society
Auckland Institute
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury
Otago Institute
Manawatu Philosophical Society
469-485 485-488 48^-493 493-495 49&^97 497-498
APPENDIX.
New Zealand Institute Act and Regulations
Hutton Memorial Medal and Research Fund
Hector Memorial Research Fund
Regulations for administering the Government Research Grant
Carter Bequest
New Zealand Institute — List of Officers, &c. ^ . .
Roll of Members
Serial Publications received by the Library of the Institute
List of Institutions to which the Publications of the Institute are presented
501-506 507-509 509-510 511-512 512 513-517 518-533 534-537 538-543
Index
544
LIST OF PLATES.
Charles William Adams Major Thomas Brown George Hogben
FOLLOWS PAGE
vi viii
G. V. Hudson — Plate I—
Figs. 1-9. Adult, pupa, and larva of Limnophila sinistra, Melanostoma
decessum, and Gnophomyia rufa . . . . . . . . 34
A. Wall—
Plate IL- — Ranunculus paucifolius in sihi, showing five leaves and root . . 90
Plate III—
Fig. \. R. paucifolius, showing six leaves . . . . . . . . 90
Fig. 2. R. paucifolius, in situ . . . . . . . . ... 90
Plate IV. — liocality where R. paucifolius is found ; from south-east . . 92
Plate V. — Same locality, from north-east . . . . . . . . 92
P. Marshall and R. Murdoch — Plate VI—
Figs. 1-10. Tertiary Mollusca . . . . ' . . . . . . 128
Plate VII—
Figs. 11-14. Tertiary MoUuscai .. .. ... .. ..128
Plate VIII—
Figs. 15-17. Tertiary Mollusca . . . . . . . . . . 136
Plate IX—
Figs. 18, 19, 21. Tertiary MoUusca . . . . . . . . 136
Plate X—
Figs. 20, 22, 23. Tertiary Mollusca . . . . . . . . 136
G. L. Adkin — Plate XI—
Fig. 1. " The Heights " basin, looking north-east . . . . . . 186
Fig. 2. The valley of the Waireka Stream, looking east . . . . 186
J. E. "Holloway —
Plate XII. — Lycopodium ramulosum .. .. .. ..218
Plate XIII. — Lycopodium ramulosum . . . . . . . . 218
Plate XIV. — Lycopodium ramulosum . . . . . . . . 218
Plate XV. — Lycopodium ramulosum . . . . . . . . 218
J. A. Thomson —
Plate. XVI. — View looking down the Waipara River towards the limestone
gorge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Plate XVII—
Fig. 1. Looking down Birch Hollow, Middle Waipara . . . . 344
Fig. 2. Grey muddy sandstones with saurian concretions, Waipara
River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
XX
List of Plates.
J. A. Thomson — continued. Plate XVIII—
Fig. 1. Cliff of lower (concretionary) Waipara greensands Fig. 2. View of the upper part of the Weka Pass
Plate XIX—
Fig. 1. Cliff of Weka Pass stone, overhanging Amuri limestone , Fig. 2. " Fucoids " in the Weka Pass greensand . . : .
Plate XX. — View across Waipara River below hmestone gorge . .
Plate XXI—
Fig. 1. SjTacline in the main Mount Brown limestone Fig. 2. cuff in Weka Pass Stream, below railway-cutting
Plate XXII— ,
Figs. 1-11. Eleven species (nine new) of Rhizothyris . . .^
Plate XXIII—
Figs. 1-11. Eight species (seven new) of Rhizothyris
Plate XXIV—
Figs. 1-15. SjDecies of Rhizothyris, Pachymagas, and Terebratrilina
Plate XXV—
Figs. 1-14. Species of Neothyris and Pachymagas
Plate XXVI—
Figs. 1-18. Species of Pachymagas and Waiparia . . - . .
Plate XXVII—
Figs. 1-9. Species of Pachymagas and Neothyris
J. A. Bartrum — Plate XXVIII—
Fig. 1. Quartz -norite, Cleddau-Hollyford Saddle Fig. 2. Dolerite, Silverdale, Auckland Fig. 3. Basalt, Ti Point, Whangateau . . »
Fig. 4. Basalt, Ohakune ballast-pit
Plate XXIX—
Fig. 1. Granodiorite
Fig. 2. Banded dioritic gneiss
Fig. 3. Dolerite showing lath-like form of feldspars
Fig. 4. Trachyte
W. N. Watt— Plate XXX—
Figs. 1-10. Species of Parectopa . .
rOLLOWB PAGE
344 344
344 344
358
358 358
368 368 368 368 380 380
416 416 416 416
424
424 424 424
440
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
ROLL OF HONOUR
SHOWING MEMBERS OF THE INSTITUTE WHO WERE ON ACTIVE
SERVICE DURING THE WAR.
Name.
Available Details of Service.
E. H. Atkinson C. M. Begg
Val. Blake
F. K. Broadgate P. W. Burbidge W. H. Carter
L. J. Comrie V. C. Davies
W. Earnsliaw C. J. Freeman
C. Freyberg
J. G. B. Fulton H. E. Girdlestone H. Hamilton ^C. G. Johnston
G. W. King E. Marsden
D. McKenzie H. M. Millar
W. L. Moore
T. D. M. Stout R. M. Sunley W. M. Thomson H. S. Tily H. Vickerman
C. J. Westland
Wellington Philosophical Society.
Lieutenant, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve. ' Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps
Lieutenant, Canterbury Infantry Lieutenant, N.Z. Engineers Sergeant, 34th Specialists. Canterbury Infantrj'. Sergeant-Major, 36th Reinforcements. Regimental Sergeant-Major, 1st N.Z. Rifle
Brigade Engineer Lieut. -Commander, R.N. N.Z. Rifle Brigade. Lieutenant, West York (Prince of Wales's Own)
Regiment. Corporal, 10th Reinforcements. Company Sergeant-Major, Wellington Infantry Sub-Lieutenant, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve Lieutenant, 1st N.Z. Rifle Brigade . . Lieutenant, N.Z. Tunnelling Company. Major (temp.), N.Z. Engineers . .
Trooper, Wellington Mounted Rifles. Sergeant,. N.Z. Engineers' Divisional Signalling
Company. Captain, N.Z. Field Artillery
Lieut. -Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps . .
Corporal, Specialists.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Sergeant, N.Z. Field Artillery.
Major, commanding N.Z. Tunnelling Company
Corporal, N.Z. Machine Gun Corps.
C.B., C.M.G.
Died of sickness. Killed in action. Killed in action.
Killed in action.
Ealled in action.
M.C. ; mentioned in despatches.
Mentioned in de- spatches. D.S.O.
D.S.O., O.B.E. ; mentioned in despatches.
F. L. Armitage S. B. Bowyer R. Briffault P. H. Buck Rangihiroa) S. Cory-Wright
(Te
W. J. Crompton . .
F. N. R. Downard
G. Fenwick
Auckland Institute.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. Gunner, N.Z. Field Artillery. Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. Major, N.Z. Medical Corps
Captain, N.Z. Engineiers, Divisional Intelligence
Officer 1st Battalion, Otago Regiment. Lieutenant, N.Z. Rifle Brigade. Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
D.S.O.
M.C.
XXII
Roll of Honour. Roll of Honour — continued.
Name.
Available Details of Service.
R. H. Gunson G. H. Hansard
D. Holderness R. T. Inglis C. W. Leys K. Mackenzie H. A. E. Milnes W. R. B. Oliver G. Owen
A. C. Pnrchas
E. Robertson C. B. Rossiter T. C. Savage Rev. D. Scott
H. L. Wade
F. Whittome
Auckland Institute — continued.
Lieutenant, Motor Boat Reserve.
Sergeant -Major, 33rd Machine Gun Corps.
Lieutenant, N.Z. Engineers.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Lieutenant, Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. .
Lieutenant, Auckland Infantrj' Regiment . .'
Corporal, Canterbury Infantry.
Lieutenant, N.Z. Rifle Brigade and N.Z. Engi- neers.
Major, N.Z. Medical Corps.'
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps
Chaplains Department, N.Z. Expeditionary Force.
Captain, Auckland Mounted Rifles.
Corporal, N.Z. Rifle Brigade.
Killed in action.
Died of sickness.
H. Acland G. E. Archey J. W. Bird F. J. Borrie F. M. Corlvill , William Deans A. A. Dorrien-Smi A. Fairbairn H. D. Ferrar C. E. Foweraker
F. G. Gibson J. Guthrie W. Irving
L. S. Jennings H.Lang
E. Kidson
G. Maclndoe P. S. Nelson
F. S. Oliver H. V. Rowe
Sir R. H. Rhodes A. Tavlor
G. T. Weston F. S. Wilding J. P. Whetter A. M. Wright
th
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.
Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Field Artillery.
Sergeant-Major, Instructional Staff.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corj^s.
Captain.
Captain, Canterbury Mountecl Rifles.
Major. ' " '
Captain.
Trooper, N.Z. Mounted Rifles.
Corporal, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Cajitain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Captain, Otago Regiment . .
2nd Lieutenant, N.Z. Rifle Brigade
Captain, Royal Engineers.
Signaller, Otago Infantry Brigade . .
Private, Canterbury Regiment
Sergeant, Headcpiarters Instructional Stalt".
Sergeant-Major, Headquarters Instructional
Staff. Colonel, Red Cross Commissioner. Captain, N.Z. Veterinary Corps. Lieutenant. Canterbury Regiment. Captain, N.Z. Field Artillery. Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Killed in action. Killed in action.
Killed in action. Killed in action.
S. C. Allen R. Buddie
L. E. Barnctt F. C. Batchelor Rev. D. Uutton A. Mackie E. J. O'Neill
Otago Institute.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. Surseon, H.M. Ships "Crescent," '
land," and " Warwick " Lieut. -Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps Lieut.-Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps. Chai)lain, N.Z. Expeditionary Force. Sergeant, N.Z. Expeditionary Force Lieut.-Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps .
Cumber-
Mentioned in de- spatches. C.M.G.
M.M. C.M.G., D.S.O.
Name.
Roll of Honour. Roll of Honouk — continued.
XX 111
Available Details of Service.
T. R. Overton H. P. Pickerill R. Price
E. F. Roberts S. G. Sandle
F. H. Statham W. D. Stewart W. A. Thomson R. N. Vanes
#D. B. Waters H. F. H. Whitcom
be
Otago Institute — continued.
Lieutenant, N.Z. Pioneers.
Lieut. -Colonel, N.Z. Medical Corps . .
Major, Otago Infantry
Captain, Royal Engineers.
Major, N.Z. Expeditionary' Force.
Major, Otago Infantry
Lieutenant, Otago Infantry.
N.Z. Machine Gun Corps.
Lieutenant, N.Z. Expeditionary Force.
Captain, N.Z. Tunnelling Corps.
Gunner, N.Z. Field Artillery.
O.B.E.
Killed in action.
Killed in action.
E. C. Barnett D. H. B. Bett A. A. Martin J. Murray H. D. Skinner W. R. Stowe
H. F. Bernau J. P. D. Leahy E. F. Northcroft E. G. Wheeler G. T. Wilhams
F. A. Bett
Manawatu Philosophical Society.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. Captain, N.Z. Medical Coi-ps. Major, N.Z. Medical Corjjs Lieutenant, Auckland Infantry. Private, Otago Infantry . . Major, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Hawke's Bay Philosophic A. Institute.
Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps. Major, N.Z. Medical Corps. Corporal, 41st Reinforcements. Corporal, Wellington Regiment. Wellington Mounted Rifles
Nelson Institute. Captain, N.Z. Medical Corps.
Killed in action. D.C.M.
Died of sickness.
Note. — The roll is as complete as it has been found possible to make it. Editor would be glad to be notified of any omissions or necessary amendments.
The
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
The following is the presidential address delivered at the annual meeting of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, at Wellington, on the 30th January, 1920, by Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S. :—
Gentlemen op the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, — First of all it is my sorrowful duty to record the great loss which the New Zealand- Institute has experienced since our annual meeting last year through the death of two of our foremost members — Major T. Broun and Mr. T. W. Adams. A full account of Major Broun's scientific activity will appear in the next volume of our Transactions ; here I need only express my admiration of our accomplished member's services to science — services, indeed, that have laid an enduring foundation in a domain of New Zealand zoology virtually unexplored prior to his investi- gations. Regarding my esteemed friend Mr. T. W. Adams, I have already recorded in the last volume of our Transactions my high appreciation of his pioneer researches in New Zealand forestry and their extraordinary economic value. The influence of such men must be felt for many years ; their place in our scientific circle will be hard to fill.
But if the past year has brought its sorrows, as must all years, joy has also come in the safe return after the hardships and perils of war of most of our members who so willingly set forth to serve their King and country. To those who fell, and whose laurels won on the field of battle are entwined with those gained in the peaceful path of science, has gone forth long ere this both our deepest grief and most fervent admiration. You will see from the report of the Standing Committee that the Roll of Honour is now completed, and wiU be printed in this volume of the Transactions.
The scientific year just concluded will, I feel convinced, be looked upon, in time to come, as the most important for the New Zealand Institute since its reconstruction in 1903 — or, indeed, perhaps since its foundation. This wiU be for the reason that two important advances have been made — the holding of a Science Congress and the founding of the Fellowship. So successful was this Congress, notwithstanding the many unforeseen diffi- culties which stood in the way, that it was proposed to make it a biennial function. There is no need for me to give any details regarding the proceedings, since such have appeared in two special numbers of the Journal of Science and Technology/, where also some of the papers read at the Congress are printed. It has been decided to hold a second Congress at the beginning of next year in Palmerston North. The idea of the Congress was not new, since such meetings were provided for in the New Zealand Institute Act of 1903, but for its successful inauguration full credit must be given to that very active body, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. Without doubt these gatherings will do a great deal to bring the Institute into touch with the non-scientific public, and in this lies no inconsiderable part of their value*
XX vi Presidential Address.
Regarding the papers read at the Congress, a considerable portion were such as in the ordinary course of events would have come before the affiliated branches. This, it may be hoped, wiU be remedied in the future, and that the papers submitted will be more on the lines of those of the British Association. Nor need a comparison on the basis of population make this appear a vain statement, for New Zealand possesses far more problems purely her own to be solved than does Great Britain ; indeed, for many years to come, abundant material for researches, novel in character, will be at the disposal of our scientific men. A great agricul- tural centre, such as Palmerston North, is a fitting place indeed for the second Congress. At the Christchurch Congxess agriculture was a great feature, thanks in part to the strong support of the Department of Agriculture, and in part to a gathering of the agricultural instructors of the Dominion being held at the same time. No time should be lost in making preparations for the event, so this question will come before you to-day.
The matter of the Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute demands more than a passing word. First, it must be pointed out that the election of the Original Fellows took place in October last, the election being made by a special committee — consisting of the Hon. Gr. M. Thomson, Professors Chilton and Easterfield, and myself (the convener) — which was appointed at your annual meeting last year " with power to act, to determine the method of election of the remaining Original Fellows, and to carry out the election." As I was likely to be away from Wellington at the time of the election, I delegated my powers to Professor Easter- field, and obtained Mr. Ewen's assent to his acting as returning officer. To both these gentlemen I must record my grateful thanks. As soon as the election was concluded Mr. Ewen sent me the names of those elected, and I, as President of the Institute, informed by wire each successful candidate of his election. I also wrote to the Secretary of each of the affiliated societies giving the result of the election. Later, the names of all the Original Fellows were published in the Government Gazette. There are now twenty Fellows of the New Zealand Institute, who represent nearly every branch of science pursued in the Dominion. As to the merits of the election it is not for me to express an opinion, but I may be permitted to say that as an ex officio Fellow I feel it a great honour to be in such distinguished company.
Although the election was carried out in a certain manner agreed upon by the special committee, that is no precedent for future elections — the occasion was unique. It is for this meeting to decide in what manner the voting, &c., for candidates is to take place in future elections, both by the Fellows, in the first instance, who select eight candidates from the nominees of the affiliated societies, and, in the next place, by the Governors, who are to select the four Fellows from the eight selected candidates. Regarding these eight, and bearing in mind the number of persons qualified for the Fellowship at the present time, it may be confidently expected that each of them will be amply qualified for the distinction, and that as years go on the status for such qualification will rise.
And now a few words as to the history of "the movement which led to the establishment of the Fellowship. The first suggestion of a class of members other than the ordinary members, whose admission to the societies is a matter of form, was** put forward by Mr. G. V. Hudson a
Presidential Address. g xxvii
considerable uiimber of years ago, but no exceptional qualifications were to be demanded. Nothing more was said on the subject until the year 1910, when I talked over the matter with many of my scientific friends, all of whom agreed that the suggested Fellowship should be difficult of attainment and so be a very high distinction indeed. My reasons for the estabUshment of such an honour were — (1) that in other countries the universities conferred honorary degrees on scientific workers, whereas the University of New Zealand did not confer such, under the mistaken notion that they would detract from the value of the ordinary degrees ; (2) that there were certain men in New Zealand whose years of unremitting labour in science would apparently never receive recognition ; (3) that the establishment of a Fellowship worthy of being won would lead to that competition which is a law of nature and brings out the best in every sphere of life ; (4) that more research would be undertaken and the number of those carrying out research increase, to the benefit of science. Agairtst the proposal there was urged by some that there were the Hutton and the Hector Medals, as also certain Empire distinctions available for our best men. On the oth.er hand, the above medals are limited in their application — some sciences do not receive recognition ; while, as to Empire distinctions, so few come to New Zealand that they are almost negligible. A.11 agrfeed that, in order to make the Fellowship sufficiently difiicult to acquire, the number of Fellows must be limited to comparatively few. The proposition was not taken up, and no more was said on the matter until Dr. J. Allan Thomson brought out in January, 1917, an ambitious scheme for reform of the Institute, containing, i^iter alia, a proposal for the creation of Fellows. Dr. Thomson's proposals were referred to the affiliated societies to consider, and at the succeeding meeting in January, 1918, their replies having been received, a committee consisting of Mr. G. Hogben, Dr. Thomson, and myself was set up to draw up a Fellow- ship scheme and refer it to the incorporated societies. We accordingly considered the matter carefully, drew up a scheme, referred it to the societies, made certain changes in our draft in conformity with their suggestions, and brought our amended scheme before the Board of Governors in January, 1919. Each clause was carefully discussed by the Board, and, with a few alterations and additions, the scheme which we submitted was adopted. The only point of importance which was rejected was the proposal that a certain number of Fellows should be elected " for eminent service to the nation in any capacity," but such Fellows were not to " exceed one-tenth of the total number of Fellows." After considerable discussion, this proposal was rejected ; but, as the regulations stand, the Fellowship can be given for research or distinction in science — i.e., it is possible for Fellows to be elected who have done no research whatever. This gives a wide-enough door, so it "is unlikely that any one really deserving the honour will be left in the cold.
As for research, it must be clearly understood by the affiliated societies and electors that this does not refer merely to research accomplished in New Zealand. All research carried on outside New Zealand, even if published long before the candidate was a member of the Institute, must count as the present regvdations stand.
Before leaving this question of the Fellowship, it cannot be too widely known both by scientific men and the general public that the letters " F.N. Z.Inst." attached to a person's name is no empty title, but that it means far more than does the degree of Doctor of Science of any University,
xxviii ., Presidential Address.
for it is a guarantee that the holder is a scientist of exceptional merit, who has prosecuted research of a high class, and usually for a long period. This degree, if I may so call it, should rank in professional circles, and in the Civil Service, equally with the highest University distinctions, which, as I have already explained, it far outstrips. As time goes on it will be as difficult to obtain as the Fellowships or Memberships, as the case may be, of British, European, or American academies.
A matter which comes up yearly for your consideration is the question of finance. Thanks to the enlightened policy of the Hon. G. W. Russell with regard to science, for some years past we have received a special grant for research — but more of this later — and at the last meeting of this Board he promised us £500 for our ordinary expenditure at once, and that he would make provision for yearly adding a similar sum to our scanty income. When the Hon. Mr. Russell resigned, his successor, the Hon. J. B. Hine, arranged that the Institute should receive the additional £500 to its income, and was most sympathetic regarding this becoming a permanency. It will lie with this meeting to see what steps it is now necessary to take in order to increase our income permanently from £500 to £1,000 per annum, and it will be necessary also to act quic^fly. Even when we reach the latter scale we shall be by no means well off. The' publications and ordinary expenses will absorb, at a low estimate, £700 yearly. There is coming before you the question of appointing a j3aid official to" assist the honorary officers of the Institute. In considering such an appointment it is clear that our other financial responsibilities must be carefully borne in mind. There have been for some years certain important bulletins on the moss flora by Mr. H. N. Dixon awaiting publication, as also others by the late Major Broun, while others, again, too lengthy for the Transactions are also in sight. At the same time, the Hon. Secretary's work has increased greatly of late, but possibly an assistant at £100 would be sufficient for this branch of our work.
A matter to come before the meeting is the election of some one for the important post of Editor. This comes about through the resignation of Dr. C. A. Cotton. No one can regret more than myself this resignation. During his long editorship Dr. Cotton has improved the annual volume to no small degree, given sound critical consideration to the papers, and, in short, has filled the difficult position most admirably.
One of the phases of our activity concerns the research grant. It is this, in part, which has added to the burdens of the Hon. Secretary. It has also directly added to our financial burden. This has come about through our inability to use any of this grant for purposes of publication, which falls upon our slender income. Time and again has the Institute published the results of non-subsidized economic research, but in the case of that which is subsidized the subsidy cannot be used to pay for publication. Cases, too, have occurred where the economic aspect of the subsidized research has been nil, but some purely scientific side-issue has emerged and been pub- lished in our Transactions. In short, except for its stimulation of research, the grant is a dead loss to the Institute. But does this grant really stimu- late research ? I doubt it greatly ; indeed, I am not sure that it is not a hindrance. For the research must have — nominally, at any rate — an economic bent. Nor is this all, but the offer conditionally of money leads to research made to order ; whereas the subject of a research should not be sought, it should come unbidden, it should be an inspiration. Then there is drawn that vicious distinction — I can call it by no lighter word —
Presidential Address. xxix
between pure and applied science. It is " applied " science to add by methods of plant-breeding one more variety to the hundreds of varieties of turnips which are in horticulture or agriculture. It is " pure " science to seek by experiment with the vilest weed, it may be, for information yet unknown, which may advance man's knowledge of heredity — an advance which well might pave the way towards highly benefiting cvilization as a whole. Yet our research grant in, its present form would encourage the turnip-breeder but not the worker in experimental genetics. Nay, this last term, if added to the application for a grant, would at once damn the application, for the final word rests not with the Institute but with the Minister. No, if we are to have a research grant which would justify the spending of public money, let it be given unconditionally. Surely a body such as the New Zealand Institute is to be trusted !
Several outside matters have occurred during the past twelve months which are of interest to the New Zealand Institute. Not the least of these is the actual launching of the Cawthron Institute, in the first place through the judgment of the Supreme Court approving, with a few trifling exceptions, the scheme drawn up for the Trustees of the estate by the Cawthron Commission ; and in the second place through the appointment of Professor Easterfield as the Director. I feel assured, gentlemen, that you will applaud the appointment of a colleague of such long standing, and will feel, as I do, that the success of the Cawthron Institute is assured. It is also satisfactory to learn that the Cawthron Institute has acquired an excellent temporary home in the City of Nelson, where its scientific operations can commence and where they can be carried on until a building worthy of the high aims of the founder be erected on the Annesbrook Estate.
Several important scientific publications are either jiow ready for the press or have appeared. There is the Hon. G. M. Thomson's work — the labour of many years — deaUng with acclimatization in New Zealand : this is completed, and has been sent to England. Mr. T. F. Cheeseman has contributed an important paper on the vascular flora of Macquarie Island as one of the reports of the Mawson Antarctic Expedition, which contains a philosophical essay on the origin of the isolated band of plants of that island — a worthy supplement to his scholarly essay in The Suhantarctic Islands of New Zealand. The first volume of the Manuals of the Board of Science and Art has just appeared, and other volumes are in contemplation by the Hon. G. M. Thomson, Dr. C. A. Cotton, and Mr. Elsdon Best. Such a series dealing with New Zealand natural history has long been wanted.
Returning to our own afiairs, an index of our Transactions from volume 40 onwards is urgently needed. If the hoped-for additional income is assured, this should be taken in hand without delay. Then there is the perennial question of the library ; but little can de done under the present circumstances. The method of printing your President's address each year may seem a small matter, but it is hardly upholding the dignity of the Institute to tuck it away in small print in the Proceedings ; still less should that position be accorded the more weighty addresses delivered at the Science Congress. Surely these presidential addresses should commence the annual volume.
Turning now to the widest matter of all which confronts us as a scientific body with scientific obligations, that matter beyond all others which con- cerns our country in common with all ptirts of the Empire — the period of reconstruction now commencing. Soon after war broke out, even in the
XXX
Presidential Address.
hour of victory, and not least at the present time, one hears preached on all sides by those in every grade of society the crying need for more science, for more and more research. This word " science " is, and has been, in the mouths of the people as never before. But if one converses with the non-scientific it quickly comes to light that the research they desire is not at all the research of the scientific man — that long painful groping for the truth which he knows but too well. To them the man of science — neglected for so long, if not despised — is now a wizard who with but a touch of his magic rod (science, the .omnipotent, ever at his beck and call) can, in the twinkling of an eye, solve any problem that is put before him. " Ask and thou shalt receive " might be the motto. On every side are the triumphs of science ; but how few indeed are aware that all date back for long years, the crowning glories of research after research — many of such researches apparently most useless, most trivial. Is the public prepared to find the wherewithal to pay for such " trivialities," or is the scientific man only to be called in at the last moment to find some economic appHcation of his previously unpaid labours ? What is the duty of the New Zealand Institute ? Is it not to get into closer touch with the people, to teach them the true meaning of science ? The scientific man in the past has been too imbending, too little concerned with those not his colleagues. Science can surely be popularized without loss of dignity. Prosperity, successful reconstruction, these depend in no minor degree on the intimate acquaintance of the men of science and their non-scientific brethren.
TRANSACTIONS.
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
Art. I. — Some New Zealand Amphipoda : No. 1.
By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., C.M.Z.S., Hon. Member Roy. Soc. N.S.W., F. N.Z.Inst. ; Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, N.Z.
[Read hefore the. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st October, 1919 ; received hy Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
During recent years many additional facts have become known with regard to the Amphipoda of New Zealand through the investigation of collections from the various Antarctic and other expeditions. As circumstances are not at present favourable for the publication of a comprehensive review of the group, it is proposed to issue, under the title given above, a series of notes briefly detailing some of the new facts, and giving references to sources where additional information can be obtained. It will be seen that frequent use has been jnade of the MS. notes and drawings and of the specimens placed in my hands by the Hon. G. M. Thomson ; in several cases these are most useful for elucidating points in connection with some of the earlier records of Amphipoda from New Zealand.
The names of authors followed by a date in parentheses refer to the list on page 8.
Leptamphopus novae-zealandiae (G. M. Thomson). Figs. 1 to 5.
Pherusa novae-zealandiae G. M. Thomson, 1879, p. 239, pi. 10 C, figs. 2, 2a-c. Pherusa neo-zelaniea G. M. Thomson and Chilton, 1886, p. 148. Panoploea dehilis G. M. Thomson, 1880, p. 3, pi. 1, fig. 3 ; G. M. Thomson and Chilton, 1886, p. 150. Acanihozone longimana (part) Delia Vaile, 1893, pp. 604, 620. Oradarea longimana Walker, 1903, p. 56, pi. 10, figs. 77-89 ; Stebbing, 1906, p. 727; Chevreux, 1906, p. 54; Walker, 190f, p. 32. Leptamphopus novae-zealandiae Stebbing, 1906, p. 294 ; Chilton,^ 1909, p. 621 ; Chilton, 1912, p. 488 ; Chevreux, 1913, p. 143.
There has been considerable confusion in connection with this species, and it seems desirable to support the synonymy given above by the following historical account.
In 1879 Mr. G. M. Thomson published his first paper dealing with New Zealand Crustacea. In it he described several new species, including Pherusa novae-zealandiae from Dunedin, of which he gave a brief descrip- tipn and figures of the whole animal, of the gnathopoda, and of the telson (1879, p. 239, pi. 10 C, fig. 2).
The only work of reference on the Amphipoda available to Mr. Thomson at that time was Spence Bate's Catalogue of the Amphipoda in the British Museum. The amount of dissection and minute examination that is necessary to distinguish between allied species was not then realized, and
1— Trans.
2 Transactions.
it will be seen from what is recorded below that Mr. Thomson's description was a composite one based on specimens belonging to more than one species.
In the next year Mr. Thomson described and figured another new species under the name Panoploea debilis, also from Dunedin Harbour, the genus Panoploea being new and including P. debilis and P. spinosa, another new species described at the same time (1880, p. 3).
In 1882 I had identified specimens collected at Lyttelton Harbour as Panoploea debilis G. M. Thomson, and later on was able to compare them with specimens from Dunedin named by Mr. Thomson and to ascertain that they were identical with his species. This species proved to be moderately common in New Zealand seas, and was long known to New Zealand workers under the name Panoploea debilis G. M. Thomson.
In 1893 Delia Valle placed the species in the genus Acanthozone as a doubtful synonym of Acanthozone longifnana (Boeck), a species which is now placed under the genus Leptamphopus, and remarked that Pherusa novae-zealandiae G. M. Thomson seemed to coincide with Panoploea debilis G. M. Thomson.
In his account of the Amphipoda Gammaridea in Das Tierreich, Stebbing (1906, p. 294) includes both Pherusa novae-zealandiae and Panoploea debilis under the name Leptamphopus novae-zealandiae (G. M. Thomson), but without making any reference to the differences in the descriptions of, the two species as given by Thomson. In 1903, before Stebbing's Das Tierreich Amphipoda was published, Mr. A. 0. Walker, in his account of the " Southern Cross " Antarctic Expedition, had described and figured a new genus and species, Oradarea longimana (1903, p. 56), and in the appendix of Das Tierreich Amphipoda Stebbing quotes this species and says of it " strangely like Leptamphopus novae-zealandiae " (1906, p. 727).
In 1906 Chevreux recorded Oradarea longimana Walker from Flanders Bay and other localities in Graham Land visited by the French Antarctic Expedition, 1903-5 (1906, p. 54).
In his account of the Amphipoda of the National Antarctic Expedition, Walker in 1907 records Oradarea longimana from Coulman Island and other localities visited by the expedition, and in a footnote referring to Stebbing's remarks points out that his species differs from Thomson's description of Pherusa novae-zealandiae '' in having only the first two pleon segments dorsally j)roduced into one tooth, instead of the two posterior segments of the mesosome and two anterior of the pleon produced into two teeth ; also in t^ie upper antennae having an appendage " (1907, p. 32).
In 1909, in the account of the Crustacea in the Snbantarctic Lslands of New Zealand, I followed Stebbing in considering Panoploea debilis to be the same as Pherusa novae-zealandiae, and recorded the species under the name Leptamphopus novae-zealandiae (G. M. Thomson), from Carnley Harbour, in Lord Auckland Islands, and after comparing it with Walker's description came to the conclusion that Oradarea longimana Walker was identical with Leptamphopus novae-zealandiae (G. M. Thomson), as Stebbing had suggested, the differences pointed out by Walker being apparently due to individual variation or to errors in the descriptions (1909, p. 621). In his account of the Amphipoda of the second French Antarctic Expedition, 1908-10, Chevreux adopted this view, referred specimens from Petermann Island to Leptamphopus novae-zealandiae (G. M. Thomson), and gave a few further particulars of the s])ecies. This species was collected by the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition at South Orkneys, and was recorded by me in the account of the Amphipoda of the expedition under the name Leptamphopus novae-zealandiae (G. M. Thomson) (1912, p. 488).
Chilton. — Some New Zealand Amphipoda. 3
Though I have all along been convinced that Stebbing was right in
combining Panoploea debilis G. M. Thomson with Pherusa novae-zealandiae
G. M. Thomson, it has been a little difficult to understand the differences
, in the descriptions of these species, and how it was that Mr. Thomson came
to describe the same form as two different species in two successive years.
In January, 1914, in the collections of the Dunedin Museum, I found a bottle labelled " Pherusa novae-zealandiae G. M. Thomson, Dunedin ; Type," in the handwriting of the late Captain Hutton, who was Curator of the Museum at the time when the species was first described, and through the kindness of Professor Benham I have been able to make an " examination of its contents. The bottle contained altogether ten speci- mens, all more or less imperfect ; seven of them are without doubt the species common in New Zealand and long known under the name PanojjJoea debilis G. M. Thomson. All of these specimens ha.ve lost their antennae except the peduncles, but the character of the gnathopoda, of the pro- jection of some of the segments into dorsal teeth, and of the uropoda and telson, leaves no doubt as to the identity of the species. Of the other three specimens, two, one of them imperfect, are small examples of Parad.exam.ine pacifica (G. M. Thomson), which have apparently been included by accident, and are of no importance in the present discussion. The remaining specimen, which is the largest of the lot, and of which the head and anterior part of the peraeon are missing, is a specimen of a different species altogether, Panoploea spinosa G. M. Thomson, which is no longer considered congeneric with Panoploea dehilis and is placed by Stebbing in a different family.
It seems evident that these specimens had been grouped together owing to the fact that in all of them some of the segments are produced posteriorly into dorsal teeth and that a portion of the original description of Pherusa novae-zealandiae had been ]3ased on the specimen of Panoploea spinosa: e.g., the statement that "two posterior segments of the pereion and two aifterior segments of the pleon produced dorsally into two teeth," and " three last pairs of pereiopoda much longer than the preceding ; their coxae with comb-like teeth on their posterior margins"; also, '"third seg- ment of pleon with the sides produced posteriorly, and ending abruptly in a serrated margin." The characters thus quoted agree well with this specimen of Panoploea spinosa, and some of them are indicated in the figure given by Thomson in describing Pherusa novae-zealandiae. These points do not show clearly in the very small figures accompanying Mr. Thomson's published paper, for " instead of lithographing the plates, the draughtsman traced them on to a large sheet, from whence they were photo-lithographed " (see Stebbing, 1888, p. 500), and in the process they were so much reduced that many of the points shown clearly in th« original drawings cannot be made out. Mr. Thomson has, however, given me the tracings of the originals, and in the tracing of the figure of the whole animal of Pherusa novae-zealandiae it is evident that the dorsal teeth, the basal joints of the posterior peraeopoda, and the hind-margin of the third pleon segment have been drawn from the specimen of Panoploea spinosa, and not from the genuine Pherusa novae-zealandiae. " The other characters have been based on the specimens really belonging to Pherusa novae-zealandiae, and the description is therefore composite, being based on more than one specimen, as is shown by the statement that the posterior margin of the third segment of the pleon " is almost smooth in young specimens," the " young specimens " being the genuine Pherusa novae-zealandiae, and quite different from the Panoploea spinosa which was confused with them.
1*
4 Transactions.
It is therefore evident that Panoploea debilis (G. M. Thomson) is indeed the same as Pherusa novae-zealandiae G. M. Thomson, but was thought to be different owing to the errors in the original description and figures ; and that the differences pointed out by , Walker between his Orudarea longimana and the description of Pherusa novae-z^alandiae are due to the fact that the original description was based on the examination and confusion of two different species.
The history of this species has perhaps been detailed at tedious length, but it is interesting as another example of the necessity of examining type specimens, whenever they are available, in order to settle disputed points, instead of trusting too greatly to published descriptions and figures and relying too much upon their accuracy.
The exact generic position of this species is a little doubtful, owing to the fact that in the group to which it belongs there are so many genera much alike and distinguished by characters which are perhaps not all of generic importance. It will be seen that the species was first placed under Pherusa, then under Panoploea, next under Acanthozone, then under Oradarea (a genus specially created for it), and finally under Leptamphopus. In Das Tierreich Amphipoda there is only one other species, L. longimana (Boeck), placed in this genus, and that was originally described by Boeck under the genus Amphithopsis.
If we compare the species under consideration with the generic characters of Leptamphopus as given by Stebbing (1906, p. 293) it is found to agree in most points. The first point mentioned, however, " Body not acutely dentate," requires some modification, for in this species the last segment of the peraeon and the first two of the pleon are dentate ; again, in the generic characters it is stated that there is no accessory flagellum, though Walker describes and figures one in the specimens of this species obtained from Cape Adare, and his observation is confirmed by Chevreux, and there is certainly a minute accessory flagellum in a specimen in my collection collected at the Softth Orkneys by the " Scotia " Expedition. On the other hand, there is none in the New Zealand specimens nor in the northern species L. longimanus (Boeck). In the mouth parts there is nothing that appears to me specially charac- teristic of the genus, which seems best recognized by the long slender gnathopoda and the entire telson. Most of the characters of Leptamphoptcs are the same as those of Djerboa Chevreux, but in that genus the telson is deepty cleft.
The following brief description will be sufficient to distinguish L. novae- zealandiae from the northern species, L. longimanus : —
Back rounded, peraeon segment 7 and pleon segments 1 and 2 each produced postpriorly into a dorsal tooth. Antennae subequal, slender, about as long as body. Antenna 1 with second joint of peduncle produced on each side into a short subacute lobe, a minute accessory appendage present in Antarctic specimens but not in those from New Zealand. Gnathopod 1 with carpus and propod subequal, narrow-oblong, palm short, oblicpie. Gnathopod 2 much longer and more slender, carpus and propod elongate, linear, with small tufts of setae on their posterior margins, propod longer than the carpus, palm short, oblique. IJropods 1 and 2 with outer brancli much shorter than the inner; uropod 3 with basal joint acutely produced on inner side, outer branch not much shorter than inner, both lanceolate, slightly flattened and broader than in uropods 1 and 2, inner branch with an elevation or ridge on its upper surface near the inner margin. Telson tapering slightly, extremity broadly rounded or truncate, sometimes a little irregular, and with one or two minute setae.
Chilton. — Some New Zealand Am'phipoda .
Length of New Zealand specimens, about 9 mm. ; Antarctic specimens, up][to 12 mm. or more.
Colour greyish or light-brown, made up of dark dots or stellate markings.
Distribution : New Zealand (Dunedin Harbour, Lyttelton, Akaroa, &c.) ; Cape Adare ; Coulman Island ; McMurdo Strait ; Petermann Island ; Flanders Bay ; Port Charcot ; Orkney Islands : probably circumaustral.
Leptamphopiis novae-zealayidiae. 'J
Fig. 1. — Fir§t gnathopod. Fig. 3. — First uropod.
Fig. 2. — Second gnathopod. FiG. 4. — Second uropod.
Fig. 5. — Third uropod and tekon, showing ridge on inner branch of the third uroi^od.
This species very closely resembles P. longimanus (Boeck), a species found in the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans, the chief difference being that in P. longimana no segment of the body is produced into teeth.
The Antarctic specimens appear to differ constantly from those occur- ring in New Zealand in the presence of a minute accessory appendage on the upper antenna. Both Walker and Chrevreux remark on the variation in the dorsal teeth of the body-segments in Antarctic specimens of different sizes ; all the mature New Zealand specimens seem to agree in having the last peraeon and first two pleon segments produced into teeth.
I 6 Transactions.
»
As I have previously suggested (1909, p. 621), the small side lobes at the end of the second basal joint of the upper antenna, which were first noticed bv Walker, appear to be for the support of the rest of the antenna, allowing it to move freely in a vertical plane but not from side to side. In a similar way there is a slight hollow or depression on the upper surface of the inner branch of uropod 3 formed on the outer side of the ridge mentioned above, and into this the outer branch fits closely when it is not in use (see fig. 5). Analogous structures will probably be found in other Amphipoda of similar habits.
Ampelisca eschrichtii (Kroyer).
Ampelisca eschrichtii Chilton, 1917, p. 75.
In the Index Faunae Zealandiae two species of Afupelisca are put down as found in New Zealand, A. chiltoni and A. acinaces, both described by Stebbing in the report on the " Challenger " Amphipoda. In the paper quoted above I attempt to show that these are only forms, of the species long known in Arctic seas as A. eschrichtii Kroyer, and that A. macrocephala Liljeborg should also be' considered as belonging to this species. The species is widely distributed both in Arctic and in Antarctic seas, where it may attain a length of 34 mm. In intermediate seas it is represented by forms of smaller size^ in which the distinctive characters of the species are less evident.
Urothoides lachneessa (Stebbing).
Urothoe lachneessa Stebbing, 1888, p. 825, pi. 57. Urothoides lach- neessa Stebbing, 1906, p. 132.
This species was described from specimens obtained from Kerguelen Island by the "Challenger "' Expedition. I have a specimen, washed on to the shore of Stewart Island and sent to me by Mr. Walter Traill, that I feel confident belongs to the same species. The specimen had been dried and somewhat shrivelled, but by mounting it in dissected form sufficient of the appendages can be made out to render the identification pretty certain. The first and second gnathopods, agree closely with Stebbing's figure except that in the first the propod is narrower. The first, second, and third peraeopods are also closely similar. The fourth and fifth cannot be distinctly made out, but appear to agree except in having fewer setae. One of the uropods also can be seen to agree with Stebbing's figure.
This appears to be the first specimen that has been seen since the original ones were taken by the "Challenger."'
Parapherusa crassipes (Haswell).
Harmonia crassipes Haswell, 1879, ]). 330, pi. 19, fig. 3. Parapherusa
crassipes Stebbing, 1906, p. 383 ; Chilton, 1916, p. 199, pis. 8-10.
This is a species widely distributed in Australia and New Zealand, and
for some time there was an uncertainty as to its systematic position. It
seems, however, rightly placed under the genus Parapherusa in the family
Gammaridae, to which it was assigned by Stebbing. A full account of its
external structure and of the marked sexual dift'erences is given in the last
of the references quoted above.
Eurystheus haswelli (G. M. Thomson).
Maera haswelli G. M. Thomson, 1897, p. 449, pi. 10, figs. 6-10.
Wyvillea haswelli Stebbing, 1899, p. 350, and 1906, p. 648.
In Mr. Thomson's collection are two im])erfect specimens labelled
" Maera haswelli G. M. T., Bay of Islands, 8 fathoms," which are y^resum-
ably co-types of his species. These are identical with specimens from
Chilton. — Some Neiv Zealand Amphijjoda. 7
Akaroa and Lyttelton obtained years ago, and provisionally labelled as an undescribed species of Eurystheus. Stebbing in 1899 placed the species under Wyvillea, a genus of doubtful validity, and retained it in the same position in 1906. The species is, however, quite evidently a Eurystheus, and comes near to E. dentifer (Haswell) ; the third side plate in the male is produced anteriorly below that of the second gnathopod in the same way as described for Paranaenia typica Chilton (1884, p. 259), a species which Stebbing considers a synonym of Eurystheus dentifer (Haswell).
In addition to the Bay of Islands specimens I have others of E. haswelli from Lyttelton ; Akaroa ; Longbeach, near Otago Harbour ; Stewart Island ; Chatham Islands ; and also one from Port Jackson, New South Wales, sent to me in 1918 by Professor W. A. Haswell.
Eurystheus crassipes (Haswell).
Maera crassipes Haswell, 1880, p. 103, pi. 7, fig. '2. Eurystheus crassipes Stebbing, 1906, p. 612. I have specimens from Wellington and Auckland Harbours that evi- dently belong to this' species, which was described from Port Jackson and Jervis Bay in Australia by Haswell ; it is well characterized by the large size and breadth of the fourth peraeopod, and has rightly been placed in Eurystheus b}^ Stebbing. The species has not hitherto been recorded from New Zealand.
Eurystheus chiltoni (G. M. Thomson).
Maera chiUoni G. M. Thomson, 1897, p. 447, pi. 10, figs. 1-5. Eurys- theus chiltoni Stebbing, 1906, p. 617. Eurystheus longicornis Walker, 1907, p. 35, pi. 12, fig. 21. This species was described by Mr. Thomson from specimens dredged in the Bay of Islands. I have a specimen from Mokohinou, found by Mx. C. R. Gow on seaweed at a depth of 25 fathoms. I think there is no doubt that E. longicornis (Walker) is the same species ; the descriptions agree generally, and the drawing given by Walker of the second gnathopod of the male agrees well with my specimen from Mokohinou and also with co-types of Mr. Thomson's species which I have been able to examine. Walker's specimens were collected at the winter cpiarters of the " Discovery " in McMurdo Strait during the National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4.
Eurystheus dentatus (Chevreux). Gammaropsis dentata Chevreux. 1900, p. 93, pi. 12, fig. 1. Eurys- theus afer Chilton, 1912, p. 510, pi. ii, figs. 30-34. I have a few specimens of Eurystheus that I have had some dif&culty in identifj'ing. I find, however, in the better -developed specimens that the lower margin of the first side plate is distinctly dentate, as described and figured by Chevreux for the species named above, and the general agree- ment in other characters shows that they must be referred to that species. In the New Zealand specimens, both in the male and the female, the gnathopoda are more elongated and slender than those figured by Chev- reux, but in others from the Kermadec Islands which seem to be otherwise the same the gnathopoda are stoutei/ and like those of Chevreux' speci- mens. The New Zealand specimens are certainly the same as those from Gough Island collected by the " Scotia " Expedition that I referred with much hesitation to E. afer Stebbing in 1912, and in two the merus of one or more of the last three pairs of peraeopoda is expanded in the same way ■ as it is in one of the Gough Island specimens, though not c[uite to the same extent.
8 Transactions.
The terminal segments of the pleon are dentate as in E. thomsoni Stebbing, to which I was at first inclined to refer my specimens, and, indeed, the two species may possibly prove to be identical ; in the meantime, however, I have not been able to satisfy myself on this point.
Chevreux' specimens were from the Azores. It should be remembered that another, quite different, species from Alaska was described under the same name b}^ Holmes in 1908 ; for this Stebbing has suggested the name alaskensis (1910, p. 613).
The specimens that I refer to E. dentatus (Chevreux) are from Cook Strait ; off Cape Saunders ; Stewart Island ; and the Kermadec Islands. If I am correct in my identifications, it is also found at Gough Island and at the Azores.
Paracorophium excavatum (G. M. Thomson). CorojjJiium excavdtum G. M. Thomson, 1884, p. 236, pi. 12, figs. 1-8. Paracorophium excavatum Stebbing, 1906, p. 664 ; Chilton, 1906, p. 704.
This species was described by Mr. Thomson from specimens taken in Brighton Creek, near Dunedin. Since then it has been found in several localities around the New Zealand coast where the water is more or less brackish, and also in the fresh-water lake Rotoiti, in Auckland. In 1918 some amphipods were sent me from brackish water in Brisbane River, Queensland, where they had been collected, along with the destructive wood-boring isopod Sphaeroma terebrans Bate, by Dr. T. Harvey Johnston, and these prove to belong to the same species. The males are distinguished from the females by a lobe on the end of the penultimate joint of the peduncle of the lower antenna, and by a differently shaped second gnathopod. The form originally figured by Thomson is an immature male. I have redescribed the species and given an account of the development of the sexual characters in a paper which will shortly be published in the Queensland Museum Memoirs, vol. vii.
The occurrence of the species in brackish waters in New Zealand and also in northern Australia is of considerable interest.
List of Authors quoted.
Chevreux, E., 1900. Res. Campagnes scientifiques par Albert i'''' de Monaco, Fasc. 16.
1906. Exped. Antarr.t. franraise, 1903-5, Amphipodes-
■ 1913. Deuxieme Exped. Antarct. francaise, Amphipodes.
Chilton, C, 1884. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol.' 16, p. 259.
— - 1906. P.Z.S., 1906, pp. 702-5.
1909. Subant. Islands N.Z., Crustacea, pp. 601-71.
1912. AmphiiJ. Scottish Nat. Antarct. Exped., Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.. vol. 48,
pp. 455-519. 1916. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, vol. IS, p. 199.
1917. Jour. Zool. Research, vol.' 2, p. 75.
Dell A Valle, A., 189.'}. Faxma u. Flora Goljes von Neapel, Monogr. 20, Qammarinu Haswell, W. a., 1879. Rroc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 4, pp. 319-50.
1880. Loc. cit., vol. 5, p. 103.
Stebbing, T. R. R., 1888. Rep. " Challenger " Amphipoda. 1899. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. 3, ]). 350.
-- 1906. Das Tierreich Antphipoda.
1910. "Thetis" Amphipoda, Mem. Austral. Mus., iv, pp. 567-658.
Thomson, G. M., 1879. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 11, pp. 231-48.
1880. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. 6, pp. 1-6.
1897. Loc. cit., 'ser. 6, vol. 20, pp. 446-51.
Thomson, G. M., and Chilton, C, 1886. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, pp. 141-59. Walker, A. O., 1903. "Southern Cross" Amphipoda, Jo%ir, Linn. Soe., vol. 29,
pp. 37-64. 1907. Amphipoda, Nat. Antarct. Exped., 1901-4. vol. 3, pp. 1-39.
Chbeseman. — Contributions to Knowledge of Flora of N.Z.
Art. II. — Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge oj the Flora oj New
Zealand: No. 7,
By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z:S., F.N.Z.Inst., Curator of the
Auckland Museum.
{Read before the Auckland Institute, 22nd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 4th June, 1920-]
Colobanthus Muelleri T. Kirk.
Dry ground near the verge of sea-cliffs, Manaia, Taranaki ; Mrs. F. Mason! I am nbt aware of a more northern locality on the western side of the North Island.
Plagianthus cymosus T. Kirk.
Mr. Phillips Turner informs me that this species occurs in the valley of the McLennan River, a branch of the Tahakopa River, which flows into the sea about twenty miles south of Catlin's River, Otago. The locality is not far from the sea, and it would be interesting to ascertain whether both P. betulinus and P. divaricatus are to be found in the vicinity. In the Illustrations of the New Zealand Flora (vol. 1, pi. 21) I have hinted at the probable hybrid origin of the plant.
Gunnera arenaria Cheesm.
Moist sandy places on the coast near Manaia, Taranaki ; / Mrs. F. Mason/ Not previously recorded between New Plymouth and Patea, but probably always to be found in damp places on sand-dunes of any extent.
Eugenia maire A. Cunn,
So far as I am aware, no one has recorded the presence of pneumato- phores in Eugenia maire. They were first brought to my notice by Mr. Colin Stewart, late of Mangatai, Mokau, who supposed that they were connected with the remarkable floating roots of Freycinetia Banksii, mentioned farther on in this paper. The mistake is a very natural one to make in a wooded swamp, where the roots of both species are almost inextricably mixed. As Eugenia is plentiful jn swampy gullies at Birk- dale, near Auckland, I induced Mr. F. S. Fisher, a resident in the locality, to make a careful seaix'h, which resulted in proving that the pneumato- phores were abundant in most suitable localities. At a later date I visited the district under Mr. Fisher's guidance, and was able to prepare the following notes.
The pneumatophores of Eugenia maire rise from the ordinary roots of the tree, and reach a height of 9 in. to 18 in. above the level of the ground. They are about |- in. in diameter at the surface of the ground, seldom more, and are rigidly erect, and usually fasciculately branched. The ultimate shoots are ^— | in. in diameter, cylindric, faintly constricted here and there. They somewhat resemble the branches of Salicornia in
10 Transactions.
appearance, but are not jointed, and are much more stiffly erect. Thev are obtuse and frequently swollen at the tip, spongy or corky, but are* always furnished witli a hard woody central axis. The young and growing part of the pneumatophore is usually coloured a reddish pink. When old and apparently ceasing to perform its duties as an air-breather the outside layers die, ' and are thrown off in thin whitish flakes. No pneumatophores were noticed bearing leaves ; but many of them give off thin slender shoots which turn downwards at an acute angle and, entering the ground, assume the appearance of true roots. The contrast between the stiffly erect true pneumatophores and the thinner branches all turning sharply downwards is very remarkable. It is much to be desired that some one would work out the anatomical peculiarities of these curious structures.
Aciphylla Cuthbertiana Petrie.
I have to thank 31 r. James Speden, of Gore, for an excellent suite of specimens of this distinct species, collected on The Hump, near Lake Hauroko, at an elevation of about 3,000 ft.
Coxella Dieffenbachii Cheesem.
Mr. E. R. Chudleigh informs me that until comparatively recent years Coxella. was fairly abundant on the north-east to north-west slopes of Cape Young (Mairangi), on the north side of Chatham Island, and may still linger there. Originally the plant was more or less abundant on the whole of the cliffs of the northern side, but has been destroyed by sheej) in all localities to which they can gain access.
Angelica rosaefolia Hook.
Sea-cliffs near Manaia, Taranaki ; Mrs. F. Mason ! Not previously recorded anywhere on the coast-line south of New Plymouth.
Panax Edgerleyi Hook. f. ■ '
I am indebted to Mr. \V . Martin, of Christchurch, for a specimen of this, gathered in forest at Akaroa. It is not mentioned in Mr. Laing's valuable paper on the '' Vegetation of Banks Peninsula," nor in the earlier lists of Raoul and Armstrong. At the same time, considering its distri- bution elsewhere in New Zealand, it is precisely one of those species that might be reasonably expected to occur.
Gnaphalium Lyallii Hook. f.
Damp places on sea-cliffs near Manaia, Taranaki ; Mrs. F. Mason! As this handsome plant has been gathered northwards at Opunake by the late Mr. T. Kirk, and to the south at Waingongor© by Dr. Cockayne, we may assume that it is probably abundant on the Taranaki sea-coast to the south of Cape Egmont.
Cotula coronopifolia Linn,
Var. integrifoUa T. Kirk is certainly nothing more than a starved diminutive form. On the railway reclamations on the foreshore of Auck- land Harbour it has appeared in immense abundance during the last two or three years, chiefly in places where water has stagnated in winter or
Cheesbmak.— Conf776w^?'ons fo Knoivhdge of Flora of N.Z. 11
spring. The ordinary f6rm of the sj)ecies, which is abundant in the same Icoalit)^ when growing in good soil and plentifully supplied with moisture has numerous branching stems, creeping below but ascending at the tips, and has an average height of from 5 in. to 10 in. From that it passes imperceptibly into much smaller states, in which the stems are unbranched, the leaves linear and entire, and the flower-heads much smaller and solitary, thus constituting the so-called variety. When seeds are abundantly pro- duced, and the surrounding area is unoccupied, multitudes of seedlings appear, so closely packed and so reduced in size as to resemble patches of moss when seen from a little distance. The individual stems, in such cases, are often not more than | in. in height, bearing 2 or 3 minute leaves, and with a solitary flower 1 mm. in diameter. A patch of these seedlings, measuring 2 in. by IJin., contained no fewer than 313 separate plants, the tallest of which was under 1 in. in height. Another piece, cut out of a patch some yards in extent, and measuring 1-| in. by 1 in., contained 213 separate plants. A yard square, if covered in a similar manner — and several such instances were observed — would contain at least half a million plants.
Dracophyllum Townsoni Cheesem,
3Ir. James Sjjeden, of Gore, sends me specimens of this, gathered at an elevation of 3,000 ft. on The Hump, near Lake Hauroko. Mr. Speden informs me that he frequently observed leaves over 2 ft. in length, thus equalling those of D. latifolium and D. Traversii. None of the specimens of D. Townsoni sent to me by its discoverer has leaves much over 12 in., but Mr. Townson informs me that possibly small specimens were selected for convenience of carriage. Mr. Speden's plant has the peculiar decurved lateral panicle of D. Townsoni, but he saw no branched specimens.
Solanum aviculare Forst. var. albiflora Cheesem. n. var.
It has long been known that although this species ordinarily produces purplish flowers, yet occasionally white-flowered specimens are seen ; but no one seems to have observed that in such cases the colour of the stems and of the veins of the leaves is also affected. As far back as 1880 I noticed that in white-flowered sjDecimens observed by myself at Buckland the aspect of the plant was somewhat different from that of the purple-flowered variety ; and at various times since then the same thought has occurred to me, but I failed to carry the inquiry any further. Early in 1915, however, Mr. W. Townson observed that the white-flowered variety was by no means rare near Pukekohe (Auckland District), and was induced to pay a little attention to it. He ascertained that not even one single white flower is ever produced on a purple-flowered plant. He also established the fact that on a white-flowered plant the leaves are pale green, and much thinner and more delicate in texture, so that the whole plant has a more slender and graceful appearance ; and the stems and veins of the leaves are pale-greenish or yellowish-green. On the other hand, the plants with purple flowers have coarser leaves, and the veins of the leaves and the stems are purplish or brownish-purple.
Mr. James Graham, 'of Patumahoe, has also investigated the matter. He informs me that, having noticed several plants Nyitli white flowers on the earthworks of the Waiuku railway, he collected a number of seeds f.nd had them sown in the Patumahoe School garden. About thirty plants
12 Transactions.
were raised, all of which have the thin leaves and yellowish veins of the white-flowered variety. All the plants that have flowered up to the present time have borne white flowers. The facts thus collected by Mr. Townson and Mr. Graham may be taken as a satisfactory proof that the white - flowered plant constitutes a stable variety, "coming true" from seed, and well worth distinguishing by a varietal name.
Atriplex Billardieri Hook. f.
Sandy shores of Matakana Island, between Tauranga and Katikati ; a few plants only ; T. F. C. This plant is singularly rare, and is seldom seen in any quantity. I am not aware that it has been gathered in any locality on the western side of either the North or the South Island.
Pimelea Gnidia Willd.
Mr. W . Townson has forwarded specimens gathered on the summit of a lofty hill between the Kauaeranga River and the Hihi Stream, Thames. This is at least 150 miles from the nearest part of the Ruahine Mountains, the most northerly locality previously known.
Tupeia antarctica Cham. & Schl.
I am indebted to Mr. B. E. Sixtus, of Umutai, on the western flanks of the Ruahine Range, for specimens of this, parasitic on Olea Cunrmig- hamii, which is quite a new host so far as my own knowledge is concerned.
Dactylanthus Taylori Hook. f. '
Mr. W. Townson, so well known from his fruitful botanical explora- tion of the Westport district, but now resident at the Thames, has been fortunate enough to discover this remarkable plant in great abundance in the elevated forest district lying north-east from the town of Thames. So far as I can judge, this is a continuation of the locality where it was observed by the late Mr. T. Kirk in April, 1869 (see Trans. N.Z. hist., vol. 2, pp. 94-95). Mr. Townson informs me that it can be observed for several miles along what is known as " Crosby's Track," and that he is acquainted with at least six separate stations. In all cases the host was Scheffiera digitata, as is usual in the northern portion of the Auckland Provincial District. The rhizome attains a considerable size, the largest seen weighing over 6 lb. As the result of the examination of very numerous specimens Mr. Townson has definitely proved that the mature plant is monoecious, the male and female spadices being produced on the same rhizome, and often side by side. The male spadices, however, are the more numerous. All observers have pronounced the flowers to be highly fragrant, but dis- agree as to the nature of the perfume. Mr. Townson states that it resembles that of a "ripe rock-melon," but he also says that "like many perfumes, it may also pass into a bad smell wlien too concentrated." He also remarks that on one occasion he " kept a large rhizome for a considerable time in a back room, where it gradually expanded its flowers. The scent was so attractive to flies that all day long it was surrounded by a little crowd of them." No doubt this points to the fertilization of the plant through insect agency. The flowering season appears to last, at the Thames, from the middle of March to the middle of April.
Cheeseman. — Contributions to Knowledgt of Flora of N .Z . 13
Urtica ferox Forst.
Mr. T. H. Trevor has discovered another locality for this sjiecies in the Bay of Islands County, a few miles distant from the Ngamahanga wahi-tapu mentioned in my last contribution to this series {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 89). This makes it probable that the plant may be observed in other stations north of Auckland. For a new southern locality I am indebted to Mr. A. Allison, who informs me that it is not uncommon at the base of the Paeroa Range, between Waiotapu and Orakei-korako.
Freycinetia Banksii A. Cunn.
1 am not aware that any one has recorded the presence of curious floating roots in Freycinetia Banksii. My first acquaintance with them was derived from a fragment forwarded by Mr. B. C. Aston last February, which was collected by Mr. Sidney Fry in the Totara Creek, a small tributary of the Mokau River, junctioning with it about eighteen miles above its mouth. This fragment presented several unusual features, and I was consequently glad to avail myself of the kind assistance of Mr. Colin Stewart, at that time residing in the locality, for obtaining a copious supply of specimens. These consisted of slender roots, often several feet in length, in which the central axis is firm and solid, but the cortical tissue very loose and open. These roots are copiously branched, the ultimate divisions being very numerous and filiform. The outstanding peculiarity of the roots, however, which at once attracts attention, is that they are regularly girdled, as it were, with conspicuous spongy or corky whitish rings. These give the roots a very remarkable appearance, so that Mr. Fry, their original discoverer, describes them as " wavina; about with the disturbing currents like so manv worms, their brown segmented forms, with the whitish sheaths encircling them at intervals, giving them the appearance of ringed worms."
Mr. Colin Stewart, in endeavouring to find the origin of the roots, con- sidered that he had traced them to a tree \^hich I have identified as Eugenia maire, the branches, leaves, and pneumatophores of which he sent. But this I believe to be a very pardonable mistake. A lengthened search at Birkdale, in a swampy district where both Eugenia and Freycinetia are abundant, and in which I had the assistance of Mr. F. S. Fisher and ]Mr. John Bishop, resulted in showing that while it was comparatively easy to connect the floating roots with Freycinetia, and the pneumatophores with Eugenia, all attempts to trace the floating roojs to Eugenia failed.
The exact use of these " floating roots " in Freycinetia must remain doubtful until their anatomical structure has been investigated, but in all probability they may be looked upon as " breathing-roots."
Juncus scheuchzerioides Gaud.
This is one of the species added to the florula of Macquarie Island by Mr. H. Hamilton, during the stay of a portion of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition on that island during the years 1911-13. It is a true circum- polar plant, having been recorded from the Auckland and Campbell Islands, Antipodes Islands, Fuegia, Falkland Islands, South Georgia, the Crozets>. and Kerguelen Islands.
14 Transactions.
Scirpus aucklandicus Boeck.
This also has been collected on Macquarie Island for the first time b}' Mr. H. Hamilton. Its existence thereon might have been safely predicted, seeing that it is the most common species of the genus on the islands to the south of New Zealand. It has also been recorded from Tasmania and from the isolated Amsterdam Island, but both these localities require fuller confirmation.
Carex trifida Cav.
Fringing swamp-holes on flats at West Point, Macquarie Island ; H. Hamilton ! Apparently not common, for Mr. Hamilton remarks on his labels that it was seen only in the locality quoted above. The geographical distribution of the species is given in the Manual.
Triodia macquariensis Cheesem.
" Apparently perennial, tufted, often forming dense patches, smooth and glabrous. Culms numerous, erect or geniculate at the base, 6-12 cm. long, leafy to the base of the panicle. Leaves equalling the culms or longer than them, rather narrow, 1-2 mm. broad, deeply striate, quite glabrous, flat or involute, margins thickened, tips obtuse, callous ; ligules broad ovate, thin and membranous ; sheaths unusually long, much broader than the blades, sometimes as much as 5 mm. across, smooth, pale, and mem- branous. Panicle narrow, glabrous, 2-3 cm. long ; branches few, short, erect. Spikelets 6-15, 3-5-flowered, 6-7 mm. long, the lowest flower sessile at the base of the spikelet, the upper usually remote from one another. Empty glumes unequal, the lower half to two-thirds the length of the upper, glabrous, oblong, obtuse, 3-nerved. Flowering-glumes ovate or broadly ovate-oblong, rounded at the back, not keeled, 5-nerved, glabrous or very faintly pubescent on the nerves, minutely 3-toothed at the tip or irregularly erose. Palea broad, 2-keeled, the keels ciliolate. Lodicules 2, acute.
" Hah. — Macq.uarie Island, rocks and cliffs near the coast ; H. Hamil- ton ! (1912-13).
" Mr. Hamilton remarks that this is a common coastal grass, found in crevices in bare rock or on the cliffs. Some of his specimens are plentifully mixed with Tillaea moschata or Colobanthiis muscoides, both plants common in littoral situations. Scraps of Callitriche antarctica are also present. Its discovery adds another species to the list of those endemic in Macquarie Island, of which three species are now known — Deschampsia penicillata, Poa Hamiltoni, and Triodia macquariensis. I have found it a puzzling plant to place. It differs from Poa principally in the flowering-glumes being rounded on the back, and minutely 3-toothed (or irregularly erose) at the tip. It agrees with Atropis in the flowering-glumes being rounded on the back, but differs in habit, and in the 3-toothed tip of the flowering-glume. Although not a typical Triodia, it must be kept in the vicinity of the New Zealand T. australis."
The above has appeared in my memoir on " The Vascular Flora of Macquarie Island," published in the Scientific Rep)orts of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. I reproduce it here to draw fuller attention to the species, which may occur in the islands to the south of New Zealand.
Festuca erecta D'Urville.
Macquarie Island, not uncommon on rocks near the sea ; Dr. Scott, A. Hamilton! H. Hamilton! This is the plant described as a new specie^
Cheeseman. — Contributions to Knowledge of Flora of N.Z. 15
by Mr. T. Kirk, under the name of F. contracta {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 27, p. 353). Kirk had only two very indifferent specimens to deal with ; but, fortunately, Mr. H. Hamilton secured a fair number of specimens. An examination of these proved that the plant was either very closely allied to the Fuegian and Kerguelen Festuca erecta D'Urvillei or positively iden- tical with it. There being no authenticated specimens of F. erecta in New Zealand, I applied to Dr. Stapf, of the Kew Herbarium, with the view of having a comparison made. This he has kindly done, with the result of proving that the Macquarie Island plant is identical with F. erecta. This is practically a circumpolar species, having been recorded from Fuegia, Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and Kerguelen Island.
Cyathea medullaris Swartz.
1 am not aware that any actual measurements of the height of this species have been published. In books it is usually given as " from 10 ft. to 40 ft. high," but it certainly attains a much greater height. With the view of putting some definite information on record, I induced Mr. E. Le Roy to measure the height of two fine specimens growing in a ravine on his property at Birkenhead, He informs me that the smaller of the two is 39 ft. to the crown ; the other one being 46 ft. to the crown, and 50 ft. to the top of the fronds. As I have seen taller specimens, we can safely conclude that it occasionally reaches between 60 ft. and 65 ft, in height.
Dicksonia squarrosa Swartz.
Mr. Le Roy has also been kind enough to measure the height of two specimens of Dicksonia squarrosa. The higher one measured 23 ft. 8 in. to the crown, and 27 ft. to the top of the fronds ; the other proved to be 19 ft. 6 in. to the crown, and 21 ft. to the top of the fronds.
Nothochlaena distans R. Br.
The late Mr. H C. Field, in his book, Ferns of New Zealand (p. 88, and pi. xxviii, fig. 4), alludes to a supposed new Cheilanthes collected by Mr. A. C. Purdie near Dunedin. The description given is inconclusive, and the figure does not show sufficient detail to enable the generic position of -the plant to be made out. In default of any specimens I consequently did not allude to it in the Manual.
Rather more than a year ago, however. Professor A. Wall forwarded a specimen of a fern collected in clefts in basaltic rocks at Diamond Harbour, a bay of Port Lyttelton, suggesting that it might prove to be Mr. Field's plant. In this view I concurred, but as the specimen showed no signs of sori it was impossible to fix its systematic position. Professor Wall has now forwarded an ample series of specimens in all stages, proving, as he says, that the plant is only a shade form of Nothochlaena distans. It usually occurred in deep crevices entirely shaded from the sun, and is consequently not so rigid nor so well covered with linear scales as the typical state, which .is frequently seen in dry situations in the Auckland lava-fields. In the ramification of the frond, and in the position and character of the sori, the two plants are practically identical.
Naturalized Plants.
Eschscholtzia californica Cham.
This plant, which is sparingly naturalized as a garden escape, appears to be poisonous to stock, judging frojn the following particulars sup- plied to me by Mr. T. H. Trevor, of Pakaraka, Bay of Islands. He
16 Transactions.
removed the fence from an abandoned garden, exposing a few plants of the Eschscholtzia. A bull running in the paddock ate a few leaves and was seriously affected, but ultimately recovered. The plants were then grubbed up and destroyed, and no further symptoms were noticed among the cattle. Unfortunately, it was not observed that a large numbei of seedlings had appeared in the neighbourhood of the old plants, so that when a number of lambs were placed in the paddock they were at once affected, half a dozen dying within an hour. At first they appeared to be silly, then lost the use of their limbs, and died frothing at the mouth.
Psoralea pinnata Linn.
Mr. R. Waters sends me specimens of this from the neighbourhood of Dargaville, where it is said to be spreading fast. I have also observed it by roadsides at Birkdale, near Auckland. The only previous record is Waipvi (see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 8).
Chrysanthemum coronarium Linn.
This well-known garden-plant has appeared as an escape from cultiva- tion in several localities near Auckland. It has also established itself on the railway reclamations along the side of Auckland Harbour. It is a common plant in the Mediterranean region, extending southwards to the Azores, and has often appeared as a naturalized plant in Britain.^
Senecio spathulatus A. Rich.
This species, which is allied to the New Zealand S. lautus Forst., has appeared in great quantities on the Harbour Board and railway reclama- tions fringing Auckland Harbour, and is fast making its way into waste places within the City of Auckland itself. It has probably been accident- ally introduced from Australia, where it is known from several localities, and particularly from "sandy shores in Port Jackson" (Sydney Harbour). I am indebted to Dr. Maiden, of the Sydney Botanical Gardens, for asking his assistant, Mr. Cheel, to make a special report on my specimens of the plant, with which I have been somewhat puzzled. He informs me that, although it comes under the circumscription of *S. spathulatus as defined by Mr. Bentham in the Flora Australiensis, all the New South Wales specimens, as well as all my own, have pubescent achenes and 2-nerved involucral bracts, thus agreeing with the description of S. anacampserotis DC, and differing from the type description of S. spathulatus, which is said to have the fruit "linearis striatus' gkiber." Mr. Cheel considers it to be an open question whether S. anacampserotis should not be re-established as a species.
J uncus acutiflorus Ehr.
Moist gullies at Pukeatua, "West Taupo County ; D. Petrie ! I am indebted to Mr. Petrie for specimens of this species, which has not been previously noticed as introduced into New Zealand. I understand that the specimens were identified by Dr. Stapf, of the Kew Herbarium,
Festuca fallax Thuill. and F. dura Host.
I have also to thank Mr. Petrie for specimens of these two plants, which have been identified by Dr. Stapf under the names given above — in the case of the second one with some little doubt. In a broad sense they would doubtless be treated as forms of the widespread F. rubra Linn.
Petrie. — Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants. 17
Art. Ill — Descriptions of New Native Flotvering-plants.
By D. Petrie, M.A., Pli.D., F.N.Z.Inst.
[Read before the AncHand Institute, 22nd Decemher, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
Pittosporum Matthewsii sp. nov.
Planta P. virgatae T. Kirk affinis ; differt foliis confertis, maturis lineari- oblongis subacutis glabris a marginibus undulatis ; capsulis longioribus subacute obovatis, ± 1-8 cm. longis, circa 1cm. latis, valvis duabus nee canaliculatis nee latere depressis atris undique lacunosis.
A small compactly branched tree, 20-25 ft. high, with black bark.
Juvenile state : Branches and twigs slender, the latter closely covered with greyish-white pubescence ; leaves rather closely placed, patent, narrow- linear, + 2 cm. long, i 2 mm. wide, subacute entire or slightly waved at the margins, glabrous or nearly so, little coriaceous, somewhat recurved at the edges when dried, midrib evident below, rather obscure above, the upper surface dark green and polished, paler below ; very young leaves brownish-green and more or less closely clothed with white semipubescent hairs ; petioles very short *and slender.
Mature state : Twigs more or less closely scarred by the bases of the fallen leaves ; leaves rather closely placed, linear-oblong or narrow obovate- oblong, + 4 cm. long, 5-8 mm. wide, subacute, glabrous except the sub- floral which are closely covered with brownish-yellow tomentum, moderately coriaceous, entire, flat or more or less wavy at the margins (rarely obscurely sinuate-dentate near the tips), the lower surface paler with conspicuous dark-red midrib and veins, above more or less polished with midrib obscure and veins obsolete, edges slightly recurved when dried ; petioles very short and slender.
Flowers terminal, solitary or in compact umbels of 6 or fewer, rather small, + 7 mm. long ; peduncles not longer than the flowers, densely clothed, as are also the sepals, with brownish-yellow tomentum ; sepals linear-lanceolate, acute ; petals dark red, narrow-cuneate, obtuse, sharply recurved over the tips of the sepals ; pistil as long as the flower, pilosely pubescent below the style. Mature capsules subacutely obovate or sub- pyriform, + 1-8 cm. long, about 1cm. broad above the middle, obtuse or broadly subacute, shortly apiculate, glabrous, 2-valved, the valves nearly semicircular in cross-section and neither grooved nor ribbed, black- pitted all over.
Hah. — Kennedy Bay, Coromandel Peninsula : H. B. Matthews !
The close placing of the leaves, their linear-oblong outline, and the distinctive size and shape of the mature capsule clearly distinguish this species from P. virgatum. I have seen nothing to indicate any variation in the form of the juvenile leaves, but as I have not seen the plants growing I cannot be certain that such variation does not occur.
Uncinia longifructus (Kiik.) Petrie sp. nov.
U. laxe caespitosa v. + diffusa ; culmi 12-20 cm. longi filiformes teretes stricti glabri leviter canaliculati. Folia peranguste linearia plana v. + complicata tenuia flaccida longe vaginantia vix canaliculata, carina subtus conspicua. Spiculae breves pauciflorae -t 1 cm. longae ± 5 mm. latae ;
18 Transactions.
pars mascula brevissima ; glumae anguste lanceolatae acutae tenues pallide virides, leviter 3-nerviae, a marginibus late scariosae, mox decidual. Utriculi 5-6 mm. longiplano-convexi peranguste elliptici aenei politi, nervis duobus baud conspicuis distantibus a latere convexo percursi ; rhacbeola utriculum dimidio superans ; nux oblonga triquetra apice leviter annulata.
Laxly tufted or spreading more or less freely by slender stolons. Culms 12-20 cm. long, filiform, terete, strict, smooth, slightly grooved, clothed for one-third their length by the sheathing leaf -bases, equalling or exceeding the leaves. Leaves very narrow linear, flat or slightly folded, thin and flaccid, smooth (the edges towards the tips only slightly scabrid), long-sheathing hardly grooved, midrib evident below. Spikelets short and few-flowered, + 1 cm. long including the bristles, and about h^f as wide ; female flowers 3-4 (rarely more) ; male part very short, of 2-3 flowers ; stamens 3, long. Glumes narrow-lanceolate, acute, thin, pale green, rather faintly 3-nerved along the middle of the back, with broad scarious edges, the lateral nerves vanishing below the apex, soon falling away from the broad cupular expansions of the rhachis on which they are seated. Utricles 5-6 mm. long, very narrow elliptic, more or less plano-convex, greenish- brown, polished, with two rather faint distant nerves near the edges of the convex face, broadly stipitate below, very gradually narrowed above into a long acute beak ; bristle 1\ times as long as the utricle. Nut oblong, triquetrous, slightly annulate at the base of the style.
Hah. — Open beech forest, Routeburn Valley, Lake County, at 2,300 ft. ; End Peak, Lake Hauroto, J. Crosby Smith ! Clinton Valley, Lake Te Anau, in open bush.
Kiikenthal has made this plant a variety of U. feneUa R. Br. It is easily distinguished from the latter by the following characters :^ the thin flat flaccid long-sheathing leaves, the much longer culms, and the greatly longer and narrower plano-convex greenish-brown polished utricles. The length of the utricle of U. tenella is given as li lines by Bentham and as 3 mm. by C. B. Clarke, and its shape is altogether different from that of the plant here described. Kiikenthai gives the length of the utricles of U. tenella as 3.^- mm., and those of his variet}' longifructus as 6 mm. He also states (incorrectly) that C. B. Clarke always found only two stamens in the male flowers of U. tenella.
Note on Uncinia tenella R. Br.
Specimens of an Uncinia collected by Dr. Cockayne and myself at an elevation of about 4,000 ft. on Kelly's Hill (Taramakau River), Westland, belong, so far as I can judge, to this species, the typical form of which has not so far been recorded from New Zealand. These closely match specimens of Brown's plant from (1) Southport (Tasmania), (2) Upper Yarra (Victoria), and (3) the Dandenong Ranges (Victoria), given me by the late- Sir Ferdinand Mueller. In the Kelly's Hill plant the stamens were 3 in the few male flowers I could spare for dis- section. In one of the Southport plants there were 2 stamens in three of the male flowers, and 3 in two other flowers. Bentham found only 2 stamens in the flowers he examined. Mr. C. B. Clarke says the stamens in the specimens seen were 2, at least most frequently — " saltern saepissime." The utricles of the Kelly's Hill plant difl'er in no respect from those of tvpical U. tenella. Mr. Cheeseman {Manual, p. 800) considers the Kelly's Hill plant intermediate between U. tenella R. Br. and U. nervosa Boott. What U. nervosa may be no one knows definitely. Bentham remarks that
Petrie. — Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants. 19
it was founded on a single specimen, and refers it to U. compacta R. Br. Mr. C. B. Clarke ranks it as a variety of the latter. The U. nervosa in Cheeseman's Manual seems to me in no way closely related to the Kelly's Hill plant. The figure of Boott's species in Flora Tasmanica is a poor one, and affords little help' in identifying it.
Uncinia caespitosa Col. var. collina var. nov.
Rhizoma late stolonifera culmos plurifoliosos plerumque diffusos edens. Culmi foliaque quam in typo breviores. Folia culmis breviora vel eos aequantia, 10-20 cm. alta 4-6 mm. lata, plana suberecta coriacea, in apices incrassatos longe productos abeuntia. Spiculae 4—8 cm. longae + 8 mm.' latae, subclavatae, supra densiflorae, infra floribus laxioribus ; glumae femineae utriculis nonnihil longiores ; nux elliptico-oblonga.
Hab. — Mount Hikurangi (East Coast), at 4,800 ft. ; Ruahine Mountains, at 3,500 ft. : B. C. Aston ! Tararua Mountains (Mount Holdsworth), 3,200 ft.
This is a very distinct-looking form, and has considerable claim to specific rank. It forms • large open somewhat sward-like patches, and never grow^s in distinct tufts, as the typical form usually does.
Carex secta Bootb var. tenuiculmis var. nov.
Var. C. virgatae Sol. habitu subsimilis ; a planta t5^pica differt culmis gracillimis baud raro filiformibus, foliis tenuibus perangustis flaccidis complanatis vel apicem versus concavis (costa media parum conspicua) 40-60 cm. longis culmos aequantibus vel excedentibus ; inflorescentia 6-15 cm. longa simplici + pendula spiculis plerumque remotis parvis pauci; floris sessilibus praedita vel a parte inferiore breviter ramosa (ramis paucis brevibus indivisis) ; rhachide pergracili vel filiform! ; utriculis breviter stipitatis vel paene astipitatis. •
Hab. — Damp localities in eastern and southern Otago : D. P. Damp localities in the Hanmer and Castle Hill districts. North Canterbury. : Arnold Wall ! Damp localities in Chatham Islands : L. Cockayne ! W. R. B. Oliver !
I am indebted to Professor Wall for drawing my attention to this interesting plant, which I had unwittingly placed in the same species-wrajDper as C. virgata. From this it differs entirely in the structure of the utricles. A*hand-and-eye examination will hardly disclose its true position. The Chatham Island specimens show only immature utricles, but I think their identity with the mainland plant cannot be doubted. They also show remarkably long leaves that greatly exceed the culms.
Poa novae-zelandiae Hackel var. Wallii var. nov.
A forma typica differt foliis coriaceis ± complanatis et a marginibus mvolutis incrassatisque muticis ; panicula breviore folia baud vel vix excedente, a parte inferiore foliis ± abscondita ; spiculis majoribus hand compressis ; glumis florigeris latioribus trinerviis acutis hand incurvatis subcoriaceis ; palea breviore ac latiore.
Hab. — Mount Miromiro (Amuri County) : A. Wall ! Top of Mount Kyeburn (Maniototo County) : H. J. Matthews ! Mount Pisa (Vincent County).
The present plant appears to be confined to wet shingly stations, and ranges in altitude from about 3,500 ft. to 5,000 ft. or 6,000 ft. At the higher altitudes the plants are very dwarf.
20 Trarisactions.
'Art. IV. — The Food Values of New Zealand Fish: Part I. By (Mrs.) Dorothy E. Johnson, B.Sc. in Home Science. Communicated by Professor J. Malcolm.
[Eead before the Olago Institute, 9th. December, 1019 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1919 ; issued separatehj, 4th June, 1920.]
In all countries where procurable, fish should be made an easily accessible article of diet — i.e., it should be both plentiful in quantity and reasonable in cost ; but, so far, the greatest possible use has not been made of the bountiful supply in New Zealand waters. Beyond the investigation of the composition of frost-fish and oysters by Malcolm* no attempt has been made to estimate the food values of New Zealand fish.
Recognizing the necessity for the prosecution of research in the Dominion, the New Zealand Government placed funds at the disposal of the New Zealand Institute, which enabled that body to make a grant to Professor J. Malcolm for the investigation of the chemistry and food values of the New Zealand fish. This paper outlines the work done in that connection. The aim has been to ascertain —
(a.) The percentage composition of the edible portion of the fish
investigated. (6.) The caloric value of the fish (by calculation), (c.) The percentage of waste in the fish as bought. (d.) From the point of view of cost, to arrive at some conclusion as
to the comparative values of the fish as an article of diet.
Methods.
The fish were obtained from Dunedin retail fish-dealers, with the exception of one " baby " groper, which was sent from the Portobello I'ish-hatcheries, and a sample each of mullet and snapper, which were sent from Auckland by boat. With the larger fish, from ^ lb. to 1 lb. was purchased, as would be done for home consumption. Wherever possible three samples, bought at difl'erent times, were analysed, but this was not always possible.
In a few instances there is some doubt as to the exact variety of fish bearing a commonly known name : e.g., " sea-bream " is applied to two or three different varieties of fish,f and exact identification would have been difficult owing to the fish being for the most part obtained in slices. It is likely, however, that in such instances the dift'erences in composition would not be very marked — probably less than the difference between individuals of the same variety.
(I.) Percentage of Edible Material and Percentage of Waste.
Skin, bones, &c., were separated from the muscle, and the two portions, edible and non-edible, weighed. The flesh was finely minced and well
* Trans. N.Z. hid., vol. 44, pp. 265-69, 1912.
f Private information from the Hon. Ct. M. Thomson.
Johnson. — Food Values of Neiv Zealand Fish. 21
mixed. Then, after a portion had been set aside for the estimation of the water and protein percentage, the rest was spread in thin layers on glass plates and dried, either over a low-temperature water-bath or in an oven maintained at 52° C. Some oxidation of the fat was unavoidable in this process. The dried material was minced again, passed through a fine sieve, and the larger pieces ground in a coffee-mill. The whole powder was carefully sifted and stored in a bottle. In the case of tara- kihi 1 and mullet 1 further oxidation of the fat was noticeable in that part exposed to the light.
(II.) Percentage of Water and Solids.
This was carried out in a hot-air oven at 65°-70° C, the average of three estimations per sample being taken.
(III.) Percentage of Protein.
The total nitrogen was estimated on fresh material by the Kjeldahl method, 0*2 N solutions of acid and alkali being used. The protein was calculated as total nitrogen multiplied by 6-25, and the average of two estimations per sample taken.*
(ly.) Percentage of Fat.
The dried powder from (I) was extracted with sulphuric ether in a Soxhlet extractor. After twelve hours' extraction the solvent was evapo- rated somewhat, the mixture filtered, the remainder of the ether carefully evaporated, and the oil finally dried for three hours or more at 52° C. The figure in the tables is the average of two estimations. (The water percentage of the powder was estimated, to obtain the amount of fresh material represented.)
(V.) Percentage of Ash.
This was carried out in the usual way with the dried material from (II) in a Davy's crucible furnace. The longer method of extracting the chlo- rides with distilled water after the first charring, and adding the residue after evaporation to the ash, was used at first but discontinued, as the results from the shorter method were found to vary but little from those of the longer method, and the greater accuracy seemed unnecessary, as the protein and fat estimations could only be approximate.
(VI.) Calculations.
■ From these results the following figures were calculated : — (1.) Calories per cent., using the factors 4-1 large calories per gramme
of protein and 9-3 large calories per gramme of fat. . (2.) The cost of 1,000 calories, and of 100 grammes of protein. (3.) For purposes of comparison the composition of milk, meat, and
eggs was taken as given in Hutchison's Food and Dietetics.
Results. The results are shown in, the following tables (I-VI).
* The use of this figure (6-25) is not quite satisfactory, as the proper factor to use with fish proteins requires investigation.
22
Transactions.
Q W m
< <
CO
O
O
CO O
Ph
o
H C5 •«!
EH
:z;
H
o o
M
o w
CO
\A m
<j H
<! 03 H Iz;
|
o |
<-> |
O 00 O O O CO |
CO |
no ^ |
^ C^ uo |
»o |
Ol |
CO |
|||
|
J |
• •5* |
05 |
UO LO CO CO CO (M |
^ |
CO CO |
Th CO Tj< |
in |
CO |
o |
||
|
o |
■ ob |
(Ti |
05 O: OO 00 05 C5 |
02 |
03 O |
O Ol 03 |
Cl |
C3 |
Cl |
||
|
Eh |
C5 |
05 |
03 O O, 03 OS O |
C5 |
05 O |
O 05 05 I-H |
Ol |
Ol' |
Ol |
||
|
(N t-- |
on |
00 O 00 -^ o o |
CO |
« |
1* t- |
O CO -*l |
CO |
Cl |
|||
|
* |
r-H <M |
O |
O .— 1 r-H lO O -^ |
Ol |
• |
o o |
• |
O C» -H |
o |
o; |
o |
|
^ |
1— t 1— 1 |
f-H |
I-H |
I-H ^H |
I-H O ^ |
I-H |
o |
I-H |
|||
|
C |
o o |
'^ |
(M lO 1— 1 O 00 O |
CO |
CO |
Oi -H |
^H |
05 CI "* |
t^ |
Cl |
1 CJ |
|
o |
lO <M |
CO |
Tfi t^ o oi r- CO |
CO |
Oi |
-M I- |
CO |
I^ t^ 00 |
F^ |
CO |
|
|
o |
O 05 |
C5 |
00 05 05 (M CJ tM |
o |
CO |
C5 O |
o |
CO 00 Ol |
Cl |
Ol |
CO |
|
CM |
(M .—1 |
1— ( |
1 — I 1 — I ( — I 01 1— t rM |
e^) |
1 — 1 |
I-H 1 — t |
CI |
F-H I-H ^H |
I-H |
I-H |
^H |
|
o |
CO <M >0 <M <M O |
o |
iM |
03 O |
o |
o CI o |
CO |
f'-t |
|||
|
^ |
• Ci |
-* |
C5 CO (M t^ lO CO |
CO |
-* |
O CO |
o |
Oi CO ^ |
CO |
z^ |
Cl |
|
»-H |
CO |
<M Ol TtH O O ^ |
o |
o |
o o |
CO |
O Tt* -* |
CO |
^H |
CO |
|
|
I-H I-H |
|||||||||||
|
n |
|||||||||||
|
o o |
o |
t- OS CO t- >o t> |
00 |
CO |
t~- c~ |
o |
O >0 CO |
"^ |
o |
01 |
|
|
ii |
lO o |
03 |
05 lO O OO »Cl t- |
o |
CO |
lO t- |
o |
CO CO CO |
^H |
o |
o |
|
OS ■* |
00 |
(N CO tC O (M >0 |
CO |
I — 1 |
o o |
Tt< |
O t)< »0 |
-* |
CM |
CO |
|
|
•§« |
(M cq |
(M |
cq iM <N 'M C<1 M |
■M |
c-> |
CO CO |
CM |
ca cq c^ |
CM |
Cl |
Cl |
|
ai^ |
1 |
||||||||||
|
* * |
1 |
||||||||||
|
F^ |
o o |
<-> |
CO ^ t- CO O CO |
(M |
t~- |
CO CO |
o |
O »Ci t- |
CO |
o |
r^ |
|
-U |
in o |
i-H |
O -* CO 1—1 Tin (M |
05 |
CO |
^ (N |
o |
t^ CO CO |
00 |
o |
tJH |
|
rt ^ |
O «3 |
to |
t^ O CO CO t^ -^ |
<C |
00 |
O) 03 |
CO |
en lO ^ |
IC |
oo |
CO |
|
l> c- |
l> |
t- l> t> t^ c^ t^ |
C^ |
1> |
CO CO |
t- |
t- t- t- |
t- |
I> |
t- |
|
|
t3 o > |
o> I-H |
Oi O^ Oi 0:> Oi <^ ^H I-H 1 — 1 I-H t — i ^H |
05 |
05 I-H |
Oi Ol |
Oi |
Ol Ol Ol ^H f-H F-H |
r—t |
05 I-H |
Cl I-H |
|
|
o a |
l> t~ |
00 |
00 03 00 O O O |
o |
I-H |
o o |
f-H |
O -H ^ |
O |
O |
pH' 1 |
|
CO o |
r-H |
00 --H O O 00 ^ |
^^ |
^ |
^ ^^ |
-^^ ^ ^^ |
■v^ |
■^^ |
\ ! |
||
|
ci |
rl M |
^^ |
C^l p-i (M CO |
O) |
r^ |
00 CO |
CM |
CD CO -H |
00 |
00 |
o |
|
I-H |
Oi |
wH |
CM |
^H i—< |
Cl |
Cl |
I-H |
||||
|
a |
i |
||||||||||
|
• • |
• |
• - |
• |
'. CO |
• |
. . . |
• |
■ |
|||
|
cu |
|||||||||||
|
■ |
g. |
1 |
|||||||||
|
c |
O |
||||||||||
|
a |
o |
1 |
|||||||||
|
Iz; o '-3 o CZ3 |
e CO |
^ |
c^* . . . |
r |
" |
1^ '^ |
CO o CO |
1 |
|||
|
.§> |
& |
|=~ |
P -2 |
1 |
|||||||
|
1 |
O |
f^ |
lis |
ft, OQ |
C ^ |
1 1 |
|||||
|
* * |
|||||||||||
|
•aatnioads |
^ C^l |
CO |
^ oj rt ^ <rq CO |
I-H |
•M |
I-H •—{ |
CI |
I-H I-H CI |
" |
I-H |
CM |
|
J3 |
■ |
• |
• |
• |
'■ • |
• |
. |
• |
• |
• |
|
|
m |
|||||||||||
|
\H |
3 ^ |
'-~- |
|||||||||
|
1 ° |
• |
-^ 1 : : : |
• |
• |
, |
• |
*Sh , I |
o |
• |
• |
|
|
Common Karae |
1 Oh |
» |
1 '2 o 1 |
: |
«s« |
u o -^ ' o en |
IS o (H o s |
||||
|
2 o |
1 ^ 1 ' ' |
as C! |
=> S |
g |
o |
1 |
o
Johnson. — Food Values of New Zealand Fish.
Table II.
23
|
Name of Fish, &c. |
Kind of Sample. |
Price. (Pence.) |
Weight. ' (Grammes.) |
Edible. (Percentage.) |
Waste. (Percentage.) |
||
|
Groper |
1 |
Slice |
4 |
322 |
82-92 |
17-08 |
|
|
?j |
2 |
?> |
6 ■ |
316 |
94-62 |
5-38 |
|
|
99 |
3 |
99 |
6 |
271 |
97-05 |
2-95 |
|
|
Baby groper |
1 |
?> |
9 |
283-5 |
87-32 |
12-68 |
|
|
?' |
2 |
Whole . |
. . |
3,742 |
3931 |
60-69 |
|
|
Sea-breaia |
1 '.'. |
Slice |
15 |
553 |
87-05 |
1295 |
|
|
Crayfish |
1 |
Tail |
2 |
228-5 |
3320 |
66-80 |
|
|
99 |
•1 |
)> |
3 |
83 |
79-50 |
20-50 |
|
|
97 |
3 '.'. |
Whole . |
. |
6 |
680 |
31-18 |
68-82 |
|
Snapper |
1 |
>> |
17-5 |
1,544 |
4437 |
55-63 |
|
|
99 |
2 |
>> |
30 |
2,735 |
3956 |
60 44 |
|
|
Mullet |
1 |
>» |
18 |
1,240 , |
6331 |
36-69 |
|
|
Tarakilii |
1 |
9f |
30 |
1,895 |
51-44 |
48-56 |
|
|
5> |
v2 .^ •• |
9* |
9 |
520 |
53-46 |
46-54 |
|
|
Blue cod |
'l |
Slice |
21 |
744 |
47-44 |
52-56 |
|
|
Kiugfish |
1 |
> J |
12 |
498 |
73-30 |
26-70 |
|
|
>j |
2 |
?9 |
15 |
561 |
78-25 |
21 75 |
|
|
Tnimpeter |
1 '.'. |
Whole . |
18 |
909 |
50-82 |
49-18 |
|
|
Moki |
1 |
99 |
18 |
1,159 |
50 12 |
49-88 |
|
|
>J |
2 |
Slice |
15 |
572 |
78-32 |
21-68 |
|
|
Egg .. |
One |
1 2 |
50 |
88-00 |
12-00 |
||
|
Beef .. |
Steak |
• ' 12 |
454 |
100-00 |
|||
|
Milk .. |
■ • |
Pint |
3 |
586 |
100-00 |
Table III.
|
1 Name of Fish. |
Calories per 100 Grammes of Undried Edible Material. |
Cost of 100 Grammes Protein. (Pence.) |
Cost of 1,000 Calories. (Pence.) |
|
|
Groper 1 |
7-3 |
|||
|
2 . |
96-39 |
105 |
26-8 |
|
|
:^ . |
11092 |
11-8 |
20 6 |
|
|
Baby groper 1 |
10278 |
19-8 |
344 |
|
|
0 5? *^ • |
102-56 |
|||
|
Sea bream 1 |
119-51 |
160 |
25-9 |
|
|
Crayfish 1 |
100-59 |
115 |
26 1 |
|
|
9 99 ^ |
85-96 |
22-9 |
52-9 |
|
|
3 . |
10373 |
127 |
27-1 |
|
|
Snapper 1* . |
90-38 |
12-4 |
28-3 |
|
|
81-51 |
14-6 |
23-8 |
||
|
Mullet 1* . |
172-89 |
9-0 |
133 |
|
|
Tarakihi 1 . |
167-45 |
15-6 |
17-4 |
|
|
99 -^ • |
11164 |
160 |
290 |
|
|
Blue cod 1 |
85-40 |
31-7 |
69-7 |
|
|
Kingfish 1 . |
116-93 |
17-6 |
28-1 |
|
|
2 . |
11947 |
17-2 |
28-6 |
|
|
Trumpeter 1 |
110-20 ■ |
20-1 |
353 |
|
|
Moki 1 . |
9356 |
16-2 |
33 1 |
|
|
2 . |
104 96 |
18-3 |
319 |
|
|
Eggs at 2s. per dozen |
15833 |
329 |
29-5 |
|
|
Beef at Is- per pound |
137 25 |
12-6 |
191 |
|
|
Milk at 3d. per pint |
7000 |
146 |
73 |
* Auckland prices.
|
24 |
Transact |
ions. |
|||||
|
Tablb IV.— Showing Fish in Order |
OF Fat Content. |
||||||
|
Per |
Per |
||||||
|
Cent. |
Cent. |
||||||
|
Taiakihi |
1 |
10 30 |
Crayfish |
3 |
130 |
||
|
Mullet |
1 |
10 09 |
Moki |
163 |
|||
|
Kingfish |
1 |
4 32 |
Blue cod |
. 0-90 |
|||
|
J» |
2 |
4 10 |
Crayfish |
. 0-72 |
|||
|
Sea-brcam |
1 |
4 25 |
Snapper |
. 0-60 |
|||
|
Groper |
3 |
3-40 |
Crayfish |
2 |
. 0-52 |
||
|
Trumpeter |
1 |
3 31 |
Snapper |
2 |
. 0-42 |
||
|
Moki |
2 |
3-21 |
|||||
|
Tarakihi |
o |
3 05 |
|||||
|
Groper |
4 |
2 93 |
Egg |
• • . • |
. 10-50 |
||
|
Baby groper |
2-32 |
Meat (beef) |
. . |
. 5-50 |
|||
|
Groper |
2 |
1-90 |
Milk |
• |
. 4-00 |
Table V. — Showing Fish in Order of Caloric Values. (Total calories per 100 grammes fresh material.)
|
Per |
Per |
|||||
|
Cent. |
Cent. |
|||||
|
Mullet |
1 |
.. 172-89 |
Crayfish |
1 |
. 100-59 |
|
|
Tarakihi |
1 |
. 16745 |
Gro2)er |
3 |
9639 |
|
|
Sea- bream |
1 |
. 11951 |
Moki |
1 |
93-56 |
|
|
Kingfish |
2 |
. 119-47 |
Snapper |
1 |
. 90-38 |
|
|
1 |
. 116-93 |
Crayfish |
2 |
8596 |
||
|
Tarakihi |
2 |
. 111-64 |
Snapper |
2 |
. 81-51 |
|
|
Groper |
3 |
. ] 10-92 |
Blue cod |
1 '.'. '. |
. 85-40 |
|
|
Trumpeter- |
1 |
. 110 20 |
||||
|
Moki |
2 |
. 10496 |
||||
|
Crayfish |
3 |
. 103-73 |
Egg |
. . |
. 158-33 |
|
|
Groper |
4 |
. 102-78 |
Beef |
. . |
. 137 25 |
|
|
Baby groper |
. 102-56 |
Milk |
. . |
70-00 |
Table VI. — Showing Fish in Order of Cost of 100 Grammes Protein.
|
Groper |
1 |
|
Mullet |
1 |
|
Groper |
2 |
|
99 |
3 |
|
Crayfish |
1 |
|
>? |
3 |
|
Snapper |
1 |
|
?5 |
2 |
|
Tarakihi |
1 |
|
J J Sea-bream |
1 |
|
Moki |
1 |
|
Pence. |
Pence. |
||
|
731 |
Kingfish |
1 |
17-22 |
|
8-96 |
>» |
2 |
17-56 |
|
1045 |
Moki |
2 |
. . 18-27 |
|
11-80 |
Groper |
4 |
19-78 |
|
11-49 |
Trumpeter |
1 |
2011 |
|
12-66 |
Crayfish |
2 |
. . 22-98 |
|
12-35 |
Blue cod |
1 |
31-66 |
|
14-64 |
|||
|
15-61 |
|||
|
15 95 |
Beef |
• • • • |
. . 12-60 |
|
15 99 |
Milk |
• * • • |
. . 14 62 |
|
1621 |
Eggs |
. . |
32 94 |
Discussion.
The following points are noticeable : —
1. The percentage of water and of solids shows much the same varia- tion that similar analyses* of American and European food fishes have shown. Further, the analyses exhibit the fact that a high fat value goes with a low water percentage, the protein percentage fluctuating but little from the mean of 19-69. In the process of fattening, therefore, the water,
* R. Hutchison, Food and the Principles of Dietetics ; Clark an*) Almy, Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 33, p. 483, 1918.
Johnson. — Food Values of New Zealand Fish.
25
not the protein, is replaced by fat. In a fattv fish there is an absolute gain in nutritive value though a decrease in digestibility. For example, — ■
|
. Fisb. |
Water |
Fat |
Protein |
|
Percentage. |
Percentage. |
Percentage.' |
|
|
Blue cod |
79-70 |
0-90 |
18-79 |
|
Kingfish |
75-65 |
4-32 |
18-72 |
|
Groper |
76-10 |
3-40 |
19-34 |
|
Mullet . . |
69-43 |
10-09 |
13-29 |
|
Snapper ^ . . |
69-23 |
10-30 |
19-71 |
2. Table IV shows the fish in order of fat content, which is the usual order oi classification for dietetic purposes. There is considerable variation from tarakihi (sample 1) with 10" 30 per cent, to snapper (sample 2) with 0-42 per cent. One noticeable fact, however, is the difierence between two samples of the same variety of fish, even when bought at short intervals from each other. For example, —
|
» Fish. |
Date of Purchase. |
Fat Percentage. |
|
Tarakihi 1 . . 2 Moki 1 .. 2 |
13th October, 1919 22nd November, 1919 . . 28th October, 1919 10th November, 1919 . . |
10-30 3-05 1-63 3-21 |
This question needs to be investigated further before definite comparison can be made of the fat content of various fish. It may be a question, say, of metabolism or of seasonal variation.
3. Table V shows the caloric values. The figures represent the total calories per 100 grammes of edible material. The presence to any great extent of fat increases the caloric value considerably, as will be seen by comparing Tables IV and V. Mullet 1, tarakihi 1, kingfish 1 and 2, sea- bream 1, groper 3, and trumpeter 1 occupy almost the same positions at the head of each table, and compare quite favourably with egg, beef, and milk.
4. The cost of the fish, as shown in Tables II and VI, is the price actually paid as for home consumption. For comparative purposes the cost of 100 grammes of protein has been calculated. It will be noticed that there is considerable variation in price for the same variety of fish ; fish being a perishable commodity, and the supply being erratic owing to weather conditions, the fluctuations of the market are considerable.
|
Fish. |
Date of Purchase. |
Price. |
|
Groper . . 5) J3 |
16th July, 1919 30th July, 1919 28th August, 1919 . . |
s. d. 0 8 per pound 1 0 •16 |
The price,, therefore, is not necessarily indicative of the food value. This is also apparent'from the fact that 100 grammes of protein can be obtained from groper at 7|d., mullet at 9d., kingfish at Is. 6d., but from blue cod the cost is 2s. 8d, Hence the popularity of the last-named fish has little
26
Transactions.
to do with its food value,, but probably has considerable influence on its price. Also, a chemical analysis does not take into account such qualities as delicacy of flavour and texture, which, appealing to a buyer, exert an influence in increasing the amount he is willing to pay.
5. Table II also points out that in dealing with fish the element of waste must be considered in comparing the cost. When bought in slices the average waste is one-sixth of the total weight, but with whole fish as much as one-half tends to be lost. There is also a further loss on cooking, but that hds not been dealt with in this investigation.
6. iThe methods used in ascertaining the percentage of protein give the maximum figure, since part of the total nitrogen will b^ contained in extractives and gelatin substances. As a source of protein, therefore, a fish containing 19 per cent, protein has really not the same value as meat or egg with 19 per cent, protein. But, without considering this factor, with beef at Is. per pound the corresponding prices for fish should not be greater than the following : — -
|
Per lb. |
Per lb. |
||
|
Groper |
. . 8Jd. instead of Is. 2d. \ |
||
|
Kingfish |
. . TM. |
Is. Ud. |
|
|
Tarakihi |
. . 5id. to 7id. |
7M. |
Average |
|
Blue cod |
. . 3id. |
Is. Od. y price |
|
|
Sea-bream |
. . 9d. |
Is. 3d. |
paid. |
|
Snapper |
. . 3d. |
5id. |
|
|
Mullet |
.. lOd. |
6d. i |
These figures point to the high prices prevailing for a food that is naturally plentiful, and seem to indicate a state of artificial scarcity in the market. Another point which is very apparent in making these calcu- lations is that the amount of waste (from a food point of view) is an important determinant in comparing prices : e.g., compare groper and king- fish. From the analyses (calories per cent.) the edible portion of kingfish is superior to that of groper in the proportion of 118 to 105 ; but the waste is 24 per cent, with kingfish, and only 7 per cent, with groper (slices). Therefore (compared with beefsteak at Is. per pound) the housewife can afiord to pay 8|d. per pound for groper, but only 7id. per pound for
|
kingfish. |
||
|
Name. / |
! i ■ Calories ' Waste Maximum Price (Percentage). (Percentage). per Pound. |
|
|
1 Kingfish .. .. .. 118 Groper . . . . . . i 105 |
24 7id. 7 8id. |
It is necessary to point out, however, that these deductions are based on twenty samples (eleven kinds), and more complete investigation may make modifications necessary ; but it is noticeable that in many salient features the results concur with those of wider investigations carried out in other countries.
Besides acknowledging, with thanks, the constant help I have received from Professor J. Malcolm — to whom, indeed, the initiation of this research is due — I have also to thank the Council of the University of Otago for the use of their laboratories and apparatus.
All the expenses incurred have been defrayed by a grant from the New Zealand Government, through the New Zealand Institute.
Donovan. — Distillation of Waikaia Oil-shale.
27
Art. V. — The Distillation of Waikaia Oil-shale. By W. Donovan, M.Sc, and G. C. Burton.
[Read before the WeUingtov. Philosophical Society, 3rd Decemhey, 1919; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; i-'isued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
The following paper embodies the results of an investigation of the pro- perties of Waikaia shale, conducted at the Dominion Laboratory during 1918, at the request of the Director of the Geological Survey.
. Eight representative samples were received from various bores put down by the Waikaia Shale Company. Proximate analyses were made, and also distillation tests, to obtain the yields of oil and gas. The results were : —
|
No. |
Fixed Carbon. |
Volatile Hydro- carbons. |
Water lost at 100° C. |
Ash. |
Sulphur. |
Crude Oil (Gallons per Ton). |
Gas (Cubic Feet per Ton). |
|
1 |
9-60 |
3342 |
7-78 |
49-20 |
2-30 |
235 |
2,000 |
|
2 |
17-20 |
4374 |
10-13 |
28-93 |
2-93 |
37-0 |
3,400 |
|
3 |
17 2.5 |
42-67 |
8-63 |
31-45 |
3-40 |
Not distilled. |
|
|
4 |
20-80 |
46-87 |
9-83 |
22-50 |
3-40 |
48-0 |
4,000 |
|
5 |
20-75 |
51-42 |
10-78 |
1705 |
3-08 |
460 |
4,000 |
|
6 |
18-30 |
46-65 |
15-70 |
19-35 |
3-20 |
38-0 |
3,800 |
|
7 |
1765 |
51-45 |
1040 |
20-50 |
3-07 |
35 0 |
3,500 |
|
8 |
17-70 |
47-35 |
13 75 |
21-20 |
3-06 |
42-0 |
4,000 |
Note. — There was not sufficient of No. 3 for a distillation test to be made.
A composite sample, made by taking equal weights of the above eight
and mixing thoroughly, was examined in greater detail. The proximate analysis was —
Fixed carbon . . . . . . 17-10
Volatile hydrocarbons . . . . 43-03
Water " . . . . . . . . 10-42
Ash ... .. .. .. 29-45
|
100-00 |
|
|
Total sulphur per cent. |
. . 3-05 |
|
An ultimate analvsis yielded — |
|
|
Hydrogen |
. . 5-64 |
|
Carbon |
. . 39-55 |
|
Nitrogen |
. . 0-30 |
|
Sulphur |
. . 3-05 |
|
Oxygen |
. . 22-01 |
|
Ash |
. . 29-45 |
100-00
On distillation there was obtained — Crude oil equivalent to 38 gallons per ton of shale ; ammonium sulphate equivalent to 8 lb. per ton of shale ; gas equivalent to 4,000 cubic feet per ton of shale.
The sjjecific gravity of the crude oil was 0-96.
28
Transactions.
The oil was redistilled Below 200° C. 200°-250° C. 250°-300° C. 300°-350° C. Above 350° C. Residue . . Loss
into the following fractions : —
7-0 (naphtha). 11-5 )
14-0
18-0
41-0
6-0
2-5
100-0
burning-oils, lubricating-oils.
The distillate above 350° C. contained 14-2 per cent, of paraffin of melting-point 58-5° C, equivalent to 22 lb. paraffin per ton of shale.
If all the fractions were collected in the same vessel they would give once- once-run shale-oil, 91-5 per cent, (equivalent to 34-75 gallons per ton of shale).
The fuel values of this and of the crude oil were determined in the calorimeter, together with a crude oil from the Orepuki Shale-works, year 1903, and crude Taranaki petroleum, received in 1906 (No. 562). The sulphur was also estimated at the same time. The results were : —
|
Waikala Shale. |
Crude Orepuki Shale-oil. |
Crude Taranaki Petroleum. |
||
|
|
Crude. |
Once ruu. |
||
|
Calorides per gramme British thermal units per pound Evaporative power per pound in pounds of water at 212° F. Total sulphur per cent. |
9,470 17,046 17-67 1-80 |
10,032 18,058 18-72 1 76 |
10,339 18,610 1929 179 |
10,713 19,283 1998 021 |
A good fuel-oil should not contain more than 0-5 per cent, of sulphur.
The yield of ammonium sulphate, 8 lb. per ton of shale distilled, is low. It would be increased if the distillation were conducted in the pre- sence of superheated steam, as is usual in working practice ; but even if all the nitrogen were recovered in this form it would not exceed 28-3 lb. per ton.
The gas from the distillation had the following composition : — Carbon dioxide . . . . . . 18-3
Oxygen
Carbon monoxide
Methane
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
1-0 14-3
37-3
22-3
6-8
100-0 were not determined, would be partly
(Sulphur compounds, which included in the carbon dioxide.)
When purified from carbon dioxide the composition would be :—
Oxygen . . . . . . . . 1-2
Carbon monoxide (CO) . . . . 17-5
Methane (CH J . . . . . . 45-7
Hydrogen . . . . . . . . 27-3
Nitrogen . . . . . . . . 8-3
100-0
Donovan. — Distillation of- Waikaia Oil-shale 29
Calorific value, gross, in calories per cubic foot . . . . . . 1529
5, net, in calories per cubic foot . . . , . . 1375
„ gross, in British thermal units per cubic foot . . 6111
„ net, in British thermal units per cubic foot . . 5456
(Gas measured at 15-5° C. and 762 mm.)
There would be about 3,250 cubic feet of such gas per ton of shale. The calorific value is approximately the same as that of good coal-gas.
Summary.
Waikaia shale would yield on distillation the following products per ton : 38 gallons crude oil, equivalent to 34| gallons once-run oil ; ammonium sulphate, 8 lb. ; gas free from carbon dioxide, 3,250 cubic feet.
After fractional distillation and refining the oil would give the following products per ton, allowing 10 per cent, for impurities and loss : Light oil (naphtha), 2-5 gallons ; burning-oil, 8-8 gallons ; light lubricating-oil, 6-2 gallons ; heavy liibricating-oil, 12-0 gallons ; paraffin, 20 lb.
(The amount of light oil would probably be increased by scrubbing the gas evolved with a suitable medium oil, to dissolve the light hydro- carbons that escape condensation.)
The shale appears to be very similar to Orepuki shale.
^ Art. VI. — Sting-ray-liver Oil.
By W. Donovan, M.Sc
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd Decewher, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued sejmrately, 4th June, 1920.]
Mr. Hoyle, of Thames, conducted some experiments in the extraction of oil from sting-ray livers, and a quantity of about 8 oz., which he obtained from the liver of a single fish, was examined at the Dominion Laboratory in September, 1918. The sting-ray was probably Dasyhatis brevicaudatus (Hutton).
The oil was compared with cod-liver oil, with the following results : — ■
Cod-liver Oil.
0-923-0-930
182-187
137-167
1-4800
0-6-2-6
42-9
The oil was free from rancidity, and quite palatable. It contained some " stearine," which made it cloudy at low temperature, and which, in the case of cod-oil, is usually removed by cooling and filtering.
If the present sample were similarly treated the product would scarcely be distinguishable in appearance or composition from good cod-liver oil.
|
Sting -ray- |
|
|
liver Oil. |
|
|
Specific gravity at 15-5° C. |
. 0-927 |
|
Saponification value |
189 |
|
Iodine value |
. 156-5 |
|
Refractive index at 15° C. |
. 1-4796 |
|
Unsaponifiable matter (per cent.) . |
3-7 |
|
Hexabromides (per cent.) . . |
45 |
30 • Transactions.
Aet. VII. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera.
By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S. Communicated by C Y. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N. Z.Inst.
[Read before the Wellinyton Philosophical Society, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
I AM again indebted to the kindness of my esteemed: correspondent Mt. G. V. Hudson for the material on which the following descriptions are based.
. Crambidae. Orocrambus ventosus n. sp.
$. 26-27 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax blackish, mixed with brown hairs. Abdomen dark fuscous irrorated with pale greyish-ochreous. Fore- wings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa hardly arched, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, little oblique ; dark fuscous, suffusedly mixed with brown, especially on posterior half, somewhat lighter on post-median area, veins on posterior half more or less obscurely indicated with whitish scales ; a very obscurely indicated angulated darker trai\sverse line towards termen : cilia grey, tips white, with a tendency to obscure whitish bars on veins. Hindwings grey, becoming dark grey towards termen : cilia ochreous- grey-whitish, with grey basal line.
Mount Arthur, 4,200 ft., in January (Hudson) ; two specimens.
Pyraustidae. Scoparia ciserodes n. sp.
o. 17 mm. Head grey sufltusedly mixed with white. Labial palpi 2, dark grey, base whitish, apical edge mixed with whitish. Maxillary palpi white, basal half dark fuscous. Thorax grey irrorated with white, a streak of blackish irro ration on each side of back. Abdomen grey- whitish. Fore- wings elongate, narrow at base, posteriorly dilated, costa anteriorly straight, posteriorly gently arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded, rather oblique : light grey irrorated with white, with some scattered blackish scales ; a short fine blackish median longitudinal line rising from a small white spot at base ; lines indistinct, whitish, first slightly curved, direct (rubbed), second obtusely angulated in middle ; small cloudy dark-grey spots on costa beyond middle and at | ; orbicular and claviform indicated by some scattered blackish scales, discal spot represented by a slight 3-armed blackish mark, posterior arm edged beneath with pale ochreous ; two or three dashes of blackish irroration towards upper part of termen : cilia whitish, with subbasal series of well-marked grey spots. Hindwings 1^, grey-whitish : cilia whitish, with very faint greyish subbasal line.
Porirua, Wellington, in January (Hudson) ; one specimen. An incon- spicuous insect, yet quite distinct from anything else.
^ . , _, Tortricidae.
Tortnx sphenias Meyr.
Mr. Hudson has pointed out to me that this species (originally referred by me to Cnephasia), of which he has sent a second specimen from Dunedin, is very close to fer,vida, and suggested that the two are identical. This
Meyhick. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidopfera. '31
second specimen has veins 6' and 7 of hindwings separate ; in the original type they are unmistakably stalked, but it now appears probable that this was an individual abnormality, and the presence of a costal fold (a dis- cordant character in Cnephasia) and the specific affinity to fervida indicate that the species should be removed to Tortrix. After careful comparison with my seven specimens oi fervida, however, I entertain no doubt that the two species are distinct ; apart from superficial colouring, in which there is certainly some variability, the ciliations of antennae in ^ are obviously longer and more fasciculate in fervida, and the terjnen of forewings in that species is distinctly less oblique than in sphenias.
Oecophoridae.
Borkhausenia compsogramma n. sp.
(J. 13-15 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen dark purplish-fuscous. Antennal ciliations 1. Palpi grey, second joint sometimes partially suffused with whitish-yellowish. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen obliquely rounded ; dark violet-fuscous ; markings ochreous- yellow suffused in disc with fulvous-orange, an^ with some scattered blackish scales on their edges ; an oval blotch extending over basal fourth of dorsum ; a narrow irregular rather oblique fascia from costa before ^, not reaching dorsum ; a transverse fasciate blotch from costa beyond middle, and another inwardly oblique from costa at f , both directed towards but not reaching a spot on dorsum before tornus ; a streak along termen throughout : cilia fuscous, base scaled with ochreous-yellow along terminal streak. Hindwings and cilia dark grey.
BuUer River, in December (Hudson) ; two specimens. At first sight extremely like chrysogramma, but on comparison the markings are seen to be quite differently arranged.
Izatha amorbas Meyr.
This species has an elongate pale-yellow blotch extending beneath median third of costa of hindwings, sometimes nearly obsolete, and not noticed in my description, but in an example now sent from Dunedin it is conspicuous.
Lyonetiadae. Hectacma crypsimima n. sp.
^. 10 mm. Head grey mixed with whitish and blackish. Palpi dark fuscous. Thorax dark fuscous slightly speckled with whitish. Abdomen dark fuscous. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex tolerably pointed, termen hardly rounded, extremely oblique ; bronz}^- brown, irregularly speckled with whitish except in posterior part of disc, with some scattered blackish scales ; a very oblique blackish wedge-shaped streak from basal parjb of costa reaching half across wing ; oblique blackish wedge-shaped spots from costa before middle and towards apex, and one from middle of dorsum ; a small round blackish apical spot : cilia grey, whitish-tinged round apex, with two blackish lines. Hindwings and cilia dark fuscous.
Wellington, in February (Hudson) ; one specimen, " taken on black Fagus trunks."
32 Transactions.
TiNEIDAE.
Mallobathra perisseuta n. sp.
^. 15 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen dark fuscous. Antennal ciliations 2|^. Forewings elongate, posteriorly slightly dilated, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen obliquely rounded ; 6 present ; fuscous, anterior half of costa suffused with darker fuscous ; a dark-fuscous quadrate spot on middle of dorsum, preceded and followed by suffused whitish blotches : cilia fuscous. Hind wings with 6 present ; rather dark fuscous : cilia fuscouS;
Dunedin, in October (Clarke) ; one specimen.
Art. VIII. — Illustrated Life-histories of New Zealand Insects : No. J.
By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor ,^ 9th December, 1919; issued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
Plate I.
The present article is the first of a series I hope to publish from time to time on the life-histories of New Zealand insects, which to the best of my belief have not previously been recorded. The subjects will not be selected in any systematic order, but the life-histories will simply appear as they are worked out in the field. Preference will, however, be given to those orders of insects where the least is known regarding their habits, and the species dealt with will therefore mainly belong to the so-called '' neglected orders." Hence species belonging to the better-known orders of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera will be excluded from the scope of these papers at present. Illustrations will be given with each paper, which it is hoped will enable any naturalist to recognize the insects in all their stages. Such structural descriptions as may be given will be extremely brief, as it will necessarily devolve on specialists in each order to give fuller details when the study of the "neglected orders" is taken up in real earnest. In the meantime the present notes and illustrations may be useful in arousing interest and in presenting the subject in an intelligible form to the general student of nature.
Order DIPTERA.
Familv Tipulidae.
Gnophomyia rufa. (Plate I, fig. 7. (S.)
Tipula rufa Huds., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 27, p. 294. Gnophomyia rufa Hutton, ih., vol. 32, p. 39.
This large and very handsome species of crane-fly, or " daddy-long-legs," may be found occasionally in dense forests in the Wellington and Nelson districts. It is very possibly a generally distributed species, but precise
Tbans. N Z. Inst., Vol. LEL.
Plate I.
G. V. n. del
Fig. 1. — Limnophila sinistra. s . Nat. size. Fia. 2. — Pupa of L. sinistra. Magnified. Fig. 3. — Larva of L. sinistra. Magnified. Fig. 4. — Larva of Mdanostoina decessum. Mag- nified.
Facep 32. i
Fig. 5. — Mdanostoina decessum. s ■ Magnified.
Fig. 6. — Pupa of M. decessum. Magnified.
Fig. 7. — Gnopkomyia rufa. <r . Nat. size.
Fig. 8. — Larva of 6?. rufa. Magnified.
Fig. 9.— Pupa of G. rufa. Magnified.
■■■^k-
V'l^'
Hudson. — Illustrated Life-histories of New Zealand Insects. 33
records of its distribution are at present lacking. The larva lives and feeds in the semi-liquid vegetable detritus which accumulates in large quantities at the bases of the leaves of the well-known Astelia Solandri, a common and very copspicuous epiphytic plant in most of our untouched native forests. The length of the full-grown larva (see Plate I, fig. 8) is about 1| in. It is subcylindrical, considerably flattened, with the head very minute, and eleven visible body-segments. Special oval warts armed with minute teeth are situated on the upper surface of body-segments 5 to 10 inclusive, similar larger warts being present on the underside, and this no doubt facilitates the insect's movements between the leaves. The colour of the larva is very dark slaty-brown, darker towards the extremities ; the posterior end is considerably tapered.
Apparently only ope larva inhabits each space between two sheathing leaves, and only those full of the thick brown cofiee-like liquid are so inhabited.
The pupa is enclosed in a rather tough, extremely elongate silken tube situated between the sheathing leaves. It rests in an upright position in the midst of the semi-liquid mass, breathing, no doubt, being effected by means of the remarkable thoracic process. The length of the pupa is about H in. It is very elongate, with the bead and thorax unusually small ; there is a large double breathing-process on the top of the thorax, shaped somewhat like a bivalve shell. Four of . the abdominal segments are furnished on the dorsal surface with special finely-toothed warts like those of the larva, the ventral surface with plain ridges. There is a horny cremaster with two recurved hooks and several other smaller processes. (See Plate I, fig. 9.) ' •
The perfect crane-fly appears from November till March. It is probable that the larva is feeding during the autumn and winter, and that pupation usually takes place in the spring, although the pupa which was actually reared was found in company with feeding larvae early in March.
Limnophila sinistra. (Plate I, fig. 1. (J.)
Tipula ohscuri'pennis Huds., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 27, p. 294 ; not Limnophila obscuripennis Skuse, 1890. Limnophila sinistra Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32, p. 40.
■ This very distinct species of crane-fly is fairly common in most dense forests throughout the country.
The larva (Plate I, fig. 3) inhabits fallen tree-trunks in an advanced state of decay, forming burrows between the soft decayed portion and the harder part of the wood. It is about 1 in. in length, cylindrical, tapering towards the head, which is very small and furnished with two minute jaws and a pair of very short antennae. There are eleven visible body-segments. The extremity of the last segment is truncate and deeply excavated, the concavity being protected by five converging spines, which can be spread out or drawn inwards at the will of the insect. The orifices of the air-tubes are situated in this concavity, that of the alimentary canal being placed on the underside of the final segment, quite remote from the breathing-apparatus. Pedal warts occur on the undersides of all the segments, excepting the three immediately following the head and the terminal segment.
2 — Trans.
34 Transactions.
The pupa (Plate I, fig. 2) is about | in. in length, rather stout ; the thoracic breathing-appendages are about one-third the length of the wing- cases ; moderately stout and strongly recurved. There are two dorsal rows of hooks on each exposed abdominal segment, and one ventral row near the terminal extremity. The cremaster is bifid, strongly recurved, and very stout. The head and thorax are dark blackish-brown and highly polished ; the abdomen greyish-ochreous, darker in the middle. The cremaster and extremities of the hind-leg cases are reddish. The pupa rests in a burrow made by the larva near the surface of the log.
The perfect crane-fly appears from November till March. It is practi- cally invisible when at rest on an old fallen tree-trunk, and it is evident that the rather unusual colouring of both the wings and body has been specially adapted to harmonize with the insect's natural surroundings.
Family Syrphidae.
Melanostoma decessum. (Plate I, fig. 5. 6*.)
Melanostoma decessum, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 33, p. 43.
The larva of this fly (Plate I, fig. 4),' which is one of the so-called *' rat-tailed maggots," feeds during the early spring in the liquid decay which occasionally involves certain portions of the inner bark of the cabbage-tree {Cordyline australis), and very possibly inhabits liquid decaying vegetable matter generally. When full grown it is about ^ in. long, of the usual maggot type, with a long breathing-tail and two short air-tubes near the head. Although apparently very fragile and gelatinous, it is really extremely tough. Its body is semi-transparent, and the internal organs are clearly visible. The head is retracted within the second segment ; there are two dark patches on each side of the head which may be rudimentary eyes. A row of booklets extends along the outer edge of the second segment, which assists the larva in progression. It is active in habit, being almost constantly on the move.
The pupa (Plate I, fig. 6) is about ^in. in length, immobile, pear-shaped, flattened beneath ; the segmental divisions are very indistinctly indicated. There are several obscure tubercles on the anterior portion, and two rows, of about six in each, on the flattened ventral portion. The posterior segments are strongly curved, and bear at their extremity the breathing-tube proper. The pupa rests partially embedded in the dried portion of the decayed bark of the cabbage-tree.
The fly appears in November. '
Clarke. — 'New Lepidoptera. 35
*
Art. IX. — New Lepidoptera.
By Charles E. Clarke.
[Read before the Otago histitute, 9th December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1919 ; issued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
Hydriomenidae.
Tatosoma monoviridisata n. sp.
cJ ?. 31-32 mm. Head and thorax olive-green. Antennae : proximal third olive-green, tips brownish. Palpi nearly 3 mm. Abdomen varying green above, irrorated with dark-brown scales with lateral dorsal tufts of brown-grey hairs at each segment, especially noticeable on fourth, fifth, sixth, and terminal segments. Forewings oUve-green, elongate, costa rounded, hind-margin obliquely rounded ; several transverse wavy dentate darker - greenish stripes, convex externally near middle, the most con- spicuous being at ^, before f , and at f ; a series of double dots around termen. Hindwings in $ small, elongate, grey, tinged with greenish termin- ally ; an indistinct greenish band at f ; lobe of hindwings in cJ 3 mm. long ; all ciha light green.
The palpi of this species are shorter than in T. tipulata, but the lobe of the hindwing is as small as in tipulata.
Twelve specimens were beaten from Coriaria on the Waitati Water Reserve in October and November, 1918, and three in 1919.
MiCROPTERYGIDAB.
Sabatinca lucilia n. sp.
12 mm. Head, face, and palpi covered with long bronze-brown hair. Antennae purplish tending to brown at tips. Thorax brown, densely covered with long brown hair. Abdomen grey-blackish along sides. Legs ochreous tinged with grey-blackish. Forewings ovate-lanceolate, costa bent abruptly near base, arched, apex less acute than in incongruella ; basal area to nearly \ ochreous suffused with ruby banded by abrupt black trans- verse line ; an ochreous-grey band slightly suffused with ruby reaching to nearly ^, widening on dorsum; a dark fascia bordered blackish-grey, con- stricted both sides at middle and narrowed on anal margin ; at f another light-grey band' slightly tinged with orange but broken in centre by longi- tudinal blackish stripe ; a transverse blackish - bordered ochreous band, beyond which to apex light grey slightly tinged with orange ; cilia ochreous with dark-greyish -brown bars in continuation of the dark markings on the wings. Hindwings dark grey suffused with violet, brighter towards apex ; ciha dark grey with a few orange hairs.
My first specimen, rather worn, I took at the electric light at Waitomo Hotel on the 25th December, 1916. During the second week of January, 1919, I took six specimens in good condition on a sunny moss-covered clay bank at Kauri Gully, Auckland. The season was an exceptionally late one, and normally the species would probably be at its best quit6 a month earlier.
2*
36 Transactions.
Art. X. — Lepidoptera oj Auckland and the King-country. By Charles E. Clarke.
{Read before the Otago Inditute, 9th December, 1919 ; received by Editor. 314 December,
1919 : issued separately, ItJi June, 1920.]
During tlie month of January, 1919, I made a collecting tour along the Main Trunk Railway from Wellington to Auckland, returning via Rotorua, Tokaanu, and Waimarino. I collected at various other localities en route — Swanson, Wairakei, Waitonio, Raurimu, Erua, Ohakune, Waiouru, the Hot Lakes district, and the lower slopes of Mount Ruapehu from Rangataua, all being included. I had originally intended climbing to the subalpine of Mount Ruapehu, but was deterred by stormy weather, which decided me to proceed to the Auckland District for a few days in search of a better climate. I there experienced good weather and collected at Kauri Gully and in the Auckland Domain, and also ascended the Waitakere Ranges from Henderson and Swanson. The best collecting of the trip, however, was made on my return journey while camping at Waimarino and Erua at an altitude of about 2,600 ft. From Erua I ascended Mount Hauhaunga- tahi by the track, but owing to the cloud-banks enveloping the higher country I was able to collect during my visit only to a height of about 3,500 ft.
The following Ust contains only such species as I actually took in good condition on_my somewhat hurried journey : —
Vanessa gonerilla Fabr. A few at Kauri Gully.
Lijcaena oxleyi Murray. Very common at Auckland and at the foot of the
Waitakere Ranges. Chrysojjhanus holdenarum White. Very common on the Waimarino Plateau. Nyctemera ammlata Boisd. Generally common. Heliothis armigera Hiibn. Plentiful in Auckland Domain ; also netted at
Rotorua. Euxoa adwirationis Guen. Several at Rotorua on Veronica blossom. Agrotis ypsilon Rott. At sugar, Waimarino.
Graphiphora compta Walk. Three netted in the Auckland Domain. Leucania sulcana Fer. Several at Waitakere. — ■ — semivittata Walk. Two specimens at Rangataua.
phaula Meyr. A few at sugar on the Mangaehuehu Stream, near
Rangataua. Aletia moderata Walk. One at Waitomo. — — unipuncta Hew. Several in the Auckland Domain. Dipaustica epiastra Meyr. One at Waimarino and one at Rangataua. Persectania disjungens Walk. Some fine specimens were taken at Waimarino.
sleropastis Meyr. Two at sugar on the Mangaehuehu Stream.
' — — composita Guen. Several at Auckland.
atristriga Walk. Common at Auckland and Rotorua.
Erana graminosa Walk. Two only at Waimarino.
Melanchra exquisita Philp. One v^ry fine specimen taken at the electric light of Waitomo Hotel.
plena Walk. A few at Waimarino.
ClaiUvK. — Leiiidoptera of Auckland and the King-country. 37
MelancJira may a Ruds,.] A few of each of these* at sugar on the Manga- -. diameta Walk. f ehuehu Stream.
These four species were generally common -
mutans Walk.
ustistriga Walk.
insignis Huds.
■ morosa Butl.
rubescensBntl \ ^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^j^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^^^
l^maasMejT. Mangaehuehu Stream.
dotata Walk. ) ^
Ariathisa comma Walk. An exceptionally dark form was common at Rotorua.
Cosmodes elegans Don. Two fine specimens were taken at the electric light
at Waitonio. Hypenodes anticlina Meyr. Common at Waimarino and Erua, but in rather
worn condition. Plusia chalcites Esp. Several fine specimens taken in the Auckland Domain. Rhapsa scotosialis Walk. Common in most localities. Tatosoma topia Philp. At Waimarino some very fine specimens were netted.
timora MejT?. Common at Waimarino.
Elvia glaucata Walk. Waimarino ; faiily common.
Venusia verriculata Feld. Common at Auckland and Waitakere.
undosato. Feld. Common at Waimarino.
Selidosema pelurgata Walk. A few at Waitakere and Waimarino.
monacha Huds. Some fine specimens of both sexes netted at Wai-
marino.
fenerata Feld. A few at Kauri Gully.
— : — aridarcJia Meyr. Two only at Waitakere.
prodtictata Walk. ] Both these species common at Auckland and Wai-
dejectaria Walk. ) mariuo.
Chloroclystis semialhata Walk. Common at Waitakere. — — lichenodes Purd. A few at Raurima and Waimarino.
nereis Meyr. A few at Rangataua and Waimarino.
n. sp. A very fine unknown species was taken at Waimarino.
Eucymatoge gohiata Feld. Common at Auckland and Waimarino.
angidigera Butl. Very common at Kauri Gully.
Hydriomena deltoidata Walk. Some very fine varieties obtained at Raurimu.
rixata Feld. Ohakune and Waimarino ; common.
hemizona Meyr. Very common at Waimarino.
— ^ — similafa Walk. Waimarino and Erua.
callichlora Butl. A few worn specimens at Waimarino.
purpurifera Fer. Common at Waimarino, but rather worn.
subochraria Doubl. Common at Waitomo and Ohakune.
Asthena schistaria Walk. Waitakere, Rotorua, Wairakei ; common.
pulehraria Doubl. Common at Kauri Gully.
Euchoeca ruhropunctaria Doubl. C!ommon at Auckland and Waimarino. Leptomeris ruhraria Doubl. Very common at Auckland^ and Waitakere on
the roadsides. Asaphodes megaspilata Walk. Common at Waimarino. Xanthorhoe clarata Walk. A few at Waimarino.
oharata Feld. Common at Waimarino and Erua.
■ chorica Meyr. A few very fine specimens taken at Waimarino.
limonodes Meyr. A few at Waimarino and Erua.
praefectata Walk. Some beautiful pure-white specimens taken at
Waimarino.
38 Transactions.
Xanthorlioe aegrota Butl. One at Kauri Gully.
lucidata Walk. Not uncommon in the Auckland Domain.
chlami/dota MejT. Tokaanu; one fine specimen.
semisignata Walk. Common at Swanson, Waimarino, and Erua.
cinerearia Doubl. Common at Auckland, Waimarino, and Tokaanu.
semifissata Walk. A few at Waimarino.
N otoreas mrornata'W a,\k.]-rf .-, ■ ,, -|,t • • t)i -
,' . Tyif ^Botn species common on the Wamiarmo riateau.
vulcamca Meyr. I -^ ■
Samana falcatella Walk. Four specimens netted at Henderson and Swanson,
at the foot of the Waitakere Ranges. Adeixis inostentata Walk. This species was very common at Waimarino
and on the Mangaehuehu Stream. Epirranthis hemipferaria Guen. ] These two species occurred sparingly at
alectorana Walk. f Kauri Gully and Waimarino.
Gargaphmiia muriferata Walk. Common at Waitakere and Ohakune. Sestra Jlexafa Walk. A few at Waimarino.
humeraria Walk. Common at Kauri Gully.
Azelina ophiopa Meyr. Common at Waitakere and Raurimu. fortinata Guen. Very common at Waimarino and Erua.
nelsonaria Feld. Common at Waimarino and Wairakei.
Declana atronivea Walk. Common at Waitomo and Waimarino.
floccosa Walk. Conamon at Auckland, Waimarino, and Ohakune.
Eurythecta eremana Meyr. Common at Tokaanu.
loxias Meyr. Four fine specimens were taken at Waimarino.
Catamacta gavisana Walk. Common at Auckland and Waitomo. Capua semiferana Walk. Common at Auckland and Wairekei. plinthogli/pta Meyr. Two only at Ohakune.
plagiatana Walk. Common at Wairakei, Auckland, Waitomo, and
Tokaanu. Tortrix leucaniana Walk. A few at Ohakune.
charactana Meyr. Common at Rangataua and Ohakune.
tigris Philp. One fine specimen at Swanson.
: molybditis Meyr. Several at Waimarino.
jiostvittana Walk. This species was very common in the Auckland
Domain.
torogramma Meyr. One only at Kauri Gully.
excessana Walk. Common at Auckland.
orthocopa Meyr. A few of this fine species at Waimarino and Swanson.
Epalxiphora aocenana Meyr. Common at Auckland, Ohakune, Wairakei ;
several varieties taken. Ctenopseustis obliquana Walk. Very common in various localities. Cnephasia j aetata na Walk. Common at Auckland and Rangataua. — — incessana Walk.. Common at Kauri Gully, Waimarino, and Raurimu.
imhriferana Meyr. Common at Kauri Gully.
Spilonota zopherana Meyr. ) Both these species common at Auckland aiid
ejectana Walk. ) . Wairakei among manuka scrub.
Eucosma querula Meyr. Very common in the Auckland Domain. Bactra noteraula Wals. Some very large examples were taken atTaupo. Isonomeutis amauropa Meyr. A few at Waimarino and Erua. Laspeyresia pomonella Linn. One taken on a fruit-shop window in Rotorua. Crocydopora cinigerella Walk. A good series of this species was taken on
the shingly beach of Lake Taupo. Argyria strophaea Meyr. Common at the side of the railway-line at Raurimu ; also taken at Whakarewarewa.
Clarke. — Lepidoptera of Auckland and the King-country . 39
Gadira acerella Walk. Kauri Gully and Tokaanu. DiptycJwphora metalUfera Butl. Several at Waimarino.
harmonica Meyr. Common at Kauri Gully and Waimarino. .
chrysochijta Meyr. Common at Kauri Gully.
elaina Meyr. Very common at Ohakune and Waimarino.
auriscript'ella Walk. Common at Kauri Gully, Oliakune, and Waimarino.
epiphaea Meyr. Two only at Waimarino.
selenaea Meyr. Common at Kauri Gully and Oliakune.
pyrsophanes Meyr. Waimarino ; a few specimens larger than usual.
leucoxantha Meyr. Very common at Waimarino and Erua.
Crambus vitellus Doubl. Common at Rangataua and Swanson.
ramosellus Doubl. A few at Raurimu.
keliotes Meyr. Very common at Waimarino.
apicellus Zell. Common at Waimarino.
siriellus Meyr. Common at Waimarino and Rangataua.
Scoparia minusculalis Walk. Common at Auckland and Waimarino. •
minualis Walk. Common at Waimarino.
dinodes Meyr. A few at Raurimu.
— — pongalis Feld. Several in the Auckland Domain. ^ thyridias Meyr. Very common at Waimarino.
epicomia Meyr. A few at the Mangaehuehu Stream.
leucogramma Meyr. Two at Waimarino. •
submarginalis Walk. Commonest at Ohakune.
asterisca Mevr. One at Raurimu.
feredayi Knaggs. A few at Waimarmo.
— ■ — choristis Meyr. Two at Waimarino.
iwlistinctalis Walk. Common at Tokaanu and Wairakei.
illota Philp. Two at Waimarino.
trivirgata Feld. A few at Waimarino.
aspidota Me\T:. Fairly common at Raurimu and Waimarino.
— '- — hemiplaca Meyr. Two at Waimarino and two at Raurimu.
petrina Meyr. A few at Ohakune and Waitakere.
harpalea Meyr. A few at Ohakmie and Waimarino.
philerga Meyr. Common at Auckland.
periphanes MejT. . Waitakere, Auckland, and Waimarino ; common.
Besides the above species of Scoparia an unknown species
was taken at Auckland Domain and another at Tokaanu. Mecyna flavidalis Doubl. A very dark variety was common at Tokaanu
and Waimarino.
daiclealis Wa,lk. One at Waimarino and one at Waitakere.
Proternia philocapna Meyr. Common in Auckland Domain. Sceliodes cordalis Doubl. Common at electric light, Waitomo. Clepsicosma iridia Meyr. Common at Waitakere and Waimarino. Pyralis farinalis Linn. One only in a Rotorua store.
Diasemia grammalis Doubl. Several at Okere Falls, Taupo, and Waimarino. Platyptilia aeolodes Meyr.. Common at Auckland, Taupo, Swanson, and
Waimarino. — — monospilalis Walk. Common in Auckland Domain. Aristotelia paradesma Meyr. A few at Kauri Gully and Auckland. Gelechia monophragma Meyr. Common at Waimarino and E)rua. Hieroxestis omoscopa Meyr. Common in Auckland Domain.
hapsimacha Me}T. Common at Kauri Gully and Waimarino, attached
t-o Cordyline indivisa.
40 Transactions.
I
Pyroderces apparitella Walk. Common in Auckland Domain. Schiffermuelleria orthopanes Meyr. Several at Waimarino. Compsistis bifaciella Walk. Common at Kauri Gully, Raurimu, and Wai- marino. Elachista gerasmia Meyr. A few in Auckland Domain.
arcliaeonoma Meyr. Common at Waimarino, Auckland, and Waitakere.
Stathmopoda caminora Meyr. A few at Auckland.
skeUoni Butl. Common at Auckland and Waimarino.
Endrosis lacteela SchifE. Common everywhere in the neighbourhood of houses. Izatha epiphanes Me}T. Two only, at light, Waitomo. — — austera Meyr. Common at Kauri Gully.
attactella Walk. One found drowoied in a water-butt on Ohakune
Ra ilway-station .
peroneanella Walk. Auckland, Wairakei, and Waimarino. The Wai-
rakei specimens taken among the hot springs had faded to a » blackish-brown shade by the action of the sulphurous vapours.
picarella Walk. A few at Waitakere.
huttoni Butl. One only at Raurimu.
halanophora Meyr. One at Waitomo.
copiosella Walk. Several at Waimarino and Raurimu ; one parti-
cularly large specimen has a wing-expanse of 40 mm. Gymnobathra hyetodes Meyr. A fine specimen at Swanson.
tholodeUa Meyr. A few at Raurimu and Waimarino.
■ flavideUa Walk. Common at Kauri Gully and Okere Falls.
omphalofa Meyr. Common at Ohakune and Rangataua.
thetodes Meyr. Two only, at light. AVaitomo.
Borkhausenia crotala Meyr.^j
armigerella Walk. }- Common at Auckland and Waimarino.
innotella Walk. )
chrysogramma Meyr. Several taken at Waimarino. Much more bright
than 'Southern specimens. — — hoplodesma Meyr. Kauri Gully ; one onh' . — — baseUa Walk. Several at Rangataua.
pseiidosprelella Staint. Common at Auckland, Waimarino, Tokaanu,
and Ohakime.
Several midetermmed species were also taken. Trackypepla leucoplanetis Meyr. A fine series at Waimarino'.'
— lathriopa Meyr. Common at Waimarino and Raurimu.
galaxias Meyr. A few at Raurimu and Waimarino.
protochlora Meyr. Several at Waimarino.
aspidephora Meyr. Several at Kauri Gully.
euryleucota Meyr. One large specimen at Raurimu.
contritella Walk. Common at Waimarino.
anastrella Meyr. A few at Raurimu.
Barea dinocosma Meyr. Two at Raurimu. Proteodes profunda Meyr. A few at Raurimu.
Cryptolechia liochroa Meyr. Some fine specimens at Waimarino and Erua. Eutorna caryochroa Meyr. A few at Waimarino. Vanicela disjunctella Walk. Two only at Kauri Gully. Thylacosceles acridomima Meyr. Common at Kauri Gully. Glyphipteryx oxymachaera Meyr. Common at Waimarino.
erastis Me}'T. A few at Waimarino.
leptosema Meyr. A few at Waimarino.
Clarke. — Lepidoptera of Aucldand and the King-country. 41
Glijpkiptenjx zelota Meyr. A good series at Kauri Gully.
transverseUa Walk. Very common at Waimarino.
acMyoessa Meyr. Common at Waimarino.
asteronota Meyr. A few at Kauri Gully.
Pantosperma holochalca Meyr. A few on rushes at Tokaanu. Coridomorpha stella Meyr. One at Raurimu.
Simaethis comhinatana Walk. One at Waimarino and one at Ohakvme.
microlitha Meyr. One only at W^aitakere.
Acrocercops cyanospila Meyr. Two only at Taupo. Batrachedra psithrya Meyr. A few at Kauri Gully.
Parectopa aellomacha Meyr. A few at Kauri Gully and the Auckland Domain. Gracilaria chalcodelta Meyr. Fairly common at Waimarino and Raurimu.
chrysitis Feld. Three specimens of this beautiful moth at Kauri Gully.
linearis Butl. Common, especially at Waimarino.
Dolichernis cMoroleuca Meyr. Common at Raurimu and Waimarino. Profosynaema steropucha Me}rr. One only at Rangitoto Island, Auckland
Harbour. Orfhenches p)orphyritis Meyr. Kauri Gully and Waimarino ; common.
drosochalca Me}T. One only at Kauri Gully.
chlorocoma Meyr. A few in Auckland Domain.
glyptarcha Meyr. One only of this fine species at Waimarino.
Circoxena ditrocha Meyr. Two of this moth at Kauri Gully. Eschatotypa melichrysa Meyr. Auckland and Waimarino ; common. Erechthias exospila Me}T^. Two only at Kauri Gully.
hemiclistra Meyr. Common at Waimarino, attached to Cordyline
indivisa. Hedacma chasmatias Meyr. Two taken in Auckland Domain.
stilbella Newm. Common in Auckland Domain.
Crypsitricha mesotypa Meyr. Common at Kauri Gulh' and Waimarino.
roseata IVIeyr. A few at Waimarino.
HabropJiila compseuta Meyr. A few at Kauri Gully.
Endophthom omogramma Me}T. Common in Auckland Domain.
Thallostoma eurygrapka Meyr. One only at Raurimu.
Sagephora exsanguis PhUp. One or two in Auckland Domain.
Lysiphragma epixyla Me}T. A few at Waimarino.
Mallobathra crataea Meyr. Common at Waimarino.
Prothinodes grammocosma Meyr. ■ Common at Kauri Gull}^ and Waimarino,
attached to Cordyline indivisa. • Porina umbraculata Gn. Common at Ohakmie.
enysii Butl. Three fine specimens at Waimarino.
Mnesarchaea loxoscia Meyr. Common at Raurimu.
Sabatinca calliarcha Meyr. One only at Kauri Gully.
incongruella Walk. Very common at Ohakune, Erua, and W^aimarino.
doroxena Meyr. Several at Waimarino.
lucilia n. sp. A few at Kauri Gully and one at Waitomo.
Hepialis virescens Doubl. A few in Auckland Domain and one at Wai- marino.
42 Transactions.
Art. XI. — Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera.
By Alfred Philpott.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December
1919 ; issued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
Caradrinidae. Agrotis spina Guen., Nod., vol. 1, p. 269; Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal, vol. 4, p. 367.
This well-known Australian moth should be added to the list of New Zealand Lepidoptera. Dr. A. Jefieris Turner, of Brisbane, has kindly supplied me with examples, and these show that spitia has been hitherto overlooked by New Zealand lepidopterists, having been treated as a form of A. ypsilon. The males of the Australian examples which I have are more ochreous than New Zealand specimens, but the females are of almost exEtctly the same tint. The .chief difference between the species is to be found in the form of the subterminal line : in ypsiloyi this is strongly dentate, whilst iii spina it is only slightly irregular. In spina also the orbicular and reniform are connected by a prominent blackish bar, this being absent in ypsilon. These distinctions, however, apply best to the males, the females of the species being very difficult to separate.
From Dr. Turner I learn that Agrotis spina is found throughout Australia, and is in some seasons extraordinarily .abundant.
Aletia panda n. sp.
S, 33 mm. ; ?, 36 mm. Head and palpi grey, in S tinged with ochreous. Antennae in S strongly hipectinated. Thorax grey, with dark bar on collar, crests absent. Abdomen greyish-ochreous. Legs greyish-ochreous, anterior tarsi blackish annulated with ochreous. Forewings, costa almost straight, apex rounded, termen oblique, evenly rounded ; bluish-gxey, tinged with ochreous, in ? mixed with blackish-fuscous ; a black dot on cpsta at base, margined broadly with whitish ; first line faintly indicated, irregiilarly dentate, fuscous, margined anteriorly with whitish ; second line from | costa to f- dorsum, deeply and widely indented on upper half, irregularly dentate on lower half, blackish ; a thin dentate fuscous pre- subterminal line, curving beneath reniform and closely approaching second line, thence running parallel with it to dorsum, apex of teeth margined with white ; subterminal line obscure, margined anteriorly, in ^ narrowly, in $ broadly, with fuscous ; a series of fuscous dots round termen ; orbicular circular, pale, interruptedly margined with fuscous ; claviform directly beneath orbicular, circular, half as large as, and similar in colouring to, orbicidar ; reniform pale, faintly fuscous-margined : cilia ochreous with basal and post-median fuscous lines. Hind wings in (^ ochreous-fuscous, in $ fuscous : cilia ochreous, in $ with obscure fuscous line.
Very close to A. cuneata Philp. in appearance, but differing in the pectinated antennae and the, pale-centred stigmata. In the structure of the antennae and palpi the new form comes nearer to A. temenaula Meyr. I have placed the species in Aletia owing to its obvious relationship to the cuneata-temenaula group, but the arrangement of species at present adopted for our New Zealand forms in this genus and Leucania seems to me to stand in need of revision.
A single pair is all the material at present available. The male was taken by Mr. G. V. Hudson on Mount Earnslaw in January, 1914, and the female was captured by myself at Routeburn in December, 1918. The types remain in the collections of their respective discoverers.
Philpott. — IS'otes and Descriptions of N .Z. Lepidoptera. 43
Melanchra inchoata n. sp.
^ ?. 33 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax greyish-oclireous sprinkled with fuscous. Thorax in both sexes with rather prominent anterior crest. Antennae in S ciliated, cilia tions 4. Abdomen in both sexes with the first four or five segments prominently crested. Legs ochreous, tarsi annulated with fuscous. Forewings, costa almost straight, apex subacute, termeu crenate, oblique below middle ; ochreous clouded with fuscous, in $ darker ; a small pale apical patch ; a series of four or five paired fuscous dots on costa ; all lines except subterminal very obscure ; basal evenly curved, serrate, fuscous ; first and second almost obsolete, apparently double, fuscous ; a presubterminal thin serrate dark line faintly indicated ; sub- terminal conspicuous, unindented, equidistoMt with termen, white ; terminal crenations edged with black ; stigmata unusually closely grouped ; orbicular rounded, whitish, dark-centred ; claviform small, dark fuscous ; reniform dark fuscous, obscurely white-iinged : cilia ochreous, basally mixed with fuscous. Hindwings dark fuscous : cilia ochreous with dark-fuscous sub- basal line. Underwings ochreous thickly irrorated with fuscous, clear ochreous along costa and round termen of forewings ; lunules and second lines of both wings fuscous.
Belongs to the coeleno-levis group, but is easily distinguished by the form of the subte±minal line.
Stephen Island. Collected by Mr. H. Hamilton on the 9th September, 1916. I am indebted to Dr. J. A. Thomson, Director of the Dominion Museum, for the opportunity of describing this interesting species. Types, (J and $, in coll. Dominion Museum.
^, , . T ■ Sphingidae.
Choerocampa celerio Linn.
In the Transactions of the New Zealatul Institute, vol. 37, p. 369, Hudson records the first captures of this species in New Zealand, four examples having been taken in the summer of 1903-4. To this record I am able to add that of a specimen taken at Te Tua, near the southern coast of the South Island. The moth was taken by a resident of the district and forwarded to the Southland Museum, in the collection of which institution it remains. It is in fine condition, so fresh as to cast considerable doubt on the possibility of its having been wind-driven across a wide expanse of ocean.
Pyraustidae. bcoparia pascoella n. sp.
S ?• 15-18 mm. Head and palpi ferruginous-brown, palpi ochreous beneath. Antennal ciliations \. Thorax ferruginous-brown mixed with white. Abdomen fuscous-grey. Legs ochreous-grey mixed with fuscous, tarsi obscurely banded with fuscous. Forewings moderate, triangular, costa almost straight, apex round-pointed, termen hardly rounded, oblique ; ferruginous-brown mingled with some fuscous and much suffused with white ; first line hardly curved, unindented, white, broadly margined with ferruginous posteriorly ; orbicular and claviform dot^like, blackish, partially obscured by ferruginous suffusion ; reniform X-shaped, blackish, frequently obscure ; secofid line irregularly bent but not deeply indented narrow, parallel to termen, white, narrowly margined with ferrugiiious anteriorly ; subterminal line obscure, interrupted at middle, widely remote from second line, white: cilia ochreous-grey. Hindwings grey-fuscous paler anteriorly : cilia ochreous-grey with fuscous basal line.
4:4 Transactions.
Near S. organaea Meyr., but the forewings are much narrower at the base and the costa is straighter ; the second line of the two forms is quite different both in colour and form. In some examples the white suffusion is very pronounced and the markings are more or less obsolete.
I took a good series on Tooth Peaks, Wakatipu, at an elevation of about 3,000 ft., in December. The species was abundant on the moist ground near a little stream. The specific name is intended as a tribute to the memory of the late Quartermaster Merlin Owen Pascoe, who fell at La Newaille, France, a few months before the conclusion of the war. Quartermaster Pascoe did a great deal of entomological work in the Wakatipu district, and was the first entomologist to collect on Tooth Peaks.
Pyralididae. Endotricha pyrosalis Guen., Lep., vol. 8, p. 219.
Among some moths sent to me several years ago by Mr. H. Hamilton was a single example of this species, labelled " Mt. Dennan (Tararua Mountains), February, 1911." I was not at the time able to identify the specimen, and as it was not in very good condition it was set aside in the hope of obtaining further ^material. Having now, through the kindness of Dr. Jefferis Turner, procured good examples of fyrosalis from Australia, I am able to make the above record. The species has a wing-expanse of about 20 mm. The forewings are rather bright yellow, densely sprinkled with pink, especially on the apical f. The hindwings are also bright yellow, and have the termen broadly margined with pink. The patagial tufts are much elongated, reaching more than half-way to the tornus of the hindwing.
I learn from Mr. H. Hamilton that this interesting captiire could not have been made by him, as he did not visit Mount Dennan on the date recorded. He suggests that the moth was probably taken by his father, the late Augustus Hamilton.
Plutellidae. Orthenches virgata n. sp.
$. 10 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax ochreous. Antennae ochreous on basal fifth, annulated with white and black on remaining portion. Abdomen greyish-white. Legs, anterior pairs fuscous, tarsi obscurely annu- lated with ochreous, posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings moderate, costa strongly arched, apex round-pointed, termen moderately oblique ; bright ochreous with violet and purplish reflections ; a brownish fascia from beneath costa near base to dorsum at ^j ; a well-defined fascia from costa at \ to dorsum at |, slightly irregular, brownish mixed with black ; a similar fascia from costa at |, strongly angled above middle towards termen, thence to dorsum at §, where it coalesces with inwardly-oblique fascia from costa at I, both these fasciae having black patches at middle ; a white patch margining last fascia at middle ; a few black scales on central portion of dorsum : cilia ochreous, becoming fuscous round apex. Hindwings and cilia shining white.
A well-marked species, having little affinity with any other membe^' of the genus.
The type of this interesting species was taken at Auckland on the 2nd October, 1918, by Dr. A. Jeft'eris Turner, of Queensland, to whose generosity I am indebted for the specimen. Mr. Charles E. Clarke was fortunate enough to secure a second example at Waitati, Otago, in February, 1919, so that the species, though apparently rare, must be widely distributed.
Beattib. — The Southern Maori, and Greenstone. 45
Art. XII. — The Southern Maori, and Greenstone.
By H. Beattie. Communicated by H. D. Skimaer.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th Deceynber, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1919 ; issued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
While I was gathering place-names from the southern Maori they gave me a little information about greenstone which may be worth recording in print. Although greenstone is not the technical name of this stone, it is the popular one, and I shall adhere to it.
In his admirable paper in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 24, pp. 479-539, Mr. Justice Chapman states that nowhere did the Maori get greenstone in an inland locality, and thus he considers Shortland's statement that it was procured at "Lake Wakatipua " "is erroneous. The southern Maori assure me that Shortland's information was correct, and that you can still see the place where the pounamu was got at Te Koroka, a mountain up the Dart River. One old man said, "Pounamu of the inaka kind was found at Te Koroka, at the head of Whakatipu. It was the only place where it was got inland. Takiwai greenstone was found at ]VIilford and elsewhere." Another said, " Te Koroka, where they got the greenstone, is north of Wakatipu. Taumaro is the name of the mountains between Wakatipu- wai-tai and Wakatipu-wai-maori, and Te Koroka' is one of those heights."
Some of the Maori say " Wakatipu " and others " Whakatipu." It was explained to me that the word occurs in five place-names. The mountains west of the lake are called Whakatipu, aud the lake is known as Whakatipu-wai-maori (Fresh-water Whakatipu). The Dart River is Te-awa-Whakatipu, the Hollyford . River is Whakatipu-katuku, and Lake McKerrow is Whakatipu-wai-tai (Salt-water Whakatipu). These last three are all on the track by which the Maori went from the head of Lake Wakatipu to Martin's Bay, on the west coast.
One old Maori said, " Under Te Koroka is a place now called Maori Hill, I believe, but known of old as Puketai, after a chief of note who died there. 'Near this spot stood a kaika called Puia, and there the Maori lived when getting the greenstone. The general name of the whole district north of Lake Wakatipu was Te-wahi-pounamu." This last statement con- flicts with Mr. Justice Chapman's conclusion (p. 522) that Te-wai-pounamu is the correct form of the name, although there is nothing to prevent ^the latter form having been applied to the rivers on the west coast. A chapter could be written on the elision or addition of " h " in the southern dialectal usages ; and in any case — ^again to differ from the con- clusions of Mr. Justice Chapman — the pronunciations of "wai" and "waki" by a southern MaOri are often so aUke as to be indistinguishable save to an acute or trained ear.
Before leaving the subject of greenstone in the Wakatipu district I may add that Mr. James Cowan kindly lent me some notes he had gathered from the southern Maori in 1905, and among them are the following items of information : " Beyond the head of Whakatipu on the road to Martin's Bay, somewhere near Lake Harris Saddle, is the place where the Maori used to get koko-tangiivai." " Te Koroka is a bold peak at the head of Lake Whakatipu, and the Maori got a sort of coarse green- stone there."
46 Transactions.
An old Maori said to me, " Pekerakitahi is a mountain standing by itself at the head of Wakatipu "' (Mount Earnslaw). '' There is greenstone in it, because Te Ariki, who lived seven generations ago, took some pounamu from Te Koroka and hid it in Pekerakitahi, where it went like the skin of a tuatara. If you break the rock 'you will find the greenstone inside. A mountain and creek both called Pekerakitahi are at the head of Lake Wanaka, but it is the Wakatipu mountain I mean."
In regard to how long the Maori have known greenstone, I was told that Kahue (Ngahue), who visited New Zealand thirty-nine generations ago, took some back to Hawaiki with him. One piece Kahue split into three axe-heads — one for himself, called Kapakitua ; one for Kupe, named Tauira-a-pa ; and one for Rata, called Te-papa-ariari. Rata sharpened his axe-head, attached a handle, and named it Aumapu. With this axe he cut down the famous tree which the " little folk " of the forest erected again, as in the oft-repeated story.
Another story has it that Tamatea-pokai-whenua, twenty-two genera- tions ago, sailed round the South Island in search of his missing wives. Unaware that they had been wrecked off the Arahura River and turned into greenstone, Tamatea landed there, and his slave in cooking some JcoJca birds burnt his fingers, which he licked. This was a violation of tapu, and the slave, Tumuaki, was turned into the mountain since known by his name, whilst Tamatea never found his wives, their petrified bodies furnishing the greenstone, some of which has a flaw known as tufae-koka, or the dung of the birds Tumuaki was cooking wh«n he committed his thoughtless act. Mr. Justice Chapman says (p. 518), " I am unable to obtain a satisfactory meaning for koka. Mr. Tregear suggests koko (the tui), which seems probable." The l^ird was the orange-wattled crow {Glaucopis cinerea), whose name throughout the South is koka, although its confrere in the North Island {Glaucopis wilsoni) is there called kokako.
An old Maori, usually well informed, gave me a peculiar version of this tradition. He said, " I think that story about Tamatea and his three runaway wives is false. Tama-taku-ariki, often called Tama, went to Arahura in search of greenstone, which was then in human shape. He killed one, and was cooking it in an umu, when his companion burnt his finger and put in in his mouth. In consequence of this act the greenstone disappeared and they came away disappointed." •
Mr. James Cowan writes, " The wives of Tama-ki-te-Rangi (captain of the Tairea canoe) deserted him, and he searched for them from Cook Strait to Piopiotahi (Milford Sound). The flax-like kiekie {Freycinetia Banksii), which fringes the fiord for miles, sprang, according to legend, from the shreds of Tama's shoulder-mat, torn off in his forest travels. Here he found one of his wives, but she had turned into greenstone, and as Tama wept over her his tears penetrated the very rock. This is why the nephrite found on the slopes of Mitre Peak, close to Anita Bay, is called tangi-wai (the water of weeping, or tear-water). If you take a clear piece of this stone and hold it up to the light you will sometimes see marks like water-drops in it. This is the, true tangi-wai, for these are the tears of Tama-ki-te-Rangi. ' '
Whoever the chief was who pursued his fugitive wives, it is fairly certain it was not the captain of the Takitimu canoe, who bore at various times in his own proper person the names Tamatea-ariki-nui, Tamatea-mai- Tawhiti, Tamatea-ure-kotia, Tamatea-muriwhenua, and Tamatea-pokai- whenua, This illustrious chief resided for some time in southern New
Beattie. — The Southern Maorj,, and Greenstone. 47
Zealand, and at least three places near Dusky Sound perpetuate the memory of his voyage of exploration in that vicinity, but his name and fame have never, that I know of, been associated with greenstone.
Mr. Cowan has given a tradition accounting for the name tangi-wai, but the Memoirs of the Polynesian Society, vol. 4, page 138, say the name was bestowed on one kind of jadeite because of the tears of Hine-ahu over the death of Tuhua, whom her jealous husband, Tama-ahua, killed. Tama-ahua, twenty-nine generations ago, led a party to get poimamu at Arahura, and not only was tangi-vjai named then, but two other kinds of jadeite were named also — kahurangi and hawakawa ; while through a fire that occurred the kahotea kind of pounamu was burnt, which accounts for its peculiar marking.
The same authority states that Kupe, thirty-nine generations ago, was the first ,to discover the jadeite, or pounamu. The locality was the Arahura River. The river at the time was swarming with whitebait (inariga), which the party proceeded to catch. Kupe's daughter picked a stone out of the river to act as a sinker to the net, and the one she seized was different from any they had seen before, and so it was called inanga, this remaining to the present day the name of this valued kind of pounamu.
I have a note as follows : " Piopiotahi was a canoe which came from Hawaiki. Kahotea was the captain and Tangiwai one of the crew, and two kinds of greenstone now bear these names."
The conflicting evidence regarding the discovery and naming of the various kinds of pounamu occurs because the accounts are gleaned from different tribes, who each have an explanation based on ancestral lore, although it must be admitted that all the traditions are not of equal probability and merit.
The first settlement of people of Maori blood in the South Island of which we possess reliable information is that under Rakaihautu, a chief who flourished forty-two generations ago. His people were called Waitaha, »and their descendants were numerous in the South Island when the last and principal influx of Maoris occurred, twenty-two generations ago. This Waitaha people used weapons of bone and wood, and the late Tare-te- Maiharoa said of them, " They did not know gretenstone, but used a glassy stone known as takiwai." Takiwai is the southern pronunciation of tangi- wai, said to be the most transparent variety of jade and to come from Milford Sound, so that apparently my informant did not class it as a proper greenstone, which, of course, is scientifically correct.
Pounamu was classed with fish, according to Dr. Shortland, and there are numerous legends in this connection outside the scope of this paper, but the only reference I have to the Rapuwai people knowing any form of greenstone has a distinctly piscatorial aspect. A sub-tribe of Rapuwai known as Kati-Koko, said my informant, went round to Milford Sound, and, finding a huge piece of greenstone in the sea, set out to drive it round to Foveaux Strait. Three canoes followed it — one on each side and one behind, and yet it nearly escaped several times. They almost got it ashore at Oraka (near Riverton), but it dodged on till it settled where it is, and it now forms Motupiu (Dog Island, near Blufi). My informant added that if you went down into the interior of that island you would find it hollow and supported on three legs, or columns, of greenstone.
When the Kati-Mamoe Tribe were pushed out of the North Island some time after the arrival of the six canoes, twenty-two generations ago, they spread southward and intermarried with the Waitaha and Rapuwai Tribes
48 Transactions.
One of my informants, a descendant of these tribes, said to me, " There are four kinds of greenstone, but the Kati-Mamoe never used them. The North Island people did not make trips for greenstone as early as they say, for the first expedition to get it went from Kaiapohia and fought the Patea people in Westland. The people of Eaumano who settled on the West Coast had greenstone before either the Kati-Mamoe or Kai-Tahu Tribes came to this island."
A Maori of Kati-Mamoe descent says, " The Kati-Mamoe remained on the east and south sides of the South Island, and had no greenstone weapons until the Kai-Tahu brought these among them. In some of the old encampments at Kawhakaputaputa and elsewhere in Murihiku you can find the uri, ox slatestone axes, and parahi, or flint knives, of the old people of the Kati-Mamoe before they used greenstone."
Greenstone was brought under the notice of the Kai-Tahu Tribe in Canterbury by a woman named Raureka, who, accompanied by her dog, found a way through the dividing range between Westland and Canterbury. Both Stack and Wohlers call her a mad woman, but I should ' scarcely like to infer that she was, seeing she is an ancestress of an esteemed old friend of mine. She married a man called Puhou, and by the genealogy furnished me I note she flourished ten generations ago. The Kai-Tahu invasion of the South Island took place in the year 1650 approximately, and ten generations back from 1900 places the birth of Raureka as about 1650 also ; so if we allow she was twenty when she made her exploring trip, we can put down A.D. 1670 as somewhere near the time when Kai-Tahvi became interested in procuring greenstone.
I was told that two West Coast Maori, named Pakiha and Taka-ahi, came over to Canterbury and were acting as brigands, pouncing on solitary wayfarers, whom they killed and ate. Rakitamau killed them, but before doing so elicited information as to the route to the West Coast. He and his sons (Weka and Marama) followed the directions and arrived at a lake where was a store of greenstone, guarded just then by oilly an old man and woman. They killed the old couple and used them as provisions on- the way back to Kaiapohia, which they entered in triumph, carrying as much greenstone as they could bring. The time of this occurrence is not stated, but I take it to be before the war expedition led by Rakitamau at the time when he killed Uekanuka.
The possession of greenstone weapons was an advantage to Kai-Tahu in their conflicts with Kati-Mamoe, but the latter gradually acquired the valued pounamu. It is faid that one of the weapons of Marakai, one of the most valiant Kati-Mamoe chiefs, was a jw^mamu toki. For a long time the Kati-Mamoe, a tangata-whenua people, were inferior to Kai-Tahu, who belonged to the conquering strain, whose achievements in Maoriland were analogous to the Norman Conquest in England. They were inferior both in weapons and prowess, but as they were pushed back from Canterbury into Otago and Southland they roused themselves, and, to quote one of my informants, they " fought like tigers," with a result that the two tribes amalgamated and were so found by the white people.
That the Kati-Mamoe possessed greenstone is evident from the tradi- tions concerning the Otaupiri pa, on the north side of the Hokanui Hills. After Tu-te-Makohu killed Kaweriii at the fight of Waitaramea (also known as Tarahaukapiti) he lived at Otaupiri. Of the presence of greenstone in this pa I have been told no fewer than eight times. " There is, or was, a-. spring close to the pa,'' said the first man who told me of this famous piece of pounamu, " and it is, or was, covered over with a greenstone slab,
Beattie. — The Southern Maori, and Greenstone. 49
which has never been found yet." Another said, " There was a well in the fa of Tu-te-Makohu, and its top was covered by a celebrated slab of green- stone " ; and another added these details : " I will let you into a secret. In a creek near Taupiri eight valuable mere are buried under a ^ab of green- stone which was concealed in the creek-bed. There is also in that hidden ' store a beautiful greenstone taialia, which is said to be 3 ft. long. I have never heard of any one making a proper search for that buried treasure placed there by our ancestors."
In regard to the last remark, one old man said to me, " Several people, including the late Tame Parata, once went up to try and get Tu-te-Makohu's greenstone at Otaupiri, but the search was without result. Tu-te-Makohu died at that jm and was buried on a hilltop which can be seen for miles round. His maipi was put upright in the ground to mark his burial-place."
One old man gave some information which may refer to the foregoing, or it may be a different incident altogether : " In a creek up about the head of the Waimumu Stream, in the Hokanui Hills, is a big hole that wa« used in old times to get water from, Somewhere near it a noted green- stone mere was buried in the creek-bed. This mere is said to have once belonged to a great woman, and it was secreted to preserve it from falling into strange hands. It was buried by a woman who was the only one of her family left at that place, and she hid it secretly so the rest of the people would not know, and it has never been found to this day as far as is known."
The hiding of valued pieces of greenstone was quite common. Rawiri- te-Awha had once lived at Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, and he buried some greenstone there. One of my informants was up there with Rawiri and some other Maori in 1872, and one night a companion and he went to the site of Rawiri's old whare and dug up the greenstone and had a look at it. They carefully replaced it, and as the party came away without it my informant considered it would be there still, although he has never been back in the locality to ascertain the changes made by the white man's occupation.
At one point near Port Molyneux, tradition says, a whare stood many generations ago, and that when the chief called Makatu was killed on the headland above his heart was brought down and roasted before this ancient dwelling. My informant had dug down at the spot and found traces of habitation, coming on an old bone mere, beautifully carved, but unfortunately half burnt. He also found a greenstone weapon of unusual design, and this he gave to Captain Bollons, of the s.^. " Hinemoa." The hill behind the old pilot station at Port Molyneux is called Kaoriori, after a block of greenstone of this name which had been brought there and broken up to manufacture. A rivulet running from the hills near Kaitangata is called Te Waihoaka because in it, according to a correspondent of mine, " were found large quantities of a hard stone (lioaka) much sought after by the Maori for grinding greenstone and other stones and fashioning them into ornaments, as well as for making tools and other implements, an art in which the Maori attained truly marvellous skill."
It was natural, of course, that greenstone should be used as a medium of exchange, and two of these barters were mentioned to me. The first was that some valuable pieces of greenstone changed hands for the right to squat {noho) on certain lands in Otago at the time Rauparaha was raiding the people of North Canterbury. The other recorded that a fast canoe, named Kura-matakitaki, was made at Matainaka (near Waikouaiti) by Rimurapa and Horuwai some time before the whalers came. ' Pahi was anxious to secure it, and tlii" be did by giving greenstone in exchange. He
50 Transactions.
took it round south with him to Foveaux Strait. The whalers subsequently named a place (Pahi's, near Orepuki) after this chief.
Te Horo is the name of the place in Milford Sound where the takiwai {tangiwai) greenstone is got. It is a clifi-face behind Anita Bay. Piopio- tahi, as I understand it, was originally the name of the C'leddau Jiiver, but is now applied to the whole soimd. The Maori went round in canoes from Murihiku (Southland) to Piopiotahi to get takiwai up to about fifty or sixty years ago. It is said by the southern Maori that, although the greenstone at Milford was inferior, good pounamu could be got at Barn Bay, some distance farther north.
One old man said to me, " In 1841 Anglem, Gilroy, Stirling, and others started trading with Sydney in flax, and they also opened up greenstone- quarries about Milford. The flax was properly dressed (tvhitau). They had natives getting greenstone at Piopiotahi, and they took this greenstone to the North Island and exchanged it for plenty of flax, which they could sell at Sydney for £70 or £80 a ton. While getting the pounamu at IMilford a boat, overloaded with the stone, capsized and sank between two rocks."
Some years ago I had a chat with Mrs. Gilroy, who was a daughter of Captain Anglem, and was born on the west coast, near Puysegur Point, about the year 1832. She narrated : " After taking flax to Sydney my father came back and took one lot of greenstone to "China. The stone was got at Piopiotahi, or Milford, and neither Stirling nor Gilroy had anything to do with it. My father was living at the Bluff then. Captain Waybone (?), of the schooner ' Success,' was washed overboard one stormy night off the Bluff, and the vessel came in and lay here five or six weeks. Johnny Jones, who was part-owner, got my father to take the schooner back to Sydney. My father came back in a brig,' 'The Eoyal Mail,' and, picking up all the old natives here, he took them round to Milford to get greenstone. I was a girl at the time. The owner of ' The Royal Mail ' came over in the ' Anita ' and sailed round to Milford, and after they got a cargo of green- stone both vessels proceeded to China." Here the narrative unfortunately ends. I was gathering Maori place-names — Mrs. Gilroy gave me a long and valuable list — and did not pursue the subject of greenstone further.
One thing that has always struck me is the great number of greenstone tools, weapons, and ornaments that has been found in Otago, and also the very wide extent over which the finds range. Either the population was much larger at one time, or the limited number of inhabitants worked unceasingly to produce such a quantity of manufactured stone. Then, again, the Maori must have been very happy-go-lucky or indifferent in their care of possessions so valuable to a people in the Stone Age. Although much may have been buried with the dead or hidden in the earth for safety and left there through the owners dying, yet a large quantity has been found lying on the ground as if carelessly thrown down by travelling parties and left unretrieved and forgotten. As already inferred, these greenstone articles (" curios," the pakeha calls them)' have been found in most parts of Otago. Among other localities where such have been found, I see I have a note that an axe-head was picked up on the top of the Old Man Range, near the Kawarau end. Many farmhouses throughout Otago possess greenstone curios picked uj) in the neighbour- hood, and if the whole could be gathered in one place, together with museum collections and private collectors' hoards, it would, I am sure, make an array of astonishing extent. Several days ago, too, at a place near where I am writing in Gore, a big adze-head was dug up, and much more mav still be found.
Beattie. — The Southern Maori, and Greenstone. 51
Addenda.
The testimony of the southern Maori that greenstone was got at the head of Lake Wakatipu raises the query, What is the correct form of the name Wakatipu ? Shortland gives the name as " Wakatipua " in the two maps in his book. The Southern Districts of New Zealand, and at page 205 also spells the name with a final " a," but at page 35 he refers to the lake as " Wakatipu."
Its correct form is one of the conundrums in Maori nomenclature. The difficulty is threefold : Should there be an '" h^" in the name, or a final "'a," or both ? I referred the anatter to the best-informed of the southern Maori, and have nine opinions regarding it, but cannot say I am much further ahead.
Two of the old men said the name was Wakatipu, and meant '' growing canoe " ; but w^hy it was growing they knew not, except it was a sort of magic canoe. Another also said the first part of the name w^as ivaka, not whaka. He had never heard the reason for the name, but considered it was a canoe to cross the lake. An old woman said she had heard no tradi- tions to account for the name, but the old people she had known usually called the lake by the name of Whakatipu-wai-maori. An old man said, " Whakatipu means ' to grow,' ' to nourish,' and the reason the name was given was because the Waitaha and Kati-Mamoe tribes when beaten in war retired there to rear families." But against this one of the best authorities on southern history says it is a Waitaha name given long before the Kati-Mamoe appeared in the south. The Waitaha, h^ says, were descended from Toi, Eauru, and Rakaihautu, and why they named the lake " Whakatipu " is not known, but, as far as he knew, it was not after any chief or ancestor. The late Tare-te-Maiharoa said he did not know who named Wakatipu, nor why. It was a Waitaha name, and its origin had been lost in antiquit}'. Another usually well-informed man said he had never heard the origin of the name, nor did he even know the correct form of the word. The last opinion I got was from a man who gave me numerous place-names of the lake vicinity, and he said the Waitaha bestowed the name Whakatipu. The word whaka (or, as the North- Islanders would say, whanga) meant " a bay," and tijpu meant '' growing," but he had never heard why the Waitaha applied the name.
In regard to information derived by Europeans from Maori sources, Mr. Henry P. Young, who got his information at Colac Bay, wTote in 1903, "■ Wakatipu should be Wakatipua, the waka or hollow of the tijma or demon from the w^ell-known legend." Mr. Henry E. Nickless, waiting in 1898, said that Hoani Matewai Poko, a son of Te Waewae, told him the proper name of the lake was Whakatipu and not W^hakatipua. Mr. H. M. Stow^ell (Hare Hongi), in 1898 — the year the stamp was printed with " Wakitipu " on it — wrote that the name should be Whakatipu ; and he was followed by Mr. S. Percy Smith, who wrote, " Mr. Stowell may be right about Whakatipu, although Tare Wetere assures me that it should be Whakatipua, and I am inclined to think that the name should be Wakatipua." Halswell in his 1841 map spelt the name " Wakatopa." James F. Healey, writing in 1898, said that the Waitaki Maori in 1856 gave him the name as Whakatipu, and said it was a mighty lake that existed near a greenstone river. A white settler told me that the Maori had told him the name was Waka-tipua because a phantom canoe used to drift on the lake. In Mr. Cowan's notes was one — '" Whakatipu (?) was the name of a canoe in which the Maoris went to fetch the koko-
52 Transactions.
tangiwai from across Lake Whakatipu." Mr. Cowan says in his Maoris of New Zealand the full name of the lake is Te-roto-whakatipu-whenua.
The late Mr. W. S. Young, of Otakeho, writing to me regarding his surtey trips in 1857-59, said a very intelligent old Maori, Kawana by name, told them he used " to live at a large lake called Wakatapu, the only place where greenstone could be obtained. Opposite their settlement on the shore of the lake was a great cliff, which occasionally broke away, when the chief would launch his sacred canoe, Wakatapu — hence the name given to the lake — and, paddling across, obtain pieces of greenstone and distribute them among the tribe. Ultimately the northern Maori came after greenstone and destroyed the lake tribe. . . . When or how the name first degenerated from Wakatapu to Wakatipu is more than I can tell. Had we lived in southern Otago I think the lake would have been called Wakatapu (sacred canoe)." Mi. Young saw the lake and a slip in a cliff from the top of the Shotover Mountains ; but as he soon after removed to the North Island he never saw at close quarters the Roto Wakatapu and the Pari Pounamu (greenstone clifi) described by old Kawana.
In a letter to me Mr. S. Percy Smith says he is inclined to think the name should be Whaka-tipua, and that is also my conclusion. An old legend says the lake-bed was formed by a giant ogre or tipua, called Kopu-wai, being burnt there. Shortland wrote wakapapa instead of whakapapa, so he may also have written " Wakatipua " for " Whakatipua." The tradition of a canoe crossing the lake for greenstone will probably be true, but it has become grafted into or intermixed with the older story that the great hollow in which the lake lies was formed by the ashes of the giant. Hence we find the conflicting opinions already recorded. The matter cannot be regarded as settled yet, but it is hoped that the foregoing information may help towards a solution.
The question as to whether the name is rightly Wai-pounamu or Wahi- pounamu is an interesting one. The southern Maori was almost as bad as the cockney for deleting and adding the aspirate. - Dozens of examples could be given, but one will suffice here. There is an island east of Stewart Island, and its name is Wahi-taua, but it is usually called Wai- taua. Even in Mr. Justice Chapman's paper there are two illustrations of this trait. One kind of greenstone is called aukunga on page 513, and on page 515-.it is called hauhunga. On page 509 an ear-pendant is termed kapehu and also kapeu. One of my informants found a kapen. on Pigeon Island (Wawahi-waka), Lake ' Wakatipu, in the year 1864. It must be very old, as it was worn white". As far as I know, he has it still in his possession. To revert to Wai-pounamu and Wahi-pounamu, I think it is probable both forms were used — the former for the rivers of Westland, where pounamu was got in the water, and the latter for perhaps Piopiotahi and Te Koroka, where it was procured from clifis or mountain-sides.
Mr. Cowan gives the kind of greenstone that was found at the head of Lake Wakatipu as koko-tangiivai, but I was told it Avas inaka (or inanga). I heard recently that a European resident in that locality had come across what he considered to be an old greenstone-quarry. If that be so, we should be able to ascertain something more than we know at present about this traditional pounamu hunting-ground.
Beattie. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 53
Art. XIII. — Nature-lore of the- Southern Maori.
By H. Beattie. Communicated by H. D. Skinner.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th December, 1910 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1919 ; issued separately, 4th June, 1920.]
In collecting the traditions and place-names of the Maori of Otago and Southland I have gathered a great mass of information, some of which has recently been published elsewhere. There remains, however, a con- siderable quantity of material which has never been printed, and some of this relating to nature may be of interest. It must be understood that I am not trying to deal exhaustively with the various phases of this extensive subject, but simply to record what the southern Maori have occasionally said to me about it. The Maori gave me some nine hundred place-names hitherto unrecorded by the pakeha, and it was while giving these names that they mentioned tjie following facts. Where the terms " North " and " South " are used, reference is made to the districts north or south of Timaru, Canterbury.
The Kanakana, or Lamprey.
The general name for the lamprey is piharau in the North and kayia- kana in the South. One of my informants said that there are at least four different kinds of kanakana, or, if counted as all one species, the Maori had names for them at four separate stages or at different sizes. These names are — (1) Te-ika-tiikituki-wai ; (2) te-ika-totoe-ivai ; (3) matua- iwi-papaho ; (4) te ru. Some rivers might have all four kinds, and other rivers fewer. They went up certain rivers only, and they shunned others ,for no apparent reason ; but evidently something in the water, either in taste or in plant or animal life, or in .the situation of rocks, &c., attracted or repelled them. My informant added that the kanakana 'would not come up the Karoro Creek, but swarmed up the Molyneux River, whose mouth is about two miles distant. They proceed up the rivers until they find their passage barred by rocks, and to these rocks they cling with their sucker-like mouths and are easily caught. One of my informants combated the statement that the kanakana lived on whitebait, saying that its food was the kohuwai, a green mossy growth which adheres to the rocks.
The most famous of the spots where the Maori assembled every October and November to catch the lampreys was Te Au-nui (Mataura Falls). Only certain hapti (families) had the right to fish there, and each familv had a strictly defined pa (fishing spot), the right to which had been handed down from their ancestors. The names of some of these pa were (1) Wai- kana, (2) 0-te-hakihaki, (3) Rerepari, (4) Mataniho-o-Hukou, (5) Mupuke- a-Rahui (6) Otautari. The names of the others are forgotten.
The falls on the Pomahaka River named Opurere were also a celebrated kanakana fi.shery. An old man tells me that the people used to go there every October and November, and after catching all they could they would return to their homes to plant potatoes. There were six pa (fishing-allotments) at Opurere, and, beginning from the south side, the names were (1) Mataniho-o-Muka, (2) Tu-kutu-tahi, (3) Te-awa-inaka, (4) Patu-moana (this is a small island), (5) Rau-tawhiri, (6) Te Rerewa.
54 Transactions.
Other places at which kanakana might be caught were Te Rere-o-Kaihiku (Kaihiku Falls), Hehetu a small fall where the Orawia runs into the Waiau, Waipapa-o-Karetai, on the Silverstream, and elsewhere.
It must not be thought that persons entitled to take the lampreys from a certain section of rock could proceed to do so at haphazard. It was a matter that had to be gone about with karakia (incantations) and due observance of time-honoured customs. Each of the falls was protected bv a guardian taepo* (spectre), and if a person offended against- tradition, woe betide him. The taepo of the Mataura Falls was a magic dog. It was explained to me as a rock which stuck out of the water about where the Mataura Freezing- works are, and, although it looked like a rock at ordinary- times, to one who was guilty of desecration it would miraculously change, and appear as an ogre possessing a dog's head, paws, and body, but with a fish's tail. The luckless wight who saw it thus was doomed to disaster unless he could invoke powerful charms to ward off the evil.
The taepo of the Pomahaka Falls was also an uncanny thing to provoke. It frequented the tiny island known as Patu-moana, and took the shape of a giant eel. These spectres did not trouble those who proceeded to take the kanakana in the correct manner as prescribed by ancestral usage.
To supplement what the Maori told me about the kanakana, I may add that the late Mr. N. Chalmers, of Fiji, wi'iting to me in 1910, said, "" I reached Tuturau in September, 1853. This was in the kanakana season, and I was much interested in the way in which the Natives caught the lampreys. On the top of the falls there are — or were at that time — three large potholes about 6 ft. deep, and full of stones. These were cleared out and strong stakes put in each ; then as the kanakana came crawling up and .clinging to the rocky wall of the falls the Maori, leaning on the stakes, reached out their hands and, grasping the fish, put them in the korari eel-pots handy. It took them only about ten minutes to fill one pot, when another took its place. The superstition of the Maori is very marked, for Reko told me that if an enemy or any one threw a firestick into the falls, then the kanakana would desert the locality ; so, needless to say, I was very careful to avoid hurting their feelings. . , . When I was at Hokanui in 1858 I had a stockman called George, a Sussex man, who came to the house one afternoon with a face as white as a sheet and swearing he had seen an eel at least a mule long at the Longford (now Gore). I. got on my horse and went with him, and when I saw the phenomenon I was not surprised at his statement ; for I saw a colunan of kanakana more than a mile long, swimming in a round mass exactly like a large eel, so beautifully were they keeping a circular shape." Mr. F. L. Mieville, who stayed at Tuturau in 1854, writes, " The natives were very good to us and supplied us with potatoes, also kanakanas much resembling leather with a strong flavour of train-oil — they were dried and very hard."
The Maori Dog. The question of who introduced the Maori -dog to New Zealand has aroused discussion at various times. Maori tradition says that some of the canoes which came here from Hawaiki a.d. 1350 brought dogs ; but some people consider that the inhabitants of New Zealand before that time had dogs. Thus in the story of Kopuwai (one of the oldest legends in the South Island annals — it must be much over a thousand years
* V
taijM. Williams says taepo is not used by the Maori. — Ed.
Beattie. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 55
old) we are tx)ld he had a pack of ten two-headed dogs. Be that as it may, we know that when the pakeha came to New Zealand they found Maori dogs extant. In Otago and Southland these dogs roamed the interior, living on the countless flocks of native birds that thronged everywhere. The animals made inroads into the runholders' flocks and were hunted down and exterminated. Some white men considered that these dogs were descendants of ones liberated by Captain Cook or of those that had got away fronq. the whalers, but there is no doubt whatever that they were genuine Maori dogs. They had woolly hair, sharp-pointed noses, pointed ears, and never barked, the noise they made being a long, melancholy howl. According to European observers, some of these dogs were pure white, others black-and-white, arid others fawn. The Maori called them kuri, and several places in Otago and on Stewart Island bear names reminiscent of these animals. Asked concerning these dogs, two of the old Maori said the huri was usually of a black-and-white colour, and another old man said they were often reddish -tan. One said, " It had long hair, a bushy tail, a short, sharp nose, and a small head. They were very wary, but could be caught by tying up a bitch (uha) and leaving it, when the wild ones would come round it. These dogs were in New Zealand long before Captain Cook came, as our traditions show ; but when they began to run wild I cannot say."
Another said, " The kuri was the Maori dog. The reason why one lot of Maori came to New Zealand was because some of them who were not high-class people stole a dog and dte it. Through this they were forced to leave Hawaiki. Before the pakeha came our people used to sometimes castrate (ivhakapoka) these dogs and then fatten and eat them. They had long hair, and their skins made fine mats called tr>pu7ii, and rugs. When
1 was a boy I remember a fine kuri belonging to a native called Koati in Westland. It had a big body and short legs A man named McDonald bought it as a curio for £2 ; but he tied it up and it jumped the fence and was strangled."
Another said, " I never heard how the kuri came to New Zealand. The skins were cut into strips and made into rugs. I once saw a kakahu (garment) made of them — it was a taniko cloak. Its colour was white and black, and some of the hair had been stained red with dye from a tree like the miro but whose name I forget."
A shepherd speaking of wild dogs on Knapdale Run in 1858 said, " A family of red ones seemed to frequent the lower flat, while those on the upper flat were yellow."
The question of the kuri, or Maori dog,. still requires much investigation.
Lizards and Tuatara.
Having read that the Maori had a superstitious awe of lizards, I asked about them, but got little satisfaction. One old man said, " I know three kinds of lizards. The one which lives in the cracks in rocks is karara- papani, the greenish one is called kakariki, and the common one is karara- toro-pakihi. I know nothing of the tuatara." Another said, " The kind of lizard known as mokakdriki was perhaps so called because its colour was like the plumage of a parrakeet. The general name was karara. I have never seen or heard of tuatara down here, but I have seen a lizard about
2 ft. long. It was on top of one of the Hokanui Hills and, because I had had a bad dream the night before, I killed the karara with a big stone, lit a fire, and burnt it. It was the biggest lizard I ever saw. A wise old
56 Transactions.
man told me afterwards that it was a good job I had killed and burnt the lizard and so stopped any evil coming to me because of my dream. Some of the old Maori used to eat lizards. You could tame them for pets so that they would come when their names were called, and thev would lie and sleep alongside you. One such pet, Te Horo-mokai by name, was kept at Motu-kai-puhuka (village near ICaitangata), but it was lost, and although it was seen later eating tutti it was never caught again." Another said, " Tuafara were down on Auckland Island, an^ Mrs. Cameron, of Riverton, got two from there. They had fins on their heads and backs. I reckon the Maori had been down there before the Europeans came, and had a look round but thought it no good and never settled there." My last informant on this subject stated that legend averred that at Mason's Bay, Stewart Island, some people saw tnatara eggs and broke them ; the tuatara came after them and they killed it. The names of two small islets in Lake Wanaka commemorate lizards — viz., Taki-karara and Te Pae-karara. " Only the big kind of lizard was called karara " (see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 7, p. 295).
#
The Maori Rat.
Some people have expressed abhorrence of the idea of eating rats, but my Maori friends were careful to explain that the Maori rat was an altogether different creature from the filth-eating European rat. The Maori rat was a fruit-'^ater and a cleanly animal. One old Maori told me that once a party of white whalers was wrecked in the West Coast Sounds and walked overland. They were glad to eat the Maori rats, which were then feeding on the fruit of the kowhai, and were big and fat. " Long Harry," one of the party, told my informant that the rats were " very good." My informant added that some of these rats had hair like the' opossum, and that the general name for the rats was kiore, but one kind was called pouhawaiki. Another old man said the Maori rat was not found on Stewart Island, although it was plentiful on the mainland. It was a fruit-eater, and was snared. An old song mentioned that Tawera, near Oxford, in Canterbury, was the best place to go if one wanted a feast of More (rats). A well-informed kaumatua (elder) said that the Maori rat was called kiore-tawai, and was once very plentiful. It was grey, but not like the colour of our present rodents. It would not eat flesh, but only fruit and berries. Pouhawaiki, he said,, was the name of the introduced, or European, rat.
Near the mouth of the Molyneux is a bank called Te Rua-koi, which I was told meant " a hole made by the rats." When they were fat the Maori would go and. dig them out. My informant was certain that was the correct name of the locality, and that the getting of the rats out of their lairs was why it was so named. Anothc^r Maori, well versed in nature-lore, said he had never seen the Maori rat [kiore maori he called it), although a very old white settler had told him of seeing it many years ago in that district. According to what he had heard, this rat liked to live in mossy places in swampy ground. It made holes in the moss, and the nest was known as rua kiore. That this creature existed before the pakeha canae he knew from tradition ; also the ancient name of a creek near Otaraia was Tapiri-kiore, which meant " two rats walking together." In fact, there were two creeks with this name. Leaving Poupoutmioa (Clinton) and going through the Kuriwao Gorge you come to Tapiri-kiore- tuatahi {tuatdhi = first), and then to Ta])iri-kiore-rahi {raid = big). Then you cross Te Kauaka-o-Waipahi (the ford of the Waipahi), and go on to Te Au-nui (Mataura Falls).
Beattie. — Kature-lore of tjie Southern Maori. 57
The pioneer rimholders on the Waimea Plain found '' futtahs " [ivhata = storehouse) k^ft by former Maori inhabitants. These whata were erected on the top of two stout, high posts, each of which had a nick round it about 18 in. from the ground to prevent the rats from getting up to the provisions, so evidently the Maori rat had some sort of predilection for Maori food, notwithstanding it was reputedly frugivorous.
Settlers of the late " fifties " speak of the plague of rats that overran Otago, but I presume these were European rats. On the subject of the h'ore, or Maori rat, like that of the kuri, or Maori dog, we could do with much more information.
The Mutton-birds.
The titi (mutton-bird) is a favourite item of food with Maori and pakelia alike. The edible qualities of this bird were, I was told, unknown to the Waitaha and Kati-Mamoe Tribes. It was the first two Kai-Tahu visitors to Ruapuke who discovered that the pi-titi (young mutton-birds) were good eating. Ruapuke was then uninhabited, and these two chiefs, Potoma and Rerewhakaupoko (two of the titi islands are named after them), visited it, and on the small adjacent island of Papatea saw rua (holes) and inserted their hands and pulled out the plump young titi. It is said that they preserved the mutton-birds and some human flesh in alternate layers in a poha (bag) made of rimu (kelp), and that those to whom it" was given as, a kaihaukai (gift of food) relished it exceedingly. This was, as far as can be ascertained, about two hundred years ago, and since then he poha-titi (a kelp bag) has always been the receptacle to hold these birds, fat being poured over the contents and acting as an efficient preservative
A very old, Maori said to me, "March is the season for mutton-birds, and I went after them many years ago although I have never been inland after weka. Titi was the general name for mutton - birds, but a small kind was called koruri, and there were other kinds whose names I cannot recall."
Another said, " There are three principal kinds of mutton-birds. The chief one is a black bird, and is simply called titi ; another kind is black- and-white, and is called titi-wainui ; and another kind is titi-ariki. This is a grey bird, and is very scarce."
Still another remarked, " I know no legends about the titi and .its catching, killing, or preserving. A small kind is called korure, and the kind known as ivainui is rather rare." This informant went on to say that some of the .larger titi islands were divided into manu, or bird-preserves, for different families. For instance, on Herekopare Island there were five manu — viz., Te Tihi, Kuri, Te Upoko-o-Tamairaki, Hotunui, and Te Ahi- o-Pere.
There was evidently some etiquette observed about taking the titi, as an old and respected Maori of the South received his name from the following circumstance. It was the rule that one party arriving on an island before the other parties entitled to do so should wait until the arrival of all before starting operations. In this case the first party caught some birds at once and were roasting them when another party came. High words led to blows, and my informant's mother joined in the melee with a kohikii (a skewer or stick used to roast birds before a fire), and in consequence when he was born a few months later he was called Kohiku Titi.
I was told that the general name for the islands round Stewart Island was Mai-ko-kai, meaning that they were places to come to for food. (Perhaps this name should be Mahika-kai.)
58 • Transactions.
Eels (Tuna).
An old Maori said to me that there were three kinds of eels that he knew. The horepara is a light green, with white belly and white underjaw, and is good for eating. The arokehe is a black eel, with big head, strong jaw, thick skin, and does not taste very good^ Owing to the thickness of its skin another name for it is kirirua (" two skins " or " double skin "). The tunwpou is still bigger in the head than the arokehe and tapers to a very small tail. It has the same kind of skin as the kirirua, and is not eaten by the Maori but thrown away when caught.
All or nearly all fish spawn in salt water, my informant thought, but he was not so sure of eels. Lots of eels are cast up on the bars at the mouths of rivers, and the old Maori would say these were aged breeding- eels, which were done. It was only breeding-eels which came down to the sea and then went back up the river. When they came down to spawn you would not see them unless they were cast up on the beach. This was about June. You could catch them in the rivers from August to May, but not many in the latter month, as it was too cold for them. In the town of Wyndham there is a lagoon called Pipi-a-Manawa, and it is fed by a spring called Matatiki, and he remembered old Tangatahuruhuru telling him this spring was a winter retreat of the tuna (eels). You could see the hole in the ground from which the spring came, and' it was almost blocked with eels in winter, the reason being that spring water is warmer than river water. In the Otu Creek just before it enters the Mataura River there is a > hole which is another winter resort of the eels. They used to congregate thickly in that spot, and if you threw in a stone they would swarm out in great agitation. There was a season for catching everything, continued the old man, but eels could be caught the whole year round in some places, although from a food view the best time to catch them was from Christmas-time to Febn;ary, as the flies were not so bad then, and the eels could be dried {tauraki). Hang them up for three weeks, then put in an umu (earth-oven), cook, and put into a poha (kelp bag), which can be bound with totara bark and flax, and there you have your delicious eel-flesh preserved for an indefinite period. '
Eels from the rivers, continued my informant, are not so good as those from the lakes, as the flesh is not so firm. The eels in the lagoons were all right if one just wanted a few eels for daily use, but there were not enough eels in the lagoons, as a rule, to make it worth while to fish for them for preserving purposes. The lakes known to the Maori as Roto-nui-o-Whatu and Kaitiria — but now called by the white settlers Lake Tuakitoto and Lake Kaitangata — ^were great eeling-places, but to be truly successful one had to be careful to say the right karakia (invocations) before starting operations. The eels were usually caught in eel-pots {rohe- waimn), the basket or cage part of which was called hinnki. A smaller kind of eel-pot,, called hinaki-kanakana, was used for catching kanakana (lampreys) ; and, strange to say, eels will not go into this, and, vice versa, kanakana will not go into the ordinary eel-pots. There was one kind of net to catch one size of eel, as a rule, but there was another mesh which could be used to catch all sizes. Eel-pots were sometimes made of flax in the South, as it took a lot of work and manipulation to make them of the toraro vine.
All the foregoing information was from one man, but I have still three further notes. One man said, " At Manawapore (Upper Mavora Lake) there is a stone eel-trap. Old Rawiri told us, if we went there, to block
Bbattib. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 59
the end, to lift the stone and take out the eels, then go up forward and lift the next stone door and take out more eels. It is a very old trap, and is partly natural and partly made."
Mr. James Cowan collected the following note from southern sources : "At Little Mavora (Hikuraki) there is an artificial stone hinaki with. a door for eels to get in. It was built by the old Ngati-Mamoe people — they put a stone cover on." The two notes evidently refer to the same "■ stone eel-pot," but its discovery has never been repotted by white men.
Another old man speaking about eeling said, " A fine place to get eels is at Miki-oe, near Dr. Menzies' old run, near the Mokoruta River, now miscalled Mokoreta. It is a spring and creek where the eels go in the winter-time because the water is warm."
A large number of place-names in Otago and Southland perpetuate the ancient Maori Hove for the toothsome tuna. There are a number of places called Kaituna and Waituna (eel-stream), one of the latter being' in the West Coast Sounds region. A lagoon near Gore is called after a man, Tunarere ; and Taieri Lake, in Central Otago, was named after a chief, Tuna-heketaka. Of nomenclature which does not bear its significance on its face two names occur to me. A tributary of the Waiau is Kaipurua Creek, and I was informed the name meant a pair of eels eating at one bait or " two eels on one bob." Murikauhaka was an anc'ent village at the old mouth of the Mata-au (Molyneux), and I was told the name means — ■ muri, " the end " ; hauhaha, " a hole in a bank where an eel has its quarters."
The figurative name for the Canterbury seaboard is Ka Poupou a Te Rakihouia, because that chief, over a thousand years ago, erected posts and built pa-tuna (eel-weirs)^ at the mouths of the rivers. These weirs were continued until comparatively recently, but I have no description of them as yet. ,.
Mr. F. L. Mieville, wi'iting of his experiences with the Maori in Otago in 1853 and 1854, says, " The Maoris have a very good way of cooking an eel. They clean it, but do not skin it. Like them, I now think it is a great mistake to skin an eel. Next they impale it with a stick pointed at both ends, running it through from the tail to the head. The stick is then stuck slantingly into the ground close to a good fire, and when one side is cooked the other is turned. The eel is then served up — i.e.. the stick is placed upright in the earth amidst seven or eight Maoris, and each one pulls off a bit with his fingers."
The Small Fry.
The season for whitebait (paraki) was October and November, said an old Maori wise in these matters. The patete was another kind of whitebait, and was good to eat after it leaves the sea, but as it proceeds up the rivers inland it picks up stones and gets rubbish inside and is then no good for food'. Waharoa (long mouth) was a big kind of whitebait. You could catch it with a hook baited jvith a worm. It had bones and its flesh was coarse. Mata was the very small whitebait, and it was caught with Maori nets (kaka) which were sometimes a chain long. Inaka is the name of the little minnows — they are black, with white bellies. My informant reckoned they came down to the sea to spawn, as Wai-whakarara, near the mouth of the Molyneux, was a great place to catch them. If not caught before spawning they were no good, and would go up the river again in long columns, leaving the water white with spawn at the mouth of
60 Transactions.
the river. The name of the crabs in inland creeks is papaka, and of the crayfish Jcoura. " The native trout, known to the settlers as cockabully, is called kokopu, and the mountain-trout is called kokopara," said my informant, adding, " both these fish are various-coloured, but they are of different shapes."
Another of the old men said, " The correct name of the cockabuUies is kokopara. They are still to be found in the creeks at Stewart Island." In the early days of Otago settlement the name of this fish was spelt " kokobula," or sometimes " cockabulla." I have a note, " Mata-inaka was a lagoon near Waikouaiti where the Maori got very small whitebait ; hence its name." A fish called puaihakarua, which was cavight in some streams, I have no particulars of, nor of a small fish called ikamaru.
Sea-fish.
An old Maori said to me, " Our name for the barracouta is maka, and the proper name of the place the white men call Titri is Kaimaka (to eat barracouta). We caught these fish with a rod {matere), using a jigger {pa) worked with string {tau). When the flesh of the maka was preserved by drying it was called moe. The jigger was made of wood, and whenever possible of towai wood. One of the best places in Otago to get this kind of wood was at a bush called Oreheke, north-west of the Tapuaenuku Range — now called Tapanui — ^and near the head of the Pomahaka River. This bush was full of towai timber. On days when you cannot see a barracouta, and you are getting no bites, use a towai jigger and you will get plenty of fish. The reason for this is because a particular bird once settled on this tree ; but I do not know which bird it was, nor the story about it."
Another old Maori, in speaking of sea-fish, said, " We called the blue cod, rawaru ; rock-cod, moeanu ; red cod, hoka ; ling, rari ; soles, whose jaws are more bent than flounders, horihori ; butterfish, takakaha ; white- fish, tarakihi. The name of the falls in the Owaka River near the township is Taheke-aua (Mullet Falls). The reason of the name is that the mullet (aua) ran up the river from the sea until stopped by the falls, and that was a great place for catching them." A stream near Taieri Lake was Te Awa-kai-aua (eat mullet), but I do not know why it was so named.
I have a note, " At Moeraki the fish principally caught are hapuku (groper), rawaru (blue cod), and mangaa (North Island name of barracouta)," but I am sorry I omitted to get details of ancient fishing methods or of the huge flax nets of pre-Buropean days.
Seals and Sea-lions.
In regard to the larger denizens of the sea, the southern Maori name for seals generally was pakake ; the fur-seal was kekeno ; the porpoise, terehu ; the sea-leopard, rapoka ; and the sea-lion, tvhakahau. A number of place-names in the South reveals the Maori interest in these mammals, such as Whakawai-pakake (to entice seals), Tangi-pakake (when the mother seals were killed the yo,ung ones would tangi and shed tears), Ara-kaki (the path of a female seal), &c. One old man said, " The two hind flippers of a seal are called ka-kautaua, and two rocks near Ruapuke are called this name because of their shape." Another said, " The bight below Lord's River, Stewart Island, is called Pupuri-kautaua (Hold .on to the flipper) because here a chief named Kahu surprised a whakakau (sea-lion) and caught hold of its flipper and held on till his men could kill it. He
Beattie. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 61
was a big, powerful man, but it must have been a young whakahau or he could not have held it." Another narrates that when a boy he copied some white boys and made bow and arrows, and he got into sad trouble for shooting an arrow into a poha of kekeno flesh suspended to the roof. The poha was ' opened, and he says the seal-flesh made good eating, although fat. The Maori method of killing the seals, &c., is said to have been by clubbing, but more particulars would be welcome.
Whales in the South were called kewa, and the traditions frequently mention them, chiefly as miracle-workers ; but the Maori would occasionally find stranded whales, when they would enjoy a course of whale-flesh.
Bird-hunting.
So much has been written about the snaring and catching of birds by the Maori that the collector will not say much on the subject except to add a remark or two made by the old people.
The southern Maori trained their kuri to catch birds such as weka, kakapo, and tokoeka. The last-named bird I was told had big " paws " (toes) and was able to kick the dogs, so there was a certain knack in catching them. In catching woodhens {weka), the art, as I understand it, was for the huntsman to entice the woodhen near enough for the dog to seize without letting the bird whakakeokeo or alarm the rest. Keokeo is the short sharp cry of the weka when alarmed, and to prevent it the hunter would turutu, or imitate the cry of the bird, and so coax it quite close, when the dog would spring at it ; but not many of the present Maori have been weka-catching. Weka were also captured with a noose.
Wild ducks were snared in the creeks with a flax net or snare, called the kaha. I was also told that a Maori who was a fast swimmer could catch moulting ducks, which in common with unfledged young are called maunu. An old and respected white settler tells me that in 1859 he was invited by the Maori at Hdnley to take part in a " duck drive " on Lake Waihola. They started out at daybreak in canoes and dug-outs, and rounded up great numbers of young and moulting paradise ducks unable to fly. They ran these maunu into a corner and slew them with waddies. They returned in triumph to the " kaik " with six or seven hundred birds, cleaned them, and hung them up in rows, to be subsequently stored in the whata (food -storehouses). ' My informant added that one of the best feeds he ever had was an eel taken out of the whata one day he chanced to call.
Ducks, said one of my informants, were caught in long nets, into which they swam, and the more they struggled to withdraw their heads the tighter the mesh became on their necks. He had never heard of the , Maori swimming under the birds and pulling them down by the legs, as was done in some parts of the world. There was no need to do so, as they were so plentiful, and they were very tame and would come close to you. There were no guns to scare and make them afraid and wild, and all the killing of them done by the Maori was done quietly and orderly.
Another said that the place-name Pomahaka should be Pou-mahaka, meaning posts to which the snares for catching ducks were attached.
The season to catch weka, said one old man, was from April to July, when they were fattest ; after July the birds became thin. Sometimes the Maori would go out at night and blow (or whakataki) on flax held between the lips. If two weka had been answering each other this call would bring them. Two birds calling each other were called ptihuka, or
62 Transactions.
♦
weha-puhuJca. The ca'l of the male bird was slow — tUre, tore — but when the call was quick and agitated — tore, tore — that was the female bird. The former was called toa (a toa-tautahi was a fat male weka) and the female bird was called uwha.
I have a further note to the effect that there is a kind of woodhen on the islands round Stewart Island known as miuweka.
One of my aged friends said he could go into the bush and get kaka by the drinking-trough method, or the rush -hut and decoy-bird method, or by the aid of ordinary manuka spears. He could get tui, pigeons, parra- keets, &c., in the same manner ; there w^s no fuss, and no one need starve if he knew the bush-lore. I neglected to get fuller details from him, but hope to do so later on.
Experiences of Weka-hunters.
Winter being the best season to catch the weka, the parties who went inland then sometimes had rough experiences. I was told of one tragedy of the long-ago through this cause. A man named Weka, his wife Nuku, and their two children set out from Tuturau up-country on a weka- hunting expedition. They camped on the hill on which East Gore is now built, and here the woman busied herself gathering taramea (spear-grass) from which to extract scent (kakara). Resuming their journey, they went to Nokomai, but much to their disappointment the weka were scarce, so, under the shadow of the mountain called Karu-a-hine, Weka made a pahuri (shelter) for his wife and family while he went on to Kimiakau (Arrow River) and Kamuriwai. (My informant said, " Kamuri-whenua is the pakihi (plain) from Oamaru to the Waitaki but not across that river, while Kamuri-wai is the pakihi near Foxe's (Arrowtown) on the Arrow.") This was a noted weka ground, and he had fair success and started to return, but was delayed several days by a violent snowstorm. He crossed the Kawarau on a moki and struggled through the deep snow to Nokomai. There was no trace of his wife and children, but when the snow melted a bit he found their dead bodies. With some difficulty he buried them and sadly came down-country. Camping on the hill between the Mataura and Waikakahi (Waikaka) Rivers, memories of his wife gathering the taramea came over him and he composed a song, which is still preserved. From this circum- stance the hill is called Onuku in memory of her. Weka continued his journey to Tuturau, where, it is sajd, he died of grief shortly after.
Another aged Maori told me of a party, among whom was Rakitapu, his informant, who went w;eA;a-hunting, their objective being Okopiri, a wooded gully north of Heriot, I was told. There were no runholders there then. The party were on the Otuparaoa Mountains one fine moonlit night, when all of a sudden snow came on. It proved to be an exceptionally heavy fall, and the weka-hnntera had a rough time. That snowfall is now known traditionally as Kaipahau, a name which implies that the party, or such of them as sported whiskers, ate the sriow off their beards. It was in July, the month that the weka are fattest, that this great snowstorm occurred.
A noted place for getting weka was Mikioe, up the Otamatea (now called Otamita, or Otamete) in the Hokanui Hills. Here there was a clump of mikimiki shrub, of the berries of which the weka are fond. I was told that mihi meant the shrub and that oe denoted the shedding of its berries or leaves. My informant once saw some weka so eager to get the berries that they had clambered on to a matted mass of mikimiki and were perhaps 2 ft. off the ground. The sight interested and amused him.
Beattie. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 63
It is said the Maori named the woodhen from its cry, " tve-ha, we-ka " ; but a European who is well acquainted with the birds renders this cry as " ka-week, ka-week." This is just another illustration of the difference between Maori and pakeha ideas in regard to onomatopoeia.
The 'Weather.
The foregoing accounts of the rough weather sometimes experienced by the Maori in winter afford an appropriate opportunity of giving some stray remarks made to me by the old men. One said, " Our word for spring is kana ; summer, raumati ; autumn, kahuru, a word meaning ' ten,' or ' plenty ' ; and winter, makariri, which means cold. The old people did not like the winter. If snowfiakes came they would shiver and say ' Kai te oka te huka ' (The snow is falling). We used the word huka for snow generally, huka-wai for snow and rain or sleet, huka-taratara for hail, huka-nehunehu for fine dry snow, huka-kapu for flakes of snow, kopaka for ice, ua or awha for rain, and the name for frost I cannot recollect."
Another said, '" The mountains north of Gore are called Te Rau, and when the natives of Murihiku heard thunder from the north or north-west they said that was Te Rau praying for snow, and if the thunder was from the south-west they said that was Hautere (Solander Island) praving for snow." My mformant added that he had heard the green tui or koparaparu chattering that morning, and that this was not a good weather sign. The koparapara is the bell-bird {korimako, or makomako, in the North). The Maori also foretell the seasons by observing trees and plants, but I have no particulars of this.
Maori traditions tell of great floods in the Aparima, Mataura, and Clutha Rivers, and debris was found by' early white settlers at a height which has never been approached since. A vast flood in the Clutha is known as Wai-mau-pakura (" Water which carried the swamp-hen " — so called because it swept many nesting-birds eut to sea), and at the recent Rivers Com- mission the date was surmised to be 1800. The question arises, Was the climate wetter before European settlement ?
r
Birds.
My Maori friends did not have very much to say about the avifauna. One remarked, " In days gone by the bush swarmed with native birds ; now we see scarcely any. We had the kakaruai (robin), miromiro (tom- tit), titakataka (fantail), tatariki (canary), a very small bird without a tail called titiripounamu (rifleman), kakariki (parrakeet). We had a black bird with red wattles, koka (native crow), and a bird with a yellow mark over its back, tieke (saddleback). Both these birds had beautiful notes — ' they could whistle like a man. Then we had two birds which came only in the summer, the pipiwharauroa (shining cuckoo) and the koekoea (long- tailed cuckoo)." *
Another said, " Our name for the tui was koko. Away behind Seacliff Asylum there is a bush called Potae-rua, and a creek there is Waikoko (Tui Stream). Our trees fruit about six weeks later than the North Island, and the tui are fat in April and May. A man could hit them with stones [sic] and fill his basket ; hence the name of that place. A ridge between Waikaro and Te Akaroa, near Measly Beach, is Paekoko, which means ' the tms resting-place.' "
64 Transactions.
One of my old Maori friends went to the Wakatipu diggings in 1862. He says, " When in Moonlight Gully my dog caught some big moreporks in the rocks there, and we called the place ,Kohaka-ruru (nest of more- porks). These birds were not the small bush-owls known as ruru, but the bigger open-country ones known as ruru-whenua. They were big and fat, and when cooked the whole party ate them, and they tasted so good that even the white men smacked their lips over them." I have never heard of the Maori eating owls except this instance, it being generally supposed they regarded the bird with a good deal of awe. A place near Colac Bay is Ruru-koukou (" the cry of the morepork " — rum being the bird and koukou its call).
In securing Maori nomenclature I ascertained that many place-names in the South are reminiscent of birds. The native lark is pioioi, and the name of Dunback Hill is Te Av.-apioioi ; the native quail was called koreke, and a range of hills between Milton and the sea is Whatu-koreke ; the kingfisher is kotare, and a hill near Nuggets Point is Taumata-kotare ; the teal duck is patake, and a creek near Invercargill is Te Awapatake ; the seagull is karoro, and an island in the Mataura River above Gore is Pokai-karoro ; the parrakeet is kakariki, and a place near Charlton was known as Pokai-kakariki, while a beach near Fortrose is Kakariki-taunoa ; and so on.
One of the aged men said to me, " There used to be a small bird at Roto-nui-a-Whatu (now called by the white people Lake Tuakitoto). It was about the size of a redbill (forea), and had a white breast and a black back. We called it pouakakai, but its European name I do not know."
The common name of the swamp-turkey in the South was pakura, and a swamp near Balfour was called Kai-pakura (to eat swamp-hens). The bird was also called pukaki because of a habit it has of stretching up its neck when alarmed and so bulging its throat. The North Island name of this bird is pukeko, and how often has one heard it said, " Look at those awful Southerners massacring the beautiful Maori language ! Fancy them corrupting the word pukeko into pukaki ! " This is not so ; it is only one of the numerous instances where northern and southern names differ.
The native pigeon is a celebrated bird in southern estimation. My Maori friends laid great stress on its connection with the story of Maui. It is commonly called kereru, but is also known as kukupa. When Maui was a boy he went down into the underworld to find his father, and he painted his mouth and legs red and put on a white maro, or kilt, and transformed himself into a pigeon. One of my informants said, " The white on the breast of the kereru is the napkin, or maro, Maui was wrapped in as a babe." Maui in the shape of a pigeon flew on to the handle of the ko (spade) of his .father, who spoke to the bird ; but all it could do was to nod its head and answer, " Ku, ku.'' Any one familiar with the bird knows the way it wags and nods its head — this is in memory of Maui — and all it can say is what Maui answered his father, " Ku, ku.'^
• Speaking of Maui reminds me that legend says it was the mirth of the titakatahi (fantail) which caused his death. ()n(> of the old men said the word titakatahi meant " flitting about," and the bird was so named because of its restless disposition. ,The correct name of Akatore, in Otago, is Aka - torea, and it means " the harbour of the redbills (or oyster- catchers)." The North Island form of the name would be Whanga-torea. The southern Maori used the ordinary manuka to make bird-spears, and I have a note that the clump of manuka called Pokai-kakariki, near Charlton, was celebrated in this connection.
Bbattie. — Nature-lo7-e of the Southern Maori. 65
The Moa.
As a rule, my informants frankly admitted they knew nothing about the moa. One man, however, said the last moa was killed on the Waimea Plains about five generations ago, and gave some very plausible details. There is just a possibility that one of the smaller kinds of moa may have smwived long after the big birds became extinct, or that a very large hiivi was 'killed, but I do not place absolute reliance on the tradition.
One man said, " Just a few chains below the Mataura Falls is Te- kohaka-a-moa ^(the nest of the moa). It is a round depression on a flat rock, and the old people thought it resembled a moa's nest. They also found moa bones about it. Near Clinton is the hill Te-kohaka-a-p'ouakai (the nest of the pouakai). The pouakai was one of the kinds of moa that lived in this land. A small sea-bird is now called pouakakai: but do not mix the name. The imuakai has not been seen for many generations ; the pouakakai is quite common yet." From this it appears that the southern Maori recognized that there were different species of Dinornis.
The late Tare-te-Maiharoa, than whom there was no greater authority in recent years, was positive the moa was extinct when the Maori came, A.D. 1350. They were killed out in the South Island by the Waitaha, who called the birds pouakai. The name moa Avas given by the latest comers who saw the bones lying about. "The Moriori of the Chatham Islands," said Tare, " were related to the Kati-Mamoe, but left New Zealand very long ago."
This accounts for the poua bird of Moriori traditions. It is simply the moa of New Zealand, which was probably on the point of extinction or already extinct when that people left this country. The last Maori note I have on the moa runs, " I have heard a song which says the moa was killed out by karakia (tau-whaka-moe-tia) because it was a dangerous bird^ but how long ago I cannot say."
Insects.'
I understand that the question has recently been raised whether • the flea was brought into New Zealand by European ships. I did not know of this inquiry in time to ask my Maori friends what they knew of the matter, but may say that on Kuapuke Island there is a place known as Te Awatuiau (Flea Channel). Shortland in 1843 said tuiau was the southern name for the flea, the northern name being puruhi. One old man noticed a statement that the Maori name of the mosquito was ivaeroa. and said to me, " Its name in the North might be waeroa, but in the South it was always known as keroa.'" Noticing some insects as I was conversing with an old Maori, he supplied me with the following names : " Our name for the bluebottle-fly was rako, and for its eggs and maggots iro. Spiders were pukau-werewere, and grasshoppers tukarakau. The daddy-long-legs' name was te tatau-o-te-whare-o-Maui (the door of the house of Maui), but I do not know how it got this name. A green kind of butterfly, a sort of cricket, was called kikiwaru, while the black and spotted butterflies are mokarakara. [He pronounced this mokalakala.] Then we used to have pekapeka (bats) in plenty, but I have not seen any of them for a long time." The sandfly was called namu, and there is a place* near Waiau mouth called Kai-namu (eat sandflies) because these pests were so numerous as to get into the mouth with the food that was being eaten. I have a further note that in the South the name of the ant was upokorua. 3— Trans.
66 Transactions.
Mushrooms.
One of my informants said, " One of the raids made by the southern Maori northward is called Kai-whareatua. It is not the name of a fight but of a war expedition, and Tare Wetere te Kahu was in it. The Southerners had gone up to fight the North-Islanders and were returning, when they ran ashore, and were wrecked at the mouth of the Rakitata River. In the capsize all the food was lost, and the party found mush- rooms and ate them. Hence the origin of the name Kai-whareatua (eat mushrooms). The word ivhareatua means a 'devil house' and that is the old Maori name of the mushroom." Another old man remarked, " Tare Wetere was in the Taua-iti raid on Te Rauparaha, but I do not think he was at the Kai-whareatua raid, as, according to my information, it was before his time." This opens up the interesting question. Were mushrooms indi- genous or introduced ? I consulted a lot of New Zealand works without result, and I asked old settlers. One says that probably mushrooms were native, as they were to be found in the early days among the tussocks in the backblocks, but others consider that they will not grow without horse- manure. This beUef Chambers's Encyclo'paedia classes as unreliable, and says that mushrooms were found growing over nearly all the world, a very fine edible variety being native to Victoria, Australia. If this be so, why not in' New Zealand ? It is said that although the North Island Maori have plenty of names for fungi growing on trees they have none for field fungi — at least, so I understand. I therefore interrogated my aged Maori friends in the South, with the following results : —
" Yes, there were mushrooms, but I forget their names."
" The name of the mushroom was whareahca, but I cannot say if they were here before the pakeha came."
" Mushrooms were not here all the' time. You could see them only in their season. Their Maori name was wliareatua."
" There were three kinds of mushrooms. One was very small and thin in the bush and was called harore, and the others were called whareatua and were aU sizes up to almost as big as a hat. One of these kinds was good to eat. Another thing like mushrooms was called weho, and was also good to eat. They all belonged to the ground. The Waitaha people brought fern-trees and fern-roots to eat, but no one brought the mushrooms. Another thing to eat came out of the ground after thunderstorms. It was called poketara. You would come out in the morning and see it. It was a round-like ball, and sometimes almost as big as a small football. It was wonderful how it grew so quickly. It had to be eaten at once — after a day it was no good. It could be cooked on the fire and tasted like a nmshroom."
" The whareatua was a nmshroom on a long stalk and with a deep body. I am not sure if it was here before the white people. The poketara was a big, round thing, a sort of mushroom, but it had no opening ; it was all covered. It lasted only a short time, and then it would go into dust. I do not know the history of the raid known as Kai-whareatua."
" Whareatua was the name of the mushroom. I do not know who brought them to New Zealand, but they were all over the country* They • were like an umbrella in shape, but in late years I have seen what is a' new sort to me, with thick stems and bunched tops, and for which I know no name. It is said the poketara comes down in thunderstorms. It has no opening at all, and is white and round. When it becomes old the stuff inside turns into a powder and blows away. It sometimes grows as big
Beattie. — Nature-lore of the Sotifhern Maori. 67
as your two fists together, but some remain quite small. There was also a small; round thing about the size of your thumb, white or somewhat darker. An old fellow said it was good to eat, but I cannot think of its name. I once tried it. I placed it in a whena (roll) of bush flax and cooked it in an umu (oven). It had no taste, and was soft like a jujube." This represents the information I gleaned about fungi. The poketara is possibly our " puffball," but that, and other queries, is now presented for discussion.
Fern-trees and Fern-root.
Mention of the southern Maori eating mushrooms leads me on to the question of how they wrested an existence from Nature, whose moods are sterner down here than in the more enervating North. They say the kumara did not flourish farther south than Banks Peninsula, but a northern opinion that they must have subsisted mainly on fern-root and fish did not meet with the approval of one old Maori, who told me that by the system of kaihaukai they could exchange titi (mutton-birds) and other things for kumara from Canterbury, and even get taro and hue from the North Island. In regard to the natural products of Otago he said, " We had different kinds of fern-trees. The mamaku was not in this district, although it was over on Stewart Island; but we had the poka, wheki, and katote. The leaves of the poka are white underneath, the katote leaves are green on both sides and softer, while the leaves of the wheki are very rough and its stem very black. The iho (heart) of the katote is good to eat, but that of the others is bitter. I remember that three of us had a good feed of the heart of a katote at Opiriao (Sandy Bay, near Catlin's). Perhaps katote heart might make good jam — it had a sweet taste.
" Our name for fern-root was aruhe, and the leaves of the fern were called rau-aruhe. I remember once, at the south end of the Koau on Inch- Clutha, at a place called Pekeihupuku — the ihupuku was a big kind of seal and peke means its shoulder — eating fern -root. It was during the big flood of 1868, and we went back to the reserve and got fern-root and beat it on a big stone with a piece of iron. In the old days it was beaten with sticks and wooden clubs. When it was mashed we picked out the fibres and ate the rest, and it tasted good. It used to be mixed with whitebait, these tiny fish being beaten into it ; the name of the resulting mash was kohere-aruhe. Mr. Hay, an early settler, used to eat fern-root occasionally, both when he was among the Maori and at his own home."
Relative to eating tree-ferns, one of my informants related, " In the whaling days the brig ' New Hampden ' was wrecked at the Bluff". She was known to the Maori as ' Kai-mamaku ' (to eat fern-trees) because once she ran into Te Ana-hawea (Bligh Sound) for shelter, and, food becoming short, the crew went ashore and cut some mamaku, which they ate."
Some localities were renowned for the excellence of the fern-root gTOwing there, one such place, I was told, being Pau-upoko, near Port Molyneux.
Various Foods and Drinks.
The old Maori who spoke to me about fern-trees and fern-root continued, " But we had another vegetable food too, and that was the kauru, the cooked root of the ti (cabbage-tree). Sometimes these trees had a side shoot, and that was the proper kauru; when it was taken the tree did not die, as it did if its root {mor^-ti) was taken. If the kauru you were eating
3*
68 Transactions.
was called more-ti you would know it was from tlial; root only. Sometimes the people would leave a bit of the root in the ground and in a few years another tree would grow in its place. The root could be cooked at an open fire or in an umu (oven). In the old days the umu in whiph the kauru was baked was often called a puna-ti, puna meaning a hole and ti being the cabbage-tree. It would cook quicker at an open fire, and its rough skin prevented it from charring, but it did not taste its best unless placed in an ipu (basin) and soaked in flax-honey [wai-horari). Or the kauru could be taken and, laid fiat, and the flax-honey dripped on it, when it would absorb it. Then if you were travelling and were thirsty you could up-end your kauru root and let the moisture trickle down your throat. This was called unu-wai-korari, and it was a good sweet drink.
" Another food of the ancient times was prepared like this : Secure some kelp {rimu), the same as that dried for the poha-titi, and take it up-country to a place where tutu is ^plentiful. Gather tutu berries and put them in a putoro, a small flax bag very closely woven so that the seeds of the tutu cannot get through. Squeeze the bag, and the juice comes through and forms a good drink, called waitutu. Take an ipu, or wooden trough, pu'b the kelp and tutu juice in it and boil by putting hot stones in. You can tell that the kelp is boiled enough by poking a stick into it and it falls to bits. Leave it till it is cold, and the result is a black-coloured jelly, called rehia, which was often eaten by the aid of an akapipi (mussel-shell).
" Waitutu was a good refreshing drink, although sweet. I remember once at Tuturau another Maori and I had a good drink of it. We held the^ ptitoro over our heads and wrung them and let the juice drop into our mouths. I never heard of any other drinks among the old people except waikorari, ivaitutu, and water. Besides the foods I have described we had berries of various kinds, such as the hua-kotukutuku (fuchsia), which were eaten raw, and mako berries, which came in their season. I also remember long ago eating snowberries in the Hokanui Hills. I think our name for them was tapuku."
Near Colac Bay is a small lagoon called Okoura, and I was told it was named after a man who was killed there. Bulrushes grew in the lagoon, and their roots were gathered and eaten with the flesh of Koura. Bulrush- roots were called ko-areare ; they were mashed and formed an article of diet with the old-time Maori.
An old Maori said to me, " In the North Island the fuchsia-berry was called konini, but down here both tree and fruit bore the same name — kotukutuku."
I have a further note that a berry which grows in swamps is called te rerewa, but I cannot say if it is edible.
The Tuturau Eeserve.
Recently I was at the Tuturau Maori Reserve to see my old friend Mrs. Gourlay (Toki Reko) laid to rest in the burial-ground there. That evening Mr. Gourlay, a European, a keen observer of nature, told ip.e some of the methods he had seen the Maori at Tuturau adopt in getting food. He has been fifty years in the district, the last forty-five of them in his present location, and following is a summary of his information.
In rain or high winds the pigeons kept low in the bush, and the Maori speared them with bird-spears made of manuka or horoeka (lance wood). The end of the spear was sharp-pointed and burnt hard, and seemed to go right through the birds if skilfully thrust. There was nothing attached to the spear.
Beattib. — Nature-lore of th,e Southern Maori. 69
Ducks were snared by placing nets across streams at the height to intercept the birds' heads as they swam along. One morning Mr. Gourlay saw a duck and all its brood caught in one. Some years ago he got his wife to make him an old-fashioned net for snaring ducks, and it was quite efficacious. There was no fuss nor worry with the snare — the gun was simply not in it with the noiseless net.
The Maori used to go down to the swamp at Menzies Ferry and catch matuku. (bittern) by laying snares for the birds' feet on the paths they had made through the rushes. The bitterns made a booming noise at times, and the Maori said the birds did this when catching eels. The Maori caught pukaki (swamp-hens) in the same manner.
He had never seen, or heard of, the Maori catching kotuku (white heron), as that bird was so rare, but it could no doubt be caught in the same way as the bittern.
Snares were also laid on the feeding-flats of the paradise ducks at certain times. When the birds were moulting and could not flv the Maori would get into the swamps after them and run them down.
He had seen the Maori catch tui by covering a pool with branches, leaving an open space for the birds to drink. Snares were set round this open place and tui a-plenty were bagged in a good season.
To catch kaka, a sq-uare, 8 ft. by 10 ft., say, was thatched over, the fowlers waiting underneath with a decoy kaka. The cries of this' bird brought many others, and as they settled on the corner posts the snares affixed thereto made them captives. These were not killed at once, but added to the collection below. The bird could gnaw through green flax, so their legs were fastened with dry flax amid an appalling din. When enough were caught the birds were killed and preserved in kelp bags. To save the fat for this purpose the birds were cooked in a wooden trough with hot stones. Weka were often cooked in the same way.
•
Various Birds and Fishes.
Weka (woodhens) were caught by the familiar red rag and snare method. The snarer sat still, and as he caught each bird he bit the back of its neck to kill it and threw it behind him. This saved him wringing its neck, and was not only quicker, but it did not alarm or disturb the other birds.
The Maori also killed the titi (mutton-birds) by biting the neck. There was a knack in catching them. He had heard that these birds would tear your hands to pieces with their beaks and feet if you tried to Wring their necks.
Kiwi were never at Tuturau, although they had frequented the Hokanui Hills. He had heard it said that the Maori would wait behind trees, and as the bird came pecking along he would hit it on the head with a stick.
By the Mataura River, in the South Wyndham Bush, there used to be a shaggery, and he had seen a Maori bring away about two or three hundred young shags caught just before they were ready to fly. The big birds were too rank to eat. The Maori would not touch hawks — they were probably too rank also.
In regard to fish, the Maori caught kanakana (lampreys) in the river at Tuturau. They built a wing-dam of logs, stakes, branches, and scrub across the river, except for a few feet where the " pot " was. The dam was anchored with big stones and the material woven with flax ^o as to stand big floods in the river. He had seen a " pot " 8 ft. wide by 3 ft.
70 Transactions,
or 4 ft. deep, and when full of lampreys it liad taken as many as six people to haul it out. It was made of fine flax, with vines as bows to strengthen it. This dam was quite close to the kaika, and during many years the people did not go to the falls at all, as they could get all the kanakana they wanted so handy.
He had seen a Maori put an eel-pot in the Upoko-papaii Creek and get as many eels as his horse could carry — probably 2 cwt. of eels. The Maori also caught eels with bobs (mounu). These were made by sticking strips of flax through rushes (wiwi) and threading worms (noke) on. Eels cannot wriggle fast on dry grass, so this was spread by the fisher, and as the eels took the bob they were hauled on to the spread grass, where they were seized and threaded through the gills on to a flax line ready to be carried away. He had seen old Pi catch eels by hand. The spring was blocked with tussock {pat it i), and the water was to her hips, but she caught the eels round the gills and handed them out one by one. The eels the Maori ate were not the silver-bellies, which they thought too poor, but the big black fellows.
The Maori did not like the kokopura, as it had too many bones. Koura, or crayfish, were caught by turning over the stones in creeks, and they were roasted on the embers. Kakahi, or fresh- water mussels, were found in some streams.
In the Mataura River at certain seasons the Maori would net patiki (flounders) on the beaches. Mata (whitebait) were caught in baskets of flax very finely woven. Inaka (minnows) were caught at the falls, and were spread on flax mats and sun-dried. When properly done they would last a long time.
The kiore, or native rat, was nearly cream in colour, and was caught with a bent stick and loop. The rat would chew a string to get at a bait, and this released the stick and the loop caught them. They were rolled in mud and baked in the fire, the mud bringing the skin off. Most Maori would n<j»t touch the pouhawaiki, or European rat.
Tuturau was a very rich kaika in the old days. The bush swarmed with birds and the creeks with fish ; but, strange to say, the proper fern-root did not grow here, being brought from Otama and Tokanui. It was dug with the Maori spade. This was of wood, about 5 ft. long, and had a sort of scoop at the business end and a stick stuck out on one side for the foot of the digger to press. They were square at the end, and dug fairly well, being very vigorously Used ; in fact, Mr. Gourlay thought that many an English spade would break if the same energy was used on it.
When he came to the reserve half a dozen trees were held to be sacred. These were all matai (black-pine), and it was perhaps because of the edible berries on them that they had been originally " tapu-ed." You could shoot or spear pigeon^ on them, but you must not put an axe near them. Pikiraki was the name of the red mistletoe on the tawai (beech), but the white mistletoe on the rata was called puawai. The Maori at Tuturau got mud from a swamp at Waimumu, and this made an excellent fast black dye.
When eels were put out to dry and rain threatened, a shelter of tussock or ti leaves was thatched over them. This shelter was called an uhi. One kind of whata (storehouse) was built up high, and you went up an arawhata (ladder) to reach it.
He would eat Maori preserved food even if it had mildew on it, as it woiUd cause no harm ; but food preserved by Europeans was aj)t to go
Beattib. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 71
bad quickly and might poison any one not careful. The Maori food was naturally cured, kept well, and tasted sweet and good.
The above is the essence of Mr. Gourlay's information ; but a grand- daughter added that she had recently visited the Bay of Plenty and noticed the following differences between the names of shell-fish there and in Southland. What is called the pij)! in the South is there called hukxi, and what thev call j)Wi is like a cockle, only with an oval shell and flatter, and they dig in the sand for it as the tide goes out. This shell-fish is called toheroa in the South. There is also a big, heavy shell like a very large cockle, which is called hiakua in the North Island, but down round Foveaux Strait is known as whahai-a-fama.
A jxtkeka who was brought up at Eiverton writes, '' Eels were taken with a spear. The fishermen waded and sought for the fish by poking about in the silt with their bare feet. When an eel was located by the Maori's toe it was immediately secured with the spear, which was unerring in Maori hands. The Maori also used eel-pots in capturing their winter's food-supply. These traps were made of mamika sticks, bound together with whitau (scraped flax), and made in cylindrical form, about 5 ft. long ; a netting of prepared flax, with an opening in the centre, was placed at each end of the cvlinder. The two nets were attached to each other by means of a flax cord passing down the centre of the eel-trap. The fish, attracted by a bait of worms, pork, flesh, or fish of any kind, suspended midway in the eel-pot, were led by the sloping net to the entrance, passing in and becoming prisoners. The eels, after capture, were cleaned and dried in the sun, and then stored away for future use."
Plant-life.
Strolling through the bush and clearings one day with a venerable Maori, he gave me the names of a few of the plants. The shrub known to the white people as the pepper-tree is called ramarama ; that known to the northern Maoris as koromiko is known in the South as kokomuka, while the bush-lawyer is named tataraihika, and a kind of bramble is tataramoa. The cutty-grass of the settlers was to the southern Maori known as matoreha, the biddy-bid as piripiri, and the nettle as okaoka (the island Pukeokaoka, near Stewart Island, simply means " Nettle Hill." The common native grass, he said, was called ma-uku-uku, the native mountain-grass potcaka, and the ordinary swamp-rushes iviwi.
The southern Maori say that the patiti, ake-rautaki, and other vegeta- tion growing on the Takitimu Mountains have a peculiar scent of their own. A visitor took some to an old Riverton chief, who sniffed at it and said " Ah ! 'tis Takitimu." A legendary account says that the celebrated chief Tama tea brought these plants from Hawaiki in his canoe, Takitimu, tw^enty-two generations ago, and that he planted them on this mountain- range.
Kohuwai, also known as kohuai, said one of my informants, is a green sort of weed or moss in the bottoms of streams, and a small creek between Waikawa and Chasland's is called Wai-kohuwai because of its bed being so covered with this moss.
After the Europeans introduced smoking the Maori would smoke a weed called kopata. They would, said an old man, make a bowl for a pipe out of wood, insert as a stem a reed of pukakaho, and puff away. This kind of smoking was called tiniko. Over at Stewart Island there is a plant called punui with a leaf like a pumpkin. A boy dried and smoked
72 Transactions.
this leaf, and, gravely added the narrator, his mouth was turned inside out. These leaves deceived another lad, too. He came from the North, and when he saw the leaves thought he was going to feast on pumpkins, but he was disappointed.
Haiimata was the name of what are now called Maori-heads, said one old man, and upoko-takata was the name of a plant, possibly the snow-grass of the early settlers. Papaii was a kind of spear-grass, and the name is perpetuated in Upoko-papaii (" Sam's Grief," near Tuturau). Pukio was the Maori name of " niggerheads," and there is a stream beyond the Waiau known as Wai-pukio. The grass-tree was called nei in the South, and Mantell, writing in 1852, says they formed so constant a part of the " mosses " or vegetation in swampy valleys — comprising mosses, lichens, sundews, grasses, shrubs — that the Maori called these mosses nei also.
Legend says that the pikiraki was the last plant remaining in the kit of Tane, the forest god, when he sowed the forest. He looked at it tenderly ■ and said, " I cannot let my last child lie on the ground," and that is why it is a parasitic plant perched high up on the big trees, a kind of mistletoe with red flowers.
The common bush fern is turokio ; another kind of fern is the piupiu, and it is said the kakapo (ground-parrot) will bite it off at the base and hold the frond over its head to shield itself from observation. And this leads us to an interesting bit of folk-lore.
A Folk-tale.
The kakapo and the toroa (albatross), said my informant, had a dispute as to who was to be " boss " of the land, and finally they agreed to decide the question by a test. They were to take turn about at hiding, to see which had the greater success at finding the other. A piece of open land with very little cover was selected, and the toroa hid first, but his white plumage was too conspicuous and he was found almost at once. " I will hide again," he cried, " and this time you won't find me." But alas for his hopes ! his opponent found him with very little trouble. Then the kakapo took his turn at hiding, and lay down on a bare place with a piupiu fern over his head. Search as he might, the toroa could not find his wily rival until the latter laughed aloud, the sound disclosing his whereabouts. '' I will hide again," he said, " on that bare patch over there, and this time you won't find me." The cunning bird again used piupiu to avoid detection, and again the toroa, search as he might, failed to discover his rival. He flew backwards and forwards over the place as low as possible, but all to no purpose — his quest was in vain. Having been so unsuccessful, the other birds decided that the toroa was not a fit and proper bird to dwell on land, so in deep disgrace he was banished to the wide oceans and there he is now to be found.
Potatoes and Introduced Plants.
Potatoes, introduced by Europeans, were early grown in the South, for in the late R. McNab's Murihiku we read that in 1813 there was " a field of considerably more than 100 acres which presented one well-cultivated bed, filled with rising crops of various ages, some ready for digging, while others had been but newly planted." This was inland from Bluff Harbour, and it was also recorded that " a spike nail would buy a hundredweight of potatoes " from the Maori. One of my old Maori friends said.
Beattie. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 73
" Horeta was the name of the old variety of potatoes which the whalers brought. A black variety was called, I believe, mnngumangu in the North, but we called it tatairaJco in the South. A potato which was veined inside Avas named ropi, while our name for the Derwent was pikaukene.'" I was also told about Te Puoho's raiders reaching Tuturau in 1836 — " It must have been about Christmas, for the early potatoes were just ripe enough to eat and the invaders had a fine feed' after their starvation trip."
The early settlers in Otago found " Maori cabbage " growing wild. The Maori gave me the name of this as pora, and further said that a kind of turnip had grown wild in Central Otago, their name»for it being kawakaiva.
One old Maori said, " In 1869 I was eeling at Longford (now Gore) and was engaged to help harvest 30 acres of oats. Among it I saw a jaggy plant and I wondered what it was. It was the first time I had ever seen thistles."
An old settler tells me the " Maori cabbage " was simply a degenerate swede turnip. The leaves were turnip-leaves ; the body was a thin wiry root and uneatable — it was the leaves which were eaten. From the description of the kawakawa it is surmised to have been kohlrabi growing wild but not yet degenerated.
Shell-fish.
I did not get very much information about shell-fish, although we know that, judging by the middens left by the Maori, such were eaten with avidity. The correct name of the Waikaka River, I was told, was Waikakahi, so called because of the number of kakahi, or fresh-water shell-fish, in its waters. The names of salt-water shell-fish are perpetuated in the place- names Hakapupu (in northern dialect Whanga-pupu — " Periwinkle Har- bour ") and Kaipipi (" eat shell-fish " — the kind usually called the cockle). Hakapupu is the Maori name of Pleasant River, near Waikouaiti, and Kaipipi is at Stewart Island. A kind of mussel {kutai) is mentioned in one tradition as furnishing the relish (kinaki) for a cannibal feast. The eating of the j)'^'^'^ or paua (mutton-fish — a univalve) is also mentioned in the history. One of my informants said there was a thread in the limpet (kaki), and this was said to represent the line which Maui was using when he fished the North Island out of the deep.
One old Maori mentioned oysters, and he thought they had been brought by Captain Howell to Port William, and from there had spread to Foveaux Strait. The story runs that about 1839 Howell brought over some sacks of oysters from Australia as a treat to his men at Riverton, but adverse weather compelled him to toss the sacks overboard off Bluff, and that this was the nucleus of the extensive bed there now." I should like to know if oysters propagate sufficiently fast to render this account feasible.
Paints and Dyes.
Looking through my notebooks, I see casual references to paints and dyes, but really so little it is scarcely worth mentioning. One of the old Maori said that some of the people who came on the Arai-te-Uru canoe, about twenty-seven generations ago, were skilled Avorkmen — at cultivating the kumara, at carving, &.c. One in particular brought red paint with him, but in exploring the land he dropped it in the hills east of Lake Kaitangata, and hence those hills are famous to this day for yielding the haematite stone from which the Maori got their red paint. It is said that
74 Transactions.
one of these hills bears quite a big hole made by generations of Maori in search of maukoroa (also known as lioru — red paint). One old man said, " The Kati-Mamoe used to put red paint on their faces. They knew only two paints — maukoroa (red) and a blue paint whose name I forget. The red paint and the hoaka (stone used as a grindstone) were brought to this land from Hawaiki." I am sorry I did not get a description of how the paint was made. I was also told, " Maraki is a red-yellow clay found at Waikouaiti and used for seaming canoes."
An old woman said, " Kiakia is the name of a creek at Woodside, near Outram, and it runs into Lee Creek. It is so called because of the kiakia which grew there. The kiakia is a small bush-like spear-grass or grass- tree, and the Maori went there to get it. They soaked it with the bark of the fokaka tree and a dye resulted."
" There is a swamp near Paterson's store at Port Molyneux called Tukoroua," said another of my informants, " and that little spot is famous for the dye it produces. The Tukoroua Swamp is the only place in South Otago where the proper kind of paruparu, or black mud, for dyeing whitau (prepared flax-fibre) can be found. The mud found elsewhere would turn the whitau red or rusty looking, but the Tukoroua mud made it a beautiful black. You could wash it with the best soap and you would never get that black out. Such a reputation had this place that people would come down from the North to get their mats treated with the dye from this swamp."
A creek in Southland is called Opani because on its banks the Maori got earth suitable for making red paint (pani), and the name of the hill north of Kaitangata where the red ochre was procured is Te-horo-maukoroa. I was told that a tree called makatoatoa was no good for timber and that the Maori extracted the sap from its bark for dye, but I do not know what its European name is.
Introduced Animals.
One or two of my Maori friends casually mentioned some of the animals introduced into this land. It is well known that the southern Maori call the mouse hinereta (henrietta) because a vessel of this name (" Elizabeth Henrietta " — 1823) introduced these little creatures to their notice, but why they call a cat naki I could not ascertain.
Some of the old people are not pleased with the introduction of vermin to Maoriland. They blame the ferrets, weasels, and stoats for largelv helping to kill out the native birds, and the fact remains that although Stewart Island has been settled by white men, with their dogs roaming about too, for many years, bird-life is still fairly plentiful. Thus in 1918 in Oban, the principal settlement, I saw the kereru, or native pigeon, and heard the weka, or woodhen, calling. One old man said that if any one attempted to take vermin to Stewart Island he hoped he would be caught ; and he further expressed the bloodthirsty wish that the delinquent would be slowly done to death in boiling oil.
It is generally conceded that Captain Cook introduced the pig to New Zealand, but the late Tare-te-Maiharoa told me they knew the animal traditionally, and they called it poaka. He said it was mentioned in the history very far back. I have read that poaka is a corruption of the English word " porker," but against this we must remember that those Polynesians who had pigs when Cook visited the South Sea islands called
Beattie. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 75
the animals jmaka. A European who went pig-hunting with the Maori in the " fifties " says their custom was to get astride the pig and stick it upwards.
Detached Information.
I find I have a collection of stray notes which I do not seem able to incorporate with the other sections of this paj^er, so will include them here.
Koura. — The crayfish found in inland streams and in the sea were both called Jcoiira, as far as I know. A stream north of Gore is Kai-koura (to eat crayfish) and Wai-koura is quite a common place-name. The Maori had a peculiar method of treating crayfish. They would place them across a stream of fresh running water as tight as they could pack them, having them so fastened they could not escape. After they were dead some time the crayfish were, I understand, taken out and dried. A small creek in the gorge of the Taieri Elver near its mouth was described to me as a place where crayfish had been thus treated in the old days. A place near Tautuku is called Hiri-koura, and I was told it meant the place where crayfish were fastened. The usual meaning of hiri (or whiri) is to plait or twist.
Kaio (or, as called by the northern Maori, ngaio) is 'a well-known curiosity — half plant, half animal — that was eaten by the Maori. Whare- kaio is the name of a beach and landing-place near where the " Tararua " was wrecked, near Fortrose. My informant said, " The kaio fastens one end of itself to the rocks and the other end is like a spud. You take this knob and soak it all night and eat it." A European who has boiled and eaten them says, " They taste like a boiled egg flavoured with oil, and have a very good flavour. The taste must, however, be acquired."
Nets. — Although I have very little information about nets, I append the few items gleaned. Lo veil's Creek was known to the Maori as Tuakitata, after a kind of fishing-net. This style of net (tata) was made in the shape of the cockle-shell called tuaki. Other kinds of nets were called kaka and houka, whilst two kinds of snares for netting birds were called mahaka and here.
Primitive Appliances. — When the southern Maori finally abandoned their old methods and adopted European ones I cannot exactly say, but here are some notes concerning the Maori at Tuturau in the " fifties." In 1852 old Reko was working at a pine log, 25 ft. long, with a stone adze, trying to hollow out a canoe. Then he got an old chisel from some white man, but was not making much progress, and finally two Europeans completed the dug-out for him. In 1853 Mr. Chalmers left Tuturau with Reko and Kaikoura on an exploring trip, the white man carrying a gun, and the two Maori had eel-spears and a stick about 6 ft. long with^ a big fish-hook tied to one end. They carried no provisions, but lived on the country they traversed. The three walked the whole trip in paraerae (sandals) made of flax and cabbage-tree leaves, the latter far and away the more durable. In 1854 old Reko would go eeling with a large hook tied to his wrist and lying on the palm of his hand so when his hand felt an eel he had only to pull it forward to have the eel hooked. Writing in 1854, Mr. Mieville says, "Old Reko scorned matches, and had a light from his firesticks nearly as quickly as I did. He rubbed a pointed stick in a groove in another stick. I never could get fire, but the Maori does
so at once."
76 Transactions.
Maori Cooking. — One of my informants said he greatly preferred food cooked by the old Maori methods to those introduced by the pakeha.^ although he had not enjoyed the former for years now. European cooking, he said, took the strength o^it of flesh or fish, whereas the umu, or earth oven, preserved all the natural virtue and flavour. What better than to wrap the food in nice green flax-leaves and let it steam in an umu ? He considered even the method of toasting food before a fire on a kohiku or stick was preferable to frying in a pan or roasting in a stove. Some of the superstitions connected with cooking co*ntinued after the white people came, and the operation would be done outside, the women who had been cooking changing their dress before coming in and eating.
Preserving Food. — The same Maori went on to draw my attention to the excellence of Maori methods of preserving food. Anything cooked was called jjaka, and you could get j9aA;a-U'e^a, paka-titi, and so on. These birds have been cooked and then preserved in their own fat. The great receptacle for these preserved foods was kelp which had been made into the familiar poka. My informant considered that kelp possessed some special quality in preserving the taste of what it held, and said he had heard there was a proposal to send butter away in kelp bags. He thought if such Was done the butter would keep its taste and quality better in hot weather than under the present system.
Not all food was preserved in the foregoing manner, some being dried uncooked. The hapuku, or groper, was sometimes cut into -strips and treated this way, the flesh being then called maraki. One old man gave me some maraki to chew, but my tastes were not sufficiently educated in what pleases the Maori palate for me to ask for a second helping.
The Maori Quail. — One of my informants mentioned the koreke, or Maori quail, but unfortunately I omitted to ask how the Maori caught them. These birds were teeming in Otago when European settlement began, and it is hard to realize the countless numbers of them that existed ; yet when the diggings broke ,out this beautiful bird vanished as if it had never been. An old settler who has eaten dozens of them says he never foimd berries inside them ; they had no gizzards, and apparently lived on beetles and insects. '
Bob Fishing. — One of the old Maoris mentioned catching eels with a bob. Some frayed strips of flax were attached to a stick, and large worms were threa,ded on the flax strands, which were looped up, and then the baited mass was dangled in the water. If a tug is felt the fisherman flicks out the eel before it can disentangle its teeth from the bob. I have not learned whether the Europeans copied this from the Maori, or vice versa, but somebody may be able to supply the information.
Medicinal.
An old Maori said to me, " A good remedy for colds and sore throats is to steep goai (kowhai) bark in boiling water and drink the infusion. It has to be taken fresh, as it will not keep, although perhaps spirits would act as a preservative. The bark is taken only from the sunny side of the tree, and its removal does not kill the tree. My neighbours and I all keep a stock of the bark handy." A well-known Maori remedy for diarrhoea is the leaves of the kokomuka, or New Zealand veronica, and it is used by both races now. It is said that in the old days the Maori who suffered from toothache — a rare complaint among them — stufied the gum out of
Beattie. — Nature-lore of the Southern Maori. 77
the flax into tlie holes in the offending molars as a palliative. According to a southern Maori, a water-plant called the runa was applied to the skin of sufferers from ringworm. It is said to be a sort of water-lily, and the Wairuna Stream derived its name from it.
The ancient people of the South Island, said one Maori, were skilled in the use of shrubs and herbs. They had known a cure for consumption, but now it is so much needed the shrub cannot be found — the white man's fires and cultivation seem to have destroyed it. This shrub is said to have grown on the Canterbury Plains.
I was reading lately of a herb, called " dortza," which the American Indians asserted would cure influenza, pneuinonia, and incipient consumption. Tests by medical men were to the effect that it had done remarkable work in many cases.
The claim by southern Maori that they had once known such a herb seemed to me a noteworthy one, and the fact was told to me years before the fame of dortza got spread by the Press.
" The Old Order Changes.
A thoughtful old full-blooded Maori, in saying adieu to me last time I visited him, remarked, " The Maori knew how to gather his food from of old, and it suited him, and he raised a vigorous race. Look at him now ! There are few middle-aged and few young people ! Why ? It is largely ignorance of food-values. It takes a lot of food to maintain a Maori in health. In the old days he could eat as many fish and birds as he wanted, and all beautifully cooked in the earth-ovens. Using European foods, he does not know how much to use, or how to cook it properly. He eats it half-pre]?ared or in insufficient quantities, and by not keeping his strength up throws the way open to consumption and wasting diseases. The hope of the Maori is education. The old people had not learned through generation after generation to be farmers or roadmakers and they could not settle to work as the young can. I always urge the young to learn to read and write and get knowledge. A young woman in the ' kaik ' had a little bo}- ill and gave him castor- oil ; and this not working quickly enough, she gave him Epsom salts. The boy became worse, and a friend raised the money to take the boy to a doctor, who said the two medicines combined formed a poison, and that if the boy had not been brought "then he would soon have died. The doctor gave a corrective remedy and the boy recovered. In the same way I reckon want of knowledge is causing many Maori to eat wrong food or to prepare it wrongly and so to slowly poison themselves, or, at any rate, to imdermine their constitutions. I have often told the people this, but my words have received little attention. It is impossible to go back to native foods, as these have been mostly destroyed by civilization, so the people must read the proper books to learn how to thrive on the proper European food. The Maori girls should all be taught housekeeping, the proper value of food and how to cook it, as I am convinced this is the only way to save our race."
78 Transactions.
Art. XIV. — The Mission of the " Britomart" at Akaroa, in August,
1840.
By Johannes C. Andersen.
[Read before the Historical Section of the Wellington Philosophical Society, 20th May, 1919 ; received by Editor, 19th June, 1919 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1920.]
The British Government, though constantly urged by the New Zealand Company, had persistently refused to recognize New Zealand as a British colony, or even as a possession of the Kingdom. The company, therefore, in order to force the hand of the Government, despatched the "Tory" for Port Nicholson (afterwards named Wellington) on the 12th May, 1839, for the purpose of purchasing land from the natives and forming a settlement, the first colonists to follow almost at once. This forced the Government into unwilling action, and an Imperial Proclamation was issued on the 15th June, 1839, extending the boundaries of New South Wales so as to include portions of New Zealand ; and on the 13th July of the same year Captain Hobson was appointed Lieutenant-Governor " of any territory which is or may be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand." Among other instructions issued to Captain Hobson by Lord Normanby was one to the effect that he should endeavour to persuade the chiefs of New Zealand to unite themselves to Great Britain ; he was also to establish a settled form of civil government, with the free and intelligent consent of the natives expressed according to their established usages ; to treat for the recognition of the sovereignty of Her Majesty over the whole or any part of thS Islands ; to induce the chiefs to contract that no lands should in future be sold except to the Crown ; to announce by Proclamation that no valid title to land acquired from the natives would thereafter be recognized unless confirmed by a Crown grant ; to arrange a commission of inquiry as to what lands had been lawfully acquired by British subjects and others ; to select and appoint a Protector of Aborigines.
Captain Hobson left in the " Druid " for Port Jackson, where he arrived on the 24:th December, 1839. On the 14th January, 1840, Sir George Gipps, Governor of New South Wales, administered the oaths to Captain Hobson, making him Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand. He also, in accordance with the instructions of Lord Normanby, issued three Proclamations — the first extending the boundaries of New South Wales to include any territory which then was, or might thereafter be, acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand ; the second appointing Captain Hobson Lieutenant-Governor ; the third declaring that' all purchases of land from the natives thereafter would be invalid unless supported by a Crown grant.
The new Lieutenant-Governor arrived in the Bay of Islands on the 29th January, 1840, where he next day read his commissions before the people assembled. As a first step towards establishing the sovereignty of Her Majesty he called together the natives, and on the 5th February, 1840, were commenced the negotiations which, on the following day, resulted in the Treaty of Waitangi being signed by forty-six principal chiefs. Others signed it, or authorized copies of it, in various parts of the Islands at later dates, the aggregate number of signatures obtained being 512. Being
Andersen. — Mission of the " Britoniart " at Akaroa. 79
attacked by paralysis, the Lieutenant-Governor was disabled from travelling to obtain the signatures personally, and he deputed Major Bunbury to visit parts of the North Island, and also the Middle and Stewart Islands, for that purpose. Major Bunbury sailed in H.M.S. " Herald," with instructions, dated 25th April, 1840, to obtain signatures at all places possible, and to visit such places as he might deem most desirable for establishing Her Majesty's authority.
In reporting the results of his mission Major Bunbury stated that he had, on the 5th June, 1840, proclaimed the Queen's authority, by right of discovery — no natives being there met with — at Southern Port (Stewart Island) ; and at Cloudy Bay (Middle Island) on the 17th June, the sovereignty at this place having been ceded by the principal chiefs signing the treaty.
Writing on the 25th May, 1840, to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lieutenant-Governor Hobson concluded his despatch by saying that without waiting for Major Bunbury's report he had, on the 21st May, 1840, proclaimed the sovereignty of Her Majesty, owing to affairs at Port Nicholson pressing him so to do, over the North Island in accordance with the consents given by the natives in the treaty, and over the southern islands bv right of discovery. This despatch was acknowledged and approved by Lord John Russell, and the Proclamations making the islands subject to Her Majesty were inserted in the London Gazette. New Zealand was at the time promised a charter -of separate government, which charter was sent on the 9th December, 1840. Lest, however, the proclamation of sovereignty over the Middle Island " by virtue of discovery " should be considered either insufficient or illegal, the Queen's authority was again proclaimed over it by Major Bunbury on the 17th June, 1840, by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi. This same proclamation was also made at Cloudy Bay, and Captain Nias, of H.M.S. " Herald," landed with a party of marines to honour the occasion, twenty-one guns being fired from the ship.
Sir George Gipps, writing to Lord John Russell on the 24th July, 1840, reported that Major Bunbury appeared to have carried out his instructions very satisfactorily. He says, inter alia, "" One of the places visited by the ' Herald ' was Banks Peninsula, the spot at which it has been said that a settlement is about to be made by a company formed in France. Of this company, however, and of its proceedings I know nothing, save what I have derived from English newspapers." The French discovery- ships " Astrolabe " and " Zelee " were at Banks Peninsula in April, 1840 : they knew of no project for forming a settlement there, and, indeed, thought the locality a disadvantageous and undesirable one for such a purpose.
Strong feeling had been excited in France by the publication in London of the instructions to Captain Hobson when he was sent out as Lieutenant- Governor to New Zealand. The French Press teemed with calls on their Government to take steps similar to those the British Government pro- posed to adopt, and to take a share in the colonizing of New Zealand, as a country open to all nations. Mr. E. Gibbon Wakefield, giving evidence on the 17th July, 1840, before the Select Committee on New Zealand afiairs, stated that he had received as many as forty different French newspapers containing comments on Captain Hobson's instructions. The French Chamber of Commerce also petitioned the Government, and from all this excitement sprang a project for sending French colonists
80 Transactions.
and establisliing a French colony in New Zealand. Matters connected with this project were conducted by a company calling itself the Nanto- Bordelaise Company. A certain Captain Langlois had, on the 2nd August, 1838, made a provisional purchase from Tuaanau and other natives, of the greater part of Banks Peninsula, paying a deposit in commodities valued at £6, further commodities to the value of £234 to be paid at a later period. They were so paid, but not until the arrival of the French colonists in August, 1840. Consequently, owing to the Proclamation of Governor Gipps above referred to, the purchase was, strictly speaking, illegal, and need not have been recognized by the Crown at all. Captain Langlois sold part of his interest to the Nanto-Bordelaise Company, and on the 9th March, 1840, sixty-three emigrants left Rochefort in the " Comte de Paris," an old man-of-war given by the French Government for the purpose.
Another man-of-war, the " Aube," under Captain Lavaud, was sent as escort, and also to take possession for the French Government and protect the colonists on their arrival. The captain, in order to consult the Roman Catholic bishop resident there, ' sailed for the Bay of Islands, arriving on the 11th July, 1840. Certain proceedings took place subse- quently to her arrival, which have given rise to the romantic account of the " taking possession " at Akaroa. It is said that the captain in an unguarded moment revealed the object of his presence in New Zealand waters, whereupon the " Britomart " was secretly despatched to forestall the French by taking possession of the South Island at Akaroa. Lavaud was obliged to make some mention of his mission in order to explain his presence in the bay, and was placed in an extremely awkward position when he was told that the whole of New Zealand, including the South Island, had been proclaimed a possession of the British Crown. At the time he left France New Zealand was stiU a No Man's Land ; and he had had two separate instructions — one to protect the French whaling industry in the southern waters, the other to prepare Akaroa for the reception of the emigrants by the " ComtJe de Paris," part of such preparation being the annexation of Banks Peninsula or further territories on behalf of France. He knew nothing even of the appointment of Hobson as Lieutenant-Governor, and he was at first disposed to refuse recognition of his authority.
Hobson appreciated his difl&culty ; and in order partly to safeguard
such British interest in the peninsula as had been established, partly to
convince the French that the territory was undoubtedly regarded as
British, he despatched Captain Stanley with two Magistrates to hold Courts
at Akaroa and other places on the peninsula. The following is a copy
of the instructions to Stanley : they are printed in part in Rusden's
History of New Zealand, though not in the printed collections of official
documents : —
Government House, Russell. Sir,— Bay of Islands, 22nd July, 1840.
It being of the utmost importance that the authority of Her Majesty should be most imequivocally exercised throughout the remote parts of this colony, and more particularly in the Southern and Middle Islands, where, I understand, foreign influence and even interference is to be apprehended, I have the honour to request you to pro- ceed immediately in H.M. sloop, under your command, to those islands.
On the subject of this commission I have to request the most inviolable secrecy from all except your immediate superior officers, to whom it may be your duty to report your proceedings.
The ostensible purpose of your cruise may appear to be the conveyance of two magistrates to Port Nicholson, to whom I will elsewhere more particularly refer. The
Andersen. — Mission of the " Britomart " at Akaroa. 81
real object to wiiich I wish particularly to call your attention is to defeat the move- ments of any foreign ship of war that may be engaged in establishing a settlement in any part of the coast of New Zealand.
There are various rumours current that Captain Lavaud, of the French corvette " L'Aube," now at anchor in this port, is employed in the furtherance of designs such as I have before mentioned. From some observations that fell from him, I discovered that his, intention was to proceed to the southern islands, being under the impression that the land about Akaroa and Banks Peninsula, in the Middle Island, is the property of a French subject. These circumstances, combined with the tone in which Captain Lavaud alluded to Akaroa and Banks Peninsula, excited, in my mind', a strong pre- sumption tha,t he is charged with some mission in that quarter incompatible with the Sovereign rights of Her Britannic Majesty, and wMch, as I have before observed, it will be your study by every means to frustrate.
If my suspicions prove correct, " L'Aube " will no doubt proceed direct to Akaroa and Banks Peninsula, for which place I have earnestly to request that you will at once depart with the utmost expedition, as it would be a point of the utmost con- sideration that, on his arrival at that port, he may find you in occupation, so that it wiU be out of his power to dislodge you without committing some direct act of hostility.
Captain Lavaud may, however, anticipate you at Akaroa, or (should he- be defeated in his movements) may endeavour to estabUsh himseK at some other point. In the event of either contingency occurring, I have to request you will remonstrate and protest in the most decided manner against such proceeding, and impress upon him that such interference must be considered as an act of decided hostile invasion.
You will perceive by the enclosed copy of Major Bunbury's declaration that independent of the assumption of the sovereignty of the Middle and Southern Islands, as announced by my proclamation of the 21st May last (a copy of which is also enclosed), the principal chiefs have ceded their rights to Her Majesty through that officer, who was fully authorised to treat with them for that purpose ; it will not, therefore, be necessary for you to adopt any further proceedings. It will, however, be advisable that some act of civil authority should be exercised on the islands, and for that purpose the magistrates who accompany you will be instructed to hold a court on their arrival at each port, and to have a record of their proceedings registered and transmitted to me.
You will by every opportunity which may offer forward intelligence of the French squadron's movements, and should you deem it necessary, to the Secretary of State for the Colonies through the Admiralty and to His Excellency Sir George Gipps, Governor of New South Wales.
Mr. Murphy and Mr. Robinson, the magistrates who accompany you, will receive a memorandum of instructions' for their future guidance, which you will be pleased to hand to them when you arrive at your destination.
As your presence in these islands will be of the utmost importance to keep in check any aggression on the part of foreign Powers, I have earnestly to request that, should vou require any further supply of provisions the same may be procured, if possible, at Port Nicholson, or at any of the ports on the coast, without returning to Sydney.
I have the honour to be. Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
W. HOBSON.
The instructions to the Magistrates are not copied by Rusden ; they and the above were, however, discovered in the Public Records Office in London by Mr. Guy H. Scholefield, London correspondent of the Press. The instructions were addressed to Mr. Murphy, whose name appears first in Stanley's instructions, he, not Robinson, being apparently the senior officer. They were as follows : —
Memo, of Instructions to be .attended to by Mr. Murphy. P.M.
You will, at every port that H.M. sloop " Britomart " touches at, act in your magisterial capacity, and, as it is requisite that the civil authority should be strictly exercised, should no case be brought under your notice, you \vill adjourn from day to day, and a careful record of your proceedings be registered, a copy of which you will transmit to me.
Under any circumstances that Captain Stanley may call upon you for assistance you will, of course, render it, and co-operate generally vnth. him in the advancement of any measures he mav think it expedient to adopt.
Dated at Russell, 21st July, 1S40.
82 Transactions.
The following is a copy of Captain Stanley's report, dated 17tli September, 1840 : —
I have the honour to inform your Excellency that I proceeded in Her Majesty's sloop under my command to the port of Akaroa, in Banks Peninsula, where I arrived on August 10th after a very stormy passage, during which the stern' boat was washed away and one of the quarter- boats stove. The French frigate " L'Aube " had not arrived when I anchored, nor had any French emigrants been landed. August 11th I landed, accomjmnied by Messrs. Murphy and Robinson, police magistrates, and visited the only two parts of the bay where there were houses ; at both places a flag was hoisted, and a court, of which notice had been given the day before, held by the magistrates. Having received information that there were three whaling-stations on the southern side of tlie peninsula, the exposed positions of wliich afforded no anchorage for the " Britomart," 1 sent Messrs. jMurphj^ and Robinson to visit them in a whale- boat. At each station the flag was hoisted and a court held. On August 15th the French frigate " L'Aube " arrived, having been four days off the point. On August 16th the French whaler " Gomte de Paris," having on board fifty-seven French emigrants, arrived. With the exception of M. Belligni, from the Jardin des Plantes, who is sent to look after the emigrants, and who is a good botanist and mineralogist, the emigrants are all of the lower order, and include carpenters, 'gardeners, stone- masons, labourers, a baker, a miner — m all thirty men, eleven women, and the rest children. Cajtain Lavaud, on the arrival of the French emigrants, assured me on his word of honour that he would observe strict neutrality between the English residents and the emigrants, and should any dift'erence arise he would settle matters impar- tially. Captain Lavaud also informed me that, as the " Comte de Paris " has to proceed to sea, whaHng, he would cause the emigrants to be landed on some unoccupied part of the bay, where he pledged himself thej' would do nothing which would be con- sidered hostile to the Government, and that until fresh instructions were received from our respective Governments the emigrants would merely build themselves houses for shelter and clear away what little land they might require for gardens. Upon visiting the " Comte de Paris " I found she had on board, besides agricultural tools for the settlers, six long 24-pounders. mounted on field carriages. I immediately called on Captain Lavaud to protest against the gims being landed. Captain Lavaud effesured me that he had been much surprised at finding guns had been sent out in the " Comte de Paris," but that he had already given the most positive orders that they should not be landed. On August 19th, the French emigrants having been landed in a sheltered well-chosen part of the bay, where they could not interfere ^\'ith anyone, I handed over to Messrs. Murphj^ and Robinson the instructions entrusted to me by your Excellency to meet such a contingency. Mr. Robinson, finding that he could engage three or four Englishmen as constables, and having been enabled, through the kindness of Captain Lavaud, to purchase a boat from the French whaler, decided upon remaining. Captain Lavaud expressed much satisfaction when I informed him Mr. Robinson was to remain, and immediately offered him the use of his cabin and table so long as the " Aube " remained at Akaroa. Mr. Robinson acceioted Captain Lavaud's offer until he could establish himself on shore. On August 27th I sailed from Akaroa to Pigeon Ba}', where, finding no inhabitants, I merely remained long enough to survey the harbour, which, though narrow and exposed to the westward, is well sheltered from every other wind; and is much frequented liy whalers, who procure a great number of pigeons. From Pigeon Bay I went to Port CoojDcr, where Mr. Murphy held a court. Several chiefs were joresent and seemed to understand and appreciate Mr. Murphy's proceedings in one or two cases that came before him. Between Port Coojier and Cloudy Bay I could hear of no anchorage whatever from the whalers who frequented the coast. I arrived at Port Nicholson on SejDtember 2nd, embarked Messrs. Shortland and Smart, and sailed for the Bay of Islands on September 16th. I have the honour to enclose hercMdth such information as I was enabled to procure during my stay at Banks Peninsula, and also plans of the harbours.
One enclosure is an interesting table of ports and whaling-stations in the peninsula visited by Captain Stanley, but as it does not bear on the subject it is not copied ; from it is gathered, however, that the European population at the time of Captain Stanley's visit numbered over eighty.
It will be observed that no note whatever is made of " taking posses- sion." The log of the " Britomart " is equally reticent. A copy of the log was obtained by Mr. Guy H. Scholefield in London, and from it the following particulars are gathered. The sloop-of-war " Britomart,"' Captain
Andersen. — Mission of the " Britomart " at Akaroa. 83
Stanley, left Sydney on the 17th Jime, 1840, and came to anchor at Koro- rareka, or Bay of Islands, on the afternoon of the 2nd July, H.M.S. '' Herald" having worked into the bay just ahead of her. She lay in the bay for nine days, "cutting brooms," watering, &c., imtil on Saturday, the 11th July, " arrived the French ship of war ' L'Aube,' and revenue cutter ' Ranger,' with the Governor. Saluted the French flag with 21 guns." Routine work went on as before, but on the 22nd the company of the " Britomart " was employed making preparations for sea. The log of the following day, commencing at midnight on the 22nd, is interesting : " 2 a.m. received on board per order of his Excellency Lieutenant-Governor Hobson, Mr. Murphy and Mr. Robinson, magistrates ; 8, loosed sail, short'd in cable ; 11 weighed and made sail. Working out of Kororareka Harbour ; tacked occasionally." The vessel was busy all the afternoon working out of the Bay of Islands, and at daylight on the 24th Cape Brett lay on the lee bow distant ten or twelve miles. The passage to Akaroa was a' thoroughly bad one, and the ship suffered considerably from the knocking-about she received. At midday on the 25th, the first day out, the vessel was off the Great Barrier. The following morning the foretopmast was found to be chafed through, and in the afternoon the foretopsail was split. On the 27th much time was occupied in bending new sails ; in the afternoon two ports were stove in by the heavy sea. Cape Wareka [? Wharekahika] was 218 miles distant at noon on the 28th. On the 29th and 30th there was a heavy head swell, which made the 120 miles to East Cape a good deal more. However, the wind veered round, and the " Britomart " rounded East Cape before midnight on the 31st. In the afternoon the hold had 14 in. of water, and thereafter the pumps were going almost continuously. On the 2nd August " Akoroa " was 306 miles distant, and there were 17 in. and 18 in. of water in the hold through the afternoon. At 2 o'clock on the morning of the 3rd a sea was shipped which stove in the lee quarter boat and washed away a port. The ship was twelve miles farther from her destination, at noon on the 4th than on the previous day. Again, in the early morning of the 5th,. a sea stove in a weather port. Land was seen on the port bow at 10 a.m. on the 6th ; it was somewhere near Flat Point, or Te Awaite, in the North Island. In the afternoon the sea split the foretopm'ast-staysail. Next day the weather moderated, and sea-water was pumped into the empty tanks. Land showed on the lee bow at 7 in the evening, and next n^orning, the 8th, Cape Palliser was four or five leagues distant. On the morning of the 9th, Sunday, the crew was mustered and the Articles of War were read. This was a proceeding of quite a routine nature. There was land on the beam, and a run of eighty-three miles to Akaroa. This is the narrative of the 10th : " 4 a.m. bore up for the land ; 12.30 calm, with a heavy swell ; out sweeps and swept ship ; 1.30 a breeze from the nor'ward ; in sweeps, trimmed and swept into the harbour ; 4.30 shortened sail and came to with S.B. in 6| fathoms ; furled sails, &c." At daylight on the 11th the boats were out and the ship was made snug. There is no reference to any, incident outside the ordinary routine of the ship. On the 12th the boats were sent out to survey and cut wood, and they were so employed for the next few days, completing on Friday, 14th. On the following day, 15th August: " 5 p.m., sent boats to assist towing the French ship-of-war 'L'Aube ' ; 8, anchored do." Sunday was marked with the usual Divine service. On Monday, 17th : " — p.m., arrived the French ship (merchant) ' Count de Paris,' witli> emigrants. Lent the cutter with a party to haul the seine." There is nothing but routine entries until the 22nd, when the company was employed making preparations for sea.
84 Transactions.
The " Britomart " ran down the harbour on the 26th and came near the entrance, when she spoke the British merchant ship " Speculator," just arrived. Sails were loosed on the 27th, and further preparations made for sea. At 8 a.m. Captain Stanley " discharged Mr. C. B. Robinson, police magistrate," and at 9 made sail down the harbour, coming to at the anchorage. Putting to sea the following day, the " Britomart " spoke the schooner " Success," of Sydney, from Port Cooper, and another sail. On the 29th she shaped her course for Pigeon Bay, where she came to and sent a boat to survey and get water. On the 30th she sailed for Port Cooper (now Lyttelton Harbour) and anchored there. On the 1st September the " Britomart " was again under sail, and a cable was passed to the merchant ship " Africane," but in getting under way in the squally wind the hawser parted, and the " Britomart " touched bottom. She made a good passage to Cape Palliser, which was in sight at daylight on the 2nd, and in the after- noon she was working up to Port Nicholson, where she anchored at 5 p.m.
Lieutenant-Governor Hobson sent a copy of Captain Stanley's report to Governor Sir George Gipps, saying, " I transmit a copy of Captain Stanley's report of his proceedings while at Akaroa. The measures he adopted with the French emigrants are, I think, extremely judicious, and the whole of his conduct evinces a degree of zeal and intelligence which, I trust, you will consider worthy of the notice of Her Majesty's Govern- ment." There is no note of " forestalling " the French ; and the first apparent note of anything that might be construed into pleasure at such forestalling is found in Governor Gipps's despatch to Lord John Russell : " I have already transmitted to your Lordship copies of the instructions which have been given to Captain Stanley, of H.M.S. " Britomart," by the Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand. ... I have now the satis- faction to inform your Lordship that Captain Stanley preceded the French . . ."
Even in the French Chamber of Deputies the position seemed to have been clearly perceived ; for later, on the 29th JMay, 1844, the following remarks were made in that chamber by M. Guizot, Minister of Foreign Affairs : " There are two Proclamations, one on the 21st May, the other on the 17th June. Both are anterior to the arrival of Captain Lavaud, of the ' Aube.' Of these I have carefully read only that of June 17th, rela- tive to the taking possession of the southern island. Here is the English text — I translate literally : ' Taken possession, in the name of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, of the southern island of New Zealand. This island, situated in [here follows latitude and longitude], with all its woods, rivers, ports, and territory, having been ceded in sovereignty by different independent chiefs to Her Most "Gracious Majesty, we have taken solemn possession of it, &c.' "
There was a diary in existence, and may still be, though its whereabouts is not known — the diary of C. B. Robinson, one of the Magistrates sent with Stanley. Thanks to the foresight of the late Mr. S. C. Farr, of Christ- church, important extracts from it are printed in Canterbury Old and New, as follows : —
August 3rd, 1840. Appointed by Captain William Hobson, Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand, with all necessary instructions and a proclamation signed " William Hobson," and dated August 3rd, 1840, at Government House, Russell, Bay of Islands. Also signed by Willoughby Shortland, Colonial Secretary. Instructions were : " To proceed with all despatch in H.M.S. (brig) ' Britomart,' Captain Owen Stanley R.N., Commander, to Akaroa, Banks Peninsula, and hoist the Union Jack, which ^^ill be given to you, on a spur jutting out a little more than half-way up the harbour, on the east side, and marked in red on the map you take with you."
Andersen. — Mission of the " Britomart " at Akaroa. 85
Here followed the Proclamation, whicli was not copied. The diary continued : —
" We sailed that evening with a fair, strong wind ; a good passage was made, and we anchored in Akaroa Bay on the morning of August 11th. We at once proceeded to make preparations for the formal ceremony. A log of wood, old and dry. was pro- cured from the bush by some of the crew, and was hewn by the carpenter eigh^ inches square. A hole was dug in the ground at the spot selected, the post put in, and the earth well rammed down round it. A spar had been brought from the vessel, rigged with pulley and halyard for hoisting the flag ; this was lashed to the post, and every- thing made ready by 5 p.m. on August 15th. The next morning, at 12 o'clock noon, I Charles Barrington Robinson, deputed by the Acting-Governor, hoisted the Union Jack in the name of Her Majesty the Queen Victoria, and in the jDresence of Captain Stanley, his officers, some of the crew, about a dozen natives (Maoris), and the only Englishman then in the bay; Mr. Cfreen, Avith his family. There was no demonstration other than my reading the proclamation, three cheers for Her Majesty, and the National Anthem.
The next note made was : " August 18th. The French man-of-war ' Aube,' Captain Lavaud, arrived in the bay."
Now compare these statements with the log of the " Britomart." The Proclamation signed " William Hobson '" was, it is said, dated 3rd August. On that date the " Britomart " was actually being buffeted at sea, south of East Cape, and somewhat over three hundred miles from Akaroa! Mr. Eobinson says, " We sailed that evening [August 3rd] ... a good passage was made . . . and we anchored on the morning of August 11th." The log shows they sailed on the morning of the 22nd July, and made anything but a good passage, anchoring in Akaroa at 4.30 p.m. on the 10th August. Mr. Robinson says he hoisted the flag at noon on the 16th, and the " Aube " appeared on the 18tli August ; the log shows that the " Aube " came to anchor on Saturday, 15th August. Again, the report of Captain Stanley shows that the flag was hoisted and a Court held at two places in the bay on the 11th August, and at three other bays where there were whaling-stations during the succeeding days, so that during the time ]\Ir. Robinson says they were busy preparing the pole, &c., the report shows that he and Mr. Murphy were visiting the whaling-stations in a whaleboat.
These discrepancies are extraordinary, and cannot but give colour to a suggestion already made in the voluminous newspaper correspondence on this subject — that the diary was not begvm until some time after the event, and then written up from memory, or from faulty notes.
On the late Dr. R. McNab visiting England towards the end of 1909 the writer of this paper wrote to him, in December of that year, urging him to secure, if possible, logs of the " Aube " and " Comte de Paris," also the instructions to Captain Lavaud, and Lavaud's despatches to his Govern- ment. The writer had already sent him a precis of what had been gathered by him up till that date, and Dr. McNab was successful in obtaining copies of a great deal of matter — so much that he intended making it the subject of a book. This his lamented death unfortunately prevented.
The following are translated extracts from a letter written by Lavaud to the Minister of Marine, at the Bay of Islands, on the 19th June, 1840 : —
On the 29th of June I sailed round Van Diemen's Land ; at that time there was a S.E. wind shifting to the east, a fine breeze but contrary to the course to be travelled to get to the south of New Zealand : I decided to sail into the Bay of Islands, where I hoped to see the Bishop of Maronae. . . . Your Excellencj^ was kind enough to allow me the latitude to change this part of my course, and I sailed to the north, directing the " Aube " to the Three Kings Islands, the first land I caught sight of
86 ' Transactions.
since the 25th of March, and it was on the 8th of this month at 1 o'clock in tiie morning. On the 9th I recognized the Cape Maria van Diemen. I left the North Cape the same day at night, and on the 10th, in the morning, I was at the entrance of the Bay of Islands, which I could only reach in the night on account of the calm and the strong land breezes which did not permit me to go ahead. I met the vessel H.B.M. " Britomart." The Captain came to see me as soon as I had cast anchor. We exchanged the usual salutes of politeness and remained very good friends. I immediately visited the Bishop. . .
On my arrival I heard of the taking possession, in the name of the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, of the three islands composing the group known under the name of New Zealand. The British flag flies two miles from the anchorage of Kororareka, on the River Karra-karra, on the site of Fort Russell-To\vn, the name of the town to be built there. A Lieutenant-Governor, Mr. Hobson, is esta- bhshed there with a large administrative staff and a garrison of 130 men, commanded by a'' field officer of the land forces, who has three other officers under his command. Three warships seem to be attached to the British colony. The corvette "' Herald," which belongs to them, recently made a voyage round all the islands where English- men are established, visiting the principal places. . . . Akaroa is at present also occupied by an Englishman, whose cattle graze there. The corvette " Herald " went there, and I heard that about two months ago, there, as well as everywhere where she found no Europeans, the declaration of British sovereignty had been written on a pajjer, enclosed in a bottle, and hidden in the earth. . . .
The property of Banks Peninsula has been constituted by a Mr. Clayton, who lives in the Bay of Islands and who has heard from tl;e whalers long ago that Mr. Langlois had acquired it ; but as I thought, in such a state of afi^airs, I ought at present to conceal the mission I was charged with, this statement flid not come to me in an official way.
The position has greatly changed since my departure from France ; British jealousy has made great steps forward and is running fast. J shall avoid to compro- mise the Government of the King ; I will act with great caution ; but, on the other hand, so far away from Your Excellency, and ignoring what has happened between the two Governments, after France has been notified that the full sovereign power lies in the hands of " Her Majestj^ Queen Victoria, her heir's and successors," as stated in the Proclamation dated the 21st of May — I repeat, so far away, I cannot deviate from the orders I carry, and, having above all to preserve the honour of my flag, I shall declare officiallj^ to the representative of Her Britannic Majesty on the island. Captain Hobson, that for the present I protest against any measure, coming from the British GJovernment, which might result in infringing the French property duly acquired from the free and independent natives, till the moment in which the Government of the King will be pleased to recognize British sovereignty over these islands.
I fear that the " Comte de Paris," which, according to what Jier captain wrote to me before I left France, has put into port at Senegal, at the Cape, at Hobart Town, and at the Bay of Islands, before returning to Akaroa, mil keep us \faiting for some time, which will be very regrettable. There ought to be more than one warship here, for I sliall not be able to leave Akaroa when I get there, and yet I Avill entirely ignore there what is happening around me. We must not conceal from ourselves that everj^- body here will try and hinder us, and I will be all the more luiprepared to avoid the pitfalls of our neighbours because I will have no information from the outside. I hope that the official news recer\'ed in France the last few months will appear to Your Excellency to be of such a nature that fresh instructions will be sent me, and that perhaps also the sea forces will be increased. .
I add my letter to Captain Hobson . . . who, as Your Excellency will see, refused to enter into explanations with me if I did not previously recognize his title as Governor of the Islands of New Zealand. ... I tried to make him under- stand that I could not see why he should keep silent about the object of my letter [concerning properties acquired by the French in various parts of the Islands], having only as a reason that I did not recognize him as Governor of the Islands of New Zealand. I also pointed out to him that large French properties existed in the Islands, especially in the ]\Iiddle Island, which we call in France the South Island, and that I could not admit the rights of sovereignty of a foreign Government over this property ; but he very well explained to me that there Avas a distinction to be made here — that he did not contest the property of the French on the Islands ; that the chiefs when selling had only sold the land, but not their authority, which they abdicated in favour of Britain ; that only after this abdication the British sovereignty had been declared. Then I handed him a letter telling him that the contents would make him understand my last word. He read it with great attention, and told me that in my place he would
ANDERSE^^ — Mission of the " Britomart " at Akaroa. 87
have acted as I had done, and that he thought it was the surest way to avoid a conflict which might have had very unpleasant consequences for both Governments, in breaking out so far away. I insisted upon knowing if the contents of my letter had been well understood. He told me. Yes, that he understood the whole sense, and the whole situation ; that he would send a copy to the Governor-General at Sydney, who would take his orders from the Government of the Queen ; and that in the meantime he would use his whole persuasive influence with this same Governor-General, so that the Committee should not be obliged to inquire about the validity of the French title- deeds until the two Governments had come to some arrangement. After that I added that I was going to the South ; that several landowners and colonists were already established there, and others would go there to estabUsh themselves ; that the measures I claimed were to be extended to them also, and that there, too, they were to feel the protection of their Government, and consequently should be able to occupy the land, work on it, sow and reap without being worried. Mr. Langlois will take possession of Banks Peninsula and will give over to me the land which he is to transfer to the French Government, which will not appear ui the matter, unless it were to judge that it ought not to give its adhesion to the sovereigntj' of Queen Victoria over the Islands of New Zealand of which Banks Peninsula is a part ; and in case that I were to receive orders to declare that this sovereignty was not recognized I should proclaim that of France ov^r the peninsula. I say only Banks Peninsula because all the rest is invaded and occupied by the British. There is even a Magistrate at Cloudy Bay. Well, Minister, things are so advanced that it is too late to stop them, and being persuaded of this I wish to let the King's Government act freely without urging or compromising it in anything. The same motives have made me avoid placing myself in the position to be obliged to fire the first cannon-shot, the signal of war, knowing that if. on my departure from France, Your Excellency could have seen the position in which I find myself at present you would have sent me off with different instructions from those I have ; you would not have let the " Comte de Paris " sail, and would not have left me the choice of war or jjeace.
Later, in July, Lavaud received information of other claims than that of Langlois to land on Banks Peninsula ; and he writes to his Minister —
. . . Your Excellency will see that, as I had already heard, the ownership of Banks Peninsula has been partially or totalty claimed by. several people, who every one of them pretend to be the legitimate owners and to possess title-deeds. I have had the honour of mentioning to you, among rothers, Mr. Clayton, who lays claim only to a part. Further I may name to you the firm of Cooper and Levy, of Sydney, who, as well as Monsieur Langlois, claim the whole peninsula ; they have already brought timber to close the isthmus of this peninsula, and the herd of oxen which is in the bay of Akaroa belongs to this firm.
I shall concert with Monsieur Langlois to see what can be done ; perhaps it would be suitable to come to some arrangement with the claimants, of whom at least two, Messrs. Clayton and Cooper, bought prior to him.
In any case, we shall settle at Akaroa, awaiting your orders.
The Middle Island (Tawai-Ponamoo) is to-day, as I had the honour of telling you, nearly entirely in the possession of foreigners. We can no more think of acquiring from the natives, who possess only the land reserved for their habitations and plantations ; we could only buy from the British, but they are so numerous that I regard it as very difficult to proclaim the sovereignty of France there, as the companj'^, according to all appearances, can actually only claim a part of this jjeninsula. Through negotiations, I believe it to be quite possible to make the Britannic Cabinet disown Governor Hobson's first Proclamation, as he, in declaring the Queen's sovereignty, relies on a right of discovery which cannot be acknowledged by the nations.
It seems to me that it is impossible that this pretended right can be invoked to-day, so long after the discovery of these islands by Captam Cook ; besides, the right of discover}^ can only be exercised in uninhabited countries, but not in those where the land is trodden by those to whom it naturally belongs and ought to belong. The inde- pendence of the Jliddle Island, under the protectorate of France, would be, I believe, what would henceforth suit you the best. The freedom of the ports of this Island would lead to great commercial movement, which would strike a big blow at the colony of the North Island, soon to be subjected to Customs duties. Your Excellency will appreciate, from all that I have had the honour of communicating to you, the obstacles I have had to encounter and the delicate position in which I find myself. Nevertheless, in a conversation I had yesterday with Mr. Hobson, I thought fit to tell him that French colonists, landowners m the Middle Island, had just arrived, and
88 Transactions.
that I was going there to protect them when they would take possession of their lands. , His letter of the 23rd will perhaps lead me, if I find difficulties in Akaroa, to return to Sydney, when I have settled Monsieur Langlois, for I see that Mr. Hobson can or will not settle the question. In this state of affairs, if the Britannic Government has not got the signatures of the chiefs of Banks Peninsula — that is to say, their consent to recognize its sovereignty — I will make every possible effort to convince the chiefs that they must not abandon their land to any nation, but preserve it for themselves and their descendants by accepting the patronage of France and its Government. It is also in the direction of independence, I believe, that we ought to act with Britain.
But, sir, there is no time to be lost to enter into an explanation with the Britannic Cabinet : everything goes very quickly in this colony, and the powers given by Lord Normanby to the Government of Sydney give him all the more latitude, because what he will decide to do concerning these islands has been applauded in advance. . . .
A later letter is dated Akaroa, 19tli August, 1840. In it lie informs his Minister what he found at Akaroa : —
I have the honour to announce to you the arrival of the " Aube " in the Bay of Akaroa on the loth instant.
I found several British established there, and the Proclamation placarded by the corvette " Herald " last May posted on the house of an Englishmah placed in charge of these Proclamations. . . .
The brig " Britomart " is sailing along the coast and visiting the different ports with two Magistrates, having to go everywhere where any offence has to be investigated and punished. I suj^jpose that my presence is somewhat the reason of these cruises. A boat from this brig, which was lying outside the bay on the 17th instant, came alongside the " Comte de Paris," which, on entering, had fired guns ; in this boat were officers and the two Magistrates I just mentioned. Believing that this gun-fire was to call their boat, these gentlemen came on board. They noticed carriages for coast-guns which were on deck ; they seemed astonished, but, however, did not say anything about it. Various remarks thoughtlessly made by Captain Langlois also made them feel uneasy, and have been the subject of an explanation between the British captain and myself. I promised to follow the line of conduct that I had traced for myself in the Bay of Islands, and to maintain what I had written, until the British and French Cabinets had decided the question of occupancy in one way or another.
As I have had the honour of informing Your Excellency, I had officially announced to Captain Hobson that I was returning to Akaroa, where the surrounding land, as well as the whole of Banks Peninsula, belonged to French jiroprietors, who had sent out cultivators from France to clear the land and make it productive. . . . My sur- prise was great when, on the arrival of the " Comte de Paris," I heard, in the most l^ositive way, that Monsieur Langlois had never negotiated with the chiefs of this part, that he possessed nothing there, and that we had, in fact, no right of ownership we could put forward. The chiefs gathered around me declared to me, through the voice of M. Comte, a missionary jiriest of Monseignor Pompallier, who sjieaks the language of the natives, that Monsieur Langlois had negotiated for a part of the land of Port Cooper, Tokolabo Bay, for which he had paid one part, but that there never had been any question of the port of Akaroa, in which they had sold to a Mr. Rhodes a certain part for grazing or cultivating, and that in the same way they had sold the bay of Pyreka and other bays forming the southern part of the peninsula ; and, finally, that that they had never signed a contract of sale, drawn up between Monsieur Langlois and the tribes, of the north-west and west of the peninsula.
In such a state of things, how am I to execute the orders of the King ? How to take possession . . . even tacitly, in case of an arrangement between the Govern- ments of France and of Britain, of a land that does not belong to the company ? In one word, how to execute the treaty of the 11th October, 1839, made in Paris between the Government and the Nanto-Bordelaise Company ? Realty, sir, I am travelling on such a winding and dark road that I only walk by groping my way. ... If Monsieur Langlois had not heard of my presence he would have treated the acts and the official doings of Britain as a joke ; he would have hoisted the tricolour flag, would have saluted it with 101 guns, and he would have taken possession in the name of the King of the French ; while I, for my part, have tried every day in my conduct to avoid binding my Government, and esjiecially not to compromise the dignity of Royalty. Fortunately, the whaler " Pauline," which I met at sea, by making my presence here known at Port Cooper, prevented a demonstration of this kind, for the ceremony of which several officers and masters of whalers had already been convoked.
Andersen. — Mission of the '" Brifomart " at Akaroa. 89
From to-day [21st August] a British Magistrate has been appomted to reside at Akaroa and will establish himself there. I suppose it is the arrival and the landing of our colonists that has called forth this measure. I had a conference on this matter with him. and I could sec a certain fear concerning my intentions ; nevertheless, I am pleased at liis presence, because, together with mine, it might avoid misiHnderstandings between the established British and our colonists. . . .
In ending this despatch I must repeat to Your Excellency my whole idea : No colonization possible' in these seas if we do not obtain the withdrawal of these Procla- mations and declarations as to the island of Tawai Poenamou (Middle Island) ; and then, apart from the inconvenience of' the neighbourhood, one would have to make a better choice of emigrants than those brought out by the " Comte de Paris."
There is a voluminous essay written by Lavaud, entitled " Voyage and Attempted Colonization of the South Island of New Zealand, undertaken by the Corvette ' Aube,' commanded by Commander Lavaud," which gives more detail than the official papers, but is hardly more to the point.
It will be admitted that Lavaud was placed in a very difficult position through the change of circumstances that had taken place since he left France ; that he, as representative of that country, bore himself in a courteous if independent manner, and that both he and Hobson acted with admirable mutual forbearance ; that there was no race, the French objects having been defeated whilst Lavaud was still at sea and in ignorance of events ; and that Lavaud, whilst accepting the defeat with difficulty, did so with dignity ; that his action was the best he could have taken, both for the continued amity of the two nations and for the comfort of the emigrants.
In conclusion, it is a pleasure to be able to express this respect for one who represented a nation with whom we have often been at variance, but between whom and ourselves a bitter war against a common foe has, we trust, consummated an enduring friendship. The French did not prosecute their claim ; upon inquiry, the New Zealand Government, in view of the fact that a large number of emigrants had been sent out in good faith, at a cost of £15,125, made the company a grant of 30,000 acres, and the company finally ceded all its rights on the peninsula to the New Zealand Company for the sum of £4,500.
Many contemporary versions have appeared of what was supposed to have taken place at Akaroa in August, 1840 ; and it was the great dis- crepancies among these, and the reading of Stanley's report, that awoke in the writer a suspicion that the ceremony performed was not one of taking possession, but merely one of exercising civil authority in virtue of posses- sion already taken ; and that more facts were to be gleaned from the dark fields of the past.
-It is to be hoped that the whole of the official correspondence, both English and French, may be made generally available by publication.
90
Transactions.
Art. XV. — Ranunculus paucifolius T. Kirk : its Distribution and Ecology, and the Bearing oj these upon certain Geological and Phylogenetic Problems.
By A. Wall, M.A., Professor of English, Canterbury College.
[Bead before the New Zealavd Institute, at Chrislchurch, 4th-8th February, 1919 ; received by Editor, 24th June, 1919 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1920.]
Plates II-V.
Contents.,
Historical . . . . .,. . . . . '
Comparison of Ranunculus chordorhizos and R. paucifolius Habitat and Distribution —
General
Details of Distribution Associations of the Area . . Ecological : Main Problems involved — •
General
Relation to Geological Problems
Origin of the Group to which it belonged Conclusions References Postscript
90 90
92 93 94
96
97
99
103
104
105
Historical.
Ranunculus 'paucifolius was " raised to specific rank " by Kirk (1899, p. 11), who separated it from R. chordorhizos Hook. f.
The notable points in his description are : " Leaves 1 or 2 " ; " Scape equalling the petioles "' ; " Achenes few, turgid, with a straight subulate beak " ; " flowering season, December."
Under R. paucifolius, Cheeseman (1906, p. 16) says, " Much more com- plete material is required before a good description can be given of this curious little plant. It is very close to the preceding species, but seems sufficiently distinct in the less fleshy and more coriaceous habit ; fewer leaves, which are broader, and much less divided ; longer scape, and broader petals. Only one flowering specimen has been obtained."
From Hooker's account of R. chordorhizos it is evident that Ranun- culus paucifolius was first collected by Haast before the publication of the Handbook (1867), though its discovery is accredited by Cheeseman to Enys (1906, p. xxxiii), where it is stated that Enys's work in New Zealand began in 1874.
Comparison op Ranunculus chordorhizos and R. paucifolius,
R. chordorhizos.
In 1918 I obtained flowers of R. chordorhizos from two plants in my garden at Christchurch brought from Mount Hutt (at c. 4,000 ft.) in 1917. One of those also flowered in 1919. The flowering-date in Christchurch (sea-level) was September. The flower is from 1 in. to 1^ in. in diameter. The petals are from 5 to 8, and even more.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate II.
»*
%,
^-•:/^^-
••^
• ,4- .
v .V
•".*-»- ^ ■,.
i
Photograph of Ranunculus paucijoliv^ in situ showing five leaves and root.
Face p. 90.]
Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. LI I
Plate III.
_ y ji_ ->
Fig. [. — Photograph of Ranunculus paucifolius showmg six leaves.
Fig. 2. — -Photograpli of Ranunculus paucifolius in situ.
Wall. — Ranunculus paucifolius T . Kirk. 91
The most striking feature of the flower (hitherto undescribed) is the form of the sepals, which are lobed like the radical leaves, and one of them in each flower is much larger than the rest, lobed and appearing like the cauline leaves which form a sort of involucre in R. Haastii, but attached so much higher that it should rather be termed a bract. The edges of the petals are also lobed shallowly. The colour of the sepals is dark like the leaves. I obtained one head of ripe achenes from my plants. . The description of the achene in Kirk and Cheeseman seems to be quite exact.
Specimens of the plants here used were sent to Kew for identification ; there are no flowering specimens there, but my plants were identified as R. chordorhizos. The locality (Moimt Hutt) is not far from Mount Somers (the original locality), and the plant has been collected by Laing at Mount Winterslow, between Mount Somers and Mount Hutt.
R. paucifolius.
I visited Castle Hill on the 8th November, 1919, and obtained specimens. There had been a heavy fall of snow on the 1st and 2nd November, and most of the flowers were much damaged. Between twenty and thirty blooms were observed. The flowering-date is late October and November, not December (Kirk, Cheeseman). I was able to get about a dozen specimens which had flowered after the disappearance of the snow. No buds were coming on, and the season was rather backward than otherwise.
The flower is large and showy, averaging about H in. in diameter when fully expanded. I measured one exactly 2 in. in diameter.
The number of petals 'is from 5 to 8 or even more ; the most usual number seemed to be 6. The sepals are 5. Most of the plants bear one flower only, but several were observed with two. The scape is very short, not more than 1 in. in any of my specimens. There are no cauline leaves as in R. Haastii ; the sepals are pale yellow and have nothing of the peculiar character of those of • R. chordorhizos. The edges of the petals, unlike those of R. chordorhizos, are entire or very nearly so, the margin being very slightly wavy.
I obtained ripe achenes at Castle Hill in December, 1918. The description in Kirk is inexact, and the achene is not distinguishable from that of R. chordorhizos.
I may add that I have in cultivation seven plants brought from Castle Hill in 1918. All are thriving, but none flowered in 1919.
The two species having been grown close together, the following points of comparison may be noted. The general coloration of the two is very similar and very curious ; R. chordorhizos is, however, a little darker than R. paucifolius. The leaf of R. chordorhizos has the segments distinctly recurved ; those of R. paucifolius are nearly flat. R. paucifolitis is a good deal the larger plant in every way. The leaf of R. paucifolius is pitted, but not so deeply as that of R. chordorhizos. The leaves of both species are pitted when fresh, not only " when dry " (Kirk, Cheeseman).
To summarize the new facts resulting from these observations : — (1.) R. chordorhizos has recurved leaves, pitted while fresh. (2.) R. chordorhizos has a flower about H in. in diameter (not " 1 in."). (3.) The sepals of R. chordorhizos are lobed, and have something of the
character of a cauline leaf or bract. (4.) The number of petals of R. chordorhizos is from 5 to 8 or more. (5.) The edge of the petals of R. chordorhizos is lobed or crenate.
92 Transactions.
(6.) The leaves of R. paucifolius, instead of being only 2-3 (Kirk), are
as many as 8. One of my plants in cultivation has 9 now.
Six is quite usual. The name paucifolius is a misnomer. (7.) The scape of R. paucifolius is not always solitary. (8.) The number of petals of R. paucifolius is 5-8. , .
(9.) The flower of R. paucifolius is larger than described hitherto, being
from 1^ in. to 2 in. (10.) The flowering-date of R. paucifolius is late October and November,
not December. (11.) The achene of R. paucifolius is exactly like that of R. chordorhizos ;
the style is curved, not straight.
Conclusion from these Facts.
I have been tempted to think that R. paucifolius hardly deserves specific status, and that it should be reduced to the rank of a variety of R. chordo- rhizos ; but in the light of the above observations I am compelled to decide that it should be uj^held as a distinct species. While the differences in the cutting and the colour of the leaf, the size of the plant and of the flower, the edging of the petals, the pitting of the leaf, might be considered trivial, yet the character of the sepals of R. chordorhizos, constituting a distinct link with R. Haastii, would seem to be important enough, taken in conjunction with the other differences, to warrant the retention of the species. UiJtil flowering specimens of R. crithmifolius have been studied it is not possible to tell how the group may ultimately be treated.
Habitat and Distribution.
General.
The only known locality for Ranunculus paucifolius is a rock-bound hollow behind the farm buildings at Castle Hill, in the Trelissick Basin, about a mile and a half from the homestead of the late J. D. Enys, upon whose property the farm was situated.
A full account of the general geological features of the district is given by Speight (1917), with a map showing the Castle Hill itself (p. 323), and plates, of which plate xxi, fig. 1, gives a view of the small hollow from above.
The locality of the species is a small synclinal basin forming a kind of amphitheatre. Its main direction is north-east ^and south-west, the north- east end being the higher. It is bounded on the south and west by the steep grassy slopes of Castle Hill, with frequent outcrops of lime- stone (seen in Plate IV), and on the north and east by piles of limestone rocks from 80 ft. to 100 ft. high, which are weathered into the usual fantastic shapes. It is entered from the eastern side by a gap in the limestone barrier about 100 yards broad ; a small but constant stream rises on the south-west side of the basin, and flows through this gap on to the flat cultivated plains of the Castle Hill farm, which are overlooked by the steep limestone rocks. Except at this point the basin is surrounded on all sides by limestone rocks or steep slopes of grass upon a limestone soil. The weathering of the rocks by frost and wind produces a great amount of debris, which is blown far and wide by the strong winds of the Southern Alps, and this debris collects in the basin owing to its enclosed character. Within the basin a small dune-system is produced by the action of the wind, so that its floor is diversified by small
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI I.
Plate IV.
-'*!'. . ?
Jk^' -M
w
0)
o
o
05 D
m:
-gn
O
r. #
-\
•^
o o
60
o
Pace p. 92.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate V.
p 5b
1)
0)
C o
CO
o -^
S g
S
03
+3
etf o
O
fciO
o
Wall. — Ranunculus paucifolius T. Kirk. 93
lidges and shallow hollows of dune type. The south-west half of the basin is clothed with tussock grassland, and does not concern us. The north-east half, at the south-west end, shows first (moving from south-west to north-east) a small area, about 120 yards by 100 yards, of open debris formation which does not harbour this Ranunculus. The upper (or north-eastern) portion consists of a larger area of limestone debris, about 350 yards by 100 to 150 yards, of which some parts are clothed with a half-closed tussock formation, others with an open formation, including the Ranunculus paucifolius, while some considerable portions are entirely barren. The bottom of this part of the basin is occupied chiefly by a belt of half-closed tussock formation ; the eastern side has rapid slopes of coarse debris below the limestone rocks ; the western side (shown in Plate IV) has a gentler gradient, and the grass-covered slopes of Castle Hill here ease off gradually into the central basin. Tongues of half-closed tussock formation, on this side, occupying higher ground or ridges, separate roughly circular or semicircular areas of the open formation well seen in Plate V, within which most of the plants of Ranunculus paucifolius occur.
The debris itself is of a flaky character, but is reduced, over most of the area, to a fine uniform powder. The colour of the bare patches is thus a pale yelloM% deepening to brown in certain places, owing apparently to the volcanic element present in the limestone itself in varying quantity. The debris on the steep eastern slopes is much of it very coarse and rough, and very large flakes of the stone lie thickly here.
At the extreme north-east corner a dune formation is being broken up. Here are semicircular breaches of the higher dune, whence masses of very loose debris come down. At the top the slope is steep and the material deep and soft ; hardly any vegetation can grow, and the line separating the tussock grassland from the perfectly barren space is sharp and clear.
Possibly all parts of the basin have at one time or another been thus closely covered, the covering being subsequently stripped away or buried, while a certain area must always have remained sufficiently open some- where in the area for the calciphile community to exist.
Digging at a spot where several plants of Ranunculus paucifolius grew close together showed that the limestone debris was here exactly 18 in. deep. At that depth a more consolidated subsoil was reached. Down to this depth the material was perfectly uniform, fine and incoherent, and the roots of the Ranunculus, about 10 in. or 12 in. long, do not reach beyond this layer, which seemed fairly damp throughout at the end of a period of about a fortnight's fine weather. In a really dry season this material must, of course, become extremely dry.
Details of Distribution.
The following are the main results of the careful search of the whole, or nearly the whole, of the area, in which I had the assistance of Messrs. R. Speight, A. E. Flower, and Dr. W. P. Evans.
(1.) Most of the plants grow on the more gently sloping north-west side of the basin, and are most thickly congregated on two areas, each about 60 yards by 40 yards. The whole area within which all the plants (except three or four) were found is about 300 yards by about 60 yards — roughly, between 3^ and 4 acres.
(2.) Nearly ail the plants were found on ground sloping at an angle of from 6° to 8°. Few were found on quite level spots, and none at all on very steep places.
94 Transactions '
(3.) Where several plants occur in a line, from 2 ft. to 4 ft. apart, as sometimes happens, this line takes no constant direction.
(4.) The plants occur, roughly, in groups, but seldom close to one another and not often very near any other plants. Only in one small area were they found among tussocks (about a dozen altogether), and here the tussock formation is peculiarly scanty.
(5.) The whole number of plants I counted was seventy. Allowing for possible errors and oversights, and portions not quite so minutely examined, it is safe to say, I think, that the area does not contain more than from one hundred and fifty to two hundred individuals, and I should think it probable that there are not more than one hundred.
(6.) In one space which was most carefully examined, and in which the plants were as frequent as anywhere, the nearest neighbours of a par- ticular plant of Ranunculus paucifoUus were : Poa acicularifolia, Lepidmm sisymbrioides, Wahlenbergia albomargmata, Myosotis decora, Carmichaelia Monroi var., and the introduced Arenaria serpyllifolia and Cerastium glonieratum. The plants in the vicinity were on an average about 6 in. from one another, and spaces about 12 in. square were frequently quite barren. This would be a typical " open formation."
In another case, not at all exceptional, at the other end of the area examined, a plant of Ranuncidus paucifoUus was seen te have no other plant nearer to it than 3 ft. ; at this distance was a small patch of Poa acicularifolia ; a little farther away was one plant of Oreomyrrhis andicola var. rigida, and at about the same distance one of Lepidium sisymbrioides ; and 10 ft. away was one plant of Notothlaspi rosulatum. The rest of the 10 ft. circle was perfectly bare.
To complete the account of the surface of the hollow it may be added that areas of 12 yards by 6 yards were measured which supported no living plant of any kind. These completely barren spots form a fairly large part of the small available space.
Associations of the Area.
The small basin here described supports a limited community of calci- phile xerophytes, of which Ranunculus paucifoUus is a typical member. It supports also a good number of mesophytes, representing the usual flora of the district, and a fairly large group of introduced plants.
{a.) On the barest portions of the area, where the debris is deepest, loosest, and, in dry seasons, presumably driest, the only plants are Lepidium sisymbrioides, Oreomyrrhis andicola var., Oreomyrrhis andicola var. rigida, the introduced Arenaria serpyllifolia, and occasionally MyosoUs decora.
(b.) The usual open formation of the gentler slopes includes, besides the plant under consideration, all the above-named, and in addition Pimelea prostrata var., Notothlaspi rosulatum, Poa acicularifolia, Anisotome Enysii, Cardamine heterophylla var., Carmichaelia Monroi or nana, Wahlenbergia albomarginata, Anisotome aromatica ; and, more occasionally, Ranu'iiculus Monroi var. dentatus, Senecio Haastii, Crepis novae-zelandiae, Raoulia australis, that variety of Epilobium novae-zelandiae which is distinguished by its generally reddish colouring and pink flower, and Myosotis cinerascens Petrie.
All these plants are perennial, and all are very low in stature.
These two — {a) and (b) — might be said to form a Lepidium sisymbrioides association. This association presents a most singular and characteristic facies. The general background is a glaring yellow, shading into pale brown in certain patches. Upon this ground the scattered plants of
Wall. — Ranunculus paucifdlius T. Kirk. 95
Lepidium sisymhrioides make spots ot very dull cliocolate, which are con- fused in the general scheme with the paler browns, dull greenish-yellows, and greys, of Oreomyrrhis andicola, Myosotis decora, Anisotome Enysii, &c. The sparsely scattered plants of Ranunculus paucifolius become almost invisible in this environment, and play no leading part in determining the appearance of the whole unit. The whole effect is most peculiar ; the calciphile flora gives the impression that it belongs elsewhere — to another age, another climate and country. Much the same effect is produced, in my experience, by the isolated patches of ancient fen vegetation which survive at such spots as Wicken and Cottenham, set like savage aliens of some older and vanishing race in the midst of the green crops and pastures of modern Cambridgeshire.
(c.) As the formation becomes more nearly closed, on the borders of the grassy closed areas, Plantago spathulata appears in great quantities, and the' closed formation of the immediate neighbourhood includes Festuca 7iovae-zelandiae, two or three others of the usual grasses of the district, Raoulia subsericea, Hydrocotyle novae-zelandiae var. montana, Vittadinia nustralis, and a fair amount of moss. Here occasional plants of Lepidium sisymhrioides appear, but not far from the pure limestone patches.
((?.) The chief introduced plants which occur in the basin are Arenaria serpyllifolia. (extremely abundant everywhere^more so than any native plant), Cerastium glomeratum, Hypochaeris radicata, the large ox-eye daisy (which completely covers the slopes on the eastern side of the rocks out- side the basin), and Verhascum Thapsus. It is not without significance, as showing the very special and peculiar character of the locality, that Hypochaeris radicata, elsewhere so exceedingly abundaiit in New Zealand, is here comparatively rare.
It must-be added that the rocks above the basin and the steepest slopes around them also harbour Epilohium gracilipes (which never occurs on the flat), Senecio Haastii (which is comparatively seldom seen below), Senecio lautus var. montanus, and a good number of such shrubs as Coprosma propinqua, Discaria toumatou, and Aristotelia fruticosa. Upon these shrubs the peculiar parasite Korthalsella clavata is found ; this also grows upon shrubs in other limestone rocks {e.g., those at the junction of the Porter and Broken Rivers), but apparently is found only in the Castle Hill district.
A certain number of these plants are definitely calciphiles, and occur in no other situations ; others seem to grow by preference on limestone, but are not confined strictly to it (in this district, at any rate) ; and the rest are of general distribution.
In the first class are Ranunculus paucifolius, Poa acicularifolia, Korthal- sella clavata, Epilohium gracilipes, Myosotis decora, Anisotome Enysii. In the second are Oreomyrrhis andicola var. rigida and Crepis novae-zelandiae.
Several of them exhibit marked xerophytic characters, as described by Cockayne and Laing (Speight, Cockayne, and Laing, 1911, p. 358), and among these Ranunculus paucifolius is conspicuous. It has the pale ashen- purple colouring which distinguishes the shingle-slip plants generally, such as its relations Ranunculus chordorhizos, R. crithmifolius, and R. Haastii. Lepidium sisymhrioides has special adaptations, of which the disproportion- ately long root is most remarkable (Cheeseman, p. 42). Anisotome Enysii shows a colouring very similar to that of Ranunculus paucifolius. There is here a marked degree of epharmonic convergence.
These plants make up a community of intense interest, and the problem of their existence is bound up with that of Ranunculus paucifolius, whose limited distribution and feeble powers of reproduction help to put that problem in a clearer and more striking light.
96 Transactions.
Ecological : Main* Problems involved. General.
These problems may be thus stated : How are we to account for the survival, in an exceedingly limited area, of a very special and peculiar formation, and in very limited numbers, of a plant, which is obviously adapted to a climate very different from that of the present time, which reproduces itself only by seed, not vegetatively, and that only in a very sparing manner, and which apparently can exist only upon a kind of soil occurring only in limited areas separated from one another by^ great distances ?
Apart from geological history several considerations may here be given as bearing upon the main problems.
Reproduction and Distribution of Seed. — The achene, on dropping off, no doubt falls into the soil and is moved by the wind, as the surface of the debris is quite unstable, most of the plants being actually buried in it above the rootstock. It is remarkable that none of the plants of this association is a " traveller." The seed of all is presumably distributed in the same way — by the action of the wind in shifting the soil ; none of them is provided with a pappus or coma ; no composite plant except Raoulia australis enters into the unit. Epilohitim gracilipes and Senecio Monroi var. deniatus, which occur on the steep slopes and rocks above the basin and have seeds specially adapted for carriage to a distance by the wind, are absent altogether from the flatter portions of the area.
Instability of Soil. — The wind is always bringing fresh debris into the basin, and is always stirring and shifting all that part of the surface which is entirely or nearly bare. As .the rocks are now always rapidly crumbling, and no doubt have been in the same state for a very long period of time, it follows that they must formerly have been much larger than they are now ; therefore they must formerly have set free annually a much larger amount of material, and therefore the superficial area of unstable debris must formerly have been much greater. But in recent times the area of bare debris could never have been really extensive, as the accumulation of it would hardly be possible under present conditions except within the enclosed space of the basin. However, in some much older age it may be imagined that a much greater area lying eastward of the small basin might during a period of steppe climate or drought become a semi-desert, mainly of this debris, supporting a calciphile and xerophytic flora, in open formation, of such individuals and in such disposition as we now see within the enclosed and protected area only.
Struggle for Life. — ^As Warming (1909, p. 256) observes of fell-field in general, the typical xeroph}i;ic plants are so thinly distributed that they do not interfere with one another nor compete with one another. It is so here, and it is so upon the steep shingle-slopes of the dry eastern mountains of the neighbourhood. Ranunculus Haastii, for instance, is exactly like R. paucifolius in this respect. Only a certain small number of plants grow within a given space, when, so far as one can see, an infinitely greater number might grow there without in the least incon- veniencing their neighbours.
Thus Ranunculus paucifolius has not been threatened with extinction in this manner. It seems, however, to have had to face two other dangers in recent times. On the one hand, if the surface upon which it grows were for any cause to become still more unstable, and the wind to act
Wall. — ^Ranunculus paucifolius T . Kirh. 97
more violently and continuously upon it, the plants might all be buried, as some of them no doubt have been. On the other hand, if the supply of material deliverjed into the basin should diminish and finally cease altogether, no doubt the closed tussock formation which now covers the south-west portion of it would gradually invade the whole, and Ranun- ciilus paucifolius would die out. This, it would seem, must ultimately happen.
The area has for many years been open to stock and rabbits, but they evidently do not care for the plant, otherwise it would have perished long ago. There are plenty of rabbits now in and about the basin. The openness of the formation has no doubt protected the plant from destruction by fire, a great and very real danger in New Zealand.
Influence of Slopes. — The fact that it is confined to the easier slopes — almost to level ground — is also of very great significance. Among its associates, for instance, Lepidium sisymbrioides and Myosotis decora easily maintain themselves upon very steep slopes, and consequently these plants are quite widely distributed, occurring, in the immediate neighbourhood, upon the limestone slopes at and near the junction of the Porter and Broken Rivers, and upon those of the Whitewater River and of the Upper Porter or Coleridge Creek, whereas Ranunculus paucifolius, by reason of its apparent inability to grow except upon easy gradients, is debarred from these areas, where every condition which it requires is to be had except this one, and can maintain itself only within the very limited basin where it is presumably doomed ultimately to perish.
Limestone Soil. — When it is said that the plant can exist only in lime- stone soil, it is not denied that it might live, if transplanted or sown, in some other soil ; but the assumption is that in any other soil, if if can live at all, it cannot compete with the ordinary vegetation of that soil : it could live, that is, only under artificial conditions and when protected.
Relation to Geological Problems.
We may now consider what conditions are indicated as most probable in the remote past of this community in general and of R. paucifolius in particular.
It seems inconceivable that the plant should have " originated," established itself, and subsequently maintained itself for countless ages, all within the narrow limits of its present distribution, and the first condition requisite for its establishment would be the existence of a very much larger area of continuous Tertiary limestone strata than is now to be found anywhere in New Zealand.
This area need not have been — and, indeed, could not have been — one continuous sheet of limestone beds covering the whole of the district within which the isolated fragmentai;y remnants now exist. But the inference here drawn from the existence of this whole calciphile unit, and of Ranun- culus jmucifolius in particular, is that these beds must once have been more extensive arid more nearly continuous than they are now. The ancestral Ranunculus may well have existed upon soils of pre-Tertiary origin and developed there its xerophytic characters, while one form of it established itself especially upon the limestone, developed characters accordingly, and ultimately become virtually incapable of maintaining itself elsewhere. This is, at any rate, one' hypothesis which seems to fit the facts. But the exact sequence of events can here, in the nature of things, be only a matter of conjecture.
4 — Trans.
98 Transactions.
This comparatively wide area must Lave liad, at some remote period, a steppe or semi-desert climate, under whose influences a xerophytic and partly calciphile flora developed and flourished, and it is likely that what we now have represents only a portion of this flora, many species having probably died out altogether.
This area must have been partly a peneplain (upon which alone R. paucifolius, it would seem, could " originate " and flourish), and would probably be conterminous with a range or ranges of hills with limestone rocks exposed and weathering into dust exactly as they now do on the small area here under observation. But such peneplain need not have consisted entirely of Tertiary limestone beds.
The area would be in the nature of a strip or belt, -of no very great width and probably much interrupted, corresponding roughly to the shore- line or lines of the hypothetic Tertiary sea or seas. It would be con- terminous with and more or less alternated with an area or areas of pre-Tertiary formation, probably lying to the -north and east, as posited, e.g., by Cockayne (1911, pp. 343-44), by way of which probably the mesophytic flora would return when a more humid climate should prevail in this area. Upon this pre-Tertiary area the related species, R. chordo- rhizos, &c., would have originated and flourished, or that single species or form from which they and R. pancifoliics trace their common descent.
The greater part of these limestone beds" was destroyed by erosion of various kinds in subsequent ages, leaving only the present small isolated remnants, of which the Trelissick Basin is one of the largest.
It is impossible that by the elevation of the land 3,000 ft. or 4,000 ft. (Haast, Hutton, Park), and the consequent refrigeration and glaciation, the whole flora of the district (as has been thought) was driven to another tract, now non-existent, and returned with the subsidence of the land and consequent change of climate. " Return " of a calciphile flora over areas upon which the Tertiary beds had been destroyed would be impossible, especially since, as we have seen, this flora as a unit is not a "traveller"; and we cannot escape the conclusion that this plant community has been represented within the area of the small basin, since it first established itself or " originated " in that neighbourhood.
Glaciation bears upon the question in two ways : —
(1.) Hutton (1900, p. 176), followed by Cockayne, correlated the sup- posed drought epoch, of which our flora shows signs, with the glacial epoch, which he placed in the older Pliocene period. This view was adopted by Cocka}Tie (1901, pp. 280 et seq.) ; but that authority believed that at the height of the glaciation the eastern mountains (within which this area is included) might still support a xerophyte flora like that of the shingle-slips of the present day (Cockayne, 1911, pp. 348 et seq.).
The view of Speight (1911) and others is that- the last glacial epoch is much more recent, that the drought period was correlated with it (Cockayne, 1911, p. 344), that the Tertiary deposits were continuous over a much larger area than is the case now (Speight, 1915, p. 354), that the Castle HiU area probably escaped glaciation altogether (Speight, 1917, pp. 323 et seq.), and that the Trelissick Basin at the height of glaciation was " probably a snowfield " (Speight, 1917, p. 323).
It would seem certain that a steppe climate or period of drought must have obtained here over a large area at least once (probably more than once) since Tertiary times, but to the present writer it seems quite uncertain whether this was coeval with and resultant from the glacial epoch or not
Wall. — Ranunculus paucifolius T. Kirk. 99
and the analogy of other lands would seem to show that such a climate may have existed in New Zealand independently of any glacial epoch, whether that epoch be (with Hutton) older Pliocene or (with Speight and others) Pleistocene. The question whether the " drought " be Pliocene or Pleistocene is here dwelt upon because, whatever conditions obtained and whatever balance was established at the end of the " drought," if that ''drought" were Pliocene that balance must in all probability have been disturbed and a new set of conditions reached when the later Pleistocene glacial period came. The problem is, then, to discover what were the con- ditions during and after some more recent period, rather than during and after the exceedingly remote period of any possible Pliocene glaciation and concomitant steppe climate.
(2.) Glaciation also has been supposed to have been the chief, though not the sole, eroding agency by which the great area of Tertiary beds was destroyed (Hutton, 1885, p. 92 ; Speight, 1915, p. 337). The question of the agency by which, and the probable period during which, these beds have been destroyed is, however, one of secondary import in this connection. It is enough, for the botanical problem, if it is decided that they once existed, have been in one way or another largely destroyed (being now repre- sented by the small isolated fragmentary areas which remain to us), and that the Trelissick Basin (including the small area here studied) escaped glaciation and any great degree of refrigeration during any glacial epoch. We may then imagine the ancient birthplace and hajjitat of Ranunculus 'paucifolius and its associates to have been a semi-desert area of flat or flattish plains diversified with ridges and islets of higher ground, and neigh- boured closely by a range of limestone hiUs or even mountains. The whole landscape would have a yellow hue ; upon the surface large areas of unstable shifting debris would possibly alternate with ridges of more grassy and closed formation. Strong winds would be frequent and dust-storms violent. The vegetation would be sparse and harsh, including the species here described, and no doubt many others which have perished ; a pale-purple, greyish, and brown colour scheme would predominate. The land would be occupied by no animals save lizards and birds, its whole appearance being monotonous, parched, and glaring ; while the dreariness of the scene would be enhanced by the setting of pallid limestone rocks pf gTotesque and fantastic form — chessmen, collar-studs, sea-lions, and gorilla torsos. The general appearance of the limestone desert might be much like parts of the Sahara — e.g., as figured in plate 345 of Schimper's Plant- geogra'pJiy , p. 614.
If Speight's (1911) hypol^esis of a pluvial climate in post-glacial times be accepted — and certainly the evidence collected by him seems to be conclusive — this community and others Like it must have passed through and survived such a period, unless the districts in which they exist have been specially favoured. There is little or no reason to suppose that this was so, for; although Cockayne (1900) mentions that the Trelissick Basin is now very dry climatically, old residents do not support this view ; and, in any case, the fact, if established, that it is now dry does not prove that it was always so in the remote past.
Origin of the Group to which it belonged.
With regard to the historical development of this group of Ranunculi, if the neo-Lamarckian view of the origin of species be adopted — the theory
100 Transactions.
of direct adaptation or self-adaptation, as understood by Warming (1909) — it would seem probable that a single ancestral form of Ranunculus deve- loped under conditions of extreme drought into a typical xerophyte, and that, after the conditions to which it had adapted itself Ikd been modified or completely changed, this plant maintained itself against the compe- tition of a mesophyte flora in certain localities — i.e., shingle-slips — in which it had an advantage, and in course of a long period of time, existing only in isolated areas completely separated from one another (one of which is the limestone area here described), it developed those comparatively trivial distinctive characters (especially in the cutting of the leaf) which now distinguish the " species " from one another.
According to De Vries (1912), however, such speculations and conjec- tures as to the conditions under which a species originated are idle, and can achieve no result. Speaking of " beautiful adaptations " to local conditions, he says : " In no case is it possible to tell whether the species have acquired these during their migration or during their stay in the new environment, or perhaps previous to their being subjected to the influence in question " (p. 592). Again : " Adaptations to new conditions [which are conceded] depend upon characters which were inherent in the species before it arrived in the new environment. The characters themselves are not the effect of the external influences considered " (p. 579). Such characters, it is contended, cannot be good specific marks ; they fall within the range of " fluctuations " (as distinguished from mutations) and " cannot lead to constant races " (p. 540). The species thus modified or adapted remains essentially the same, and will, if replaced in the favourable con- ditions, resume its older form (as in the classic experiments of Cockayne upon seedling forms, and those of Bonnier upon alpine plants). The sole condition required in the plant is therefore " high plasticity." We must not say that a species originated under the stimulus of its environ- ment, or that it acquired new characters in response to changed con- ditions : that would be confusing cause and effect. " Fitness for present life-conditions . . . can hardly be considered as a result of adapta- tion, and we have to recur to previous hypothetical environments to explain the much-admired adjustments. All speculations, of this kind are merely reduced to more or less plausible and more or less poetical* considerations " (p. 574). It is concluded that " geological changes of climate may have been accompanied by the production of new forms, but there is no evidence that this has occurred in such a way as to provoke directly useful changes"; that "the characters of local and endemic types do not betray any definite relation to their special environment " ; and, finally, that " the facts which are at present available plead against the hypothesis of a direct adjusting influence of environment upon plants, and comply with the proposition of changes brought about by other causes and afterward subjected to natural selection " (p. 595). The author then restates his personal belief "that the species-making changes occur by leaps and bounds, however small."
If these conclusions be accepted, the case of Ranunculus paucifolius and its associates may be thus considered in their light. It is generally accepted that a period of more or less severe drought or " steppe climate " has been passed through by a great part at least of the flora of New
* The writer explains in a footnote that this epithet is not intended to convey any reproach.
Wall. — Ranunculus paucifolius T . Kirh. 101
Zealand. The particular community here studied shows this with especial clearness, consisting as it does of a small association of plants all of which show very definite xerophytic adaptations, while some of them can exist only under certain very special and peculiar edaphic conditions such as may have obtained more widely in the past. The conditions governing plant-life before and during this period of drought may be supposed to have been much the same as those of the Sahara at the present time, thus described by De Vries (after Battandier) : " Originally this region must have had an ordinary degree of rainfall and moisture . . . Then . . the rainfall must have slowly diminished, taking centuries ... to reach the conditions which now prevail. The consequent changes in this flora must have been correspondingly slow, and must have consisted mainly in the disappearing of the larger part of the species ; first of those which were dependent on the higher degree of moisture ; then of others ; until at the present time only the most drought-resisting forms are spared " (pp. 589-90). He proceeds to show that no specific changes, probably, were brought about by this process ; that a large number of the species of this arid region are monotypic genera, each genus consisting of a single species ; whereas, " if there had been any degree of adaptation during this whole period of increasing dryness, new species would have been produced — from those forms which by their own inherent capacities wovild be the very last to be threatened with extermination. These genera would there- fore have produced quite a number of smaller or even of larger species, adapting themselves more and more to the changing conditions and stock- ing the desert, in the same way as other deserts have been stocked, from adjoining countries! " As this has not happened, it is concluded " that the single species . . . have not undergone any change in the direction of drought-resistance, but have simply been those which happened to be . the best fitted for the life in the desert. A thick epidermis, a small display of leaves, long and deep roots, were the main qualifications for this choice " (p. 590).
Theh, in our case, we assume tliat the moister climate re-established itself ; the mesophyte flora which had been destroyed here, but had main- tained itself in some adjoining land where the conditions remained favour- able, returned and gradually repeopled the desert or semi-desert, while the xerophytes retreated before it to those places, such as shingle-slips and areas like the small hollow at Castle Hill, where they had an advantage and have subsequently maintained themselves. But, in contradistinction to what has been said above, we must accept the following propositions as to this community of plants :'- —
(1.) The species here studied — e.g., Ranunculus paucifolius, Lepidiuni sisymbrioides, Oreomyrrhis andicola var. rigida, and Poa acicularifolia — all existed and held their own among the pre-drought mesophyte flora, but no.t perhaps exactly in their present form, since " adaptations " are not denied except as dift'erential marks of new species. The only alter- native is that they have originated, some or all of them, since the period of " drought."
(2.) All these species must have had a high degree of plasticity, and thus they are able gradually to accommodate themselves to the mcreasingly severe drought ; but all must have had already, at the beginning of the period, a definitely drought-resisting structure, and this was not at any time acquired by any of them in response to any external stress, and it wovild be at first quite useless to them.
102 Transactions.
(3.) Each of these species originated by a mutation or sudden change involving the introduction - of at least one quite new unit-character,* and this must have happened at some period anterior to that of the drought, not as a result of any such condition. Like other differential characters in general, those induced by this mutation would be at first perfectly useless (De Vries, 1912, p. 534), and the changed form would get its advantage only by the chance of the occurrence of the drought. The new character or characters then became useful ; but we must resist the temptation to regard the useful character {e.g., the excessively thick and coriaceous leaf or long thick roots of the xerophytic Ranunculi) as an adaptation to the needs of the new external condition.
(4.) As " adaptations " can in this case not be denied, it follows that all the changes which are truly '•' adaptations " in these species are of the nature of " fluctuations," and if any of them be cultivated under more favourable conditions the " adaptations " will disappear ; the plant will then retain only so much of its xerophytic character as it had at the beginning of the drought, which gave it its initial advantage over others, and which was the result of some previous mutation. Until each plant of the community, therefore, has been so transplanted and tested it is impossible for us to tell which of its characters ought, and which ought not, to be regarded as differential specific characters ; and it follows that the status of each is doubtful except where the plant has no near relatives at all among existing plants.
(5.) It is very improbable that the species of this community were all produced in the early stages of the drought by mutation. It is assumed " that the origin of new forms is not due to a hard struggle, but is promoted by a luxuriant environment and by easy conditions of development " (De Vries, 1912, p. 520). It is shown that a species (or genus) which is in a " state of mutability " may produce whole groups of new forms, even " swarms " (as in the case of Draha or Viola in Europe), though some- times apparently such changes are only sporadic (p. 549). In this case it must be supposed that at some more or less remote period before the drought each of the genera Ranunculus, Lepidium, Oreomyrrhis, Myosotis, and Poa passed through a " mutation period " and threw off numbers of new species, some of which would immediately perish, while others would maintain themselves for shorter or longer periods under the stress of natural selection, and finally the species here perpetuated would alone survive under the fierce stress of the drought until rejoined by their relatives under the new climatic conditions:
(6.) Narrowing down the proposition to the particular genus and species here studied, we must believe that there existed at the beginning of the period of drought a species (or possibly more than one) of Ranunculus which had originated by mutation at some period (as to which it is useless to speculate) having peculiarly thick leaves, long roots, and other characters which gave it an advantage when the drought began to be severe. These characters, however, had been acquired by it owing to causes which are completely dark to us, not in response to any external stimulus or stress of environment. Fortunate in possessing these characters, it continued to live when other less-favoured Ranunculi perished, and it may or may not have changed under the new conditions, adapting itself thereto. But if it did so change it acquired no new unit- character ; and all its modifica- tion remained mere " fluctuations," and under more favourable conditions
* One is enough (De Vries, 1912, p. 562, in re Oenothera gigas).
Wall. — Ranunculus paucifolius T. Kirk. 103
would disappear and leave it as it liad been when the drought began. The five species here treated as a collective group would represent varying degrees of " adaptation " of this kind, and none of them is a true species, or even a naicrospecies, unless it already possessed its distinguishing specific characters at the beginning of the period. In this respect Ranunculus pauci- folius is like any of the others of the group, and it is impossible for us to tell whether it originated from the same ancestral form with them or was already a true species when the stress of drought came upon it. Its " adaptation " to a limestone soil is thus most probably not a specific character, but an adaptation of the unstable kind which may disappear as soon as the need for it is withdrawn. The test of cultivation can alone decide this point.
It would be beyond the scope of this paper to discuss all the difficulties which stand in the way of a full acceptance of these propositions. But it may be said that the words " however small " (" Species-making changes occur by leaps and bounds, however small ") seem to imply a very great concession. Changes of the nature of " adaptations " to new conditions are not denied (De Vries, 1912, p.. 579). " It is clear that we may call all these changes adaptations to new conditions. But then we must concede that these adaptations depend upon characters which were inherent in the species before it arrived in the new environment." And, as very small changes may be due to true mutations, there seems to be no very great difierence between the opposing views. It is admitted that imder new conditions a species may change very greatly and appear to become quite a different species, and it is admitted that under new (as under any other) conditions a species may acquire very small new characters by mutation and so become a new species. Is it not possible that the " state of mutability," whose causes have hitherto remained obscure, may be induced by the impact of new conditions and the demands of a new stress ? No very great adjustment seems necessary to reconcile this view with that of De Vries. He says that plants may change and adapt themselves gradually to new conditions, but no new species can originate in that way ; changes so induced are not " mutations." It may be suggested, on the other hand, that possibly new characters, due to " mutations," may be acquired by the plant as a direct response to Nature's ultimatum, " Change or die ! "
Conclusions.
1. The original description of the species by Kirk is not quite accurate. The number of the leaves is not abnormally small, being frequently 5 and may be as many as 9. The style, when the achene is ripe, is curved, not straight. The flowering-period is late October and November, not December. The petals number 5 to 8.
2. It is one member of a xerophytic plant community, or association, of very ancient origin, and is specially adapted, like some others of that community, to live upon a limestone soil, or, rather, debris formation.
3. Though its habitat is now, so far as is known, extremely restricted, it must formerly, with its associates, have been distributed over a far more extensive area of Tertiary limestone beds. This conclusion supports that reached by Speight (1915, p. 345) upon quite dift'erent evidence.
4. It is the product of a period of drought or steppe climate, which directly caused the development of its xerophytic characters ; and in this it resembles the other members of the community to which it belongs, one which was fornaerly, in all probability, far richer in species, and perhaps even in genera, than it is now.
104 Transactions.
5. It is adapted only for life under very special and peculiar conditions — e.g., its confinement to gentle gradients and to a limestone soil — which conditions have been provided and preserved for it, by a series of fortunate chances, in one small locality only (so far as is known at present).
6. Its life-history may be thus summed up conjecturally : Originating in the very remote past during a period of drought (which was probably very long) somewhere within or not far from an extensive area of Tertiary lime- stone, this plant acquired marked xerophytic characters and flourished, maintaining itself with ease, and as the area upon which it grew was slowly and gradually eroded (or perhaps, in parts, more rapidly by glacia- tion) it was restricted to areas continually diminishing in size and farther and farther separated from one another, until it remained in only one very limited area peculiarly situated and adapted to its needs. Here, as in its original state, it had little or no severe competition to meet and over- come, and for countless ages it has continued to exist there, surviving at least one great period of glaciation, which its habitat escaped ; at least one pluvial epoch, which could not be favourable to it ; and finally the various dangers resultant upon human occupation '^- depredations of stock and of hares and rabbits, pests and blights, and agricultural necessities and accidents, such as the plough and the wax match. Thus within its own narrow nook, secure from the competition of rivals, this strange plant, relic of an earlier day and clime, is passing slowly and, it may be permitted to fancy, unreluctantly away before our eyes in an age-long euthanasia.
I desire to express my great obligation of Mr. E. Speight, who with infinite trouble and pains took photographs of the plant in situ and of the locality ; to Dr. W. P. Evans, who also photographed and sketched the locality and took the necessary observations of heights and levels and the measurements of the area ; to Mr. A. E. Flower, who, with Dr. Evans, assisted me in the task of counting the plants ; and to Dr. L. Cockayne, who has most kindly read over the whole of the paper and given me the benefit of his invaluable suggestions and criticisms.
References.
Cheeseman, T. F., 1906. Manual of the New Zealand Flora.
Cockayne, L., 1900. A Sketch of the Plant Geography of the Waimakariii River
Basin, considered chieflv from an CEcological Point of View, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 32, pp. 95-136. _ — 1901. An Inquiry into the Seedling Forms? of New Zealand Phanerogams and
their Development, Trans. N.Z: Inst., vol. 33, pp. 265-98. De Vries, H., 1912. Rice Institute Book of the Opening Lectures on Mutations in Heredity
and Oeographical Botany. Hooker, J. D., 1867. Handbook of the New Zealand Flora. Htttton, F. W., 1885. Fauna and Flora of New Zealand, Ann. Nat. Hist., vol. 15,
pp. 77-107. 1900. The Geological History of New Zealand, Tra7is. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32,
pp. 159-83. Kirk, T., 1899. Students' Flora of New Zealand and the Outlying Islands. Speight, R., 1911. The Post-glacial Climate of Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 43, pp. 408-20. • 1915. The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47,
pp. 336-53. . 1917. The Stratigraphy of the Tertiary Beds of the Trelissick or Castle Hill
Basin, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 321-56. Speight, R., Cockayne, L., and Laing, R. M., 1911. The IMount Arrowsmith District :
a Study in Physiography and Plant Ecology, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43,
pp. 315-78. Warming E., 1909. Oecology of Plants.
Wall. — Ranunculus paucifolius T. Kirk. 105
Postscript.
This paper has been submitted to Professor Hugo de Vries, and he has sent me this comment : —
" It is, of course, interesting for me to read a statement of my views from a neo-Lamarckian standpoint, and the concession that the facts described by you do not contain any argument for a decision between the two contrasting theories. i
" For me your article shows that R. 'paucifolius, R. chordorhizos, R. crithmifolius, and R. Haastii must have had a common ancestor, which was already a xerophyte, and that they must have inherited this character from it. This ancestor may have had the same geographical distribution which is now shown by the aggregate of its descendants. Perhaps one of them is identical with it ; perhaps it has wholly disappeared. Under what conditions it lived we can, of course, not know, nor where and when it acquired its xerophytic properties. To conclude that it must have acquired them in a period of drought would be a circulus vitiosus, since it would simply be applying the theory to a special case and then considering the case as a proof of the theory.
" You say that possibly new characters may be acquired by a plant as a direct response to Nature's ultimatum, ' Change or die.' This is the old view, but not mine. The article you quote from was just intended to show that, as far as we know, the response has, as a matter of fact, always been, ' I cannot change at your will and so I must die.'
" You assume that your plants have passed through periods of moisture, but have retained their xerophytic character nevertheless. It seems to me that this is conceding that external conditions do not, as a rule, provoke corresponding useful changes. They may do so, or seem to do so, or they may not. My view, that mutations, although, of course, caused by external conditions, are not necessarily responses to the ' demands of a new stress,' seems quite adequate to interpret your facts. I gladly concede that the causes of mutations are still dark to us, but then I say that responses such as Warming and other neo-Lamarckians suppose are far darker. Especially if you take into consideration what is now known concerning the structure of chromosomes and the distribution of the hereditary characters in them, it seems impossible to imagine the nature of such a supposed response. On the other hand, if we do not know the cause's of mutation, the fact of their occurrence has been proved in so numerous individual cases that it can no longer be doubted, even by those who want to exclude the Oenotheras from the discussion.
" I shall be very glad to learn the results of your garden cultures. I should not wonder if your plants would behave just like the creosot- bush of Tucson, and prefer better conditions to those which they enjoy (?) just now. To me it seems that plants are found in those localities where they can better endure the circumstances than their competitors. But whether they really enjoy them, or would prefer more moisture and more fertile soils, and so on, is another question."
106 Transaction s .
Art. XVI. — Helichrysum dimorphum Cockayne — a Hybrid?
By A. Wall, M.A., Professor of English, Canterbury College.
[Read before the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, 1st October, 1919 ; received by Editor, 3rd October, 1919 ; issued separately, 10th J\ine, 1920.]
Helichrysum dimorphum was discovered by Cockayne near the confluence of the Poulter and Waimakariri Rivers and described by him in 1915. Another plant was found by the same authority at Pufier's Creek, which runs into the Broken River not far from its junction with the Waimakariri. The two localities are about ten miles apart. The species has not been found again.
I visited the Puffer's Creek locality in February, 1919, and took speci- mens. The object of this paper is to suggest that Helichrysum dimorphum is a hybrid between H. filicaule and H. depressum, just as H. Purdiei seems to be certainly a cross between H. glomeratum and H. bellidioides.
Helichrysum dimorphum is a strong climber. The plant has a lusty, thriving appearance, and the branches grow in very great profusion and are most thickly massed together. Climbing upon a plant of Coprosm.a pro- pinqua it shows leafless branches in the open, and leafy branches wherever it is at all shaded. The flowers, which are not fully open in my specimens, are borne upon the leafless branches. H. depressum occurs close to it in the bed of the creek, and H. filicaule is, as usual in such localities, abundant all round it. The plant grows about 8 ft. or 10 ft. above the bed of the creek.
Helichrysum filicaule shows a distinctly scandent or semi-scandent habit whenever it grows among tall plants, such as Discaria or Leptospermum. I have collected specimens over 2 ft. in length at Akaroa and elsewhere, one of these being found in the immediate neighbourhood of the Pufier's Creek plant when I was unsuccessfully searching for it in 1917. H. depressum, on the other hand, has been observed growing in actual contact with plants of Discaria without showing any tendency to climb.
My suggestion is that H. dimorphum is a cross between the two, deriving its scandent habit from H. filicaule, and its strength and solidity of form, which enable it to become a true climber, from - H. depressum. As regards the inflorescence, H. dimorphum appears to be more closely related to H. depressum than to H. filicaule. The flowers in my specimens are just sufficiently advanced to make this quite clear. The resemblance to the flower and involucre of H. depressum is very close indeed. The flower is sessile at the tips of the branches, as in H. depressum, not terminal on a long filiform peduncle, as in H. fidicaule ; and the involucral bracts in their number and arrangement are exactly like those of H. depressum, the involucre being rather cylindrical than hemispherical.
In support of the^ theory I should adduce the following considerations : —
(1.) In both its localities both H. filicaule and H. depressum are present at no great distance. In the Poulter locality the plant grows on the top of a high terrace (perhaps 60 ft. to 80 ft.) above the river, in whose bed H. depressum is abundant, while H. filicaule is present everywhere about it.
Wall. — Helichr3'sum dimorphum Cockayne. 107
(2.) The leafy parts strongly resemble H. filieaule, and the leafless parts H. depressutn.
(3.) The plant is of extreme rarity, and this would be accounted for, in part, if H. dimorphum were a hybrid between the two plants named.
Postscript.
Since the above was written T have observed the plant in great quantities on the Lower Poulter, on the Esk River near its confluence with the Waimakariri, and along the Waimakariri itself between the con- fluence of the Poulter and that of the Esk with that river. The Esk mouth is not much more than five miles from the Pufier's Creek locality.
Art. XVII. — On tJie Occurrence of Striated Boulders in a Palaeozoic Breccia near Taieri Mouth, Otago, New Zealand.
By Professor James Park, F.G.S.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December,
1919 ; issued separately, 10th, June 1920.1
In a small cove close to Rocky Point, which is the first headland on the south side of Taieri Mouth, and about a mile and a half from the Taieri jetty, there is a conspicuous bed of coarse red and green breccia. It is underlain by bluish-grey micaceous phyllites, and overlain by altered flaggy greywacke. The strike of the breccia and associated rocks is about N.N.E.-S.S.W., and the dip S.S.E. at angles ranging from 5° to 30°. Generally the inclination. of the lowermost beds is flatter than that of the uppermost beds. At Taieri Mouth the dip of the grey ' micaceous slaty rocks ranges from 5° to 15°, and that of the greywacke south of Rocky Point from 15° to 30°.
The breccia is well exposed in the sea-cliffs near Rocky Point, and can be traced northward along the line of strike one -third of the distance to Taieri Island as a line of submerged reef that is in places awash at low water. It is not present on Taieri Island.
To the southward of Rocky Point the breccia -ought to crop out on the ridge between that place and Akatore Inlet, but I failed to find it there. It is a rock not easily overlooked, and I am inclined to believe that it peters out before it reaches the crest of the ridge. It is probably a lens- shaped mass with a maximum thickness of some 120 ft.
At Rocky Point the breccia resembles a consolidated rock-rubble, being mainly composed of a confused pile of angular and subangular fragments and blocks of red and green siliceous slaty shale. It also contains numerous masses of an excessively hard jasperoid and aphanitic breccia that appear to have been torn from some pre-existing breccia. The constituent frag- ments range in size from small grains to masses many feet in diameter.
108 Transactions.
The largest block in the breccia occurs in place, at the foot of the sea-cliff in the first sandy cove south of Rocky Point. It is an included breccia-boulder, partially rounded at the corners and sides, compact,- and intensely hard. It measures some 7-5 ft. by 5-3 ft. by 4-5 ft. Its upper surface is fairly flat, and covered with distinct striae that, as a rule, run parallel with the longer axis of the block. The area of the striated surface is about 10 square feet. Several of the smaller included blocks on the south side of the cove are similarly striated.
This remarkable rock resembles the typical Te Anau breccia of Sir James Hector. It is underlain, apparently conformably, by the semi- metamorphic Kakanuian rocks of Hector, which everywhere in Otago overlie the mica-schists of Central Otago. There is no internal evidence to fix the age of the Kakanuian rocks. All that can be said is that they underlie the Mount St. Mary series, which is Triassic, and overlie the mica-schists of the interior. The Te Anau series of Hector, as identified by him in Nelson, conformably underlies the Maitai series, which is now known to be Upper Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous. I have always found it difficult to separate the Te Anau rocks from the Maitaian, and in 1910 grouped them as belonging to the same formation. Hector ascribed the Te Anau series to the Devonian period, the only evidence in favour of this being its inferior and conformable relationship to the Maitaian, which he placed in the Carboniferous.
In Nelson and Marlborough, the rocks identified by Hector and McKay as belonging to the Te Anau series are underlain by semi-metamorphic rocks of supposed Kakanuian age.
The Taieri Mouth breccia and overlying greywackes may very well belong to the Te Anau series of Hector, and the underlying grey silky micaceous phyllites to the Kakanuian. If this position can be established, the Taieri Mouth breccia may be placed in the Upper Carboniferous or Permo-Carboniferous. '
This is the first discovery of striated boulders in the Palaeozoic formations of New Zealand, and the origin of the striae is certain to give rise to some diversity of opinion.
The stria tion may be glacial or dynamical. If the striated boulders occurred along the fracture of a shear-plane I should ascribe the striation to shearing. Though crushed and broken, the breccia shows no evidence of shearing along defined planes, and for this reason I am inclined to favour the glacial hypothesis.
If the glacial view be sustained we are at once confronted with the questions — (a.) What relationship, if any, does the Taieri Mouth breccia bear to the glacial deposits reported in the Upper Palaeozoic formations of India,* Australia, f South Africa, J and Brazil§ ? (6.) Was the glaciation al^pine or secular ? (c.) Did the ancient Gondwana continent extend south- ward to the New Zealand area ?
* H. B. Medlicott and W. T. Blanford, Manual of the Geology of India, pt. i, p. 110, 1879; and R. D. Oldham, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc, p. 469, 1894.
t T. W. Edgeworth David, Geology of the Hunter River Coal-measures, Mem. Geol. Stirv. N.S.W. No. 4, p. 124, 1907.
J E. T. Mellor, Study of the Glacial Conglomerate in the Transvaal, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc, vol. 61, p. 682, 1905; W. M. Davis, Bull. Geo. Soc. Am., vol. 17, p. 413, 1906 ; and others.
§ David White, Permo-Carboniferous CUmatic Changes in South America, Am. Jour. Geol, vol. 15, p. 618, 1907.
Marshall. — The Tawhiti Series, East Cape District. 109
Art. XVIII. — The Tawhiti Series, East Cape District.
By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton
Medallist.
[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1920.]
The true geological position of the strata that are exposed on the coast- line between Tokomaru Bay and the East , Cape has never been definitely ascertained, for we have had to rely on rather incomplete statements of McKay. Fossils of a true Cretaceous nature were reported as occurring in some abundance near Awanui. I visited the district in January, 1919, in company with Mr. J. A. Bartrum, with the primary object of making collections of fossils from the localities that were mentioned by McKay, in the hope that study of them would be of assistance in unravelling some of the debated points in regard to the relationship of the Cretaceous rocks to those of Tertiary age in New Zealand.
We spent two days on the coast near Awanui, but failed to find any of the ammonites and other fossils that were mentioned by McKay.* The only fossil remains that we found were some fragments of Inoceramus near the wharf at Awanui and a number of small worm-tubes a little to the north of that place. Inoceramus was very abundant in the con- cretionary boulders on the north side of Tuparoa Bay, and there were also fossils in the marls on the south side of the bay. These, however, were badly preserved, and seemed to be of a distinctly Tertiary nature. The stratigraphy is extremely involved, and the strata have slipped so much, while the sections are so discontinuous, that in the limited time at our disposal we were quite unable to come to any detailed conclusions on the question of the relationship of the strata.
At Tawhiti Point, on the north side of Tokomaru Bay, fossils are quite numerous, and they are also abundant in the shell conglomerate which occurs on Tawhiti itself at an elevation of 500 ft. or more. From ■the former of these localities over a distance of about a mile along the coast from Kotunui Point a representative collection of fossils was made. McKay collected from these beds in 1872, and he made a further reference to them in 1886, when he classed them of Upper Miocene age.|
Hutton,J in his paper on the geology of New Zealand, places the Tawhiti beds in the Pareora system, which is regarded by him as the equivalent of the Miocene of Europe.
No list of fossils that were found in these- rocks has yet been published. The rocks are described by McKay as soft brown sandstones. We found that in their unweathered state they are of a grey colour and fine-grained. They are formed partly of small grains of quartz, with a good deal of partly-weathered feldspar, and black grains which seem to be volcanic glass. It is almost certain that the sand is of volcanic origin. The strata are considerably inclined, and strike 41° and dip 37° north-west. The thickness of the strata of which Tawhiti is composed is very consider- able. Tawhiti itself rises to a height of 1,670 ft., and if the strike and
* A. McKay, '^ep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1873-74, 1877, p. 124 ; 1886-87, 1887, p. 214. t A. McKay, Rep. Geol. Explor. dnr. 1873-74, 1877, p. 147 ; 1886-87, 1887, p. 210. X F. W. Hutton, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1885, p. 209.
110
Transactions.
dip remain the same throughout as at Kotunui Point there cannot be less than 3,000 ft. of rocks. Our ^collections were made from practically the lowest rocks that are exposed near Tawhiti. The rocks vary a good deal in coarseness and are concretionary in many of the strata, but the fossils did not appear to vary much, and we have made no attempt to distinguish between the faunas of any of the different strata. Actually the thickness of the strata from which we collected was quite small.
The following is a list of the fossils that were collected by Mr. Bartrum and myself. In identifying the species I have had the invaluable aid of Mr. R. Murdoch.
Anomia huttoni (Sut.)
Astraea heliotropium (Mart.) *Atrina sp. *Calliostoma sp.
Calyptraea sp. *Gonus sp. *Gorbula canaliculata (Hutt.)
Corbula macilenta (Hutt.) *Cucullaea worthingtoni (Hutt.) *Cylichnella enysi (Hutt.) *Dentaliu'm mantelli (Zittel)
Dentalium nanum (Hutt.) *Dentalium solidum (Hutt.) *Diploclonta ampla (Hutt.) *Divaricella sp.
Dosmia greyi (Zittel)
Dosinia lambata (Gould) *Drillia a£E. novae-zelandiae (Reeve) *Galeodea senex (Hutt.) *Galeodea sulcata (Hutt.)
Glycymeris laticos.tata (Q. & Q.) (thick
form) *Macrocallista assimilis (Hutt.)
Macrocallista multistriata (Sow.)
Mactra ordinaria (Smith)
Mactra scalpellum (Reeve)
Malletia australis (Q. & G-.)
Extinct species are distinguished by an asterisk. Several of the species that are unnamed are certainly extinct, but are not in a sufficiently good condition of preservation to allow of a satisfactory description being written.
This list contains fifty-two species, of which twenty-six are extinct — a percentage of 50. If this percentage of extinct species of mollusca is taken as a criterion for the correlation of the strata, the Tawhiti series must be almost exactly midway between the Target Gully series, where there are 35 per cent, of Recent species, and the Waipipi series, in which the percentage is 63. This position of the strata is suggested also by the very nature of the fauna. On the one hand Olivella neozelanica still persists, as well as Diplodonta ampla; while on the other hand a large number of species of Miocene occurrence appear, such as Cucullaea worthingtoni, Siphonalia conoidea, S. costata, Galeodea senex, &c. It is noticeable that there is no species of Limopsis in this collection, and that this genus is absent from those that have been made on the coast-line near Wanganui.
Myodora subrostrata (E. A. Smith)
Natica australis (Hutt.) *Natica callosa (Hutt.) *Natica ovata (Hutt.)
Nucula nitidida (A. Ad.)
Nuculana jastidiosa (A. Ad.) *Olivella neozelanica (Hutt.)
Ostrea angasi (Sow.)
Ostrea corrugata (Hutt.) *Panope worthingtoni (Hutt.)
Pecten convexus (Q, & G.) *Pecten sectus (Hutt.)
Pecten zelandiae (Gray)
Protocardia pulchella (Gray) *Sinum carinatum (Hutt.)
* Siphonalia conoidea (Zittel) *Siphonalia costata (Hutt.)
* Siphonalia excelsa (Sut.)
* Siphonalia nodosa actuicostata (Sut.) *Struthiolaria cincta (Hutt.)
Tellina eugonia (Sut.) Tellina liliana (Iredale) Turritella symmetrica (Hutt.) Venericardia corbis (Phil.) Venericardia purpurata (Desh.) *Voluta corrugata (Hutt.)
Marshall. — The Hampden Beds and N.Z. Tertiary, Limestones. Ill
AUT. XIX. — The Ha))ipden Beds and the New Zealand Tertiary
Limestones.
By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.lnst., Hector and
Hutton Medallist.
[Read before tJie Wanganui Philosophical Society, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1920.]
The facts that have recently come to light in regard to the palaeontology of the Hampden Keds may be of some use in determining the relative ages of the Amuri and Oamaru limestones. The number of fossils that have been found actually in the Amuri limestone up to the present time is small, but such as have been recorded suggest a Tertiary rather than a Cretaceous age. Within recent years, however, Thomson (1916, p. 51) and Speight (1917, p. 344) have found a fauna in tufE-beds interstratified with the upper portion of the Amuri limestone in the Trelissick Basin, in Canterbury.
The moUusca of this tufi-bed, so far as they have been collected up to the present time, number thirty-seven species, of which 19 per cent, are Recent. This is clearly a much later fauna than that of Hampden, for there the Recent species are no more than 10 per cent, of the total of eighty. If attention is focused more on the nature of the fauna than on the per- centage the same conclusion will be reached, for the genera Dicroloma, Trigonia',' Gilhertia, and even Exilia, of the Hampden fauna, have no repre- sentatives, or even counterpart, in the collections that have been made in the tuff-bed of the Trelissick Basin, the horizon of which is 10 ft. below the upper surface of the Amuri limestone as developed in that locality. It follows, if the palaeontological evidence is to be relied on, that the Hamp- den beds are considerably older than the upper portion of the Amuri lime- stone. If Thomson's statement is correct, that the Amuri limestone is Cretaceous at the base and Tertiary in its upper, portion (loc. cit., p. 51), the Hampden beds must represent some horizon in the middle or upper part of the Amuri limestone. Thomson's statement, however, is based rather on surmise than on actual fact, for up to the present time no fauna has been found in the deposits immediately at the base of the Amuri limestone, though at Amuri Bluff itself it is true that only some 200 ft. of strata separate the beds with Cretaceous saurian remains from the base of the Amuri limestone.
Irrespective altogether of the accuracy of Thomson's statement, there is reason to believe that* the Hampden beds are equivalent to some horizon of the Amuri limestone, or possibly to an horizon actually below the Amuri limestone. At Hampden itself there is no limestone, for on the fossil-bearing beds, which are mainly formed of greensand, there is a great thickness of submarine tuff, scoria, and other volcanic matter. The eruption of this apparently affected the sea-floor so much, and for such a long time, that all deposition of limestone was prevented. As a matter of fact, the first occurrence of limestone in this neighbourhood is at All Day Bay, fifteen miles farther north ; and even there the limestone stratum is thin, and rests directly on submarine volcanic scoria. Since the regular succession of the Oamaru system in its upper members cannot be found at Hampden, some other neighbouring locality must be found where it is more complete, and where there are strata recognizable by their fossil contents as being of somewhat similar age to those of Hampden.
112 Transactions.
Such a succession can be found near the Waihao Forks. Here the green- sand strata that are exposed on the right bank of the river, between the Forks and McCuUoch's bridge, are similar lithologically to the Hamp- den beds, and there is a clear stratigraphical succession to the local representative of the Oamaru limestone above, as has been clearly shown by McKay, Park, Marshall, and all others except Hutton, who gave a most surprising account of the stratigraphy. Not only are the Waihao greensands similar lithologically to the Hampden beds, but there is also a close palaeontological similarity, for the following fossils which have not yet been found in any higher or, indeed, any other strata occur in both of them — Polinices waihaoensis, Exilia waihaoensis, Turris regius, Turns complicatus, Surcula serotina, Fusinus solidus, and Eiithriofusus spinosus — though up to the present time only very small collections have been made in the Waihao beds. The Hampden beds may therefore be considered as of much the same age as, though perhaps a little older than, those at Waihao. In this locality, however, the stratigraphy is not complicated by the occur- rence of any strata of volcanic origin, and the greensands pass up without any break, and within a thickness of 100 ft. of strata, into a limestone which is thought by all observers except Park to be the local representative of the Oamaru limestone. No collection of fossils has yet been made from the limestone at the Waihao, but at Otiake, twenty miles distant, on the south side of the Waitaki River, there is a similar limestone, which is con- sidered by all geologists who have examined this area to be of the same age, and in effect a continuation of the limestone stratum of the Waihao. At Otiake a collection of fossils was made by Marshall and others, who found sixty-one species, of which 24 per cent, were determined as Recent species.
The facts so far mentioned may be summarized as follows : At Cole- ridge Creek, in the Trelissick Basin, there is a fossiliferous horizon con- taining 19 per cent, of Recent species. This horizon is below the limestone (Speight, 1917, pp. 328 and 344), or 10 ft. below the upper surface of the Amuri limestone (Thomson, 1916, p. 51). In the greensands at Hampden there are 10 per cent, of Recent species. Lithologically and palaeonto- logically the Hampden beds are closely similar to those at the Waihao Forks, which pass up conformably into the arenaceous limestone. This limestone is always correlated with that at Otiake, which in its upper portion of 2 ft. or 3 ft. contains 24 per cent, of Recent species.
Such palaeontological evidence as we have at present therefore clearly points to the probability that the age of the Amuri limestone as developed in the Trelissick Basin is practically the same as the age of the Otiake lime- stone, which is admitted by all geologists except Park to be the same horizon as that of the Oamaru or Ototara limestone.
This consideration also shows that too much importance should not be attached to the absence of the Amuri limestone in Otago. This material is a Globigerina ooze, which was probably deposited on the floor of a deep, clear- water, oceanic area. The Oamaru or Ototara limestone was deposited in far shallower water, where Polyzoa abounded, but still outside the area to which sediment was carried. The Waihao and Otiake limestones, however, were deposited nearer to the shore, in an area to which terrigenous sediment was carried, and where tidal scour disturbed the sea-floor.
It seems unnecessary to call in the aid of local diastrophes to explain the difierences between the Canterbury and Otago succession of Tertiapy rocks, for, as I have often maintained, the differences that exist can easily be explained on general considerations. The Canterbury area was evidently
Marshall. — The Hampden Beds and N .Z. Tertiary Limestones. 113
more deeply depressed during this middle Tertiary period tlian Otago, a fact that is clearly evidenced by the very nature of the Amuri limestone, which is often wholly composed of Globigerina, but in some cases of other pelagic organisms as well. In Otago, on the other hand, the limestones, whilst still free from all terrestrial sediment, consist mainly of organisms that live on the floor of moderately deep water only. While this is the case, however, it must still be remembered that at Oamaru the limestone rests on a deposit that is composed of diatoms, Radiolaria, and sponge- spicules. Park (1918, p. 50) has lately maintained that this is really a slaallow-water deposit, an opinion that is based partly on the general geology of the district and partly on the nature of the moUusca and brachiopods that are found in the deposit. The fossil species to which he refers are not named. In a collection made by me in June, 1915, the following mollusca were obtained : Amusium zitteli (Hutton), Nuculana [Leda) sp., Lima sp. (small), and Terebratulina suessi (Zittel). These are all genera that have a wide occurrence in deep water, and until a list is published which contains the names of other molhisca that have a shallow- water habitat there is no reason to suppose that the moUuscan remains in these diatomaceous deposits are incompatible with the accumulation of the material on a deep oceanic floor. There is no reason to suppose that the water was of the same depth over all that portion of New Zealand that was then covered by the ocean. In Canterbury the area in which the Amuri limestone occurs was covered by deeper water than that portion of Otago where the Oamaru or Ototara limestone is found. It may there- fore fairly be said that all the palaeontological evidence that is known at the present time supports the belief that the Oamaru limestone represents an horizon of the Amuri limestone, and that there are no stratigraphical or structural facts known that oppose this conclusion.
In the north of Auckland the so-called hydraulic limestone covers a large area. This limestone is also composed mainly of Globigerina ooze, and, like the Anuiri limestone, it is often highly siliceous, and in places the siliceous organisms are calcified, though at others diatoms, Radiolaria, and sponge- spicules are in a perfectly fresh condition and can be obtained in large numbers. This limestone has generally been correlated with the Amuri limestone of Canterbury, and Thomson's objection to this has already been refuted (Marshall, 1919, p. 248, footnote). In addition, however, to the general stratigraphical position of this limestone, there is palaeontological evidence of considerable importance. At Pahi, on the Arapaoa arm of the Kaipara Harbour, there is on the foreshore a little to the west of Pahi Township a bed of greensand lying between two beds of the hydraulic limestone. This greensand contains a considerable number of fossils, as first noted by Park. The fossils, however, are in a bad state of preservation, and only a few of them can be identified specifically. The following were collected in 1916 : —
yAtrina sp.
Calliostoma sp.
Cassidea n. sp.
Corbida canaliculata (Hutt.)
Cucullaea alia (Sow.)
Cythere'a sp.
Deiitalium solidum (Hutt.)
Divaricella afi. cumingi (Ad. & Ang.)
Limopsis zitteli (Iher.)
Nucula sp.
Nuculana aff. hellula (A. Ad.)
Ostrea aff. corrugata (Hutt.)
Panope worthingtoni (Hutt.)
Polinices gihhosus (Hutt.)
Psammobia sp.
Struthiolaria sp.
Stircula n. sp.
Tellina sp.
Turritella ambidacrum (Sow.)
Venericardia aff. australis (Lamk.)
114 Transactions.
Although this list is short and many species are not identified, it can be asserted that not more thaij two are Kecent species, and even these are doubtful. The new species of Surcula is of considerable interest, for it belongs to the group that contains ;S. hamiltoni, S. gravida, and S. torti- costata, all of which are restricted to the strata that lie beneath the lime- stone near Oamaru. The horizon is probably a little higher than the Hampden series, but also lower than the lower fossiliferous bed in the Trelissick Basin, to which reference has previously been made.
The hydraulic limestone of the Kaipara Harbour is thus, from a con- sideration of such palaeontological evidence as is available, seen to be of approximately the same age as the Amuri limestone of the Trelissick Basin.
The following changes and additions must be made to the list of the Hamji- den moUuscan fauna given in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 235, 1919 : —
Siphonalia nodosa Martyn to be Siphonalia nodosa acuticostata (Suter). Volutoderma zelandica Marshall to be Borsonia zelandica (Marshall).
The list of additions that is given below includes the species mentioned in the footnote on the page cited above : —
Admete anomala (Marshall and Murdoch)
Epitonium aff. gracillimum (Sut.)
Epitonium parvicostatum (Marshall)
Euthriofusus spinosus (Sut.)
Fusinus sp. (fragments only)
Fusinus aff. morgani (Sut.)
Leptoconus armoricus pseudoarmoricus (Marshall and Murdoch)
Limopsis aurita (Brocchi)
Limopsis catenata (Sut.)
Nucida n. sp.
Nuculana semiteres (Hutt.)
Pecten aff. fischeri (Zittel)
Phos sp. (fragments only)
Protocardia pulchella (Gray)
Rissoina ohliquecostata (Marshall and Murdoch)
Seila attenuissima (Marshall and Murdoch)
Sinum carinatum (Hutt.)
Siphonalia senilis (Marshall and Murdoch)
Soletellina n. sp.
Surcula hampdenensis (Marshall and Murdoch)
Trifora aoteaensis (Marshall and Murdoch)
Turris curialis (Marshall and Murdoch)
This list raises the total to ninety-three species, of which some thirty- nine have not been found elsewhere. SijjJionalia nodosa is now taken out • of the list, and Protocardia pulchella and Limopsis aurita are added to the number of Recent species, which now number eight, a percentage of only 8'7. Cossman has pointed out that the identification of Limopsis aurita in New Zealand is an error, and that the species should be called L. zelandica Hutton. It is placed here under L. aurita because in other lists of Oamaru strata this identification has been made.
List of Papers cited.
Marshall, P., 1919. Fauna of the Hampden Beds and Classification of the Oamaru
System, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 226-50. Pakk, J., 1918. N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 20. Speight, R., 1917. The Stratigraphy of the Tertiary Beds of the Trelissick or Castle
Hill Basin, Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 49, pp. 321-56. Thomson, J. A., 1916. The Flint-beds associated with the Amuri Limestone of
Marlborough, Trans. N.Z. Inst., voh 48, pp. 48-58.
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Socks near Wanganui. 115
Art. XX. — The Tertiary Rocks near Wanganui.
By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton
Medallist, and R. Murdoch.
[Read before the Wanganui Philosojjhical Society, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1920.]
The marine strata that occur in the neighbourhood of Wanganui have long been the subject of geological inquiry and research. As developed along the coast-line they are richly fossiliferous almost throughout their extent, and the fossils that they contain are so closely related 'to the Recent molluscan fauna that the rocks have always been referred to the higher divisions of the Tertiary era. A resume of the earlier work that had been published on these sediments was given by Hutton (1886, p. 338), and it is in general unnecessary to refer to it here. In that paper also Hutton gave for the first time a fairly complete list of the mollusca that had been collected from the Wanganui system up to that date. The list, however, contains also a number of species that had been found in the strata at Matapiro and Petane, in Hawke's Bay, which were considered by Hutton to be of equivalent geological age.
In his Wanganui system Hutton included the blue clays at Castleclif? and the blue clays at Patea, but he makes no reference to the rocks that outcrop on the coast between those places — the mouth of the Wanganui River and that of the Patea River.
A fuller" list, but based upon the same principles and containing descriptions of a number of additional species, was published by Hutton subsequently (1893, }}. 35 et seq.).
In these papers Hutton rarely makes any statement as to the actual Wanganui locality at which the various species were found. For that reason none of his lists can be utilized in any statement of the species that occur in the beds at Castlecliff and elsewhere along the coast. This is the more regrettable because many of the new species that were described in the Madeaif Memorial Volume were found by Drew in the marine cliffs somewhere to the north of Castlecliff.
Hutton (1886, p. 337) took this course deliberately, for he says, " In * order to save space I have not thought it necessary to give separate lists of the fossils from each locality, but have contented myself with one list of all the species that have been found in the Wanganui system," but the work that has been done " will enable local geologists to fill in the details." This additional work has hot been done up to the present time, and the details that have to be filled in are so numerous that much time must elapse before anything approaching a complete result is achieved.
Park (1887) examined all the Wanganui and west-coast district for the Geological Survey, and in his report there are lists of fossils that he collected from the various strata that crop out on the coast-line and on the banks of the Wanganui River, as well as a number of other adjacent localities. The lists that he gives are, however, far from complete, though they reveal the occurrence of a large number of extinct species, such as Pecten triphooki, Pecten semiplicatus, Ostrea ingens, Cardimn spatiosum, and Perna sp., several of which were regarded by Hutton as characteristic of his Pareora system, of Upper Miocene age.
116 Transactions.
In 1916 Thomson proposed to divide the rocks exposed on the Wanganui coast-line into the Castlecliffian and Waitotaran series. This proposal, however, was not based on any further work, but merely on a consideration of Park's work and of the lists of fossils that he had recorded.
Murdoch (1900, p. 216) described further species that had been col lected by himself and others from the blue clays in the Castlecliff area.
All of the strata on the coast-line north of Wanganui, as far at least as Patea, were placed by Hutton (1885, p. 211) in the Pliocene system. Hecter (1886, p. 48) placed the strata partly in the Upper Miocene. Park (1887, p. 57) placed the beds near Wanganui in the Upper Pliocene, those at Nukumaru in the Lower Pliocene, and those between Waitotara and Patea in the Upper Miocene.
The present work was undertaken partly to discover the thickness of the strata exposed on the coast-line, and partly to find out as accurately as possible the extent to which the fauna changed as the depth in the strata, and therefore the geological age, increased. At first the intention was to collect the fossils in every stratum in which they could be found, and to make a separate list of the fauna in every case. The great number of fossil-bearing strata soon showed that such a project was impracticable, and that for the present purpose it was also undesirable, for each single stratum contains a small fauna only. If the fauna of each stratum were taken separately there would result a very large number of lists, and the comparison of these would lead to much confusion. For these reasons four different collecting localities have been chosen, and in each instance a thickness of about 500 ft. of sediment has been searched carefully, . and as complete a collection as possible has been made from it. The lists that have been made cannot in general be regarded as in any way exhaustive, but in nearly every instance several visits have been made by two collectors in company. The Castlecliff locality has probably been almost completely collected, for much time has been spent in the study of the strata there, because it is most accessible. The late S. H. Drew obtained a large number of fossils there, and one of us has collected in these strata fox a number of years, and of late times it is only rarely that any additions have been made to previous lists.
The localities that have been chosen as suitable for the comparison of faunas are as follows : —
{!.) Castlecliff. — A thickness of about 500 ft. of strata, commencing at the southernmost end of the sea-cliff's and ending about a mile and a half from the mouth of the Wanganui River. Nearly every stratum in this thickness *is fossil-bearing. Almost all of the strata consist of a fine but hard blue clay — the so-called " papa." The fineness and general nature of this material, as well as the mollusca that it contains, give the impression that the material was deposited on the floor of a sea that was not less than 50 fathoms in depth in this locality. As the strata are followed to the north and rise in the cliffs the material becomes a little coarser, and often changes to a micaceous sand before it works out at the top of the cliff. This apparently indicates that the water became shallower in the northern part of the district. This conclusion is supported by the nature of the fossil mollusca which have been found in the sandy facies of the strata.
(2.) Kai Iwi. — This locality is five miles to the north of the previous one. The rocks which extend about a mile to the south of the Kai Iwi Stream form the source of the collections classified under this name. The material is almost entirely blue clay of a fine unctuous nature. The collection that has been made is less complete than those made in the other localities.
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Eocks near Wanganui. 117
(3.) Nukumaru Beach. — This locality is six miles to the north of Kai Iwi, and extends over a distance of one mile to the south of the boat- landing. The strata here are of a much coarser grain and are highly micaceous. In some of the strata there are pebbly bands. The pebbles are formed of extremely hard submetamorphic sandstones, or greywackes, often penetrated by quartz veins. Many of them are of a green tint. Much of the fossiliferous material in this locality is of a concretionary nature.
(4.) Waipipi Beach. — This is nine miles north of Nukumaru. The strata here consist of a stiff and fine blue clay, with occasional bands of fine micaceous sandy matter. It is mainly in these bands that the fossils are found. The best localities are directly north of the mouth of the Waipipi Stream and on a projecting headland three-quarters of a mile farther to the north. Sometimes as the sand drifts with changing winds and tides very fine fossils are exposed above low-tide level between these two localities.
It may be said definitely that lithologically the strata are of the same general nature throughout. A bluish-grey fine-grained sediment is the ordinary material. This in places becomes sandy, especially between Kai Iwi and Nukumaru, where there is much false bedding, due appa- rently to rough-weather and tidal scouring, for there does not appear to be any actual beach formation. Sometimes the fossiliferous bands have an extremely marked concretionary nature, and then the rock becomes a hard arenaceous limestone ; but this is always a shoal-water rock, and it generally contains a number of small pebbles. This is the nature of the Nukumaru limestone, which is really a shell conglomerate. This hard rock fronts the coast for a distance of some three miles north of Nukumaru Beach.
The strata always strike to the east of north. The most northerly strike is N. 27° E., at the mouth of the Waipipi Stream, and the most easterly N. 85° E., near the mouth of the Kai Iwi Stream. The average throughout the whole distance is considered to be N. 70° E. The dip is always to the south-east, and its amount is small throughout — never more than 6° and never less than 2|°. The average is considered to be a little over 4°.
No dislocations of any importance have been seen in the strata, though the sea-cliffs, which are continuous from Castlecliff to three miles north of Nukumaru, have been closely inspected throughout the whole distance. There are some small faults, but they always have a slight throw only. Nothing of the nature of an important unconformity can be seen. Three miles to the north of Kai Iwi an old land-surface can be seen distinctly in the stratification. The evidence of this is found in a stratum of beach- worn pebbles, a carbonaceous stratum with roots penetrating the blue clay beneath, and a number of molluscan bores penetrating it. There is, however, no discordance in the stratification, and no species of moUusca were found in the strata lying just above the old land-surface different from those that were found beneath it. It is, however, noticeable that Crepidida gregaria was far more abundant in the rocks below than in those above this old surface. The structure is certainly due to a purely temporary emergence of what was probably a small portion of the area of deposition.
There is another instance of interbedded carbonaceous matter and of penetrating roots near the south end of the Nukumaru Beach, a quarter of a mile to the south of the place where the fossil moa-bones were found. This is a far less marked instance than the former one. These
118 Transactions.
two instances emphasize the shallow-water nature of the strata in the Nukiimaru - Kai Iwi section, and they show also that there were tempo- rary oscillations in the level of the land whilst the deposition of fhese rocks was in progress.
The continuity of the stratigraphical succession is, however, well shown by the nature of the fossil mollusca which are contained in the rocks, for they display a nearly, uniform gradual change as one proceeds northward along the coast-line, and therefore into lower strata. It has already been suggested that the small pebbles in some of the strata came from the north- west of Nelson, but no suggestion has yet been made as to the source of the great mass of the blue clay, which constitutes by far the greater part of these younger Tertiary sediments. One of the most notable features of the mineralogical composition of this blue clay is its highly micaceous nature. The mica is muscovite, and whenever a coarser stratum than usual occurs the mica flakes in particular are of such a large size that the only origin that can reasonably be assigned to them is a granitic rock. There is at the present time no such rock known to occur in the North Island, and unless some large pre-existing mass has been submerged, or covered up by sediments, we must look to the South Island for the rock-mass from which all this sediment was derived. There is no reason to think that any previously existing granite mass in the North Island is now concealed from view, and it is to the South Island that our attention is at once directed.
In the north-west of Nelson there is now a large area of country which is composed of a granite. It is suggested that it is from this rock that the younger Tertiary sediments of the Wanganui district were derived. It is true that so far as that granite is known there is not a great deal of muscovite in its composition ; but up to the present time little petro- graphical work has been done on the rock, and it is quite possible that a portion of the granite, which crops out over an area of some 800 square miles, is more micaceous than the few specimens that have been closely examined. It is true also that on its seaward margin the granite has a superficial covering of Tertiary rocks of a greater age than the Wanganui series of sediments. The granite mountains rise, however, to a height of 6;000 ft., and no Tertiarj^ sediments are exposed at a greater height than 2,000 ft. It is a fact also that no granite pebbles have been found in the coarser strata that often occur in the Wanganui sediments. This objection, however, is not a strong one, because the granite is notoriously friable, and no pebbles are found on the long beach of Farewell Spit, which is mainly composed of detritus from the granite.
At the present time there is no material on the beaches of the Wanganui coast that could have a granite origin assigned to it, and the depth of the north-west entrance of Cook Strait is too great to allow of the drift of any such material from the South Island, especially when the strong inflow and outflow of tides through the strait is considered. • If the origin of the sedi- ment is to be traced to the Karamea granite, as is here suggested. Cook Strait must at that time have been closed, and a continuous beach must have extended from Kahurangi Point to the Wanganui area.
The thickness of the sediments is a matter of great importance in the subject of this paper. The direction of the strike is, on the whole, so constant, and makes such a considerable angle with the coast-line, that it is at once evident that in a distance of twenty miles along the coast a great thickness of sediment must be passed through. Taking the average of the dip and strike mentioned above (strike 70° and dip 4|^°), it is found that the thickness of rocks between Castlecliff and Kai Iwi is 950 ft., the
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Rocks near Wanganui. 119
thickness between Kai Iwi and Nukumaru is 1,050 ft., and that between Nukumaru and Waipipi is 1,450 ft. If the rate at which these sediments were deposited can be approximately estimated, it should be possible to calculate the time at which various species of mollusca made their last appearance. It is generally estimated that the average rate of deposition of sediment amounts to about 1 ft. in 100 years (Sollas, 1905, p. 24). This estimate, of course, cannot have a precise application in all actual cases, if in any one, because in every case the true rate must depend upon the size of the country that is being denuded and is supplying the sediment, upon the hardness of the rock of which this country is mainly composed, and, of course, upon the distance from the coast-line of the area in which deposi- tion is taking place.
In the present instance the area of land which was undergoing denu- dation was probably small, and therefore supplied sediment at a slow rate. Whether the land was composed of granite rock or was in part formed of sediments that had been derived from granite and raised above the sea- level a little while earlier and again submitted to denudation is by no means certain. On the one hand, the fact that from Karioi to Waiouru, sixty miles inland, rocks of this very young Tertiary age were being deposited points to the conclusion that there was at this time a wide extent of shallow sea in the Wanganui district. On the other hand, the inter- bedded land-surface near the mouth of the Okehu Stream supports the idea that a part at least of the huge Tertiary area to the north was above the sea-level for a portion at least of the period of deposition. If that was the case sediment would have been supplied at a relatively rapid rate. Until the country to the north has been more fully examined with the object of ascertaining how large an area is bare of a covering of these . youngest Tertiary rocks it is not safe to offer any opinion on this matter. Much of the sediment was deposited at a considerable distance from the coast-line, and in water of considerable depth. This is proved both by the fine- grained texture of the sediment and by the nature of the fossil mollusca embedded in it. The sediment ' is generally of an extremely fine grain and contains a large proportion of smaU mica plates, two features which point to deposition in an area which was reached by the finest and lightest sediment only.
The fossil mollusca found over the first five miles north of CastleclifE are of a nature which indicates that the sea-floor was at a depth of between 50 and 100 fathoms. At Kai Iwi the depth of the water was probably nearer the former than the latter figure. If this were the case the rate of deposition must have been a very slow one. Thus the following considerations point to the probability of slow deposition : (1) The small size of the land area from which the sediment was derived ; (2) the hard nature of the rocks that were undergoing denudation ; (3) the distance of the area of deposition from the area, of denudation ; (4) the depth of water in which the deposition took place. On the other hand, it is possible that-^(l) some of the material was derived from older Tertiary rocks only lately deposited (if that were the case the deposition area may have been quite close to that of denudation) ; (2) some of the strata were deposited under shallow-water conditions and close to the shore-line. A balancing of these considerations inclines us to the opinion that the material was possibly deposited at the rate of 1 ft. of sediment in 200 years. If this rate of accumulation is applied generally to the thicknesses of sediment that have been already mentioned, we find that the Waipipi beds are 690,000 years older, those at Nukumaru 400,000 years older, and those at Kai Iwi 190,000 years older than the CastleclifE beds.
120
Transactions.
Fossils from Gastlecliff.
The collections in this locality were made in the marine clifEs over a distance of two miles from the Gastlecliff end. The rocks are everywhere blue clay, or " papa," which, however, has a tendency to become more sandy as the strata rise in the face of the cliff when they are followed to the northward. This probably indicates that the water became rather more shallow in this direction — a conclusion which is supported by the very nature of the mollusca that are found in them as they are followed northwards.
In the following lists extinct species are marked with an asterisk.
Acanthochites zelandicus (Q. & G.)
Acmaea daedala (Sut.) *Acteon sulcatus (Hutt.)
Alcira inconstans (Sut.)
AmpJddesma gaymardi (Desh.)
Amphidesma ventricosa (Gray)
Ancilla australis (Sow.)
Ancilla australis pyramidalis (Reeve)
Ancilla depressa (Sow.)
Ancilla mucronata (Sow.)
Ancilla ■novae-zelandiae (Sow.)
Area novae-zelandiae (E. A. Smith) [= decussata Sut., not Sow.]
Argohuccinum australasia (Perry)
Astraea heliotropium (Mart.)
Atrina zelandica (Gray)
Barnea similis (Gray)
Bathytoma albula (Hutt.)
Bathytoma nodilirata (Murd. & Sut.)
Bathytoma zealandica (E. A. Smith) [= cJieesemani (Hutt.)] *Bezanconia huttoni (Coss.)
Caecum digitulum (Hedley) *Calliostoma hodgei (Hutt.)
Calliostoma pellucidum (Val.) *Calliostoma ponderosum (Hutt.)
Calliostoma punctulatum (Mart.)
Calliostorha selectum (Ghemn.)
Calyptraea alta (Hutt.)
Calyptraea novae-zelandiae Lesson [= maculata (Q. & G.)]
Calyptraea tenuis (Gray)
Cantharidus sanguineus (Gray)
Cardita calyculata (L.)
Chione mesodesma (Q. & G.)
Chione spissa (Desh.)
Chione stutchhuryi (Gray)
Chione yatei (Gray)
Cominella lurida (Phil.)
Cominella virgata (A. Ad.)
Corhula macilenta (Hutt.)
Corbula zelandica (Q. & G.) *Couthouyia exilis (Murdoch)
Crepidula costata (Sow.) Crepidula monoxyla (Less.) Cylichnella striata (Hutt.) Cymatium spengleri (Ghemn.) Cytherea oblonga (Hanley) Daphnella cancellata (Hutt.) Daphnella lacunosa (Hutt.) Daphnella striata (Hutt.) Dentalium ecosfatum (T. W. Kirk) Dentalium huttoni (T. W. Kirk) Dentalium zelandicum (Sow.) Diplodonta zelandica (Gray) Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Ang.) Dosinia anus (Phil.) Dosinia greyi (Zittel) Dosinia suhrosea (Gray)
*Drillia huchanani (Hutt.) Drillia laevis (Hutt.) Drillia novae-zelandiae (Reeve)
* Drillia wanganuiensis (Hutt.) Emarginula striatida (Q. & G.) Epitonium zelebori (Dunker) Erycina parva (Desh.) Ethalia zelandica (H. & J.) Euthria linea (Mart.) Euthria linea tr aver si (Hutt.) Euthria littorinoides (Reeve) Euthria striata (Kvitt.) Fissuridea monilifera (Hutt.) Fusinus spiralis (A. Ad.) Glycymeris laticostata (Q. & G.) Glycymeris modesta (Angas)
*Hipponix radiatus (Hutt.) Kellia suhorhicularis (Mont.) Leptomya perconfusa (Iredale) Leptothyra fluctuata (Hutt.) Lima angulata (Sow.) Lima bullata (Born) Lima lima (L.) Liotia benhami (Sut.) Lissospira corulum (Hutt.) Lucinida concinna (Hutt.) Macoma edgari (Iredale)
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Bocks near Wanganui. 121
Macrocallista ■multistriata (Sow.)
Mactra discors (Gray)
Mactra elongata (Q. & G.)
Mactra ovata (Gray)
Mactra scalpellum (Reeve) .
Malletia australis (Q. & G.)
Mangilia amoena (E. A. Smith)
MangiUa sinclairi (E. A. Smith)
Mitrella choava (Reeve)
Modiolus australis (Gray)
Murex angasi (Crosse)
Murex octogonus (Q. & G.)
Murex octogonus umbilicatus (T.- Woods)
Murex zelandicus (Q. & G.)
Musculus impactus (Herm.)
Myodora antipodum (E. A. Smith)
Myodora striata (Q. & G.)
Myodora subrostrata (E. A. Smith)
Myfilus canaliculus (Mart.)
Mytilus edulis (L.)
Mytilus mam-ianus (Iredale)
Natica australis (Hutt.)
Natica zelandica (Q. & G.)
Nucula hartvigiana (Pfr.)
Nucula nitidula (A. Ad.)
Nuculana bellida (A. Ad.)
Nucidana fastidiosa (A. Ad.)
Odostomia bembix (Sut.)
Odostomia huttoni (Sut.)
Odostomia rugata (Hutt.)
Ostrea angasi (Sow.)
Ostrea corrugata (Hutt.)
Panope zelandica (Q. & G.)
Paphia intermedia (Q. & G.)
Pecten convexus (Q. & G.)
Pecten mediiis (Lamk.) ,
Pecten radiatus (Hutt.)
Pecten zelaruliae (Gray)
Phalium ackatinum pyrum (Lamk.) *Philobrya irigonopsis (Hutt.)
Protocardia pulchella (Gray)
Psammobia lineolata (Gray)
Psammobia stangeri (Gray)
Psammobia zelandica (Desh.)
P^ipa affinis (A, Ad.)
PujM alba (Hutt.) *Rissoa semisulcata (Hutt.) ['' Liro- noba "]
Rissoina chathamensis (Hutt.) [= R. rugulosa (Hutt.)]
Rissoina emdrginata (Hutt.) [" No- zeba "]
Rissoina olivacea (Hutt.) [" Darda-
nula "] Rochefortia reniformis (Sut.) Saxicava arctica (L.) Seila terebelloides (Mts.) SinuW' und'ulatum (Hutt.) Siphonalia caudata (Q. & G.) Siphonalia dilataia (Q. & G.) Siphonalia mandarina (Duclos) Siphonalia nodosa (Mart.) Siphonalia valedicta (Wats.) Solariella egena (Goukl) Soletellina nitida (Gray) Spisula equilateralis (Desh.) Spisula ordinaria (E. A. Smith) Struthiolaria papulosa (Mart.) Struthiolaria vermis (Mart.) *Surcula castlecliffensis (Marshall and
Murdoch) Tellina eugonia (Sut.) Tellina huttoni sterrha (Sut.) Tellina liliana (Iredale) Tellina spenceri (Sut.) Terebra tristis (Desh.) ^Thracia vegrandis (Marshall and
Murdoch) Thracia vitrea (Hutt.) Tornatina pachys (Wats.) Trichotropis clathrata (Sow.) *Trochus conicus (Hutt.) Trochus tiaratus (Q. & G.) Trochus viridis (Gmel.) Trophon ambiguus (Phil.) Trophon cheesemani (Hutt.) Trophon pumil'a Sut. [= T. bonneti
Cossm.] Tugalia intermedia (Reeve) Turbo granosus (Mart.) Turbo smaragdus (Mart.) Turbonilla zealandica (Hutt.) Turritella carlottae (Wats.) Turritella rosea (Q. & G.) Turritella symmetrica (Hutt.) Venericardia lutea (Hutt.) Venericardia purpurata (Desh.) Venericardia unidentata (Basterot) Vexillum marginatum (Hutt.) Vexillum rubiginosum (Hutt.) Valuta arabica (Mart.) Voluta arabica elongata (Swains.) Voluta gracilis (Swains.) Xymene plebejus (Hutt.) Zenatia acinaces (Q. & G.)
The total number, of species is 181, of which 92-8 per cent, are Recent.
122
Transactions.
Fossils from Kai Iwi.
In this locality collections were made for a distance of three-quarters of a mile south of the mouth of the Kai Iwi Stream. The collection was made by one of us (Marshall) in a single day's excursion, and it is probable that the list will have a large number of additions made to it in the future.
Acteon sulcatus (Hutt.) Alcira inconstans (Sut.) Ancilla australis (Sow.) Area reticulata (Gmel.) Atritia zelandiae (Gray) Barnea similis (Gray)
*Bezanconia huttoni (Cossm.)
*Calliostoma hodgei (Hutt.) Calliostoma punetulatum (Mart.) Calliostoma seleetum (Chemn.) Calyptraea novae-zelandiae (Lesson) Calyptraea tenuis (Gray) Cantharidus sanguineus (Gray) Cardita calyculata (L.) Chione mesodesma (Q. & G.) Cominella virgata (A. Ad.) Corbula macilenta (Hutt.) Cytherea oblonga (Hanley) Daphnella cancellata (Hutt.) Dentalium ecostatum (T. W. Kirk) Dentalium nanum. (Hutt.) Di varicella cumingi (Ad. & Ang.)
*Drillia buchanani (Hutt.) Drillia novae-zelandiae (Reeve)
*Drillia wanganuiensis (Hutt.) Emarginula striatula (Q. & G.) Epitonium zelehori (Dkr.) Erycina parva (Desh.) Euthria littorinoides (Reeve) Glycymeris modesta (Angas) Leptomyia perconfusa (Iredale) Lucinida concinna (Hutt.) Macoma edgari (Iredale) Macrocallista multistriata (Sow.) Mactra scalpellum (Reeve) Malletia australis (Q. & G.) Mangilia amoena (E. A. Smith) Murex angasi (Crosse) Murex zelandicus (Q. & G.) Myodora antipodum (E. A. Smith) Natica australis (Hutt.) Natica zelandica (Q. &. G.)
Nucula nitidula (A. Ad.) Nuculana bellula (A. Ad.) Odostomia bemhix (Sut.) Ostrea cor nt gat a (Hutt.) Panope zelandica (Q. & G.) Pecten zelandiae (Gray)
*Philobrya trigonopsis (Hutt.) Poroleda lanceolata (Hutt.) Protocardia pulchella (Gray) Psammobia lineolata (Gray) Saxicava arctica (L.) Serpulorbis sipho (Lamk.) Sinum undulatum (Hutt.) Siphonalia caudata (Q. & G.)- Siphonalia mandarina (Duclos) Siphonalia nodosa (Mart.) Spisula ordinaria (E. A. Smith) Struthiolaria papulosa (Mart.) Struthiolaria vermis (Mart.)
*Surcula castlecliffensis (Marshall and Murdoch) Tellina eugonia (Sut.) Terehra tristis (Desh.) Trichotropis clathrata (Sow.)
*Trochus conicus (Hutt.) Trochus tiaratus (Q. &. G.) Trophon ambiguus (Phil.) TropJion cheesemani (Hutt.) TropJwn corticatus (Hutt.) Trophon pumila i^Sut.) Tugalia intermedia (Reeve) Turritella rosea (Q. & G.) Turritella symmetrica (Hutt.) Venericardia lutea (Hutt.) Venericardia purpurata (Desh.) Venericardia unidentata (Bast.) Vexillum planatum (Hutt.) Vexillum rubiginosum (Hutt.) Voluta gracilis (Swains.)
*Xymene expansus (Hutt.) Xymene plebejus (Hutt.)
This list contains eighty-two species, of which eight are extinct, percentage of Recent species is therefore 90-25.
The
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Bocks near Wangunui. 123
Fossils from Nukumaru.
Collections were made over a distance of one mile south from the Nuku- maru boat-landing. One of us (Marshall) spent four daiys in collectinsf in this locality, and the other (Murdoch) spent two days. These are Rotella beds of Park (1887, p. 63).
t5
the
Acanthochites zelandicvs (Q. & G.)
Alcira inconstans (Sut.) *Amphidesma crassifonnis n. sp.
Amphidesma gaymardi (Desh.) *Anachis pisaniopsis (Hutt.)
Ancilla australis (Sow.)
Ancilla depressa (Sow.)
Ancilla novae-zelandiae (Sow.)
Anomia huttoni (Sut.) *Afaxocerithiu'm perplexum (Marshall and Murdoch)
Barnea similis (Gray) *Calliostoma hodgei (Hutt.)
Calliostoma pellucidum (Val.)
Calliostoma punctidatum (Mart.)
Calyptraea alia (Hutt.) .
Calyptraea tenuis (Gray)
Cantharidus sanguineus (Gray)
Cardita calyculata (L.)
Chione mesodesma (Q. & G.)
Chione spissa (Desh.)
Chione yatei (Gray)
Cochlodesma angasi (C. & F.)
Cominella lurida (Phil.)
Cominella virgata (A. Ad.)
Crepulula crepidula (L.) ^Crepidula gregaria (Sow.)
Cylichnella striata (Hutt.)
Cytherea ohlonga (Hanley) *Diplodonta atnpla (Hutt.)
Diplodonta zelandica (Gray)
Dosinia anus (Phil.)
Dosinia sid>rosea (Gray)
Epitonium, zelehori (Dkr.)
Ethalia zelandica (H. & J.) -^Eulimella media (Hutt.)
Euthria striata (Hutt.)
Fissuridea monilifera (Hutt.)
Glycymeris modest a (An gas)
Leptomya perconfiisa (Iredale) ^Liicinida levijoliata (Marshall and
Murdoch) ^Lutraria solida (Hutt.)
Macoma edgari (Iredale)
Mactra ordinaria (E. A. Smith)
There are eighty-four species in this list, of which 76*2 per cent, are Recent.
Mactra rudis (Hutt.) ■Mactra scalpellum (Reeve) Mangilia amoena (E. A. Smith)
*Melina zealandica (Sut.) My odor a antipodium (E. A. Smith) My odor a suhrostrafa (E. A. Smith) Mytilus maorianus (Iredale)
*Neolepton sp. Nucula nitidula (A. Ad.) Odostomia huttoni (Sut.) Ostrea angasi (Sow.)
*Ostrea ingens (Zittel)
*Paphia curta (Hutt.) Paphia intermedia (Q. & G.) Pecten zelandiae (Gray)
*Philohrya trigonopsis (Hutt.) Rissoina olivacea (Hutt.) ['' Darda- mda "]
*Rissoa semisulcata (Hutt.) [" Liro- noba "] Seila chathamensis (Sut.) Sinum undidatum (Hutt.) Siphonalia caudata (Q. & G.) Siphonalia dilatata (Q. & G.) Siphonalia mandarina (Duclos) Soletellina nitida (Gray)
*Struthiolaria frazeri (Hutt. ) Struthiolaria vermis (Mart.) Terebra tristis (Desh.)
^Trochis conicus (Hutt.) Trochus tiaratus (Q. & G.) Trophon ambiguus (Phil.) Trophon cheesemani (Hutt.) Turhonilla zealandica (Hutt.) Turritella rosea (Q. & G.) Turritella symmetrica (Hutt.) Venericardia difficilis (Desh.) Venericardia lutea (Hutt.) Venericardia purpurata (Desh.)
*Voluta turrita (Sut.)
*Vohita turrita nukumaruensis (Mar- shall and Murdoch)
*Xymene expansus (Hutt.) Xymene plebejus (Hutt.)
124
Transactions.
One of the main features of the fauna in this locality is the large size of many of the extinct species that are found. Not only this, but the large species are represented by a great number of individuals, and at -the first glance it is apparent that the fauna is essentially different from that of Kai Iwi and of Castlecliff. In addition to this, several of the species that occur in the strata at Castlecliff and are also of Eecent occurrence have unusual dimensions at Nukumaru. Of these, Chione yatei, Cytherea oblonga, and Paphia intermedia are noticeable. Of the extinct species, Melina zealandica, Cytherea enysi, Lutraria solida, Lucinida levifoliata, Stnithiolaria frazeri, and AmjMdesma crassiformis are all of large size. This large size of the shells in itself suggests that climatic conditions at the time that these strata were deposited were more genial than tliose that now prevail, and this suggestion, due to the mere size of the shells, is strengthened by the occurrence of such a genus as Melina, which is now, of course, extinct in New Zealand waters.
The bone of Dinornis robusta which was described in a previous paper came from the stratum that lies immediately below the bed in which the occurrence of the large shells is first especially conspicuous. Another moa- bone has since been found, and it is identified by Professor Benham as part of the right tibia of Mesopteryx casuarina Owen. The medullary cavity of this bone is partly filled with pyrite, a sufficient proof that the bone has been preserved in strata that lie beneath the level to which oxidizing waters can percolate.
Fossils from Waipipi.
This locality is about five miles north of Nukumaru along the coast- line. The collection was made from the outcrops of the cliffs over a distance of one mile to the north of the mouth of the Waipipi Stream and a quarter of a mile to the south of it. The rocks are for the main part tough blue papa, or blue clay, with a few distinctly sandy or micaceous strata. It is in the latter that the majority of the fossils were found.
Ancilla australis (Sow.)
Ancilla novae-zelandiae (Sow.) * Ancilla pseud-australis (Tate)
Astraea heliotropium (Mart.)
Atrina zelandica (Gray)
Bathytoma albida (Hutt.)
Bathytoma zealandica (E. A. Smith)
Calliostoma pellucidum (Val.)
Calyptraea alta (Hutt.)
Calyptraea tennis (Gray) *Cardium spatiosum (Hutt.)
Chione mesodesma {Q. & G.)
Chione spissa (Desh.)
Chione yatei (Gray)
Corbula macilenta (Hutt.) *Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.)
Crepidula crepidula (L.) *Crepidula gregaria (Sow.) *Cymbiola [Miomelon) corrugata
(Hutt.) *Cytherea enysi (Hutt.)
Cytherea oblonga (Hanley) *Dentaliiim solidum (Hutt.) ^Diplodonta ampla (Hutt.)
Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Ang.)
Dosinia lambata (Gould) '^Dosinia magna (Hutt.)
Dosinia subrosea (Gray) *Erycina cf. bifurca (Webster)
Glycymeris laticostata (Q. & G.) *Glycymeris subglobosa (Sut.)
Lima angulata (Sow.)
Lima bullata (Born.) *Lima waipipiensis (Marshall
Murdoch) ^Lucinida levifoliata (Marshall
Murdoch) * Lutraria solida (Hutt.)
Macoma edgari (Iredale)
Macrocallista multistriata (Sow.)
Mactra scalpellum (Reeve)
Marginella pygmaea (Sow.) (?)
and
and
Makshall and Murdoch. — -Tertiary Rocks necn- Wangamii. 125
*Melina zealandica (Sut.) Musculus impacta (Herm.) Mi/tilus maorianus (Iredale) Natica australis (Hutt.)
*Natica ovata (Hutt.)
* Natica sagena (Sut.) Natica zelandica (Q. & G.) Nicculana fastidiosa (A. Ad.) Odostomia aff. hemhix (Sut.)
*Olivella neozelanica (Hutt.) Ostrea angasi (Sow.)
*Ostrea ingens (Zittel) Panope zelandica (Q. & G.)
*Paphia curta (Hutt.) Pecten convexus (Q. & G.)
*Pecten semiplicatus (Hutt.)
*Pecten triphooki (Zittel) Pecten zelandiae (Gray)
^PJialium fibratum (Marshall and Murdoch) Profocardia pidchella (Gray) Psammobia lineolata (Gray) Siphonalia mandarina (Duclos)
*Sip)honalia subnodosa (Hutt.) Soletellina nitida (Gray)
*Struthiolaria canaliculata (Zittel)
*Stri(tJiiolaria zelandica (Marshall and Murdoch) Turritella rosea (Q. & G.) Turritella symnpetrica (Hutt.) Venericardia difficilis (Desh.) Venericardia lutea (Hutt.)
*Voluta turrita (Sut.)
* Valuta morgani (Marshall and Mur- doch) Zenatia acinaces (Q. & G.)
This list contains seventy-two species, of which 61 per cent, are Recent.
The remarks that have been made about the occurrence of large shells in the strata at Nukumaru apply with even greater force to these beds, for there are these additional extinct species of large dimensions : Cardium spatiosum, Paphia curta, Ostrea ingens, Pecten triphooki, Dentalium soliduni, Natica sagena, Natica ovata, and Crassatellites obesus. The appearance of the large Phalium fibratum adds to the effect. It is hard to resist the opinion that either the climate of the country as a whole was more genial or that the region was a sea-floor that was washed by a warmer current when the sediment was deposited. The latter alternative, however, is an improbable ■ explanation, because the nature of the sediment is essentially the same at Waipipi as it is in the highest of the Castlecliff beds. It thus becomes probable that there was a reduction in the temperature of the New Zealand area which extended over a considerable interval of time. This gradual cooling of the climate continued throughout the lapse of time between the deposition of the Waipipi beds and of the upper beds at Nukumaru. In an earlier portion of this paper this interval of time is stated as possibly as much as 300,000 years.
The general results of this examination of the fossils on the coast-line between Castlecliff and Waipipi thus show clearly that as lower and lower strata are inspected the percentage of extinct species of mollusca becomes greater and greater. This increase of extinct species could be due mainly to three different conditions.
(1.) The mere increase in age as the lower beds are reached might in itself account for it, because as time proceeds various species become outclassed in the struggle for existence that is always in progress. The many slight changes in food-supply, ocean currents, and accompanying variations of temperature may be as potent in this direction as the mere lapse of time and the consequent change of vital energy of the different species.
(2.) The migration of additional species to the district or to the region would, of course, have a similar effect; but in our opinion our collections of the mollusca afford no evidence of this. On the contrary, as one of us (Marshall) has frequently pointed out before, the present moUuscan fauna of New Zealand seems rather to be a remnant of a more extensive fauna
12G Transactions.
of early or Middle Tertiary alge. There is certainly a striking poverty of moUusca in the Wanganui beds when they are compared with that of the very small exposure of fossiliferous strata at Target Gully, near Oamaru, and elsewhere in the Middle Tertiary strata. This relative poverty in species is certainly not due to less careful collecting at Wanganui, for a greater amount of time has been spent in the latter locahty and a much greater variety of strata has been scrutinized than at Oamaru. There are no additional genera of any importance in the Castleclifi strata, and there is no sudden inrush of new species, so far as our investigations go, at any horizon of the beds exposed on the coast-line between Wangatiui and Waipipi.
(3.) A considerable and general change of climate must naturally have a great effect upon the molluscan life on the coast-line. It is, of course, well established that towards the close of Tertiary time in Europe and in America and elsewhere there was a great change in climate, especially during the Pliocene period. The high percentage of Recent species of mollusca in all the strata with which this paper deals shows clearly enough that they are of Upper Tertiary age. Those at Waipipi perhaps correspond to the early Pliocene of Europe, or perhaps to the later Miocene, while the CastleclifE beds probably represent the highest Pliocene. The change in molluscan fauna may therefore be mainly due to the gradual reduction ■ of temperature that was a feature of all climates during the Pliocene period. The faunal change in this district seems to have been much less rapid in the upper portion of the strata examined than in the lower ones. In the 960 ft. of strata between Castleclifi and Kai Iwi only 2-5 per cent, of extinct species appear, while in the 1,050 ft. between Kai Iwi and Nukumaru an additional 14 per cent, appear, and between Nukumaru and Waipipi, in a thickness of 1,450 ft. of sediment, 15 per cent, more of extinct species are found. In other words, between Waipipi and Nuku- ^maru 1 per cent, of the species becomes extinct in every 97 ft. of sediment. Between Nukumaru and Kai Iwi the rate is 1 per cent, of extinction for every 75 ft. of sediment, and between Kai Iwi and Castleclifi" the rate is much slower and amounts to no more than 1 per cent, in a thickness of 384 ft. of sediment. The general average of extinction for a total thickness of 3,560 ft. is almost exactly 1 per cent, of the species in every 100 ft. If, as suggested before, this sediment has been deposited at an average rate of 1 ft. in 200 years, it follows that on the average during the greater part of the Pliocene period in New Zealand 1 per cent of the species of marine mollusca has become extinct in every 20,000 years. It is not intended to assert any accuracy for this result, though it is thought that it is of the same order of magnitude as the actual result would be if all the various factors could be ascertained with certainty.
It has been stated earlier that, as far as the stratigraphy can be seen in the marine clifi's, there is certainly no sign of any unconformity. The clifis give an actually continuous section from Castleclifi to Nukumaru. To the north of Nukumaru the continuity is interrupted for a considerable distance, but the close' resemblance of the fauna of the Waipipi beds to that of Nukumaru in itself points to the conclusion that deposition was continuous. This idea is strongly supported by the fauna which is found at Wilkie's Bluft", on the left bank of the Waitotara River, two miles and a half below the railway-bridge, a locality intermediate between Nukumaru and Waipipi. Here there is a great abundance of Ostrea ingens, with Pecten triphooki and some Cardium spatiosum and Ltitraria solida. Palaeontologically as well as in geographical position the bluff
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Socks near W anganui . 127
forms a connecting-link between- Waipipi and Nukumaru. The la,rge number of species that is found throughout this thick series of strata is in itself sufficient proof that the series is continuous, and it is interesting to find that so many well-known species of Miocene occurrence rise so high into the Wanganui Tertiaries. In this Wanganui area at least it is possible to determine the upper limits of their occurrence. So far as our collections have given us information the following are the levels at which the specified well- known Miocene species finally disappear. At present it is most convenient to define their position as so-many feet below the highest beds at Castleclift".
Crepidula gregaria, uncommon
above 1,200 ft. Lutraria solicla, 2,000 ft. Cytherea enysi, 2,100 ft. Melind zelandica, 2,100 ft. Struthiolaria frazeri, 2,100 ft. Ostrea ingens, 2,100 ft. Cardium spatiosum, 2,700 ft. Pecten triphooki, 2,700 it'.
Pecten semiplicatus, 3,000 ft. Denialium solidum, 3,500 ft. Paphia curta, 3,500 ft. Natica ovata, 3,500 ft. Natica sagena, 3,-500 ft. Crassatellites, 3,500 ft. Struthiolaria canaliculata, 3,500 ft. Olivella neozelardca, 3,500 ft. Dosinia tnagna, 3,800 ft.
The highest beds at CastleclifE, the horizon to which these occurrences are referred, are covered unconformably by sands and gravels of volcanic material, which usually have a good deal of included timber, and are referred to the Pleistocene. Thomson has lately called this formation generally the Hawera series.
It is noticeable that many species which have a Recent occurrence and which are common at Castlecliff are quite absent from our collections at Nukumaru and at Waipipi, though from a lithological standpoint there is little change in the rock, and the conditions of deposition seem to have been substantially the same at Waipipi as at Castlecliff .
Struthiolaria papulosa was last found one mile north of Kai Iwi, about 1,200 ft. below the highest beds at Castlecliff. Struthiolaria vermis was last found at Nukamaru, 2,100 ft. down, and it is very scarce there.
Pecten medius has not been found below 500 ft., though a shell-fragment probably belonging to this species was found at the mouth of the Okchu Stream,"^ 1,700 ft. down.
Murex zelandicus has not been found at Nukumaru or at Waipipi, though it has frequently been found in rocks of Miocene age in the Oamaru district, and at Pakaurangi Point in the Kaipara Harbour. Murex angasi and Murex octogonus also have not been found north of Kai Iwi, though they too occur in Middle Tertiary rocks in various parts of New Zealand.
It does not seem to be the case that any 'importance is to be attached to the absence of these species as an indication of climatic changes on the New Zealand coast-line. The absence of species of Murex and of the Recent species of Struthiolaria might at first suggest a colder climate for the Nukumaru and Waipipi beds, but this idea is at once offset by the fact that Pecten medius and Struthiolaria papulosa both occur at the present day in the most southern of New Zealand waters. As more extensive collections are made and additional localities of this district are examined it may well happen that such small peculiarities will be explained. It is also possible that by careful collecting the development of some of the species that have most recently appeared, such as Pecten medius and Struthiolaria papulosa, may be most definitely traced. On the other hand, it may possibly be found that a few of these species reached these shores from other faunal regions.
128 Transactions.
One point often crops up in the examination of various fossil localities in the Tertiary rocks of New Zealand. In some strata there is a great predominance of gasteropodsj while in others the lamellibranchs are far more numerous. So far as observations have gone up to the present time, this striking difference does not appear to be due to the depth of the water or to any other of the ordinary conditions that control the deposition of sediment.
List of Papers cited.
Hector, J., 1886. Outline of the Geology of New Zealand. HuTTON, F. W., 1885. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41.
1886. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, pp. 336-67.
1893. Macleay Memorial Volume, Linn. Soc. N.S. W.
Murdoch, R., 1900. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32, pp. 216-21. Park, J., 1887. Rep. Qeol. Explor. dur. 18S6-S7, pp. 24-73, &c. SoLLAS, W. J., 1905. Age of the Earth.
Art. XXI. — Some Tertiary Mollusca, with Descriptions of New Species.
By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Hector and Hutton
Medallist, and R. Murdoch.
[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1920.]
Plates VI-X.
Additional collections made at Waipipi and Nukumaru have produced several new species, and have also brought to light others not previously recorded from these horizons. These localities are not so accessible as the Castlecliff series, and have not been so carefully collected. Further, the Waipipi beds are not fossiliferous throughout, but fossils are restricted to short sections. One of the finest of these is rather below half -tide level and only available after certain weather conditions. Duiyng one visit it was sea-swept clean, and there was a most striking display of Pectens, Cardiums, Limas, and other large forms. Almost without exception the collections hitherto made have not been assigned to any definite locality,' with the result that Shakespeare Cliff, which was regarded as the equiva- lent of all the sands and blue clays of the district, is credited with species which do not occur therein. The coastal cliff from Castlecliff to Kai Iwi and thence to Nukumaru and Waipipi presents a perfectly unbroken series of beds older than those of Shakespeare Cliff. The faunal change, as might be expected, is very gradual, and it is only when horizons fairly distant are compared that a marked distinction is evidenced. Faunal lists from several horizons are recorded on pages 120-25 of this volume. Hampden was visited by Dr. Marshall, who secured a number of undescribed species, several of which are too fragmentary to deal with, and it is abundantly evident that much collecting has yet to be done in that series of beds Ijefore a full knowledge of the fauna is obtained.
Risssoina obliquecostata n. sp. (Plate VI, fig. 1.) Shell small, ovato-elongate, deeply impressed sutures and oblique axial riblets. Whorls six (the protoconch missing), rounded and narrowly shoul- dered, the last slightly produced at the anterior end. Sculpture consists of about twenty-nine narrow axial riblets, in width about half that of the interspaces, on the sutural shelf they are rather less pronounced, form a
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate VI.
#fca%
,- \
Iff.' ■\
■S*J".
•^t
\
7
8
jipf'
5a
10
«»f
/
/3A 9
r-
/
Ftg. I. — Rissoina obliquecosfata n. sp. Fig. 2. — *S'eiZa attenuissima n. sp. Fig. 3. — Triphora aoteaensis n. sp. Fig. 4. — Siphonalia -senilis n. sp. Figs. 5, oa. — Aduiete suteri n. sp. Fig. 6. — Admete anomala n sp.
Face p. 128.]
#' ■■
Fig. 7. — Simula hampdenensis n. sp. Fig. 8. — Borsonia zelandica Marshall Fig. 9. — Conns annoriciis Suter (proto-
conch). Fig. 10. — Conus armoricus var. pseudo-
annoncus n. var.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate VII.
il
,. ii^-S?J
Figs. 11, 11a. — Struthiolaria zelandiae n. sp. Figs. 12, 12a, 126. — Fulguraria morgani n. sp Fig. 13. — Dicroloma zelandica Marshall. Fig. 14. — Turris curialis n. 3p.
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Mollusca. 129
row ol small nodules on the angle, thence take a backward sweep, and vanish a little above the suture, on the anterior end of the last irregular and here and there in the form of strong growth-striae ; spiral striae are preserved in places only and difficult to detect. There is a narrow sub- perforation at the side of the columella, bounded by a small funicular ridge which curves around to the basal lip. Aperture oval, narrow above, basal lip slightly produced and with a lightly impressed gutter at its junction with the columella, inner lip with a thin narrow callus, columella slightly curved and a little reflexed anteriorly.
Length, 6'25 mm. ; width, 3-5 mm. ; length of aperture, 2*5 mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
There is a single example only. It is very different from any other of our Recent or fossil Rissoids, and it is with hesitation we refer it to the genus. More material may be brought to light, possibly allied forms which would lead to a more confident classification.
Sella attenuissima n. sp. (Plate VI, fig. 2.)
Shell partly embedded in the matrix, very small, gradually tapering, and exceedingly slender ; whorls about seventeen, the protoconch of two and a half whorls, smooth, apex minute oblique to the axis, the two succeeding whorls well rounded and somewhat swollen, thence, flattened and with three sharply-raised spiral cords, equal to or slightly narrower than the grooves, the lower cord perhaps slightly the stronger ; the spacing of the sculpture, including the sutural groove, is exceedingly uni- form ; within the grooves and preserved in places only are microscopic sharply-raised growth-striae ; the last whorl apparently with four or more spirals, the anterior end obscured by the matrix.
Length, 7 mm. ; width, 0'9 mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
There is a single example only, characterized by its exceedingly attenu- ated form. The protoconch in some respects approaches S. hulhosa Suter.
Triphora aoteaensis n. sp. (Plate VI, fig. 3.)
Shell small, slender, of twelve flattened whorls, excluding the apex, which is missing. Sculpture : There are three rows of gemmules on each whorl, a small undulating smooth threadlet at the suture above and occasionally a very minute thread on the margin below, both absent on the earlier whorls ; on the last at the basal angle is a' fourth smooth sharply -raised narrow riblet, below this a more slender cord, and between the latter and beak two or three ill-defined lines ; of the gemmules there are about sixteen in a row, separated rather less than their own width and linked within the rows, axial buttresses low and broad, forming oblique vertical rows but not always continuous ; the lower row of gemmules is the most strongly developed, the second distinctly smaller, equal to their own width apart, the third separated by a narrow groove and much more feeble ; the gemmules are somewhat oval in form, the anterior sides rounded, the posterior rising rather abruptly, giving to them a subtruncated and slightly ridged appearance. Base sloping, flattened ; distinct growth-striae form small irregular riblets. Aperture small, subquadrate, outer lip imperfect, columella short, nearly straight, sharply bent and twisted at the anterior extremity.
5 — Trans.
130 Transactions.
Length, 9-5 mm. ; widtli, 3 mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
Described from a single specimen ; the only other species of the genus recorded in our Tertiary fauna is T. lutea Sut. A casual examination of the Hampden shell might easily lead to its being referred to that species, and probably it is akin to it ; the protoconch is missing, and not infrequently it possesses important specific characters.
Dicroloma zelandica Marshall. (Plate VII, fig. 13.) Trans. N.Z. Inst., yoI. 51, pp. 228-29, pi. xv, fig.. 16, 1919.
The example here described is partly embedded in the matrix, and the sculpture is much eroded, but the general form is well preserved. Shell small, fusiform, of six whorls, the last rounded, abruptly contracted at the base, with a narrow and moderately long anterior canal, which is slightly inclined or bent to the left ; spire-whorls convex, the apex missing ; sutures not impressed, the removal of the outer shelly layer gives to them a some- what deep appearance. Sculpture : On the last whorl, a little below the periphery, is a strong spiral rib, a second below this margining the base, and beneath these two or three more slender cords, the first-mention£d ribs about twice their own width apart. Aperture oblique, rather narrow, the outer lip expanded, thickened, and with two prominent lobes, while from each lobe proceeds a long stout digitation (the extremities broken off) ; the posterior digit is almost at right angles to the axis of the shell and proceeds from near to the sutural margin ; above its junction is a fairly strong callus which spreads to the suture above ; the median lobe and digit are somewhat larger than the above, and the space between and the angle formed are smaller than between the median and the anterior canal. Each digit has a pronoimced smooth furrow ; the groove of the anterior canal is little more marked than that of the digits.
Length, 23 mm. ; width (excluding digit), 13 mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Struthiolaria zelandiae n. sp. (Plate VII, figs. 11, 11a.) Shell ovate, oblong, spire turreted, whorls spirally ribbed, rather flat- tened, shouldered at the sutures, which are deeply excavated, the last more or less angled at the base. Whorls six or more, apex lost. Sculpture : On the last whorl a broad usually strong spiral rib on the sutural shoulder, followed by six or seven narrow cords, thence two stronger cords, the first of which is the more prominent and forms the basal angle, anterior to this contracted and with five or six cords which are usually smaller and more widely spaced as they approach the anterior end ; the grooves deep except immediately below the shoulder where they vary considerably, in some examples feeble ill-defined corrugations, in others narrow incised lines, or clean-cut, deep, and slightly narrower than the riblets. The first of tlie remaining spire-whorls with a few spiral threadlets, on the following whorls increasing td seven or eight, variable as on the last, usually distinct in the deeply excavated sutural area. A secondary sculpture of fine thread- lets adorns both ribs and grooves. Aperture ovate, oblique ; outer lip sinuous, strong, and reflexed ; inner lip with a broad fairly heavy callus ; columella curved, a distinct notch at the anterior end.
Length, 36 mm. ; width, 27 mm. Another example : Length, 35 mm. ; width, 24 mm.
Mabshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Mollusca. 131
Locality, Waipipi, near Waverley, in blue sandy clay. Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
The sculpture, together with the exceedingly deeply excavated sutures, readily distinguishes it from other Tertiary forms. ' <
Phalium fibratum n. sp. (Plate VIII, figs. 16, 17.)
Shell large, ovato -globose, with prominent spiral sculpture. Whorls about seven, lightly angular ; apex minute ; spire short, less than one- quarter the length of the aperture ; the last very large ; on the angle a rather- prominent row of nodules, on the spire above the angle four or five spiral cords, and below the angle two or three, on the last about twenty- three flat spirals more than twice the width of the grooves, the latter becoming deeper on approaching the anterior end, in places there is a small groove on the rib and here and there a small threadlet in the groove ; the axials consist of strong irregular growth-striae which haye a fibrous sub- granular appearance. Sutures lightly impressed, the marginal rib below rather pronounced. Aperture slightly oblique and narrow above, outer lip uniformly curved, thickened and refiexed ; columella short, excavate and twisted, several small denticles above and two or three oblique plaits at the antetior end ; body-whorl and columella with a wide, spreading callus pro- duced anteriorly as a broad flat plait limited to the width of the columella.
Length, 75 mm. ; width, 60 mm.
Locality, Waipipi.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
Of this form there is a single almost perfect specimen. It is allied to P. labiatum var. pyrum Lamk., which is subject to considerable variation in size and sculpture. We have a good series of the latter for comparison, and in our opinion the Waipipi shell is sufficiently different to warrant specific distinction.
Siphonalia senilis n. sp. (Plate VI, fig. 4.)
Shell rather small ; canal moderately long ; body-whorl comparatively large. Whorls six or seven, rounded, lightly subangled above the middle ; protoconch of about three and a half turns, smooth ; thence spirally and axially sculptured ; axials nineteen to twenty on the last, feebly raised, more pronounced on the spire ; growth-striae > rather strong ; the spirals in the form of undulating cords, delicately beaded, usually one or two larger beads on the axials, in places an alternate larger and smaller cord, wider- than the grooves except towards the anterior end ; on the pen- ultimate there are eleven to thirteen spirals, the cord at the suture rather pronounced and followed by two or three much smaller. Sutures not deeply impressed. Aperture imperfect. Columella curved, tapering, lightly twisted anteriorly, and thinly callused.
Length, approximately 17 mm. ; width, 10 mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
There are three examples, somewhat distorted and in rather poor pre- servation. The species may readily be distinguished by the undulating finely beaded cords.
Admete (Bonellitia) ovalis Marshall. Borsonia {Corderia) ovalis Marshall, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, p. 269, pi. 18, figs. 10-lOa, 1918. A further examination of the type proves that it is a member of the Cancellariidae nearly allied to Bonellita as defined by M. Cossmann.
5* *
132 Transactions.
Admete suteri n. sp, (Plate VI, figs. 5, 5a.)
Shell small, shortly fusiform ; spire short turreted. Whorls five, the last comparatively large, strongly angled ; protoconch of two smooth rounded whorls, the apex obliquely disposed, thence rapidly increasing ; axially and spirally cancellated, the latter more pronounced and forming small tubercules at the points of intersection ; above the aperture and on the spire-whorls are two small spiral cords, on the last eight narrower than the interspaces, at the anterior extremity finer and closer ; axials seventeen to twenty-one on the last, irregularly developed anteriorly, on the area between suture and angle sharply inclined forward, this area without spiral sculpture ; sutural line undulating, not channelled. Aperture somewhat oblique, outer lip angled above, margin lightly crenulated, grooved within corresponding with the spiral sculpture ; columella short, slightly curved, narrowed and twisted at the extremity, lightly callused, with two well- developed rounded plaits on the middle area and a third more slender on the anterior twist of the columella.
Length, 8 mm. ; width, 5-25 mm.
Locality, Target Gully. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
Material consists of four examples in a good state of preservation. We name this pretty little shell in memory of our old friend Henry Suter.
Admete anomala n. sp. (Plate VI, fig. 6.)
Shell small, elongate ; spire exceeds the aperture in length. Whorls five or six, convex and lightly angled above the middle ; apex blunt, and sculpture (if any) obscure, succeeding whorls spirally and axially ribbed, nodular at the crossings ; axials broad, equal to the interspaces, nine or ten on a whorl, directed slightly forward, feeble above the angle and on approaching the lip ; growth-striae in places well marked v^ith here and there old lip-margins ; spirals narrower than the interspaces, twelve on the last, five on the spire-whorls, one of which is above the angle ; the first threadlet below the angle is much more slender than the others ; a small area at the anterior end smooth. Sutures impressed, slightly undulating. Aperture oval, outer lip uniformly curved, sharp, within the margin a number of smaU elongated denticles ; columella short, curved and obliquely truncated, the extremity slightly twisted to the left, thinly callused and with lAvo small plaits ; the anterior lip produced and on uniting with the columella forms a short wide canal.
Length, 8 mm. ; width, 3-75 mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
The material consists of a single example. The two denticles only on the columella and the peculiar wide shallow anterior canal are not quite in accord with Admete ; probably it may be allied to Babylonella of Cossmann.
Fulguraria (Alcithoe) turrita Suter. F. {Alcithoe) arabica var. turrita Sut., N.Z. Geol. Surv. Pal. Bull. No. 5, p. 39, pi. 5, fig. 4, 1917. Examples of this species, of which we have a fairly good series from Nukumaru and Waipipi, agree perfectly with Suter's description and figure. The produced spire and narrow form are constant characters, and some examples have the penultimate and last whorl adorned with small incon- spicuous spiral lines. The general contour is, however, so different from arabica and its var. elongata as to warrant full specific distinction. It is
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Mollusca. 133
not uncommon in the beds above mentioned, where we have failed to find examples of the Recent species.
Length, 125 mm. ; width, 47 mm.
The series of specimens here noted to be lodged in the Wanganui Museum.
Fulguraria (Alcithoe) turrita var. nukumaruensis n. var. (Plate IX,
figs. 18, 19.) Distinguished from the species by its more slender form, the absence of prominent nodules, the axial riblets being feeble and almost absent on the last, the body having the same fiat slope as the whorls above. Length, 102 mm. ; width, 34 mm. ; length of aperture, 57 mm. Locality, Nukumaru.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum. There are several specimens, of which only one is perfect.
Fulguraria morgani n. sp. (Plate VII, figs. 12, 12a, 126.)
Shell rather small, narrow, axially costate, spire turreted. Whorls six or seven, lightly shouldered above the middle, excavated or flattened above the shoulder, below slightly convex, the last whorl slightly tapering to the anterior end ; the protoconch consists of ai)out two and a half smooth whorls, somewhat rounded, apex blunt, the first half-turn somewhat laterally disposed by a comparatively wide and deep sutural excavation. Axial riblets sixteen to nineteen, rounded, rather narrower than the interspaces, usually less pronounced above the shoulders and on approaching the anterior end of the last whorl, on the latter towards the lip somewhat variable. Sutures undulating, not deep. Aperture slightly oblique, narrow, almost canaliculate above ; outer lip with sharp margin, slightly curved to the anterior end, the latter rather broad and deeply notched ; columella almost straight, lightly twisted at the anterior extremity, thinly callused and with four plaits, the lowermost occasionally feeble.
Length, 47 mm. ; width, 17 mm. ; length of aperture, 28 mm.
Locality, Waipipi, in blue sandy clay. ^
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
Originally an example of this species was submitted to Captain Hutton, who pronounced it Voluta corrugata, Miocene. It was said to occur in the Patea or Waverley district, but the exact locality was unknown. On comparing it with the description and figures given by Suter {N.Z. Geol. Surv. Pal. Bull. No. 2) it was' apparently quite different from Hutton's species ; we therefore submitted examples to Mr. P. G. Morgan, Director of the Geological Survey, for comparison with the types, and his report coincides with the opinion we had formed. Its nearest kin is perhaps F. gracilis Swains. We convey to Mr. Morgan the compliment of associat- ing his name with the species.
Turris curialis n. sp. (Plate VII, fig. 14.) Shell narrowly fusiform ; spire turreted ; whorls with sloping flat shoulders bounded by a prominent nodular ridge ; thence to the suture below excavated ; the concavity below the ridge continues across the body-whorl immediately above the aperture and appears again on the lip strongly marked (shell partly embedded in the matrix), anterior to this slightly convex, thence gradually contracted to the canal. Whorls probably eight or more. Sculpture : Several small spiral threadlets between the suture and keel, and two somewhat stronger between the latter and
134 Transactions.
suture below, on the last numerous, exceeding twenty, and narrower than the grooves ; axials consist of growth-striae only. Sutural line not deep, in places obscured by the spirals above and below. Aperture imperfect, rather narrow, the posterior sinus as indicated by the lines of growth situated at the nodular angle ; columella almost straight, thinly callused, the anterior end missing.
Length, 26mm. ; width, 10mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected b}^ Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
The material consists of a single specimen of five whorls, including the last except its anterior extremity. The distinctive characters are the marked corrugation on the last whorl, which is a continuation of the peculiar excavate sutural area, the long sloping shoulder, and the prominent nodular angle.
Surcula torticostata Marshall. (Plate VIII, fig. 15.)
S. torticostata Marshall, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 232, pi. 12, fig. 7, 1919.
This species was described from very imperfect material, consisting of upper spire-whorls only. An almost perfect specimen is now available, and we offer the following amended description.
Shell fairly large, narrowly fusiform, the aperture and canal apparently rather less than the spire in length (the anterior end of the canal missing). Sutures not deep, margined below by a flat rather prominent rib. Whorls nine or ten, flat or slightly concave below the sutural rib, thence lightly convex, the last gradually tapering to the canal. Axial sculpture varying as the shell progresses ; apical whorls apparently smooth ; then follow twisted, prominently backward-sloping narrow riblets, which arise a little below the sutural rib, and are suppressed a little above the lower suture, and on the later whorls, especially the penultimate and last, reduced to slight undulations and in places absent ; growth-striae well marked, prominent on the last ; the spirals consist of numerous fine feebly-raised threadlets wider than the grooves and forming irregular minute granules on crossing the growth-striae. Aperture narrow, deeply channelled above ; outer lip sharp, curving forward rather abruptly from the posterior sinus, which is situated immediately below the sutural rib ; columella and body- wall thinly callused, the callus on the latter margined by a rather pronounced double groove.
Length, 59 mm. ; width, 14 mm.'; length from aperture to apex, 34 mm. '
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
This specimen to be lodged in the Wanganui Museum.
Surcula hampdenensis n. sp. (Plate VI, fig. 7.) Shell narrowly fusiform ; whorls obtusely angled ; spirally Urate ; short oblique axials at the shoulder and the sutures margined below. Whorls eight, the apex minute, thence gradually increasing, the last viewed dorsally exceeding the spire in length. Almost flat below the angle, then gradually sloping to the long anterior canal, the extremity of which is missing. On- the spire-whorls the angle is slightly above the middle, the area above and below very slightly convex. Sculpture : Excluding the apex, the first four whorls with irregular ill-defined axials extending across the whorls ; follow- ing these the angle well defined and on it developed fourteen or fifteen backward-sloping axials, narrower than the interspaces and not extending to the sutures below ; growth-striae, especially on the last, strongly marked ;
Marshall and Murdoch. — Tertiary Mollusca. 135
spiral threadlets adorn the lower whorls throughout, that margining the suture comparatively large and with a sharply defined lower margin, a few minute threads on its flattened surface, on the last about fifty, those above the angle very slender, below with here and there an alternate larger and smaller threadlet, about equal to the grooves in Avidth. Aperture : Outer lip imperfect ; posterior sinus extending from the angle to the sutural cord ; columella almost straight ; callus thin, not obscuring the spiral sculpture.
Length, 22 mm. ; width, 7 mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
Of this form there is only one example. It nearest kin are perhaps 8. sertula, S. obliquecostata, and S. mordax. -
Borsonia (Corderia) zelandica Marshall. (Plate VI, fig. 8.)
.Volutoclerina zelandica Marshall, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, p. 230, p. 17, figs. 4 and 5, 1919. The material from which this species was described consists of two rather badly preserved specimens collected by Dr. Marshall at Hampden. The sculpture can be followed fairly well, and the position and form of the posterior sinus is clearly indicated by the well-marked growth-striae. The outer lip being broken away gives a somewhat marked prominence to the two small plaits on the columella, and this may in a measure have influenced the late Mr. Suter when he recommended its inclusion in Volutoderma. We offer a figure of the aperture restored as indicated by the lines of growth.
Conus (Leptoconus) armoricus Suter. (Plate VI, fig. 9.) N.Z. Geol Surv. Pal. Bull. No. 5, p. 61, pi. 12, fig. 25, 1917.
As no description of the protoconch is recorded, we offer the following : The specimen has a total of nine and a half whorls, three and a half of which comprise the smooth protoconch, which is sharply conical and slightly oblique ; whorls convex, with somewhat impressed sutures, the initial half- turn minute and somewhat laterally disposed, the third comparatively high, the last half narrowing and merging into the post-embryonic form.
length, 21 mm. ; width, 11 mm. (dimensions of specimen).
Locality, Pakaurangi Point, Kaipara Harbour. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Conus (Leptoconus) armoricus var. pseudoarmoricus n. var. (Plate VI,*'
fig. 10.)
Shell small, spire low, gradated, the body elongated and sharply tapering. Whorls six, excluding the protoconch, which is missing ; each whorl with a pronounced rim-like ridge, which overhangs and partly conceals the suture, giving to the volution a distinctly concave appearance ; the last whorl immediately below the ridged shoulder slightly contracted. Sculpture : On the spire-whorls four or five small spiral threadlets, on the anterior area of the last about twelve well marked and obliquely ascending ; above these a few ill-defined lines which probably are continued to the crown ; axial growth-striae irregular, on the spire distinctly curved, indicating a fairly deep sinus Aperture narrow ; the margins almost parallel ; outer lip imperfect.
Length, 18 mm. ; width, 10 mm.
Locality, Hampden. Collected by Dr. Marshall.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
136 Transactions.
Difiers from C. armoricus by the spiral tlireadlets on the spire, the rim- like ridge which overhangs the sutures, and the accompanying concavity of the whorls. The material consists of a single example. C. armoricus is recorded from Komiti Point,* Kaipara Harbour, and it is interesting to find a form so nearly akin in the Hampden beds.
Melina zealandica Suter. (Plate X, fig. 20; Plate IX, fig. 21.) For all references see N.Z. Geol. Surv. Pal. Bull. No. 5.
A description derived from very fragmentary materials is given in the above-mentioned publication, pages 68, 69. Pla*te viii, fig. 4, is a part of the hinge ; plate xiii, fig. 1, is the large fragment from Shrimpton's, and not Ostrea mackayi, and fig. 2 is the latter species.
The species is not uncommon in the Nukumaru and Waipipi beds ; numerous large fragments, including an almost complete hinge of a right valve, were obtained. Another example of hinge partly embedded in rock has both valves locked in natural position. Attached to a mass of rock a complete valve was noted, which was much eroded, but presented an approximate indication of the general outline. From this, aided by large fragments, we derive the figure of the restored shell.
The shell is apparently subquadrate, somewhat swollen, the umbo near to the anterior end, the anterior ear small with the margin immediately below prominently inflexed. The ventral margin and posterior end may to some extent have been completely eroded, as the lamellar structure would lend itself to this, but it does not appear to have been prominently winged. The hinge is massive and wide, with four or five conspicuous resilifers. The length of the hinge exceeds 140 mm., and several measure- ments indicate that the united valves are not less than 90 mm. in diameter.
Amphidesma (Taria) crassiformis n. sp. (Plate X, figs. 22, 23.)
Shell of medium size, massive, triangular ; beaks almost at the posterior end which is abruptly truncated, strongly and acutely angled ; the anterior dorsal margin long, downward sloping and almost straight, the anterior end narrow and rounded, ventral margin slightly curved ; the posterior trunca- tion is slightly concave as it approaches the lip-margin, and on the end there are two, usually three, feebly-raised curved ridges. The median area of the valves and towards the ventral margin sometimes has a slightly concave appearance. Sculpture is irregular shallow concentric corruga- tions with fine striae, the latter on the posterior end pronounced. Hinge conspicuously massive ; right valve with deeply excavate sockets above the laterals, the posterior much the shorter ; in the left valve the anterior lateral elongated and with a double tubercle on its crest, the right short high and triangular ; cardinals in both lamellar and oblique. Adductor- scars, pallial line, and sinus deeply impressed, the sinus short and with a broadly rounded apex. Lip-margins smooth.
Length, 80 mm. ; height, 60 mm.
Locality, Nukumaru, in blue sandy clay.
Type to be presented to the Wanganui Museum.
Material consists of three valves, a right and left of which are almost perfect. Readily distinguished by its massiveness and the abrupt heavy truncation.
* C. armoricus occurs at Pakaurangi Point, not Komiti Point, which is some two miles distant.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate VIII.
U>
X-^ .
in
iftfi
irlrt jlMTirT' ^vM,
•-'^
e
'IS,
GQ
o3
CO
e
"So
o
I
1—1
2
^
• -r
Face p. 136.]
iRANS. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LIl.
Plate IX.
<Ti
i'*-*^:
-■.m
CJ
u >
d
3 a ^ 'a
00
■■_-^a.>-\
iV-
o
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI I.
Plate X.
v ..
^^^
Uttley. — Tertiary Geology, Otiake River to Duntroon. 137
Art. XXII. — Tertiary Geology of the Area between the Otiake River (Kurow District) and Duntroon, North Otago.
By G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Scots College, Wellington.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 18th September, 1918 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issiied separately, 15th June, 1920.]
Contents.
I. Introduction.
II. General Description of the Area.
III. Historical Summary.
IV. Description of the Tertiary Beds.
(1.) Trigonometrical Station Z, Otiake River. (2.) Otekaike Special School. (3.) White Rocks and Duntroon Area. (4.) Maruwenua* River. (5.) Station Peak. V. Structure of the Area. VI. Conclusion.
I. Introduction.
As will be seen from the accompanying geological map (fig. 1), the area described in this paper extends from the Otiake River, the southern boundary of the Kurow Survey District, to near Duntroon, on the Otago side of the Waitaki River. The district north-west of the Otiake River is dealt with in a later paper in this volume, but to save unnecessary repeti- tion a full historical summary of the work of previous observers in that area, as well as in the present area, is given below.
In the geological map no attempt has been made to map the various types of gravels, as the delimitation of their boundary-lines and their dif- ferential characteristics will demand a great deal of detailed work. The gravel lands are now covered with vegetation and soil, and this fact renders their distinction difficult. The Wharekuri-Otekaike fault, which bounds the Kurow tilted block, follows an almost straight line, but between the Otekaike basin and the Otiake basin, a spur of the undermass, dipping easterly at 6° beneath the Tertiary rocks, apparently breaks the continuity of the main fault-line. It would appear that in this locality the low-lying block had failed to break away, as the stripped surface of the spur is certainly continuous with that of the uplifted block for some distance to the west of the main line of faulting. No convincing evidence was obtained to show whether the boundary scarps of this protruding spur were fault-scarps or fold-scarps, except in the neighbourhood of Newsome's Creek, where the quartz-grits were found lying directly on the sloping surface of the undermass on the southern side of the spur, three- quarters of a mile east of Trig. Station D. The surface and overlying quartz-grits at this point dip southerly at 30°, indicating that, in this locality at least, the scarp is a fold-surface.
McKay was the only geologist who investigated the area in any detail, and the sequence of rocks as recorded by him was characteristically accurate. His classification of the sediments was based almost entirely upon lithological characters, but he made large collections of fossils from several parts of the Waitaki Valley, and these were determined by the late Mi. Henry Suter two or three years ago, but the lists have not yet been published. McKay's account of the geology is rendered somewhat difiicult
* Spelt also " Maerewhenua " and " Maraewhenua."
138
Transactions.
Sc<i.le
free ^nh ffiYerX Craves.
POST^AWAMOAN
H^OMy C/xjifm/s ondS'lt'j.
OTOTARAN WAiA^EHAN
Basa/h'c Sifl.
HUTCHfNSpNIAN- AWAMOAN.
7/ecfreous mL^Jsfbnt^ C/aucon///c c^hase.^
ncaParam
Quartx. Mario's aneJ c/ays.
iYAlARCKAN
', ^ fau/A l/nes marf-eeJ thuj, r~
Fig. 1. — Geological majD of the Waitaki Valley between the Otiake River and Duntroon. In the legend the order of superposition is indicated by the numbers.
Uttley. — Tertiary Geology, Otiake River to Duntroon. 139
to follow owing to the necessity he was under of finding in the series an unconformity marking the line of division between the Cretaceo-Tertiary and Tertiary systems of the old Geological Survey under Sir James Hector.
The relationship of the various rocks present in the area is obscured by the thick deposit of post-Tertiary gravels, and exposures are revealed ' only when the streams of the area have entrenched themselves in the gravels and cut through the Tertiary rocks. The outcrops of Tertiary rocks along the fault-lines have been mapped only where they were observed. They are probably continuous beneath the gravels.
The writer wishes to thank Mr. P. G. Morgan for kindly allowing him to examine the lists of fossils determined by the late Mr. Henry Suter from the collections made by McKay forty years ago. To Dr. J. Allan Thomson the writer is much indebted for assistance in determining the brachiopods, and for permission to incorporate his list of molluscan fossils from the upper beds a,t Otiake in the lists detailed below. Mr. H. Suter named many forms from the same beds for the writer some years ago, and his determinations are included in these lists.
The paper furnishes geological evidence for the existence of two strong faults, which are shown to be intimately connected with the great fault- system of Central Otago, so ably described by Cotton (1917a, p. 272). The elongated relatively depressed area of the Waitaki Valley, between the mountains of South Canterbury and North Otago, occupied by Tertiary beds, is shown to be a tectonic depression which is partly a graben and partly a fault-angle depression. McKay's statement that the Hutchinson Quarry beds lie above the Otekaike limestone is shown to be supported by the evidence. It is further shown that McKay's " two-limestone theory " is radically different from Park's " two-limestone theory," and that the latter's statement (1918, p. 110) that Hutton, Hector, and McKay considered the limestone of the Waitaki Valley to be of Hutchinsonian age is not warranted. On the evidence of the brachiopod fauna this lime- stone is shown to be Ototaran.
-• . ' A
II. General Description op the Area.
Between the Otiake and the Otekaike Rivers, flowing in a north- easterly direction to join the Waitaki River, the surface rock is a thick deposit of coarse water-worn boulders and silt. The initial gravel table- land has been rather deeply trenched by the streams, and the Otiake and the Otekaike now flow in braided courses to join the trunk stream. Remnants of high-level terraces are to be seen near the school at Otekaike, indicating recent elevation. Before debouching from the mountains on to the gravel-covered plain these rivers flow in steep-sided gorges, and narrow terraces are noticeable on the sides of the streams. The moun- tainous country that flanks this part of the area on the south-west rises fairly rapidly to a height of over 6,000 ft. in the Kurow Mountains, or at least 5,000 ft. above the general level of the gravel tableland.
From Ben Lomond to Black Hill an even-topped gently sloping ridge extends almost to the main road, and the rise from the Otekaike basin to this ridge is abrupt. The quartz-grits that crop out in the basin of the Waikaura Creek have been deeply dissected and eroded, and in places the greywacke imdermass crops to the surface, particularly in the higher country towards Ben Lomond. T|ie country to the east is an elevated tableland, deeply dissected by the streams that traverse it. The surface rock is formed of heavy river-gravels and silts, and limestone is revealed
140 T7-ansactions.
in many of the creeks, and forms prominent escarpments on the banks of many of the larger streams. The Maruwenua River, a north-easterly- flowing tributary of the Waitaki, rising in the neighbourhood of Dansey's Pass, where a distant sag is noticeable in the main Kakanui-Kurow Range, is flanked by the rather steeply sloping back of a tilted block, the stripped surface of which dips beneath the Tertiaries exposed in the neighbourhood of the river.
The Waitaki River flows in an east-south-east direction near the base of the well-preserved fault-scarp of the South Canterbury block mountains.
The Tertiary rocks in the Waitaki Valley occur ' in an elongated depression between the mountain-ranges of North Otago and South Canter- bury, and the origin of this depression has been referred to various' causes. Haast had no difficulty in imagining that a glacier was the agent of erosion ; Hutton and Park invoked the aid of a pre-Tertiary river, the valley of which, after general subsidence of the land, was drowned by the encroachment of the sea, and the sedimentary deposits laid down. Marshall detected signs of tectonic movement in the neighbourhood of Wharekuri, and Cotton later elaborated the idea in his work on the block mountains of Otago, and described the dej^ression as a somewhat complex graben between the uplifted block mountains of North Otago and Canterbury.
The Tertiary rocks consist of quartz conglomerates and sands, and sometimes fireclays, with seams of inferior brown coal. These rocks rest on the eroded surface of the older greywacke rock, and are followed by greensands, often pebbly, sandy, and micaceous, and containing marine fossils 20 ft. above the coal. These greensands pass up into more calcareous greensands, containing much less quaitz and mica, but glau- conitic casts of Foraminifera are abundant. The limestone which overlies these greensands sometimes has at its immediate base a band of calcareous greensand containing brachiopods in abundance ; in other cases the transition from a calcareous glauconitic sand to a slightly glauconitic limestone is almost insensible. The glauconitic limestone passes up into a much harder limestone free from giauconite, and the latter rock is capped by very fossiliferous concretionary hardened bands, covered in turn by more sandy beds, which appear to be unfossiliferous in their upper part. Overlying these rocks unconformably is a heavy deposit of river-gravel and silts.
III. Historical Summary.
That the historical summary of the views of previous workers may be more easily followed, the classification as finally adopted by McKay for the Waitaki Valley is tabulated.
|
Age. |
Formation. |
|
Recent to. Pleistocene |
Alluvial and glacier deposits. |
|
Lower Miocene |
. . Pareora formation. |
|
(a.) Gravels and sands, with lignite-beds |
|
|
{h.) Pareora clays. |
|
|
Upper Eocene |
. . (a.) Hutchinson Quarry beds. |
|
(6.) Otekaike limestone. |
|
|
(c.) Kekenodon beds (greensands). |
|
|
Cretaceo-Tertiary . . |
. . (a.) '' Grey marls." |
|
{b.) Maruwenua limestone. |
|
|
(c.) Wharekuri greensands. |
|
|
{d.) Island sandstone. |
|
|
(e.) Coal-beds. . |
Uttlet. — Tertiary Geology, Otiake River to Duntroon. 141
Hector, in 1865, classified the Waitaki arenaceous rocks as Lower IMiocene, and the Oamaru rocks as Upper Miccene. In 1870 he considered the Oamaru rocks to be Older Tertiary, and those of the Waitaki Valley Middle Tertiary. In 1877 he placed the coal-grits, sandstones, and over- lying limestones at Maruwenua in his Cretaceo-Tertiary system. In 1882 he considered the Otekaike limestone to be of Tertiary age, and at a higher horizon than the Maruwenua limestone (Cretaceo-Tertiary).
Hutton (1875, p. 46), after examining a collection of fossils from Otekaike, classed them as Upper Miocene (Pareoran or Awamoan), and (1875, p. 89) considered that the Tertiary rocks at Wharekuri occupied a depression "hollowed out by an Eocene glacier." The brown coal at Wharekuri was said to be Eocene. McKay (1877) reported on the geology of the Oamaru and Waitaki districts, and referred the Maruwenua lime- stone and the overl3dng fossiliferous horizon (" Phorus beds ") to the Cretaceo - Tertiary system, and stated that the " equivalent beds of Hutchinson's Quarry, Oamaru, and even higher beds, assume the character of a calcareous sa^^Jstone at Otekaike, and at Big Gully (Wharekuri) of a tufaceous greensand." In the same report (1877, p. 58) he declared the impossibility of separating the Awamoan, either stratigraphically or otherwise, from the Hutchinsonian. In a later report (1882a) he described the Waitaki Valley more fully, and stated that the Tertiary rocks, comprising limestones and calcareous greensands of Upper Eocene age, rest indifferently on various members of the Cretaceo - Tertiary series. Certain sandstone gravels, often steeply tilted, were classed as Upper Pareoran (Awamoan), and the coal at Wharekuri was referred to this horizon. The Hutchinson Quarry beds at Wharekuri were said to rest conformably on the Otekaike limestone, which was classed as a Tertiary rock, quite distinct from the Maruwenua limestone of Cretaceo-Tertiary age. The " sandy beds with cement concretions " {"Phorus beds ") above the limestone at Maruwenua were referred to the horizon of the " grey marls " of Cretaceo-Tertiary age, although the fossils " resemble those from Hutchinson's Quarry and the Otekaike limestone more than those of the ' grey marls.' " The Wharekuri greensands were said to be overlain unconformably by the " Kekenodon greensands " (a Tertiary rock), and to belong to the Cretaceo-Tertiary system. The fossiliferous beds that overlie the coal-rocks at Black Point were said to be at the same horizon as the island sandstone. The heavy angular gravels, containing boulders with Triassic and Permian fossils, were considered to be of glacial origin, the glaciers having taken their rise in the surrounding mountains. McKay collected fossils from Station Peak, opposite Otekaike, and stated that in the section exposed there " the Hutchinson's Quarry beds do not present their usual characters, and must be considered as merged in the Otekaike limestone." Again, referring to the same section, he affirmed that " the oldest beds seen are limestones as pure as, though less fossiliferous than, the higher part." In this locality and at Otekaike McKay considered that the limestone rests directly on the subschistose rocks.
In a later report (1882b) McKay still maintained that the coal-beds were of Pareora age, but that quartz sands and fireclays of Eocene age, similar to the rocks usually associated with the coal-seams, lay beneath the " Kekenodon greensands," of Eocene age. The Maruwenua limestone was now considered to consist of three distinct rocks. The upper part (the " Phorifs beds," of Upper Cretaceo-Tertiary age of his former reports) was referred to the Hutchinson Quarry horizon, the middle part was
14:2 Transactions, i
correlated with the Otekaike limestone, both being referred to the Tertiary ; while the basal part of the Maruwenua limestone was stated to be of the same age as the Ototara limestone (Cretaceo-Tertiary). McKay asserted that, although these three rocks are quite conformable at Maruwenua, unconformity was deemed to be present, as the Otekaike limestone rested directly on the subschistose rocks at Otekaike and Station Peak. He gave a section _(1882b, p. 104) showing the relationship between the two limestones, and the Hutchinson Quarry beds were shown above the lime- stone at Otekaike.
Hutton (1885, p. 547) described a section on the Rakaia River, Canter- bury, at a locality called " The Curiosity Shop." The aim of the paper was to show that the division of the rocks in this locality into a Cretaceo- Tertiary and a Tertiary series was quite 'unjustifiable on either strati- graphical or palaeontological grounds. In the course of the paper he discussed the rocks and fossils of the Waitaki Valley, criticized adversely McKay's arguments in favour of an unconformity anywhere in the series, and showed clearly that the sequence at Wharekuri from the Hutchinson Quarry beds down to the greensands forms a single series. In a later paper (1887, p. 429) he again contended that the Otekaike limestone and the Maruwenua limestone belonged to the same series. i
Park (1887, p. 139) traced the Ototaran stone almost continuously from Oamaru to Ngapara, where it rests conformably on greensands, the upper part of the greensands being represented at Oamaru by the Waiarekan tuffs. The limestone (at Ngapara) was said to have lost all the character- istics of the fine Oamaru building-stone, yet " standing on the high hills surrounding Ngapara it is quite obvious that the Ototara stone at one time formed a continuous bed " {Iboc. cit., p. 140). Park (1904a, p. 416) determined the succession of the younger Tertiaries in South Canterbury and Otago to be, in descending order, (a) Oamaru stone, (&) marly and sandy clays, (c) marly greensands, often with calcareous concretions, (d) quartz- grits, fireclays, and coal ; and he stated that " the sandy Kekenodon beds and underlying greensands, &c., form the base of the Tertiary beds in the old Waitaki Fiord, and, proceeding westward, they ^ pass under a yellowish-brown limestone, which McKay calls the Otekaike limestone. I think there can be no doubt that this limestone is the horizontal equiva- lent of the Ngapara (Oamaru) limestone. But, without laying any stress upon the exact correlation of the limestones, we have in the Wharekuri basin a section of the Oamaru series exactly parallel with that at the Waihao River ; and there is little to wonder at in this parallelism if these beds, as seems to me likely, were deposited on the floor of the same continuous sea. The position of the sandy beds [the greensands], containing, as we find, most, if not all, of the forms hitherto supposed to be typical of the Pareora [Awamoan] series, at once raises a question as to the relations of the Awamoa and other supposed Pareoras in North Otago to the Oamaru stone." In a note (1904, p. 418) Park stated that he had since obtained evidence in North Otago and South Canterbury which confirmed his con- clusion l^hat the Pareora beds (Awamoan) underlie the Oamaru (Waitaki) stone.
Hamilton (1904, p. 465) described some vertical" faults striking north- north-west at Wharekuri, and his section showed the Wharekuri green- sands in contact with the quartz-grits along a line of faulting. Park (1905) elaborated his position in regard to the position of the Pareora (Awamoan) fauna beneath the Waitaki stone, and contended that there wete really
Uttlet. — Tertiary Geology, Otiake Biver to Duntroon. 143
two limestone horizons in North Otago, separated by the Hutchinson Quarry and Awamoan beds The lower limestone he called the Oamaru stone, and the upper limestone the Waitaki stone, as it was strongly developed in the Waitaki Valley. The Maruwenua limestone and the Otekaike limestone at Wharekuri were considered to be at the same horizon above the Awamoan, which, it may be remarked, is an altogether difierent view from that which McKay held in regard to the relationship of the Ototara (Maruwenua) limestone and the Otekaike limestone. McKay certainly considered the two limestones distinct rocks ; but the require- ments of the Cretaceo-Tertiary theory demanded this, as a break had to occur somewhere in the series. Never did McKay dream of placing the Waitaki limestone above the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan horizons, for he always maintained the infra-position of the limestone in North Otago and South Canterbury (1882a, p. 65, and 1882b, p. 103). Park correlated the greensands at Wharekuri with the Hutchinson Quarry beds at Kakanui (1905, p. 523), but McKay had always maintained that the beds above the limestone in the Wharekuri area were undoubtedly the representatives of the Hutchinson Quarry beds at Oamaru. Park placed the coal-beds at Wharekuri at the base of the Tertiary series.
Marshall, Speight, and Cotton (1911, p. 405) stated that there was no evidence' that the greensands lying beneath the Maruwenua limestone are the equivalent of the Hutchinson Quarry beds at Oamaru, but agreed with Park in his contention that the series is conformable. ■
Marshall (1915, p. 383) gave a list of fossils from the fossiliferous beds at Otiake, and referred them to the horizon of the Oamaru limestone (Ototaran).
Cotton (1917a, p. 285, and 1917b, p. 432) showed that the Waitaki River followed a complex graben along the northern boundary of the block-complex which forms the mountains of Otago, and he described several interesting examples of tectonic forms.
IV. Description op the Tertiary Beds.
»
(1.) Trig. Station Z, Otiake River. The exposure of fossiliferous beds in this locality is seen on the face of a rather prominent clifE, near the Trig. Station Z, close to the Otiake River, and about a mile above the railway bridge. The beds dip 7° in a direction N. 20° W. The section exposed here is illustrated in fig. 2.
Fig. 2. — -Section at Trig. Station Z, Otialce River, (a) Otekaike limestone ; (6) glau- conitic calcareous bands ; (c) less glauconitic calcareous sandstonesj with glauconitic bands passing up into {d) ; {d) softer calcareous mudstone.
The lowest bed (a) is a compact light-yellowish-brown limestone (Otekaike limestone) containing abundant tests of. Foraminifera, a small quantity of clear subangular minute grains of quartz, and some glauconitic casts of Foraminifera. Microscopic fossils are scattered through the mass of the rock. Pachymagas huttoni Thomson, Pecten huttoni (Park), Limopsis aurita (Brocchi), Dentalium solidum. Hutt., Cucullaea sp. were found in the lime- stone. The overlying bed (b) is distinctly marked out from the underlying
lU
Transactions.
limestone by its glauconitic nature and by the abundance of fossils it con- tains. Though occurring in (c) as weU, the fossils are most abimdant in the glauconitic bands. The bed (b) is hardened and concretionary, and is 3 ft. in thickness. Bed (c) is a calcareous, less glauconitic bed, showing a thick- ness of 20 ft., and containing occasional thin bands of glauconite with fossils. It appears to pass up into less fossiliferous, more sandy beds {d). The fossils collected from beds (b) and (c) are given below, and include the species collected by Dr. Thomson, Dr. Marshall, and the writer. The collector's name in each case is denoted by the initial letter of his name. For purposes of easy reference and comparison the list is arranged alphabetically. Recent species are marked with an asterisk.
Ampullina suturalis (Hiitt.)
Ancilla hebera (Hutt.)
* mucronata (Sow.)
* novae-zelandiae (Sow.)
papillata (Tate)
Anomia trigonopsis Hutt.
Bathytom'a sulcata excavata Sut
Borsonia rudis (Hutt.) *Calyptraea alta (Hutt.) * macidata (Q. & G.)
Cominella pulchra Sut.
Corbula canaliculata Hutt.
humerosa Hutt.
kaiparaensis Sut.
*Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.)
Crepidida gregaria Sow.
striata (Hutt.) . .
Cucullaea attenuala Hutt.
Cymatium minimum (Hutt.)
Cymbiola corrugata (Hutt.)
Cytherea chariessa Sut. * oblongata (Hanley)
Dentalium mantelli Zitt.
pareorense P. & S.
solidum Hutt. . .
*Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & An *Dosinia greyi Zitt.
Drillia callimorpha Sut.
Epitoniifm lyratum (Zitt.)
Exilia dalli Sut.
Ficus parvus Sut. *Fulgoraria gracilis (Swains.)
Leucosyrinx alta (Harris)
alta transenna (Sut.)
Lima color ata Hutt. . . *Limopsis aurita (Brocchi)
catenata Sut.
*Loripes concinna Hutt.
Macrocallista assimilis (Hutt.)
g
M, T, U. M.
M, U.
T, U.
T.
M, T, U.
M, U.
T.
M, T, U.
M.
M, T, ur
M. U. M, U. M, U. M.
M, U. M, U. U.
M, ,T, U.
M, T, M, U. T.
M, U. M, T, U. M, T, U. M.
M, U. M. T.
M, T. M, U. M.
M, T. M, T, U. U. M, U.
U.
U.
U.
|
Uttlet. — Tertiary Geology, |
Oiiake 1 |
River to |
Duntroon. f |
|
• *Macrocallista nmltistriata (Sow.) , . . . . M, T, U |
|||
|
Mangilia blandiata Sut. |
. U. |
||
|
Marginella harrisi Cossm. |
. M, U. |
||
|
Mitra armor ica Sut. . . |
. T, U. |
||
|
Modiolaria elongata (Hutt.) |
. U. |
||
|
^Modiolus australis (Gray) |
. M. |
||
|
*Murex zelandicus Q. & G. |
. M, T, U |
||
|
*Natica zelandica Q. & G. |
. M, T, U |
||
|
Nucula saggitata Sut. |
. U. |
||
|
*Ostrea tatei Sut. |
. T. |
||
|
Pecten beethami Hutt. |
. T. |
||
|
chathamensis Hutt. |
. T. |
||
|
* zelandiae Gray |
. M. |
||
|
Polinices gihhosus (Hutt.) |
. M, T, U |
||
|
huttoni Iher. |
. M, T, U. |
||
|
*Psammohia Uneolata Gray |
. T. |
||
|
Ptychatractus tenuiliratus Sut. |
. U. |
||
|
Sinum cinctum (Hutt.) y |
. M. |
||
|
Siphonalia conoidea (Zitt.) |
. M. |
||
|
* nodosa (Mart.) . . |
- |
s" |
. M, T. |
|
turrita Sut. . ; |
. T, U. |
||
|
*Struthiolaria vermis (Mart.) |
. M. |
||
|
*Tellina glahrella Desk. |
. T. |
||
|
Terebra or y eta Sut. . . |
. M. |
||
|
Teredo heajjhyi Zitt. . . |
. M, T, U |
||
|
*Trichotropis clathrata Sow. |
. M. |
||
|
*Turbonilla zealandica (Hutt.) . |
. T. |
||
|
Turris uttleyi Sut. |
. M, T, U |
||
|
TurriteUa ambtdacrum Sow. |
. T. |
||
|
* carlottae Wats. . . |
. M. |
||
|
caver shamensis Harris |
. M, T, U. |
||
|
semicoyicava Sut. |
. M, T. |
||
|
Tijiihis maccoyi T. -Woods |
. M, U. |
||
|
*Venericardia difficilis (Desh.) . |
. M. |
||
|
pseutes Sut. |
. T, U. |
||
|
purpurata (Desh.) |
. T. |
||
|
*Zenatia acinaces (Q. & G.) |
. M. |
145
Out of this list of seventy-six species twenty-six are Recent, giving a percentage of 34.
In addition to the molluscs, Pachymagas huttoni Thomson is abvmdant in the glauconitic bands. Two new species of Surcula were found in the writer's collection, and Dr. Thomson obtained a new species of Vexillum.
Every one of the above species occurs in the Awamoan beds elsewhere, and thirty -nine species have never been foimd below the " Pachymagas parki " greensand band (the upper limit of the Hutch insonian) in the Oamaru district, ('orals also occur in these beds. (Note. — To avoid circumlocution the writer will refer to these upper fossiliferous beds as the " Otiake beds.")
Dr. Marshall has published a list of fossils from this locality, and they are stated to have come from the limestone (1915, p. 383). All fossils
146 Transactions.
collected by the present writer have been gathered from the glauconitic band (&) and over-lying bed, and at least 50 ft. of limestone is exposed below this bed. This limestone is poorly fossiliferous. Corals occur in the glauconitic bands above the limestone, as well as PacJiymagas hntfoni Thomson (possibly Marshall's Magellania sp.), but the writer did not find Isis daciyla. Nor was he more successful in finding a glauconitic band of greensand helow the limestone in which the corals and brachiopods were said to occur.
Park (1918, p. 83, footnote) says, "Mr. Uttley states {fide Dr. J. A. Thomson) that the beds from which the collection was made lie above the Waitaki stone, and are undoubtedly Awamoan " ; and on the next page of his report (1918, p. 84) he writes, " On the palaeontological evidence the so-called Waitaki stone at Otiake should be referred to the Awamoan instead of the Upper Hutchinsonian."
These statements, together with Marshall's view that the fossils came from the limestone, need some comment. The fossils were collected from the top of the section, with a considerable thickness of limestone below them. The fossils are almost certainly Awamoan, but the writer considers the limestone to be of Ototaran age. In the Waitaki Valley there is a lack of brachiopods that characterize the Hutchinsonian greensands of the Oamaru coastal district, particularly the brachiopod Pachymagas jmrki (Hutt.), which, though not restricted to the Hutchinsonian, occurs abundantly in a well-marked indurated glauconitic band, and marks the upper limit of the Hutchinsonian. In the absence of a brachiopod fauna it would scarcely be possible to differentiate this horizon, except perhaps, litho- logically, even in the Oamaru district, and the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan would, as far as the moUuscan faima is concerned, have to be considered as part and parcel of the same series. (See McKay, 1877, p. 58 ; Hutton, 1887, p. 416). The writer believes that this is the case in the Waitaki Valley, and that these fossiliferous beds at Otiake represent the Hutchin- sonian and Awamoan hori"^ons of the coastal district. McKay (1882a, p. 65) recognized the beds above the limestone at Wharekuri as Hutchin- sonian, and these are at the same horizon as the Otiake beds. There is no evidence to show that the Otekaike limestone is other than Ototaran in age. The beds beneath the limestone are not seen, but on the right bank of the Otiake River, where the limestone again crops out, greyish-green foraminiferal sands, underlain by intensely dark greensands, crop out farther up the river, dipping in the same direction as the limestone ; and a short distance from the outcrop of greensands the quartz-grits also dip in the same direction.
(2.) Otekaike Special School.
This is the locality (Geological Survey locality No. 481) where McKay collected fossils in 1881. His collection, he states, was made from the Otekaike limestone, which crops out on the left bank of the Otekaike River, two -miles and half from the main road. Where exposed it contains a few fossils, Cucullaea worthingtoni Hutt. (?) and Pachymagas huttoni Thomson being the forms collected by the writer. McKay records ten forms, eight of which. occur in the upper beds at Otiake. Traill's collection (Geol. Surv. loc. 259) is also said to have come from the limestone. Seven species were determined, and six occur in the upper beds at Otiake.
These geologists evidently failed to find a highly fossiliferous horizon in this localitv. On the sloping right bank of the creek, immediately behind the school, the writer discovered, at the top of the limestone, two glauconitic beds crowded with fossils, which are undoubtedly at the same
Uttley. — Tertiary Geology, Otiake River to Duntroon. 147
horizon as the Otiake beds. Fully 40 ft. of limestone underlies, and its base is not seen. The fossils collected from the Otiake beds in this locality were —
*Lim.opsis aiirifa (Brocchi) *Loripes concinna Hutt.
Mangilia jjraecophinodes (?) Sut.
Marginella harrisi Cossm. *Natica zelandica Q. & G.
Nucida saggitata Sut.
Pecten chat hanien sis Hutt. * zelandiae Gray
Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.)
huttoni Iher.
Siphonalia turrit a Sut. ■^Tellina glabrella Desh.
Terebra org eta Sut.
Teredo heaphyi Zitt. *Turbonilla zealandica (Hutt.)
Turritella ambulacrum Sow.
caver shamensis Harris
semiconcava Sut.
Venericardia pseutes Sut. * purjmrata (Desh.)
Ampullina suturalis (Hutt.) Ancilla papillata (Tate) Anomia trigonopsis Hutt. Bathytoma sulcata excavata Sut. *Calyptraea alt a (Hutt.)
* maculata (Q. & G.)
Cominella pidchra (?) Sut. Corbula canaliculata Hutt.
humerosa Hutt.
kai^Kiraensis Sut.
*Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.) Crepidida gregaria Sow. Cucidlaea attenuata Hutt. Cy'mbiola corrugata (Hutt.) Cytherea chariessa Sut. Dentalimn pareorense P. & S.
solidum Hutt.
*Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Ang.) Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.) Leucosyrinx alta (Harris) Lima color ata Hutt.
Out of this list of forty-one species, two were doubtfully identified. Eleven species are Recent, giving a percentage of 27. This collection was obtained after two or three hours' work, and there is not the slightest doubt that many additional forms may be obtained from this locality.
The brachiopod Pachymagas huttoni Thomson is again very abundant, • and corals are also foimd similar to those fomid at Trig. Station Z. McKay (1882a, p. 66) states that in this locality the Otekaike limestone rests directly on the Palaeozoic rocks, and he gives a section (1882b, p. 104) illustrating his views. It is true that a short distance from the present locality the old rock crops out, but McKay observed no junction, as the country between is obscured by heavy gravel deposits. The writer followed up the various small creeks that have cut deeply into the gravels, and found the quartz- grits dipping towards the limestone a short distance away close up to the mountain-front, so that there is no doubt that the limestone does not lie on the old rock at Otekaike. The section given by McKay (1882b, p. 104) was intended to illustrate his views of the relationship between the Otekaike limestone and the Maruwenua limestone, which he considered to belong to difierent systems. In his first report on the locality he gave a section (1882a, p. 75) showing the Otekaike limestone at a higher horizon than the Maruwenua limestone in its entirety ; but in a later report during the same year he gave another section (1882b, p. 104), in which he modified his views considerably. He divided the Maruwenua limestone into three distinct rocks, and correlated • the Otekaike limestone with the middle portion of the Maruwenua limestone, and the Hutchinson Quarry beds with the fossiliferous horizon {" Phorus beds") that lies at the top of the Maruwenua limestone. He had previously referred these fossiliferous beds to the top of the Cretaceo-Tertiary. His section shows clearly the Hutchinson Quarry beds lying above the Otekaike limestone at Otekaike _ (the present locality), although he makes no reference to them in his report. He frequently refers, however, to the Hutchinson Quarry beds
148 Transactions.
lying above the Otekaike limestone at Wharekuri. The writer has no doubt that if McKay had discovered the glauconitic fossiliferous beds above the limestone at Otekaike he would have referred them to the Hutchinson Quarry horizon, for his description of the latter beds at Wharekuri would apply equally well to the Otiake beds at Otiake and Otekaike. Although McKay made the break between the Cretaceo-Tertiary and Tertiary systems at the top of the lower third of the limestone at Maruwenua, yet he states that there is stratigraphical conformity throughout the section ; but that unconformity is proved, as the Otekaike limestone rests on the old " subschistose " rocks at Otekaike. As there is no evidence forthcoming to show that this is so, and as the basal quartz-grits of the series are present, as shown above, unconformity has not been proved. McKay was perhaps justified on lithological grounds in dividing the limestone at Maruwenua into three portions. The " Phorus beds " at Maruwenua, as will be shown below, are similar to the Otiake beds, and therefore probably Hutchinsonian-Awamoan. The less glauconitic lime- stone below these at this locality has all the lithological characters of the limestone at Otekaike, while the more glauconitic basal portion of the limestone at Maruwenua represents the basal part of the Otekaike limestone, which is not visible in the preseiat locality, as it is obscured by gravels.
The quartz-grits crop out again at the point where the Otekaike River leaves its gorge and debouches on to the gravel-covered plain. They lie near the foot of a steep escarpment of greywacke rock on the right bank of the stream, and mark the point of intersection of two strong faults, the one extending from Wharekuri to this point, and another trending in a north-easterly direction. The small exposure of the quartz-grits mentioned in the description of the beds at Otekaike lies on the line of the Wharekuri- Otekaike fault, and it will be shown in another paper in this volume that there aie other outcrops of Tertiary rocks lying near the base of the mountain- front in the Kurow district. This fault has a north-westerly trend. The escarpment referred to above extends in a north-easterly direction towards the main road, and the crest of the evenly sloping ridge drops 500 ft. in a distance of three miles. Patches of quartz-grits and limestone crop out at various places at the foot of the scarp, and define the direction of this fault, which bounds the north-east portion of the great Kakanui tilted block (Cotton, 1917a, p. 279). The back slope of this portion of the block is stripped of its cover in the higher country towards Ben Lomond, but the covering strata (quartz-grits, greensands, limestone, &c.) are still preserved in the country extending north and south from Black Hill to Livingstone.
(3.) White Rocks and Duntroon Area.
In the Waikaura Creek, quartz-grits crop out to the east of Black Hill, and a prominent limestone mesa rises steeply from the bed of the creek. The slopes are buried in talus, and the intervening rocks are not exposed. The limestone resembles the Otekaike limestone in containing little glauconite. Its dip is westerly. From this point the Maruwenua tableland stretches to the south-east, covered by heavy gravels and silts, but the limestone is exposed in many places where the creeks have cut through the gravels.
At White Rocks, where the limestone crops out on the main road two miles above Duntroon, the highest rocks are the high-level river-gravels, overlying a limestone showing in places a thickness of 70 ft. The under- lying rocks are not exposed, but the quartz-grits crop out about three- quarters of a miles up the valley, dipping in the same direction. The dip
Uttlet. — Tertiary Geology, Otiake River to Duntroon. 149
of the limestone is easterly, at an angle of 6°. The lower part of the lime- stone is very glauconitic, and contains abundant Foraminifera and small echinoderms. Brachiopods also occur, being particularly abundant in one narrow band about 4 ft. wide. The limestone gradually gets less glauconitic and more indurated, and at the top it resembles the harder portions of the Otekaike limestone.
Pachymagas huttoni Thomson, Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.), Graphularia sp., and Lima sp. were found in this upper part.
The lower glauconitic limestone in its upper portion furnished the following fossils : —
Aetheia gauUeri (Morris) Liothyrella landonensis Thomson Neothyris tajnrina (Hutt.) Rhdzothyris rhizoida (Hutt.) Pachymagas huttoni Thomson
Pachymagas elUpticus Thomson Terebratella totaraensis (?) Thomson Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.) Epitonium lyratiim (Zitt.) Pecten huttoni (Park)
Foraminifera and echinoderms are plentiful in this bed.
In the neighbourhood of Duntroon, and in other places in the Maru- wenua district, prominent salients in the shape of well-rounded hills and ridges are prominent above the surface of the tableland. They are capped with silts or gravels, and their flanks are usually covered with soil and grass, but where cuttings have been made through them fossiliferous beds are exposed which correspond with the horizon above the limestone (the Otiake beds). McKay clearly recognized that the form and position o these salients were an index of their nature,, for, after describing them as capped with gravels, which are miderlain by brown or light-coloured sands, in the lower part of which lenticular masses and beds of hard sandstone occur full of fossils, he says that " the fossiliferous beds underlying [the gravels] will probably be found in the isolated hills behind McMaster's Station " (1877, p. 57).
The Trig. Station A is situated on one of these prominent ridges, and on the road from Duntroon to the " Earthquake," which cuts through this ridge about one mile and a half from the railway-line, these upper fossiliferous beds crop out. In some places the fossils occurred in con- cretionary masses, but usually as casts. The looser portions of the rock are glauconitic and calcareous, but the fossils in these are very friable. From the hardened bed were obtained Pachymagas huttoni Thomson, and casts of Turritella sp., Dentalium sp., Venericardia sp. In the looser deposits lying immediately above, the following forms were obtained : —
Anomia trigonopsis Hutt. (?) Cardium sp.
Corbiila, canaliculata Hutt. *Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.)
Cytherea chariessa Sut. *Limopsis aurita (Brocchi) Modiolus sp. Venericardia pseutes Sut.
These beds are the " Phorus beds " of McKay, and this appears to be the locality from which he collected (Geol. Surv. loc. No. 178). These beds, as pointed out above, in his earlier reports he referred to the top of the Cretaceo-Tertiary, but subsequently he correlated them with the Hutchii^son Quarry horizon, considering the imderlying white limestone as the equivalent of the Otekaike limestone, while the basal portion of, the limestone (usually very glauconitic) he referred to his Cretaceo-Tertiary system. The writer is in agreement with McKay in placing the " Phorus beds" in the Hutchinsonian, and believes they are the equivalent of the Otiake beds at Otekaike and Otiake.
At the " Earthquake " the limestone at the top of the cliffs is of the harder whitish variety, but lower' down it gradually gets more glauconitic, and in the lower 10 ft. it contains an abundance of brachiopods.
/150 Transactions.
The fossils collected from the lower part of the limestone were — Aetheia gaulteri (Morris) ' | Pachymagas huttoni Thomson
Liothyrella landonensis (?) Thomson j Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.) Neothyris tapirina (Hutt.) Terehratidina suessi (Hutt.)
Pachymagas ellipticus Thomson | Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.)
Foraminifera are also abundant.
Below this fossiliferous portion 2 ft. or 3 ft. of greyish-green glauconitic marly sands are exposed, and in the basin of Waipati Creek the quartz- grits are exposed dipping towards the limestone.
(4.) Maruwenua Rirer.
The quartz-grits and overlying greensands can be seen at many places between Duntroon and Livingstone. At the latter place the grits are worked for gold, and are immediately overlain by a bed of fossiliferous greensand in which shark's teeth are abundant. This in turn is followed by concretionary greyish sands full of fossils (McKay, 1882b, p. 105). McKay, however, gave no list of fossils.
On the Eight bank of the Maruwenua River, at a point about a mile south-west of Trig. Station S (Maruwenua Survey District), a calcareous concretionary band full of fossils occurs in quartzose micaceous greensands, not far above the basal quartz sands. Twenty feet above this band occurs a sill of basalt, followed by another sill higher in the section, the two sills being separated by 20 ft. of greensands. The beds dip easterly at 10°. The calcareous concretionary band is full of fossils, but they are very difficult to extract. The late Mr. Henry Suter determined the following forms from a large quantity of material gathered by the writer. The work of identification was rendered difficult, as most of the fossils were casts.
*Nucula strangei A. Ad. *Polinices amphialus (Wats.)
Sinum n. sp.
Surcula n. sp. *Titrritella carlottae Wats. *Venericardia difficilis (Desh.)
*Ancilla novae-zelandiae (Sow.) . *Capulus australis (Lamk.) • Cardium waitakiense Sut.
Cardium n. sp.
Corbida humerosa Hutt.
Cylichnella enysi (Hutt.)
Mangilia n. sp.
Out of this small list four species are new. Mr. Suter has published the description of only one of these species — Sinum fornicahim Suter.
Some distance to the north-east a steep escarpment of the limestone occurs, the lower portion being glauconitic ; the dip is easterly, at 7°. A few fossils were obtained from the lower part of the limestone : — Aetheia gaulteri (Morris) Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.) Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.)
At four places in the road-cuttings in Blocks 2 and 3, Maruwenua Survey District, the writer foimd a hardened calcareous concretionary band lying above the limestone. The fossils were in the form of casts, but the position of the beds above the limestone indicates that the Otiake beds are widely spread throughout this part of the district.
(5.) Station Peak. Although this locality is beyond the scope of tlie present paper, a brief reference should be made to it. On the Canterbury side of the Waitaki, opposite the mouth of the Otekaike River, there is an outcrop of fossiliferous Tertiary rocks lying near the base of a well-marked fault- scarp. The beds dip 40° to the west. This scarp, which bounds the
Uttley. — Tertiary Geology, Otiake River to Duntroon. 151
block mountains of South Canterbury, and close to the base of which the Waitaki River is now flowing, was diagnosed by Cotton on geomorpho- logical evidence as a fault-scarp. The occurrence of these steeply dipping Tertiary beds at the base of the scarp confirms Cotton's view. This isolated patch of Tertiaries evidently rests on the toe of the splinter described by Cotton (1917b, p. 432). The surface of this splinter is a " fossil plain,'' and shows few signs of erosion. Although the Tertiary rocks that formerly covered it have been almost completely stripped, a small remnant has been preserved at Station Peak, close up to the fault- scarp at the back of the splinter. McKay collected fossils from these beds, and states that " in this section the Hutchinson's Quarry beds do not present their usual characters, and must be considered as merged in the Otekaike limestone " (1882a, p. 65). He further adds that " the lowest beds seen are limestones as pure as, though less fossiliferous than, the higher part. Upwards these beds pass into clay-marls resembhng the fossihferous Pareora beds." There is no doubt that McKay collected his fossils from the upper portions of the calcareous rocks at Station Peak, and that these fossiliferous rocks are underlain by a much less fossihferous limestone. As has been shown above, the limestone at Otiake and Otekaike is also capped by a development of very fossiliferous beds, and it has been pointed out that these beds are probably widely extended beneath the gravel deposits of the Maruwenua tableland. McKay's collection from the beds at Station Peak were determined by the late Mr. Henry Suter. Of the thirty-one species specifically determined, nineteen occur in the Otiake beds at Otiake (Trig. Station Z). Of the remainder, ten species are common Awamoan fossils, Lima lima (L.) is Recent, and Ancilla subgradata (Tate) is apparently not found elsewhere. Further, ten of the species have never been found below the Hutchinsonian-Awamoan horizon of North Otago. These fossiliferous beds are almost certainly at the horizon of the Otiake beds (Hutchinsonian-Awamoan), lying above the main body of limestone of the Waitaki Valley.
V. Structure of the Area. A fuller description of the structure will be given in a later paper after the area north-west of the Otiake River has been discussed. A fault (Wharekuri-Otekaike fault) is clearly defined by the outcrops of the basal quartz-grits, lying close to the base of the mountain-front, as shown on the map ; whilst another fault, trending north-easterly, runs north-west of the conspicuous ridge extending from Black Hill as far as Ben Lomond. The geological evidence for the latter fault is clearly indicated by the outcrop of tilted quartz-grits and limestone at intervals at the foot of the scarp, ant b)^ the occurrence of the same beds on the back slope of the tilted block to the south-east. The majority of the streams draining this portion of the back slope flow in an easterly direction and are consequent on the deformation. These streams have stripped the Tertiary beds from the higher country in the vicinity of Ben Lomond, and the surface here exhibits the characteristic features of a tilted " fossil plain." Towards the Maruwenua River the plain disappears beneath the Tertiary basal grits and overlying beds in the basin of the stream. From Black Hill to Black Point the structure of the Tertiary Rocks is synclinal, indicating that the great Kakanui tilted block (Cotton, 1917a, p. 279) has in this locality been warped or folded. The Wharekuri-Otekaike fault forms the north- easterly boundary of the elevated block known as the Kurow Mountains. The south-easterly boundary of this block is a well-marked narrow
152 Transactions.
depression, which follows the line of the Black Hill -Ben Lomond fault as far as Dansey's Pass, near the watershed between the Kyeburn River and the Otiake and Maruwenua Rivers ; but there are indications that this relatively depressed area beyond Ben Lomond is complex in structure, and not due to simple differential elevation along a single fault-line. Beyond the pass occurs the re-entrant forming the north-east corner of the great Maniototo depression {loc. cit., p. 278). The Kurow block is bounded on the south-west by a conspicuous fault-scarp, which rises abruptly from the fault-angle of the Hawkdun tilted block (loc. cit.,]). 278). \
From the description given it will be seeii that the tilted block is bounded on the north-west by a tectonic depression, which in the lower course of the Otekaike River is a graben, and towards Dansey's Pass appears to be a narrow somewhat complex fault-angle or synclinal depression. This depres- sion connects the Waitaki Valley tectonic depression with the Central Otago chain of tectonic depressions {loc. cit., p. 268). The Kurow mountain- chain is an uplifted elongated block, bounded by faults on the north-east and south-west, and separated from the Kakanui block by a narrow probably complex tectonic depression. To the north-west the crest of the range is remarkably even when viewed from the Waitaki Valley, and it slopes gently towards the north-west.- The Waitaki Valley, north-west of the Otekaike River, is a graben ; south-east of this line the river flows for some distance in a fault-angle depression, the depression being bounded on the Canterbury side by the splintered fault-scarp of the South Canter- bury block mountains.
VI. CONCLUSTON.
The brachiopods listed above from the limestone at White Rocks all occur in the glauconitic base of the limestone at Maruwenua (Park, 1918, p, 83), with the exception of Terebratella totaraensis Thomson, which is doubtfully identified. Murravia catinuliformis (Tate) occurs in the lime- stone at the " Earthquake," in addition to the brachiopods collected by Park {loc. cit.) at Maruwenua. These brachiopods, with the exception Pachymagas huttoni Thomson, have not been found in rocks below the limestone in North Otago. Eight brachiopods —
Aetheia gaulteri (Morris) \ Pachymagas ellipticus Thomson Liothyrella landonensis Thomson huttoni Thomson
Murravia catinuliformis (Tate) Neothyris tapirina (Hutt.)
Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.) Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.)
can now be recorded from the body of the limestone in the Waitaki Valley. None of these fossils occurs in Park's so-called Upper Hutchinsonian of the Oamaru coastal district. None of them except Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.) occurs in the " Pachymagas parki " band (Uttle}^ 1916, p. 20) of the coastal district?, which Park would call Lower Hutchinsonian. "fhe writer has found Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), Aetheia gaulteri (Morris), Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.), and Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.) in the greensands between the nodular top of the limestone and the " jmrki " band. Pachymagas ellipticus Thomson, Neothyris tapirina (Hutt.), Liothyrella landonensis Thom- son, and Murravia catinuliformis (Tate) have not been found by the writer above the limestone in the Landon' Creek area. Of these, Neothyris tapirina (Hutt.) and Liothyrella landonensis Thomson are undoubted Oto- taran fossils, and never occur above the Ototaran in the typical Oamaru district. The Hutchinsonian of the Oamaru district has as its highest member a hard glauconitic band crowded with Pachymagas parki (Hvitt.), and usually accompanied with Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), which Park calls
Uttley. — Tertiary Geology, Otiahe River to Duntroon. 153
Lower Hutchinsonian (1918, p. 109). He would, however, j)lace the lime- stone in the present locality in the Upper Hutchinsonian ; but the evidence is strongly against it, as the brachiopods mentioned above occur below the " parhi " band in the Oamaru district. The Otiake beds, which lie above the limestone, contain an Awamoan molluscan fauna, and in the absence of the typical brachiopod of the Hutchinsonian, Pachymagas farki (Hutt.), it is a difficult matter to differentiate the Hutchinsonian horizon in the Waitaki Valley. McKay and Hutton both considered the Awamoa ^eds to be part and parcel of the same series, and this may be true when the molluscan fauna alone is taken into account, although the Awamoan beds are far more fossiliferous than the Hutchinsonian. The Otiake beds at their base are lithologically similar to the Hutchinson Quarry beds, and all the evidence available tends to show that the Otiake beds are the equivalent of the Hutchinsonian-Awamoan horizon of the typical Oamaru district. The Otekaike limestone has been shown to be underlain by the basal rocks of the Tertiary series, and not by the " subschistose " rocks
■ of McKay, and this fact invalidates the only evidence produced by McKay to prove an unconformity between the lower part of the Maruwenua limestone and the middle portion of that rock (his Otekaike limestone). It has been shown that McKay considered the Hutchinsonian (" Phorus beds ") to lie above the limestone, and not below it as Park believes. The
• Waitaki Valley in the present locality is a tectonic depression, being partly a graben and partly a fault-angle depression. Extensive faulting has been proved by geological evidence.
Bibliography. '
Cotton, C. A., 1917a. Block Mountains in New Zealand, Am. Journ. ScL, vol. 44, pp. 249-93.
1917b. The Fossil Plains of North Otago, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 429-32.
Hamilton, A., 1904. Notes on a Small Collection of Fossils from Wharekuri, Trans.
N.Z. Inst, vol.. 36, pp. 465-67. Hector, J., 1865. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 21. • 1887. Oamaru and Waitaki Districts, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Prog. Rep., 1876-77,
pp. 9-10. Hutton, F. W., 1875. Report on the Geology and Goldfields of Otago.
1885. On the Correlations of the "Curiosity Shop Bed" in Canterbury, N.Z.,
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41, pp. 547-64.
1887. On the Geology of the Country between Oamaru and Moeraki, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 19, pp. 415-30. Marshall, P., 1915. Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47,
pp. 377-87. Marshall, P., Speight, R., and Cotton, C. A., 1911. The Younger Rock Series of
New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 378-407. McKay, A., 1877. On the Oamaru and Waitaki Districts, Rep. Geol. Explor. during
1876-77, pp. 41-66.
1882a. On the Geology of the Waitaki Valley and Parts of Vincent and Lake'
Counties, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1881, j^p. 56-83.
1882b. On the Younger Deposits of the Wharekuri Basin and the Lower Waitaki
Valley, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1881, pp. 98-105. Park, J., 1887. On the Age of the Waireka Tuffs, Quartz-grits, and Coal at Teane- raki and Ngapara, Oamaru, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1886-87, pp. 138-41.
1904a. On the Age and Relations of the New Zealand Coalfields, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 36, pp. 405-18.
1904b. On the Discovery of Permo-carboniferous Rocks at Mount Mary, North
Otago, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, pp. 447-53.
1905. On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 37, pp. 489-551. 1918. The Geology of the Oamaru District, North Otago, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull.
No. 20 (n.s.), pp. 1-124. Uttley, G. H., 1916. The Geologv of the Neighbourhood of Kakanui, Trans. N.Z.
hist., vol. 48, pp. 19-27.
154 Transactions.
Art. XXIII. — Tertiary Geology of the Area between Wharekuri and the
Otiake River, North Otago.
By G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Scots College, Wellington.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 10th December, 1919 ; received by Editor, Slat December, 1919 : issued separately, 15th June, 1920.
Contents.
I. Introduction. II. General Description of the Area.
III. Geology of the Area. ^
(1.) Wharekuri Basin.
(2.) Awahokomo Basin.
(3.) Awakino Basin.
(4.) Kurow River to Otiake River.
IV. General Succession and Palaeontological Notes on the Tertiary Rocks. V. General Remarks on the Physiography.
(1.) Kurow Block. (2.) Awakino and Trig. G Blocks. VI. The Gravels. VII. Conclusion.
I. Introduction
The area described in this paper covers a narrow strip of country on the right bank of the Waitaki River, extending from Wharekuri Creek to the Otiake River. The adjacent strip of country south of the Otiake River has already been described in another paper in this volume. Although the exposures of Tertiary rocks are few and widely distant, being obscured over the greater part of the area by heavy gravel deposits, the general sequence of the beds" is clear. McKay has dealt with the country in som,e detail, but various modifications of his interpretation of the succession are necessary. The writer's thanks are due to Mr. P. G. Morgan, Director of the New Zealand Geological Survey, for permission to examine the lists of fossils collected by McKay, and determined by the late Mr. Henry Suter. An examination of these lists serves to emphasize the truth of the writer's contention (refer to Thomson, 1915, p. 123) that the molluscan fauna below the limestone is similar to that above the limestone. The upper beds, however, contain a much greater number of species.
A full historical account of previous geological work in the Waitaki Valley has already been given in another paper in this volume (pp. 140-143), and only a brief critical summary of the views of other writers is necessary here.
McKay's opinion that there is an unconformity in the Tertiary rocks at Wharekuri, and that the coal occurs at the top of the sequence, is untenable. McKay was right in his view that an horizon of fossiliferous beds occurs above the limestone at Wharekuri, and that they are at the Hutchinson Quarry horizon. These beds are the equivalent of the writer's Otiake beds (Hutchinsonian-Awamoan) at Otiake, Otekaike, and Duntroon. As the base of the limestone is not exposed at Wharekuri, Otiake, or Otekaike, McKa}' was right in not correlating the limestone exposed in these places with the basal part of the Maruwenvia limestone, but with a higher part of that rock. The " Pareoran " characteristics of the fauna below the limestone at Wharekuri caused Park (1905, p. 527) to correlate
Uttley. — Tertiarij Geology, Wharekuri to Ofiake River. 155
4o'jo2o 10 a
SceJe ofChains
POST-AWAMOAN
HUTCHINSONIA N- A WA MOAN
C/aucon//'/c a/ hase.
OrOTARAN WAIAREHAN
Groe n.sands,
NCAPARAN
C^uar/z sands and fireclays h-vz/'h coa/J.
rau/^ i/nes mcsrhetJ rnus, i —
Fig. 1. — Geological map of the Waitaki Valley between Wharekuri and Otiake River,
North Otago.
156 Transactions.
the greensands helow tlie limestone in that locality with the Hutchinsonian- Awamoan horizon at Oamaru, instead of correlating the fossiliferous beds above the limestone at Wharekuri with that- horizon, as McKay had done (1882b, p. 103). A similar error was made by Hutton in correlating the greensands below the limestone at Waihoa with the Pareora (Awamoan) horizon. Park's correlation lent support to his view that the Ototara limestone and the Waitaki Valley limestone were at different horizons. The latter in g, later work (1918, p. 110) still maintained that the Wharekuri greensands are Hutchinsonian in age, but the writer is in agreement with Marshall (1915, p. 386) that the greensands are pre-Ototaran.
The geological evidence clearly shows that the Waitaki Valley is a tectonic depression of post-Awamoan age, as affirmed by Cotton on geo- morphological evidence, in opposition to the view of Park (1905, p. 523) that the depression was in existence before the deposition of the Tertiary sediments.
II. General Description op the Area.
From the vicinity of the Wharekuri-Otekaike fault, which bounds the present area on the south-west to within half a mile of the Waitaki River, prominent ridges and hills, possibly composed almost entirely of heavy gravels and silts, form prominent features of the landscape between the lower middle course of the Awahokomo Creek and the Kurow River. These gravel uplands are in many places 800 ft. above the Waitaki valley-plain. From the Kurow River to the Otiake River a gravel-covered tableland sloping gently towards the Waitaki River forms a rather strong contrast to the pyramidal hills and ridges just mentioned. Several prominent salients stand above the general surface of this evenly sloping plain, and, where their flanks have been cut into, fossiliferous beds are exposed.
The south-western portion of the area is bounded by the steeply rising foothills of the Kurow Mountains. Within a short distance of the fault- line the country rises rapidly to a height of 3,000 ft., or over 2,000 ft. above the valley-plain of the Waitaki River. To the north-east the area is flanked by the block mountains of South Canterbury, reaching to heights of 3,000 ft. not far from the Waitaki River, which now flows close to the almost undissected front of these mountains.
The average height of the Waitaki valley-plain is 650 ft. above sea-level. Kurow Hill (1,947 ft.), composed of Maitai sediments (greywacke), rises abruptly from the general level of the plain, and farther to the north-west the hill on which Trig. Station G is situated reaches a height of nearly 1,300 ft., these two prominences being separated by the depression known as the Little Awakino Valley.
The district is thus a relatively depressed area lying between the block mountains of North Otago and South Canterbury, drained by the Waitaki River, which is fed, from the Otago side, by a number of small streams flowing in a north-easterly direction from the Kurow Mountains.
III. Geology of the Area. (1.) Wharekuri Basin.
On both banks of the Waitaki River, a mile below the point where the Wharekuri Creek joins the main stream, there is an exposure of glauconitic greensands extending for two miles down the river. A list of fossils collected on the Canterbury side of the river has been published
Uttlby. — Tertiary Geology, Wharekuri to Otiahe River. 157
by Marshall (1915, p. 382). The following forms were collected by the writer and determined by Mr. Suter. Recent species are indicated by an asterisk.
Limopsis zitteli Iher. ^
*MacrocalUsta multistriata (Sow.) *MaUetia australis (Q. & G.)
Miomelon corriigata (Hutt.) *Ostrea tatei Sut.
Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.)
huttoni Iher.
*Psammobia lineolata Gray
Sinum cinctum (Hutt.)
Teredo heapkyi Zitt.
Turritella ambulacrum Sow. * carlottae Wats.
concava Hutt.
* symmetrica Hutt.
Venericardia pseutes Sut.
Ampullina suturalis (Hutt.)
Ancilia papillata (Tate) *Anomia trigonopsis Hutt.
Bathytoma sulcata excavata Sut.
Borsonia rudis (Hutt.) *Calyptraea maculata (Q. & G.)
Chione meridionalis (Sow.)
Corbula humerosa Hutt. *Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.)
Gucullaea attenuata Hutt.
Dentalium mantelli Zitt.
solid um Hutt.
*Dosinia greyi Zitt.
Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.)
Glycymeris cor data (?) Hutt. *Limopsis aurita (Brocchi)
In addition to the above, five new species have been described from the same locality by Mr. Suter. These are — Borsonia mitromorphoides Sut. : Niso neozelanica Sut.
Epitonium gracillimum Sut. ' Vexillum ligatum Sut.
Euthria callimorplia Sut.
The greensands from which these fossils were collected are greyish-green in colour and very glauconitic, the glauconite occurring as foraminiferal casts. There is also a considerable quantity of microscopic, subangular, clear quartz. On the Canterbury side of the river these beds form a flat syncline, both limbs showing a dip of 3°, the axis of folding running north by east. Quartz-grits crop out on the bank of the river dipping below the greensands, and farther to the north coal occurs associated with the quartz-grits in a shallow depression on the Canterbury side of the river, this depression being hemmed in by the steep fronts of elevated blocks. On the Otago side of the river the greensands again prove fossil- iferous. The following species were collected on the right bank of the river, near Trig. Station H : —
Ampullina suturalis (Hutt.)
* Ancilia australis (Sow.) papillata (Tate.)
*Anomia trigonopsis Hutt.
, Bathytoma sidcata excavata Sut.
Chione meridionalis (Sow.)
Cominella exsculpta Sut.
pidchra Sut.
*Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.)
Cucullaea attenuata Hutt.
australis (Hutt.)
*Cytherea oblonga (Hanley)
Dentalium mantelli Zitt.
■ solidum Hutt.
Epitonium gracillimum Sut.
lyratum (Zitt.)
* Limopsis aurita (Brocchi)
zitteli Iher.
*Macrocallista inultisjtriata (Sow.)
*Malletia australis (Q. & G.) Miomelon corrugata (Hutt.) Nucula sp. Panope orbita Hutt. Pecten chathamensis Hutt.
huttoni (Park)
yahliensis T. -Woods
Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.)
huttoni Iher.
*Psammobia lineolata Gray
Sinum elegans Sut. *Siphonalia nodosa (Mart.)
Teredo heapkyi Zitt.
Turbo approximatus Sut.
Turritella ambulacrum Sow. * carlottae Wats.
cavershamensis Harris
concava Hutt.
158
Transactions.
Out of the thirty-seven species of Mollusca enumerated above, ten are Recent, giving a percentage of 27.
McKay's collections from the " Kekenodon beds " (Geol. Surv. loc. No. 476) and from the Wharekuri greensands (Geol. Surv. loc. No. 486) contain in all thirty-one definitely determined species. If McKay's col- lections and the list given above are combined the percentage is still 27.
Corals are abundant in the greensands at this locality. The genera represented are Flabellum and Trochocyathus. Aturia ziczac var. australis Hamilton and Kekenodon onomata Hector were also obtained here by McKay and Hamilton. Pachymagas huttoni Thomson also occurred. These greensands, which are similar to the greensands on the opposite side of the the river, contain in their lower portions small quartz pebbles, well rounded ; and occasional pieces of wood up to 18 in. in length, and completely car- bonized, also occur. The lower part of the beds is very concretionary, and the fossils are difficult to remove. The oxide of iron which forms the con- cretionary masses has been derived from the decomposition of the glauconite.
At the Wharekuri Bridge greensands again crop out, but the fossils are not abundant. The following forms were recognized : —
Corbula canalicidata Hutt. '^Crassatellites^obesus (A. Ad.) Cucullaea attennata Hutt. Dentalium mantelli Zitt.
Dentalium solidum Hutt. *Limopsis aurita (Brocchi) Pecten huttoni (Park) Pblinices huttoni Iher.
Similar corals to those so abundant in the greensands on the banks of the Waitaki River also occur here.
McKay (1882a, p. 73) always considered that the greensands (Cretaceo- Tertiary) near the Wharekuri bridge lay unconformably below the " Kekenodon greensands " on the banks of the Waitaki River, but he saw no unconformable junction between these two beds. Hutton (1885, pp. 563-64) and Park (1905, p. 523) have shown clearly that McKay's unconformity had no justification, and was merely a deduction in the light of a pre-conceived theory (Cretaceo-Tertiary theory). The writer is satisfied that the greensands form one series of rocks lying immediately on the quartzose rocks of the coal series. As shown above, the greensands contain pebbles of quartz in their lower portions.
The coal-rocks crop out at Wharekuri a short distance above the bridge, where they are lying in close contact with the greensands. The line of junction is vertical, and is undoubtedly a faulted one, as Hamilton (1904, p. 465) has shown. This vertical fault strikes N. 20° \W. The coal-rocks dip 26° to the west — that is, towards the mountains — which a short dis- tance away rise abruptly from the bed of the creek. McKay considered that the quartz-grits and sandstones associated with the coal in this locality were of Pareora (Awamoan) age, but in other places in the area, as shown above, they dip beneath the greensands, and are undoubtedly at the base of the series. Beyond the coal-mine on the right bank of the creek the following section is exposed : —
c> ^ ^ ^^ ^ zTS^
o o c> o 0 o />l I lo o 0 a ff o ^ o 0 0 (? ffi I /o 0 0 0 0 (^ ^ 0
f-^ 0 o 0 0 lo ^ 0 Q 0 0 e 0 t^ 0 ° ^ I / / c ^ ^ ^ ^ 0 o 0,
0 (■' 0 00 f J / ^ o O 6 DO Oof I I i I I //nr^
C^)
Ccl)
Cc;
(<t)
Fig. 2. — Section, right bank of Wharekuri Creek, (a), (c), (e), gravels and sands; (d), fine micaceous sandy bed; (6) and (/), greenish-grey clay.
Uttley. — Tertiary Geology, Wharekuri to Otiahe River. 159
The beds dip 70° in a direction N. 10° E. Beds (a), (c), and (e) are gravel deposits, composed of pebbles up to the size of a cricket-ball, inter- mingled with fine sands. The pebbles consists of greywacke, sandstone, and quartz, all well water-worn. Bed (c) contained a piece of lignitized wood. Beds (6) and (_/) are light-coloured greenish-grey unctuous clays. Bed {d) is a fine micaceous sandy bed. On the opposite side of Wharekuri Creek, not 20 yards away, a steep face of the Maitai rocks rises abruptly from the bed of the creek. Slickensided surfaces were noted, and much crush-breccia ; and extensive faulting is everywhere indicated. The steeply dipping beds just described show no contact with the other Tertiary rocks in the area.
McKay's section (1882b, p. 101) certainly indicates the order in which the various rocks crop out, as the Wharekuri Creek is followed from its junction with the Waitaki River to the point past the coal-mine, where the tilted beds occur, except that the limestone does not occur in the section exposed in the creek. The tilted beds just described were said by McKay to be of Upper Pareora (Awamoan) age, and to contain the coal deposits that are worked at Wharekuri. He observed no junction of these tilted beds, and the quartz, sandstone, and clays in which the coal-seam occurs are separated from them by slope deposits and heavy river-gravels. The composition of the beds is also quite different from the beds associated with the coal at Wharekuri. Coal-mine. Park (1905, p. 524) stated that there was no evidence to show that the coal-rocks lie at the top of the sequence. The tilted beds, however, may lie conformably at the top' of the Tertiary series, although this cannot be definitely affirmed, as no junction was observed. They have certainly been involved along with the Tertiaries in the tectonic movements of the district, the evidence for which is seen at many points in the Waitaki Valley. These tilted gravels appear to be widespread in the Upper Waitaki Valley and in the Waihao district, fdr McKay described another section in the former locality as follows : " In this section [Quail Burn] the lowest beds seen are soft sandstones, divided into thick bands by beds of greenish greasy clay. These beds dip north-west at an angle of 45°. ... At two or three places along the south-east slopes of these hills pieces of lignite have been found and . . . having, as I consider, proved that the Wharekuri coal-seam farther down the Waitaki occurs in beds of this age, there is more than a possibility of coal being found near the mouth of the Quail Burn." No other geologist would agree with McKay in the inference drawn in the last part of this quotation, but the description of these gravel-beds indicates that they are similar to the tilted beds at Wharekuri.
In the Waihao district the gravels are also often tilted, and Hector refers to these in the following words : " With the Waitaki Valley as it now IS these beds have no direct connection, since they abundantly show that movements of the land involving a considerable alteration of its surface configuration have taken place since their deposition ; the beds being frequently tilted at high angles, especially in districts distant from the coast-line " (1882, p. xxv). These tilted gravels in the Wharekuri locality are overlain unconformably by the high - level terrace - gravels (McKay 1882b, p. 102).
(2.) AwahoJcomo Basin.
McKay (1882a, p. 66) states that the Otekaike limestone at Wharekuri " is traceable as a continuous line for three miles." The exposure, how- ever, has nothing like the extent ascribed to it by McKay ; it crops out
160 Transactions.
on the footliills flanking the Awahokomo Creek on its northern bank. In its upper portion, which is almost inaccessible, as the cliffs are precipitous, two shell-bands were noticed, and, judging by talus strewing the slopes at the base of the cliff, they are glauconitic. The writer examined the lime- stone, and its main body appeared to be poorly fossiliferous. McKay (1882a, p. 67) states that in the limestone " fossil shells are most abundant . . . covering the whole ground with shells in a more or less perfect state of preservation." As he comments on the fact that the limestone forms vertical cliffs not less than 50 ft. in height, it is possible that the fossils were collected from the slopes and had come from the shell-bands higher in the section.
Suter determined seven forms said by McKay to have come from the Otekaike limestone, and five of these occur in the Otiake beds at Otiake, which lie above the main body of limestone, while the two remaining fossils are found in the Awamoan. McKay recognized the Hutchinson Quarry beds at Wharekuri, and he described them as " loose dirty greensands full of shells, followed by grey sands, and they follow the Otekaike limestone conformably." In the list of fossils determined by Suter from these beds, ten occur in the Otiake beds at Otaike, three occur in the Awamoan at Oamaru, and one has not been reported elsewhere. The following note was appended to the manuscript list of fossils, evidently written by one of the staff of the Geological Survey: "According to McKay's MS., the beds collected from form the higher part of the ridge south of the coal- mine at Wharekuri." This means that the collection came from beds lying immediately above the limestone, and these beds are undoubtedly at the same horizon as the fossiliferous beds that occur at the top of the section at Otiake, at Otekaike, and in bands at the top of the limestone near the Awahokomo Creek. Although only fourteen species were deter- mined by Suter, Hector stated that " altogether, about a hundred species were collected from this horizon in the Wharekuri section " (1882, p. xxvii). McKay himself reported the following forms [nom. mut.) : —
Gucullaea alta (?) Sow. • I Polinices huttoni Iher.
Dentalium solidum Hutt. j *Venericardia difficilis (Desh.)
Limo'psis zitteli Iher. j Waldheimia triangulare Hutt.
Pecten hochsteUeri Zitt. '
The brachiopod is evidently Pachymagas huttoni Thomson, and is said by McKay to be very abundant, as it always is at the horizon of the Otiake beds. At one locality on the ridge extending from Wharekuri to the Awa- hokomo the writer found an outcrop of ferruginous micaceous quartz sands at a higher elevation than the limestone. McKay writes that " in this locality the Otekaike limestone passes upwards into the Hutchinson Quarry greensands, which are here overlain by rusty quartzose gravels . . . not unlike the rocks met with at the base of the Cretaceo-Tertiary series . . . these quartzose gravels are followed by sandstones." The beds observed by the writer appear to be conformable to the limestone, as the dip was the same, but no junction was seen. It is in these beds that McKay thought the Wharekuri coal occurred, and he correlates them with the tilted beds there. The limestone of the ridge on the left bank of the Awahokomo dips 10° in a direction N. 30° W. towards the Kurow Mountains.
The quartz-grits and sandstones at the base of the series crop out on both banks of the Awahokomo south of the limestone exposure, and farther up the stream the greensands are seen dipping 30° westerly towards
Uttley. — Tertiary Geology, Wharekuri to Otiahe River. 161
the Maitai rocks, which at this point rise very steeply. From the green- sands the following forms were obtained : —
Corbula canaliculata Hutt. Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.)
Cucullaea sp. Ostrea sp.
*Limopsis aurita (Brocchi) Turritella caver shamensis Harris
Panope orbita Hutt.
Corals similar to the genera collected on the south bank of the Waitaki River also occur here. - -
. Marshall (1915, p. 381) obtained several species from these greensands at an horizon lying 20.ft. above the quartz-grits. This writer recognized the fault in this locality, and traced the fault-breccia towards Wharekuri, and there can be no doubt that this fault is a continuation of that described above at Wharekuri.
(3.) Awakino Basin.
Traces of the quartz-grits are seen in many places in the basins of the Awahokomo and Little Awakino Streams. In the basin of the latter, about a mile and a half from the main road, these rocks are exposed on the right and left banks, and to the south-west the eroded surface of the Maitai rocks rises from beneath them, and slopes gently upwards towards the crest of Kurow Hill. The quartz-grits evidently formerly covered the whole of this " fossil plain," which has now been partially stripped of its former cover. The plain forms the back slope of the tilted block figured by Cotton (1917b, p. 432). This block will be referred to later as the Awakino tilted block. Quartz-grits and greensands occur as mapped in several places in a south- westerly direction towards the Big Awakino River, and in many places close to the line of the Wharekuri-Otekaike fault, where the Maitai rocks rise very abruptly. A mile west of the trigonometrical station on Kurow Hill there is a small coal-mine, which supplies an inferior type of coal. It is being worked at present close up to the face of a steeply rising greywacke scarp. The coal-rocks dip away from the scarp at 45° in a direction S. 28° W. The scarp, which is almost undissected in this locality, extends in a north- westerly direction, gradually diminishing in height, and reaching the road- level about half a mile north-west of the point where the west branch of the Little Awakino crosses the road on the south-west side of Kurow Hill. The scarp is evidently a fault-scarp, determined by a fault of diminishing throw, which trends N. 60° W. to meet the main Wharekuri-Otekaike fault. The fault botmds the Awakino tilted block on the south-west. In the angle defined by these two faults the gravel deposits are of great thickness, but the basal quartz-grits and overlying greensands (McKay, 1882b, p. 102) crop out occasionally. The Tertiary rocks have evidently been extensively eroded, and their remnants are buried by the gravel deposits, which now form hiUs 2,000 ft. in height [loc. cit., p. 99). Cuttings show that the gravels are of at least two t}'p»es — heavy greywacke and sandstone boulder deposits, and deposits composed of well-rormded sandstone pebbles and sands. At one place on the road between the basin of the Little Awakino and the Big Awakino the soft unctuous bluish clay similar to that described at Wharekuri was observed in a cutting. McKay states that the latter (the so-called " Pareora gravels ") are highly tilted in the present locality, and he refers the coal deposits of the neighbourhood to the horizon of these rocks (1882b, p. 102). The gravels extend to the Kurow River, forming even-topped elongated ridges and pyramidal hills, which have been blocked out by the action of the numerous intermittent streams that drain the area. Across
6— Trans.
162
Transactions.
this gravel-masS the Big Awakino flows, entrenched bel6w the general surface of its former valley-plain, which in this portion of its coiirse, over the area lying between the two faults referred to above, is about a quarter of a mile wide. At the coal-mine the stream enters a narrow gorge, which it has cut through the Awakino tilted block on its way to join the Waitaki River. The Big Awakino pursues a remarkably straight course from its source, near the crest-line of the Kurow Moimtains, to its mouth, and this course is evidently consequent on the initial deformation ; but, as the movements were probably not simultaneous over the whole of northern Otago, the uplift of the Awakino block may have commenced later. The course of the Big Awakino across the Awakino block in a narrow gorge-like channel must be considered as antecedent to the uplift of this block. Its lower course is therefore what Cotton (1917a, p. 253) has termed " anteconsequent."
(4.) Kurow River to Otiake River.
On the left bank of the Kurow River, four miles above its junction with the Waitaki River, an outcrop of fossiliferous Tertiary rocks occurs. There is only a small exposure, extending along the bank for about 30 yards. The rocks dip at an angle of 46° towards the south-west, and the Maitai rocks rise steeply a short distance from these beds. The junction is again obscured by the gravel deposits, but it is imdoubtedly a faulted one. The Tertiary exposure here consists of a hardened calcareous greensand containing Foraminifera, mainly in the form of glauconitic casts. Minute subangular grains of quartz also occur. The larger fossils are poorly preserved, and specific identifications could not be' made. The following genera were found : Cucullaea, Malletia, Panope, Pecten. This outcrop is on the line of the Wharekuri-Otekaike fault.
The outcrops of Tertiary rocks are few and scattered between the Kurow River and the Otiake River. About three-quarters of a mile to the south- east of the last locality quartz-grits occur in places, and farther on there is a small exposure of a glauconitic calcareous rock. The only forms obtained were Dentalium solidum Hutt. and Limopsis aurita (Brocchi) . Near the source of the most southerly tributary of Malcolm's Creek the quartz-grits again crop out, flanked to the south-west by the steeply rising foothills of the ranges. Traces of greyish-green glauconitic sandstones were foimd near Trig. Station N. In a cutting on the road that leads from Malcolm's Creek to the basin of the Otiake River there is a small outcrop of calcareous rock, from which the following fossils were obtained : — Corhula canaliculata Hutt. *Malletia australis (Q. & G.)
Cytherea chariessa Sut. Nucula saggitata Sut.
Dentalium solidum Hutt. Panope sp.
* Limopsis aurita (Brocchi) Pecten huttoni (Park)
Traces of brachiopods were also found.
A mile from the railway-line the following section (fig. 3) is exposed on the right bank of the Otiake River : —
«y (^ (c) Ch) (a,;
Fig. 3. — Section, right bank of Otiake River, (a), Limestone (Otekaike limestone); (6), glauconitic calcareous shell-bed ; (c), calcareous sandy mudstone ; {d), hardened calcareous glauconitic bed ; (e), calcareous sandy mudstone.
Ut'Ti.ey .—Tertiary Geology, Wharekuri to Otiakt River. 163
The limestone (a) becomes glauconitic in its upper 8 ft., and is then capped by (6), a glauconitic calcareous shell-bed 18 in. in thickness and crowded with fossils. The band is concretionary in places, and similar to the beds at the top of the Otiake beds at Trig. Station Z, which is only a short distance from this exposure. From this band the following species were obtained : —
Ancilla papillata (Tate) Bathytoma sulcata excavata Sut. Corbula canaliculata Hutt.
kaiparaensis Sut.
*Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.) .
Cucullaea australis (Hutt.) Cytherea chariessa Sut. Dentalium mantelli Zitt.
solidum Hutt.
*Divaricella cuniingi (Ad. & Ang.)
Lima colorata Hutt. Niicula saggitata Sut.
The coral Balanophyllia hectori T. -Woods and Pachymagas hnttoni Thomson were also identified. The overlying bed (c) is less glauconitic, but is capped by another glauconitic hardened bed (d), and above this the rock passes up into a poorly fossiliferous calcareous mudstone (e). From bed (c) were obtained many of the forms detailed above from bed (b). The following additional species occurred : —
Pecten beethami Hutt.
chathamensis Hutt.
huttoni (Park)
Placunanomia incisura Hutt. Polinices huttoni Iher. Siphonalia turrita Sut.
*Tellina glabrella Desh. Teredo heaphyi Zitt. Turritella ambulacrum Sow.
cavershamensis Harris
semicoficava Sut.
Venericardia pseutes Sut.
Corbula humerosa Hutt. Cucullaea attenuata Hutt.
Leucosyrinx alta (Harris) *Limopsis aurita (Brocchi).
River-gravels and silts lie unconformably at the top of the section.
These fossiliferous beds lie above a limestone, of which about 40 ft. is exposed, and are certainly the equivalent of the Otiake beds at Trig Station Z and at Otekaike School. The beds dip 8° in a direction N. 30° W. Greensands crop out on the right bank of the stream about 12 chains farther up the river, dipping in such a way that they would pass beneath the limestone. They are similar to the greensands described at Whare- kuri, containing in places ferruginous nodules. Traces of lamellibranchs were seen, but none could be identified. The rock is calcareous, and the glauconite in it occurs as foraminiferal casts. Still farther up the stream, at the point where the road crosses the river, intensely dark greensands crop out. These greensands are threaded with ferruginous veins. Farther up the stream the qu.artz-grits occur dipping towards the higher beds.
IV. General Succession and PaLaeontological Notes.
The Tertiary rocks in the Waitaki Valley form a conformable sequence. The general succession is similar to that in the Waihao district of South Canterbury. Quartz-grits, often containing coal, are followed by micaceous quartzose greensands with interbedded concretionary bands, usually fossil- iferous ; these are followed by calcareous glauconitic greensands (containing a little microscopic quartz and mica), which are often fossiliferous. In the basin of the Maruwenua River and at Black Point a few fossils have been determined, and these undoubtedly represent an horizon near the base of the greensands — Park's Bortonian. The looser glauconitic green- sands lying above the Bortonian have not proved fossiliferous in the
6*
164 Transactions.
r
Duntroon or Kurow districts, except at Wharekuri, where the fossils are abundant. No junction has been observed between the greensands and the underlying Ngaparan coal-rocks except at Black Point. There appears to be a very gradual transition from the quartz conglomerates and fine micaceous quartz sands into the overlying greensands, the glauconite of the latter becoming very abundant, and the quartz and mica gradually diminishing. In the Maruwenua cliffs near Duntroon the limestone over- lying the greensands is very glauconitic, and at White Rocks and the " Earthquake " this glauconitic lower portion of the limestone increases greatly in thickness. In the Landon Creek area also this glauconitic portion of the limestone shows a thickness of 50 ft. below the Hutchinsonian horizon (refer to Park, 1918, p. 46). It is noticeable that where the lime- stone is very glauconitic the brachiopods are abundant. From the glauconitic portion of the limestone near Duntroon, as well as from a higher horizon in the limestone at White Rocks and the " Earthquake " in the Waitaki Valley, a brachiopod fauna ' similar to that occurring in the glauconitic portions of the limestone at Landon Creek, in the Oamaru district, has been found ; and the evidence available strongly favours the view that both rocks are Ototaran. There is no evidence to show that the lime- stone of the Waitaki Valley is Hutchinsonian. The .base of the Otekaike limestone at Wharekuri, Otiake, and Otekaike is not seen in any of the sections exposed. It is probable that if the base of the limestone were not hidden by the gravel deposits we should find the same brachiopod fauna that characterizes the base of the limestone at Maruwenua. The fossil- iferous beds overlying the limestone at Wharekuri, at Otiake, at Otekaike, at Duntroon, and at Station Peak are at the same horizon, and represent the Hutchinsonian-Awamoan horizon of the Oamaru district. These rocks pass up into poorly fossiliferous calcareous mudstones.
In the Oamaru district the Ngaparan rocks are overlain by fossiliferous glauconitic calcareous greensands, which in turn are overlain by the Waiarekan tuffs, followed by interbedded tachylite tuffs and diatomaceous deposits, which are overlain by the Ototaran limestone, followed .by the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan beds. In the Papakaio district the succession is similar, although the Awamoan beds have been denuded, except at Pukeuri, where all observers agree that they follow the Hutchinsonian. In the Waitaki Valley the succession is not complicated by the presence of volcanic rocks, nor are there diatomaceous beds ; but all the evidence available goes to prove that the greensands below the limestone are of Waiarekan age, and that the limestone is Ototaran. The beds above the limestone contain a distinctly Awamoan fauna, and, as both Hutton and McKay believed that the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan were part and parcel of the same series (and the evidence of the molluscan fauna in the. Oamaru district supports this view), these fossiliferous beds (Otiake beds) have been classed as Hutchinsonian-Awamoan. In the Oamaru district, however, the occurrence of a brachiopod fauna fully justifies the separation of the post-Ototaran rocks into two stages.
The greensands between the Ngaparan coal-rocks and the limestone in North Otago and South Canterbury will probably admit of subdivision in the future. The fossils have hitherto been " lumped," but, judging from McKay's report on the Waihao district, several lithological divisions can be recognized ; and, as the rocks are very fossiliferous, careful col- lecting and accurate determinations of fossils from each horizon would probably enable a subdivision of the Waiarekan to be made, as has been
Uttlby. — Tertiary Geology, Wharekuri to Otiake River. 165
done by Park in his latest work (1918, p. 26). Many of the species con- tained in these lower greensands occur also in the Awamoan, but the latter horizon contains a much greater variety of species, and a large number of these appear to be restricted to" this horizon. In the Oamaru district the brachiopods have proved serviceable in differentiating several horizons, but some of these brachiopods are apparently restricted to this area, and detaijed correlation with beds in the Waitaki Valley is not yet possible. This brachiopod fauna has been discussed in another paper in this volume (pp. 152-53). Corals, Echinoderms, and Foraminifera occur abundantly in the Oamaruian of North Otago, but our knowledge of them is very incomplete, and useless for detailed stratigraphical work. A revision of all these groups is urgently needed.
Of the ninety-four species of Mollusca determined from the beds above the limestone in the Waitaki Valley (Otiake beds), seventy-three species occur in the typical Awamoan at Oamaru, four occur in the Hutchinsonian (of Thomson), twelve forms have apparently not been recorded elsewhere in North Otago, whilst only five species have not been previously recorded from post-Ototaran beds. Five of these not recorded elsewhere are new species, seventy-nine species have now been listed from the greensands below the limestone in the Waitaki Valley, and fifty-six of these occur in the Awamoan beds at Oamaru. Nearly three hundred species have been recorded from the Awamoan beds at Oamaru ; but in the case of the beds of the Waitaki Valley the collections are few, and previously unrecorded species are continually turning up. The figures quoted above, in the absence of fairly exhaustive collections, do not give much ground for definite conclusions, but they do show that the Otiake beds contain a moUuscan fauna of which 78 per cent, occurs in the typical Awamoan beds of Oamaru. Tl^e faunk of the greensands below the limestone con- tains 70 per cent, of the fossils recorded from the Awamoan at Oamaru, showing that in the Waitaki Valley the fauna above and below the limestone has a strong resemblance to the typical Awamoan fauna (Hutton's Pareora).
V. Physiography of the Area.
«
(1.) Kurow Block.
From what has already been said it will be evident that Cotton's statement (1917a, p. 285) that the Waitaki River " follows a complex graben along the northern block-complex . . . which forms the northern highland of Otago " is amply justified by the geological evidence. This graben is bounded on the south-west . by the elevated block called the Kurow - Mount Mary Range (Kurow block) ; on the north-east it is flanked by the block mountains of South Canterbury ; .on the south-east by a portion of the Kakanui block {loc. cit., p. 272). Towards the north- west the fault on the Canterbury side of the river and the Wharekuri- Otekaike fault approach each other, and probably coalesce farther up the Waitaki Valley ; but this area lies beyond the scope of the present paper.
The Kurow - Mount Mary Range is an elevated tilted block of probably complex structure ; it is elongated in a north-westerly direction. It is bounded towards the west by a conspicuous fault-scarp (loc. cit., p. 278), and its rather steeply dipping back slope descends towards the Waitaki River, and is then intersected by the Wharekuri-Otekaike fault. A line of dislocation runs from the Otekaike River to Dansey's Pass to meet the great re-entrant occupied by part of the Maniototo depression (loc. cit.,
166 ' Transactions.
p. 278). It has been shown in a former paper that a well-marked fault occurs on the right bank of the Otekaike River, and it probably extends in a south-westerly direction for some distance. The district maps show a marked depression beyond Ben Lomond, and it is probable that sharp folding or faulting has taken place on the same line. The back sloi^e of the Kurow block is not simple, and signs of warping are not wanting ; the general slope, however, is north-westerly, and the majority of the streams are consequent. As already pointed out, the Big Awakino in the lower part of its course is anteconsequent.
(2.) Awakino and Trig. G Blocks.
Kurow Hill is a tilted block, as shown by Cotton (1917b, p. 432), and, as the Big Awakino and the Little Awakino flow across it, it has been called the Awakino block. The geological evidence for the boundary faults has been already presented. It has been shown that the coal-rocks crop out on the south-west side of the block, near the base of a steep fault-scarp almost entirely undissected, and traceable for a distance of four miles. This north-westerly-trending fault meets, the main Wharekuri-Otekaike fault in the basin of the Little Awakino Creek, where the scarp dies out and the stripped surface of the Awakino block is seen to dip below the Tertiary rocks. In the basin of the Little Awakino, about a mile from the main rpad, quartz-grits are exposed on both sides of the creek, con- cealing the erosion-surface of the Awakino block, which has been stripped/ of its covering strata towards the south-east in the higher parts of Kurow Hill. These grits on the left bank of the creek crop out near the base of a prominent scarp which rises 200 ft. or 300 ft. above the quartz-grits, the attitude of the rocks clearly indicating faulting. From the top of the scarp the surface slopes towards the north, and the quartz-grits crop out in several places, but the surface has been almost completely stripped. The back slope of this small tilted block, on which the Trig. Station G is situated, descends towards the Waitaki River, where the Tertiary rocks are exposed on both banks. The fault-scarp of this block diminishes in height as the Little Awakino Creek is ascended, and the fault dies out towards the west, the erosion-surfaces of the Awakino block and this small one evidently coalescing, and dipping beneath the Tertiary rocks in the Awahokomo basin. These two blocks are flanked on the east by the Waitaki River, which in this part of its course flows close to the steep scarp of the more elevated Canterbury mountains. The valley-plain of the Wai- taki River from near Trig. Station G to Kurow is narrow and rock-bound, and the stream is now flowing close to the main fault-line on the southern side of these mountains.
VI. The Gravels (excluding Recent Deposits).
The terraces and gravels of the Waitaki Valley are well worthy of a detailed study, but good topographical maps are a prime necessity. Some remarks, however, should be made on the gravel deposits. McKay clearly recognized that the gravels were not all of the same origin. His descriptions are somewhat difficult to follow. He distinguishes three types of these deposits — (1) angular gravels, (2) well-rounded coarse gravels, (3) gravels and sands with lignite deposits. He notes that (1) and (2) con- tain fossiliferous Triassic and Permian boulders, and that (3) are often highly tilted. These three types can undoubtedly be recognized, but it will be
Uttlet. — Tertiary Geology, Wharekuri to Otiake River. 167
a difficult matter to trace their boundaries, and this has not been attempted in the present paper. The angular gravels are ascribed by McKay to the action of glaciers — that is, they are glacier-deposits that owe their origin to former glaciers from the neighbouring Kurow and Hakataramea Moun- tains. Not having discovered these Triassic and Permian fossiliferons rocks in the Kurow Mountains, McKay concluded that glaciers brought them from the Canterbury mountains which were known to contain these older fossiliferons rocks. There is, however, a total absence of the character- istics of glacial deposits, glacial striations being 'quite lacking. It is true that large masses of rock and fine silts and clays are mixed confusedly together in the deposits near Wharekuri. Marshall explained these angular deposits differently, and (1915, p. 381) stated that the Maitai rocks in the neighbourhood of the fault (Wharekuri-Otekaike fault) have been much shattered ; that weathering has developed their shattered nature, and they break down into " a clayey material which still contains angular fragments of rock." Park (1904, p. 448) traced the fossiliferons boulders to their source near the summit of Mount Mary. The rocks were found, in situ at a height of 5,160 ft., at a point distant about three miles and a half from the Wharekuri-Otekaike fault-line. These deposits which occur close to this hne were probably derived from the dissection of the fault-scarp as it rose, for deep aggradation would take place as the deform- ation proceeded. The sloping surface of the tilted block, to the west of the fault-line, would also undergo degradation by the numerous consequent streams, and the waste would be spread out on the floor of the depression, forming an alluvial gravel-plain. This plain appears to have been built up after the reduction of the valley lowland to somewhat low relief. The extensive aggradation would therefore imply a great increase in the supply of waste due to the increasing differential elevation. As the streams that deposited these gravels are now well entrenched, regional uplift has probably been the most recent movement. McKay believed that the tilted sandstone gravels at Wharekuri lay conformably above the higher fossiliferons beds. They may do so, but the writer was unable to satisfy himself on that point. Theie is no doubt, however, that they have been involved in the differential movements, and may possibly represent the period of emergence of the land.
VII. SUMMAEY AND CONCLUSION.
(1.) The Maruwenua limestone is overlain directly by the Otiake beds (Hutchinsonian-Awamoan).
(2.) McKay's unconformity between the lower and upper parts of the limestone is non-existent, and all other observers agree that the rock is a unit.
(3.) McKay correlated the base of the limestone with the Ototaran limestone ; the upper part (his Otekaike limestone) must therefore be Upper Ototaran, and the overlying beds (McKay's Hutchinson's Quarry beds) are the equivalent of the Hutchinsonian-Awamoan of the coastal district. ^
(4.) The upper part of the limestone at Landon Creek contains a number of brachiopods that are similar to the brachiopods from the lower portions of the Maruwenua limestone (so-called Waitaki stone). Some of these brachiopods do not rise above the Ototaran of the typical Oamaru district. The evidence points to the limestone of the Waitaki Valley being Ototaran.
168 Transactions.
(5.) The greensands at Wharekuri probably represent a slightly higher horizon than the Bortonian of Park, and from the evidence at present available they are probably the equivalents of the Waiarekan tufis, yet the latter are practically unfossiliferous.
(6.) Vofcanic rocks, as shown in a previous paper {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 106-17, 1918), occur in the Maruwenua district : they may be either lava-flows or sills — the evidence in the small exposure observed was neutral. These volcanic rocks, however, extend towards Tokarahi, and are interbedded with the greensands. If they are Waiarekan it would fix the age of the greensands overlying Park's Bortonian.
(7.) The Tertiary rocks of the Waitaki Valley above Duntroon occupy a tectonic depression. McKay has recorded Tertiary rocks from the Haka- taramea Valley, which is also undoubtedly a tectonic depression. As post-Awamoan gravels have been involved in the differential movements in many localities in the Waitaki and Waihao Valleys, these " fiord -like depressions " manifestly did not exist in Tertiary or pre-Tertiary times, and the evidence to be gathered in noi"th-east Otago points to the con- clusion that the Tertiary rocks once formed a continuous cover on the denuded surface of the pre-Notocene oldermass. The mountain-building period of central and north-east Otago was post-Awamoan. <
Bibliography.
Cotton, C. A., 1917a. Block Mountains in New Zealand, Am. Journ. Sci., vol. 44, pp. 249-93.
1917b. The Fossil Plains of North Otago, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 429-32.
Hamilton, A., 1904. Notes on a Small Collection of Fossils from Wharekuri, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, pp. 465-67.
Hkctor, J., 1882. Waitaki Valley and Alps of North Otago, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Prog. Rep., 1881, pp. xxi-xxxii.
Htjtton, F. W., 1885 On the Correlations of the "Curiosity Shop Bed" in Canter- bury, N.Z., Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41, pp. 547-64.
McKay, A., 1882a. On the Waitaki Valley and Parts of Vincent and Lake Counties, Bep. Geol. Explor. during 1881, pp. 56-92.
1882b. On the Younger Deposits of the Wharekuri Basin and the Lower Waitaki
Valley, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1881, pp. 98-105. Marshall, P., 1915. Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47,
pp. 377-87. Park, J., 1904. On the Discovery of Permo-Carboniferous Rocks at Mount Mary,
North Otago, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, pp. 447-53. 1905. On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and South Canterbury, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 37, pp. 489-551.
1918. The Geology of the Oamaru District, North Otago, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull.
No. 20 (n.s.), pp. 1-124. Thomson, J. A., 1915. Classification and Correlation of the Tertiary Rocks, 8th Ann. Bep. N.Z. Geol Surv., pp. 123-24.
Uttlet. — Remarks on BuUefin No. 20. 169
Art. XXIV. — Remarks on Bulletin No. 20 (New Series) of the New
Zealand Geological Survey.
By G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Scots College, Wellington.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 6th December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 15th June, 1920.]
■ Contents. I. Introduction. II. The "Two-limestone" Theory.
III. Description of the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan Stages as
interpreted by Park. (1.) Awamoan Beds. (2.) Hutchinsonian Beds.
IV. Hutchinsonian and Awamoan Localities.
(1.) All Day Bay. '
(2.) Deborah.
(3.) Coast North of Kakanui Quarry. (4.) Oamaru Rifle Butts. (.5.) Hutchinson's Quarry. (6.) Target GuUy. (7.) Upper Target Gully. (8.) Ardgowan Shell-bed. (9.) Devil's Bridge. (10.) Landon Creek and Flume Creek. V. Bortonian and Waiarekan Locahties. (1.) Bortonian. (2.) Upper Waiarekan.
(a.) Kakanui South.
(6.) Boatman's Harbour.
(c.) Shirley Creek.
(d.) Awamoa Creek, near Deborah.
(e.) Grant's Creek. VI. Summary and Conclusion.
I. Introduction.
In Bulletin No. 20 (New Series) of the Geological Survey Branch of the Mines Department Professor Park has described the geology of the Oamaru district of North Otago. The present writer has examined this area in some detail, and his observations have been recorded in several papers read before this society. In several important matters he finds him- self at variance with Professor Park, and some notes on the latter's recent work are given in the following pages. The paper deals with the " two-limestone " theory of Professor Park, with his classification of the fossibferous tufaceous beds, and with his subdivision and correlation of the beds of north-eastern Otago. The evidence on which the present writer's conclusions are based has been detailed in former papers.
Park first formulated his " two-limestone " theory in an attempt to reconcile the differences of opinion that had long existed between Captain Hutton and other geologists as to the position of the so-called " Pareora fauna " The present writer (1916, p. 25) showed that the " two- 1 mestone " theory was not tenable in the Oamaru coastal district, and that the Awamoan (Pareora) beds lie above the limestone and Hutchinson Quarry beds. In Bulletin No. 20 Park has accepted this interpretation in part, for he places the Awamoan (Pareora) beds at the top of the series ; but the so-called Waitaki stone is now placed in the Upper Hutchinsonian,
170 ^ Transactions.
immediately below the Awamoan beds. The classifications adoj)ted by Park (1905, p. 492) and later in Bulletin No. 20 indicate the change in his views.
1905. 1918.
Waitaki stone . . . . —
Awamoan . . Awamoan beds . . . . Awamoan beds.
Hutchinsonian . . Hutchinson Quarry beds . . (a.) Upper Hutchinsonian = Waitaki
stone. (b.) Lower Hutchinsonian. Ototaran . . Ototara limestone . . Ototara limestone.
It will be seen that the Hutchinson Quarry beds (Hutchinsonian) have been subdivided, the Lower Hutchinsonian being the well-known Hutchinson Quarry greensands, which are said to lie beneath the so-called Waitaki stone (Upper Hutchinsonian).
That Park's latest view has not gained general acceptance is clearly indicated by the following quotation from the letter of transmittal to the Minister of Mines which prefaces Bulletin No. 20. Mr. P. G. Morgan, Director of the Geological Survey, writes : " Although quite agreeing with most of the conclusions reached, I cannot follow Professor Park in all, respects, more particularly in his views regarding the relative ages of the Oamaru and Waitaki stones." The present writer has also found con- siderable difficulty in following Professor Park in his arguments for the difierentiation of two-limestone horizons. In discussing the " two- limestone " theory, as formulated in Bulletin No. 20, it will be contended (1) that Park's Upper Hutchinsonian in the area between Kakanui and Target Gully, Oamaru, is really the base of the Awamoan ; (2) that his Upper Hutchinsonian of the Landon Creek area is the eqiiivalent of his Lower Hutchinsonian in the district between Kakanui and Target Gully ; (3) that no evidence is brought forward to show that the Upper Hutchin- ' sonian is present in the Flume Creek area ; (4) that the correlation of the rocks called " Upper Hutchinsonian " in the Oamaru and Papakaio districts with the limestone of the Waitaki Valley (Waitaki stone) is not justified by the evidence brought forward in Bulletin No. 20. The discussion on the Bortonian and Upper Waiarekan of Park aims at showing that Usts of fossils ascribed to these stages must be considerably reduced, as the horizons are very doubtful. References to Bulletin No. 20 will be made by quoting merely the pages of that publication.
II. The " Two-LiMESTONE " Theory.
Park's " two-limestone " theory, as stated above, was an attempt to solve the problem of the " Pareora fauna." This problem first presented itself to the New Zealand geologists when Haast submitted four collections of fossils from different localities to Hutton (1887, p. 430) for identification. The latter referred all the shells to the Pareora (Awamoan) horizon above the limestone. Haast himself was convinced that one of the collections had been obtained from beds which lay below the limestone. Other collections of fossils examined by Hutton were determined by him as " Pareora," and in all cases he referred the beds to an horizon above the limestone. Haast and the officers of the old Geological Survey agreed with Hutton that some of his " Pareora " faunas came from above the limestone, but the field evidence convinced them that other collections of fossils determined by Hutton as " Pareora " came from below the lime- stone. Park (1905, p. 491) clearly recognized the difi&culties, and attempted
Uttlby. — Remarks on Bulletin No. 20. 171
a solution by his theory that there were two limestone horizons, separated by the Hutchinson Quarry and Awamoan beds (Pareora) ; or, in other words, that there was but one " Pareora fauna," lying between two lime- stones, the lower being called the Ototaran stone and the uppei" the Waitaki stone.
The present writer (refer to Thomson, 1915, p. 123), after an excursion to the Waihao district of South Canterbury, was convinced that, where the full series was developed, there was but one limestone present. An examination of the fauna beneath the limestone showed that it bore a remarkable resemblance to the fauna above the limestone in the Waihao district, where the -beds occur in the same section. This view was sup- ported by Thomson (1915, p. 123), who subsequently visited the Waihao district. Park, however (1905, p. 510), had given a section at Kakanui in which his two limestones were shown separated by the fossiliferous beds. The present writer (1916, pp. 22-25) sought to prove that this section had been misinterpreted, and that only one limestone was present, with the fossiliferous beds lying above it. Park in his latest work has evidently accepted this interpretation of the section, for the Awamoan beds are now placed at the top of the sequence in the Oamaru and Kakanui districts. As pointed out above, however, he still maintains that the limestone of the Waitaki Valley is distinct from the limestone of the Oamaru district.
III. Description op 'the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan Stages as
INTERPRETED BY PaRK.
Before discussing the sections described in Bulletin No. 20 it will be necessary to form a clear conception of Park's various subdivisions of the beds above the Ototaran. Correlation of beds is possible on palaeonto- logical or lithological evidence, or by direct stratigraphical connection, and it seems to the writer that Park has relied mainly on the lithological evidence in establishing his Upper Hutchinsonian horizon. The following quotations will indicate his conception of the post-Ototaran beds.
' ' (1.) Avjamoan Beds.
" The Awamoan strata consist of blue or bluish-green marine sandy clays that in some places pass into bluish-green sea-muds, in other places into very soft sandstones. In most places they are interbedded at distant intervals with hard calcareous bands that are sometimes sandy, in others argillaceous and crowded with shells. In some places the hard bands are replaced by calcareous nodular concretionary masses and flaggy lenses, occurring in more or less well-defined horizons."
It will be shown that these hard calcareous bands in the Awamoan are referred by Park to the Upper Hutchinsonian in the Target Gully locality.
(2.) Hutchinsonian Beds.
The Hutchinsonian is subdivided lithologically, in descending order, into — (a) Glauconitic sandstone (Upper Hutchinsonian) ; (b) Glauconitic greensands (Lower Hutchinsonian) ; (c) Conglomerate, mainly basaltic.
The glauconitic sandstone (a) is said to represent the Waitaki stone of Upper Hutchinsonian age. He describes this horizon as follows : " The glauconitic sandstone follows the greensands conformably ... it con- sists of soft glauconitic sandstone interbedded with hard yellowish - brown sandstone bands . . . it is a compact yellowish-brown calcareous
172 Transactions.
glauconitic sandstone." The glauconitic greensands (Lower Hutchinsonian) are described in the following extracts : " The glauconitic sandy beds at All Day Bay, Kakanui, Hutchinson's Quarry, and Grant's Creek are loose and incoherent, but at the upper end of Target Gully, at Landon Creek, and in the Waitaki area they form fairly compact glauconitic sandstones " (p. 78). Further, it is stated that " the fauna of this horizon [Lower Hutchinsonian] is distinguished by the abundance of the brachiopod Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), by the presence of the corals Isis dactyla Ten. -Woods and Mopsea hamiltoni (Thomson), and of the cup-shaped bryozoan Celleporaria nummularia Busk. Besides these there occur many pectens and other molluscs. Pachymagas parki (Hutt.) is present almost everywhere, but the other fossils mentioned may be abundant at one place and absent at another" (p. 78). " Pachymagas parki (Hutt.) occurs in great abundance in the Lower Hutchinsonian, usually to the exclusion of all other brachiopods except Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), which is nearly always present with it" (p. 109). "The Lower Hutchin- sonian is the most distinctive and persistent horizon of the Oamaruian system ; it always overlies the Oamaru stone. In the Oamaru area it consists of calcareous glauconitic greensands that at Landon Creek and the lower Waitaki Valley are partly or wholly replaced by calcareous glau- conitic sandstone. But whether greensands or glauconitic sandstone, the characteristic brachiopod Pachymagas ])arki (Hutt.) and the peculiar corals Isis dactyla Ten. -Woods and Mopsea hamiltoni (Thomson) are always present. The Waitaki stone is underlain by the greensands " (p. 110).
It will be shown that these sandstone bands in the Landon Creek area are referred to the Upper Hutchinsonian, although from Park's description of the characteristic fossils they should belong to his Lower Hutchinsonian (Hutchinsonian of Thomson).
As pointed out by the present writer (1916, pp. 20-21), the fossil Pachymagas parki (Hutt.) occurs in abundance in a well-defined band of hard glauconitic sandstone. In the present paper this band is called the " parki " band. It is ofter accompanied by Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), to the exclusion of all other brachiopods. This hardened band is underlain in many places in the district by looser greensands, also "glauconitic, but characterized also by a constant assemblage of fossils — Aetheia gaulteri (Morris), Terehratulina siiessi (Hutt.), Isis dactyla Ten. -Woods, and Mopsea hamiltoni (Thomson), which are all very abundant. This bed usually con- tains many specimens of Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), but in these looser greensands the individuals of this species are on the average distinctly smaller than in the upper " parki " band, and their external characters are far more constant. In the hardened upper band, where it is usually accompanied by Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), the specimens assigned to the " parki " species are extremely variable in external shape. As pointed out by Park in the extracts quoted above, this greensand horizon is a most distinctive one ; it is the typical Hutchinsonian of the Oamaru system, and always lies above a nodular band (Park's conglomerate). Park, however, would term these " /sis " -greensands, and the '^ parki" green- sands Lower Hutchinsonian ; and states that they are separated from the Awamoan by the Upper Hutchinsonian (Waitaki stone). The writer contends that the " Isis " greensands and the overlying " parki " green- sands constitute the Hutchinsonian, and are followed directly by the Awamoan beds.
Uttley. — Remarl's on Bulletin No. 20. ■ 173
In the localities discussed below an attempt is made to show that where the Awamoan beds are present, as in the Oamaru area, the hard calcareous bands at their base are called Upper Hutchinsonian ; where the Awamoan beds are not present, as at Landon Creek (west branch), the " fairly com- pact glauconitic sandstone " (the " jmrki " band) is called Upper Hutchin- sonian ; where the " parki " band is absent, as in Landon Creek (Papakaio district), the upper glauconitic portion of the limestone is called Upper Hutchinsonian (p. 64). The various localities in which the post- Ototaran beds occur will now be discussed.
IV. Hutchinsonian and Awamoan Localities.
(1.) All Day Bay (j). 56).
The section in this locality has been described by the writer (1916, p. 20), and by Park in Bulletin No. 20. Both agree that the " darker and tougher greensands " (the " parki " band) are followed directly by the Awamoan beds. The section in this locality is most important, as it illustrates the typical character of the beds above the limestone. Here we have in one section, as shown by Park, the limestone much hardened towards its upper surface, which is corroded (nodular). This surface is immediately followed by the " Isis " greensands, capped by the hard " parki " band, which is directly overlain by the Awamoan beds. In this locality there is no Upper Hutchinsonian horizon, and Park's so-called Lower Hutchinsonian is con- formably overlain by the Awamoan, which contains " hard sandstone layers." Park does not recognize an Upper Hutchinsonian m this locality.
(2.) Deborah (p. 59).
In this section the highest bed exposed is the " parki " band, which is underlain by " 6 ft. of greensands [which] contain many molluscs and brachiopods." The brachiopods present in these underlying greeensands are Terehratulina suessi (Hutt.) and Aetheia gaulteri (Morris), which are again accompanied by the same species of Isis and Mopsea. At the base of these greensands lies the nodular surface of the hard limestone which closed the Ototaran at All Day Bay. No Upper Hutchinsonian is present at Deborah.
(3.) Coast North of Kakanui Quarry (p. 70).
In this section Park shows the sequence of beds closed by a " hard semi- crystalline limestone.*' The present writer has figured the complete section along the coast (1916, p. 23, fig. 2). The beds form a syncline, and to the north-east this hard limestone is nodular at the surface, and followed by the " Isis " greensands, but the hard " piarki " band has been denuded. The sequence is exactly similar to that at All Day Bay and Deborah. The surface of the hard limestone is nodular, and pieces of rolled volcanic rock occur at the base of the " Isis " beds and represent Park's con- glomerate at the base of the Hutchinsonian. In this coastal section the Upper Hutchinsonian is not stated to be present, though the limestone in this locality was formerly (1905, p. 510) called Waitaki stone (Upper Hutchinsonian).
(4.) Oamaru Rifle Butts.
In his discussion on the Hutchinsonian stage (chapter vii, p. 77) Park makes no reference to the Hutchinsonian beds at the Rifle Butts, but he
174 Transactions.
gives a section (pi. ii, fig. A) in which are shown " the greensands with Pachymagas parki " followed by a glauconitic shell-bed (bed i), a hard brown limonitic sandstone (bed h), and soft glauconitic sands (bed g), and all these beds are classed as Hutchinsonian. These beds ab-ove the " parki " green- sands are Park's Upper Hutchinsonian. The Awanioan beds are said to lie above this so-called Upper Hutchinsonian. Now, the glauconitic sandy shell-bed (bed *) is crowded with moUuscan casts and extremely fragile shells, and there is no doubt that it is similar to the shell-beds at Target Gully and Ardgowan, which all geologists recognize as Awanioan, and its position immediately above the " parki " band confirms this (compare Park's section at All Day Bay, p. 56). These beds {g, h, i, of pi. ii, fig. A) are undoubtedly Awamoan, and there is, therefore, no Upper Hutchinsonian at the Rifle Butts.
(5.) Hutchinson's Quarry (pp. 60-61).
In this locality the junction of the greensands with the limestone is not clear, although they undoubtedly overlie it. As the Upper Hutchinsonian is not stated to be present, it is unnecessary to discuss the section further.
(6.) Target Gully (pp. 79-80).
In this locality the Awamoan and Upper Hutchinsonian are said to be present in the sam^ section. From the description given it is difficult to judge exactly which beds are referred to the Upper Hutchinsonian. The following statement occurs on page 79 : " The glauconitic sandstone [Upper Hutchinsonian] follows the greensands conformably at the shell-bed (Target Gully)." These greensands are Lower Hutchinsonian (p. 78). On the same page it is stated that " at the shell-bed. Target Gully, it [the glauconitic sandstone] consists of soft glauconitic sandstone interbedded with hard yellowish-brown sandstone bands." In the section given on page 80 the horizons of the beds are not indicated ; the fossiliferous greensands (bed c), which are the lowest greensands exposed in the section, must, according to Park's first statement quoted above, belong to his Lower Hutchinsonian, leaving a hard yellowish-brown glauconitic sandstone (2 ft. to 4 ft. thick) to represent the Waitaki stone (Upper Hutchinsonian). The fossils in this sandstone are in the form of casts, and no palaeontological or other evidence is offered to support the contention that the bed is at the horizon of the limestone in the Waitaki Valley (the so-called Upper Hutchinsonian). If Park refers all the greensands to his Upper Hutchinsonian, as would appear from the second statement quoted above, there is still no evidence to support this view. Of the seventy-two species of MoUusca listed from bed c, sixty- seven species occur in Park's list of Awamoan fossils (pp. 97-105), three forms are Recent, and the other two are not' characteristic. The percentage of Recent species is said to be 40-3 ; and, as the percentage of Recent species in the Awamoan of the Oamaru district is stated by Park to be 32-9, there would seem to be no justification for separating these beds from the Awamoan horizon. Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), however, is said to occur in the form of casts in bed d, and as the same fossil is recorded from bed c, and this is the characteristic fossil of Park's Lower Hutchinsonian, the beds might equally well be referred to his Lower Hutchinsonian. As a matter of fact, in the absence of a brachiopod fauna it is a difficult matter to dis- tinguish the Hutchinsonian from the Awamoan. As Park says (p. 53), " the relationship existing between the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan is generally so close that it is difficult to define where the one ends and the other begins."
Uttley. — Remarks on Bulletin No. 20. 175
If, however, in addition to a molluscan fauna the brachiopods are present, the line of demarcation is a sharp one in the Oamaru and Papakaio districts, the close of the Hutchinsonian being marked by a giauconitic band crowded with Pachymagas parki (Hutt)., which is often accompanied by Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.). The writer believes that the " parki " beds in the present locality are followed directly by the Awamoan, and, as the former beds are Park's Lower Hutchinsonian, it follows that there is no Upper Hutchin- sonian in the Target Gully locality. Yet Park states (p. 25) that " on palaeontological grounds the Hutchinsonian might be divided into two sub-stages — the lower or true Hutchinsonian including the giauconitic greensands, the upper comprising the giauconitic calcareous sandstone that forms the Waitaki stone or Waitakian." The writer has been unable to find in Park's latest work these palaeontological grounds.
When the writer examined the Target Gully section the junctions of the various beds were obscured by slope deposits, in which were collected fossils from the shell-bed (Awamoan), specimens of Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), and Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), and this would indicate that the true Hutchin- sonian (Park's Lower Hutchinsonian) is present below the shell-bed. Putting aside this obscurity of the section, however, it is contended that no evidence has been adduced to justify any bed in the section being differentiated as a separate Upper Hutchinsonian horizon. The fossils from bed c are Awamoan, and the hard giauconitic sandstone is exactly similar to the bands that occur in Park's Awamoan at All Day Ba}^
(7.) Upper Target Gully (p. 82).
Two sections are exposed in this locality. In fig. 37 a " rusty-brown giauconitic sandstone; 9ft. exposed; contains Pachymagas parki (Hutt)." In fig. 38 a giauconitic sandstone is shown. It is said to be crowded with Pachymagas parki (Hutt). According to Park's definition of the beds, neither the Awamoan nor the so-called Upper Hutchinsonian is present.
(8.) Ardgowan Shell-hed (p. 81).
The section in this locality (fig. 36) shows the Ardgowan shell-beds resting directly on a " soft brown sandstone," from which twelve fossils were collected, eleven of which are found in typical Awamoan localities. ThQ other fossil, Li^na suteri Dall, is apparently not found elsewhere in the Oamaru district. Park's Lower Hutchinsonian is not present in the section, and no reason is assigned for separating this " sUghtly giauconitic sandstone " from the Awamoan. As pointed out above, these sandstone bands are characteristic of the Awamoan, and there is no evidence to show- why they should be placed at an Upper Hutchinsonian horizon.
(9.) DeviVs Bridge (pp. 62, 82).
The section at the outlet end of Devil's Basin shows " a soft friable giauconitic sandstone, 12 ft. thick, crowded with Pachymagas parki (Hutt.)," and accompanied by Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), overlain directly by a brown calcareous giauconitic sandstone, 30 ft. thick, from which seventeen forms were obtained, thirteen of which occur in the Awamoan, one is not found elsewhere, two are recorded from the " Lower Hutchinsonian " elsewhere (that is, from the ''^ parki'' greensands), while Emargimda wamwnensis Harris occurs in the Ototaran. This so-called Upper Hutchinsonian cannot ,be separated from the Awamoan, particularly as it rests hard upon the " parki "
176 Transactions.
greensands, its normal position as shown by Park in his section at All Day Bay (p. 56). The writer (1918b, p. 121) described this locality, and showed that the " jparki " band lay some distance above the limestone, which was nodular at its surface, and according to Park the upper part of the limestone is " a hard semi-crystalUne limestone from 2 ft. to 4 ft. thick." The sequence is similar to that at All Day Bay, although the small exposure of looser greensands between the nodular surface of the limestone and the " farTci " band has not yet proved fossihferous. The sands above the '' parki" band are glauconitic, and in this respect are similar to the Awamoan at All Day Bay. In the present locality no reasons have been adduced to show that the Upper Hutchinsonian is present.
All the localities in the Oamaru district where Park has described the Hutchinsonian have now been discussed, and the writer has attempted to show that the band of glauconitic sandstone (the so-called Upper Hutchin- sonian of Park) is part of the Awamoan. The description in Bulletin No. 20 of the Awamoan beds shows that they may assume the character of an indu- . rated sandstone. In the^ absence of palaeontological evidence, the placing of a thin band of sandstone in an Upper Hutchinsonian is unwarranted. The fossils that have been recorded by Park are Awamoan, as shown above. In his classification of the beds of north-east Otago, Thomson (1916, p. 35) defined the Hutchinsonian as the beds lying between the Ototara imestone and the shell-bed at Target Gully. This shell-bed undoubtedly forms the base of the Awamoan at the Rifle Butts, but from its very nature t is not likely to be a widely extended horizon (it is known to occur at only three places— Rifle Butts, Target. Gully, and Ardgowan). These shell-beds appear to be the remains of shell-banks of the Awamoan seas, and, although confined to the lower part of the Awamoan, they may not always represent the basal bed. At All Day Bay the basal bed of the Awamoan, which lies directly on the " parki " band (Hutchinsonian), contains similar fossils to the shell-bed, but no shell-bed occurs in the locality. As pointed out above, the " parki " band marks a definite horizon, the close of the Hutchinsonian, and it seems preferable to make this band the upward limit of this stage. This would mean that Park's Waitaki stone (Upper Hutchinsonian) would be driven into the Awamoan, but it would not in any way lower the value of the evidence he has brought forward to prove that this limestone is at a different horizon from the Ototaran stone.
(10.) Landon Creek and Flume Creek.
The Awamoan beds are not present in these localities, but certain hard glauconitic bands are present in the upper beds. Some of these are referred to the Upper Hutchinsonian horizon. The present writer contends that these so-called Upper Hutchinsonian bands represent the " parki " band, in other cases lower beds, and are therefore, according to Park's definition, his Lower Hutchinsonian. As the "'parki'' band is the highest horizon in the Landon Creek and Flume Creek areas, the so-called Upper Hutchin- sonian cannot be present.
In fig. 25 (p. 63) a section is given showing "rusty-brown glauconitic greensands crowded with Pachijmagas parki (Hutt.) " at the top of the sequence. According to Park's definition, this is his Lower Hutchinsonian horizon, and the Upper Hutchinsonian cannot be present. We must note, however, that a " brown calcareous glauconitic sandstone " 6 ft. thick is said to lie 4| ft. helow the " parki " bed. This band of sandstone is again shown in fig' 26, where the ''parki" band is not shown. In both figures
Uttley. — Reynarlis on Bulletin No. 20. 177
this glaiiconitic sandstone lies directly on the Oamaru stone (Ototaran), and in fig. 25 is separated from the "■ jmrhi " band by nodular greensands. In fig. 27 (p. 64) the '' parki" band is not present, but 24 ft. of glauconitic sandstone is shown lying above the limestone and classified as Hutchin- sonian, but whether Upper or Lower is not stated. In figs. 26 and 27, then, this glauconitic sandstone cannot represent the Upper Hutchinsonian.
In fig. 15 a section is given in Landon Creek showing at the top of the Hutchinsonian a " hard brown calcareous sandstone, thickness of 6 ft. exposed," from which were obtained the brachiopods Pachymagas 'parhi (Hutt.) and Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.). This is Park's Lower Hutchin- sonian, and the Upper Hutchinsonian is therefore absent. Fig. 15 is important, as it enables us to correlate the beds in the Landon Creek area with those in the Oamaru area. It will be noted that the upper part of the Oamaru stone is a bed of " hard semi-crystalline limestone," which is overlain by looser greensands containing Isis dactyla Ten. -Woods, and these are capped by "a hard brown calcareous sandstone containing ■Pachymagas parki (Hutt.) and Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.).'" The sequence is the same as at All Day Bay, only in the present locality the nodular surface of the hard limestone is not so evident.
On page 46 Park gives a classification of the beds in Landon Creek, and shows that the limestone beneath the " hard semi-crystalline limestone " is glauconitic. This is the c^se in the whole of the Landon Creek area, and it is extremely probable that bed b of fig. 25, bed h of fig. 26 (both of which underlie nodular greensands), and bed b of fig. 27 represent this upper glauconitic portion of the limestone. The nodular greensands (" Isis " beds) just referred to contain Isis dactijla Ten. -Woods, Aetheia gaulteri (Morris), and TerebratuUna suessi (Hutt.), and they lie immediately beneath the " farki " band. The fossils collected by the writer from these beds have already been published (1918b, pp. 122, 123), and, although these lists are incomplete, they indicate that the sequence is similar to that of the Kakanui district. In the Landon Creek area, then, the highest beds present are the " parki " beds (Park's Lower Hutchinsonian of the Oamaru- Kakanui areas discussed above), and his Upper Hutchinsonian is non- existent.
The writer has attempted to show that in the coastal district, where the Awamoan beds occur above the greensands, the base of the Awamoan is termed Upper Hutchinsonian ; that in the Landon Creek area, where the " -parki " band is the highest horizon present, either this bed- or underlying beds are termed Upper Hutchinsonian. In other words, the Hutchinsonian greensands with Pachymagas parki are overlain directly by the Awamoan beds, and the " Upper Hutchinsonian " of Park is applied to different horizons in different parts of the district, and is therefore inadmissible in classification.
On page 48 a section is given in which the Oamaru stone is shown capped by a bed of hard semi-crystalline limestone, which represents the upward limit of the Ototaran. The sequence is similar to that at All Day Bay (p. 56), west branch of Landon Creek (p. 46), Deborah (p. 59), Kakanui (p. 70). In the present locality and in the locahties just mentioned the overlying greensands contain Isis dactyla Ten. -Woods, Mopsea hamiltoni (Thomson), Aetheia gaulteri (Morris), TerebratuUna suessi (Hutt.), and there is no doubt that these greensands are all at the same horizon — the base of the Hutchinsonian. Now, these greensands (bed m of fig. 17) are said to be the same as bed g of fig. 28, and the latter bed is said to be Upper Hutchin- sonian (Waitaki stone), which is impossible, as the fossils are the fossils of
178 Transactions.
Park's Lower Hutchinsonian of the coastal area (see p. 78). Further, from Park's description of the beds at Big Flume Creek on page 48 and page 65, bed m of fig. 17 should be correlated with bed / of fig. 28, not bed g, as both lie hard on the " band of semi-crystalline limestone " and represent the " I sis " greensands, and the fossils of the latter horizon also occur in the lower portion of bed g. The writer was unable to find the glauconitic sandstone overlying ' these '' Isis'' beds, and after visiting the Big Flume Greek during the present year was only confirmed in his own interpretation of the section as given in a former paper (1918, p. 123). As indicated there, the section is a discontinuous one, and the beds are probably faulted. The highest beds exposed in the section, which crop out on the right bank of the creek between the water-race and the Oamaru-Kurow main road, are the '^ Isis'' greensands capping the "hard semi-crystalline limestone," and the writer found no beds above them.
In regard to this section Park (p. 65) says, " This section is" important, as it shows not only the relationship of the Oamaru stone to the Hutchin- sonian, but also — what is of greater significance — the relationship of the Oamaru stone to the Waitaki stone." Even if the glauconitic sandstone (bed g of fig. 28) does occur as shown in section above the " Isis " beds (the present writer was unable to find it), no evidence has been presented to show that it is the equivalent of the limestone of the Waitaki Valley near Duntroon. A section is given on page 83 of the rocks near Duntroon, where Park's typical Waitaki stone i& shown overlying a fossiliferous glauconitic greensand. From the description of this stone in the legend it would appear that the rock is a very impure limestone, but it is as pure in many parts as the typical Ototaran limestone ; it is certainly arenaceous and glauconitic in places, but it is undoubtedly a limestone. The analyses given on page 115 (especially analysis No. 4) confirm this.
Park gives a list of brachiopods from the glauconitic sandstone at the base of the Waitaki stone (p. 83). These brachiopods have also been collected from the upper part of the glauconitic limestone of Landon Creek. Wherever the limestone becomes very glauconitic the brachiopods appear. The upper glauconitic part of the limestone in the Landon Creek area and in the Flume Creek area increases considerably in thickness, and it is this portion that yields fossils similar to those at the base of the limestone near Duntroon. As pointed out in a former paper, these fossils are not restricted to this base. At White Rocks and at Duntroon the lower glauconitic part of the limestone increases considerably in- thickness, and these brachio- pods are found a considerable distance above the base of the limestone. Detailed correlation is not possible until we know the downward range of this brachiopod fauna in the Oamaru limestone, and its upper range in the rocks of the Waitaki Valley. At present all we can state is that the brachiopod fauna of the limestone in the Waitaki Valley and in the lime- stone of the Landon Creek area is undoubtedly Ototaran.
V. BORTONIAN AND WaIAREKAN LOCALITIES.
(1.) Bortonian. In his table of the Oamaruian Mollusca (p. 97) Park states that sixty- four species were obtained from the Bortonian and sixty-four speci-es from the Upper Waiarekan (Waiareka tuffs). This subdivision of the Waiarekan of Thomson into a Lower Waiarekan (Bortonian) and an Upper Waiarekan has much to recommend it. In many places in North Otago the coal- grits are overlain by fine micaceous quartzose greensands, and near their base hardened calcareous concretionary bands occur in which fossils are
Uttley. — Remarks on Bulletin No. 20. 179
very abundant, but unfortunately mainly in the form of casts. From this horizon at Black Point, McKay and Park made extensive collections, and forty-three species were determined by the late Mr. Henry Suter, and referred by Park to his Bortonian. In another paper in this volume the writer has given a list of fossils, also determined by Suter, which were collected from an horizon about 30 ft. above the coal-grits, and almost certainly represent the Bortonian horizon. At Ngapara a similar fossil- iferous bed is found lying a short distance above the Coal-rocks. In the bed of the Kakanui River, near Gemmel's crossing, this fossiliferous horizon occurs beneath glauconitic greensands, which dip beneath the Waiarekan tuffs of the Oamaru district. The introduction of a Bortonian horizon should be favourably received by geologists. Park has stated that " for a classification to be a trustworthy standard of reference it is an essential requirement that the subdivision shall be made in a district where the component subdivisions are in such intimate association that their relationship to one another can never be in doubt." All will accord hearty approval to this dictum; but we may also add that, if an attempt is being made to work out a distinctive fauna for each of these component subdivisions, it is also an essential requirement that the fossils shall be definitely ascertained to have come from a definite horizon. This does not mean that fossil lists should be discarded merely because their horizon is doubtful, but it does mean that these doubtful fossils should be rejected, temporarily probably, when lists typical of the various stages of a system arp being compiled. The species listed by Park as Bortonian and Upper Waiarekan call for some comment in the light of the principles just, enunciated. The fossils from the beds at Black Point number forty-three species (p. 34), and were gathered from Park's typical Bortonian locality, and the horizon is undoubted. On page 35 a list of thirteen species of Mollusca is given from brown sandstones which lie " about 80 ft. above the lignitic quartzose beds of the Ngaparan stage, and may represent a somewhat higher horizon than the Bortonian." On the same page is given a list of fossils gathered from fossiliferous blocks, but " these masses could not be traced to their source." As the horizon of the first collection is doubtful, and as the second was derived from rocks that were not in situ, these fossils cannot be included in the typical Bortonian. The list of sixty- four species must therefore be reduced to forty-three species.
(2.) Upper Waiarekan.
The writer (1918a, p. 107) attempted to define the horizons of the volcanic rocks in the Oamaru district, and concluded that there was a period of volcanic activity prior to the deposition of the Ototaran limestone, repre- sented by the Waiareka tuffs (Upper Waiarekan of Park), and that there was a later period — perhaps two later periods — of activity represented by the volcanic rocks that occur interbedded with the Ototaran limestone near Oamaru. Park recognizes three periods, the second and third being Ototaran, while the first period is Upper Waiarekan. These volcanic rocks form fragmental tufaceous beds for the most part, and were probably all accumulations from submarine eruptions ; they are often fossiliferous, Fossils gathered from tufaceous rocks may therefore be either Ototaran or Waiarekan, and before the fossils are assigned to either of these^ horizons the position of the bed must be indisputable. The fossils listed as Upper . Waiarekan by Park have in nearly all cases been gathered from beds inter- bedded with limestone, and the writer believes that they belong to the limestone period — that is, they are of Ototaran age. Park himself indicates
180 Transactions.
that his Waiarekan tuffs at Cape Wanbrow may be partially Ototaran, for he states that in this locality the Waiarekan tuffs are " over 600 ft. thick — though it is possible that a portion of the latter may belong to the Ototaran." The writer is in accord with this statement, and would assign to the Ototaran the interbedded tuffs and limestone bands in the Shirley Creek section near the Rifle Butts, which form the top of Park's Upper Waiarekan. The beds immediately below the lower pillow-lava near Boatman's Harbour should also be Ototaran. The various localities where the Waiarekan tuffs are said to occur will now be discussed.
(a.) Kakanvi South. — In Bulletin No. 20, section 19, page 52, shows the tuffs lying beneath the Ototaran limestone, and they are doubtfully referred to the Waiarekan. Above them lie 71 ft. of limestone, 24 ft. of marly clays, and tufaceous matter is plentiful throughout the section. The limestone (bed a) is evidently at or near the base of the Ototaran. If so, the under- lying tuffs are probably Waiarekan, but they have yielded no fossils.
(b.) Boatman's Harbour, Cape Wanhrow.- — Park in a measured section (pi. ii, sec. B) shows the beds in excellent detail. A well-marked break is shown below bed h'^. Discussing this unconformity. Park says that it is '' apparently due to contemporaneous erosion." He further states that the Oamaru building-stone " is absent, and, if not wholly, is partly represented by the fossiliferous tuffs and limestones at Boatman's Harbour [i.e., by the beds above the lower pillow-lava]. The brachiopods from the upper of the two limestone bands at that cove are mostly those of the Kakanui limestone horizon of the Ototaran [i.e.. Upper Ototaran], as also are the brachiopods from the lower of the two limestone bands underlying the pillow-lava." The beds referred to are shown in plate ii, section B, but in the legend these lower limestone bands and interbedded volcanic rocks are not referred to any horizon, although from the title of the section they are probably to be placed in the Waiarekan ; yet the description of the beds does not indicate where the upper limit of the Waiarekan should, be placed. From the quotation given above it is clear that the lowest fossiliferous band in the section con- tains characteristic Ototaran brachiopods, and underlying this band uncon- formably is a great thickness of volcanic tuffs which have not yielded any fossils. The fauna from this locality cannot be referred to the Waiarekan.
(c.) Shirley Creek (see pi. ii, fig. A). — Park states that " at Shirley Creek the Waiarekan tuffs are overlain unconformably by the Oamaru stone and associated beds. . . . The unconformity cannot be regarded as other than intra-formational." When the writer examined this section he formed the opinion that the beds" above and below this so-called unconformity had the same dip (1918a, p. 110, fig. 2). It is true that the upper bed (pi. ii, fig. A, bed c) is a limestone band containing masses of volcanic rocks, as shown by the writer in the paper just referred to ; but this is a common feature in the limestone bands interbedded with tuffs, as shown by Park on page 37, where he writes in reference to the two bands below the pillow- lava that " these limestone beds are brecciated with angular blocks of vesicular basalt." The beds referred to the Waiarekan at Shirley Creek are calcareous tuffs interstratified with polyzoan limestone bands, and they contain the typical Ototaran brachiopod LiotJiyrella oamarutica (Boehm), and there would appear to be no reason for separating the beds between bed q and bed w from the Ototaran. At the top of bed w there is an undoubted physical unconformity, which probably represents the break at Boatman's Harbour below bed h^ of plate ii, fig. B, as the beds that lie beneath these unconformities are unfossiliferous tuffs of similar composition.
Uttley. — Remarhs on Bulletin No. 20. 181
(d.) Awamoa Creek, near Dehorah (p. 41). — The base of the section (fig. 5) is a basalt showing pillow-structure similar to the lower pillow- lava at Boatman's Harbour. The two rocks have been described by the writer (1918a, p. 113), and there is little doubt that they are at the same horizon. The rock at Boatman's Harbour has been shown to be almost certainly Ototaran, and the pillow-lava in the present locality must be referred to the same stage. The highest bed of the section is a brecciated pillow-lava exactly similar to the highest bed in the section at Boatman's Harbour, while the intermediate beds are calcareous fossiliferous tuffs and limestones. The fossils recorded from the tufaceous beds above the lower pillow-lava in the present locality are in rather poor condition, and the percentage of Eecent species as determined by Suter is 37-5. The evidence is scarcely sufficient to warrant these rocks being classed as Waiarekan.
(e.) Grant's- Creek (p. 45). — In fig. 14 a section is given on the east bank of Grant's Creek, near Oamaru. It shows the Oamaru stone with interbedded bands of basaltic conglomerate, and the soft friable greenish glauconitic calcareous tuffs underlying are called Waiarekan. These beds are horizontal, and it is stated that " less than 50 yards higher up the stream, and on the same side, the Oamaru stone is followed by the Hutchin- sonian greensands crowded with Pachijmagas parki (Hutt.)." The n^aximum thickness of the rocks above the tuft's is 21 ft., and, as the rocks are hori- zontal, and the Hutchinsonian beds occur a short distance away capping the limestone, these tufaceous beds are certainly not Waiarekan. The development in the present section is very similar to the section exposed lower down the stream and described by the writer (1918b, p. 121, fig. 3). In that section 20 ft. of limestone separates the volcanic rocks of Oamaru , Creek froni the Hutchinsonian greensands, and Park rightly considers these volcanic rocks as Upper Ototaran (see geological map, Bulletin 20). The tufaceous beds in the present locality are therefore Ototaran. These beds mapped by him in the basin of Grant's Creek as Waiarekan are similar to those developed at Upper Target Gully which he has mapped as Upper Ototaran. A comparison of the sections shown on page 82 at Upper Target Gully (figs. 37 and 38) will indicate the similarity of the rocks in the basin of Grant's Stream to those at Upper Target Gully. Similar sections occur at Hutchinson's Quarry (1918a, p. Ill), Lower Target Gully (Bulletin 20, p. 80), and Eden Street, Oamaru (Bulletin 20, p. 60). The present writer, in his description of the Hutchinson Quarry and neigh- bourhood (1918a, p. 112), showed that the fossiliferous beds at Boatman's Harbour which He beneath the brecciated pillow-lava are certainly not Hutchinsonian, as contended by former geologists, and Park in his latest work has reached the same conclusion, as his geological map clearly shows. The writer's argument was based solely on the correlation of the upper volcanic rocks at Boatman's Harbour and Oamaru Creek near the junction of Grant's Stream, and as Park also correlates these volcanic horizons there can be no doubt that the volcanic horizon in the present section is not Waiarekan but Ototaran (Upper Ototaran).
In the localities that have been discussed, if these so-called Waiarekan tuffs are Ototaran tuffs, then Park's fauna of the Upper Waiarekan is reduced from sixty-four species to the seventeen species detailed on pages 43 and 44 of Bulletin No. 20. The brachiopods quoted there are character- istic Ototaran fossils, four of the Mollusca are new species, Clio anmdata (Tate) is not found elsewhere in New Zealand, Amusium zitteli (Hutt.) is not recorded from any other locality in North Otago, and the remaining
182 Transactions.
fossils are either found in higher beds or are Recent. The horizon of these tuffs is doubtful, but the association of these calcareous tuffs with chalky- clays and marls is similar to the beds near the base of the Ototaran in the section exposed on the right bank of the Kakanui River (p. 57, fig. 19). The writer has also observed these marly beds and tuSs near the base of the limestone in the old quarry at Fortification Hill, near the village of Alma.
VI. Summary and Conclusion.
It has been contended that the sequence and subdivision of the Tertiary beds of North Otago as detailed in Bulletin No. 20 requires certain modifications, and the following conclusions have been reached by the writer : —
(1.) Park's Lower Hutchinsonian is the true Hutchinsonian of Thomson, and is characterized by the fossils Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), Aetheia gauUeri (Morris), Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.), Isis dactyla Ten. -Woods, and Mopsea hamiltoni (Thomson).
(2.) No evidence has been brought forward in the bulletin for the establishment of an Upper Hutchinsonian horizon in the area lying between All Day Bay and Upper Target Gully. The beds referred to this horizon are Awamoan, and lie immediately on the " parki " greensands.
(3.) The highest beds present in the Landon Creek area are the " parki " greensands, and in the Flume Creek area the ''''Isis'' greensands, which constitute Park's Lower Hutchinsonian ; there cannot, therefore, be an Upper Hutchinsonian horizon in these localities.
(4.) No evidence is presented in Bulletin No. 20 to show that the Ototaran limestone in the Oamaru and Papakaio districts correlates with the beds below the limestone in the Waitaki Valley. Both limestones contain several brachiopods which are restricted to the Ototaran of the typical Oamaru district, and must be classed as Ototaran.
(5.) The nature of the limestone (polyzoan limestone) interbedded with the tuffs beneath the lower pillow-lava at Boatman's Harbour and Shirley Creek, and the brachiopods obtained from these bands, strongly suggest that their age is Ototaran, not Waiarekan.
(6.) The occurrence of Awamoan fossils in the beds (Otiake beds) above the limestone of the Waitaki Valley, and the fact that the Awamoan and Hutchinsonian are " part and parcel of the same series," as Hutton, McKay, and Park have asserted, further strengthens the argument that this limestone is Ototaran.
(7.) Nevertheless, the brachiopod faima of the greensands in the Oamaru coastal district enables a clear line of demarcation to be drawn in that area between the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan.
Bibliography.
Hutton, F. W., 1887. Note on the Geology of the VaUey of the Waihao, in South
Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 19, pp. 430-33. Pap.k, J., 1905. On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and South Canterbury, Trans.
N.Z. Inst, vol. 37, pp. 489-551. Thomson, J. A., 1915. Classification and Correlation of the Tertiary Rocks, 8th Ann.
Rep. N.Z. Geol. Surv., pp. 123-24.
1916. On Stage Names applicable to the Divisions of the Tertiary in New Zea-
land, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 28-40. Uttley, G. H., 1916. Geology of the Neighbourhood of Kakanui, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 19-27.
1918a. The Volcanic Rocks of Oamaru, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 106-17.
1918b. Geology of the Oamaru-Papakaio District, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50,
pp. 118-24.
Adkin. — Readjustment of Drainage on the Tararuas. 183
Art. XXV. — Examples of Readjustment oj Drainage on the Tararua
Western Foothills.
By G. Leslie Adkin.
[Read before the Wellington PhilosojMcal Society, 8th October, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 15th June, 1920.]
Plate XL Contents.
Introductory.
The Major Physiographic Features of the Tararua Range.
Topography of the Arapaepae Ridge and of " The Heights " Basin.
Changes of Drainage in " The Heights " Basin.
Changes of Drainage on the Poruriri Ridge.
1. Introductory. In tte long - settled and more - closely - studied countries of the Northern Hemisphere the processes and events of physiographic history genetically connected with the present geographical regime have been more or less thoroughly worked out, but in New Zealand the subject has been dealt with in detail in only a comparatively few isolated areas. During the last few years, however, New Zealand physiography has attracted ever- increasing notice, and has come to be regarded here as elsewhere as being of considerable importance in- the deciphering of the detailed geologic history of a country. I have therefore been led to contribute the follow- ing notes on the physiography of an area which has hitherto received but scant attention? While it is not claimed that the course of events outlined in section 4 is in any way unique, the constricted area in which the diverse changes took place may be deemed somewhat remarkable, comparable to some slight extent with the classical instance of drainage- readjustment in the district round Chur, in Switzerland (Heim).
2. The Major Physiographic Features of the Tararua Range.
The Tararua Range is that portion of the structural axis of the North Island extending from the headwaters of the Hutt River to the Manawatu Gorge, a distance of fifty-seven miles. The range consists of a series of parallel and subparallel longitudinal ridges, so disposed that they collectively form an obtuse angle or wide arc convex to the west ; thus it is that from south to north their trend changes from north-north-east to north-east by north. In addition to the longitudinal ridges there is a subsidiary series of transverse ridges which link the former together.
Another feature of the Tararua Range is its asymmetry. The highest ridge — that bearing the peaks of The Mitre and Mount Holdsworth^lies well to the eastern side of the range, and on that side the altitudes of the foothill ridges decrease more abruptly towards the subjacent lowlands than on the west. In general, both towards east and west, the longi- tudinal ridges decrease in height in succession as the respective piedmont lowland areas are approached, the outermost foothill ridge on either side being usually the lowest of the respective series. The whole is suggestive of a high-standing tilted earth-block, having a steep eastward-facing .scarp and a back-slope declining towards the west. The initial intense com- pression and crumpling of the Trias-Jurassic (Marshall, 1912, pp. 127-29, 208) strata (the post-Hokonui deformation) was probably succeeded by peneplanation (Cotton, 1916, p. 246 ; Thomson, 1917, pp. 399-400), and
184 Transactions.
this was followed by secondary folding (the Kaikoura deformation) accom- panied by block-faulting on a large scale, and also by the deep dissection of the penultimate erosion-cycle. The secondary folding corrugated the Tararua earth-block into broad anticlinal and synclinal forms, and these appear to have determined the trend of the principal drainage-lines, and to have guided the agents of erosion in the production of the high reUef of the present topography. The initial drainage-pattern is thus considered to be mainly consequent gn the secondary deformation, and only to a very slight extent due to adjustment to the original structure.
With reference to the hills near Wellington City, which may be regarded as a south-western extension of the Tararua Range, and perhaps also to the main range itself, the longitudinal ridges have been explained (Cotton, 1918, pp. 213-14) as being bands of resistant rock reinforced by a network of secondary mineral matter sealing the joints ; and the valleys between the longitudinal ridges as belts of shattered rock- — shattered by the ancient folding of the strata — along which the erosional action of the streams has been more efiective.
While this hypothesis of resistant reiniorced bands of rock is accepted as a probable contributory cause of the development of the longitudinal ridges,* it appears to be inadequate when confronted by the notable linear persistence of the longitudinal ridges of the Tararua Range, and also by the associated physiographic features thereof — viz., the subsidiary trans- verse ridges,t and certain arresting characteristics of the hydrography. The present writer's explanation of the genesis of these land-forms may be presented in detail later, and it will suffice to state here that there are numerous and seemingly sound reasons for the belief that orogenic folding and uplift, synchronizing with the production of the existing stream- sculptured relief, is the most satisfactory explanation of the origin of the longitudinal and transverse ridges, and also of the notable peculiarities of the present hydrographical regime. Under this explanation the principal rivers must be classed as anteconsequent and in part antecedent.
3. Topography of the Arapaepae Ridge and of " The. Heights "
' Basin.
On the western side of the Tararua Range the outermost foothill ridge is divided into sections by the vents of the rivers that issue from the moun- tains on to the plain. Locally the ridge-sections bear names usually corre- sponding to the trigonometrical stations situated on their highest points. The Arapaepae Ridge, on which is situated the more striking of the two examples of drainage-readjustment that form the subject of these notes, lies between the vents of the Ohau and Mangaore Streams, which cross the plain near Levin and at Shannon respectively.
Towards its northern end the Arapaepae Ridge is markedly asymmetrical. On its western side the spurs are deeply truncated, the hillside presenting a steep face composed of short blunted salients. These features mark the position of a former coast-line, they being ancient sea-cliffs (Adkin, 1911, p. 509 ; 1919, p. 109). On the eastern side of the ridge a different
* The topographic details as etched out by erosion are undoubtedly due to the presence of bands and patches of rock of varying resistance.
t Tlie transverse ridges are not mere erosional features occurring at haphazard intervals. In some cases they extend from lowland to lov/land right across the mountain-system, and therefore must be attributed to a more profound causation. Nor can it be due to mere chance that the principal transverse ridge of the Tararuas, if produced eastward across the Wairarapa lowland, there coincides with the water- parting from which the drainage of the lowland and adjacent mountains is directed north and south respectively.
Adkin. — Readyustment of Drainage on the Tararuas.
185
186 Transactions.
set of land-forms occur: long fully-developed lateral spurs run out from the main divide like great buttresses for a mile or more, and between them lie broad, open stream-valleys, all diversified by a dendritic drainage- pattern. One of these broad valleys, locally known as " The Heights " basin, is situated at the junction of the Arapaepae Ridge with the trans- verse ridge that connects it with the inner ridges of the range. By virtue of its situation, this basin possesses such change-favouring features as superior altitude and shallowness to a greater degree than the adjacent eastward- facing lateral valleys of the Arapaepae Ridge.
" The Heights " basin, in which the changes of drainage took place, lies near the crest of the Arapaepae Ridge, its flat alluvial bottom (Plate XI, fig. 1) having an average altitude of 1,015 ft. — only 200 ft. below the trigonometrical station, Arapaepae No. 3, 1,210 ft., located at its north- western corner. The basin is roughly rectangular in shape, and about a mile and a half across from north to south. Forming its rim are hilly ridges, varying in height from a few feet to more than 400 ft. above the alluvial flat: on the west the Arapaepae Ridge, on north and south two lateral buttressing spurs of the same, and on the east the western end of the transverse connecting-ridge. To the north lies the catchment area of the Mangaore Stream ; to the south and south-east that of the Makahika, a tributary of the Ohau River ; and to the west that of the Koputaroa. Formerly " The Heights " basin had only one outlet ; now there are no less than three.
4. Changes of Drainage in " The Heights " Basin.
Originally the whole of the drainage of " The Heights " basin was discharged through a comparatively narrow outlet situated at its south-east confer, by a single stream, tributary to the Makahika River. The origin of the basin is, in the present state of knowledge, somewhat problematical ; but a tentative hypothesis is that it was formed by the denudation, first by the subaerial agencies in general and afterwards principally by stream erosion, of the crest of a broad anticlinal structure of crumpled strata pos- sessing but little primary variation in hardness. Under this conception the weakened crest of the anticline was widely opened, while the limbs retained a sufficient degree of compactness to restrict erosion to narrower limits. This hypothesis conforms to the conception of the orogenesis of the Tararua Range briefly outlined in section 2 ; the general topography of the Arapaepae and adjacent ridges is also favourable to its adoption.
An identical origin must be ascribed to the neighbouring eastward-facing lateral valleys of the Arapaepae Ridge (fig. 1)— the Waireka (Plate XI, fig. 2), Wainui, &c. All these valleys are of the basin-like, bottle-neck type, being gorge-like and narrow at their outlets, and broad and open above. Valleys of similar form occur in the Blue Mountains* due west of Sydney (Taylor, 1919, p. 177).
It may be suggested that in the case of the Tararua foothills the broad arching of the secondary folding would be quantitatively insufficient to produce so sharp a distinction in the resistance to erosion of the crest and limbs of a fold as to determine the ultimate form of the bottle-necked valleys. For the present this may remain an open question, though the
* Professor David's and Griffith Taylor's explanation of the Blue Mountain bottle- neck valleys appears to be applicable to those of the Tararua foothill ridge, though in the former locality this particular type of land-form was produced by a single rock stratum in the limb of a large anticlinal fold, and in the latter by the compacted and stronger strata of the anticlinal limb itself as compared with the weaker crest.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XI.
Fig. 1. — " The Heights " basin, looking north-east, showing topograjihy and present distribution of drainage. Remnant of original stream in foreground (centre to right) ; outlet of same on right bej'ond margin of view. Spill-over outlet on left. Gorge and trenches of ]:)irate stream in distance (right to centre). Trig, station, Arapaepae No. 3, 1,210 ft., in distance on left.
Fifi. 2. — The valley of the Waireka Stream, looking east towards its narrow outlet. The old alluvial flat is now trenched by the slight rejuvenation of the stream.
Face p. 186.]
Adkix. — Feadjnstment of Drainage on the Tararuas.
187
y-i.
V
■y//x
<?"^
'-fe.^
;^CW'7M\\'''
K\y
i;v^"
0)
,«5
CO
/'^l
o
v-i^
■tA
.0.
m;
w
%'^^=^'*h,
■-^v,"
'.lily,.
~ =^^'>^
'^
'/•'
'''/I I
"''/„
'<i^-- -.
-^-— • — '"'^i:
"/.
1 i#i0|##festefe^^i^i ^
•lltl,v
'/.'.'
5 ^^'--^0^ <p ?«''-/A?^Lt/v^<V'^%^^^ ^
.2 §
5^1
188 Transactions.
available evidence appears to indicate that it was sufficient. There was, however, a contributory cause. The rejuvenated Makahika River has cut its present trench-like channel at the foot of the long eastward-trending lateral spurs of the Arapaepae Ridge, truncating them ; and to maintain accordant junctions the Wainui and Waireka Streams were thereby forced to cut shorter, deeper gorges than they would have done had the Makahika River cut its present trench in the middle or on the opposite side of its former widely-opened valley. Of itself the action of the Makahika was quite insufficient to produce the bottle-neck, basin-like valleys of the tributary streams referred to, but, in conjunction with the broad arching of the secondary deformation, conditions came into existence that were favour- able to the production of the tributary valleys in their present form.
When " The Heights " basin had been opened to nearly its present extent a period of alluviation followed. This alluviation covered the former valley-bottom to a considerable depth, and ultimately formed a wide alluvial flat (Plate XI, fig. 1) having a very gentle surface slope to the south-east. The alluvium consists of stifi cream-coloured and yellow clays resting on a thick mass of fine gravel. Towards the close of the deposition of alluvium many of the exposed ends of the half-buried spurs round the rim of the basin were levelled ofi by lateral corrasion, and the flat was thus further enlarged. The current of " The Heights " stream was at this time extremely sluggish, flowing in meanders of small radius, and the surface of the flat must have been diversified by cut-ofi ox-bows and deserted swampy channels (fig. 2). On the whole, the topographic form of the basin at this stage was one of late maturity or even old age.
Alluviation of a somewhat similar character took place also in the Waireka, Wainui, and other adjacent bottle-necked valleys. Thick masses of clay containing scattered angular fragments of rock, often of large size, were laid down, the master streams became sluggish and winding, and the topography reached an advanced stage of maturity.* The alluviation of these tributary valleys took place in harmony with the alluviation of their trunk valley, that of the Makahika : this is proved by the corre- sponding accordant levels of the surfaces of the valley-fill in the several parts of the valley-system. The alluviation of the large river-valleys of the Tararua Range was caused by the failure of the rivers to transport the excessive amount of waste derived from the then more extensive alpine and subalpine areas in which these rivers took their rise during the " glacier period," the snow-line (and consequently the timber-line) being at that time, by reason, in part, of the greater elevation of the country, relatively very much lower than now.f In my previous papers (Adkin, 1911, pp. 497-98, 520 ; 1919, p. 112) it was shown that the building of the valley-plain of the Makahika and Ohau Valleys, and also the construction of the Ohau fan, took place during that period of great elevation of .the North Island — viz., in the early Pleistocene (Park, 1910, pp. 156-57, 250 ; Marshall, 1912, p. 210^ The initial opening -out by rosion of "The Heights " basin and the other adjacent bottle-necked valleys is therefore of some antiquity — -certainly of not later date than middle or perhaps late Tertiary times.
The alluviation of " The Heights " basin was followed by further changes. The s(^urces of a tributary of the Mangaore Stream, situated on
* The last physiographic event in each of these valleys except that of " The Heights " was rejuvenation, by which their alluvial bottoms were trenched to depths up to 100 ft.
t For fuller reference to this subject see " The Discovery and Extent of Former Glaciation in the Tararua Ranges, North Island, New Zealand," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44, p. 315, 1912.
Adkin! — Readjustment of Drainage on the Tararuas. 189
the northern side of " The Heights " basin, were actively extending their sources headward into the outer slopes of its rim. One of these streams finally cut back completely through the rim, and tapped a portion of " The Heights " stream. Invigorated by this success, it still further extended its course witliin the confines of the basin, ultimately capturing half of the drainage-lines therein. Proof of this act of piracy and the consequent reversal of drainage is furnished by the fact that the stream now flows in a direction contrary to the slope of the area it drains, as shown in fig. 1, (Note altitudes — corrected aneroid readings — of the surface of the old alluvial flat.)
Simultaneously, or approximately so, a further change took place, this time in the south-west part of " The Heights " basin. There, one of the aggrading streams so far raised its bed that it at last overtopped a low place in the main Arapaepae divide, and a spill-over course resulted, by which its waters were diverted westward into the catchment area of the Koputaroa Stream. This type of stream-diversion has been described by Gilbert as "' diversion by alluviation." The alternative possibility, that the spill-over course at " The Heights," and also that on the Poruriri Ridge (described in section 5), were cau.sed through capture by the headwater erosion of streams rising outside the basins of the diverted streams, is rejected on the following grounds: (1.) Both the Arapaepae and Poruriri Ridges have fairly even, unnotched crest-lines, and headwater erosion of the streams draining their western slopes does not now, or at any pre- vious period, appear to have caused, or even tended to cause, diversion by piracy. (2 ) The original surfaces of the alluvial flats in the basins of the two diverted streams referred to above still overtop the former low parts of the Arapaepae and Poruriri ridge-crests respectively. In each case the notch cut by the spill-over course can be differentiated from the low part of the ridge-crest.
In this manner the former coalescent drainage of " The Heights " basin became divided into three distinct parts, each of which possesses either inherited or newly-acquired topographic characteristics. The remaining undiverted portion of the original drainage bears, all the signs of advanced age, and still pursues a meandering course on the surface of the alluvial flat before flowing south-east to join the Makahika River. The streams captured by the pirate stream flow in narrow youthful trenches at a depth of from 15 ft. to 100 ft. below the old alluvial surface, and then plunge into the deep and narrow gorge that forms the breach in the northern rim of the basin, and join the Mangaore. In one place part of this entrenched drainage lies only about 7 chains from the old meandering stream, and further captures are thus imminent. The stream diverted by alluviation has also entrenched itself to a slight extent into the alluvial flat, and then cascades down the steep western face of the Arapaepae Ridge to augment the waters of the Koputaroa. The changes described bear the marks of extreme youth, and further adjustments must eventuate before even a moderate state of stability is attained.
5. Changes of Drainage on the Poruriri Ridge. The Poruriri Ridge is another section of the outermost western foothills, lying between the vents of the Mangaore and Tokomaru Rivers ; and linearly it is the northward continuation of the Arapaepae Ridge. The diversion of drainage which took place on the Poruriri Ridge was similar to but less complex than that at '' The Heights," since in the former locaUty the act of piracy was not committed. In the former locality the change was due to diversion by alluviation causing a spill-over course (now known as the
190
Transactions.
TAR-A E.U A.
R.A1M G E
© PORURIRT TR1G..ST/C
KAIHINU V-V ,
MAKUP.ER.UA S-WA.i^P
/9/9
Fig. 3. — The topography of the present and former catchment areas of the Manga- I harakeke Stream, near Tokomaru.
Adkin. — Readjustment of Drainage on the Tararuas. 191
Mangaharakeke Stream : fig. 3) which produced the highest waterfall* yet recorded in the Tararua Range, and a ravine exhibiting all the criteria of extreme youth — precipitous, crumbling rocky sides, and a narrow ungraded stair-like bottom down which the stream plunges in a series of falls and cascades. The main fall is situated at the head of the ravine, and descends the 300 ft. of its height in three leaps, separated by narrow rock ledges.
The northern end of the Poruriri Ridge is even more asymmetrical than the Arapaepae Ridge, its spurs being so deeply truncated on its western side as to present an almost unbroken face, the exceptions being the gash- like Mangaharakeke ravine and some minor gullies. Like the Arapaepae Ridge in the vicinity of " The Heights," the Poruriri has long branching lateral spurs on its eastern side, and physiographically the two ridges have much in common.
Considered as a single feature, the former and present catchment areas of the Mangaharakeke Stream have a topographic form intermediate between that of the Waireka Stream (Plate XI, fig. 2) and that at " The Heights " (Plate XI, fig. 1). Some of the topographic details of this dis- membered catchment area are of considerable interest, but only one which has a direct bearing on my argument can be touched on here. The sudden spilling-over of a fair-sized stream like the Mangaharakeke liberated an enormous amount of erosive power, with the result that the spurs on either side of the ravine were shorn away longitudinally, leaving them as- half- spurs — i.e., having a concave precipice on the one side and the normal form on the other. None of the spurs enclosing any of the neighbouring minor gullies possesses a similar configuration, a fact emphasizing the special origin of the ravine.
Formerly, the Mangaharakeke Stream took its rise on the northern side of the Poruriri Trigonometrical Station, and flowed north and north-east into the upper valley of the Tokomaru River. By the excessive alluviation of the upper part of its course a state of great instabihty ensued, and while swinging to and fro on its alluvial flat the stream found a low place in the main Poruriri ridge-crest and flowed down the western slope, there pro- ducing the ravine and falls described above. A sluggish shrunken remnant of its former trunk, tributary to the Tokomaru, still drains the eastern part of the deserted alluvial flat.
List of Papers cited.
Adkin, G. L., 1911. The Post-Tertiary Geological History of the Ohau River and of the Adjacent Coastal Plain, Horowhenua County, North Island, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 496-520.
1919. Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal Plain and the Associated
Physiographic Features, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 108-18. Cotton, C. A., 1916. The Structure and Later Geological History of New Zealand, Geol. Mag., dec. 6, vol. 3, p. 246.
1918. The Geomorphology of the Coastal District of South-western Wellington,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 212-22. Heim, a. Quoted by Lord Avebury, 1902, in The Beauties of Nature, pp. 159-62 and
maps. Marshall, P., 1912. Geology of New Zealand. Park, J., 1910. The Geology of Neiv Zealand. Taylor, Griffith, 1919. The Physiographic Control of Australian Exploration, Geog.
■Journ., vol. 53, p. 177. Thomson, J. A., 1917. Diastrophic and other Considerations in Classification and
Correlation, &c., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 397-413.
* From the WeUington-Manawatu Railway line just south of Tokomaru this fall is a conspicuous and striking object.
192 Transactions.
Art. XXVI. — The Influence of Salts of the Alkali and Alkaline-earth Metals on the Solubility in Water of Calcium Carbonate (a) in the Presence of Air free from Carbon Dioxide, (b) in the Presence of Excess of Carbon Dioxide.
By E. A. EowE, M.Sc.
[Abstract communicated by W. P. Evans, 31. A., Ph.D., to the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th August, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 15th June, 1920.]
The series of experiments herein described was carried out in order to determine how the solubility in water of calcium carbonate was affected by the presence of small quantities of the salts of the alkali and alkaline- earth metals, the temperature and pressure being approximately constant. The quantities added varied from 0"0005 to 0-1 mole per litre, while the temperature lay between 11° and 12° C.
Apparatus.
The apparatus employed in the first series of experiments consisted of a number of wash-bottles connected in series. The air was sucked through these at a constant rate by means of a water-pump working under a constant head, the flow being adjusted by a micrometer-screw in parallel with a pressure-gauge.
The air was freed from carbon dioxide by means of soda-lime followed by a solution of caustic potassium hydroxide.
In the second series of experiments carbon dioxide was passed through the wash-bottles direct from a cylinder the needle-valve of which replaced the screw-tap of the previous apparatus.
Conclusions.
1. The solubility of calcium carbonate in water increases regularly with the addition of increasing small amounts of (a) ammonium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium sulphates ; (b) ammonium and sodium nitrates ;
(c) ammonium and magnesium chlorides.
2. The solubility of calcium carbonate in water decreases regularly with the addition of increasing small amounts of (a) ammonium, sodium, and potassium carbonates ; (b) potassium nitrate ; (c) potassium chloride ;
(d) disodium hydrogen phosphate.
3. The solubility in water of calcium carbonate exhibits irregularities in the presence of small quantities of sodium chloride.
4. The solubility in water of calcium bicarbonate increases regularly with the addition of increasing small quantities of (a) ammonium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium sulphates ; (6) ammonium, sodium, and potas- sium nitrates ; (c) ammonium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium chlorides.
5. The solubility in water of calcium bicarbonate decreases regularly with the addition of increasing smaU quantities of (a) ammonium, sodium, and potassium bicarbonates ; (6) calcium chloride ; (c) disodium hydrogen phosphate.
6. As regards the alkalies, calcium carbonate appears to be most soluble in the ammonium salt of a given acid and in the sulphate of a given base.
HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 193
Art. XXVII. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lyco- podium : Part IV — The Structure of the Prothallus in Five Species.
By the Rev. J. E. Holloway, D.Sc, Hutton Memorial Medallist.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 23rd June, .1920.]
Plates XII-XV.
Introductory.
In three previous papers (6, 7, 9) I have given general descriptions of the form and the manner of occurrence of the prothalli of eight New Zealand species of Lycopodium. In the last of these papers I also noted, without figures, certain details in the structure of the prothalli which bore upon the general subject of the great variability of the New Zealand species of Li/copodiicm. The eight species whose prothalli were described are L. Bil- lardieri Spring, L. Billardieri var. gracile T. Kirk, L. varium R. Br. Prodr., L. cernuum Linn., L. laterale R. Br. Prodr., L. ramulosum T. Kirk, L. voluhile Forst., L. fastigiatum R. Br. Prodr., and L. scariosum Forst. These prothalli are representative of four out of the five known types. It is a striking fact that these eight species introduce no new types of prothallus beyond those which have become known through the researches especially of Treub and Bruchmann, but they present some very interesting variations from those types. ■ The prothallus of L. cernuum has been, of course, known to science since Treub's papers on several tropical species studied by him in Java were published, but the other seven mentioned above have only recently become known. Two other workers have published the results of their investigations on the prothalli of several of the New Zealand species — namely, Miss Edgerley (4) and Professor C. J. Chamberlain (3) — the former's paper dealing with L. voluhile, L. scariosum, and L. Billardieri, and the latter's with L. voluhile, L. scariosum, and L. laterale.
The present paper is on the structure of the prothallus of the five species L. Billardieri, L. Billardieri var. gracile, L. varium, L. cernuum, L. laterale, and L. ramulosurn. I hope to publish a similar account with regard to L. voluhile, L. fastigiatum, and L. scariosum in a fifth part.
The literature dealing with the various other species — European, Tropical, and American — which have been described is enumerated below at the begin- ning of the sections to which they respectively belong. Several of these papers I have not had access to, but have had to depend for my know- ledge of 'them on brief . summaries and figures copied from them in various standard books of reference. This is, of course, unfortunate, as it has made less possible for the purpose of this paper a full comparative study of the different types of Lycopodium prothalli.
I am glad to record my thanks to Dr. Charles Chilton, Professor of Biology, at Canterbury College, for the interest he has always shown in my work, and for his kind permission to use the biological laboratory of Canterbury College from time to time. I desire also here to recall and acknowledge the guidance of Professor- A. P. W. Thomas, who first suggested to me, when working under him in the biological laboratory at Auckland University College, the study of the New Zealand species of Lycopodium.
7— Trans.
194 Transactions.
Section Phlegmaria.
L. Billardieri Spring ; L. Billanlien var. gracile T. Kirk ; L. varium R. Br.
Prodr.
Literature.
The first papers published on the prothalli of this section were those of Treub (14, 15) dealing with the four tropical species L. Phlegmaria Linn., L. carinatum Desv., L. H ippuris .Desv., and* L. nummularifolium Blume. In a paper on the stem-anatomy of certain New Zealand species of Lycopodium I gave a very brief description of the prothallus of L. Bil- lardieri, stating that it corresponded to the Phlegmaria type (6), and Miss Edgerley a few years later (4) described it more fully, with figures. In two papers of the present series (7, 9) I have given certain details concerning the external form and the structure of this same prothallus and of the two allied forms L. Billardieri var. gracile and L. varium. Literature dealing with two species of prothallus belonging to the closely related Selago section must also be mentioned — viz., Bruchmann's two accounts (1, 2) of the prothallus of L. Selago Linn., and a very brief description, with one figure, of that of L. lucididum Michx. by Spessard (11).
General Form of the Prothallus.
The complete mature prothallus of all these three New Zealand forms, similarly to those of the four tropical epiphytic species described by Treub, consists essentially of a central body of tissue, which may be either bulky or more or less elongated, and a number of branches which arise adventi- tiously from this central body. In fig. 1 is shown such a complete hiature prothallus of L. Billardieri var. gracile in external view, the natural size' being also indicated in the illustration. The central body of the prothallus as here shown is somewhat slender and elongated, a condition which I have found generally to be the rule in this variety. It possesses two complete, and also two broken, thin vegetative branches ; a young, stouter branch ; and also, nearer the forward end, a short club-shaped " resting " process. The two complete branches on the left side of the figure have begun to put forth secondary branches, while otie has also commenced to expand at its growing end preparatory to there bearing sexual organs. The oldest end of the prothallus is intact, and shows clearly the original cone form with which the prothallus of the epiphytic type always begins. At the apex of the cone the cell first formed from the spore still persists. The main pro- thallial body shows the presence of fungus in its internal tissues, this fungal inhabitant occupying the whole of the tissues in the dark basal cone-like region, but being more irregularly distributed farther forward. The fungus is also present in the vegetative branches, being there also somewhat irre- gularly distributed, and the single club-shaped resting process is very dark with it. The ends of the branches are all quite free of fungus and are translucent in appearance. The forward end of the main prothallial body is sHghtly more bulky than the rest, and is quite clear of the fungus. This is the main generative region of the prothallus, and bears paraphyses, archegonia, and also a young plant. The whole prothallus is covered with long rhizoids inclining forward towards the growing apices, except on the terminal bulky region, which is wholly devoid of jbhem, and on the basal cone-Hke region, from which they have decayed away, leaving only short, stubby pro- jections. The description of this particular prothallus in its external
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 195
appearance will suffice to illustrate the general features of the three New Zealand epiphj^ic species here dealt with.
L. Billardieri var. gracile grows abundantly throughout Westland on stems of the tree-fern Dicksonia squarrosa, and it has also been reported from various other parts of New Zealand in the same situation. The
Fig. 1. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Comijlete mature prothallus in general view, showing basal cone intact, lateral branches, and plantlet. X 13. The small figure "represents this prothallus at f natural size.
prothalli and young plants occur more especially on the younger stems of the Dicksonia in between the bases of the stipites, which in this tree-fern run down the stem a considerable length before they begin to be overgrown by the mass of hard brittle aerial rootlets. It is in this more open part
7*
196
Transactions.
o.
Figs. 2-5. — L. Billardieri. Central body of mature prothalli in general view, complete except for basal cone, with old and also yomig branches, bearing sexual organs and paraphyses. Figs. 2, 3, and 5, X 25 ; fig. 4, X 10.
Fig. 3a. — L. Billardieri. Old antheridium in surface view.
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the Neiv Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 197
of the tree-fern stem-surface that the prothalli and plantlets of both L. Bil- lardieri var. gracile and of Tmesipteris occur. As the tree-fern grows in height the covering of aerial rootlets spreads up the stem, and so plantlets of increasing age have to be carefully dissected out from the mass of the brittle rootlets. The prothalli of this species of Lycopodium are often to be found adhering closely to the hard black surfaces of the stipites, and are there readily found by tearing away the humus and the debris of old tomentum which collects between the bases of the stipites. Their rather delicate, attenuated form is probably the result of this particular position of growth.
Fig. 6. — L- varium. Prothallus in general view, showing central body and
branches, and a young plant, x 10. Fig. 7. — L. varium. Prothallus in general view, showing basal end, and young
embryo in the generative region. X 10. Fig. 8. — L. varium. A branched " resting " process in general view. X 10.
The prothalli of L. Billardieri, on the other hand, occur for the most part in masses of humus on elevated positions in the forks of the forest trees and of their main branches. The central prothallial^body is generally more bulky than that of L. Billiardieri var. gracile, but otherwise the prothallus is identical both in appearance and in structure. With regard to the tropical forms studied by him, Treub states that the prothalli of L. Hippuris are much larger and thicker than those of L. Phlegmaria, while those of L. nummidarifolium are exceedingly thin. These epiphytic pro- thalli have very much the appearance of a mass of root-ends, but a little
198 Transactions.
experience in dissecting soon leads one to detect the presence of a central region and so distinguish the prothalli from rootlets. Moreover, the root-ends and vegetable fibres so commonly to be met with in the humus are more dead-white or yellowish in appearance, the prothalli in their fungus-free regions being somewhat translucent. Figs. 2-5 show the central bulky region of four prothalli of L. Billardieri, from all of which the oldest basal region is absent. The distribution of the fungus is indicated in these figures by dark shading. It will be seen that the forward region of the central prothallial body is the most bulky, and is wholly free from fungus. It is also quite devoid of rhizoids. It bears on one surface — the upper — paraphyses in large numbers, and also sexual organs. The archegonia and antheridia are not intermingled, but occur in clearly defined zpnes arising immediately behind the growing apex of the; prothallus. The surface appearance of an old antheridium is shown^ in fig. 3a, the triangular opercular cell being a very distinct feature. The imder-surface of the generative portion of the prothallus is always quite naked and smooth.
Lycopoditim variiim is closely allied to L. Billardieri, but grows terres- trially and has a somewhat different habit of growth. Its prothalli are in every respect identical with those of L. Billardieri. Three prothalli are shown in figs. 6-8. That in fig. 6 bears a yoimg plant : its basal end is not seen. That in fig. 7 shows the basal end dark and withered, and a very young embryo can be seen through the tissues of the forward generative region. In fig. 8 is shown a branched "resting" process. In none of these figures is the distribution of the fungus indicated.
Position in the Soil.
The prothalli belonging to these three forms have apparently no regular position relative to the surface of the soil in which they grow. The branches of the prothallus extend in any direction. Frequently they are inclined forward in the same direction as that of the growth of the main body, but this is not always the case. Bruchmann has shown that in the case of L. Selago the more deeply growing, elongated, cylindrical forms of prothallus extend in a vertical direction towards the surface. This is not thfe case with the prothalli of the terrestrially-growing L. varium, which are quite similar both in their form and in their indefinite position of growth to those of the ordinary epiphytic species. The prothalli of L. Billardieri and of the two other allied New Zealand forms are, however, quite markedly dorsi ventral in structure. The paraphyses and sexual organs are to be found only along the uppermost side of the prothallus, whether they occur on the central region or on the lateral branches.
Early Stages in the Development.
The youngest prothallus found by me belonged to the form L. Billardieri var. gracile, and is shown in fig. 9. This prothallus consisted of the. fijst- formed, conical region, which was entirely infested with the fungus and was covered with the old bases of broken-off rhizoids, and a forward trans- lucent region showing several young paraphyses and an antheridium im- mediately behind the apex. This yoimger portion of the prothallus also bore the usual long rhizoids. The fungus entirely occupied the main portion of the prothallus except in its epidermal cells. It also bore a young lateral process, on which rhizoids were beginning to arise by the outward growth
HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 199
of epidermal cells. This lateral process was free of the fungus, except in certain isolated subepidermal cells which lay at the bases of the young rhizoids. From this latter fact it is apparent that, at ^ny rate when the extension in length of a branch is rapid, infection may take place from without through the rhizoids, and that the distribution of fungus throughout the prothallus does not take place simply through its forward extension from the older regions. The original apex of the oldest conical region
Fig. 9. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. A young prothallus complete, in general view.
X 60. Fig. 10. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Longitudinal section of the basal cone of the
prothallus illustrated in fig. 1, sho^ving remains of spore on the first-formed
cell. X 170. Fig. 11. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Longitudinal section of central body of mature
prothallus, showing general arrangement of tissues, and also foot of young
plant. X 47.
was intact, and the first-formed cells were clearly to be traced. Most of the mature prothalli of these epiphytic species which I found were incom- plete in their basal region, probably on account of the decaying-away of these oldest tissues through age ; but I also found several mature prothalli both of L. Billardieri and of the variety gracile in which the original end was intact. This was the case with that shown in fig. 1, A highly
200
TransactiorifS.
magnified view of the lower portion of the conical region of this particular prothallus is given in fig. 10, in which the remains of the original spore can be seen still attached to the basal cell of the cone. Whether or not a filament ever is formed from the germinating spore, as is known to occur in the prothallus of Tmesipteris, cannot be here stated. The presence of the fungus in these basal cells serves to keep the latter from collapsing for a considerable period, and if a filament is ever formed in the epiphytic Lycopodium prothalli one would expect that, as in the case of Tmesipteris, it would not easily be lost. It is clear, at any rate, from fig. 10 that in some cases at least the germinating spore gives rise immediately to the cone- shaped tissue body. "In his description of the prothalli of L. Selago and L. complanatum Bruchmann figures a single cell at the basal point of the prothallus.
Main Body of the ProtJiallus.
The main body of the prothallus consists essentially of two regions, the hinder vegetative and the forward generative region. There is no such differentiation in structure in the fungus-bearing tissues of the central
Fig. 12. — L. Billardien var. gracile. Transverse section of basal cone of mature prothallus, snowing fimgus throughout, also first branch in longitudinal section . x 108.
Fig. 13. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Transverse section of mature prothallus above basal cone, showdng initial development of the central strand. X 108.
body of this prothallus as is found in those of the clavatum and complanatum types. In these latter prothalli the fungal tissues are clearly marked off into cortical and palisade zones, and in the case of the New Zealand species L. voluhile and L.fastigiatum there is also a wide and very character- istic zone in which the fungal hyphae are also intercellular. The particular type of structure found in these deeply-growing terrestrial types can be put in connection with the general habit of growth of the prothallus. This is the opinion expressed by Bruchmann in his description of the prothalli of L. clavatum, L. annotinum, and L. complanatum (1, pp. 18, 58). As will be seen below, even the prothalli of the Cernua section have attained to a certain degree of differentiation in their fungus-bearing regions. The fungus-infested cells in the main prothallfal body of the three New Zealand species which belong to the Phlegmaria type are all practically similar to one another in their form and contents. In longitudinal section it is apparent that transverse divisions have taken place in them so that
Hollow AY. — St tidies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 201
they are more equidimensional than are the adjacent cells (fig. 11). It is rather the centrally-placed, fungus-free cells which have become changed in form. They are always considerably elongated, and are somewhat narrower than the cells of the fungal zones (fig. 11). This is, of course, quite in accordance with the function of translocation which they are called upon to perform in these elongated prothalli. Certain of the epidermal cells grow out as rhizoids, a transverse wall separating the rhizoid proper from its parent cell. The width of the fungal zone in the main prothallus body varies in different parts, but, generally speaking, it diminishes towards the growing region. However, if lateral branches are borne well forward on the prothallus the fungus will be foimd well forward also. The fungus is always massed around the base of a branch, but in those portions of the main body which lie in between the branches
[vsntTal]
Fig. 14. — L. Billardieri. Transverse section of the prothallus shown in fig. 3, at the
point c. X 60. Fig. 15. — L. Billardieri. Transverse section of the prothallus shown in fig. 5, at the
point a. Compare also fig. 2, c. x 60. Fig. 16. — L. Billardieri. Transverse section of the prothallus shown in fig. 3, at the
point a. X 135.
the fungal zone may be no more than one or two cells in width. In the basal cone-like region the cells, which are all equidimensional, are all infested with the fungus, there being here no centrally-placed conducting strand. At the actual base of the prothallus even the epidermal cells show the presence of the fungus (fig. 10). Fig. 12 is a transverse section of the basal cone, showing the first-formed lateral branch in longitudinal section. It will be seen that in the central region in this figure the fungus is inter- cellular as well as within the cell-cavities, and the cells here consequently appear roundish in shape. Farther forward still the centrally-placed cells are free from fungus and represent the beginning of the conducting-strand (fig. 13). Fig. 14 is a transverse section of the prothallus which is shown in fig. 3 taken at the point marked c. In this region of the main body the fungus has extended forward so that it underlies the old antheridia. The rhizoids are here ventrally borne, and the fungus is aggregated along the ventral side so that the prothallus shows a dorsiventral structure. Fig. 15
202
Transactions.
is a transverse section of the prothallus shown in fig. 5 at aa, and represents the most forward position occupied by the fungus in this prothallus. It will be seen that the fungus in the lateral branch which is also included in this figure is not in connection with that in the main body. The same figure would also represent in transverse section the appearance of the prothallus shown in fig. 2 at cc.
The generative portion of the central prothallial body is always the most bulky, and shows no di&rentiation of its tissues whatever. Immediately behind the growing apex of the prothalli shown in figs. 2, 3, and ■ 5 yoimg antheridia are being produced. Fig. 16 represents a transverse
Fig. 17. — L. Billardieri. Transverse section of the prothallus shown in fig. 3 at the
point b. X 135. Fig. 18. — L. Billardieri. Transverse section of the dorsal side of the prothallus shown
in fig. 2 at the point b. X 135. Fig. 19. — L. Billardieri. Oblique section through the prothallus shown in fig. 2 at
the point a. X 135.
suction of the prothallus shown in fig. 3 at a. Fig. 17 is a transverse section through an older antheridial zone of the same prothallus at h, while fig. 18 shows the grouping of the archegonia in amongst the paraphyses on the prothallus illustrated in fig. 2 at hb. The sexual organs occur in large numbers in distinct zones. The close grouping of the antheridia, for example, is shown in fig. 19, which is an oblique section taken through the point of the prothallus illustrated in fig. 2 at aa. The generative region in transverse section bears evidence of repeated cell-divisions, and the cell nuclei and contents are very prominent, as if there had been extensive translocation of food material to this region of the prothallus. A longitudinal section of the generative region shows that the extensive development of sexual organs and paraphyses along the dorsal surface brings it about that
HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the Nexv Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 203
the actual apical merist^m is somewhat ventrally placed. Fig. 20 shows this forward region of a prothallus in longitudinal section, but the older vegetative region is not included, as the prothallus was curved in shape. The generative region in longitudinal section is also shown in figs. 11 and 34, both of which prothalli bear a young, developing plant.
Fig. 20. — L. Billardieri. Central body of the prothallus, showing generative region in longitudinal section, and also a lateral branch. Basal cone of prothallus not included. X 70.
The Lateral Branches.
The lateral branches or vegetative processes arise from the main central body when the vegetative region of the latter is ceasing to cope with its main function of nourishing the growing generative region. The examina- tion of such prothalli as those given in figs. 1,9, and 10 shows both that the rhizoids on the older portion of the main body have decayed away and that the fungal coils in the cells of this older region have given place to the fungal " spores." The cells are full of these spores, which in all the old prothalli that I have examined do not seem to disintegrate further. The lateral branches are thickly covered with rhizoids, and show the presence of a fungus distributed in the cells more or less along their entire length.
The tissues of the branch are similar to those in the vegetative region of the main body, except, of course, that in accordance with the smaller girth of the branch both the fungal zone and the centrally-placed con- ducting-strand are there correspondingly less in width. Fig. 21 shows a well-developed branch in transverse section, and fig. 22 in longitudinal section. In transverse section there is seen to be a central group of six fungus-free cells, surrounded by a single layer of larger fungus-bearing
204 ~ Transactions.
cells, some of which have divided. Outside this again is another single layer of somewhat smaller cells which may or may not contain the fungus, boimded peripherally by the epidermal layer, whose external walls are cuticularized. These same layers can also be distinguished in fig. 22 in longitudinal section. Thinner branches show less cell-multiplication in the fungal zone. In longitudinal section it is apparent that the fungus- containing cells have divided transversely, so that they are more nearly equidimensional than those either of the central strand or of the epidermis. The fungus ii present in the form of hyphal coils or clusters of oval dark- staining " spores." The fimgus also extends between the cells, so that the latter are frequently roundish in shape.
Sooner or later a branch will show a thickening of its tissues at the apex, and on this swollen region paraphyses and sexual organs will arise (figs. 6, 23, 24)_. Such a swollen region will be free from the fungus, but the hyphal coils are often aggregated very thickly in that portion of the branch' which lies immediately behind it (fig. 24). It is always antheridia which are first formed in such branches, the archegonia occurring only on the main central region of a prothallus. However, a branch may thicken and develop to such an extent that it practically becomes a new prothallus. Probably not a few mature prothalli have arisen not from the germination of a spore, but by a branch having become detached from an older prothallus and having gone on growing in thickness. Such a branch will put forth lateral branches, and will eventually bear archegonia as well as antheridia on its main body. This will account for the fact that most of the mature pro- thalli found by me did not show the typical cone-like basal region. They are in fact prothalli which have arisen adventitiously. Fig. 27 shows in external view the terminal region of a stoutish branch of L. Billardieri var. gracile which has begun to develop antheridia and paraphyses. Some of the detached branches which are dissected out of the humus are imperfect at both extremities, a fact which indicates that they may persist in the humus and remain self -nourishing for a considerable time.
In dissecting out prothalli of these species of Lycopodium from the sub- stratum in which they lie, one frequently comes across detached prothallial branches which have probably arisen by the decaying-away of the parent prothallus. Three such branches of L. Billardieri var. gracile are shown in figs. 28-30. In this particular species these branches are frequently very long and thin, and they may show the presence of paraphyses along extended portions of their length. Lateral branches frequently 'bear short club-shaped processes, sometimes in great numbers (fig. 30), which are quite dark with the fungal inhabitant. These processes are to be regarded as " resting " processes, and they may occur also on mature prothalli of the ordinary kind (figs. 1, 11). They are frequently met with detached in the humus, and are either of a simple nature or are branched (figs. 8, 25). The actual apex of the resting process is white and clear of fungus, but the rest is very dark, being thickly infested with it. Fig. 31 represents such a resting process in transverse section, from which it will be seen that the central cells contain the fungus as well as those more medianly situated, and that the fungus is intercellular as well as intracellular. The apex of one of the branches of the stout 'resting process shown in fig. 25 is given in longitudinal section in fig. 32. Immediately behind the apex the fungus is hyphal only and does not penetrate between the cells. Farther back, however, the hyphal coils have to a large extent been replaced by the " spores," and the fungus is also intercellular. Instances may be met with
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 205
Fig. 21. — L. Billardieri. Transverse section of lateral vegetative branch. X 170 Fig. 22. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Longitudinal section of a lateral vegetative
branch, x 170. Figs. 23, 24. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Swollen ends of lateral branches, bearing
antheridia and paraphyses, in general view. X 22. Fig. 25. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Branched detached " resting " process, in
general view, x 22. Fig. 26. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Detached " resting " process in general view,
showing initiation of renewed growth. x 22.
206
Transactions.
Fig. 27. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Growing end of lateral branch in general view, showing apical meristem, young antheridia, and paraphyses. X 80.
Figs. 28-30. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Detached branches ia general view, bearing paraphyses and club-shaped " resting " processes, and showing disposition of fungus. X 7
HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 207
in which a resting process is resuming its extension in length. Generally it proceeds immediately to form paraphyses and antheridia (fig. 26), and probably develops ultimately into a large prothallus. Thus these species are able to propagate themselves vegetatively. In this connection it will be remembered that Treub has described a rather different mode of vegetative propagation in the prothallus of L. Phlegmaria.
Fig. 31. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Transverse section of a " resting " process. X 135. Fig. 32. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Longitudinal section of one of the apices of the
" resting " process shown in fig. 25. X 13.5. Fig. 33. — L. Billardieri. Longitudinal section of a very young lateral branch, x 135. , Fig. 34. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Longitudinal section of the generative region of
the main prothallial body, showing suspensor, foot, and first root of plantlet
in longitudinal section, x 42.
Position of the Meristem.
In the young prothallus of L. Billardieri var. gracile shown in fig. 9 it : s apparent that the meristem is confined to the actual apex, and that more than one of the apical cells are meristematic. This position and form of the meristem holds throughout the life of the prothallus of this particular type. In fig. 27 are shown the growing tips of lateral prothallial branches. However irregular in shape the central body of the prothallus may be, there is always a forward growing end to be found where the meristem is localized. In the prothalli shown in figs. 2-5 the growing apex is easily to be distin- guished, but it is not always so apparent. As I have mentioned above, the rapid formation of sexual organs behind the growing apex generally brings it about that the meristematic cells are somewhat displaced from the actual apex of the prothallus and lie slightly towards the underside, this being apparent in the longitudinal section shown in fig. 20. Again, I must add
208
Transactions.
that in this particular figure the hinder region of the prothallus is not cut longitudinally, so that although the fungal tissue in the figure seems to bear some relation to the meristem this is really not the case. In the branches in which the fungus is found almost throughout the entire length it is absent from the whole of the tip of the branch, even in the case of the " resting " processes which are so packed with fungus (fig. 32). Thus the growing tips always appear clear and translucent. A lateral branch arises adventitiously on the central prothallial body by one or more of the externally-placed cells of the latter setting up a local meristem. This can be seen from fig. 33, which shows in longitudinal section a very young lateral branch being formed alongside some old paraphyses. At first the process extends in length by the activity of a single triangular apical cell (fig. 33), but probably very early the apex broadens and more than one cell becomes meristematic. , Miss Edgerley states that at the tips of the branches she found two initials (4, p. 105).
Relation of the Young Plant to the Prothallus.
In the epiphytic species, whereas the antheridia are frequently borne on certain parts of the lateral branches as well as on the central body of the prothallus, the archegonia are borne on the latter only. At the same time, it will be remembered that this central body may not have grown directly from the germinating spore, but may have originated by the development of a detached branch. This central body of the prothallus, as has been described, consists of a hinder vegetative region and a forward more bulky generative region, and it is to the latter that the young plant is attached (figs. 1, 6, 7, 11, 34, 36, 37). Not infrequently more than one developing plantlet is attached to the same prothallus (fig. 37).
V
35
Figs. 35-37. — L. Billardieri var. gracile. Prothalli bearing one or more young plants, in general view. Fig. 35, x 3 ; figs. 36 and 37, X 6.
The prothallus, being placed well below the surface of the humus, is called upon to nourish the young plant altogether until the latter can reach the surface and produce its first leaves. The naked stems of the developing plantlets are sometimes as much as | in. long before they reach the light. In accordance with this considerable degree of dependence of the young plant upon its parent prothallus, that part of the base of the plant which is in contact with the prothallial tissues functions as an absorbing " foot." This foot is a well-marked feature m the plantlets of the epiphytic species, although it does not there assume so large a size as it does in the plantlets
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodjum. 209
which are borne on the clavatum and complanatum types of prothallus. In these latter species the prothallus is stil) more deeply buried, and the leaves on the young stem are also no more than scales, so that the prothallus functions as the source of food-supply for a lengthy period. " The size of the foot in the New Zealand epiphytic species can be seen from figs. 11 and 34, the foot being in transverse section in the former figure and in longitudinal section in the latter. There is a well-defined epithelial cell-layer around the periphery of the foot where the latter is in contact with the prothallus, and the outer walls of these epithelial cells are strongly defined, staining darkly. The adjoining prothallial tissue is small-celled and contains abundant protoplasm and darkly-staining nuclei^ extensive cell-division having taken place here contemporaneously with the development of the plant. The central cells in the foot are large, with their long axes directed towards the stem-apex. All of these features, of course, point to the fact that there- is a well-established translocation of food material from the prothallus into the developing plantlet, and that the epithelial layer functions as an absorbing tissue.
The first root develops comparatively late. It may be recognized as a conical outgrowth at the base of the stem on the side which lies away from the prothallus even before the stem-apex has reached the surface of the soil, but it never seems to develop farther until the first leaves are being produced. Fig. 34 shows the first root in longitudinal section, it being apparent from this figure that the main vascular tissues of the stem lead down bodily into the root, while just a few narrow conducting-elements connect the former with the central tissue of the foot. Fig. 34, which is a drawing of the young plant of L. Billardieri var. gracile, is strikingly similar to the figure which Bruchmann gives of the young plant of L. Selago (1, pi. 7, fig. 43). I have observed a number of ypung plants of the New Zealand epiphytic species in this condition, so that it may be taken as representing characteristically this stage in the development of the young plant and its mode of dependence upon the prothallus in both the Selago and Phlegmaria sections.
Treub stated that in the young plant of L. Phlegmaria he had found an indication of a swelling which he regarded as a rudimentary protocorm. Bower, however, has questioned this, and Treub's statement has never been established. I have found no indication of a protocorm in any of the three New Zealand species which belong to this section of the genus. In his Origin of a Land Flora Bower says that he regards the Selago and Phlegmaria type of embryo plant as being the primitive type for the genus, as it certainly is the most simple. The clavatum and complanatum type of embryo, he says, is not very dissimilar to it, but has become more modi- fied through the large development of the foot consequent on the deeply subterranean habit of the prothallus. The cernuum-inundatum type of embryo stands rather by itself. The intraprothallial swelling called the " foot " is here practically absent, but instead there is the extra-prothallial swelling which Treub called the " protocorm." Bower and others hold stroijgly that the protocorm is not a primitive character, as Treub "had supposed, but merely a physiological modification.
Details of the Fungal Symbiont. A symbiotic fungus occurs very commonly throughout the Pteridophyta in the subterranean forms of prothallus, and it has been carefully studied in most of those species of Li/copodium of which the prothalli are known.
210 Transactions.
In the three New Zealand species dealt with above it is present at the actual base of the prothallus, having entered probably very early in its develop- ment. It occupies the whole of the tissues in the basal cone except at the meristematic apex, being found even in the epidermal cells at the basal point (figs. 1, 9). At first the fungus is in the form of hyphal coils which are in actual connection with the mycelium in the outside soil by means of hyphae which are to be found running through the rhizoids. As these rhizoids die off from the older parts of the prothallus, each being cut off at its base by a strongly thickened transverse wall, the fungus in these older regions becomes isolated from that in the soil, and probably ceases to function. The fungal coils soon disappear in many ,of the cells, their place being taken by clusters of darkly-staining oval " spores " (fig. 10). I do not know whether or not the fungus is at all used up by the growing prothallus, but I should say not, as in even mature prothalli the cells in the basal cone are still occupied either by the coils or by the " spores."
A little forward from the basal cone the fungus has begun to penetrate between the cells as well as occupying their cavities, so that the cells appear loundish in section. It is especially jiresent in this intercellular position at the centre of the prothallus, and produces its spores there also (fig. 12). A little higher up the prothallial body the fungus becomes more localized, avoiding the centra!" core of cells which has begun to function in the translocation of food material. The cells of this fungal zone throughout the vegetative portion of the main prothallial body preserve their ordinary form and are in no way altered by the presence of the fungus. Their nuclei also appear large and healthy, showing that the fungus has exercised no harmful effect. I have not been able to distinguish in these prothalli the multinucleate vesicles which have been described as occurring in the fungal zone in the prothalli of the clavatum and complanatum types. All that are here apparent are the dense hyphal coils and the clusters of spores. As the prothallus grows, the fungus pushes forward, always occupying its particular zone, except that at length when 'the sexual organs and para- physes are initiated it is confined to the ventral side of the prothallus body (fig. 14). In the forward, bulky, generative region the fungus is altogether absent. Its most forward position is shown in (fig. 15), and it wiU be observed that even here the coils have begun to be transformed into the spores.
The fungus is also present in the lateral branches, being confined there also to a particular zone, avoiding the centrally-placed conducting-cells and the epidermis. Here, too, it is intercellular as well as intracellular, and the clusters of spores are a well-marked feature (figs. 20-22). The distribution of the fungus in some of the long thin branches is discontinuous (fig. 1), from which it would appear that fresh infection can take place from without through the rhizoids (see also fig. 9). In those stouter branches which have begun to form sexual organs and paraphyses the fungus is only present along the opposite side of the branch (figs. 28-30), the branches thus being bilateral. Sometimes it is to be noticed that when a branch is beginning to swell at the apex preparatory to the formati^fn of antheridia the fungus is thickly aggregated immediately behind this point, there occupying the whole of the tissues of the branch (fig. 24). The " resting " club-shaped branches are always very densely infected, there being no long narrow central conducting-cells (figs. 1, 25, 26, 30). The actual apex of the resting process is, of course, clear of the fungus, but the latter reaches right up behind the apex, being found there as dense
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the jSew Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 211
fungal coils (figs. 31, 32). Throughout the greater portion of these resting processes the coils have given place to the clusters of spores, as takes place also in the other parts of the prothallus.
I have not been able to trace how the spores are formed, or even what is their exact nature. It seems unlikely that they are used up by the developing prothallus as food, for they are more thickly, present in the oldest parts of the prothallus than elsewhere. Nor have I observed the presence of oil globules in the fungal tissues, which is so well known a feature in the prothalli of the clavatum and complanatum types. Probably the prothallus benefits from the fungus only when the latter is in the form of hyphal coils, these coils being in direct connection with the external mycelium. The rapid growth in length of the prothallus and its branches accounts for there being no storing-up of food material in any of its vegetative parts. Even in the bulky generative region I have not been able to discover the presence of starch, although it is possible that it may there be present at certain stages in the development of the sexual organs or young plant, but there is abundant protoplasm and the nuclei are very large in the cells around the growing apex. The younger regions of the lateral branches are probably self-nourishing, in this matter being quite independent of the older parts of the prothallus. In fact, isolated branches or portion of branches are capable of continued growth, this being a very common method of propagation in these epiphytic species. The central conducting-strand in the branches functions in the translocation of food material from the younger regions of the branches down into the main prothallial body, the food being there needed in the forward generative region.
Miss Edgerley figures the clusters of spore-like bodies, stating that she found them very commonly in L. Billardieri, but that she observed no nucleated vesicles (4, p. 109).
Comparison oj L. Selago and L. Billardieri (cfec).
In his description of the prothalli of L. Selago, Bruchmann (1, pp. 87 et seq.) shows that the more compact surface-growing forms which are found in this species possess a ring-like marginal meristem. This bears a close resemblance to that which is found in the prothallus of the clavatum and complanatum. types. The elongated prothalli of L. Selago are found in deeper soil, and possess, according to Bruchmann, an erect position of growth, as if striving to reach the surface. Bruchmann derives the peculiar growth of the latter from the ring-like marginal growth of the former, stating that the apparently apical meristem of the elongated forms represents a part of the margin which has grown forward. It will be necessary to compare this manner of elongated growth with that which takes place in the prothalli belonging to the Phlegmaria section.
The prothallus of both L. Selago and L. Billardieri (&c.) starts with the cone form, the cone being from the first richly occupied by the fungus. Judging from the arrangement of cells at the lowest part of the .cone, growth at first takes place from a single apical cell, but this probably soon gives place to a group of apical meristematic cells. The girth of the cone is also probably increased by cell-divisions taking place in all the body-cells stimulated by the presence of the fungus. From this point- onwards the further growth of the protl alius could either result in the extension of the cone form or the prothallus could pass out of the cone form into an elongated, cylindrical form. The first of these methods seems to
212 Transactions.
be the normal rule in L. Selago — at any rate, in its surface -growing forms — and the latter in the prothallus of the Phlegmaria section. It is signifi- cant to note that both these methods of growth are represented in those New Zealand species which belong to the Cernua section, and which are described later in this paper, although in these species they are not so clearly differentiated as in the former. The prothalli of the Phlegmaria section represent the extreme attained within the genus by the elongated, cylindrical type of growth, and the prothalli of the clavatum and com- planatum sections represent, on the other hand, the extreme attained by the continued cone-like manner of growth. The prothalli of L. Selago, as Lang has pointed ojit (10, p. 305), show that these two main types are not fundamentally dissimilar, for they both here occur in the same species. In saying this, however, it must clearly be remembered that, according to Bruchmann's account, the elongated, cylindrical forms of the L. Selago prothallus do not altogether correspond to the ' elongated prothalli of the Phlegmaria section, for growth in them is not truly apical, but is rather a one-sided marginal extension from the cone. The elongated prothallus of L. ramvlosum, as will be shown, is really more comparable to the prothallus of L. Phlegmaria, &c., although, even here, the comparison is not an exact one. The elongated bilateral extensions from the basal cone in L. Selago are better compared with the flattened extension from the margin which Bruchmann described and figured in L. annotinum (1), being of the same nature but much more pronounced.
The more compact surface-growing form of the L. Selago prothallus is nearer to a self-nourishing, chlorophyllous type of prothallus, which must ' certainly be regarded as more primitive than a wholly saprophytic one. The very young prothallus, as has been said, begins with the cone form, and next has to set apart a central conducting-core which reaches up behind the actual growing apex. The apex, of course, will be more or less conical in shape, and at this stage is certainly not brosid. If the pro- thallus does not proceed to elongate rapidly, the stimulation to increase in size will be largely confined to increasing its girth, and this will take place not only by a broadening of the apical mersitem, but also by divi- sions taking place in the body-cells generally. At the same time the fungus-free central core will extend in width as the apex broadens and the prothallus slowly extends in length, until it assumes above the form of a cushion of tissue. If chloropyhll is developed in it, this upper cushion will contain a general distribution of starch. In proceeding to explain how the original apical meristem could become transposed to a marginal ring it seems not unnatural to suppose that as the upper fungus-free tissue becomes more bulky, and so loses the tendency to a localized concentration of food material, the stimulation exerted by the supply of food is felt more in those parts of the prothallus where the fungus is youngest and therefore in its fullest functioning power. This will naturally be along the upper margin of the enveloping fungal zone which extends as a ring around the prothallus. Here, then, the meristematic activity of the prothallus will be localized. As the prothallus still continues slowly to increase in size the fungus will push forward bit by bit into the more newly formed cells, the prothallus still retaining the original cone form. I . In the surface-growing prothallus of L. Selago this is what happens, and the sexual stage is fairly early initiated, the antheridia and later the archegonia arising from the meristem. A comparative study of the pro- thalli of the different species of Lycopodium shows that the cone type of
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 213
structure exhibits modifications in the different sections of the genus which are quite in accord with the conditions under which the prothalli of those sections live. There is no need for the surface-growing prothalli of L. Selago to increase in length, for they soon reach the light. Nor is there any great storing-up of food in their tissues, for the young plant when formed can quickly attain independance. Again, it is probably the inherited tendency towards the chlorophyllous, self-nourishing condition, which is strong in the prothallus of this species, which causes the more deeply buried individuals to adopt the peculiar and extensive prolongation of the upper margin of the cone into the cylindrical, bilateral, erect branches in the effort to reach the light. In the altogether subterranean humus- loving prothalli of the Phlegmaria section the chlorophyllous habit has been completely lost, and the direction of growth of the prothallus bears no relation to the surface of the soil. These prothalli are greatly elongated and branched, and the extensive development of long rhizoids, as in the case of the humus-growing prothalli of Tmesipteris .and Psilotum, shows that it is necessary for the fungus in the prothallus to be brought into intimate contact with as large an area as possible of the humus for its nourishment. The method of elongation is here altogether different from that adopted by the underground prothalli of L. Selago. Starting from the cone form, the pro- thallus quickly passes into the cylindrical form without increasing its girth, the meristem continuing in the original apical position throughout the life of the prothallus. In this way the main prothallus body is formed, that of L. Billardieri var. gracile being more elongated than that of the other-species examined. The somewhat liulky nature of the forward generative portion of this body of tissue goes hand in hand with the need for the prothallus to support the young plant for a longer period than in the case of the prothallus of L. Selago, owing to the correspondingly greater depth at which the former is buried. The lateral branches arise adventitiously from any part of the main prothallial body and grow from an apical meristem. They are primarily vegetative, the sexual organs being borne normally on the central body. The latter in its generative region possesses a bilateral structure which is always dorsiventral, the sexual organs being borne only on the upper side. Here again this is not strictly comparable with the bilateral structure of the processes of the L. Selago prothallus, for in the latter it is, according to Bruchmann, simply carried over from the margin of the original basal cone and always bears evidence of this. Thus the modification of the original cone form in the epiphytic prothalli, as in those of L. Selago, is best explained in the light of the conditions under which the prothalli live.
The structure of the prothallus in the New Zealand species belonging to the Cernua section, and the modifications which there occur, will be considered in the next section of this paper, and a general comparative survey, including also the structure of the prothallus of the clavatum and complanatum types, will be instituted in the concluding remarks.
Section Cernua. L. cernuum Linn. ; L. laterale R. Br. Prodr. ; L. ramulosum T. Kirk.
Literature.
In 1884 Treub (13) published his account of the prothallus of L. cernuum. Goebel's (5) account of the prothallus of L. inundatum followed next in 1887, and in the following year Treub (15) described his laboratory cultures of
214
Transactions.
the prothallus of L. salakense. In 1902 Thomas (12) published a pre- liminary account of the prothallus of Phylloglossum. In 1910 (6) I noted the fact that I had found the prothalli of both L. cernuum and L. laterale in) New Zealand, and stated that the latter was of the cernuum type. In Part I of the present series of papers (7) I described and figured the external form of the prothalli and the structure of the young plant of
Fig. 38. — L. cernuum. Prothallus showing in general view lower part of shaft with
two fungal regions, x 32. Fig. 39. — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of prothallus shown in fig. 38. X 32. Fig. 40. — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of prothallus, showing double basal tubercle
and thick, short shaft. X 50. Fig. 4L — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of upper fungal region of a prothallus, with
lateral group of lobes. X 50.
both these species, and also of L. ramulosum., noting especially the variations in form to be found in the prothallus of the latter. In 1917 Chamberlain (3) gave a brief description, with figures, of the prothallus and young plant of L. laterale from material which he had obtained in New Zealand. Lastly, in a third Part (9) I have enumerated the main results of my study of the three New Zealand species which belong to the Cernua section in connection with the plasticity to be observed in the genus as a whole.
HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 215
General Form of the Prothallus.
L. cernuum. — The typical prothallus of L. cernuum consists, according to Treub, of a basal " primary tubercle,'' a longer or shorter shaft, and a crown of lobes, immediately beneath which lies the meristem and the sexual organs. The prothallus is radial in build, erect in growth, and situated at the surface of the soil, being gTeen in its lobes and in the upper portion of the shaft. It is the most delicate and the smallest of all the types of Lycopodium prothalli, the allied L, salakense possessing a still more
43
Fig. 42. — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of prothallus of intermediate length, x 50. Fig. 43. — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of basal fungal region of prothallus,
showing lateral extension, x 50. Fig. 44. — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of prothallus of thick, short form, x 32. Fig. 45. — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of meristematic region of prothallus, with
a fertilized archegonium. x 50.
filamentous prothallus. Some of the prothalli of this species which I have found are comparatively long (7, fig. 17, and fig. 38 in the present paper). That shown in the latter of these two illustrations was broken at its upper extremity, so that I do not know its complete length. In others, again, the shaft is short and thick, and the general appearance of the prothallus more massive (7, fig. 20, and figs. 40 and 44 in the present paper). Forms of inter- mediate length are shown in a previous paper (7, figs. 18, 19, and 21) and in fig. 42 of the present paper. I have also found a considerable amount of variation in the distribution of the fungus, and, since the fungal regions are always more or less swollen, there is a corresponding variation in the
216 Transactions.
general form of the prothallus. There is sometimes a single basal tubercle of rounded form (7, figs. 17-20) ; or this basal fungal region may be extended laterally for a distance up one side of the shaft, thus giving to the prothallus a feomewhat lop-sided appearance (7, fig. 21, and figs. 42-44 in the present paper). Again, there may be a second fungal region quite unconnected with the first and situated higher up the shaft (figs.' 38, 39, 41). Lastly, there may be two distinct fungal regions situated side by side, the two constituting the basal portion of the prothallus and giving it a markedly thickset appearance (fig. 40) I have sectioned several prothalli which showed this latter form. Rhizoids are borne on both fungal swellings in those cases in which two are present. The lobes which are borne at the crown of the prothallus are flattened extensions (7, figs. 17-21), being generally not more than one to three cells thick in- transverse section (figs. 40-42). In one or two instances 1 noticed from my serial sections that there was a group of lobes situated laterally on the shaft, of the prothallus. In fig. 41, this is seen to be associated with the uppermost fungal region, as if the formation of this second fungal zone had initiated a meristematic activity in the adjoining regions of the shaft. The thickest part of the prothallus is always that situated at the base of the crown of lobes. Here is the meristem (figs. 42, 45) from which the lobes have arisen, and by whose continued activity the shaft of the prothallus can be extended in length and its upper region in width. Here, too, the sexual organs are to be found and the young plantlets (figs. 40, 44, 45). I have never found the chlorophyll extending much more than half-way down the shaft. Sometimes the lobes are bright green, or they may show a very slight tinge of colour or be quite colourless, this variation possibly depending simply upon the age of the prothallus.
L. laterale. — The prothallus of this species corresponds very closely with that of L. cernuum. I have not found that there is such a marked variation in the length of the shaft as is to be found in the latter species, the majority of the prothalli of L. laterale being more of the intermediate length (7, figs. 13-16, and pi. 17, fig. 3). The longest prothallus I have found is that shown in fig. 46. One prothallus of a very large size is shown in fig. 48. It was exceedingly massive in form, and of irregular growth. Its greatest length was in a horizontal direction, and it possessed a crown of irregular short lobes all along the top. It was almost colourless, though perhaps this was the result of its age. It bore a young plant which was of a bright-green colour, the foot of the plant also being bright green and showing very conspicuously through the prothallial tissues. Chamber- lain (3, p. 57) states that in the prothalli of this species examined by him he found no sharply differentiated primary tubercle like that described by Treub in L. cernuum. From his figures it would appear that this was because his prothalli are rather of the short, thickset form. The basal tubercle is always more distinct when the shaft is well developed. I have found that, as in L. cernuum, the basal, fungal region may extend la,terally for a short distance up one side of the shaft, thus giving a lop-sided appearance to the prothallus as a whole (7, fig. 13). Also, as in the other species, there is sometimes a second fungal region higher up the shaft and quite distinct from the basal tubercle (fig. 47). The leafy expansions on the crown of the prothallus of L. laterale are more filamentous and less lobe-like than those of L. cernuum (7, figs. 13-16, and pi. 17, fig. 3, and figs. 46 and 47 in the present paper). This appears also from Chamber- lain's figures. A large proportion of the prothalli examined by me showed
Hollo WAY. — Sfnch'es in the New Zealand Species of Lj^copodium. 217
««
Fig. 46. — L. laterale. Longitudinal section of prothallus and young plant. X 42. Fig. 47. — L. laterale. Longitudinal section of ' iirothallus, showing lobes and
shaft, with an upper fungal region, x 42. Fig. 48. — L. laterale. Large massive prothallus with young plant in general
view. Also a very young iirothallus entangled in the rhizoids of the
former, x 16. Fig. 49. — L. laterale. The very j'oung iwothallus shown in fig. 48. x 70.
218
Transactions.
a lateral group of lobes borne on the shaft. I previously thought that this was a distinguishing feature between the two species L. cernuum and L. laterale, but have since found it also in the prothalli of the former. In one of the figures given in Part I of this series of papers (7, fig. 16) I showed that a long, thin, club-shaped process is sometimes to be found attached
to the basal tubercle of the pro- thallus of L. laterale, and I there expressed the opinion that this was the first-formed part of the prothallus, as it so often is also in the prothallus of L. ramulosum. My serial sections of this prothallus unfortunately do not make this satisfactorily clear, but none the less I feel confident that this is the right interpretation. The base of this first -formed process (7, fig. 16) shows the presence of the fungus, and it may be compared with the corresponding parts of L. ramulosum illustrated in the present paper in figs. 52-54. As in L. ^ cernuum, the prothallus of L. laterale is normally short-lived, having decayed away by the time that its plantlet has developed two or three protophylls. Probably the, large size of the prothallus in fig. 48 was due to the fact that for a considerable time no embryo wa formed on it. Moreover, in this case, on account of its large size, the prothallus would persist attached to the young plant for a much longer time than usual.
L. ramulosum. — The prothalli of this species vary very remarkably, both in form and structure. I have discovered these prothalli in several different localities and in considerable numbers, and so am able to give a fairly complete ac- count of their typical form and of the variations of it. The prothalli, as in the other species belonging to the cernuum type, are more or less green in their upper regions, being situated at the surface of the ground. Some of the prothalli of this species are very similar to those of L. cernuum, while others show on the one hand the elongated arid on the other hand the compact, massive habit which I have described as occurring both in L. cernuum and in L. laterale, but here to a much more marked extent. Figs. 50-55 illustrate prothalli of the elongated form
Fig. 50. — L. ramulosum. Complete mature prothallus of elongated form in general view, showing several swollen fungal regions, x 30.
Tbans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI I
Plate XII.
iHli&A>'
Jjycopodium ramulosum. Complete prothaUus of elongated form, in general view, x 33.
Face p. 218
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XIII.
■S^/.
■"'••^•ii,
" • /'
,?)
\k::
Lycopodium ramulosum. Complete prothallus of elongated form, in general view. X 33.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XIV.
Lycopodium ramulosum. Prothallus of elongated form (incomplete at basal end), in general view. X 33.
Trans. N.Z. Inst . Vol. LII.
Plate XV.
:^' ..pit}
"^^1 'rm ;m.-j _ ,
/;*• 3^ ^1
.1
3?
4i?
LycojMflium ramulosum. Longitudinal section of prothallus of massive form and young jjlant. X 46.
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodijum. 219
and figs. 56-60 prothalli of the compact, massive build. Some of these figures were given in Part I of the present series of papers, but are here reproduced in greater detail. Photos of three elongated prothalli of this species in general view are also given in Plates XII, XIII, and XIV, and
Fig. 51. — L. ramulosum. Complete mature prothaUus of elongated form in general view, showing several fimgal regions^and a young plantlet. x 30.
a photo of a more massive prothaUus with its young plantlet is given in longitudinal section in Plate XV. The prothaUus shown in Plate XII is the same as that given in fig. 50.
In the elongated forms the fungal regions may be swollen so as to present the form of rounded tubercles, or, again, they may be scarcely swollen at all. Each fungal region invariably bears a group of rhizoids. In the massive forms the prothaUus may be compact and show a certain
220 Transactions.
similarity in general appearance to the surface - growing forms of the L. Selago prothallus, or they may be so irregularly extended in length that their build is difficult to distinguish. In the elongated forms, along with the development of a number of fungal areas, there goes a corresponding development of several distinct generative regions bearing sexual organs and filamentous or lobe-like processes. Frequently, in this latter form of prothallus, the first-formed generative regions are brown and withered, suggesting that the prothallus had resuni^d growth on one or more occa- sions at the close of a dry period or on account of there being no embryo developed. I have always found that a young plant when present was borne on the last-formed region of the prothallus, so that growth in length is apparently not continued after the development of a young plant. The prothalli sometimes persist attached to the developing plant for a much longer time than in L. cernuum. I have found several instances of a healthy prothallus still attached to a plantlet which showed as many as seven or eight protophylls along an extended protocorm. The lateral processes are sometimes filamentous, and at others short and lobe-like. Owing to the fact that the prothallus of L. ramulosum is so variable in form, it is impossible to give many details in a general description of it. I will now proceed to enter more into detail in connection with the particular individuals figured in this paper.
The prothallus shown in fig. 50 and in Plate XII possessed five fimgal areas, quite distinct from one another, each being swollen and rounded in form and bearing a group of rhizoids. There are two generative regions showing the presence of archegonia and bearing filamentous processes. The basal fungal swelling bore no evidence of any original filamentous stage, and was probably formed immediately on germination of the spore. As wiU be described later, a first-formed filamentous stage is frequently to be observed in the prothalli of this species. The uppermost fungal region is, of course, the youngest. It occurs at the base of the meristematic apex of the prothallus, and it is evident that both this growing apex and its fungal region have just begun to form. Both from the figure and from the photo it wiU be seen that here, curiously enough, the fungus lies internally to the epidermal cells. There is no special apical cell or group of cells, the whole apical region of the prothallus being meristematic. The succession of five swollen fungal regions shows very clearly that it is the fungus which causes the swelling in the tissue of the prothallus, and that, at any rate in this prothallus, the primary tubercle is in no wise different from any of the later-formed tubercles.
The prothallus shown in fig. 51 illustrates some interesting points in comparison with that just described. There are six distinct fungal areas, and the four lowest are closely approximated and are scarcely, if at all, swollen. There is a well-developed filament at the base of the prothallus, and the prothallus as a whole increases quite gradually in girth from this upwards. Even the first-formed fungal region is practically unswollen. I should judge that the extension in length of the prothallus in these early stages had been comparatively rapid, there being no cessation in growth in length consequent on the formation of a first generative region or of the storing of food material. This state of things can bear close com- parison with what takes place normally in the cylindrical much-elongated epiphytic prothalli, in which growth is continuous and rapid and there is an entire absence of swellings in the fungal regions. The adoption, or rather, the preservation, of the definite apical meristem in the epiphytic type is probably only the result of this habit of growth. The prothallus
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 221
of L. ramulosum shown in fig. 51 may best be described in its entirety as a gradually widening filament. The young plantlet borne at its upper extremity was peculiarly diminutive in size. There were no antheridia
- r
Figs. 52-54. — L. ramulosum. Complete mature prothalli of elongated form in general view, a is the basal fungal region ; a' and a", secondary fungal regions ; b' and b" are generative regions bearing lobe-like outgrowths. In fig. 52 there is a lateral outgrowth (6) associated with the basal fungal region. The shading on 6' and b" represents browning due to withering. X 20.
Fig. 55. — L. ra?nulosmn. Complete mature prothallus of elongated form in general view, showing branching above the second fungal region. X 20.
either on this prothallus or on that in fig. 50. The photo of the prothallus given in Plate XIII also illustrates the nature of the elongated manner of growth with the formation of several fungal regions.
222 Transactions.
The four protlialli outlined in figs. 52-55 show at their base a distinct fungal tubercle, that in fig. 53 bearing evidence of an original filament. The prothallus in Plate XIV shows a lower fungal region, which was, however, not the first-formed portion. The shaft is long, and bears a lateral process and also a terminal broad generative region which is associated with a second fungal area. In figs. 52 and 54 there is a fungal swelling located behind the growing end, it being evident also that in both tkese prothalli the apex is at the point of renewing its growth. A large number of prothalli of this species which I found were of the peculiar step-like form shown in figs. 52-54. Here the generative regions are sometimes of considerable, extent, and, relatively to the long axis of the prothallus, lie horizontally. The position of these elongated prothalli in the soil is always vertical. The older generative regions are frequently brown and withered, either as the result of a dry spell in the weather or because they have ceased to be supplied with food and have begun to decay. These generative regions are frequently fairly bulky. It is probable that the irregularly, massive forms of prothallus described next have acquired their form through an exceptionally bulky development of one or more of these successive generative regions, the intermediate shaft-like ^stages of growth having been suppressed. Sometimes these massive prothalli show the remains of the lowest shaft and first-formed tubercle still attached to them. Those prothalli of L. laterale which bear club-like processes attached to the primary tubercle, as described in a previous paper (7, fig. 16), probably come under this category. Fig. 55 shows a prothallus which has branched in its middle region, tlie two branches being borne on a particularly large fungal swelling. These two branches are clearly not to be regarded as processes of the kind usually borne on the generative regions. One of them showed a fungal region with rhizoids near its apex. Both are browned at the tip. It is certainly interesting to find that along with its power of cylindrical elongation the prothallus of this species is able also to branch, these variations suggesting that the Lycopodium prothallus is very plastic in character and that the several main types are by no means so fixed as has been supposed.
'I pass now to the description of the massive and compact prothalli. Some of these show a very regular build (figs. 56, 57, 60, and Plate XV), being comparable with the surfp,ce-growing forms of L. Selago (see 1, pi. 6, fig. 37). They do not, however, show the same internal structure as the latter. The prothallus illustrated in fig. 56 possesses one fungal region only, which occupies the whole of the base. This leads up into a short, massive shaft and a wide, upper, generative region. The whole of the uppermost region is meristematic, there being no localized marginal, ring-like meristem as is the case in the compact prothallus of L. Selago. At the base of this prothallus there is a filament consisting of one long cell bent in the middle (fig. 56a) which does not show the presence of fungus. It leads up into a swollen region which can be described as the basal tubercle, this latter passing gradually again into a higher and more swollen region. The pro- thalli shown in figs. 57 and 60 and Plate XV are also of this same form, there being but one large basal fvmgal region. That in Plate XV is in longitudinal section, but the section does not pass medianly through either the base or the shaft, nor does it show the full width of the prothallus. This massive form of the prothallus of L. ramulosum is similar to that sometimes adopted by the prothallus of L. cernuum and L. laterale, howbeit in a more marked degree.
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Sj^ecies of Lycopodium. 223
Fig. 56. — L. rmnulosum. Complete mature prothallus of compact, massive form in
general view, bearing young plant. X 27. Fig. 56a. — L. ramulosum. Original end of ijrothallus shown in fig. 56 in general view.
X 73. Fig. 57. — L. ramulosum. Complete half-grown prothallus of massive form, in general
view. X 35. Figs. 58-60. — L. ramulosum. Mature prothalU of massive form, in general view.
Those shown in figs. 58 and 59 have grown irregularly, x 14.
224 Transactions.
Another type of massive prothallus is that shown in figs. 58 and 59, where the continued bulky growth has resulted in a very irregular form. The oldest part of the prothallus can be recognized in both these figures, although whether or not this part represents the actual original basal end of the prothallus cannot be said. In fig. 58 there are two distinct generative regions, the uppermost of which is divided by a deep constriction. The foot of a young plant has been torn from one portion of this upper region. This particular prothallus is similar in its continued growth to those shown in figs. 52-54, except that the great bulkiness has rather obscured the typical cylindrical radial build. In fig. 59 the prothallus has grown still more irregularly, and there are apparently two growing regions, one of which is broken. The sexual organs are distributed along the whole of the top of the prothallus, and are in this case archegonia only. This particular prothallus is best compared with the basal portion and first generative region only of those shown in figs. 53 and 54. These massive, irregularly- grown prothalli usually show abundant chlorophyll.
Position in the Soil.
All the prothalli in these three species are situated at the surface of the soil and possess more or less chlorophyll. Their position in the soil is always erect. The chlorophyll is never present in the basal regions, but always in the lobes, and generally also in the upper part of the shaft. Consequent on this vertical position of growth, the prothalli never show such an elongated habit as do those of the epiphytic, subterranean type, but certain individuals, especially in L. ramulosum, show a marked tendency in this direction. I cannot say whether or not the more elongated forms in this species are more deeply buried in their basal part than the massive forms. They were all dissected out of humus consisting for the most part of a decaying short moss. In any case, the total length of even the most elongated forms is too small to have much significance in this respect. Probably the function of continued apical growth is due simply to the postponement of the formation of the embryo, the food-supply being maintained by the fungus through the infection of newer regions of the prothallus. The typical radial build is maintained by all these three species, although in some prothalli, more particularly in L. ramulosum, this is almost obscured by the adoption of a secondary, irregular manner of growth.
Early Stages in the Development.
I have been fortunate to secure several very young prothalli of the two species L. laterale and L. ramulosum. No doubt the only perfectly satis- factory way of obtaining the youngest stages of growth in any prothallus is by the experimental germination of the spores in the laboratory under close observation. Even this method, however, is not above suspicion, for one can never be sure to what extent the artificial conditions influence the form of the young prothallus. Very young prothalli dissected out of soil collected in the field are open to the criticism that they may belong to some plant other than the one under consideration. I can only say that with regard to the young prothalli now to be described I am quite satis- fied that they belong to the particular species of Lycopodium to which I have ascribed them, and the reasons will be stated.
In the case of L. cernuum, I have found no young stages. Treub has, however, described the germination of the spore in this species, having successfully carried this out in the laboratory. His figures, which I have
HoLLOWAY.— .S7wc?*es in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 225
seen only in certain standard books of reference, show that a tubercle is at once initiated, which is apparently at first devoid of fungus. This tubercle was called by Treub the " primary tubercle," and he supposed that it was a characteristic feature of the Lycopodium prothallus. He was also successful in experimentally cultivating the prothalli of L. salakense. This also begins with a globular body, the " primary tubercle," from which several thin filamentous branches arise, one of the latter eventually thicken- ing and producing the sexual organs. This prothallus remains altogether free from a symbiotic fungus. Treub also germinated the spores of L. curva- tum Sw., from which he obtained " primary tubercles," but he was unable to induce them to develop farther. All the mature prothalli of L. cernuum which I have found show the rounded basal tubercle, although in some instances this is somewhat pointed below (see 7, figs. 17-21, and figs. 38-44: in the present paper).
I have dissected out a number of young prothalli of the species L. ramu- losum along with the more mature forms, and some of these are shown in figs. 61-65. I judge these to belong to this species since they are of the typical Lycopodium form and no other species of Lycopodium were present in the two localities from which they came. No other kind of prothallus was ever found by me in the turves from which I dissected out those of L. ramulosum, nor was any species of fern present in the near neighbourhood, except Gleichenia dicarpa. Finally, the individuals which are shown in figs. 61-65 form a series which leads on to the more mature prothalli which undoubtedly belong to L. ramulosum. The youngest prothallus was that shown in fig. 61. In it there was no basal swelling, nor was there any indication of the presence of a fungus. The lower half consisted of a single linear row of cells, whilst in the .upper half there was a gradual increase in the number of cells and in the girth of the filament towards the apex. This upper half was not a flat expansion of cells as in the usual fern pro- thallus, but was radial in build. The cells at the apex were smaller than those farther back, and evidently functioned as the meristem. The whole filament contained chlorophyll corpuscles. The original spore-case w:as still attached to the basal cell. In fig. 62 is shown a j^rothallus in which the fijst-formed filamentous stage was very short, passing almost immediately and suddenly into a globular mass of cells which could be called the " primary tubercle." This prothallus also was quite free of fungus, being green througTiout. The apical region consisted of small-celled tissue, and a young sexual organ was developing near by. A group of rhizoids was borne on the basal tubercle. In the formation of a fungusless primary tubercle this young prothallus corresponds very closely to those early stages in L. cernuum, L. salakense, and L. curvatum described by Treub. With regard to the mature prothallus of L. ramulosum, the conclusion I arrived at was that any swelling In the fungal regions was primarily due to the localized presence of the fungus. From these other three species, how- ever, it is apparent that there may be at first a primary tubercle quite apart from the presence of the fungus, and this also appears in such a young prothallus of L. ramulosum as that shown in fig. 62. However, this is not always the case, as in the particular prothallus shown in fig. 61. The three young prothalli shown in figs. 63-65 all possessed a primary tubercle, which was infested by fungus.
Are we to consider that a primary tubercle is a fundamental feature in the structure plan of the Lycopodium prothallus, or is it to be regarded as an added feature ? Possibly we are to regard the radially-built filament 8— Trans.
226
Transactions
as being the original typical condition, this filament being drawn out, or short and bulky, according to whether growth has taken place rapidly or slowly. The basal tubercle of the mature prothallus when present would, according to this view, be the result largely of secondary cell-divisions
Fig. 61.^L. rmnulosum. Very j'ouiig prothallus, in general view, with spore still
attached, x 75. Fig. 62. — L. ramulosum. Young prothallus, in general view, showing basal tubercle
with no fungus. X 45. Figs. 63, 64. — L. ramulosum. Young prothalli, in general view, showing basal tubercle
with fungus. X 30. Fig. 65. — L. ramulosum. Young prothallus, in general view, showing first-formed
lobes and the initiation of a second fungal region, x 45.
which had taken place in the first-formed basal cells owing to the stimulus excited by the storing of food material. Prothalli cultivated under arti- ficial conditions seem generally to develop slowly, and this may explain why it is that none of Treub's prothalli showed a first-formed filamentous
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 227
stage. There can' be no doubt that the symbiotic association of a fungus with the Lycopodiiim prothallus is a further added feature, the mature form of the Lycopodium prothalli being determined mainly by the nature of this association.
I found one very young prothallus of L. later ale which was entangled in the rhizoids and lobes of the large prothallus shown in fig. 48. This yoimg prothallus is shown in fig. 49. It consists of a filament of cells which is green throughout, the filament being one cell in width in its lower half and two cells in width in its upper. At' the apex there is a single small cell which is clearly functioning as the apical cell. In this species also, as in L. ramidosum, the primary tubercle is thus not invariably present.
Main Body of the Prothallus.
L. cernimm. — The main body of the prothallus of this species consists, as has been described above, of one or more basal fungal regions, a longer or shorter shaft, and a crown of lobes, at the base of which lies the meristem and the generative region. Sometimes there is present also a lateral group of lobes. As I have not seen Treub's original papers, I do not know whether or not he has given in his description any indication of a differentiation of structure in the fungus-bearing tissue, but, judging from the short siun- maries of his results in various standard books of reference, this does not seem to be the case. In the prothallus of this species as it occurs in New Zealand I have observed that there is in this tissue a well-marked differentiation. The fungal coils are invariably confined, so far as their intracellular position is concerned, to the epidermal cells in the fungal area, but the fungus always extends also in between the cells of the. adjoining tissue. This will be apparent from figs. 39-44, which show the fungal area in longitudinal section, and from figs. 66 and 67, which represent the basal tubercle in transverse section. Moreover, this layer of cells which shows the presence of the fungus in an intercellular position is always modified in structure, the cells being very narrow, with their long axes arranged at right angles to the peripheral fungal layer. A portion of the fimgal region shown in fig. 41 is given in greater magnification in fig. 68. In describing the " palisade " fungal zone in the prothalli of L. clnvatum and L. annotinum, Bruchmann (1, p. 18) suggests that its main function is to serve as a brace to the prothallus. This would seem to be the case also in L. cernuum. In this latter species its peculiar structure is more par- ticularly developed in those fimgal regions which extend up the shaft, and where the need of a strengthening-tissue is felt. In those prothalli in which a weU-formed, rounded primary tubercle is present the whole of the internal tissue of the tubercle shows the intercellular fungus, but its cells are not so markedly differentiated (figs. 38, 39). In the elongated prothalli of L. ramidosum, in those cases in which the fungal areas are not much swollen, the tissue in which the fungus is intercellular does not show much modification in form. The fungus is chiefly apparent at the angles between the cells, but it also seems to enwrap the cells generally (figs. 66-68). I have not observed the presence of starch, as a rule, in the palisade cells, but it is frequently thickly accumulated in the adjoining part of the shaft. In the primary tubercle the cells are small and numerous (figs. 38, 39), and the roimded form of the tubercle is probably due mainly to the extensive cell-divisions, induced by the fungus, which there have taken place. In this species the intercellular fimgus never spreads up the shaft to any great extent. As has been described above, in this species there
228
Transactions.
is sometimes a second fmigal region quite distinct from tlie first, which may be situated either higher up the shaft or at the base alongside the primary tubercle. The characteristic difierence in structure between the basal tubercle and an upper fungal area is clearly shown in fig. 39. The details in the basal structure of the other form are illustrated in fig. 40, the right-hand tubercle here being cut not quite medianly.
The shaft is built up of large cells whose long axes are directed towards the growing apex. In some prothalli this shaft is long and thin (figs. 38, 42), but in others it is short and thick (figs. 40, 44). An instance in which a lateral group of lobes is borne on the shaft is given in fig. 41, these lobes
Figs. 66, 67. — L. cermmm. Transverse sections of the basal tubercle of prothallus,
showing distribution of fungus. X 42. Fig. 68.^ — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of portion of fungal area shown in fig. 41.
X 135. Fig. 69. — L. ramulosum. Me'dian longitudinal section of basal tubercle of massive
prothallus shown in Plate XV. X 42. Fig. 70. — L. ramulosum. a and b, longitudinal section of an elongated prothallus
with three fungal regions, the basai tubercle being shown at b. x 48.
c, longitudinal section of apical head of the prothallus shown in fig. 70a.
X 75. Fig. 71. — L. ramulosum. Longitudinal section of two adjoining fungal regions in a
large elongated prothallus. X 42.
here being in conjunction with a second fungal zone. At the top of the shaft is the crown of lobes, these being in transverse section from two to four cells in thickness (figs. 40-42, 44). In amongst the bases of these lobes are situated the sexual organs (figs. 40, 44). Some of the prothalli bear organs of one kind only, that shown in fig. 40 bearing numerous antheridia but no archegonia. Others, again, bear both, as in the case of the massive prothallus shown in fig. 44.
L. laterale. — The structure of this prothallus corresponds more or less closely with that of L. cernuum. In the fungal regions, whether at the base of the prothallus or higher up the shaft, the hyphal coils are confined to the epidermal cells, and the hyphae penetrate the adjoining tissues in an
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the Neiv Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 229
intercelhilar position (figs. 46, 47). In this species the cells wliicli immedi- ately adjoin the epidermal layer are not so clearly differentiated as a " palisade " layer as they are in the prothalli of L. cernuum. In the pro- thallus illustrated in fig. 47 the intercellular fungus which belonged to the upper fungal zone occupied a considerable extent of the tissues of the shaft and had spread well up towards the meristem. I have not observed anything approaching this condition in any of the prothalli of L. cernuum. The terminal processes are filamentous rather than lobe-like, and are to be seen in longitudinal section in figs. 46 and 47. Their characteristic appearance, however, is best seen in general view (7, figs. 13-16, and pi. 17, fig. 3). A group of lateral lobes is shown in fig. 46, there being an archegonium present at their base.
L. ramulosum. — The internal structure here shows nothing differing at all markedly from that of the other two species described above, except that, as in L. laterale, the " palisade " tissue is not so well developed as in L. cernuum,. A prothallus of the massive type is shown in longitudinal sec- tion in Plate XV. A true median longitudinal section of the basal tubercle^f this same prothallus is given in fig. 69. It will be apparent that this figure corresponds very closely to fig. 39, which shows the basal tubercle in L. cernuum in longitudinal section. The rest of the prothallus is free from fungus, and consists mainly of compact small-celled tissue. The crown of filaments in this prothallus is poorly developed. The structure of the elongated prothallus is shown in fig. 70, a and b. The cell-layer in which the fungus is in an intercellular position is here very limited in extent, and is also little differentiated as a tissue. The lateral generative region is brown, and the filaments are here missing. The apical head of the prothallus bears numerous antheridia (fig. 70, c). Fig. 71 shows in longitudinal section two adjoining fungal areas in an elongated prothallus of much larger build than the one last mentioned, and here it will be seen that the intercellular fungus spreads through a correspondingly greater extent of tissue, in which the cells are certainly arranged more palisade-like. The shaft portion of these elongated prothalli consists of large, elongated cells, but the various generative regions are of small-celled tissue. This is clearly seen in the prothallus shown in fig. 70, this prothallus bearing antheridia only.
Position of the Meristem.
In the cernuum type of prothallus the meristem is of a more indefinite, unlocalized nature than in either the epiphytic, cylindrical type or the subterranean, cone-like type. In his figures of very young stages in the development of the prothalli of L. cernuum, Treub shows that, in his laboratory specimens, immediately on germination of the spore, a triangular apical cell is set apart, by whose all-round segmentation a globular mass of cells is formed — the " primary tubercle." However, this method of growth immediately gives place to a filamentous stage in whicli the filament is only one cell wide, new segments being formed by transverse walls appear- ing in the terminal cells of the filament. The filament next thickens by longitudinal walls appearing in all its cells. This also is what happens in L. salal-ense; but there several such filaments are formed from the primary tubercle, although only one proceeds to thicken.
From my material of the three New Zealand species which belong to this type of prothallus I have certainly found instances in which the spore seems to have given rise at once to a globular mass of cells, but others also in which there is an original filamentous stage. This filament extends at
230 Transactions.
first by transverse walls arising in the terminal cell (fig. 61), but later it would seem from fig. 49 that oblique walls in the terminal cell cut off seg- ments alternately on one side and on the other, so that the filament becomes two cells in width. All indications that I have noticed point to the fact that this first-formed part of the filament does not subsequently thicken. It is to be found in this thin form still attached at the base of older prothalli (figs. 51, 53, 56), so that it has nothing to do with the " shaft " of the pro- thallus. Presumably the tubercle is formed by the activity of a .single tri- angular apical cell as in Treub's material, though, of course, my material is not young enough to show this. The young prothalli of L. ramulosum given in figs. 63-65 have grown on from the primary tubercle not in a filament one cell wide, but in a shaft of the same width as the tubercle. This shaft becomes progressively wider as it grows on. If a tubercle shows subse- quently a distinct roimded form it must have been due to secondary cell- multiplication, having taken place in it owing to the presence of the fungus. In the prothalli of L. ramulosum shown in figs. 62, 63, and 64 the whole of the small-celled terminal portion is clearly meristematic, so that here, possibly after a period of rest, the whole of the forward end of the tubercle has become meristematic. In the prothallus shown in fig. 61 the original filament gradually thickens as it grows on, apparently by longitudinal walls appearing in the various cells, and the whole of the apex has taken on the function of growth.
In L. cernuum the apex of the shaft grows on and eventually gives rise to a crown of lobes. Some of Treub's figures seem to indicate that the lobes are initiated when the prothallus is not more than of middle age. The meristematic zone is then largely localized at the base of the lobes, and by its continued activity the lobes are extended in length, and also the length of the shaft is added to. At the same time the shaft can increase slowly in width by the division of its cells in a longitudinal direction. Under certain conditions, perhaps inducing quickness of growth, the shaft becomes somewhat elongated, and the lobes also are well developed (fig. 42). The opposite conditions bring about a thickening of the shaft unaccompanied by any great increase in its length (fig. 44). Thus in the prothallus practi- cally the whole of the main body is more or less meristematic, and the localization of this function at the growing apex is not so definite as in the prothalli of the epiphytic or of the terrestrial subterranean types. Meristematic activity at the base of the lobes becomes most pronoimced when the sexual organs are being formed, so that they are embedded in a small-celled tissue (figs. 40, 45).
In L. ramulosum the prothallus is capable of much more extensive growth, probably on account of its continued infection by the fungus. At a fairly early stage the apex gives rise to the lobe-like outgrowths, the initiation of which is shown in figs. 63 and 64. In the young prothallus in fig. 65 two outgrowths are well formed and a sexual organ is developing at their base. The lobes are browned and slightly withered, as if they had been touched by a dry spell in the weather. At the same time the shaft of the prothallus is proceeding to extend on past the lobes so that these latter will eventually come to occupy a lateral position. Immediately behind the developing shaft-apex three of the epidermal cells have become infected with the fungus and one epidermal cell has grown out as a rhizoid. It certainly seems as if this fresh infection by the fungus had been the cause of the renewed activity of the prothallus. The study of the prothallus given in fig. 50 suggests that the apical meristem has alternately
HoLLOWAY. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 231
functioned in the extension in length of the prothallus and in the production of sexual organs and processes, the growth in length of the prothallus being renewed after the formation of each generative area. If an archegonium had been fertilized and an embryo formed, all the food-supply of the prothallus would have been concentrated around the growing embryo, and hence the prothallus would have ceased to elongate. In the prothaUus shown in fig. 51 there has probably been no intermission in the functioning of the apical meristem, with the result that this prothallus approximates more to the cylindrical form of the epiphytic type. In the prothalli shown in .figs. 52-54 there has been an exceptionally extensive development of generative tissue, giving to these prothalli the curious step-like form. From these elongated prothalli and from the irregularly-grown, more massive forms shown in figs. 58 and 59 it would appear that the repeated fresh infection of the prothallus by the fungus has enabled it to grow on far beyond its original cermmm-lik.e form. In such a prothallus as that shown in fig. 51 the position and appearance of the meristem are similar to the ordinary cernuum type, although it has been able to function for a much longer period than in L. cernuum. In the other elongated prothalli shown in figs. 50 and 52-54 the position and form of the meristem is somewhat modified on account of the repeated development of the genera- tive tissue, so that the actual growing apex is small and somewhat displaced. There is never a definite group of apical meristematic cells present, the whole of the growing head functioning in this respect as in L. cernuum. The very compact cone-like prothallus given in fig. 56 also shows the same type of meristem, there being no tendency to a localized, marginal, ring- like meristem as there is in the compact surface-growing forms of L. Selago. Thus, although the prothalkis of L. ramulosum in its two forms may be com- pared on the one hand with the compact cone-like forms of L. Selago (and so also of L. clavatum and L. complanatum), and on the other hand with the elongated cylindrical form of L. Phlegmaria, &c., this comparison is by no means a close one, for the position of the meristem shows that L. ramulosum belongs always to the cernuum type. It is significant to note that these main types of Lycopodium prothalli are in a plastic con- dition, and the variations which they show make it quite permissible to conjecture how the different methods of growth could have originated.
The mature prothallus of L. laterale also conforms to the cernuum type in the position of its meristem, although here too the normal form of the main prothallial body is sometimes considerably modified by its continued growth.
Relation ' of the Young Plant to the Prothallus.
Since the prothallus of these species is always situated at the surface of the ground, the young plant possesses chlorophyll from a very early stage. As soon as it emerges from the tissues of the prothallus it proceeds to form the characteristic tubercle which Treub called the " protocorm," on which abundant rhizoids are produ^ced. At the same time the first " protophyll " arises on the tubercle, showing numerous stomata. Thus the developing plantlet early becomes independent of the prothallus in the matter of food-supply. A protocorm is formed in the young plant of all three New Zealand species which belong to the Cernua section. Young plants attached to their parent prothalli are shown in fig. 72 {L. cernuum), in figs. 46 and 48 {L. laterale), and in figs. 51, 56, 58, 60, and Plate XV {L. ramulosum). Other figures are also given in Part I of this series of papers.
232
Transactions.
The development of an embryo seems to bring all further growth of the prothallus to an end. The prothallus of this species is generally small and delicate, and does not long persist attached to its young plant. It has in most cases decayed away by the time that the plant has developed two or three protophylls. However, I have several times found prothalli of L. mmulosum still persisting, in one case healthily green in colour, attached to plantlets of seven or eight protophylls.
The intraprothallial portion of the embryo plant is developed as an absorbing-organ, but only to a slight extent as compared with the same organ in the young plant of the Selago and Phlegmaria types. Still less is it comparable in importance with the large " foot " of the clavatum and complanatum types. This progressive importance of the foot in the dif- ferent types, taken in the order in which they are mentioned, goes hand
Fig. 72. — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of prothallus and young plant showing
foot. X 30. Fig. 73. — L. cernuum. Transverse section of suspensor and foot of young ^ plant.
X 42. Fig. 74. — L. cernuum. Longitudinal section of foot and part of protocorm of young
plant. - X 42. Fig. 75. — L. ramulosum. Oblique section of portion of basal fungal region showing
three large " spore " capsules of undetermined nature, x 250.
in hand with the increase in the size of the prothalli and of the extent of the dependence of the young plant upon its parent prothallus. From the figures mentioned above it will be seen that the surface cells of the foot in the three species of the cernuum type are only slightly developed as an epithelial layer. They are best iliustrated in fig. 73, which is a transverse section of the foot and suspensor of the young plant of L. cernuum, and fig. 74, which shows the foot in longitudinal section.
In Part II of these papers (8, p. 92) I stated that I had never observed the presence of fungal hyphae in any of the protocorms which I had examined. This statement I must correct. Th^ fungus is certainly never present as
HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodiuiii. 233
intracellular hyphal coils, as it is in the prothalli, but it seems to be always present in an intercellular position in the central tissues of the protocorm. These centrally-placed cells, which show abundant protoplasmic contents, are always roundish in form and are separated from one another, the inter- cellular spaces staining darkly with haematoxylin. The appearance of the fungus in the protocorm is thus in marked contrast to the definite epidermal fungal tissue of the prothallus, in which it occurs in hyphal coils. The hyphae can clearly be traced entering the protocorm through the rhizoids. They seem to cross the outer layers of cells mainly, if not entirely, through spaces between the cells and more especially at their angles, and they are not at all apparent in this zone. But when once one has learned to look for them, both the hyphae and also their " spores " can be seen in the spaces between the cells throughout the whole of the central region of the protocorm (figs. 46, 74, and Plate XV ; see also 7, fig. 61, and pi. 17, fig. 2, and pi. 18, figs. 1, 2). The fungal hyphae can best be studied outside ' the protocorm, around the base of which they form an open mat. They are branched and unseptate. Here, too, the spores are abundant, and it can be frequently and clearly seen that they originate by a length of hyphal thread dividing up into a number of the spores. This also can be seen in the intercellular spaces at the centre of the protocorm. It is certainly a striking fact that the fungus never occupies the cell-cavities in the protocorm. The fungus undoubtedly assists the young plant to become self-nourishing.
Treub and others have supposed the protocorm to be an organ of high phylogenetic importance. Bower, however, believed it to be a physiological modification, just as is the intraprothallial swelling called the " foot." My study of this organ as it occurs in the three New Zealand species certainly inclines me to accept Bower's suggestion. The Lycopodium plant in all its organs is in such a plastic condition that it is unlikely that any highly primitive structures should have been retained — at any rate, in its vegetative parts.* The different sections into which the modern genus is classified are strikingly in accord with its biological divisions, as Lang, with regard to the prothallus, has pointed out. It might be added that this holds also for the other main organs of the Lycopodium. plant. Each type of prothallus is correlated with a certain type of embryo plant. The protocorm is always associated with the cernuum type of prothallus, and apparently with no other. The compara- tive study of the difterent types of prothallial structure certainly leads one to the conclusion that the cernuum type is the least modified of all, and its chlorophyllous habit especially points to this ; but it does not necessarily follow that the cernuum embryo is also the least modified. The presence of the symbiotic fungus teems to have been the dominant factor in determining the form of the different Lycopodium prothalli, and it is a significant fact that the protocorm is also infested with it.
* There has quite recently been described by Kidston and Lang (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 52, pt. 3, pji. 603-27, 1920) a small plant from the Devonian of Scotland, which the authors have named Hornia Lignieri, whose basal portion consists of a proto- cormous rhizome. This plant the authors compare with the young plants of Lycopodium cernuum, L. laterale, and L. ramulosum. and with Phylloglossum. As they suggest, the demonstrated presence of the " protocorm " in archaic vascular cryptogams introduces quite a new argument into the discussion concerning the nature and origin of this peculiar organ. However, they also briefly point out {ibid., note at boltf)m of p. 612) that fungal hyphae occur in an intercellular position in the tissues of the rhizome of Hornea.
234 Transactions.
Details of the Fungus.
There is not very much to say here with regard to the details of the symbiotic fungus in these three species of prothalli. The hyphal coils are present only in the epidermal cells of the fungal region, although the hyphae penetrate farther into the adjoining tissue in an intercellular position. I have seen no formation of clusters of "spores" as occurs in the epiphytic prothalli. Spores occur, however, in the interior tissue of the protocorm of the young plant along with hyphae in between the cells.
One prothallus of L. ramulosum showed in its lower basal tubercle a number of large, spherical, dark-staining bodies, three of which are illus- trated in fig. 75. These bodies possessed thick walls, and in section were seen to be full of numerous very small oval lightly-staining " spores." My serial transverse sections of this tubercle showed that there were no fewer than twelve of these large bodies present. They lie within the cell-cavities in the region in which the fungus is intercellular. Each is large enough to completely fill a cell and bulge out its walls. In each of two other prothalli of this species I observed a single spore body of this nature. I was not able to determine their nature, but jiidge that they bear some relation to the symbiotic fungus.
General Remarks.
A special interest attaches itself to the study of the prothalli of the different species of Lycopodium, arising mainly from the fact that several types of prothallial structure are represented in the genus, and also that each of these types goes hand in hand with certain characteristic features in other organs of the plant. So different are these types of prothalli one from another that both Treub and Bruchmann have expressed the opinion that these differences date from a very ancient period. Treub states his belief that they can be explained in a small degree only by the different conditions under which the prothalli live. Bruchmann would divide the genus into as many new genera as there are distinct prothallial types. As opposed to this view, Lang has suggested that the different prothalli show a similarity in ground plan, and that they are all more or less profound modifications of an original cermium-like form. As further species of prothalli are found this interest is deepened, for it becomes clear that although the main types are all now probably known to us, yet there are many significant modifications of them, and also that further study of the genus will probably reveal more such. Instead of assuming that the different prothallial types are practically unrelated, it will probably be more productive of results to try to discover from the development of the individual prothalli and from their variations whether there is a funda- mental plan of structure, and what has been the reason for its modification. Such a study will, at all events, help us to recognize which characters are of most importance.
The complete mature prothallus of all the sections of the genus except the Inundata and Cernua shows consistently at its basal, original end the form of an inverted cone, the apex of the cone being occupied by a single cell, to which the remains of the spore can sometimes be seen attached. It is, of course, possible that in some cases a brief filamentous stage may arise first from the spore before the cone form is attained, and that this drops away later and so becomes lost, but apparently it seems that the cone form is at once initiated. In the much-branched prothalli of the Phlegmaria type, which are radial in build but not upright in growth, the cone quickly
HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 235
passes over into the elongated cylindrical main body which bears sexual organs on the dorsal side, so becoming bilateral. The prothalli of L. Selago grow upright in the soil. They either preserve the cone form throughout their life — being, however, much smaller than the prothalli of the clavatum or complanatmn tj^es- — or they give rise to elongated bilateral extensions of portions of the upper margin of the cone. In the upright prothalli of the clavatum and complanatum types there is practically no disposition towards elongation, the cone form being preserved throughout the life of the comparatively massive prothallus, any extra meristematic activity showing itself merely in irregular lobing of the upper margin or in adventitious budding. The angle of divergence of the cone from its apex upwards is different in these two t}'pes, being greater in the former than in the latter, so that the mature forms of the two prothalli are somewhat different. The prothalli of the species which belong to the Cernua and Inundata sections are also upright in growth, and have a radial build, so that in transverse section the main body is circula^r in outhne, but the cone form is not always present, Treub's description of the prothalli of L. cernuum suggested that a short cone-like stage always followed immediately upon the germination of the spore, and the " primary tubercle," as it was called by him, was thus looked upon as a characteristic feature in this type of prothallus. In all the species of this type whose prothalli are known a primary tubercle is, indeed, often present, but not invariably so, as appears, for example, in the prothalli, both young and old, of L. ramulosum.
The cone form adopted by the Lycopodium prothallus must be con- sidered along with the presence in its tissues of the symbiotic fungus. It is, of course, well known that this fungus is one of its most characteristic features, just as it is also of other subterranean pteridophytic prothalli. Treub states that the prothallus of L. salakense shows no fungus, and it is quite possible that other species belonging to either the Cernua or Inundata sections may prove to be without it. From what we know of the young prothallus of L. laterale and L. ramidosum it would seem that in the sections Cernua and Inundata the infection may be jjostponed considerably, for the fungus is frequently absent altogether from young prothaUi of quite fair size, and also not infrequently mature prothalli show signs of the same initial fungusless region at their base.
In the prothallus of Tmesipteris the fungus is found even in the basal filament, when that is present ; but whether the infection is initiated from the very first or subsequently spreads back into the extreme lower parts of the prothallus is not known. I have found many prothalli of Tmesipteris, both yoimg and also mature, which showed a short filament of cells at their base, and also, on the other hand, complete prothalli in which no filament was present, in the latter case the remains of the original spore being sometimes clearly apparent on the cell at the actual apex of the basal cone. Sometimes the Tmesipteris prothallus takes the form of a steadily tapering cone, and at others in its lowest regions it increases in girth by a progressive series of gentle swellings. One cannot avoid the suggestion that the dominating factor in the Tmesipteris prothallus is the presence of the fungus, the nature of the swelling being due to the con- sistency or intermittency, as the case may be, of its activity, and the omission of a filamentous stage being due to its very early entry into the germinating spore. When we turn to the prothalli of the Lycopodiaceae the same conclusion seems to be forced upon us. Large mature prothalli of L. rarmdosum may show no primary tubercle at all, and the cone form may be altogether absent, so that the general form of this prothallus can then
236 Transactions.
best be described as a radially-built filament. The immediate effect of the presence of the fungus also can be clearly seen in the prothalli of this species. It almost invariably causes a swelling of the tissues of the prothallus at the infection spot, this swelling being due to the greater or less develop- ment of the intertial fungal tissue in which the hyphae are intercellular. Sometimes the fungus is restricted to one place "in the prothallus, this being towards or at its base, so that there is present a basal swelling. But in all three New Zealand species which belong to the cernuum type, and more especially in L. ramulosum, more than one distinct fungal area is frequently formed. Another form sometimes adopted by the prothallus of L. ramulosum, and to be seen also in those of L. laterale and L. cernuum, is that in which the usual shaft is practically, absent, the crown of lobes immediately surmounting the basal fungal region. The latter is then more bulky than usual, the whole mature prothallus bearing more truly the cone form than is normally the case in the prothalli of these sections. That this particular massive form is not a fixed character appears from the fact that only infrequently are these bulky prothalli of regular shape and growth. However, just as the long-drawn-out, more filamentous form may bear some comparison with the epiphytic, elongated type, so may the massive form be compared with the deep-growing clavatum and complmiatum types, and the prothallus of L. ramulosum is thus seen to possess as great significance as that of L. Selago in bearing witness to the plasticity of the Lycopodium prothallus.
When we turn to the epiphytic type of prothallus we find that there also the form of the prothallus must be considered along with the nature of the fungus-distribution in its tissues. The whole of the basal cone con- stitutes, as it were, a primary turbercle which contains the fungal element throughout its tissues, being comparable to the first-formed tubercle in L. cernuum, when that is there present. The elongated, cylindrical regions of the epiphytic prothalli, have completely passed out of the cone form, nor do they show any localized swellings induced by the presence of the fungus. The fungus is distributed throughout the branches and the vegetative region of the central body, and the absence of swelling is pro'bably due to the rapid elongation of the prothallus in all its parts. Even the discontinuous infection which is to be seen often in the branches does not result in any swelling of the tissues as it does in L. ramulosum. Thus, although the elongated prothalli of L. ramulosum may be compared with the epiphytic type, yet they never attain to the characteristic form or structure of the latter. It will suffice here to allude quite briefly to the statement made by certain other writers, notably Lang, that this difference is probably merely the expression of the fact that in the Cernua and Inundata types fungal assimilation has not assumed the same degree of importance in the life of the prothallus as it has in the epiphytic types, for the prothallus is surface-growing and never gives up its chlorophyllous, self-nourishing habit. The epiphytic prothalli, however, live in soil of a different nature, and have adopted a wholly subterranean mode of life, in which they depend altogether upon the activities of the fungus for their nourishment. This has been the immediate cause of their extensive ramifications and their character of continuous cylindrical growth. In this respect, therefore, they are to be regarded as more specialized than the chlorophyllous type.
Althoiigh I have not in the present paper given any description of the prothalli of the species L. volubile, L. fastigiatum, and L. scariosum, which belong to the clavatum and complanatum types, yet it is appropriate here to compare briefly their form and structure with that of the other New
B.oi.J.ovf AY .— Studies in the New Zealand Species of Lycopodium. 237
Zealand species already dealt witli. In these two types the cone form is at once initiated and is continued throughout the life of the prothallus. There is no extension in length comparable even to that of the Cernua and Inundata types, although, as I mentioned in a former paper (7, p. 273) and hope to describe more fully in a later one, the young prothallus of L. fasti- g latum branches after it has passed through the initial cone stage. It assumes the shape of the letter " Y," the arms of the prothallus being true branches, as indicated by the fact that in each of them there is a central core of fungus- free cells completely surrounded by the fungal zone, the meristem being located near, bub not actually at, the apex of each arm. Although the • mature prothallus in this species has the saucer form, yet it frequently bears evidence of this early branching. The prothalli of these two types have departed altogether from the self -nourishing, chlorophyllous habit, and have become wholly dependent upon the symbiotic fungus, although the prothallus of L. volubile is able to develop chlorophyll if it happens to grow at the surface of the ground. We find that the external tissues in the whole of the vegetative portion of the prothallus have been given over to the fungal inhabitant, so that in form this vegetative region is one large regularly-shaped cone. The prothalli of the clavatum and com.'planatum types, owing to their terrestrial habit, occur in soil of a nature different from that of the humus-growing, epiphytic prothalli. There seems to be no need for the prothallus to elongate or branch in order to come in contact with a sufficient supply of food, although, judging from the branching by which the young prothallus of L. fastigiatum assumes the saucer form, it could do so if necessary. The fact that these types of prothalli are so much larger in size than the surface-growing form of L. Selago is obviously due to the much greater degree of dependence upon them of the young plant than in the latter species. They function largely as storehouses, the large quantities of starch and oil which they contain having been noted by all who have described them.
The compact, massive form of the prothallus in L. ramulosum, L. laterale, and L. cernuum must not be compared too closely with that of L. Selago or of the terrestrial subterranean types, for the position of the meristem in the latter is altogether different from that in the former. Nor can the elongated form of L. ramulosum be compared exactly with that of L. Billardieri. It would seem, however, that the difference between the marginal meristem of the Selago prothallus and the apical meristem of the epiphytic types is not so great. The prothalli of Jboth these types invariably begin with the cone form, and the subsequent manner of growth of each, and the form which the meristem takes, can be explained quite naturally (as I have attempted to do earlier in this paper) as resulting simply from the position of the prothallus in the soil. That there is a somewhat close relationship between these two types appears also from the fact of their similarity in the embryo plant and in the presence of para- physes. The clavatum and complanatum types of prothallus also seem to be allied to that of the Selago tjrpe, possessing the same kind of marginal meristem, although they lack paraphyses. Moreover, the embryo plant of these deeply subterranean forms differs from that of L. Selago only in the abnormal development of the " foot," a character which has quite obviously resulted from their position in the soil.
The prothalli of the Cernua and Inundata sections seem to stand rather apart from the rest of the genus. The meristem is of a quite different nature, the fungal habit has not been adopted to the same extent, the filamentous manner of growth is largely present, and the form of the
238 Transactions.
young plant is very peculiar. Any similarities in detailed structure between this type and any of the others are perhaps best regarded as instances of parallel development, such as the fungal " palisade " tissue in the prothallus of L. cernuum and of L. clavatum and L. cotnplanatum, and also the elongated manner of growth in L. ramulosum and L. Billardieri. The varieties in form and structure which occur in the prothalli of the cernmim type are chiefly interesting as evidences of the great plasticity of the Lycopodium gametophyte. It is in the Cernua and Inundata sections that we meet with the least evidence of a permanently fixed type of prothallus. These prothalli have also proceeded the least of all to a saprophytic mode of life, and generally show the least extent of specialization. The epiphytic prothalli have become thoroughly specialized to the epiphytic habit, and the clavatum and complanatum types, to the subterranean terrestrial habit. We are justified, therefore, in regarding the Cernua and Inundata types as showing more nearly the original structure plan of the Lycopodium prothallus than the others.
Thus we may ^conclude from a comparative study of the general form and structure of the different Lycopodium prothalli that they are all more or less modified from some primitive type of structure, and that the chief factor in this modification has been the presence in them of the symbiotic fungus. This, primitive type of structure was probably a more or less bulky filament of radial build, situated at the surface of the ground, and possessing chlorophyll. The adoption of a fungal habit opened the door to possibilities of modification of this simple type of structure, and gave to the Lycopodium prothallus its quality of plasticity. It was able to establish itself in new positions and soils, the different types of habitat resulting in different types of modification of the original structure. When the fungal habit was thoroughly adopted the early filamentous stage became lost, but in all its forms the Lycopodium prothallus has never departed from the radial build.
It seems clear from a comparative survey of all the main characters of the Lycopodium sporophyte and gametophyte that the different sections' of the genus are natural ones, and that their characters are all inter- dependent. It is possible that the varied aspect of the genus as it exists to-day has been due largely to the phenomenon of symbiotic association with a fungus exhibited by its gametophyte generation, the varied structure of the sporophyte as regards the form adopted by the mature plant, the form of its spore-bearing regions, and its stem-anatomy following as a natural consequence from the spread of the gametophyte to different stations and soils.
Literature cited, '
1. Bbuchmann, H., Jlber die Prothallien und die Keimpflanzen mehrerer europdischer
Lycopodien, pp. 1-119, pi. 1-8, Gotha, 1898.
2. Die Keimung der Si3oren und die Entwickelung der Prothallien von Lyco- podium clavatum, L. annotinum, und L. Selago, Flora, vol. 101, pp. 220-67 (35 figs.), 1910.
3. Chamberlain, C. J., Prothallia and Sporelings of Three New Zealand Species of
Lycopodium, Bot. Gaz., vol. 63, pp. 51-64, pi. 2 and 3, 1917.
4. Edgerley, Miss K. V., The Prothallia of Three New Zealand Lycopods, Trans.
N.Z. /rw<., vol. 47, pp. 94-111 (37 figs.), 1915.
5. GoEBEL, K., ijber Prothallien und Keimpflanzen von Lycopodium Inundatum,
Bot. Zeit., vol. 45, pp. 161-68, pi. 2, 1887.
6. Hollow AY, J. E., A Comparative Study of the Anatomy of Six New Zealand
Species of Lycopodium, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 42, pp. 356-70, pi. 31-34, 1910.
7. Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium, Part I, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 253-303 (102 figs., pi. 17, 18), 1916.
HoLLOWAT. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of Ljcopodium. 239
8. Hollo WAY, J. E., Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium :
Part II, Methods of Vegetative Projjagation, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol 4fl pp. 80-93 (24 figs., pi. 8, 9), 1917.
9. — — Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium : Part III, The
Plasticity of the Species, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 161-216 (16 figs., ph 9-14), 1919.
10. Lang, W. H., The Prothallus of Lycopodium clavatum, Ann. of Bat., vol. 13,
pp. 279-317, pi. 16, 17, 1899.
11. Spessaed, E. a., Prothalha of Lycopodium in America, Bot. Gaz., vol. 63, pp. 66-76
(19 figs.), 1917.
12. Thomas, A. P. W., Preliminary Account of the Prothallium of Phylloglossum,
Proc. Roy. Soc. Land., vol. 69, pp. 285-91, 1902.
13. Treub, M., l*]tudes sur les Lycopodiacees : I, Le prothalle du Lycopodium cernuum L.,
Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg., vol. 4, pp. 107-35, pi. 9-17, 1884.
14. Etudes sur les Lycopodiacees : II, Le piothalle du Lycopodium Phlegmaria L.,
ibid., vol. 5, pp. 87-115, pi. 11-22, 1S86 ; III, Le developpement de I'embryon chez L. Phlegmaria, ibid., pp. 115-39, pl. 23-31, 1886.
15. Etudes sur les Lycopodiacees : IV, Le Prothalle du Lycopodium salakense,
ibid., vol. 7, pp. 141-46, pl. 16-18, 1888 ; V, Les Prothalle des Lycopodium carinatum, L. nunimulariaejolium, et L. Hipjniris, ibid., pp. 146-49, pl. 19, 1888.-
16. Etudes sur les Lycopodiacees : VI, L'Embryon et la plantule du Lycopodi^im
cernuum L., ibid., vol. 8, pp. 1-15, pl. 1-5, 1890 ; VIII, Considerations theoretiques, ibid., pp. 23-37, 1890.
Art. XXVIII. — Notes on the Indigenous Vegetation oj the North-eastern Portion oj the Hokonui Hills, with a List of Species.
By D. L. POPPELWELL.
[Bead before the Otago Institute, 14th October, 1919 ; received by Editor, 24th October, 1919 ; issiied separately, 23rd June, 1920.]
The Hokonui Hills consist of the high country which lies within the triangle formed by the Gore-Invercargill section of the Main Trunk Rail- v/ay, the Invercargill-Lumsden section of the Invercargill-Kingston line, and the Waimea Railway. They are roughly triangular in form, Gore, Lumsden, and Winton being the corners. Each side of the triangle is about thirty miles long, the total area being therefore about 300,000 acres. The highest point (Bare Hill) is 2,260 ft. above sea-level. The most southerly point is not more than a few miles from the sea, whilst the northern end extends about thirty miles inland. The Hokonui Hills are isolated from the surrounding chains, being bounded by the valley of the Oreti on one side, the Mataura valley on another, and the Southland Seaward Plains on the third side. It is palpable that the different parts of a stretch of country such as this must show considerable difference in their plant covering, as they extend from near the sea to quite beyond what is usually accepted as the littoral belt. This block contains several thousaM acres of bush, but most of it consists of uplands divided by several more or less open valleys with constant streams. Every class of soil and situation is there- fore presented, and consequently the plant-life is of a very varied kind. To attempt to give a complete report would be a task quite beyond the time at my disposal at present, hence I will confine my remarks to that poTtion of the Hokonuis nearest Gore, locally known as Croydon Bush, and the uplands in the vicinity. I have also to point out that these notes do not profess to be exhaustive. Numerous introduced plants are also found, but are not further mentioned. The highest point in the area dealt with is East Peak (2,000 ft.) and an unnamed peak to the westward thereof, which is slightly higher than the former.
240 Transactions.
From the list of species the curious fact will be noticed that Nothofagus is completely absent from the area dealt with, and, so far as my observations go, from the whole Hokonuis. This is difficult to account for, especially as this genus is common on all the surrounding hill-groups.
In time to come, when the botanical districts of New Zealand are divided into subdistricts, the absence of Nothofagus alone will almost justify th'e setting-apart of the Hokonuis as a subdistrict of the South Otago Botanical District.
In the meantime I do not propose to describe the plant formations, but merely append a list of species observed during many visits to the north-eastern portion of the Hokonuis. The list contains 285 species comprising 146 genera, and spread over 57 families.
LIST OF INDIGENOUS PLANTS.
PTERIDOPHYTA.
Hymenophyllaceae.
Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum (Forst. f.) Sw. Common in forest.
dilatatum (Forst. f.) Sw. Common in forest.
flabellatum Lab. Common in forest.
demissum (Forst. f.) Sw. Common in forest.
Cyatheaceae.
Dicksonia squarrosa (Forst. f.) Sw. Fairly common in forest.
fibrosa Col. Common.
Hemitelia Smithii (Hook, f.) Hook. Not uncommon. Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f. Not imcommon.
POLYPODIACEAE.
Polystichum vestitum (Forst. f.) Presl. Common.
Richardi Diels. Fairly common.
Lindsay a linearis Sw. Tussock meadow. Asplenium hulhiferum Forst. f. Abundant in forest. fiaccidum Forst. f . Abundant in forest.
— — flahellifolium Cav. Not uncommon, but local
Hookerianum Col. Rocky places in open bush.
— - var. Colensoi Moore. Rocky places in open bush.
Blechnum Patersoni (R. Br.) Mett. Common in damp gullies.
discolor (Forst. f.) Keys. Abundant in dry places.
■ lanceolatum (R. Br.) Sturm. Moist gullies.
capense (L.) Schlecht. Fairly common.
penna marinum (Poir.) Kuhn. Abundant.
— ■ — fluviatile (R. Br.) Lowe.
Hypolepis teniiifoUa (Forst. f.) Bernh. Fairly common, Histiopteris incisa (Thunb.) J. Sm. Abundant Pteridium esculentum (Forst. f.) Cockayne. Plentiful. Polypodium Billardieri (Willd.) C. Chr. Tree-trunks, &c., in forest.
diversifolium Willd. Plentiful in forest.
grammitidis R. Br. Rare on tree-trunks, &c.
punctatum Thunb. Common.
Botrychium ternatum Swartz. Rare.
PopPELWELL.^ — Indigenous Vegetation of Holoniii Hills. 241
Gleicheniaceae. Gleichenia Cunninghamii Hew. In patches ; local.
OSMUNDACEAE.
Leptopteris hymenophylloides (A. Rich.) PresJ. Damp gullies in forest.
superba (Col.) Presl. Damp gullies in forest.
Ophioglossaceae. Ophioglossum lusitanicum L. Tussock meadow.
Lycopodiaceae.
Lycopodium Billardieri Spring. Not uncommon. fastigiatum R. Br. Plentiful.
scariosum Forst. f. Not plentiful.
■ volubile Forst. f. Not plentiful.
Tmesipteris tannensis Bernh. On logs, &c.
SPERMOPHYTA. Taxaceae.
Podocarpus Hallii T. Kirk. Common in forest.
totara D. Don. Rare ; in forest.
■ ferrugineus D. Don. Fairly abundant.
spicatus R. Br. Fairly abundant.
dacrydioides A. Rich. Plentiful.
Dacrydium cupressinum Sol. Plentiful.
Potamogetonaceae. Potamogeton Cheesernanii A. Benn. In pools.
Gramineae.
Microlaena avenacea (Raoul) Hook. f. Common in forests. Hierochloe redolens (Forst. f.) R. Br. Fairly common. • Agrostis parva Petrie. Bush tracks.
Dichelachne crinita (Forst. f.) Hook. f. Mountain meadow. Danthonia Cunninghamii Hook. f. Common in uplands.
Raotdii Stead. Abundant.
flavescens Hook. f. Steppe. Not so common as D. Raoulii.
pilosa R. Br. Not uncommon in meadow.
semiannularis R. Br. Not uncommon in meadow.
Arundo coispicua Forst. f . Common.
Poa ca-espitosa Forst. f. Common on hills. • imhecilla Forst. f. Not uncommon.
Colensoi Hook. f. Fairly plentiful in meadow.
var. intermedia Cheesem. Fairly plentiful in ineadow.
Festuca rubra L. Lower steppe. Common.
Agropyron scabrum (R. Br.) Beauv. In upper meadow.
Cyperaceae.
Scirpus aucklandicus (Hook, f.) Boeck. Swamps.
Carpha alpina R. Br. In swamps.
Cladium Vauthiera C. B. Clarke. Wet places.
Gahnia procera Forst. f . In forest ; common.
Oreobolus pectinatus Hook. f. In boggy places ; not common.
242 Transactions
Uncinia coinpacta R. Br. Mountain meadow. — — uncinata (L. f.) Kiiken. In forest. Carex secta Boott. Lowland swamps.
ternaria Forst. f. Damp lowland swamps.
dissita Sol. Forest.
• lucida Boott. Swampy places.
pseudo-cyperus Linn. Dafnp places in bush.
Typhaceae. Typlia angustifolia L. Lagoon on north side. ,
Restiaceae. Hypolaena lateriflora Benth. Lowland swamps. '
JUNCACEAE.
Juncus polyanthemos Buchen. Damp places ; common. — ■ — bufonius L. Damp places ; common.
planifolws E.. Br. Damp places ; common.
Luzula campestris DC. Several varieties ; common.
LiLIACEAE.
Enargea parviflora Kunth. Rare ; only one plant noted, in manuka heath. Cordyline australis (Forst. f.) Hook. Not plentiful. Astelia linearis Hook. f. Boggy places, lowland meadow.
nervosa Banks & Sol. Common in forest.
montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne. Not uncommon in swamps.
Phormium tenax Forst. Common on foothills.
Gookianum Le Jolis. Abundant on uplands.
Chrysohactron Hookeri Col. Common in damp situations. Herpolirion novae-zelandiae Hook. f. Common in meadows.
Iridaceae.
Lihertia ixioides Spreng. Not uncommon.
■ — — var. with creeping stolons. This variety is common in low- land tussock meadow. It differs in having stolons. The leaves are wider and more striate, the peduncles much shorter than the leaves, and the flowers larger. Perhaps it should be accorded specific rank.
Orchid ace AE.
Earina mucronata Lindl. Not plentiful.
Thelymitra longifolia Forst. Common.
— — uniflora Hook. f. Common on banks, &c.
Microtis uniflora (Forst. f.) Rochb. Common in steppe meadow.
Prasophyllum Colensoi Hook. f. Common in steppe meadow.
Pterostylis Banksii R. Br. Not common.
australis Hook. f. Fairly abundant in damp meadow.
Caladenia hifolia Hook. f. In manuka heath.
Lyallii Hook. f. In manuka heath at 1,000 ft.
Corysanthes rotundifolia Hook. f. Common on creek-banks.
macrantha Hook. f. Damp places in forest.
priloba Hook. f. Damp places in forest.
POPPELWELL. — Indigenous Vegetation of Hokoniii Hills. 243
Urticaceae.
Urtica incisa Poir. Common on bush tracks.
— ^ ferox Forst. Rare ; in northern part of forest.
Paratrophis micropkylla Blume. Rare in forest.
LORANTHACEAE.
Loranthus micranthus Hook. f. Plentiful in forest. Tupeia antarctica Cham. & Schl. Abundant. Korthalsella Lindsayi (Engl.J Van Tiegh. Common. clavata (Cheesem.) Van Tiegh. Not common.
Polygon ACE AE.
Runiex flexuosus Sol. Not plentiful ; north side chiefly. Muehlenbeckia australis (Forst. f .) Meissn. Abundant ; forest-margin.
complexa (A. Cunn.) Meissn. Abundant ; forest-margin.
axillaris Walp. Dry situations in meadow.
Caryophyllaceae. .
Colobanthus acicularis Hook. f. In boggy ground. Stellaria parviflora Banks & Sol. In open places in forest. Scleranthus biflorus (Forst.) Hook. f. Dry meadow ; common.
R ANUNCULACE AE .
Clematis indivisa Willd. Plentiful.
hexasepala DC. Not uncommon.
foetida Raoul. Common on forest-margin.
Ranunculus hirtus Banks & Sol. Fairly common.
rivularis Banks & Sol. Common in damp places.
lappaceus Sm. Plentiful.
midtiscapus Cockayne. Common.
foliosus T. Kirk. Not common.
Magnoliaceae. Drimys colorata Raoul, Plentiful.
Cruciperae Cardamine heterophylla (Forst f.) 0. E. Schultz. Plentiful.
depressa Hook. f. Not uncommon.
» Saxifragaceae.
Carpodetus serratus Forst. Very abundant in forest.
PiTTOSPORACEAE.
Pittbsporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. Abundant.
Colensoi Hook. f. Common.
eugenioides A. Cunn. Common.
CUNONIACEAE.
Weitimannia racemosa L. f. Not uncommon in southern forest.
ROSACEAE.
Rubus australis Forst. f. Abundant.
■ suhpauperatus Cockayne. Common.
• schmidelioides A. Cunn. Not plentiful.
244 • Transactions.
Ruhus cissoides A. Cunn. Not plentiful.
Potentilla anserina L. var. anserinoides (Eaoul) T. Kirk. Not plentiful.
Acaena novae-zelandiae T. Kirk. Not uncommon.
Sanguisorhae Vahl. Common throughout.
var. pilosa T. Eark. Hilltops.
microphylla Hook. f. Hilltops only.
Geraniaceae.
Geranium microphyllum Hook. f. Common in tussock meadow.
sessiliflorum. Cav. var. glabrum Kunth. Common in steppe.
Oxalis magellanica Forst. Rare. On bank of Otamete Stream at 1,000 ft.
corniculata L. Aljundant.
EUTACEAE.
Melicope simplex A. Cunn. Plentiful in forest.
Olacinaceae. Pennantia corymbosa Forst.
Callitrichaceae. Callitriche verna L. In pools, &c.
Coriariaceae.
Coriaria ruscifolia L. Plentiful.
■ thymifolia Humb. & Bonpl. Common.
Leguminosae.
Sophora tetraptera J. Mull. var. microphylla Hook. f. Fairly abundant. Carmichaelia subulata T. Kirk. Creek-banks.
Elaeocarpaceae.
Aristotelia racemosa (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. var. with red berries. Plentiful in forest.
Colensoi Hook. f. Creek-banks.
■ fruticosa Hook. f. On creek-banks above 1,000 ft.
var. with white flowers. On creek-bank ; rare.
Eleaocarpus HooJcerianus Raoul. Fairly abundant.
. Rhamnaceae. Discaria toumatou Raoul. Common on stony faces.
Malvaceae.
Plagianthus hetulinus A. Cunn. Plentiful ; forest-margins. Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. var. vulgaris Hook. f. Forest-margins. var. angustifolia Hook, f.
ViOLACEAE.
Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f. Plentiful in steppe. - — — filicaulis Hook. f. Plentiful in steppe. Melicytus lanceolatus Hook. f. Fairly common but local. Hymenanthera dentata R. Br. Forest-margin. var. alpina T. Kirk. Hilltops.
PopPELWELL. — Indigenous Vegetation of Hokonui Hills. 245
Thymelaeaceae.
Pimelea prosfrata Willd., one or more varieties. Plentiful.
sericeo-villosa Hook. f. Not plentiful.
Drapetes Dieffenbachii Hook. f. In elevated boggy places.
Lyallii Hook. f. In elevated boggy places.
Myrtaceae.
Leptospermum scoparium Forst. Plentiful.
Myrtus pedunculata Hook. f. Plentiful in lowland forest.
Metrosideros lucida (Forst. f.) A. Rich. Plentiful in forest.
hypericijoiia A. Cunn. Plentiful but local in forest.
Onagraceae.
t
Epilohium chionanthum Haussk. Boggy places
pictuw, Petrie. Plentiful.
Hectori Haussk. Common.
confertifolium Hook. f. Common.
alsinoides A. Cunn. Common.
Billardierianum Ser. Common..
junceum Sol. var. hirtigermn A. Cunn. Not uncommon.
puhens A. Rich. Plentiful.
nummularifolium R. Cunn. Bush tracks.
Imniaeoides Hook. f. Bush tracks.
• insulare Haussk. Common.
Fuchsia excortihata L. f. Plentiful. Colensoi Hook. f. Common.
Halorrhagaceae.*
Halorrhagis depressa Walp. Fairly abundant.
micrantha (Thunb.) R. Br. Meadow^.
Myriophyllum elatinoides Gaud. Pools. Gunnera flavida Col. Swamps.
prorepens Hook. f. Swamps.
Araliaceae.
Notkopanax simplex (Forst) Seem. Abundant in forest.
Edgerleyi (Hook, f.) Harms. Not uncommon.
' Colensoi (Hook, f.) Seem. Abundant.
Pseudopanax crassifolium (Sol.) C. Koch. Common in forest.
ferox T. Kirk. Dry situations in forest.
Shefflera digitata Forst. Not uncommon in damp gullies.
Umbelliferae.
Hydrocotyle novae-zecdandiae DC. Abundant in damp places.
asiatica L. Plentiful.
Apium filiforme (A. Rich.) Hook. Tolerably rare. Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f. Rare ; only two plants noted.
■ squarrosa Forst. Fairly common.
Angelica Gingidium Hook. f. Abundant on banks, &c.
Cornaceae.
Griselinia litto7-alis Raoul. Plentiful.
Corokia Cotoneaster Raoul. Abundant near lower edge of forest.
246 Transactions.
Ericaceae.
GanUheria antipoda Forst. f. Fairly common in heath. erecta (Cheesem.) Cockayne. On creek-banks ; rare.
depressa Hook. f. Abundant from 1,500 ft. upwards.
perplexa R. Br. Plentiful.
Epacridaceae.
Pentachondra pumila (Forst.) R. Br. Mountain-heaths. Styphelia Fraseri (A. Cunn.) F. Muell. Throughout heath. Cyathodes empetrifolia Hook. f. Sphagnum bogs with Hypolaena. Dracophyllum longifolium (Forst. f.) R. Br. Mountain-heath
Urvilleanum A. Rich. Not very common.
Myrsinaceae.
Rapanea Urvillei (A. DC.) Mez. Plentiful in forest. Suttonia divaricata (A. Cunn.) Hook.- f. Fairly abundant.
Gentianaceae. Gentiana Grisebachii Hook. f. Not uncommon on upland heath.
Apocynaceae.
Parsonsia heterophylla A. Cunn. Abundant.
capsidaris R. Br. Fairly common.
Con VOLVULACE AE .
Calystegia tuguriorum Forst. f. Forest-margins ; rare and local.
Labiatae. Mentha Cunninghamii Benth. Creek-banks, &g.
Scrophulariaceae.
Yeronica salicifoUa Forst. f. Lowland forest ; abundant. Mazus radicans Cheesem. Abundant in damp meadow. Euphrasia Dyeri Wettst. Damp meadow.
Plantaginaceae Plantago Raoulii Decne. Not plentiful.
RUBIACEAE.
Coprosma rotundifolia A. Cunn. Plentiful near creeks in forest.
areolata Cheesem. Not uncommon.
• parviflora Hook. f. Plentiful ; creek-banks.
cras'sifolia Col. Fairly common.
■ rigida Cheesem. Fairly common.
foetidissima Forst. Abundant.
rhamnoides A. Cunn. Not plentiful.
Colensoi Hook. f. Rare. v
■ acerosa A. Cunn. Dry banks, &c.
hrunnea (T. Kirk) Cockayne. Creek-banks
propinqua A. Cunn. Creek-banks.
lucida Forst. f. Not abundant.
linariifolia Hook, f . Plentiful ; dry hills in forest.
ramidosa Petrie. Common.
PoppELWELL. — Indigenous Vegetation of Hokonui Hills. 247
Nertera depressa Banks & Sol. Common on damp logs.
dichondraefolia (A. Cunn.) Hook. Not plentiful.
setidosa Hook. f. (?). In damp bog.
Galium umhrosum Sol. In meadow ; not uncommon. Asperula perpusilla Hook. f. Lowland meadow.
Campanulaceae.
Pratia angidata (Forst. f.) Hook. f. Abundant. Wahlenhergia albomarginata Hook. Abundant. gracilis (Forst. f.) A. DC. Not uncommon.
var. with very short stems and small flowers. Lowland heath.
Stylidaceae. Forstera tenella Hook. f. Fairly plentiful above 1,800 ft.
COMPOSITAE.
Lagenophora pumila (Forst. f.) Cheesem. Dry banks.
petiolata Hook. f. Common in meadows.
Brachycome Sinclairii Hook. f. Plentiful in upper meadows.
Olearia virgata Hook. f. Fairly common ; creek-banks, &c. '
var. lineata T.'Kirk. Fairly common.
ilicifolia Hook. f. In subalpine scrub in southern jmrts.
arhorescens (Forst. f.) Cockayne and Laing. Common on heath, &c.
odorata Petrie. On margin of forest.
Hectori Hook. f. On marghi of forest.
fragrantissima Petrie. Stony faces in north. ^
Celmisia longifolia Cass. Abundant.
var. alpina T. Kirk. Swampy places.
— — coriaceae Hook. f. (?). Rare ; only one plant noted, on rocks. Gnaphalium liiteo-album L. Abvmdant.
• trinerve Forst. f. Common on clay banks, &c.
Traversii Hook. f. Wet, sour ground.
Raoulia australis Hook. f. Not abundant. glabra Hook. f. Plentiful.
subsericea Hook. f. Mountain meadows.
Helichrysum bellidiodes (Forst.) Willd. Abundant. filicaide Hook. f. Plentiful in meadows.
— — glomeratum Benth. & Hook. Rocky faces, &c. Cassinia Vauvilliersii Hook. f. Abundant.
yar. rubra T. Kirk. Not uncommon.
Craspedia uniflora Forst. f. Plentiful in meadow. Cotula australis Hook. f. Damp places.
dioica Hook. f. Damp meadows.
maniototo Petrie. Damp tracks, &c. ; plentiful.
Senecio bellidioides Hook. f. Common throughout.
soiithlandicus Cockayne. Abundant.
Erechtites prenanthoides (A. Rich.) DC. Plentiful in forest tracks. Taraxacum magellanicum Comm. Not uncommon. Microseris Forsteri Hook. f. Not uncommon in steppe. Sonchus asper Hill. Fairly common.
248 Transactions.
Art. XXIX. — Notes on the Indigenous Vegetation of Ben Lomond,
with a List of Species.
By D. L. POPPELWELL.
[Read before the Otago histitute, 14th October, 1919 ; received by Editor, 24th October
1919 ; issued separately, 23rd June, 1920.]
Ben Lomond is so well known as one of the side trips from Queenstown as not to require any further definition. It has, naturally, been visited by many botanists, but so far no list of its species has been published. I therefore propose to publish such a list, which is of interest both from the point of view of plant-geography and on account of the district being so frequently visited by tourists. The attached list has been com- piled from notes taken on many visits to the locality. While it does not profess to be exhaustive, it contains, I think, most of the plants, and should form the basis of a list which can be completed by additions in the future. The list contains 164 species, spread over 92 genera, and belonging to 49 families.
LIST OF INDIGENOUS SPECIES. PTERIDOPHYTA. Hymenophyllaceae. Hymenophyllum tunhridgense (L.) Sm. (?). Rocky faces over creeks.
Polypodiaceae.
Dryopteris punctata (Thunb.) C. Ch. Not common.
Polystichum vestitum (Forst. f.) Presl. Not plentiful.
Asplenium hulbiferum Forst. f. Rare. '
flahelli folium Cav. In shade of rock, 1 mile.
Richardi Hook. f. (?). Very rare.
flaccidum Forst. f . On tyees, &c.
Hookerianum Col. In rocky situation ; not common.
trichomanes L. Rare ; base of hill.
Blechnum penna marinum (Poir.) Kuhn. Not uncommon. — — capense (L.) Schlecht. Dry banks of creeks. — — fluviatile (R. Br.) Lowe. Reservoir creek.
lanceolatum (R. Br.) Sturm. Creek-banks.
vulcanicum Christ. Rocky faces, in shade.
Adiantum diaphanum Blume. Shaded rock-faces, 2 miles. Hypolepis tenuifolia (Forst. f.) Bernh. Open faces near forest. Pteridium esculentum (Forst. f.) Common throughout. Paesia scaberula (A. Rich.) Kuhn. On mountain-side. Polypodium Billardieri (Willd.) C. Chr. Tree-trunks in forest.
diver sifolium Willd. Common in forest.
Cystopteris fragilis Bernh. Rocky crevices, &c.
Pellaea rotundifolia Hook. Base of hill near Queenstown.
Lycopodiaceae.
Lycopodium Billardieri Spring. At 1 mile.
fastigiatum'R. Bv. Dry heath.
ramulosum T. Kirk. Heath, &c.
PoppELWELL. — Indigenous Vegetation of Ben Lomond. 249
SPERMOPHYTA.
Taxaceae. .
Phyllocladtis alpinus Hook. f. On forest-margin at 2,400 ft. Dacrydium Bidwillii Hook. f. Creek-bank at 4,400 ft. Podocarpus nivalis Hook. Mountain-side at 2,500 ft.
Gramineae.
Danthonia flavescens Hook. i. Steppe; common.
Raoulii Steud. Steppe ; common.
crassiuscula T. Kirk. Steppe ; common.
Poa caespitosa Forst. f. Not common in steppe. ■ Colensoi Hook. f. Not common in steppe.
intermedia (Hook, f.) Cheesem. Not common in steppe.
Festuca rubra L. Not common in steppe.
Cyperaceae.
Carex lucida Boott. About 2,700 ft. • ternaria Forst. f. About 2,700 ft.
JUNCACEAE.
Juncus polyanthemos Bucben. Damp places. Luzula campestris DC. Mountain meadow, 2,400 ft.
LiLIACEAE.
Cordyline australis (Forst. f.) Hook. Not plentiful. Astelia nervosa. Banks & Sol. Not abundant.
Montana (T, Kirk) Cockayne. At 2,750 ft. ; not abundant.
Phormium Cookianum Le Jobs. 3,400 ft., at edge of forest.
Orchidaceae.
Corysanthes macrantha Hook. f. Creek-banks. Gastrodia Cunninghami, Hook. f. Rare.
Fagaceae.
Nothofagus fusca Oerst. Common at low levels. ■ Menziesii Oerst. Not very plentiful.
Solanderi Oerst. Abundant.
cliffortioides Oerst. Abundant.
Blairii (Oerst.) T. Kirk. Near lake-side.
apiculata Col. Near 1 mile.
Urticaceae. Urtica incisa Poir. In forest.
Loranthaceae. Loranthus micranthus Hook. f. On Coprosma.
Polygonaceae.
Rumex flexuosus Sol. Not common.
Muehlenbeckia complexa (A. Cunn.) Meissn. Forest-margin.
— — axillaris Walp. Gravelly creek-banks, &.c.
PoRTULAC ACE AE .
Claytonia australasica Hook. f. Not uncommon.
250 Transactions.
C AR YOPH YLLACE AE .
Stellaria parviflora Banks & Sol. Not uncommon. Hectorella caespitosa Hook. f. Mountain-side.
Ranunculaceae.
Ranunculus hirtus Banks & Sol. Damp places.
lappaceus Sm. Common.
multiscapus Cockayne. Fairly common.
Cruciferae. Cardamine heterophylla (Forst. f.) 0. E. Schultz. Creek-banks.
Saxifragaceae. Carpodetus serratus Forst. Fairly common.
PiTTOSPORACEAE.
Pittosporum tenuifolium Banks & Sol. Lake-side.
ROSACEAE.
Ruhus a^istralis Forst. f. Common.
suhpauperatus Cockayne. Dry places.
Geum parviflorum Sm. Tolerably common.
leiospermum Petrie. Not uncommon.
pusillum Petrie. Not uncommon.
Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl. Common. var. pilosa T. Kirk. Common.
novae-zelandiae T. Kirk. Common.
microphylla Hook. f. Abundant.
Geraniaceae.
Geranium sessiliflorum Cav. Common in meadow.
microphyllum Hook. f. Common.
Coriariaceae.
Coriaria ruscifolia L. Common on lake-side, &c.
angustissima Hook. f. At 2,500 ft.
Leguminosae. Sophora microphylla J. Mull. Lake-side.
Elaeocarpaceae.
Aristotelia racemosa (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. Near lake-side.
— — var. with red berries. Rare.
Rhamnaceae. Discaria toumatou Raoul. Dry places near lake.
Malvaceae. Gaya Lyallii J. E. Baker. In reservoir creek.
Violaceae.
Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f. Common in damp places. filicaulis Hook, f. Not uncommon.
PoppBLWELL. — Indigenous Vegetation of Ben Lomond. 251
Thymeleaceae.
Pimelea prostrata Willd. Fairly common. Drapetes Dieffenbachii Hook. f. Common.
Lyallii Hook. f. More rare than D. Diffenbachii.
Myrtaceae.
Leptospermum scoparium Forst. Common.
Metrosideros lucida (Forst. f.) A. Ricti. Rare on lake-side.
Onagraceae.
Epilobium Hectori Haussk. Common on tracks, &c.
linnaeoides Hook. f. Damp places.
■ pictum Petrie. Common.
Fuchsia excorticata L. f. Damp forest. Colensoi Hook. f. Not uncommon.
Araliaceae.
Nothopanax Colensoi (Hook, f.) Seem. In damp forest. • Pseudopanax crassifoUum (Sol.) C. Koch. Not plentiful.
Umbelliferae. Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae DC. Damp places. Aciphylla Colensoi Hook. f. Above 3,000 ft.
pinnatifida Petrie. Rare ; in boggy places at 4,400 ft.
Angelica decipiens Hook. f. In alpine meadow. Anisotome imbricatum Hook. f. High elevation only.
CORNACEAE.
Griselinia littoralis (Raoul). Lake-side. Corohia Cotoneaster Raoul. Forest-margin.
Ericaceae. Gaultheria antipoda Forst. f. var. erecta Cheesem. Dry banks.
depressa Hook. f. Abundant.
rupestris R. Br. Common.
Epacridaceae.
Pentachondra pumila (Forst. f.) R. Br. Not abundant. Styphelia Fraseri (A. Cunn.) F. Muell. x\bundant.
acerosa Sol. Plentiful near lake.
Dracophyllum rosemarimfolium R. Br. Abundant.
prostratwn T. Kirk. Common near summit.
— — muscoides Hook. Not uncommon.
Myrsinaceae. Rapanea Urvillei (A. DC.) Mez. Rare in forest.
Gentianaceae.
• Gentiana corymbifera T. Kirk. Common.
bellidifolia Hook. f. Not uncommon.
BORAGINACEAE.
Myosotis Goyeni Petrie. Rocks near Queenstown.
Labiatae. Mentha Cunninghamii Benth. Creek-banks, &c.
252 Transactions.
SCROPHULARIACEAE.
Veronica salicifolia Forst. f. Lake-side and creek-banks.
Bidwillii Hook. Dry creek-banks ; plentiful.
Lyallii Hook, f . Near creek ; common.
buxifolia Benth. At 2,400 ft.
■ Hectori Hook. f. At 4,350 ft.
Ourisia caespitosa Hook. f. Damp creek-bank. Euphrasia zelandica Wettst. Wet places near creek.
RUBIACEAE.
Coprosma linariifolia Hook. f. Not common.
propinqua A. Cunn. Creek-banks.
lucida Forst. Reservoir creek.
rigida Cheesem. Ben Lomond Gully.
crassifolia Col. Creek-bank, &c.
repens Hook. f. Alpine meadow.
Nertera depressa Banks & Sol. Damp places at 4,400 ft. Galium umbrosum Sol. Alpine meadow.
Campanulaceae. Pratia angulata (Forst. f.) Hook. f. Tolerably common. Wahlenbergia albomarginata Hook. Abundant. — — gracilis (Forst. f.) A. DC. Comparatively rare. Lobelia linnaeoides Petrie. Somewhat rare.
Stylidaceae. Phyllachne Colensoi (Hook, f.) Berggr. In bogs ; rare. Forstera sedifolia L. f. Tolerably plentiful.
Bidwillii Hook. f. At 2,500
Compositae. Lagenophora petiolata Hook. f. Not very common. Brachycome Sinclairii Hook. f. In subalpine meadow. Olearia arborescens (Forst. f.) Cockayne and Laing. Common in forest.
avicenniaefolia Hook, f . Near lake-side.
moschata Hook. f. At 2,750 ft.
Haastii Hook. f. Near creek at 4,000 ft. elevation.
Celmisia Lyallii Hook. f. From 4,300 ft. upwards.
discolor Hook. f. Rocky cliff protected from stock.
laricifolia Hook. f. Damp ground above 4,000 ft.
Walkeri T. Kirk. Above 4,000 ft.
Gnaplialium trinerve Forst. f. Not common.
Traversii Hook. f. Damp places.
Raoulia australis Hook. f. Common.
glabra Hook. f. Common.
Parhii Buch. Comparatively rare.
Helichrysum bellidioides (Forst.) Willd. Common. filicaule Hook. f. Fairly abundant.
glomeratum Benth. & Hook. Dry places near lake.
Cassinia Vauvilliersii Hook. f. Fairly abundant. Craspedia uniflora Forst. f . Not plentiful.
Senecio Lyallii Hook. f. Creek-banks. • bellidioides Hook. f. Creek-banks.
souihlandicus Cockayne (?). Not plentiful.
revolutus T. Kirk. Common.
Betts. — Rosette Plants at Ca
ss.
253
Art. XXX. — Notes from Canterbury College Mountain Biological
Station, Cass.
No. T.^The Rosette Plants : Part I, By M. Winifred Betts, M.Sc.
[fiearf before the Otago Institute, 9th December, 1919 ; received by Editor, Slat December, 1919 ; issued separately, 30th June, 1920.]
At the end of 1918 the author was able, through the kindness of Dr. Chilton, of Canterbury College, to pass a short time at the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, at Cass. During this visit material was col- lected for an account of all the rosette plants of the district, but the author has been able to study only a few of the plants ; hence in the present paper the anatomy only is dealt with. The author hopes, in a subsequent paper, to work out the anatomy of the rest of the rosette plants, and to consider the conclusions drawn from such anatomical study.
The following list gives the names of all the indigenous rosette plants to be found in the vicinity of the station. This list is taken from the list of species compiled by Cockayne and Foweraker.*
R ANUNCUL ACE AE ,
Ranunculus multiscapus Hook. f. depressus T. Kirk var.
Cruciferae.
Cardamine heterophylla (Forst. f.) 0. E. Schulz var.
ROSACEAE.
Geum parviflorum Sm.
Geraniaceae.
Geranium sessiliflorum Cav. var. glabrum Kunth.
ViOLACEAE.
Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f.
Umbelliperae.
Anisotome filifolia (Hook.f.) Cockayne and Laing.
aromatica Hook. f. var.
Angelica montana (Forst.) Cockayne.
Gentianaceae. Gentiana corymhifera T. I^irk var.
BORAGINACEAE.
Myosotis australis R. Br. var.
PlANTAGINACE AE .
Plantago spathulata Hook. f.
triandra Berggr.
C AMPANUL ACEAE .
Wahlenbergia alhomarginata Hook.
Compositae.
Brachycome Sinclairii Hook. f. Celmisia spectabilis Hook, f .
Lyallii Hook. f.
Gnaphalium Traversii Hook. f. Senecio bellidioides Hook. f. var.
glabratus T. Kirk.
Lyallii Hook. f.
lautus Forst. f. var. montanus
Cheesem.
Microseris scapigera Sch. Bip. Taraxacum magellanicum Comm.
* L. Cockayne and C. E. Foweraker, Notes from the Canterburj' College Mountain Biological Station : No. 4 — The Principal Plant Associations in the Immediate Vicinity of the Station. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48. pp. 166-86, 1916.
254
Transactions.
1. Geum parviflorum Sm.
This plant is found in rocky situations. The appearance of the plant is shown in figs. 1 and 2, fig. 1 being that of a plant growing in a shaded, damp station, fig. 2 of a plant growing in a more exposed position. The leaves are l|-6 in. long, either erect or more or less prostrate ; they are imparipinnate, the leaflet at the end being a large, crenate leaf, while the
Fig. 1. — Geum parviflorum. Plant from sheltered position (half natural size).
lateral leaflets are small, most of them being quite minute. The leaves are hirsute on both surfaces, and also on the petiole ; while on the petiole, especially near the base, there are long, 'brown, silky hairs. The root- system is well developed, and consists of a mass of tough, wiry, fibrous roots, which bear many branches.
Betts. — Rosette Plants at Cass.
255
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 3-lOa). — In the leaf all the large veins, especially the midrib, are prominent on the under-surface. The upper epidermis (figs. 4 and 5) consists of fairly large cells, more or less oval in transverse section, which have thickened walls, the outer wails being the more thickened. In surface view these cells are irregular in outline. Stomata are numerous, there being
Fig. 2. — Geum parviflorum. Plant from exposed position (half natural size).
about 75 per square millimetre on the upper surface. The lower epidermis is similar to the upper, except that the cells are somewhat flatter as seen in transverse section, and as seen in surface view they are more irregular in shape, the cell-walls having a wavy outline. On the lower siirface stomata are more numerous, there being about 230 per square millimetre. The stomata are at the same level as the epidermal cells, and the guard-cells have thick walls. On both surfaces of the leaf there are hairs, which are
256
Transactions.
Fia. 3.-
|
Fig. |
4.- |
|
Fig. |
.5.- |
|
Fig. |
6.- |
|
Fig. |
7.— |
|
Fig. |
8.— |
|
Fig. |
9.- |
|
Fig. |
10a |
-Geum jparviflormn. Transverse section of leaf ( X 36). a, upper epidermis ; b, palisade tissue ; c, spongy tissue ; d, xylem ; e, phloem ; /, aqueous tissue ; g, long unicellular hair ; h, short unicellular hair.
-Geum parviflorum. Transverse section of leaf (X 175). a, upper epidermis ; 6, stoma ; c, palisade tissue ; d, spongy tissue.
-Geum parviflorum. Upper epidermis of leaf (X 175). a, cells round base of hair ; b, base of hair.
-Geum parviflorum,. Lower epidermis of leaf ( X 36). a, club-shaped hair ; b, long unicellular hair ; c, cells above vascular bimdles. ,
Oeum parviflorum. Club-shaped hair ( X 175).
■Geum j)arviflorum. Base of long unicellular hair (x 175). a, hair; b, cushion round base.
-Geum parviflorum. Transverse section of petiole ( X 36). a, aqueous tissue ; b, bundle-sheath ; c, xylem ; d, phloem.
— Geum parviflorum. Transverse section of base of petiole ( X 24). a, tannin- containing cells ; b, bundle-sheath ; c, xylem ; d, phloem ; e, sclerenchyma.
Betts. — Rosette Plants at Cass. 257
of several kinds (figs. 5-8). There are on both surfaces of the leaf long, stifi, bristly, unicellular hairs, which are prolongations of epidermal cells and which have thick walls. Hairs of this type are scattered over the upper surface of the leaf, also on the petiole, and on the lower surface of the leaf they arise from the epidermal cells in the vicinity of the vascular bundles (fig. 6). The epidermal cells round many of these are somewhat larger than the others, forming a kind of cushion round the base of the hair (figs. 5 and 8). In addition to the above-described unicellular hairs, there are much shorter, thinner unicellular hairs, both on the leaf (especially the lower surface) and the petiole (figs. 3, 6, 10). Hairs of a third kind (figs. 6 and 7) are found near the vascular bundles on the lower surface of the leaf : these are club-shaped, multicellular, glandular hairs ; they consist of 3 or 4 cells, of which the basal cell is thick-walled and contains only a small amount of .protoplasm ; the other 2-3 are thin-walled and filled with granular protoplasm. The end cell is much larger than the others.
The chlorenchyma (figs. 3 and 4) is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. The former consists of two layers of cells which are fairly compactly arranged ; the spongy tissue is nearly twice as wide as^ the palisade, and is compbsed of rounded or irregular cells with larger air-spaces between them. In both the cell- walls are slightly thickened, and there are numerous large oval chloroplasts.
In the midrib (fig. 3) there are usually three vascular bundles, of which the central one is the largest. Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a small amount (a layer about 3 cells deep) of colourless parenchyma. Practically the whole of the midrib is filled with an aqueous tissue consisting of large cells with slightly thickened walls ; these cells are circular in trans- verse section and are closely arranged. Just above the vascular bundle some of these cells contain a few chloroplasts. In the midrib, the lower epidermis consists of cells which are small, thick-walled, and, in transverse section, circular. The cuticle here is somewhat thicker. The layer of cells next to this epidermis has thicker walls than the rest of the aqueous tissue, and the cells themselves are smaller. The xylem consists of vessels which are circular in section, of small diameter, and with thick walls ; with the vessels there is xylem parenchyma ; the phloem is composed of sieve- tubes, companion cells, and a little parenchyma. Below the phloem there is a small mass of sclerenchyma.
Petiole (fig. 9). — This diagram is of half the petiole. The epidermis consists of very small cells in which all the walls are thickened, especially the internal and external walls ; a cuticle somewhat thicker than that in the leaf is present. Stomata are found on both surfaces. Some of the epidermal cells are produced into the two kinds of hairs described in connection with the leaf. The short hairs are much more numerous than the long ones. Practically the whole of the ground-tissue forms an aqueous tissue in which the cells are large, rounded or polygonal, with slightly thickened cellulose walls, and are closely arranged so that there are only minute air-spaces between the cells. The three layers of cells just inside the epidermis are smaller, and have thicker walls ; in these cells there are a few chloroplasts.
The vascular bundles are arranged in the form of a crescent, ^the largest being at the centre. Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a sheath of cells, which is clearly distinguished owing to the fact that the cells contain tannin. Round the sheath the cells of the ground-tissue are much smaller. The vascular bundles are the same as in the leaf, except that wood-vessels 9— Trans.
258
Transactions.
are more numerous, of larger diameter, and more irregular in section. Surrounding the xylem and phloem (between these and the sheath) is small-celled tissue — above the xylem parenchyma, and below the phloem sclerenchyma.
|i> '%Base of Petiole (fig. 10a). — The epidermis of the upper surface consists of£small cells, usually oval in transverse section, with thin lateral walls
but thicker internal and external ones. A thin cuticle is present, and there are no stomata. The cells of the lower epidermis are smaller than those of the upper, and have thicker walls. In the upper surface the cells of the layer adjacent to the epi- dermis are large, oval or irregular in shape, with slightly thickened walls. The rest of the ground-tissue consists of large, more or less circular, closely packed cells, many of which contain tannin. Near the lower epi- dermis there is a layer of smaller cells with thickened walls, also con- taining tannin ; the lower epidermal cells contain tannin. The vascular bundles, of which there are three, all large, are of the same structure as in the upper part of the petiole. In this part, however, the cells of the bundle-sheath are suberized. The parenchymatous elements of both xylem and phloem contain tannin.
Root (fig. 106). — This is a diagram of a section of one of the older roots. On the outside are the remains of the old cortical cells. Then comes a layer of cork-cells, all of which contain tannin, and have thick walls, which are, however, only slightly suberized. Internal to the phellogen is cortex, consisting of irregular cells which have thick cellulose walls, and most of which contain tannin. The pith consists of closely arranged rounded or polygonal cells which have thick walls, and many of which contain tannin. Some of the cells also contain starch, in the form of large rounded grains. The xylem and phloem form a continuous cylinder, the amount of phloem being small. In the xylem the number of vessels is few ; these are oval or circular in section, and thick-walled. The rest of the xylem consists of wood-fibres, which are thick-walled and polygonal in shape, almost free from tannin, but containing a large amount of starch.
' •* 2. Cardamine heterophylla (Forst. f.) 0. E. Schulz var.
This plant is a slender, almost glabrous herb. Practically all the leaves are radical ; these aie 1-4 in. long, and are imparipinnate, the terminal leaflet being much larger than the others, of which there are usually two
Fig. 106. — Geum parvijlorum. Transverse section of root ( X 230). a, dead cor- tex ; b, old cork cells ; c, young cork cells ; d, cortex ; c, phloem ; /, xylem ; g, starch-containing cells ; h, pith.
Betts. — Rosette Plants at Cass.
259
9*
Fig. U. — Cardamine heterophylla. Entire plant (two-tliirds natural size).
260
Transactions.
pairs. The leaflets are rounded or irregularly lobed, with entire margin. A few of the leaves, the shorter ones, have only one leaflet. The flowering- stems are 1-5 in. high, and usually bear a few small leaves, which have usually only 1-3 leaflets (fig. 11). The root-system is well developed, consisting of a main tap-root, which gives rise to numerous branches.
Fig. 12. — Cardamine heteropkylla. Transverse section of portion of leaf ( x 175).
guard-cell of stoma ; b, hair ; c, palisade tissue ; d, xylem ; e,
/, spongjr parenchyma ; g, large epidermal cell. Fig. 13. — Cardamine heterophylla. Upj^er epidermis in surface view (x 175). Fig. 14. — Cardamine heterophylla. Lower epidermis in surface view ( x 175).
a, small ];^iloem ;
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 12-14). — Both the upper and the lower epidermis consist of cells which vary considerably in size, both in section and in surface view ; some of the cells are small, others very large, and slightly convex on the outer surface, so that they project somewhat beyond the level of the other
Bbtts. — Eosette Plants at Cass.
261
cells. The cell-wdlls are thin in both upper and lower surfaces, especially the latter, and here the cells, as seen in surface view, are even more irre- gular in outline than those of the upper (figs. 13 and 14). Stomata, in which the guard-cells are very small, are found on both surfaces, but are more numerous on the lower ; on the upper surface there are about 65 per square millimetre, and on the lower about 105. A few of the cells of the upper epidermis (fig. 12) are produced into long, unicellular, thick-waUed hairs, the walls of which are covered with small excrescences of calcium oxalate. On both surfaces is a thin cuticle.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated, although in parts not too clearly. The palisade parenchyma consists of large, thin-walled, more or less oval cells which vary in size and which contain numerous small oval chloro- plasts. This layer is usually only one cell deep. The spongy tissue, which occupies the greater part of the leaf, consists of oval or irregular cells which are loosely arranged, so that there are large intercellular air-spaces. This tissue also contains numerous chloroplasts.
The vascular bundles are small, and each is surrounded by a little thin-waUed colourless parenchyma. The xylem consists of vessels which, in section, are small, circular, and thick-walled ; associated" with the xylem s a small amount of xylem parenchyma. The phloem is of the usual form.
The leaf is thickened at the midrib, where there is an aqueous tissue, consisting of large, roundish or irregular thin-walled cells, in which there are a very few chloroplasts.
Fig. 15. — Cardamine heterophylla. Transverse section of petiole ( X 72). a, furrow of upper surface ; b, chlorenchyma ; c, aqueous tissue.
Petiole (fig. 15). — The petiole is convex on the lower surface, and on the upper is more or less flattened, with a groove running down each side of the midrib. The epidermis is the same as in the leaf, consisting of small cells, together with much larger, somewhat projecting cells. Stomata are found
262
Transactions.
on both surfaces. There are three vascular bundles — a small one near each margin, and a larger one, which is surrounded by a well-marked endo- dermis, occupying the centre of the petiole. Some of the cells of this endodermis are slightly suberized. The structure of the vascular bundle is the same as in the leaf.
The mesophyll consists of large, thin-walled, more or less circular cells which are closely packed together. At the margin — that is, in the vicinity of the small vascular bundles — the cells are smaller, and they contain abundant chloroplasts. In the other part of the ground-tissue, especially near the epidermis, there are a few chloroplasts, but most of this tissue is the colourless aqueous tissue.
Fig. 16. — Cardamine heterophylla. Transverse section of flower- bearing stem ( X 230). a, chlorenchymatous cortex ; b, endodermis ; c, pericycle; rf, phloem; e, xylem- vessel; /, wood-fibre; gr, pith.
Flowerhtg-stem (fig. 16). — The epidermis consists of small oval or rect- angular cells in which all the cell-walls, but especially the inner and outer, are thickened ; there is a thin cuticle. Stomata are present, the guard-cells being somewhat larger than in the leaf ; they are protected by small guard-cell ridges. The whole of the cortex, with the exception of the endo- dermis, is chlorenchymatous. It consists of oval, thin-waUed cells which vary in size and which contain numerous small chloroplasts.
Betts. — Rosette Plants at Cass.
263
The endodermis is a single layer of cells ; opposite the vascular bundles the cell-walls in this layer are suberized, but not in the vicinity of the medullary rays. The pericycle consists of small, thin-walled, paren- chymatous cells.
There are five vascular bundles, arranged in a circle. The xylem con- sists of vessels of fairly large diameter, together with small wood-fibres.
Fig. 17. — Cardamine heterophylla. Transverse section of root ( x 175). a, suberized ceils ; b, cortex with starch ; c, phloem ; d, xylem- vessel ; e, xylem parenchyma.
The phloem group is nearly as wide as the xylem. Between the bundles the medullary rays are lignified, consisting of small, rounded, thick-waUed cells ; the xylem and these lignified elements together form an undulating band. The pith is not lignified, and consists of large, thin-walled, circular cells.
Root (fig. 17). — Diagram is from a section of the tap-root. On the out- side are a couple of layers of small, irregular, thin-walled, dead cells which
264
Transactions.
have their walls suberized. The cortex consists of cells in which the cell-walls, composed of cellulose, are very much thickened ; the tissue is compact, with only small intercellular air-spaces. The cortical cells vary considerably in size : in the outer part of the cortex they are large, and irregular in shape ; in the inner part they are much smaller, and more or less oval in section. A large amount of starch is stored up in the cortex.
The endodermis and the pericycle are not clearly defined. The xylera occupies the whole of the centre of the root, and is surrounded by a con- tinuous zone of phloem. The vessels of the xylem are scattered ; they are of large diameter and have thick walls. Accompanying the vessels there is a large amount of xylem parenchyma which consists of rectangular or
irregular thick- walled cells.
«
3. Plantago triandra Berggr.
This plant is illustrated in fig. 18. It is a small plant, with a short, thick rootstock bearing numerous radical leaves. These leaves are |— 2 in. long, with irregularly and remotely serrate margins, and sparingly pilose on the
Fig. 18. — Plantago triandra. Entire jilant (natural size).
upper surface with short hairs, the lower surface being glabrous. The root- system is short, and consists of a mass of fibrous roots which do not branch very much.
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 19-22). — The upper epideimis is sparingly pilose, the hairs being long, jointed ones, consisting of about 6 cells (fig. 21). The basal cell is very large and is more or less circular ; its diameter is 2-4 times that of the other epidermal cells. This basal cell is thin- walled at the bottom, but at the outside the wall is much thickened. The rest of the cells of the
Betts. — Rosette Plants at Cass.
265
hair are large, about twice as long as broad, and the apical cell is wedge- shaped ; these cells are thick-walled throughout, but are not cuticularized ; they contain protoplasm in the form of primordial utricle and protoplasmic strands, and the nucleus is large and oval. The average length of hair is 0-5 mm. The upper epidermal cells are large, with slightly thickened walls, and somewhat irregular in outline (fig. 20). Stomata are numerous (about 155 per square millimetre) ; the guard-cells have thickened walls, are protected by fairly prominent guard-cell ridges, and are at the same level as the epidermis.
Fig. 19. — Plantago triandra. Transverse section of leaf ( x 230). a, hair ; b, basal cell of hair ; c, stoma ; d,' palisade parenchyma ; e, spongy parenchyma ; /, hydathode.
The lower epidermis is similar to the upper, except that the cells are a little longer, but are smaller in section, and stomata are more numerous (about 200 per square millimetre). A very thin cuticle is present on both surfaces. In addition to the hairs described for the upper surface there are hydathodes — sparingly developed on the upper but more numerous
266
Transactions.
on the lower surface. They are of the capitate form (Haberlandt*). They consist of two parts — (1) the basal portion or foot; (2) the head, of about 2 cells. The cells of this latter portion have thickened, non-cuticularized walls (fig. 19).
The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of 1-3 rows of cells— large, broad cells, the outer layer being composed of cells about twice as deep as broad, the inner layer or layers of cells about as broad' as deep. The cells are thin- walled, fairly closely arranged, and contain numerous small ellipsoidal chloroplasts. The spongy tissue also consists of large, thin-walled, oval or somewhat irregular cells, containing a smaller number of chloroplasts. The chloroplasts in the palisade tissue are slightly larger than in the spongy tissue. Beneath each stoma there is a fair-sized air-space.
The vascular bundles are not numerous and are very small. In the midrib there is, between the vascular bundle and the lower surface, a small amount of aqueous tissue, consisting of rounded cells which are
Fig. 20. — Plantago triandra. Upper epidermis of leaf ( x 230).
a, guard- cells ; b, base of hair. Fig. 21. — Plantago triandra. Jointed hair(x 48).
either colourless or contain a few chloroplasts. The mesophyll above the vascular bundle is not differentiated, and consists of very large cells which contain chloroplasts. Below the midrib the cells of the lower epidermis are much smaller, are circular in transverse section, and have all their walls thickened. Above the lower epidermis, in the midrib, is a single layer of colourless collenchyma.
The vascular bundle of the midrib is small, and is surrounded by a bundle-sheath of fairly large, thin-walled cells, in a few of which there is a small number of chloroplasts. The xylem consists of vessels of small diameter, together with xylem parenchyma. There is also parenchyma with the phloem. Above the xylem and below the phloem there is a small amount of sclerenchyma, consisting of small irregular cells with thick walls.
* HABERLA.NDT, Physiologicul Plant Anatomy (English translation), p. 491 ; London, 1914.
Betts. — Roiiette Flanis at Cass.
267
Leaf -base (fig. 22). — The leaf-base is elongated and sheathing, colour- less, and thickened considerably near the centre, but thin and membranous
Fig. 22. — Plantago triandra. Transverse section of petiole ( x 48). a, aqueous tissue ; b, xylem ; c, phloem ; d, bundle-sheath.
atjthe margins. The upper epidermis consists of large,fthin-walled, colour- less cells, without any stomata. The outer walls are slightly thicker than the others. The lower epidermis is composed of smaller cells than the upper, and the walls are somewhat thicker.
The ground-tissue consists of large, rounded, thin-walled cells in which the protoplasm is reduced to a very thin layer lining the walls ; this tissue is for water-storage. The vascular bundles are small, and of the same structure as in the leaf.
Fig. 23. — Plantago triandra. Transverse section of root (x 175) a, suberized cells ; 6, cortex ; c, endodermis ; d, peri- cycle ; e, phloem ; /, xylem.
'Root (fig. 23). — The vascular cylinder is small, consisting of a central mass of xylem, composed of elements of smaU diameter, and with thickened, pitted walls ; surrounding the xylem is a narrow band of phloem. The pericycle is a single layer of thin-walled cells. The endodermis is well marked, and consists of cells somewhat larger than the cells of the peri- cycle and with thicker, slightly suberized walls.
268
Transactions.
The cortex consists of fairly large, thin -walled cells ; in an old root, as illustrated, the hairs of the piliferous layer have disappeared, and the sub- dermal layer of cortical cells have their walls slightly suberized.
4. Brachycome Sinclairii Hook. f.
The appearance of a single rosette is given in fig. 24. The plant is more or less succulent, 1-3 in. high, and practically glabrous. The plant has a short, thick, branching rhizome, and it is by this means that the plant is
Fig. 24. — Brachycome Sinclairii. Entire plant (x IJ).
able to form mats. The leaves are J-2 in. long, broad and rounded at the tip, and gradually narrowed into the flat petiole ; they are deeply toothed, and in some cases appear even pinnatifid.
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 25-27). — In transverse section the cells of the upper epidermis are seen to be large and somewhat squarish, with all their walls thickened, the outer ones considerably, the thickening being equal to about half the depth of the cell-cavity. The stomata, which are numerous, are raised above the cavity of the epidermal cells, but are at the same level as the thickened external walls. The guard-cells have thickened walls and guard - cell ridges. In surface view (fig. 26) the cells of the upper epidermis are seen to be large and irregular or polygonal. A thin, unevenly but not deeply ridged cuticle is present. On the upper surface there are about 220 stomata per square millimetre.
The cells of the lower epidermis (fig. 27) are similar to those of the upper, except that the cell-walls are not so much thickened ; in surface view these cells are more irregular in outline than the cells of the upper epidermis. Stomata are not as abundant as on the upper surface ; there are 150 per square millimetre. The guard-cells of the stomata of the lower surface are a little smaller than in the upper surface.
The chlorenchyma is difierentiated ; the palisade tissue occupies about one-third and the spongy parenchyma two-thirds of the mesophyll. In both the cell-walls are very thin. The palisadic cells are oval or oblong in transverse section, about twice as deep as wide, fairly compactly arranged, and containing numerous small rounded chloroplasts. The spongy tissue consists of large, more or less rounded cells, with small air-spaces between the cells ; they contain a much smaller number of chloroplasts than the palisade-cells, and form an aqueous tissue.
Bbtts. — Rosette Plants at Cass.
269
The vascular bundles are small, and are surrounded by a sheath of thin- walled, colourless cells. The xylem consists of vessels round in section, with thick walls, and of xylem parenchyma. The amount of phloem is small. The leaf is much thicker in the midrib, where the vascular bundle is accompanied by a mass of large, rounded, thin-walled, colourless cells. There is a smaller amount of this colourless tissue with the other bundles.
Petiole (fig. 28). — The petiole is thick and fleshy, being used for water- storage. The upper epidermis consists of large cells in which the lateral walls are thin, and the inner and outer thickened, but not so much as in the leaf -lamina. A cuticle as in the leaf is present. Many of the epidermal
CL t
Fig. 25. — Brachycome Sinclairii. Transverse section of leaf ( X 230). a, ridged cuticle ; b, thick epidermal wall ; c, palisade tissue ; d, spongy tissue ; e, guard-cell ridge.
Fig. 26. — Brachycome Sinclairii. Upper epidermis of leaf (x 230).
Fig. 27. — Brachycome Sinclairii. Lower epidermis of leaf (x 230).
cells contain chloroplasts, and near the centre of the petiole, above the midrib, a few of them are produced into long, unicellular hairs which contain protoplasm. At the margin of the petiole are found a few capitate glandular hairs. The lower epidermis is similar to the upper, except that it does not produce any hairs, and the cells are smaller and contain more chloroplasts. There are stomata on the upper but not on the lower surface.
There are five vascular bundles— a large one at the centre, and four very small ones. The bundle-sheath is not clearly marked off from the small- celled parenchyma surrounding the bundle. The structure of the bundles is the same as in the leaf.
270
Transactions.
The ground-tissue consists of large, rounded, thin-walled, closely arranged cells. The 1-2 layers of these cells adjacent to the epidermis are chloren- chymatous, as also in the tissue in the margin of the petiole. The main bulk of the ground-tissue is, however, colourless, forming an aqueous tissue.
Rhizome (fig. 29). — The epidermis consists of cells which are oval or rounded in transverse section, and which have all their walls slightly thickened, the external being the most thickened. A very thin, uneven, ridged cuticle is present. The cortex consists of large, rounded, colourless cells which have their walls slightly thickened and which form a water- storage tissue. In the inner part of the cortex there are, at intervals, a few secretion-canals which are lined with a layer of thin-walled epithelial cells.
Fig. 28. — Brachycome Sindairii. Transverse section of petiole (x 72). a, unicellular hair ; b, chlorenchyma ; c, aqueous tissue ; d, xylem ; e, phloem.
The endodermis is well marked, consisting of a layer of irregular cells with thin suberized walls. There is no continuous pericycle, but this layer is represented by a number of groups of pericycle fibres, in which the cells have thick, lignified walls and small lumen. The phloem forms a fairly wide band and is continuous round the xylem ; it consists of sieve-tubes, companion cells, and a fairly large amount of phloem parenchyma. The xylem joins a practically continuous band of vessels and of wood-fibres with fairly thick walls. It is interrupted by a few uniseriate medullary rays, also with thickened, lignified walls. The pith is solid, and consists of thin-walled, large, round cells.
In an older part of the rhizome the epidermis has disappeared, and the outer layer of the cortex is suberized.
Betts. — Rosette Plants at Cass.
271
Root (fig. 30). — The central cylinder is small, and is surrounded by a clearly marked endodermis, which, as in the rhizome, consists of irregular, thin-walled, suberized cells. The pericycle consists of a single layer of cells about the same size as the endodermal cells, and with thin cellulose
Fig. 29. — Brachycome Sinclairii. Transverse section of rhizome (x 175).
a, cortex ; b, canal ; c, epithelial layer ; d, endodermis ; e, pericycle
fibres ; /, phloem ; g, xylem ; h, medullary ray. Fig. 30. — Brachycome Sinclairii. Transverse section of root (x 175).
a, suberized cells ; b, cortex ; c, endodermis ; d, pericycle ;
e, phloem ; /, xylem.
walls. The xylem forms a compact triangular-shaped mass, and its elements have thick walls. The phloem forms three large masses, and consists of sieve-tubes, companion cells, and phloem parenchyma, all of which have their elements of small diameter.
272 Transactitms'.
The cortex is a wide band of tissue, consisting of large, more or less circular cells, compactly arranged, and with slightly thickened walls.
5. Gnaphalium Traversii Hook. f.
The plant is a small perennial herb \-\\ in. high. The plant produces a large number of runners (figs. 31 and- 32), which give rise to new plants at a short distance from the parent plant, so that fairly compact mats are formed by the runners going in all directions. The leaves are ^-H in. long,
Fig. 31. — Gnaphalium Traversii. Plant (half natural size) to show root-system. Fig. 32. — Gnaphalium Traversii. Plant (half natural size) to show runners.
spathulate in shape, and clothed on both surfaces, also on the petiole and runner, with a silvery tomentum. The root-system is a mass of tough, fibrous roots.
Anatomy.
Leaf (fig. 33). — From the transverse section it is seen that the leaf is very much thickened at the midrib, where there is a large amount of aqueous tissue. The upper epidermis consists of large cells, in which the lateral and inner walls are thin, but the outer are thickened. There is a thin cuticle on both surfaces. The cells of the lower epidermis are much smaller than those of the upper. On both surfaces many of the epidermal cells are produced into long, two-celled hairs, the outer cell being much longer than the basal cell. Stomata are confined to the lower surface, where they are raised above the epidermal cells. The guard-cells are small and have thick walls. Owing to the dense mass of tomentum it is impossible to find the number of stomata per square millimetre.
The mesophyll consists of palisade and spongy tissue. The palisade tissue consists of a single layer of oval cells in which are numerous elongated chloroplasts. The spongy parenchyma, which is compactly arranged, is composed of rounded or oval cells, also containing chloroplasts. All the mesophyll cells are thin- walled.
The aqueous tissue in the midrib consists of large, thin-walled, rounded cells, with small air-spaces between them. Above the lower epidermis in the midrib a single layer of these cells contain chloroplasts.
In addition to the hairs described above, there are club-shaped, glandular hairs, which consist of about 5 cells.
Betts. — Rosette 'Plants at Cass.
273
Petiole. — -The petiole is very much thickened at the midrib, but is thin at the margin. The upper epidermis consists of fairly large cells, in which the lateral walls are thin, the inner and outer somewhat thickened. Many of these cells are produced into hairs as in the leaf. Stomata are confined to the lower surface.
The mesophyll consists for the most part of large, thin-walled, rounded or polygonal, closely arranged cells. This tissue is for water-storage. Near the flattened margins of the petiole the cells are smaller and contain a few flattened chloroplasts.
Fig. 33. — Gnaphalium Traversii. Transverse section of leaf, passing through midrib (X 175). a, palisade tissue; 6, spongy tissue; c, two-celled hair; d, stoma; e, glandular hair ; /, xylem ; r/, phloem ; h, aqueous tissue.
There are three vascular bundles, the one in the midrib being large, the others smaller. Each is surrounded by a small amount of thin-walled, colourless parenchyma ; the bundle has the same structure as in the leaf.
Runner (fig. 34). — This is cylindrical in transverse section. The epidermis. consists of small cells, much smaller than in the petiole, which have all their walls slightly thickened. Some of these cells are produced into hairs like those in the leaf, except that, while in the leaf they are usually two-celled, in this case they are three-celled.
274
Transactions.
There are a few stomata, the guard-cells of which are level with the other epidermal cells and have thickened walls.
The cortex consists of large, thin-walled, rounded or somewhat irregular cells which have small air-spaces between them and which form a water- storage tissue. In the outermost layers there are a few chloroplasts, which are smaller than those in the leaf.
Fig. 34. — Gnaphalium Traversii. Transverse section of runner (x 230). a, cells with chloroplasts ; b, colourless cortex ; c, endodermis ; d, pericycle ; e, phloem ; /, xylem ; g, pith.
The central cylinder is fairly small, occupying less than half the dia- meter of the stem. It is surrounded by a well-marked endodermis in which all the cells are large and have suberized walls.
Bbtts. — Eosette Plants at Cass. 275
The pericycle is a single layer of small thin -walled parenchymatous cells. The phloem and xylem form a continuous cylinder round the pith, which consists of large, rounded cells with somewhat thickened walls. In the xylem the vessels and fibres are polygonal in section and are thick- walled.
Root (fig. 35). — The diagram is of an old root, in which the piliferous layer has been worn off, exposing the cortex ; the outermost layer is of
Fig. 35. — Gnaphaliuni Traversii. Transverse section of root ( X 230). a, suberized cortex ; 6, cortex ; c, endo- dermis ; d, phloem ; e, xylem.
small cells^with the walls, which are thin, slightly suberized. The rest of the cortex consists of oval or irregular cells with thicker walls, and small air-spaces between the cells.
The endodermis is a single layer of small oval cells with thin suberized walls. The xylem forms a compact central mass, in which the elements are polygonal in transverse section and have thickened walls. The phloem forms a narrow band surrounding the xylem.
276 Transactions.
Art. XXXI. — Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite Belt, Nelson: Part I — Structure of some of the Plants (No. 3).*
By M. Winifred Betts, M.Sc.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th December, 1919 ; received by Editor, S^lst December,
1919 ; issued separately, 30th Jime, 1920.]
25. Cyathodes acerosa R. Br.
Habit. — This plant . is an erect, branching shrub, 1-2 ft. high ; the branches are woody and spreading, and the bark is black. The leaves are spreading, ^^ in. long, acerose, linear, rigid, pungent-pointed, glaucous beneath, with 3 to 7 parallel veins.
Anatomy.
Leaf. — The upper epidermis is composed of very regular rectangular cells which have the longer sides at right angles to the surface of the leaf. These cells have very thick mucilaginous cell-walls, and their cavities are very small and contain tannin. There is a thick cuticle.
The lower epidermis consists of small cells which have thick walls (but not nearly as thick as in the upper epidermis).' There is a thick cuticle on this surface also. Most of the cells of the lower epidermis are produced into short papillae with very thick, cutinized walls. Stomata are confined to the lower epidermis ; the guard-cells are small, and are at the same, level as the other epidermal cells.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. The palisade tissue consists of 3 or 4 rows of narrow, elongated cells. The outermost layer has all the cells full of tannin ; the others contain small chloroplasts. The outer layer is very compact, but there are small inter- cellular air-spaces in the inner layers.
The spongy tissue occupies about a quarter of the width of the leaf. It is composed of sriiall, irregular, thin- walled cells, many of which contain tannin. There are small intercellular air-spaces in this tissue.
The number of vascular bundles varies from 3 to 7. The xylem and the phloem are both small in amount, and in the parenchymatous elements there is tannin. Below the phloem there is a mass of stereome, consisting of small cells with their walls so much thickened that their cavities are almost obliterated. Above the upper part of the bundle there is a sheath of small cells with unlignified walls.
Stem. — The cork forms a narrow band ; it is composed of very small, thick-walled cells which are very closely arranged.
The cortex consists of oval, thin-walled cells, which contain tannin, and which form a compact tissue with very small intercellular air-spaces.
The phloem is composed of small elements ; the medullary rays passing through it contain tannin.
The xylem is composed of a moderate number of vessels which have thick walls. The rest of the xylem consists of wood-fibres which have very thick cell-walls and small lumen.
*For Nos. 1 and 2 see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 230-43, 1918, and vol. 51, pp. 136-56, 1919.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 211
The medullary rays are uniseriate, frequent, and have thickened, lignified walls, and contain tannin.
The pith is solid, and is composed of large polygonal cells with thick, lignified, and pitted walls. The cells contain tannin.
26. Gentiana corymbifera T. Kirk.
Habit. — The plant is a perennial herb. The root is stout, long, and tapering. The stems are simple and rarely branched from the base, stout, erect, terete, 6-20 in. high. The leaves are both radical and cauline. The radical leaves are numerous, rosulate, \-2\ in. long, |— ^ in. broad, narrowed into a short petiole. The blade is coriaceous, and rather thick and fleshy. The cauline leaves are few in number, f-lj in. long, linear-lanceolate, and sessile.
Anatomy.
Leaf. — The upper epidermis is composed of large cells which in trans- verse section are oval. They have all their walls, and especially the external ones, thickened. These cells contain drops of oil. There is a thin, rough cuticle.
The lower epidermis is the same as the upper, except that the cells are somewhat smaller. There is a thin cuticle on this surface also. Stomata are found on both surfaces, but are much more numerous on the lower. The guard-cells are small, and have very thick walls. The stoma is protected by guard-cell ridges which are rathqr large.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. The palisade tissue consists of 5 rows of large cells with slightly thickened walls. These cells contain ver)'' numerous small chloroplasts, and there are small air-spaces between the cells.
The spongy tissue is composed of large, irregular cells, the walls of which are only slightly thickened. There are quite large intercellular air-spaces in this tissue. These cells contain a thin layer of protoplasm in which are embedded small chloroplasts, which are not nearly as numerous as in the palisade tissue ; these cells serve as water-storage cells.
The vascular bundles are small and numerous ; associated with both the phloem and the xylem there is parenchyma. The bundle is surrounded by a sheath of thin-walled parenchymatous cells which contain a few chloroplasts. Below the main bundle there is a small amount of collen- ohyma.
Stem. — The epidermis is composed of cells which are large and rounded' in transverse section. They have all their walls very much thickened, and there is also a moderately thick, rough cuticle. Some of the epidermal cells contain drops of oil.
Below the epidermis there is a well-marked hypoderma. This consists of cells which are the same as the epidermal cells, and they also have their external walls cuticularized. The hypoderma is in places separated from the epidermis by a large air-space.
The cortex is a wide band ; it is composed of large, more or less oval cells which have their walls somewhat thickened. There are very small intercellular air-spaces in this tissue. In the outer part of the cortex the cells contain a few small chloroplasts. All the cortical cells form an aqueous tissue. The endodermis is well marked ; it is a layer of large cells with thin suberized walls.
278
Transactions.
The phloem is a fairly wide band of tissue ; the sieve-tubes are of small diameter, and there is a large amount of phloem parenchyma. There are also small groups of sieve-tubes on the inside of the xylem.
The xylem is a wide band ; it is formed for the greater part of very regular rows of wood-fibres with slightly thickened walls. There are no medullary rays. On the inside of the band of fibres there are a few small vessels.
The pith is composed of large thin-walled cells which have small inter- cellular air-spaces between them.
27. Myosotis Monroi Cheesem. i
Habit. — This plant is a small perennial herb which is more or less hispid with short, stiff, white hairs. The radial leaves are numerous, |— 2 in. long, narrow obovate-spathulate, narrowed into a rather long slender petiole, hispid with short, -stiff, white hairs on the upper surface, more sparingly so beneath, and sometimes glabrous except the midrib. The cauline leaves are smaller and narrower.
Anatomy.
Leaf (fig. 1). — The upper epidermis consists of large roundish or squarish cells with thin walls, except the external, which are slightly thickened.
--C
1^-d
Fig. 1. — Myosotis Monroi. Transverse section of leaf (x 175). a, uni- cellular hair ; b, stoma ; c, palisade parenchyma ; d, spongy parenchyma ; e, xylem ; J, phloem.
A very thin cuticle is present. Numerous epidermal cells are produced into long, stiff hairs with small protuberances on their outside walls. Stomata are found on both surfaces of the leaf ; the guard-cells are small
Betts. — Aut ecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 279
and have thickened walls, and are level with the surface of the leaf ; there are guard-cell ridges. :T^ -^
The lower epidermis is the same as the upper, except that the cells are somewhat smaller. There is a thin cuticle on this surface also, i The hairs are not nearly as numerous as on the upper surface.
Fio. 2. — Myosotis Monroi. Transverse section of stem(x 175). a, unicellular hair ; 6, chlorenchyma ; c, aqueous tissue ; d, phloem ; e, xylem ; /, pith.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated into paHsade and spongy tissue. The palisade tissue consists of 4 rows of cells — the 3 outer layers are of oval cells, while the 4th consists of cells which are more or less rounded in transverse section. These cells contain numerous large chloroplasts, and there are air-spaces between the cells.
280 Transactions.
The spongy tissue consists of very large, irregular, thin-walled cells which are loosely arranged, so that there are large air-spaces. These cells also contain numerous chloroplasts, which are, however, smaller than in the palisade tissue. Just above the lower epidermis there is a single layer of more closely arranged roundish cells with abundant large chloro- plasts like those in the palisade tissue.
Surrounding the vascular bundle there is a sheath of small, irregular, thin-walled, colourless, parenchymatous cells. Between the sheath around the midrib and the lower epidermis the cells are smaller, compactly arranged, and contain fewer chloroplasts. The vascular bundle contains only a small amount of lignified tissue.
Stem, (fig. 2). — The epidermal cells are small and roundish, and have their external walls somewhat thickened. There is a very thin cuticle. Some of the epidermal cells are produced into hairs like those on the leaf. The stomata are level with the surface ; the guard-cells have thickened walls.
Below the epidermis there is a layer of small round cells which have thin walls and which contain numerous chloroplasts. Between this layer of cells and the rest of the cortex there is in most parts a large air-space.. Below the air-space the cortical cells vary considerably in size. The fiist layer consists of roundish cells with fairly numerous chloroplasts ; then the cells become much larger. They are more or less polygonal and fairly compactly arranged, so that there are only small intercellular air- spaces. These cells contain a few small chloroplasts ; these are found near the corners where three cells meet. Just above the phloem the cells are smaller. All the cortical cells have thin walls.
The amount of phloem is small ; the sieve-tubes and the phloem- parenchyma cells are of small diameter.
The xylem forms a continuous band ; it consists chiefly of wood-fibres with somewhat thickened walls, and also of a few vessels ol small diameter.
The pith is wide and is solid ; just below the xylem the cells are smaller, but as we pass inwards the cells get very large ; they have thin walls, and are arranged so that there are small intercellular air-spaces.
28. Euphrasia Monroi Hook. f.
^Hahit. — The plant is a small perennial herb with stems erect or decumbent below, 3-8 in. high, leafy above and sparingly branched. The leaves are rather close-set, spreading, ^-^ in. long, obovate or obovate- spathulate, obtuse, narrowed to the base but not evidently petiolate, coriaceous, glabrous, and having one short obtuse tooth on each side.
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 3-6). — On examining the leaf one observes on both surfaces some well-marked grooves. These are shown in figs. 3 and 4. These grooves are dark brown in colour, and are much more numerous on the lower than on the upper surface. On the upper surface there are only two ; these pass from the midrib to the single tooth on each margin of the leaf. On the undei surface there is a groove running almost round the leaf close to the margin. This groove is somewhat irregular in outline ; from it numerous other grooves branch off. Cheeseman ( Manual of the N.Z. Flora, 1906, p. 554) in describing this plant does not mention these grooves. When transverse sections are, taken of the leaf it is seen that the grooves are lined with cells which are water-absorbing cells.
Bbtts. — Autecology of Plants of I'eridofife Belt, Nelson. 281
Figs. 5 and 6 show schematically a section through the upper part and the middle of the lamina respectively. From these diagrams it will be seen that small vascular bundles go to the ventral grooves and end ju^t under the cells lining them. It is reasonable to suppose that these cells are for the purpose of absorbing water and not exuding it.
Fig. 7 gives the structure of the leaf in more detail.
Both the upper and the lower epidermis consist of large, regular cells, those of the upper surface being larger than those of the lower. These cells have their external walls slightly thickened, and there is a thin cuticle. Stoma ta are found on both surfaces ; the guard-cells are small, have thickened walls, and are level with the surface. There are small guard-cell ridges.
Fig. 3. — Euphrasia Monroi. Uppor surface of leaf ( x 4). a, groove. Fig. 4. — Euphra~sia Monroi. Lower surface of leaf ( X 4). a, groove. Figs. 5, 6. — Euphrasia Monroi. Transverse sections through leaf (x 30). a, vascular bundles ; h, cells in grooves.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated, but only to a small extent. Practi- cally the whole width of the leaf is occupied by spongy tissue ; the cells just above the lower epidermis are more like spongy tissue, but the transition between the two types of tissue is not very marked. The 3 layers of cells just below the upper epidermis consist of smaller cells which are more or less rounded and have their walls slightly thicker than do the rest of the mesophyll cells. The next 5 or 6 layers of cells are very large, long cells. Just above the lower epidermis the cells are more irregular. All the mesophyll cells contain numerous oval chloroplasts.
In the furrows there are numerous projections for water-absorption. These are formed of 2 cells which have their walls slightly thickened.
282
Transactions.
Fig. 7. — Euphrasia Monroi. Transverse section of leaf (x 175). a, stoma;
b, upper epidermis ; c, mesophyll ; d, vascular bundle ; e, cell of groove. Fig. 8. — Euphrasia Monroi. Transverse section of upper epidermis just above
the midrib, a, excretory hair. Fig. 9. — Euphrasia Monroi. Surface view of upper epidermis above midrib.
a, water- absorbing cell ; b, stoma ; c, excretory hair.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 283
Fig. 10. — Euphrasia Monroi. Transverse section of stem ( x [230). a, epidermis ; b, dead cortex ; c, phloem ; d, xylem ; e, medullary ray ; /, pith.
284 Transactions.
Below these cells there is a basal cell which is small and has its wall cutinized.
Adjacent to these water-absorbing cells there are several layers of small, thin-walled cells which do not contain any chlorophyll.
Small vascular bundles end blindly in the small-celled tissue adjacent to the water-absorbing cells. The vascular bundles are numerous ; both the xylem and the phloem contain parenchyma, and the bundle is surrounded by a sheath of thin-walled, colourless, parenchymatous cells.
On the upper surface, and especially above the midrib, there are a few excretory hairs which are covered with minute excrescences of calcium oxalate. These hairs are seen in surface view in fig. 9 and in transverse section in fig. 8.
Stem (fig. 10). — On the outside there is a bark formed of the dead epidermal and cortical cells. The cells of the cortex and of the epidermis have thickened walls, and the epidermal cells have their external walls cuticularized. A few of the epidermal cells are produced into short, stiff hairs with thick walls and a thin cuticle.
Bounding the bark there is a single layer of large cells with thin suberized walls : this is the endodermis. Inside this there is a pericycle : this is composed of 1-3 layers of small cells with thickened, lignified walls.
The phloem forms a wide band ; the sieve-tubes are of small diameter ; with the phloem there is a fair amount of parenchyma.
The xylem forms a wide ring ; it is composed of wood-fibres and a few narrow vessels- which have thickened walls and are very regularly arranged in rows.
The medullary rays are not very close together ; they are uniseriate, and are composed of small cells with thickened lignified walls.
The pith is also lignified ; the cells are rounded or polygonal, and have thin walls.
29. Wahlenbergia albomarginata Hook.
Habit. — The plant is a small perennial herb, 2-4 in. high, with a branched rootstock j)utting up a few short, erect stems. The leaves are rosulate or crowded on the short stems ; they are |— fin. long, oblanceolate, obtuse, narrowed into a short petiole, entire, thick, and coriaceous ; the margins are white and cartilaginous. The peduncles are leafless, one- flowered, and about 6 in. high.
Anatomy.
Leaf (fig. 11). — The upper epidermis consists of very large cells with thickened walls, especially the external ones. In addition there is a thin, rough cuticle. Some of the cells are produced into long, stiff hairs, the walls of which are very slightly cuticularized.
The lower epidermis is formed of small cells which have their external walls very much thickened. A cuticle is also present. Stomata are con- fined to the lower surface ; the guard-cells are small, and are raised above the other epidermal cells. There are very small guard-cell ridges.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. The palisade tissue consists of 3 rows of large, thin-walled cells which contain numerous fairly large chloroplasts. The two outer layers are closely packed, but there are small air-spaces between the cells in the third layer.
Bbtts. — Autecolo^y of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson.
285
The spongy tissue is composed of large, irregular, thin-wal ed cells which contain numerous chloroplasts ; there are moderately large air-spaces between the cells.
In the margins of the leaf the epidermal cells are smaller, and their walls are very much thickened, and Some of them are produced into small papillae. Inside this layer there is a group of small cells which have very thick mucilaginous walls and very small cell-cavities.
The vascular bundles are small and contain only a small amount of lignified tissue. There is no stereome. The bundle is surrounded by a sheath of thin-walled colourless cells. Below the midrib there are some small, round, thin-walled cells which do not contain chlorophyll: they are for water-storage.
Peduncle. — The epidermis is composed of small cells which have all their walls, especially the lateral ones, very much thickened. The cavities are small. In addition there is a fairly thick rough cuticle. Stomata are of the same type as in the leaf.
Fig. 11. — Wahlenbergia albomarginata. Transverse section of leaf (X 48). a, unicellular hair ; b, large cells of upper epidermis ; c, cuticle ; d, stereome in leaf-
The cortex consists of 3-4 layers of oval cells with slightly thickened walls. These cells are closely arranged so that there are only very small air-spaces ; the cells contain numerous chloroplasts. The endoderinis is well marked, and consists of one layer of cells with thin suberized walls.
The phloem forms a narrow band. The sieve-tubes are of small diameter, and there is a good deal of parenchyma.
The amount of xylem is small. There are small groups of vessels surrounded by wood-fibres which have very thick walls and small cavities. The pith-cells are large and round ; most of them are lignified, but there are a few cells in the centre which have unlignified walls.
Stem (fig. 12). — The epidermis is composed of somewhat larger cells than the epidermis of the peduncle ; in transverse section the cells are squarish ; their lateral walls are only slightly thickened, but the external
286
Transactions.
and internal ones are much more so. There is a thick, rough cuticle. Some of the epidermal cells are produced into hairs like those on the leaf.
The cortex is a wider band than in the peduncle. The cells of the outermost layer have their walls slightly thickened, but the rest of the cortical cells have thin walls. There are only very small intercellular air- spaces. The cells contain a very few small chloroplasts in a peripheral layer of protoplasm. The cortex forms a water-storage tissue.
The endodermis and the phloem are the same as in the peduncle, except that the phloem is a wider zone of tissue. The cambium is easily seen.
Fig. 12. — Wahlenbergia albomarginata. Transverse section of stem (x 48). a, unicellular hair ; b, endodermis ; c, phloem ; d, cambium ; e, xylem.
The xylem consists of vessels of small diameter ; there is a large amount of xylem parenchyma. The pith is formed of large thin- walled cells which are closely packed together and are not lignified.
30. Celmisia longifolia Cass. var. gracilenta T. Kirk.
Hahit.— This plant is a small, tufted, perennial herb. The leaves' are all radical, simple, and erect ; they are 3-7 in. long, iV~F ^^- broad, and the margins are re volute. The whole leaf is covered with silvery -white tomentum, and is produced into a broad sheathing base, which is also covered with tomentum. The sheathing leaf-bases are persistent, and are used to store water {cf. with " tunic " grasses — e.g., Poa Colensoi).
Betts. — Aut ecology of Plants, of Peridofife Belt, Nelson. 287
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 13-17). — The general shape of the leaf in transverse section is shown in fig. 13. From this it will be seen that the midrib is very prominent, that the tomentum is thick, and that the leaves are revolute almost to the margin.
Fig. 14 illustrates a section 'passing through the midrib. Both the lower and the upper epidermis consist of regular squarish cells which do not contain chlorophyll and which have their cell-walls very much thickened. There are no stomata in this region. From the epidermal layers very numerous fine hairs are produced, which form a silvery tomentum below the midrib and over the whole of the upper surface of the leaf. There is a thin cuticle on both surfaces of the leaf.
The vascular system in the midrib consists of one large bundle and two much smaller ones. The vessels of the xylem are arranged in very regular rows separated by xylem parenchyma. There is also a fairly large amount of parenchyma in the phloem. Above the phloem and below the xylem there is a mass of stereome, consisting of cells with very thick walls and small cavities. The cells above the xylem are larger than those below the phloem.
Fig. 13. — Celmisia lonqifolia var. gracilenta. Transverse section of leaf (x 36).
a, tomentum ; b, vascular bundle.
Just above the lower epidermis there are 2 rows of chlorenchymatous cells. These cells are roundish, and have their walls slightly thickened, and contain numerous chloroplasts. Just below the main bundle these cells have their walls much thicker and contain a much smaller number of chloroplasts.
All the space between the upper epidermis and the chlorenchyma of the lower surface (except that occupied by the vascular bundles) is filled by a tissue consisting of very large cells with fairly thin walls. These cells are arranged very closely together, so that there are only minute intercellular air-spaces where three cells meet. All these cells form an aqueous tissue.
Section of the Leaf through the Lamina (fig. 15). — The upper epidermis consists of regular more or less squarish cells which are larger than the epidermal cells above the midrib. They have their walls considerably thickened, the external walls being thickened the most, and there is a
288
Transactions.
rather, thin, rough cuticle. From the upper surface there is produced a tomentum which is composed of very fine hairs. These hairs are 3-4-celled ; the lowest cell has a cutinized wall.
Fig. 14. — Gelmisia longifolia var. grocilenta. Transverse section of leaf passing through midrib ( X 175). a, upper epidermis ; b, oil-drops ; c, xylem ; d, phloem ; e, long multicellular hairs ; /, shorter, more slender hairs ; g, aqueous tissue.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. The palisade tissue consists of one layer of large, thin-walled cells, which contain numerous chloroplasts and also some large oil-globules. There are small intercellular air-spaces in this tissue.
Betts. — Aut ecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 289
Fig. 15. — Gelmisia longifolia var. gmcilenta. Transverse section of lamina of leaf, a, upper epidermis ; b, palisade parenchyma ; c, oil-drops ; d, spongy tissue ; e, stoma ; /, multicellular hair.
Fig. 16. — Gelmisia longifolia var. gracilenta. Transverse section of sheathing leaf-base ( x 36). a, tomentum ; b, vascular bundle.
10— Trans.
290
Transactions.
The spongy tissue is composed of about 6 rows of cells. In the upper part of the leaf these cells are about the same length as breadth, but just above the lower epidermis they are narrower and are elongated in a direction parallel with the surface of the leaf. These cells also have thin walls and contain oil, -which is more abundant nearer the upper than near the lower surface of the leaf.
The lower epidermis consists of cells which are oval in transverse section. Many of them are produced into long, stout, several-celled hairs which have thin walls. The lowest ceU has a thin cuticle. These hairs
Fig. 17. — Celmisia longifolia var. gracilenta. Transverse section of sheathing leaf-base ( X 175). a, upper epidermis ; 6, hyj^o- derma ; c, mesophyll ; d, stereome ; e, xylem ; /, phloem ; g, multicellular hair.
are much longer and thicker than those of the upper surface (and those beneath the midrib), and they do not form such a dense mass, so that their form can be seen more easily.
Stomata are confined to the lower surface of the leaf, where they are numerous. As is often the case with leaves which have a dense tomentum, the stomata are raised above the epidermal cells. The guard-cells have very thick walls, and there are guard-cell ridges.
Sheathing Leaf-hase (figs. 16 and 17). — Fig. 16 gives a schematic view of this ; fig. 17 shows the structure in detail.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson.
291
Both the upper and the lower epidermis consist of very regular cells, the walls of which are only slightly thickened. On both surfaces there is a thin cuticle, and on the lower (the outer) surface there are a number of hairs like those on the lower surface of the leaf.
Beneath the upper epidermis there is a hypoderma which is composed of a single layer of small sclerized cells in which the walls are very thick and the lumen very small.
Fig. 18. — Celmisia longifolia var. gracilenta. Transverse section of peduncle (X 230). a, multicellular hairs; b, ridged cuticle'; c, unlignified cortex ; d, lignified cortex ; e, xylem ; /, phloem.
The vascular bundles are of the same type as that described for the leaves, but the stereome above the xylem and below the phloem is formed of much smaller cells than in the leaf. All the mesophyll consists of. aqueous tissue, which is composed of thin-walled, colourless cells. Near the lower surface there are 2 rows of these cells, which are regularly
10*
292 Transactions.
arranged, the inner layer consisting of mucli larger cells than the outer. These cells are roundish or squarish in section, but the rest of the cells of the aqueous tissue are very irregular in outline. They lie close together, so that the intercellular air-spaces are minute.
Peduncle (fig. 18). — The epidermis consists of somewhat irregular cells which have very thick walls, especially the external ones. From some of the epidermal cells there are produced long multicellular hairs like those on the under-surface of the leaf. A thin cuticle is present ; its surface presents numerous very fine ridges.
Below the epidermis there is a zone of dead cortex, consisting of very irregular, thick-walled cells with brown contents. The rest of the ground- tissue of the stem consists of lignified tissue. This can be divided into two regions —
(1.) An outer region where the vascular bundles are found. The' cells in this region are rather small and have thick walls.
(2.) An inner pith in which the cells have thin but lignified walls. These cells are large and roundish. Small intercellular air- spaces are found in this tissue. The stem is hollow.
The vasculai bundles are small and quite separate from one another. There is parenchyma in both the phloem and the xylem. The scleren- chymatous cells around the bundles are small.
31. Olearia virgata Hook. f.
Hahit. — This plant is an erect, much-branched shrub, 2-5 ft. high. The branches are spreading, tetragonous when young, almost terete in the older parts. The young branches are pubescent. The bark is dark red- brown. The leaves are opposite, obtuse, narrowed into a very short petiole, glabrous above and clothed with white tomentum beneath.
Anatomy.
Leaf (fig. 19). — The upper epidermis consists of medium-sized oblong cells ; these have thin lateral and internal walls, but the external walls are thickened, and in addition there is a cuticle, which is, however, only a thin one. There are no stomata on the upjDer surface.
The lower epidermis is like the upper, but the external walls are not thickened, and many of the epidermal cells are produced into large T-shaped hairs, which are closely appressed to the surface.
The stomata are confined to the lower epidermis, and they are raised above the epidermal cells. The guard-cells are small and have thickened walls.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of 2 rows of closely packed cells, the depth of which is only about one and a half times the breadth. The cells are thin- walled and contain numerous large chloroplasts.
The spongy tissue consists of 4 or 5 layers of irregular thin-walled cells with large air-spaces between them. These cells contain numerous chloro- plasts, which are slightly smaller than those in the palisade tissue. The cells of the layer just above the lower epidermis are smaller and are more closely arranged.
The vascular bundle is small, and like that in Celmisia longifolia var. gracilenta except that there is no stereome. The vascular bundle is sur- rounded by a sheath of small, thin-walled, parenchymatous cells which contain a few chloroplasts arranged along their outside walls.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridofite Belt, Nelson.
293
Fig. 19. — Olearia virgata. a, upper epidermis ; b, palisade parenchyma ; c, spongy
parenchyma ; d, xylem ; e, phloem ; /, T-shaped hairs. Fig. 20. — Olearia virgata. Transverse section of stem ( X 36). Fig. 21. — Olearia virgata. Transverse section of stem (X 175). a, sclerenchyma ;
b, corky cells ; c, chlorenchyma ; d, pericycle fibres ; e, phloem ; /, xylem ;
g, lignified pith.
294 Transactions.
Stem (figs. 20 and 21). — The general arrangement of the tissues is shown diagrammatically in fig. 20. From this it will be seen that the stem is tetragonous and that in each of the corners there is a small mass o^ scleren- chyma. The structure of the stem is shown in detail in fig. 21.
On the outside there are dead epidermal cells with a thin cuticle, and below this there are a few dead cortical cells. Beneath this layer there are 2-4 layers of large, squarish cells which have their cell-walls both suberized and lignified. The portion of the cell-wall adjacent to the cell-cavity is suberized, and nearer the middle lamella it is lignified.
Inside this corky layer there is a zone of cortex. The cells of this tissue are more or less oval in transverse section, and are closely packed together so that the intercellular air-spaces are very small. These cells contain a small number of chloroplasts. At intervals there are groups of pericycle fibres. These are of small diameter and have thick walls. In the four corners of the stem there is a mass of sclerenchyma, which is composed of slightly larger cells than the pericycle fibres.
The phloem forms a continuous band with its elements rather regularly arranged. The xylem is composed for the greater part of wood-fibres which have thickened walls.
The medullary rays are not numerous ; they are multiseriate (3 cells wide), and their cells have thickened, lignified walls.
The pith is composed of large round or polygonal cells, which have lignified, somewhat thickened, cell-walls.
32. Helichfysum bellidioides Hook. f.
Habit. — -This plant is an herb. The stems are prostrate, slender, much branched, almost woody at the base, 6-12 in. long ; the branches are numerous, erect, and leafy. The leaves are loosely imbricating, spreading, ^\ in. long, obovate-spathulate, apiculate, flat, one-nerved, with the upper surface glabrous and the lower clothed with cottony tomentum.
Anatomy.
Leaf. — The upper epidermis consists of regular, large cells, which have their inner and lateral walls thin and the external ones slightly thickened. There is a thin cuticle. A few of the cells are produced into hairs.
The lower epidermis consists of cells that are smaller than those of the upper epidermis. Their walls are thin, and there is a very thin cuticle. Many of these cells are produced into fine 2- or 3-celled hairs, which form a dense tomentum on the under-surface.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. ■ The palisade tissue consists of 2 rows of cells with thin walls and numerous large chloroplasts ; there are air-spaces between the cells.
The spongy tissue is composed of large, irregular, thin-walled cells, which contain abundant large chloroplasts. These cells form a rather loose tissue with large intercellular air-spaces.
Stomata are confined to the lower epidermis, and the guard-ceUs are raised (as in Celmisia longifolia var. gracilenta, Olearia virgata, and 0. arborescens). The guard-cells are small.
The vascular bundle is small, and is surrounded by a sheath of thin- walled cells which contain a very few chloroplasts. Just above the xylem there is a small group of 8 or 10 sclerized cells. The amount of lignified tissue in the xylem is small ; both xylem and phloem contain parenchyma.
Bbtts. — Autecolorjy of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 295
Between the Isundle-sheatli and the lower epidermis there are some thin-walled colourless cells which store water.
Stem. — The epidermis consists of squarish cells with their walls slightly thickened and with a thin cuticle. These cells contain tannin. Some of the epidermal cells are produced into hairs like those on the leaf.
The cortex consists of small regular cells ; in the outer part of the cortex these cells have their walls lignified and also suberized. The inner layers of cortical tissue consist of thin-walled cells. All the cortical cells are closely packed together, so that there are only very small intercellular air-spaces. There is a well-marked endodermis, which consists of large cells with suberized walls.
The phloem forms a wide, continuous band ; it contains a large amoimt of parenchyma.
The xylem forms a band about the same width as the phloem ; it con- sists of vessels of rather small diameter and of wood-fibres.
The pith is solid, and consists of large, thin-walled polygonal cells which are closely arranged together. The pith-cells adjacent to the xylem are somewhat smaller and have their walls lignified.
33. Cassinia Vauvilliersii Hook. f. var. rubra Buch.
Habit. — This plant is an erect, closely branching shrub,. 2-4 ft. high ; the branches are stout, erect, and often glutinous. The leaves are nume- rous, close-set, erect or spreading, J-^ in. long, linear-obovate, narrowed into a short broad petiole, very coriaceous, clothed with hairs on both surfaces ; the margins are slightly recurved.
Anatomy.
Leaf. — The upper epidermis consists of rather small cells which have slightly thickened walls. These cells contain a few small chloroplasts. There is a thick cuticle. Some of the epidermal cells are produced into long 3- or 4-celled hairs — ^2 or 3 small hairs at the base and a long cell at the end. There are no stoma ta on the upper surface.
The lower epidermal cells are smaller than the upper, and, like the latter, contain chloroplasts. Many of the cells are produced into hairs like those on the upper surface. The lower epidermal cells have slightly thickened walls, and there is also a thick cuticle.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of 4 rows of large cells with slightly thickened walls and large chloroplasts. There are very small air-spaces between the cells.
The spongy parenchyma is composed of rather small, irregular cells which contain large chloroplasts. The walls are slightly thickened, and there are fairly large air-spaces between the cells.
Stomata are confined to the lower surface ; they are of the same type as in Celmisia longifolia var. gracilenta.
The vascular bundles are small, and contain only a small amount of lignified tissue. They are surroujided by a sheath of thin- walled paren- chymatous cells which contain only a small number of chloroplasts.
Stem. — The epidermis is composed of small cells which have thickened walls and also a fairly thick cuticle. Many of the cells are produced into hairs like those on the leaf.
Then there come some dead cortical cells ; these have thick brown walls. Inside this layer there is suberized tissue, from 1 to 4 cells deep. The cells are large, thin-walled, and irregular.
296 Transactions.
Below this tissue there are large groups of pericycle fibres ; these have a small diameter, and their walls are thickened.
The phloem forms a wide* band, with the sieve-tubes of small diameter ; there is a fairly large amount of phloem parenchyma. The cambium is very easily seen.
The xylem contains vessels of fairly large diameter and wood-fibres which have very thick walls. There are no medullary rays.
The pith is solid ; it consists of large roimdish cells with thin walls.
34. Senecio bellidioides Hook. f.
Habit. — This is a small rosette plant. The leaves are all radical and spreading ; the blades f-2J in. long, broadly oblong, obtuse, rounded or slightly cordate at the base, membranous, with entire margins ; the upper surface is more or less covered Avith stiff glandular hairs, and the lower is sparingly covered with tomeutum. The petioles are about | in. long, and are covered with hairs. The scapes are 1-12 in. high, branched, and pubescent.
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 22-26). — Fig. 22 gives a diagrammatic view of the transverse section of the leaf. From this it will be seen that- the number of vascular bundles is small ; the relative frequency of the different types is also seen in this diagram. Fig. 24 shows the structure of the midrib, and fig. 23 of the blade of the leaf.
The upper epidermis consists of rather small cells, the outer walls of which are slightly thickened. There is a thin cuticle present. Stomata are found on both surfaces ; the guard-cells are level with the surface, and have thickened walls and small guard-cell ridges. Some of the upper epidermal cells are produced into hairs of two kinds —
(1.) Capitate glandular hairs : These are very long, and are m\ilti-
cellular, and have a roimded head. (2.) There are also other multicellular hairs formed of about 9 cells. At the base there are about 7 small rectangular cells which are closely packed together and have their outer walls slightly cuticularized. Above these cells there is a large, wide, and shallow cell which has a thick but uncutinized wall. Beyond this cell there is an elongated one, also with a thickened, imcutinized wall. The lower epidermis also consists of cells which are more or less oval in transverse section. They have thin walls, except for the external ones, which are slightly thickened. There is a thin cuticle. Stomata are present on this surface also. The epidermal cells contain a few chloro- plasts. Some of the epidermal cells give rise to hairs of two kinds — (1.) There are a few glandular hairs as on the upper surface. (2.) Most of the hairs are like those on the upper surface, except that there are usually only 4 of the small cells and there are 2 long cells instead of 1. The chlorenchvma is only slightly differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of 2 rows of cells, which have thin walls and contain numerous chloroplasts. These cells are wide and do not have the typical palisade form ; they are fairly loosely arranged, so that there are large air-spaces between the cells.
BETTS^—Autecologij of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 297
Fig. 22. — Senecio bellidioide-s. Transverse section of leaf ( x 24). a, glandular
hair ; b, multicellular hair ; c, vascular bundle. Fig. 23. — Senecio bellidioides. Transverse section of leaf ( X 110). a, glandular
hair ; 6. multicellular hair ; c, stoma ; d, mesophyll.
298
Transactions.
The spongy tissue consists of about 5 rows of large,- irregular cells which have thin walls. There are fairly large air-spaces between the cells. The cells of the layer jvist above the lower epidermis are much smaller.
The Midrib. — -There are three vascular bundles in the midrib. The lignified elements of the xylem are arranged regularly in rows which are
Fig. 24. — Senecio bellidioides. Transverse section through midrib of leaf. 'Pa, multi- cellular hair ; b, aqueous tissue ; c, xylem ; d, phloem ; e, canal lined by epithelial layer ; /, chlorenchyma ; g, glandular hair.
separated by xylem parenchyma. There is a good deal of parenchyma with the phloem. Beneath the phloem of each bundle there are 1 or 2 large canals, which are lined by epithelial cells.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson.
299
Under the upper epidermis there are a few cells which have thickened walls, and above the lower epidermis there are 2 rows of roundish cells which contain chloroplasts and which have their walls slightly thickened.
Fig. 25. — Senecio bellidioides. Ui^per epidermis of leaf ( X 36). Fig. 26. — Senecio bellidioides. Lower epidermis of leaf ( x 36). Fig. 27. — Senecio bellidioides. Transverse section of scape ( X 36).
The rest of the midrib is occupied by a mass of large, closely packed, thin-walled, more or less polygonal cells. These cells form a water-storage tissue.
300
Transactions.
' Figs. 25 and 26 show tlie surface view of the upper and lower faces of the leaf. From these it will be seen (1) that the glandular hairs are much more frequent on the upper surface, and (2) that most of the multicellular hairs of the lower epidermis are situated over the vascular bundles. This would suggest that they are for water-absorption.
Fig. 28. — Senecio bellidioicles. Transverse section of scape (x 175). a, multicellular hair ; b, glandular hair ; c, chlorenchyma ; d, lignified tissue ; e, vascular bundle ; /, pith.
Scape (figs. 27 and 28). — The structure of the scape is shown schematic- ally in fig. 27 and in detail in fig. 28.
The epidermis consists of fairly large cells which have thickened walls. A thin, ridged cuticle is present. Stomata are present, but they are not numerous. They are of the same type as those in the leaf. There are two kinds of hairs — (1) glandular ; (2) hairs like those described for the upper epidermis, but the large cell at the base of the elongated cell is not present.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotiie Belt, Nelson.
301
The chlorencliyma consists of about 5 rows of large, roundish cells which have thin walls and numerous chloroplasts. There are moderately large air-spaces in this tissue.
Then there comes a band of smaller, roundish cells which hate thickened, lignified walls. Below this there is the phloem, which is a narrow band of tissue. The xylem contains parenchymatous cells.
35. Gahnia procera Forst.
Habit. — This is a perennial tufted herb. The stems are about 2 ft. high, and are stout. The leaves are as long as or slightly longer than the stems, and are narrowed into long filiform points ; the margins are involute, smooth above and scabrid below ; the sheaths are dark brown or almost black.
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 29-32). — The transverse section of this is shown diagram- matically in fig. 29. This shows that the leaf is involute and furrowed, and that under each ridge there is a vascular bundle, accompanied by an extensive development of sclerenchynia. The margin of the leaf is occu- pied by a mass of sclerenchyma. Figs. 30-32 show the structure of the leaf in more detail.
Fig. 29. — Gahnia procera. Transverse section of leaf (x 36).
b, sclerenchyma ; c, vascular bundles.. Fig. 33. — Gahnia procera. Transverse section of stem ( X 24).
b, vascular bundles.
a, chlorenchyma ; a, sclerenchyma ;
The upper epidermis consists of small cells, which taper slightly towards the outside of the leaf. The walls of these cells are thickened, especially the external walls, which produce small papillae. There is no cuticle.
The lower epidermis consists of very regular oval cells, which have their cell-walls, especially the external ones, thickened. There is a thin cuticle on the lower surface.
302
Transactions.
30
Fig. 30. — Oahnia procera. Transverse section of leaf ( X 230). a, upper
epidermis ; b, hypoderma ; c. mesophyll ; d, pulvinus ;
e, xylem ; /, phloem ; g, sclerenchyma. Fig. 31. — Gahnia procera. Lower epidermis of leaf, at margin (x 230).
a, stiff, unicellular hair. Fig. 32. — Gahnia procera. Transverse section of margin of leaf (x 230).
a, hair; b, sclerenchyma.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridofite Belt, Nelson. 303
I.
Stomata are confined to the upper surface, where they are found only in the furrows. They are sunken below the level of the epidermal cells, and the guard-cells are small and have very thick cell-walls. The epi- dermal cells in the furrow are somewhat pear-shaped, and their walls are irregularly thickened, the result being a number of short papillae which serve to protect the stomata.
At the base of each furrow there are 3-5 large cells, which form a pidvinus. The cells of the pulvinus have a very thin cuticle, but the other ejiidermal cells are not cuticularized.
The chlorenchyma is not differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. The cells of this tissue are small, more or less polygonal, and very closely packed together. They contain a small number of fairly large chloroplasts. Some of the cells of this tissue contain tannin.
Below the upper epidermis, in the ridges, there is a hypoderma of very small lignified cells, in which the walls are very thick, so that the lumen is very small. In the middle of the ridge these sclerenchymatous cells are contiijued downwards, forming a band several cells wide, and then forming a sheath above the upper part of the vascular bundle.
The vascular bundle is surrounded by a sheath of oval lignified cells the inner cell-walls of which are thicker than the outer. The vascular bimdle is of the usual monocotyledonous type, and has all the xylem parenchyma lignified. .
Below the vascular bundle there is another zone of sclerenchyma, this being continued as a layer from 1 to 5 cells thick above the lower epidermis and below the chlorenchyma. These cells are small and have very small cell-cavities.
On the upper portion of the leaf there are small, stiff hairs on the lower surface and on the margins of the leaf. These are shown in figs. 31 and 32. They are very stiff, unicellular hairs with very thick stratified cell-waUs, and are formed from the epidermal cells.
Peduncle. — This is shown diagrammatically in figure 33 (p. 301). The stem is hollow, and all the tissues except the epidermis and the phloem are lignified. This diagram shows the irregular arrangement of the vascular bundles, each of which is surrounded by sclereuchjmaa.
Fig. 34 gives a more detailed view of part of the stem.
The epidermis consists of small pear-shaped cells with thickened cell- walls. A fairly thick cuticle is present.
Beneath the epidermis there is a more or less regular circle of vascular bundles, each of which is surrounded by a large mass of sclerenchyma, . consisting of small cells with very thick cell- walls.
As we pass inwards the bundles become larger, and the amount of s'clerenchyma around them is not so great. The cells of the sclerenchyma are somewhat larger and have larger cell-cavities.
The ground-tissue consists of fairly large, more or less regular cells, the walls of which are only slightly thickened and are lignified. These cells are closely arranged, so that there are only very small intercellular air-spaces. The cortical cells near the middle of the stem are somewhat larger, and the cell-walls are thinner.
Bounding the ground-tissue there is a zone of cells which are very irregular both in shape and in size. These cells are empty and their walls are suberized.
304
Transactions.
Fig. 34. — Gahnia procera. Transverse section of stem (X 150). a, cuticle ; b, sclerenchyraa ; c, xylera ; d, phloem.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotife Belt, Nelson.
305
36. Astelia montana (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
Hahit. — This is a stout, densely tufted, perennial herb. The leaves are numerous, spreading, 1-2 ft. long and |— f in. broad, linear -lanceolate and acuminate. The leaves are very tough and leathery, and are many- veined ; one nerve on each side is more prominent than the rest, and the margins and midrib are often coloured a yellow-red. Both the upper and the lower faces of the leaf are clothed with white tomentum. The base 6i the leaf is sheathing, and is densely covered with long silky hairs.
Anatomy.
LeaJ. — Fig. 35 gives diagrammatically a view of a transverse section of half the leaf. From this it will be seen that there are two veins much more prominent than the others, and also more prominent than the midrib. Fig. 36 shows a transverse section through the midrib, and fig. 37 through one of the prominent veins.
Fig. 35. — Astelia montana. Transverse section of leaf ( X 9). a, tomentum ; b, aqueous tissue ; c, stereome ; d, vascular bundle ; e, chlorenchyma.
Section through Midrib. — Both the upper and the lower epidermis con- sist of large cells somewhat elongated in a direction at right angles to the surface of the leaf. Above and below the veins the epidermal cells are more or less squarish. The epidermal cells have their walls, especially the external ones, thickened, and there is a cuticle present on both surfaces.
At intervals on both surfaces the epidermis is interrupted by groups of peculiarly modified cells forming a kind of scale. The scale consists of a short stalk of thin-walled cells, and above this the cells are larger and have thickened, cutinized walls. The cuticle of the uppermost tier of cells is frayed out into a kind of tomentum which more or less covers the surface of the leaf. The whole apparatus appears to be a modification for water- absorjjtion.
Below the upper epidermis there is a zone of aqueous tissue, consisting of about 4 rows of very large, regularly arranged, closely packed, rectangular cells, which do not contain chloroplasts, and which have thickened, mucilaginous cell-walls.
306
Transactions.
The clilorenchyma is not differentiated into spongy and palisade tissue. It consists of closely packed polygonal or roundish cells which contain numerous chloroplasts. There are no intercellular air-spaces.
Stomata are found on the lower surface only. The guard-cells are sunken below the surface of the epidermis, and the stomata are further protected by small guard-cell ridges over the opening. Subsidiary cells are present.
Fig. 36. — Astelia montana. Transverse section through midrib ( x 175). a, tomentum ; b, upper epidermis ; c, aqueous tissue ; d, mesophyll ; e, stoma ; /, hair ; g, stereome.
The vascular bundle is surrounded by a large mass of sclerenchyma : these cells are irregular and very closely packed, and have fairly thick cell- walls. The xylem and the phloem have the cell-walls of all the paren- chymatous cells lignified. The layer of mesophyll cells adjacent to the sclerenchyma is devoid of chloroplasts.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotiie Belt, Nelson. 307
Section through the Lamina in the Region of a Prominent Vein (fig. 37). — Jn these veins there is a large, more or less T-shaped mass of sclerenchyma surrounding the vascular bundle. As in the niidrih, these cells are smaller on the under side than on the upper side, but here those on the upper surface are much larger than those above the midrib.
Fig. 37. — Astdia montana. Section through one of large veins (X 175). a, tomentum • b, upper epidermis ; c, aqueous tissue ; d, mesophyll ; e, stoma ; /, hair ; g, stereome.
Between the sclerenchyma and the upper epidermis there is a hypoderma of aqueous tissue consisting of more or less oval cells. Between the sclerenchyma and the lower epidermis this layer is only one cell thick.
308
Transactions.
As we pass away from the midrib the aqueous' tissue consists of rounded or polygonal cells which are not arranged in the definite rows found near the midrib.
37. Dianella intermedia End!.
Habit. — This plant is a perennial herb, bearing namerous leaves, which are crowded at the base of the stem. ^The leaves are linear, 1-1| ft. long, % in. wide, and are arranged in two vertical rows (distichous) ; the bases of the leaves are sheathing. The margins and the midrib are coloured orange-red.
Fig. 38. — Dianella intermedia. Transverse section of leaf ( X 24). a, cuticle ; h, stereome ; c, vascular bundle ; d, aqueous tissue.
Fig. 39. — Dianella intermedia. Transverse section through midrib of leaf (x 175). a, cuticle of upper surface ; b, aqueous tissue ; c, chlorenchyma ; d, cuticle of lower surface ; e, stoma ; /, stereome ; g, xylem ; h, phloem.
Anatomij.
Leaf (figs. 38-43). — Fig. 38 shows the general arrangement of the tissues in a transverse section of the leaf. The vascular bundles are sur- rounded by a large band of sclerenchyma, which traverses the whole width of the leaf. Under the upper epidermis are some lignified cells, and in the centre of each mass of chlorenchyma there is some aqueous tissue. Fig. 39 shows in more detail the structure at the midrib.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson.
309
The upper epidermis consists of rather irregular cells with thickened cell-walls. A thick cuticle is also present.
Below the epidermis there are 2 rows of large cells with thickened, some- what mucilaginous cell-walls. These do not contain chloroplasts, and they form an aqueous tissue.
The chlorenchyma is not differentiated into palisade and spongy paren- chyma. It consists of rounded or polygonal cells which contain numerous chloroplasts.
Fig. 40. — Dianella intermedia. . Transverse, section through lamina of leaf (X 175). a, cuticle; b, hypoderma ; c, stereome; d, lignified sheath ; e, chlorenchyma ; /, aqueous tissue ; fj, xylem ; h, phloem.
T^he lower epidermis is formed of roundish or oval cells. There is a thick cuticle on this surface also.
The stomata are confined to the lower surface, and are found in the slight grooves. The guard-cells are small, and are deeply sunken below the surface, and the opening is protected by projections of the cuticle. All the epidermal cells in the grooves have curious peg-like cuticular pro- jections, so that a surface view presents a peculiar appearance. These are shown in surface view in fig. 42, and in transverse section in fig. 43.
Fig. 40 gives a transverse section through the lamina, not passing through the midrib. The cuticle is much thicker than above the midrib: The upper epidermis consists of regular oblong cells, which are a little larger above the sclerenehyma.
310
Transactions.
Below this there is a hypoderma, from 1 to 4 cells deep, which consists of regular cells with lignified walls. Above the sclerenchyma bands this layer is only 1 cell thick, but above the chlorenchyma 2-3.
Fig. 41. — Dianella intermedia. Transverse section of margin of leaf ( X 260). a, cuticle ;
b, sclerenchyma. Fig. 42. — Dianella intermedia. Surface view of epidermis of lower surface (x 260).
a, opening above stomata. Fig. 43. — Dianella intermedia, a, guard-cells : b, cuticle.
The sclerenchyma consists of irregular cells with small cavities. Near the upper surface of the leaf these cells are much larger than they are near the lower surface.
The band of lignified cells beneath the upper epidermis is continued down beside each band of sclererchyma. Here it is 2 cells wide, and con- sists of oval cells.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelso?i. 311
The chlorencliyma forms a compact mass, and in the centre of it there is some aqueous tissue which consists of very large roundish cells with very thin cell- walls.
Fig. 41 shows a transverse section of the margin of the leaf. The cuticle is very thick. The cells of the upper epidermis are slightly elongated at right angles to the surface of the leaf, and have thickened walls, and the cells of the lower epidermis are smaller and are squarish. Beneath the epidermis there is a hypoderma composed of 1 or 2 layers of cells with thickened, lignified cell-walls. The rest of the margin is occupied by a large mass of sclerenchyma, the cells of which have their lumen almost obliterated.
• 38. Libertia ixioides Spreng.
Habit. — A perennial herb with a short creeping rhizome and long fibrous
roots. The leaves are numerous, densely crowded, linear, flat, rigid, and
arranged in two vertical series (distichous). The margins are cartilaginous
and smooth. .
^ Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 44-47). — Fig. 44 shows diagrammatically a view of half the transverse section of the leaf. From this it will be seen that the vascular bundles are arranged in two series, one along each face of the leaf ; that the bundles are opposite, and that each is surrounded by a mass of sclerenchyma.
Figs. 45 and 46 show in more detail the structure in transverse section.
The epidermis is composed of small, squarish cells, all the walls of which are thickened, and there is' also a thick cuticle.
Stomata are found on both surfaces, and they are fairly frequent. The guard-cells are sunken right below the epidermis, and they have thickened cell- walls. The stoma is therefore at the bottom of a pit.
The chlorenchyma consists of large, roundish cells with somewhat thickened cell-walls and containing numerous chloroplasts. This tissue is fairly compact, so that there are only small intercellular air-spaces. Beneath each stoma, however, there is a fair-sized air-space.
The vascular bundles are of the usual monocotyledonous type, and all the xylem elements are lignified. Surroimding each vascular bundle there is a mass of sclerenchyma ; this is composed of small roundish cells with thick cell- walls.
The central part of the leaf is occupied by a colourless tissue formed of large cells with slightly thickened cell-walls, and with small air-spaces between the cells. This tissue forms an aqueous tissue. In some parts the cells lying between the two opposite masses of sclerenchyma have lignified cell- walls.
Fig. 46 shows a transverse section through the margin of the leaf, which is thickened. The cuticle here is thicker, and the epidermal cells are some- "what larger, and their external cell- walls are thicker than near the centre of the leaf. Under the epidermis there is a single layer of cells which con- tain a few chloroplasts. The rest of the space is occupied by a large mass of sclerenchyma, composed of cells with a very small lumen. In the centre of this mass there is a small vascular bundle.
Peduncle (fig. 48). — The epidermis is composed of small cells with all their walls, and especially the lateral walls, very much thickened. A cuticle is present, but it is not so thick as in the leaf.
Stomata are not frequent ; £he guard-cells have thickened cell-walls and are but slightly sunken, so that they are not at the bottom of a pit as in the leaf.
312
Transactions.
44
47
Fig. 44. — Libertia ixioi/les. Transverse section of leaf ( X 54). a, sclerenchyma ;
b, chlorenchyma ; c, vascular bundle ; d, aqueous tissue. Fig. 46. — Libertia ixioides. Transverse section "of margin of leaf (x 230). a, cuticle;
b, sclerenchyma ; c, vascular bundle. Fig. 47. — Libertia ixioides. Surface view of epidermis (x 2.30). a, oldening above
stoma.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 313
Beneath the epidermis there is some chlorenchyma — a band 2-4 cells deep, composed of spherical cells very closely arranged together, so that there are only minute air-spaces.
There are 4 more or less regular concentric rings of vascular bundles, the outer ones of which are composed of small bundles. The vascular bundles are of the usual monocotyledonous type, and each is surrounded by a small amount of sclerenchyma.
Fig. 45. — Libertia izioides. Transverse section of leaf ( x 230). a, cuticle ; b, stoma ; c, sclerenchyma ; d, phloem ; e, xylem ; /, aqueous tissue ; g, chlorenchyma.
All the cells of the ground-tissue except the chlorophyll-containing cells have pitted lignified walls. The cells nearest the chlorenchyma are small, have thick walls, and are closely arranged, so that there are no intercellular air-spaces. As we pass towards the centre of the stem the cells become larger and rounder, and their walls are thinner, and there are larger intercellular air-spaces.
314
Transactions.
Fig. 48. — Libcrtia^ixioides. Transverse section of peduncle (x 230). a, cuticle ; b, stoma ; c, chlorenchyma ; d, sclerenchyma ; e, phloem ; /, xj^l^ia ; g, pitted walls.
Martin. — Pteridophytes of Banks Peninsula. 315
/ Art. XXXll.—Pterido'phytes of Banks Peninsula (Eastern Portion).
By W. Martin, B.Sc.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 30th June, 1920.]
Owing to its isolated geographical position, Banks Peninsula affords special opportunity for ecological investigation, yet few botanists have given it the attention it invites. Our present knowledge of the florula and of the distribution of the species has been admirably summed up in a recent paper by Laing (1919).
In his list of indigenous plants Laing refers to a large number of species of the former existence of which there can be little doubt, but whose presence is not now known with certainty. Such plants are recorded as " species inquirendae." Reference is also made to a number of species recorded by previous investigators, regarding the identification -of which some doubt is expressed. Laing describes these as " species excludendne." It therefore seems desirable that an intensive study of the plants of this district should be conducted before further denudation of the primitive vegetation takes place.
Laing in his paper expresses the hope that " before the remnants of the primitive flora disappear every opportunity will be taken by local students to complete the work here outlined." The scope of the present paper is limited to an investigation of the past and present distribution of the pteridopyhtes of the Akaroa caldera and its immediate neighbourhood. The district examined consists of that portion of Banks Peninsula lying to the east of a line joining Peraki and Pigeon Bay. Practically every remnant of the ancient forest within the caldera itself has been visited since December, 1916, as well as the majority of similar areas that flank the outer walls. Most of the accessible cliffs within the harbour have also been examined, but the whole of the slopes facing the open sea require further and closer examination than I have been able to give to them.
The earliest existing records of distribution are contained in the writings of Raoul (1846), Armstrong (1880 and 1882), and Potts (1882) ; but for much additional information I am specially indebted to Mr. D. G. Riches, of Akaroa, who since about 1880, while engaged on survey work that took him to everv corner of the area under discussion, has been a close student of the ferns of Banks Peninsula and has made copious collections exclusively from this area. Many of the localities cited by Riches have been corro- borated by Mr. Louis J. Vangioni, of Akaroa,' and Mr. George Penlington, of Christchurch, to both of whom I am indebted for valuable information. In several instances I have been able, from information thus obtained, to locate ferns included by Laing in his list of doubtful inhabitants. Species recorded in this paper are represented by specimens from the localities named, and now in the possession of Mr. Riches or myself.
Probable Causes op Diminution or Extinction of Species.
Before the days of colonization the hills about Akaroa were clad with forest right to the water's edge, and it seems safe to assume that the atmosphere was more humid than it now is ; but even if the annual
316 ■ Transactions.
rainfall had changed but little, there is to-day an almost entire lack of those taller and denser timber areas which were the home of the majority of the more delicate species of Hymenophjllum and Trwhomanes, and I venture to suggest that the humidity within those areas that remain is also lower than it formerly was. For instance, in December, 1916, the stream that usually flowed through Le Bon's Bush, though never of large dimensions, had actually dried up, and the forest-floor could scarcely have been described as damp ; yet there are evidences that this piece of forest was particularly rich both in wealth of fern-growth and in number of species.
To the wholesale destruction of the bush that accompanied the cutting- out of the timber and the conversion of these areas into pasture the disappearance or partial disappearance of many ferns is undoubtedly due, as, e.g., Gleichenia Cunninghamii and Pteris tremula, both of which appear to have been abundant. Then, again, where cattle have had access to the bush the undergrowth, with its wealth of terrestrial ferns, has dis- appeared save for a few hardy species that, seem able to accommodate themselves verv rapidly to new and harsher conditions, as, e.g., Asplenmm bulbiferum, Pellaea rotundifolia, Polystichum Richardi, P. vestitum, Blechnum lanceolatum, B. fluviatUe, B. discolor.
Most of the larger Hymenophylla seem to have disappeared entirely, though the smaller species may still be found. The reason for this I am unable to state. It has to be remembered, however, that the favourite haunts for these ferns were the valleys between Le Bon's Bay and Damon's Bay, and that the bush has been practically cleared away from these areas. Further, it seems more than probable that these ferns cannot endure wind, which now blows freely through bush where formerly the air was perpetually still.
On the coastal rocks the following ferns are much less common than they apparently were formerly : viz., Gymnogramme leptophylla, G. nitae- folia, Blechnum. Banksii, Asplenium Richardi. In fact, no trace of either Gymnogramme was seen by me. Other ferns commonly met with on banks and slopes immediately above high-water mark seem to hold their own against such aggressive exotics as Dactylis glomerata, Agrostis stolonifera, &c., while the pastures have been invaded by Blechnum penna marimmi. This fern must, in the district under consideration, have descended from its former subalpine station right down to sea-level, where it is now. common in places from which in the past it seems to have been absent. The two species" of Gymnogramfne formerly grew on steep banks of partially decomposed rock, where introduced grasses havei now obtained a footing,
and this may, wholly or partially, explain their disappearance.
»
Summary of the Results op the Investigation.
It will be seen from the following lists that at least seven (possibly eight) of the twenty species inquiretulae mentioned by Laing are still grow- ing in the district investigated, while Riches has shown that fourteen at least were former inhabitants. Of the sixteen species excludendae four were present — viz., Hymenophyllum scahrum, Hymenophyllum ferrugineum,, Trichomanes humile, Trichomanes Colensoi.
Riches informs me that a considerable patch of a small-leafed umbrella- fern {Gleichenia dicarpa 1) formerly grew near the summit of the hills at the head of O'Kain's, while he has specimens of Lindsaya linearis Swartz and Lindsaya cuneata Forst. var. Lessonii Hook. f. collected somewhere in
Martin. — Pteridophytes of Banhs Peninsula. 317
this neighbourhood and sent to him by a Mr. Craig about 1880. Athyriinn umhrosum. and Adpleniuni Hookerianum var. Colensoi were both collected by Riches and are now recorded for the first time.
In the accompanying list of existing species I give unrecorded habitats for at least thirty ferns and lycopods. There is ample evidence that some species now comparatively rare were once common — e.g., Leptolepia novae- zelandiae and Polystichum adiantiforme. The former I have noted in nine separate localities, and the latter in four, though no other recent investigator has recorded them at all. Adiayitum ajffirie was once common over the whole area and is still widely distributed, but is plentiful only in a few localities, such as at Waterfall Gully on Mount Bossu, Nikau-palm Gully, and the cliffs near Mat. Wight's Bay. Polystichum adiantiforme has apparently not been recorded since Raoul first mentioned Akaroa as a habitat, though Mr. Louis J. Vangioni has it growing in his fernery on a fern-trunk from Grehan Valley, where I find it still fairly common. Laing regards Raoul's record as '' probably an erroneous identification," but this species still exists in all the main Akaroa valleys, and near McDonald's, half-way up the Jubilee Road, at Wainui. ,
Referring to Dicksonia fibrosa, which he records from Wainui, Laing says, " As I have no specimens, I am somewhat doubtful of the identifi- cation." This fern is common in the Le Bon's Reserve, and has been obtained near the head of Barry's Bay by Mr. E. F. Stead. Azolla rubra is a new record on my own observation.
Abbreviations used in this Paper. D. G. R. . . . . D. G. Riches.
R. M. L. L. J. V. G. P. W. M.
R. M. Laing. L. J. Vangioni. Geo^^e Penlington. William Martin.
Existing Species not recorded since 1882. ,
Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f. Head of Stony Bay,* W. Mi Hypolepis distans Hook. Near Ferris's, Akaroa, W. M. Pteris tremula R. Br. Little Tika^ Bay, L. J. V. and W. M. Blechnum vidcanicimi Kuhn. Grehan Valley, D. G. R., G. P., W. M. Polystichum adiantiforme (Forst.) J. Sm. Akaroa and Wainui, L. J. V. and
W. M. Dryopteris velutina 0. Ktz. Neighbourhood of Akaroa, W. M. Lycopodium. scariosum Forst. Head of Long Bay and Stony Bay, W. M. Lycopodium Billardieri Spring (?). Le Bon's Bay and Stony Bay, W. M.
Former Habitats of Species not recently noted on Banks Peninsula.
Hymenophjllum dilatatum, Swartz. Hickory and Armstrong's Bush, D. G. R. Hymenophyllum Malingii Mett. Long Bay and Stony Bay, D. G. R. Hymenophyllum yninimum A. Rich. Long Bay and Stony Bay, D. G. R. Hymenophylhim tunbridgense Sm. Long Bay and Flea Bay, D. G. R. Hymenophyllvm multifidum Swartz. Long Bay and Stony Bay. Hymenophjllum bivalve Swartz. Armstrong's Bush, D. G. R. Hymenophyllum scabrum A. Rich. Long Bay and Hickory Bay, D. G. R.
* The Stony Bay referred to in this paper, unless otherwise stated, is the bay over the saddle from Balgueri Valley, Akaroa.
\
318 Transactions. >
Hijmenoj)hyllumferrugineum Colla (== H. subtilissimum Kunze). Stony Bay,
D. G. R.
Tribhomanes Colensoi Hook. f. Seaward side of Akaroa Ridge. Trichomanes Tiumile Forst. Seaward side of Akaroa Ridge, D. G. R. Adiantum aethiopicmn Linn. Akaroa, Raoul. Mr. Riches has a specimen
of this maidenhair, but does not recollect where he obtained it. Blechnum durum C. Chr. There is little doubt that this fern is correctly
reported from Banks Peninsula by J. B. Armstrong. Riches has it
from the foot of the beech bush. Stony Bay, where he says it was
common. This was its northernmost limit. Apparently it grew close
to, but not on, the actual coast-line. Adiantum fulvum Raoul. Grehan Valley, D. G. R. Athyrium umbrosum Presl. A small clump formerly grew at Three Point
Rock, Wainui, D. G. R. This is therefore the southernmost record for
this species. Dryoj)teris decomposita 0. Kze. Children's Bay, Akaroa, D. G. R. Polypodimn dictyopteris C. Chr. Akaroa, Raoul ; Stony Bay, D. G. R.
I have not seen specimens of this fern. Arthropteris tenella J. Sm Exact locality forgotten, D. G. R. Gleichenia dicarpa R. Br. (?). Near head of O'Kain's, D. G. R. Gleichenia Cunninghamii Hew. Five years ago Mr. G. Penlington and
I came on this fern near a small stream near the head of Le Bon's
(Martin, 1918), whence, it has now totally disappeared. It was at one
time very commonly distributed. Long Bay and Hickory, G. P. and
D. G. R. ; Flea Bay and Le Bon's, L. J. V. Nothoclaena distans R. Br. Mat. Wight's Bay, on spurs of the hills, D. G. R. Gymnogramme leptopliylla Desv. Rocks near creek at lighthouse and on
Adam's Point, D. G. R. ■ Gymnogramme rutaefolia Hook. & Grev. Adam's Point, D. G. R.
List of Species still growing in the Region investigated.
The species named in the following Hst are still growing in the locaUties recorded by Laing or myself. Records by Riches were made prior to 1900. Other records are not given unless the exact habitat is mentioned.
Hymenophjllum rarum R. Br. Waikerikikeri (Hickory), R. M. L. ; Le Bon's, W. M., D. G. R. This species was once common, but is now difficult to find.
Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum Hook. f. Le Bon's Reserve. This fern may most easily be found by following up the stream-bed till it reaches the waterfall, where it is growing on the rock and on neighbouring tree- trunks.
Htjmenophyllum flahellatum Ldi\). Peraki Reserve, R. M. L., W. M. This fern is easily found on the caudices of Dicksonia sqiiarrosa at Wainui, Akaroa, Takamatua, and Le Bon's.
Hymenophyllum peltatum Bearne (= H. unilaterale Willd.). Long Bay, D. G. R. and R. M. L.
Trichomanes venosum R. Br. Extremely c®mmon on the stems of tree- ferns in almost every valley, W. M. ; Balgueri Valley, R. M. L.
Cyathea dealbata Swartz. Everywhere common, but less so from year to year.
Cyathea medullaris Swartz. Mr. Hooker' and others at Wainui inform me that some half-dozen specimens exist about a mile towards the Heads from Wainui, but I have not seen them.
Martin. — Pteridoplj^ytes of Banks Peninsula. 319
Hemitelia Smithii Hook, f . Akaroa and Wainui, E. M. L., W. M. Commonly met with all round the harbour.
Dicksonia squarrosa Swartz. Everywhere common.
Dicksonia fibrosa Col. Wainm, R. M. L. ; Le Bon's, W. M. ; Barry's Bay, E. F. Stead.
Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f. Common in bush above the Summit Eoad at the head of Stony Bay, near Akaroa. I have a doubtful record from Le Bon's.
Leptolepia novae-zelandiae (Col.) Kuhn. This and the last species do not appear to have been collected in the last thirty years. I have noted this fern at Peraki Reserve, Wainui, Grehan Valley, French Farm, Le Bon's, and head of Robinson's Bay in the little tongue of bush that Hes between the road and the summit, where it may easily be obtained.
Adiantum ajffine Willd. Nikau-palm Gully, R. M. L. All valleys round Mount Bossu. Wainui, French Farm, Rowe's Bush Waterfall, Akaroa, and especially on the coastal cliffs north of Mat. Wight's Bay. This fern must formerly have been widely distributed.
Eypolepis tenuijolia Bernh. Top of ridge, Akaroa to O'Kain's, W. M.
Hypolepis distans Hook. Neighbourhood of Akaroa, D. G. R., W. M.
Cheilanthes Sieberi Kunze. Spurs on Lucas Bay, D. G. R. Evidently less common than formerlv.
Pellaea rotundifolia Hook. Everywhere abundant both in the bush and in the open.
Pteridium esculentum Cockayne. Common near the margin of the bush ; covering many acres of valuable land on the spurs above Wainui and Akaroa, and increasing rapidly.
Paesia scaberula Kuhn. Mount Bossu, Wainui ; R. M. L., W. M.; head of Balgueri Valley, W. M. and G. P.
Histiopteris incisa J. Sm. Stony Bay near O'Kain's, R. M. L. ; Le Bon's, Stony Bay near Akaroa, and Long Bay, W. M.
Pteris tremula R. Br. Potts records this fern from " Tikao Bay," which is probably intended for Little Tikao Bay, where it is still growing, L. J. V., W. M. ; foot of Peraki Reserve, W. M. ; near top of range at Hickory and Stony Bay, D. G. R. '
Blechnum Patersoni Mett. Peraki, Le Bon's, Balgueri. and Grehan A^alleys, Akaroa, Wainui ; always at the higher levels and in damp bush.
Blechnum discolor Keys. Common in bush above 1,000 ft.
Blechnum lanceolatum Sturm. Common in bush.
Blechnum penna marinum Kuhn. To be met with at all levels from sea- level, as at Maori Kaik, to the summit. This is a most abundant fern on open hillsides ; 300 ft. is given as the lowest level by Laing, but I have seen it almost on the sea-shore at Maori Kaik and at Wainui.
Blechnum Banksii Mett. Squally Bay and Stony Bay, D. G. R. ; light- house, Akaroa, L. Cockayne ; Stony Bay, W. M.
Blechnum capense Schlecht. Common, especially in bush above 1,000 ft. level.
Blechnum fluviatile Lowe. Common near bush-streams.
Blechnum membranaceum Mett. Brough's Bay, D.'G. R., G. P. I have not visited this locality, but have reason to believe it still exists there.
Blechnum vulcanicum Kuhn. This fern has eluded collectors and investi- gators for many years. It is growing freely on some rocks in a piece of bush bordering a small tributary of the main stream in Grehan Valley. Elsewhere on the peninsula it occurs in Kaituna Bush.
320 TrarmactKMtis.
Asplemumflabellifolium, Cav. A cosmopolitan fern in the district examined. Aspleniiim ohtusatum. Forst. f. On coastal cliffs. Within the harbour this fern presents all manner of intermediate gradations between A. ohtusatum and A. lucidum. Wall (see Laing, 1919, p. 376) considers the coastal fern of Lyttelton Harbour to be a form of A. lucidum rather than of A. ohtusatum. I hold the same view in respect to the Asplenium of Akaroa Harbour.
Asplenium lucidum Forst. f. Wainui, French Farm, Barry's Bay, Pigeon Bay, Akaroa, Little Tikao Bay. The typical form is met with flanking the streams for a few chains from their entry into the harbour wherever these are shaded by bush. Fronds 5 ft. 6 in. long were recently exhibited by me in Christchurch from Barry's Bay. On Adam's Point a gradual transition towards A. ohtusatum may be noted, the pinnae becoming more and more oblique and erect, more coriaceous, and shorter, and the fronds more dwarf and compact. An examination of these localities leads me to think that the most potent factors in causing this transition are the degree of exposure and the degree of salinity at the roots. The degree of shade and moisture are also factors of importance.
Asplenium Lyallii (Moore) Cockayne. I obtained two specimens of this fern within a chain of typical A lucidum and the fern here called A. ohtusatum on Adam's Point. Head of Duvauchelles, W. M.
Asplenium Hookerianum Col. Three very distinct forms of this composite species exist in the locality. The typical form is abundant in Akaroa itself, at Maori Kaik, and at Wainui ; it is well distributed generally. Superficially, a second form, found in Balgueri Valley, almost exactly matches the plate given by Field for A. umhrosum var. parvifolium. Var. Colensoi is found at Tikao Bay, D. G. R.
Asplenium hulhiferum Forst. f. The commonest bush-fern, but, Uke a number of others, it may often be seen growing in a crevice in a rock exposed to the full effects of sun and wind, in which situation it becomes extremely coriaceou; .
Asplenium. Richardi Hook f. Waikerikikeri, R. M..L. ; coastal cUffs on the seaward side, D. G. R.
Asplenium flaccidum Forst. f. This fern is everywhere abundant.
Polysfichum vestitum Presl. Very common in the upper regions of the bush— ie., above 1,000 ft. Where the bush has been cleared this fern oiten continues to thrive in the open.
Polystichum Richardi J. Sm. A very hardy cosmopolitan type, thriving equally well on the coastal cliffs, open pasture, and dense bush. It thrives at all levels. The Aspidium oculatum of the Handhooh (Hooker) does not seem to be a fixed type, as considerable variation in the disc of the involucre and in the margin of the scales occurs sometimes in a single clump of P. Richardi.
Polystichum hispidum J. Sm. Maori Kaik, Newton's Valley, Balgueri Valley, Le Bon's, W. M. Nowhere common.
Polystichum adiantiforme (Forst.) J. Sm. Regarded by Laing as "pro- bably an erroneous identification," but undoubted specimens may easily be obtained on the caudices of Dickonsia squarrosa about a mile up Grehan Valley. I have obtained it in Newton's Valley, and also in the valley below the Jubilee Road, a quarter of a mile above McDonald's, at Wainui, where it was growing luxuriantly, though only two specimens were seen.
Martin. — Pferidophyfes of Banlcs Peninsula . 321
Dryopteris glabella C. Chr. Balgueri Valley, R. M. L., W. M. ; Maori Kaik, Newton's Vallev, Grehan Vallev, and Rowe's Bush on Adam's Point, W. M.
Dryopteris punctata C. Cr. Common on the margins of the bush.
Dryopteris pennigera C. Chr. Common in shaded stream-beds below 1,000 ft.
Dryopteris velutina 0. Ktz. This handsome fern still grows where it was discovered by Raoul. Akaroa, Rowe's Bush, Maori Kaik, W. M.
Polypodium BiUardieri (Willd.) C. Chr. {^= P. australe Mett.). Common on rocks and tree-trunks all round the summit.
Polypodium pustulatum Forst. f. Long Bay, D. G. R. ; Stony Bay, W. M.
Polypodium grammitidis R. Br. Common on tree-trunks and on rock near the summit from Stony Bay to Wainui. Specimens from Le Bon's measured 12 in. in length.
Polypodium diversifolium Willd. Everywhere abundant.
Cyclophorus serpens C. Chr. Akaroa, Peraki, Island Bay, W. M.
Leptopteris hymenophylloides Presl. Abundant in the denser areas of bush, as at Peraki, Le Bon's, Stony Bay, &c. It also grows in the beech forest at the head of Balgueri Valley, facing full to the sun.
Ophioglossum coriaceum A. Cunn. Hills behind Wainui, ridge between Le Bon's and Hickory, R. M. L.
Botrychium australe R. Br. Grehan Valley. Mr. G. Penlington conducted me to a spot where it formerly grew abundantly, and we were fortunate enough to find a specimen about 400 ft. above sea-level. Brasenose (lower levels), G. P., D. G. R.
Lycopodium varium R. Br. Waikerikikeri, R. L. M. ; head of Le Bon's and Barry's Bays, W. M. Specimens superficially resembling L. BiUardieri Spring were obtained by me growing as epiphytes both at Stony Bay and at Le Bon's. At first I could find no fertile fronds ; and, referring to barren fronds sent to him, Dr. J. E. Holloway wrote me, "Almost cer- tainly L. BiUardieri.'' Writing later, after I had secured fertile fronds, he says, " T agree with you that the fertile plants you send are more of the form of L. varium than of L. BiUardieri. These two species grade into one another, so that it is quite possible to speak of an intermediate form as being a variation of the one as much as of the other. Seeing that they are recognized as two distinct species . . . and judging from the fertile specimens they deserve the name L. varium.''' The barren fronds were obtained from Griselinia littoralis and Podocarpus totara, while the fertile plants were epiphytic on Dicksonia fibrosa. All had V a tendency to upward or erect growth, but the longer fronds drooped by reason of their weight.
Lycopodium BiUardieri Spring (?). See proceeding note.
Lycopodium scariosum Forst. Head of Long Bay and Stony Bay, D. G. R., W. M.
Lycopodimn volubile Forst. f. Wainui hilltops, above Le Bon's Bay, near Hilltop Hotel, R. M. L., W. M.
Tmesipteris tannensis Bernh. This pteridophyte grows plentifully in the stream-valleys at Akaroa, and more sparingly at Le Bon's and Peraki. Plants over 1 ft. in length are not uncommon on the tree-fern stems ' in Newton's Valley at Akaroa.
Azolla rubra R. Br. Pigeon Bay, W. M. This little floating water-fern frequents the surface of fairly stationary water, which is seldom pro- vided in the Akaroa area, hence the probable reason for its not having been reported previouslv.
U— Trans.
322
Transactions.
Literature consulted or referred to.
Armstrong, J. B., 1880. A Short Sketch of the Flora of the Province of Canterbury, with Catalogue of Species, Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 12, pp. 325-53.
1882. New Zealand Ferns (a series of fifteen chapters in the Canterbury Times).
Cheeseman, T. F., 1906. Manual of the Neiv Zealand Flora.
Cockayne, L., 1907. Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats, Trans. N.Z. hist, vol. 39, pp. 361-78.
Field, H. C, 1891. Ferns of New Zealand.
Hooker, Sir J. D., 1864. Handbook of the New Zealand Flora.
Laing, R. M., 1919. Vegetation of Banks Peninsvda, Tran^. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 355-498.
Martin, W., 1918. Ferns of the Port Hills, Lyttelton Times, 17th August, 1918.
Potts, T. H., 1882. Out in the Open.
Raoul, a., 1846. Choix de plantes de la Nouvelle-Zelande.
Art. XXXIII. — The Notocene Geology of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District, North Canterbury, New Zealand.
By Dr. J. Allan Thomson, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Director of the Dominion
Museum.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society. 22nd October, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1920.]
Plates XVI-XXVII.
Contents.
|
Introduction . . |
322 |
Part II. — Palaeontology |
367 |
|
Part I. — Descriptive Geology— |
Tertiary Mollusca |
367 |
|
|
Geological Exploration of the Dis- |
Bra chiopoda — |
||
|
trict |
324 |
Rhynchonellidae . . |
368 |
|
General Account of the Geology |
Terebratulidae |
369 |
|
|
and Physiography |
335 |
Terebratellidae |
3t>9 |
|
Structure |
336 |
Part III. — Correlation and the |
|
|
Physiography |
338 |
Classification of the Noto- |
|
|
Detailed Stratigraphy — |
cene — Clarentian |
383 |
|
|
Piripauan — Coal-measures and Ostrea Bed " Saurian Beds " and Waipara Greensands |
341 343 |
Piripauan Kaitangatan-Amuri Limestone . . Oamaruian |
384 385 386 |
|
Wanganuian . . |
397 |
||
|
Kaitangatan — |
Diastrophic Provinces in New Zea- |
||
|
Amuri Limestone . . |
348 |
land . . . . ^ . . |
398 |
|
Oamaruian — |
The Cretaceo - Tertiary Forma- |
||
|
Weka Pass Greensand and |
tion of Hector |
400 |
|
|
Weka Pass Stone |
352 |
Hutton's Classification and its |
|
|
" Grey Marls " and Mount |
Successors |
405 |
|
|
Brown Beds |
356 |
Marshall's Classification |
407 |
|
Wanganuian — |
Diastrophic History of the East |
||
|
Greta Beds |
363 |
• Coast of the South Island |
410 |
|
Kowhai Beds |
366 |
Bibliography . . |
412 |
INTKODUCTION.
The younger rocks of New Zealand, embracing all marine strata from Albian to Pliocene, consist in nearly all localities of accordant rock-series, and form, broadly speaking, a structural and physiographical unit. The rocks composing them — viz., conglomerates, sandstones, greensands, mud- stones, and limestones — are much less indurated than the unconformably underlying greywackes, argillites, phylUtes, schists, or granites, and physio- graphically form a weak cover to a resistant undermass. Unlike the latter,
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Welri Pass District. 323
they are rarely strongly folded, except in the neighbourhood of strong faults, and in general exhibit only a tilting or warping which they share equally with the undermass as a consequence of block-faulting. Owing to their softer nature they rarely occur far up the slopes of the tilted blocks, but are confined to the lower levels near the fault-angles.
The ages of the lower and upper members of these younger rocks vary greatly in different districts in New Zealand, and there is no locality where a complete series is found in superposition. Consequently it has seemed desirable to give them in their totality a descriptive name — viz., the Notocene — and to define it by diastrophic considerations as embracing all the beds deposited between the post-Hokonui and Kaikoura deformations (Thomson, 1917, p. 408).
The Notocene may be divided into the following divisions : —
|
Table I. — Divisions of the |
Notocene. |
||
|
Groups. |
Stages. |
Probable Correlation. |
|
|
Wanganuian |
f Castlecliffian \ Waitotaran |
Upper Pliocene. Lower Pliocene. |
Oamaruian
Awamoan
Hutchinsonian ■ Ototaran
Waiarekan \Ngaparan
Paparoan
Kaitangatan
Upper Miocene. Lower Miocene. Oligocene.
Danian to Eocene.
Piripauan
Senonian.
Turonian-Cenomania n.
Clarentian
Albian.
In 1919 I gave a description of the Notocene sequence in the Clarence Valley, Marlborough, which ranges from Clarentian to Awamoan, and pos- sibly to Waitotaran. The North Canterbury Notocene sequence described in the present paper includes marine rocks ranging from the Piripauan to the Waitotaran, with an overlying terrestrial series of possibly Castleclifl&an age. These rocks form a tilted strip running from the neighbourhood of Mount Grey north-east across the Waipara River in its middle reaches, and across its tributary the Weka Creek, occupying the whole of the Weka Pass, and thence continuing nearly east for eight miles or more a little to the south of the Waikare River. This strip is bounded on the north-western side by the pre-Notocene rocks of Mount Grey, the Doctor's Range, and the hills south of the Waikare River, except for a short distance near the township of Waikare, where its lower members abut against the recent alluvium of the Waikare River. On the south-east the upper mem- bers dip under the continuous gravel-plain of the Kowhai and Waipara Rivers and their tributaries. The area covered by these Notocene rocks may conveniently be known as the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass district, in distinction to the Upper Waipara district, near Heathstock, and the
11*
324 » Transactions.
Lower Waipara district,* between the township of Waipara and the sea, in both of which localities similar developments of Notocene rocks occur. These locality distinctions have already been made by McKay. The Middle Waipara and Weka Pass areas form a continuous district, but as they have separate access by road, and as there is no road traversing and connecting them, they are often treated of as separate districts. It should be noted that in the earlier literature the term " Waipara " was generally used for the Middle Waipara area alone, but that the term is now generally used colloquially by geologists for the whole of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass district. In old reports the part of the Middle Waipara district between Boby's Creek and the Waipara River is sometimes termed " the Ram Paddock," a self-explanatory name referring to its use when part of the Glenmark Station.
In the history of Notocene geology the district of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass has attracted more attention than any other in New Zea- land, and the Notocene sequence there displayed was made by Hector, Hutton, and von Haast the basis of their various schemes of classification of the Notocene ; but, although the district is perhaps the most often quoted in our geological literature, no comprehensive account of the whole Notocene stratigraphy has been attempted since that of Park in 1888. Since that date many new observations have been made, a great deal more is known of the fossils from the various beds, and, moreover, new view- points have been found, so that a new account has become desirable. In attempting it I can lay no claim to exhaustive treatment, as there are many outcrops which I have not traversed, and every fresh visit to the district brings to light new fossil forms from the old localities, and new fossil- localities. There is abundant scope for further exploration, and the detailed survey of parts of the area may be suggested as useful theses for students. Still, the major outlines both of stratigraphy and of palaeontology can now be stated, and their bearing on the systems of classification of the younger rocks of New Zealand needs pointing out at the present time.
The map accompanying this paper (fig. 1) does not claim to be more than a sketch-map, and is in large part based on previous maps^
Although the attached bibliography includes a very large number of papers, a minority contain descriptive matter relating directly to the strati- graphy or palaeontology of the district, and the majority deal mainly with the correlation of the various beds and their place in general classifications of the younger rocks of New Zealand. These latter papers are concerned mainly with the validity or otherwise of the Cretaceo-Tertiary formation of Hector, a formation based, first, on the conformity of the Amuri limestone, Weka Pass stone, and " grey marls " within the district, and, secondly, on certain correlations believed to exist between the various rocks of the sequence and those of the Oamaru and West Coast areas. It will make for^clearness if these matters are treated in separate sections of this paper.
PART I.— DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF THE DISTRICT.
The subjoined table, showing the dates of the principal visits of geologists who have written on the district, will give some idea of the interest it has created amongst New Zealand geologists. The list does not include many other visits by those who have not published their observations.
* Also known as " Double Corner."
Tho:\ison. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Welm Pass Disfrirf. 325
Fig. 1.— Geological map of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass district. Scale. Jin.
to one mile. The sides of the map are N. 71° E. 1, Pre-Notocene. 2, Piri-
' pauan. 3, Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone. 4, " Grey marls " and
sands interbedded with 5, Mount Brown hmestones. 6, Greta and Kowhai
beds. 7, Notopleistocene (alluvial plains).
326 Transactions.
Table II. — Dates of the Principal Visits of Geologists to the District.
Date of Visit.
Date of Publication (see Bibliography).
|
C. Forbes— 1849 |
1855. |
||
|
T. H. Cockburn Hood— 1859 |
■ • • |
Owen, 1861. |
|
|
1868 |
. |
1870 ; Haast, 1870a |
|
|
Sir J. von Haast— 1864, 1866, 1867 |
(three visits) |
1869. |
|
|
1869 . . |
. . . |
1870; 1871. |
|
|
1875 . . |
■ ■ . • • |
1879. |
|
|
Sir J. Hector— 1867 |
• • > * |
1869. |
|
|
1873-74 . . |
• . |
1877a. |
|
|
1886 |
• > • • |
1887a. |
( |
|
A. McKay — 1872 (as collector for C |
anterbury Museum ^ |
||
|
1874 |
. . |
1877 A, E. |
|
|
1876 |
• • • |
1877c. |
|
|
1886 |
> > ■ ■ |
1887.\. |
|
|
1891 |
• • • |
1892. |
|
|
F. W. Hutton— 1873 |
> |
1877. |
|
|
?1884 |
• • • "^ > |
1885b. |
|
|
1886 |
• • > |
1888. |
|
|
J. Park— 1887 . . |
• |
1888. |
|
|
1904 . . |
. . |
1905. |
|
|
1912 .. |
: |
1912. |
|
|
P. Marshall, R. Sj^eipht, and C. A. |
Cotton— 1910 |
1911 ; Cotton, 1912. |
|
|
J. A. Thomson— 1912 |
. . |
1912 A, B. |
|
|
' 1913 |
. . |
1913. |
|
|
1914, 1917, 1919. |
|||
|
P. G. Morgan— 1915 |
. . |
1915; 1916 a, b, c; |
1919. |
|
R. Speight and L. J. Wild— 1917 |
. . |
1918; 1919. |
|
|
R. Speight— 1918 |
• |
1919. |
The earliest notice of the district is that of C. Forbes (1855), who was assistant surgeon to H.M.S. " Acheron."' He describes a journey up the bed of the Kowhai River to the foot of Mount Grey and a descent by the Karetu River, a tributary of the Okuku. The area he traversed thus probably lies just outside that treated in this paper, but he deals with the upper Notocene rocks of the same strip. He mentions the tilted gravels, since assigned by Speight (1919) to the Kowhai series,, and a stratum of hard blue clay dipping south-east at an angle of 35° and containing an immense number of marine shells, the genera of which are specified. The blue clay underlies sandstone, and higher up the river similar beds are represented by dense, hard, blue limestone. These sandstones and blue clays belong doubtless to the Greta series (Waitotaran), and are obviously Tertiary, although Forbes expresses no opinion on this point.
In 1859 T. H. Cockburn Hood discovered and collected saurian remains in the bed of the Waipara River and forwarded them to the British Museum. These fossils were described by R. Owen (1861), under the name of Plesio- saurus australis, and referred to the Jurassic period. This find stimulated great interest among geologists, although the earlv visits of von Haast and Hector were fruitless so far as further specimens were concerned. In his first visit, in 1864, von Haast apparently mistook the cup-shaped Polyzoa from the lower Movint Brown beds for saurian vertebrae, and in consequence considered the saurians as survivors into the Tertiary. In 1870 he acknow- ledged his mistake and credited the discovery of the true position of the " saurian beds " to Hector. The next considerable collection of saurian remains was again made by Cockburn Hood, in 1868, but on their way to England the specimens were unfortunately lost through the wreck of the ship '■ Matoaka."' Von Haast had fortunately made drawings and taken measure- ments of the more important bones, on which he published a note in 1870.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District . 327
Cockburn Hood in 1870 gave a description of the locality and the rocks from which he obtained his collection.
Following Cockburn Hood"s successful search, Hector in 1868 sent R. L. Holmes to collect for the Colonial Museum, and he obtained a " fine series of specimens," principally from a tributary of Boby's Creek (c/. Hector, 1869, p. xi). Drawings of these, forwarded by Hector to Owen, enabled the latter in 1870 to add two further species to the fauna — viz., Plesiosaurvs crassicostatus and P. hoodii. Hector in 1874 described other species from Holmes's collection, and mentions also a specimen collected at Boby"s Creek by W. T. L. Travers.
In 1872 von Haast employed A. McKay to collect for the Canterbury Museum, and it was his success in this task that later led to his employ- ment in the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey. McKay subsequently collected further saurians for the Colonial Museum in 1874, but in 1877 he reported that all the more accessible specimens had been secured and further collections could only be made at considerable labour and expense. Nevertheless, in 1891 he was successful in recovering a specimen which he had first seen in 1874, but which had been for some years covered up by river-shingle. McKay's experience, as stated in 1892, was that '' nearly all the boulders [concretions] that contain bones split in falling from the cUifs, or in being shifted along the river-bed, and it is never worth while to open a boulder so situated that does not show the presence of bones."
In 1876 or 1877 Hector exchanged " 250 specimens, fossil Reptilia of New Zealand " with the Trustees of the British Museum, and descriptions of these were included by Lydekker in the Catalogue of Fossil Rejytilia and Amphihia in 1888 and 1889. Hutton in 1894 described one of the speci- mens collected by McKay for the Canterbury Museum in 1872. Since 1892 no fresh collections of saurians from the district have been made, but the interest of geok)gists has been sustained for another reason— namely, the apparent conformity of the beds containing the saurians with others con- taining a purely Tertiary fauna.
The first general account of the geology was given by Hector in 1869, who noted that the saurian beds were intimately associated with, but probably underlay, blue and grey marly sandstone, sometimes passing into chalk, and were in turn underlain by white and brown sandstones containing coal-seams, and correlated with the Wealden. These three formations were covered unconformablv bv Miof'ene white and yellowish calcareous sand- stone, in parts composed altogether of cup-shaped Polyzoa, and by reddish limestone, composed of comminuted shells. On these Miocene rocks rests Pliocene blue clay with beds of sand and gravel containing many existing species of marine siiells. Hector gave no account of the structure, but stated his belief that the underlying " Triassic " rocks had been denuded into hills and valleys long prior to the Tertiary period. As Hutton pointed out in 1885, Hector did not distinguish between the " grey marl," the Weka Pass stone, and the Amuri limestone, but considered them all as a '' blue- grey marly sandstone sometimes passing into chalk." The unconformity here postulated Hector always adhered to, the lower group becoming later his Cretaceo-Tertiary formation, and the middle (Miocene) his Mount Brown beds, or Upper Eocene.
The next account of the district, by von Haast (1871), was based on a detailed survey of the Middle Waipara part of the district, carried out under Hector's direction for the Colonial Geological Survey, and was accompanied by a map. Von Haast gave a detailed account of the beds in the Waipara River and in Boby's Creek, the most detailed account yet given so far as the beds below the Amuri limestone are concerned ; but, like Hector, he
f^28 Transactions.
did not distinguish between the latter rock and the Weka Pass stone. The succeeding " grey marls " he considered as strongly vmconformable to the underlying groups, and so showed them on his map ; but, as Hutton pointed out in 1877, he failed to recognize the strong fault crossing Boby's Creek, which brings the niiddle Notocene against the older Notocene. Von Haast's map shows three inliers of the pre-Notocene within the Notocene of the Boby's Creek watershed, and these he considered as islands in a large pre- Notocene bay, along the shores and round the small islands of which the lower strata were first deposited in shallow water. His map also shows in approximately correct position a small detached outcrop of calcareous sands (Amuri limestone) in the upper part of Boby's Creek, which has escaped notice by all subsequent observers. In his next account of the district. in 1879, von Haast still adhered to an unconformity between the lower Waipara (Cretaceo-Tertiary) formation and the "grey marls" forming the base of the Oamaru (Upper Eocene) formation. ^
Hutton in 1877 referred to the district in a general account of the geology of the north-east part of the South Island, and, as in his later writings, dealt summarily with the beds below the Amuri limestone, but emphasized the importance of the contact* between the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, which in his opinion unconformably separated a lower — Waipara (Upper Cretaceous) — formation from> an upper — Oamaru (Eocene) — formation. He first introduced the term " Amuri limestone," and considered that this rock was consolidated, jointed, and water-worn before the Weka Pass stone was deposited upon it. As already mentioned, Hutton correctly interpreted the fault in Boby's Creek, and described another in the upper part of the Weka Pass. Like Hector and von Haast, he con- sidered that the Notocene rocks were deposited in valleys formed in the pre-Notocene (" Lower Cretaceous ").
McKay in 1877 (1877a) was successful in finding a saurian in the green- sands between the " saurian beds " and the Amuri limestone. As regards the unconformities believed by Hutton and von Haast to exist, he stated that stratigraphically he could find no conclusive evidence of unconformity between the Weka Pass calcareous greensands (base of the Weka Pass stone) and the Ami|ri limestone ; and " if the Weka Pass calcareous green- ' sands belong to the lower Waipara beds, no unconformity can be conceded as far as the uppermost beds of the Mount Brown series." McKay at this date was therefore in substantial agreement with the position taken later by Park in 1888, and by Marshall, Speight, and Cotton in 1911.
In the same year (1877b) McKay gave a detailed account of the " reptilian " beds of Amuri Bluff and the Middle Waipara, and discussed the question of the pre-Notocene physiography. He concluded that it was improbable that the outlines of the present configuration of the area within which the Notocene remnants are found was determined in the pre-Notocene, or that the Notocene was deposited in a large bay, with inlets penetrating the mountain-ranges, but that the evidence pointed to the subsidence of a very wide area until deep-sea deposits were formed, and a subsequent upheaval of mountain-chains, between which, and in the folds of which, the younger rocks have been preserved to the present day. The views thus early put forward by McKay, though receiving little attention at the
* It is customary to term this contact the " junction " between these two rocks ; but a junction is that which unites, whereas in the belief of many writers this surface of contact or touching is rather a surface of separation. The term " junction " has probably been adopted because there is practically a passage-zone and not a surface of separation, the zone consisting partly of Amuri limestone with intercalations of greensand and often with, borings filled with greensand, and partly of greensand con- taining small pieces of Amuri limestone. v
Tho-MSO-V. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 329
time, were elaborated by him in later papers on other districts, and, thanks mainl}^ to the physiographical evidence in support brought forward in recent years by Cotton, are now generally accepted by New Zealand geologists.
In 1885 Hutton once more called attention to the contact between the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stohe throughout North Canterbury, and its importance in respect to the classification and correlation of the Notocene sequence. Within the district he examined the contact at only one point — viz., in a small gorge of the Weka Pass Stream just above the railway -viaduct — and stated that he believed this to be the only section in the neighbourhood where it could be studied. Although the contact is carefully described, the latter statement is quite incorrect, and is of interest as typifying Hutton's general neglect of detailed field-work. Not only may the contact be observed in numerous places within the Weka Pass, as McKay in 1887 pointed out, but it is exposed at short intervals throughout the whole length of the district. Hutton noted the common dip of the two rocks, but again stated his conviction that the water- worn surface of the Amuri limestone, and the presence of pebbles in the lower 6 ft. of the Weka Pass stone, were conclusive proof of unconformity. In addition, an overlap of the Weka Pass stone on to the slate rocks of Mount Alexander at Hurunui was adduced as further proof of unconformity. Hutton also gave lists of fossils from the Weka Pass stone and the " grey marls," showing that these two rocks, along with the Mount Brown beds, belonged to the Oamaru system, and pointed out that the Amuri limestone contained no characteristic fossils, but was always associated with under- lying rocks containing remains of marine saurians and Cretaceous MoUusca. Consequently he claimed that the palaeontological break must be between the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone, exactly where the strati- graphical evidence placed it. " If the line between the Waipara and Oamaru systems be taken immediately above the Amuri limestone, hardly any species of Mollusca, perhaps not a single one, will be found on both sides of it ; whereas if it be drawn anywhere above the Weka Pass stone there must always be a large number of species found on both sides of it."
The attack thus made by Hutton on the classification adopted by Hector and the officers of the Geological Survey opened a period of very keen controversy, mainly between McKay and Hutton. McKay (1887a) reaffirmed the conformity of the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone on the grounds of the strict parallelism of the two rocks, and attempted to explain away the appearances of unconformity. The so-called shattering of the Amuri limestone he attributed to the eft'ects of jointing combined with a downward working of the greensand into the joints, and he published analyses of the Amuri limestone and the supposed pebbles of the same rock in the green- sand to prove that the latter were concretionary phosphatic nodules. The Colonial Analyst called the insoluble residue from the Amuri limestone (42-74 per cent.) " almost pure sand (fine-grained)," and McKay suggested that, as the limestone was less than 50 ft. thick in the Weka Pass, " should the percentage of sand be much increased, the equivalent beds three or four . miles distant might very well be mistaken for other than they are, or be absent," and hence overlap of the Weka Pass stone was no necessary proof of unconformity. He further cited a number of species of fossils from the Amuri limestone or lower beds which were also found in higher beds, the majority of his list, however, being from localities outside the district. Hector (1887a), in commenting on McKay's paper, accepted the " definite chemical proof that the supposed fragmental layer at the base of the Weka Pass stone is truly concretionary," and published a map and section of the Weka Pass showing an unconformity between the " grey marls '" and the overlying Mount Brown beds.
330 Transactions.
In 1887 Hutton (1888) examined the sections made in the construction of the railway through Weka Pass, and distinguished five series of beds — viz., (1) the Amuri limestone and underlying greensandstones, (2) the Weka Pass stone and the overlying "grey marls " and sandstones, (3) the Mount Brown beds, (4) the Greta beds, (5) horizontal silts and gravels. Besides the unconformity between the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, he admitted another between the Mount Brown beds and the " grey marls." Lists of fossils of the Mount Brown and the Greta beds were given, the latter being placed in the Pareora system.
Park (1888) records a visit of nine days to the district, and gives an excellent general summary of the geology, accompanied by a map and section. His conclusion as to the presence of unconformities is stated as follows : " As a result of the examination of many of the magnificent sections between the Weka Pass and Waipara, I am strongly of the opinion that a complete sequence of beds exists from the base of the Cretaceo- Tertiary to the close of the Pareora formation, although the varying character of the deposits and their fossil remains show that the sea-bottom on which they were deposited was subject to frequent oscillations." He accepted the concretionary nature of the pebbles at the base of the Weka Pass stone, but apparently admitted that the surface of the Amuri lime- stone was water-worn, due to " a sudden arrestment of the downward move- ment and a return to shallow-water conditions." The " grey marls " were considered to pass insensibly into the Mount Brown beds: "indeed, it would be difficult to accurately fix or define their boundaries."
Hector (1888) was obviously embarrassed by this conclusion of an officer of his survey as to the conformity between the "grey marls" and the Mount Brown beds, but contented himself with recording anew his belief in a marked discordance, with great denudation of the " grey marls."
McKay (1892) re-examined sections in the Weka Creek, and more particu- larly in the Middle Waipara, paying particular attention to the " saurian beds." Concerning the contact between the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone, he noted that in the Waipara limestone gorge the green- sand conglomerate and parting-beds of greensand with phosphatic nodules were absent, and that there was no sign of unconformity. He also recorded a stratigraphical unconformity between the " grey marls " and the Mount Brown beds near the mouth" of Boby's Creek, evidently the same as that later recorded by Thomson in 1912 (i912B).
For a period of about twelve years no further examination of the district appears to have been made, and Hector and McKay on the one hand, and Hutton on the other, to the end adhered to the positions they had taken up. In 1905 Park abandoned the Cretaceo-Tertiary classification and accepted a modification of that of Hutton, in reality reverting practically to the position always taken by von Haast. He supposed that the Tertiary (Oamaruian) fossils reported from the Weka Pass stone were in reality obtained from tumbled masses of the Mount Brown limestones, and that the Weka Pass stone itself was unfossiUferous ; consequently he included it in the AVaipara (Upper Cretaceous) series. The " grey marls," he included with the Mount Brown beds in the Oamaru (Miocene) series, which rested unconformably on the Waipara system, " the Weka Pass stone and the Amuri limestone being thrown into folds in which the Tertiaries take no part whatever." The Tertiary beds were described in detail, and fresh lists of fossils were given, including a new fossil-locality for the Mount Brown beds near Mount Donald. Somewhat anomalously. Park rejected Hutton 's name of "Greta beds" for the uppermost marine series, and accepted that of " Motunau beds " instead, although Greta is much nearer to the district than Motunau. These beds had latterly been accepted as
Thomson. — Geology of Middh Waipara and Weka Pass District. 331
belonging to the Pareora system (Upper Miocene), but Park suppressed that system throughout New Zealand, and correlated the Motunau beds with the Te Aute or Waitotara series, of older Pliocene age, thus returning to the original correlation of Hector (1869) and von Haast (1871). He described an unconformable contact between the Motunau beds and the underlying Mount Brown beds.
It is of interest to note that Park also accepted the earlier views of Hector, Hutton, and von Haast as to the pre-Notocene physiography. He considered that the main mountain features of New Zealand were alreadv determined in the Eocene, and that the present intermont basins were old- Tertiary fiords and inland basins which before the Miocene submergence were merely deep valleys of erosion.
The modern revival of interest in the district commenced with the paper o'n the younger rock-series of New Zealand by Marshall, Speight, and Cotton, in 1911. They restricted themselves to a critical examination of those localities where unconformities had been Reported by earlier observers, and recorded their conviction that there was no unconformity in the Wai- para and Weka Pass'district. A map and block-diagrams of the Weka Pass were given to explain the erroneous view of Park that the Weka Pass stone and Amuri limestone were thrown into folds in which the Tertiaries take no part. The north-western part of the Notocene strip, from which the upper beds had been denuded, was thrown into folds whose pitch did not carry them beneath the south-eastern part, where the Upper Tertiaries are pre- served. The pecTuliar characters of the contact between the Amuri lime- stone and Weka Pass stone are attributed to a change of conditions of deposition. " The change from pure (Amuri) to glauconitic (Weka Pass) limestone does not take place throughout the mass of the rock, but inter- laminations of glauconitic matter arise and separate pieces of limestone. As the conditions that control the depositions become more changed the inter- laminations of glauconitic matter become larger, and the pure limestone is reduced to nodules which appear like rolled pebbles." The contact relied on by Hutton for an unconformity between the " grey marls " and Mount Brown beds was considered a fault-contact within the Mount Brown beds. The section on which Park relied for an unconformity between the Mount Brown and Greta beds was described as showing complete conformity. The authors did not express clearly their views as to the pre-Notocene physiography, but apparently agreed with the view, accepted by all others than McKay, of a diversified surface admitting of considerable overlap within a very short distance.
A period of coiitroversy between Park and Marshall then ensued as to the conformable or unconformable nature of the Lower Tertiaries and Upper Cretaceous of New Zealand. Park's first reply (1911) did not deal with the internal geology of the Weka Pass and Waipara district, but disputed the correlations made with rocks of the Oamaru district, and reaffirmed unconformity between Cretaceous and Tertiary on palaeontological grounds. Thomson (1912 A and b)' recorded a fresh discovery of Oamaruian fossils in the Weka Pass stone, -and noted an unconformity within the sandy beds between the Weka Pass stone and the lower calcareous horizon of the Mount Brown beds, in a cliff of the Waipara River gorge, just above the junction with Boby's Creek. " It appears, however, to be a purely local accident of bedding. With this exception, there is apparent conformity in section throughout the Waipara district." Marshall in 1912 quoted the fossils from the Weka Pass stone, which Park had admitted as conformable to the Amuri limestone, as proving Park's adhesion to the conformity of the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary. Park (1912, 1913) inspected the new fossil-locality, accepted the Weka Pass stone as Oamaruian, but
33'2 Transactions.
reaffirmed his belief in a necessary unconformity on palaeontological grounds, which he therefore placed, with Hutton, between the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, and cited unconformities on the same horizon in other districts, and the controversy shifted to these.
Thomson (1913) described new fossil-localities in the Weka Pass stone at Onepunga and in the Mount Brown beds near the junction of the Weka Creek and the Weka Pass Stream. He expressed the opinion that " although a classic locality for the determination of the relationships of the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass district is not well suited, owing to its poverty in molluscs, to become the standard of reference for the Tertiaries of New Zealand."
Morgan (1915) described the section exposed in the gorge of the Weka Pass Stream near the railway-viaduct and in its upper valley, agreeing with the explanation of the structure put forward by Marshall, Speight, and Cotton, and devoted special attention to the contact of the Amuri lime- stone and the Weka Pass stone. The conclusion, stated to be tentative, was that the facts appeared to be clear proof of at least local unconformity. The same writer in 1916 (1916b) described the contact in the country between the Weka Creek and the Waipara River, recording the occurrence of small, extremely black, phosphatic pebbles in the glauconitic sandstone to a height of 4 ft. above the Amuri limestone surface, also one or two quartz pebbles and a pebble of flint, and also worm-borings now filled with glauconitic matter in the Amuri limestone. He noted that in the gorge of the Waipara River there was no sign of visible unconformity, but considered that it was still possible to accept the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone contact as representing a stratigraphical break. He cited a contact visible in a small gorge of Weka Creek as very satisfactory proof of the unconformity maintained by Hector and McKay as present between the " grey marls "" and Mount Brown beds. Sections were also given showing the Quaternary age of some of the faults of the district.
Speight in 1915 discussed the geology of the intermont basins of Canterbury with a view to arriving at a proper conclusion as to the pre- Notocene physiography, and whether or not the present Notocehe beds were originally laid in discontinuous deposits or are the remains of a widely distributed cover which once masked the greater part of the surface of the country. He concluded in favour of the latter view, with the restriction that they did not form a complete veneer over the whole surface, but that elevations that survived the prior period of erosion projected like islands through/ the Tertiarv sea, and mav in some cases have been sufficientlv high to form sanctuaries for the Antarctic element in the New Zealand flora.
Marshall in 1916 described the minute structure of the younger lime- stones of New Zealand, including specimens of the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone from the Weka Pass. He found the Amuri limestone to consist mainly of very finely grained calcite, with fairly numerous, isolated chambers of Glohigerina. Near the contact it contained a considerable number of grains of quartz sand and some glauconite, as well as some brown mica, together with different and larger species of Foraminifera, including CristeUaria and Rotalia. These characters, emphasized to a greater extent, were the features that distinguished the overlying Weka Pass stone from normal Amuri limestone. Tl\e microscopic structure and relations of these limestones served to indicate a strong resemblance between these stones near their contact, and such differences as there were would be a natural result of the shallowing of the water and of an increase in the velocity of the ocean currents. The depth of deposit of the Amuri limestone, a pure Glohigerina ooze, was estimated at from 600 to 2,500 fathoms. Its age was considered to be Miocene.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and. Weka Pass District. 333
Thomson (1916) discussed the age and mode of origin of the Amuri limestone throughout North Canterbury and Marlborough, quoting fossils from it at Amuri Bluff and the Trelissick Basin (discovered by Speight and Thomson) which proved the fossil-horizons to be Tertiary. As these occurred near the top of the limestone, which was always underlain by Cretaceous rocks, lie concluded that it was in itself a Cretaceo-Tertiary rock — Cretaceous at the base and Tertiary at the* top. He pointed out that the appearances of unconformity between the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone were not present where the base of the latter rock was not glauconitic, and concluded, therefore, that it was a purely local phenomenon, and not indicative of a non-sequence of any extent. He suggested that the Amuri limestone was in large part a chemical deposit, its silica content and its poverty in fossils becoming then easily explicable.
In 1917 Woods described the Cretaceous fossils of North Canterbury and east Marlborovigh in the collections of the Geological Survey. He found that rocks of two ages were represented, those of east Marlborough, north of Amuri Bluff, developed especially in the Clar.nce Valley (c/. Thomson, 1919) and the Awatere Valley, being of Lower Utatur (approxi- mately Albian) age, and those of Amuri Bluff, Waipara and Weka Pass, and the Malvern Hills being Upper Senonian. In the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass district ail the fossils came from the Ostrea bed and the '' saurian beds," and in most cases were poorly preserved.
Thomson (1917) proposed the Ideal terms " Clarentian " and " Piri- pauan "" for the two groups of Cretaceous rocks correlated by Woods as " Albian " and " Upper Senonian " respectively, basing them on the rock- sequences below the Amuri limestone of the Clarence Valley and Amuri Bluff'. He criticized the grouping of all the younger rocks of New Zealand by Marshall as a strictly conformable series deposited during a single cycle of depression and elevation, the period of maximum depression being every- where contemporaneous, on the grounds that the Amuri and Oamaru lime- stones were of different ages and that unconformities are present in some districts. He rejected also Marshall's use of the name " Oamaru " for a system to include all the younger rocks, both on grounds of priority and because only a small part of them were developed at Oamaru, but admitted the necessity of an inclusive name for them in view of their diastrophic unity as more or less accordant rocks, deposited in a period of relative diastrophic inactivity between two periods of major diastrophic activity, and proposed the name " Notocene." The references to the Waipara and Weka Pass district were mostly to questions of correlation, but a summary of the succession from the coal-beds at the base to the Weka Pass stone was given with a view to showing the thinness of the beds between the highest known Piripauan and the base of the Amuri limestone. The tilted gravels unconformably overlying the marine succession in the Kowhai River were also briefly discussed.
Park (1917) suggested that not only was the tuff-bed recorded by Thomson and Speight in the Amuri limestone of the Trelissick Basin Oamaruian, but the whole of the Aiiiuri limestone throughout New Zealand should be placed in the Tertiary, and an unconformity looked for below it, probably between the " saurian beds " i nd the overlying greensands, in which latter Haast had recorded a Recent brach'opod in the Middle Waipara.
In 1917, also, Trechmann described Cretaceous Gasteropoda from New Zealand, mostly from the Selwyn Rapids, but one species from the Oalrea bed of the Waipara Gorge was included.
Speight and Wild (1918) gave a careful and very detailed description of the contact between the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone, not
334 Transactions.
only ia the Middle Waipara and the Weka Pass, but also in numerous other localities in the region between Mount Grey and the Puhipuhi Valley. They distinguished between the two rocks a transitional layer, generally termed the " nodular " band or layer, which was uniformly about 1 ft. thick over an area of 100 miles by 15 miles, and was composed of phosphatic concretions and nodular masses of phosphatized Amuri limestone in a matrix of greensand or marl, with very 6ccasionally some well-rounded pebbles of quartz and greywacke. The remarkable uniformity in the thick- ness of this layer over such an area was inconsistent with its being a shore-line deposit, and the character of the phosphatic pebbles pointed to their formation in a depth of over 100 fathoms. The upper surface of the Amuri limestone was not, they considered, an erosion surface, but one honeycombed by the borings and burrowings of marine organisms operat- ing on. the sea-floor at a considerable depth, with possibly some solution of calcareous matter by the solvent action of sea-water during a period of halt in the deposition. The borings were filled with the materials of the overlying bed and not by beach deposits. The rigorous parallelism of the Amuri limestone, the nodular layer, and the Weka Pass stone over such an area were inconsistent with a theory of unconformity by emergence and erosion. They therefore concluded that there was no unconformity, but that some alteration in depth or in the conditions of deposition no doubt occurred, which was of no greater amount than that which takes place when a bed of different lithological character is laid down in a perfectly conformable sequence. _^ In describing the Middle Waipara occurrences the authors indicated the existence of a well-defined fault-scarp along the east face of Mount Grey, limiting the extension of the Notocene beds in this direction. In 1919 the same authors discussed the nodular layer as a commercial source of phosphate.
Thomson (1919) discussed once more the age and origin of the Amuri limestone in Marlborough and Canterbury, arguing that it was in large part a chemical deposit on the outer slopes of the continental shelf. He accepted the view of Speight and Wild as to the conformity of the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, and considered the contact as a plane of non-deposi- tion, which he suggested might be due to a change of conditions putting a stop to chemical deposition, while the formation of purely organic ooze might be so slow as to allow time for the^ boring of the last-formed bed and the phosphatization of its upper surface before the deposition of the foreset greensand began. Dealing with Park's suggestion for an unconformity between the '' saurian beds " and the Waipara greensands, he reaffirmed the Senonian age of the latter beds, rejecting Haast's determination of the brachiopod as Recent, and considered that if any disconformily existed it should be looked for above the Waipara greensands in the dark carbonaceous mudstone down into which the Amuri limestone passes.
Speight in 1919 gave a description of the tilted gravels of the Kowhai, Grey, and lower Waipara Rivers, and proposed for them the name of Kowhai* series. He concluded that the age was most probably Pleistocene.
Morgan (1919) gave a general description of the limestones of the area, summarizing previous knowledge. He reaffirmed his belief that there is a true disconformity between the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, and that it denotes a considerable time-interval.
* Speight spells the name " Kowai." The Lands Department maps give " Kowhai " for the river draining from Mount Grey and Mount BroMii, and " Kowai " for the tributary of the Waimakariri River, and the distinction appears a convenient one. If J^laori orthography is to be strictly followed, " Kowhai " should be used in both cases.
Tnoiisox. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 335
GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY.
As in all districts where any development of the Notocene is present, there are three main classes of rocks, viz. :—
(1.) Pre-Notocene : in this case greywackes and argiUites, strongly
folded, indurated, and jointed, and truncated by an erosion
surface, on which rests unconformably — (2.) Notocene (as in Table III below) : the rocks are only moderately
indurated, and then well jointed, but are not in all cases cemented ;
they are for the most part strongly tilted, only locally folded,
and are often faulted. (3.) Notopleistocene : horizontal, for the most part unconsolidated,
terrace and river silts and gravels. The main subdivisions of the Notocene are shown in Table III.
Table III. — General Classification of the Notocene Rocks of the District.
|
Age. |
Local Name. |
Nature of Eocks. |
|
( |
Kowhai beds . . . . Terrestrial gravels. |
|
|
Wanganuiau j |
Greta (or Motunau) beds |
Marine gravels, silts, and blue calcareous mudstones with gravelly sheU-beds. |
Oamaruian
Mount Brown beds
Rubbly impure Mmestones and< calcareous sandstones, interbedded with sands.
Grev marls " .
Grey calcareous and sandy mudstones, sandstones, and sands.
Weka Pass stone and Weka Pass greensand
Limestone and calcareous sandstone, pass- ing dowTi into a calcareous greensand with phosphatic nodules. ♦
|
Kaitangatan |
Amuri limestone |
Chalky limestone, passing down mto marls and glauconitic mudstones. |
|
• |
Waipara greensands |
Glauconitic sands with hard, thin beds of greensandstone. |
|
" Saurian beds " |
Purple glauconitic mudstones passing do^vn into sands, both with yellow efilorescence. |
|
|
Piripauan . . < |
Ostrea bed |
Sandstone cemented by poecilitic crystals of calcite, resting on a shell-bed mainly composed of oyster-shells. |
|
1 |
Coal-measures . . |
Carbonaceous shales, Umonitic sandstones, and sands with tliin seams of coal. |
336 Transactions.
Structure.
The general geological structure of that part of North Canterbury within which the district lies consists of elevated folded or tilted blocks with a general north-east and south-west trend, separating lowland areas which in the interior are interniont depressions. Broadly speaking, the elevated blocks may be regarded as anticlines and the depressions as svnclines, though they are in many places bounded by faults on one or other side. The folding and faulting has been of geologically young age, after the close of the Notocene deposition, and is doubtless due to the same (Kaikoura) orogenic movements as caused the elevation of the Kaikoura Mountains. Since these movements erosion has largely stripped the Notocene cover from the higher parts of the anticlines or tilted blocks, so that it is now found only on the lower slopes, and the resulting deposition has partiallv filled the synclines or fault-angles with horizontal Notopleistocene alluvium.
One such lowland area is the Amberley-Waipara Plain, which is a northern continuation of the Canterbury Plain, from which it is nearly cut off by the Moeraki Downs, consisting of tilted late Notocene gravels. This plain, 135 ft. above sea-level at the township of Amberley, and 231 ft. at the township of Waipara, slopes down south-east of the former place to low cliffs near the sea, but farther to the north-east it leaves the coast and enters an elliptical basin, crossing the Waipara Eiver and extending some distance up the ^tributary Omihi Valley, being separated from the sea by the anti- clinal elevation of Mount Cass. The lowland area extends farther to the north-east than the actual alluvial plain, and passes by way of the Greta Valley into the lower Hurunui Valley.
A second lowland area, farther inland and roughly parallel to the first, is the Hurunui-Waiau intermont basin, 567 ft. above sea-level at Culverden, which is drained by the Hurunui and Waiau Rivers. The south-western extension of this basin reaches the upper Waipara River near Heathstock,- while a small lateral extension on the south-east side reaches the head- waters of the Waikare River near the township of Waikare, 733 ft. above .sea-level.
The elevated belt separating these two lowland areas is divided by transverse depressions into three main blocks — viz., Mount Alexander (2,448 ft.) to the north-east, the Doctor's Range (2,568 ft.) in the middle, and Mount Grrey (3,055 ft.) to the south-west. The north-easterly part is again divided obliquely by a nearly east-west fault, which runs from the neighbourhood of Waikare along the south side of the Waikare River, and separates a subsidiary low block, Moore's Hills, on the south from the higher Mount Alexander block to the north. The lowland area between these two blocks is occupied by the Waikare Valley, and is continuous at its head with the lateral extension of the Hurunui-Waiau intermont depression, forming the northerly of the two transverse depressions in the elevated belt. The southerly transverse depression is the fault-angle of a nearly north-south fault on the eastern side of Mount Grey, which lies on the upthrown side of this fault.
The Middle Waipara and Weka Pass district here described forms the lower south-easterly parts of this discontinuous elevated belt between the two main lowlands. The Notocene strip of which it is composed is bounded on its inland side by a fault near Mount Grey, rests unconformably on the pre-Notocene of the Doctor's Range, is thrown into a series of folds between the Weka Creek and Waikare, and at this point has not been completely stripped from the anticline of old rocks, and is again bounded by a fault
THOMSOJSf. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 337
south of the Waikare River except for a few miles where it has again been stripped from the pre-Notocene on the summit of the Moore's Hills block. On its seaward side the Notocene strip everywhere dips under the Noto- pleistocene gravels of the Amberley-Waipara Plain. The Notocene beds are, with the exception of the Kowhai gravels, an accordant series, and behave as a structural unit in regard to folding and faulting. The general type of structure is shown diagramniatically in fig. 2.
Prs-Notooene. Piripauan- 'Amupi limestone and' '"Gray maris " and" Greta beds.'
Weka Pass store. Mojnt Brown beds. Kowhai t>ed3.
Fig. 2. — A diagrammatic section from north-west to south-east across the district.
The disposition of the Notocene rocks as a simply tilted series with dips to the south-east is modified at various places both by faults and folds. The more important of these are the Mount Grey fault, bounding the Notocene to the south-west ; the Boby's Creek fault, cutting the Noto- cene strip obliquely and separating the Mount Brown area from the remainder of the strip ; and a series of folds transverse to the strip on the north-western side of the Weka Pass.
Doctop's Ranse.
Waipara River. Boby's Creek. Mount Brown
^y//A'/////A
// ■ Pre-Notocene.V '^'</
0'///y//^ //////
// /////// / // / / / /
Fig. 3. — Section across the Bobv's Creek fault.
The displacement along the Mount Grey fault is very great^ — probably over 2,000 ft. — but cannot be accurately estimated, as the Notocene rocks do not occur along the upthrown side. There must have been considerable drag accompanying the formation of this fault, for the limestones of the Notocene, which half a mile north-east of the fault-line strike north-east with a moderate dip to the south-east, become practically vertical near the fault-line and curve round to strike north-north-west.
The Boby's Creek fault runs west from the Waipara River north-east of Mount Brown, across the lower part and into the upper part of Boby's Creek, ending against the Mount Grey fault. The dow)ithrow is on the north and east side, and amounts to about 1,300 ft. near the middle, where the " grey
338 Transactions.
marls "' liave been brought opposite the coal-beds. On the south side of the fault some anticlinal folding is seen ; the coal-measures occupy a middle position along the fault-line, and thence to the west a complete sequence up to the Amuri limestone may be traced, while to the east a similar sequence up to the Waipara greensands may be seen in Boby's Creek. On the north side of the fault, gentle anticlinal folding is shown by the " grey marls " in Boby's Creek below the road-bridge, and synclinal folding in the Main Mount Brown limestone both on the north bank of the Waipara River (see Plate XXI, fig. 1) and alongside the road in the angle between the fault, the Waipara River, and Boby's Creek.
Near Waikare, where there is a low transverse depression in the main elevated ridge separating the two lowland areas, the Notocene rocks have not been stripped from the pre-Notoceneon the axis of the elevation, but continue across the saddle, and extend into the Hawarden area. There is thus anticlinal folding parallel to the elongation of the Notocene strip, but the structure is complicated by the presence south of Waikare of a syncline and anticline transverse to the elongation of the strip. As these folds, exhibited only in the lower Notocene beds, do not continue to the south- eastern side of the Weka Pass, where the upper Notocene beds outcrop, it was at one time considered that they were a proof of unconformity ; but the structure was satisfactorily explained by Marshall, Speight, and Cotton (1911), whose diagrams are here reproduced (fig. 4). Without doubt the Mo-unt Brown beds formerly extended north-west across the pass, and shared the same folding, but have since been removed by erosion.
Besides the above more important structural features there are a number of minor faults, with throws from a few inches to several feet, one of which, in the railway-cutting -ISf miles from Christchurch, was mistaken by Hutton for an unconformity.
Physiography.
The main elements of the relief of the area under consideration and the surrounding areas were doubtless determined by the Kaikoura orogenic movements, which caused the uplifts of the high-standing blocks — ^viz., Mount Grey, the Doctor's Range, Moore's Hills, and the Mount Alexander Range — and the (relative) downthrow of the intermont areas of the Heath- stock, the Waikare Valley, and the Omihi Valley. The drainage-pattern, however, was probably established in its major outlines during the earlier uplifts of which the Kowhai gravels serve as a record. The Waikare flats and the Heathstock lowland are stated by Speight (1915) to be part of the Hurunui-Waiau intermont depression, whit-h is drained by the Waiau, Hurunui, Waikare, and Waipara Streams, each with its separate gorge through the seaward-lying enclosing ranges. The lowest gap in these ranges, the saddle of the Weka Pass, is not used by any stream, a proof that the above rivers occupied their present courses before the uplift of these ranges took place. They are, therefore, antecedent streams, or anteconsequents if the earlier uplifts are admitted as only earlier stages of the main uplift.
Following the main later uplifts fresh consequent streams would come into being, the chief of those which traverse our district being the Kowhai River in its main branches, the Weka Creek, and Omihi Creek. These streams, it will be noticed, are widely spaced.
In the period following the later uplifts an early mature topography developed. The presence of hard bands in the Notocene sequence — viz., the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, the various Mount Brown lime- stones, and the harder sandstones of the Greta series — led to the development
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 339
Fig. 4.
340 Transactions.
of prominent cuestas, of which that of the main Mount Brown limestone (c/. fig. 2) is the highest and most persistent in the middle part of the strip, iDeing breached only by the Waipara River and the Weka Creek. In the south-western part of the district the most prominent cuesta is that of the lower Mount Brown limestone, while east of Mount Donald the Weka Pass stone cuesta rises to equal prominence with that of the main Mount Brown limestone. Although subsequent depressions between the main cuestas were well developed, these were mostly occupied by small tributaries of various consequent or insequent streams, and there are few subsequent streams of any importance. The soft Piripauan beds and " grey marls " were for the most part reduced to low rehef, and on them the Waipara River and Boby's Creek, and to a less ext6nt the Weka Creek, developed broad flood-plains and meandering courses. The texture of dissection of the more porous Notocene was much coarser than that of the higher-standing pre-Notocene. which was characterized by numerous insequents with many rocky ledges.
North-east of Mount Donald the pre-Notocene rocks of Moore's Hills preserve fairly perfectly a fossil peneplain similar to those described by Cotton from Oamaru, Central Otago, the Gouland Downs, &c., including the presence on it of a small outlier of Weka Pass stone. No similar fossil peneplain appears to exist on the Doctor's Range, although the even slope from the height of the range to the saddle north of the Deans seems, when seen in profile, to suggest the presence of such a stripped surface. The reason for its absence near the Doctor's Gorge may possibly be the steepness to which the base of the Notocene has been tilted at this point, rendering it more liable to erosion ; but, as the stratigraphy shows the existence of an overlap during the deposition of the Piripauan and Kaitangatan, it appears more probable that the surface on which the Piripauan rests was not peneplained, though peneplanation had become practically perfect on the adjacent land before deposition of the Weka Pass stone.
The mature topography above described has been modified by a later revival of erosion due to regional uplift, which has allowed the Waipara River, the Weka Creek, and their main tributaries to incise themselves more than 100 ft. in the old flood-plains in narrow steep-walled gorges. The revival extends in the main streams right through the Notocene strip and into the adjacent parts of the pre-Notocene rocks, but in the smaller, ste'ep, and mostly dry tributaries draining the back of the cuestas of the Mount Brown and Greta beds has not passed, on the average, more than half their lengths, and the lower gorges through the Kowhai gravels and upper part of the Greta beds end abruptly in sand or gravel chffs. Incised meanders are a marked feature of the rejuvenated topography,- and are well displayed in the Waipara River both above and below the limestone gorge, and in Boby's Creek, while a beautiful example, superimposed on the pre-Notocene, is shown in the upper of the two inliers of those rocks in Bell's Creek. In the Waipara River the revived valley is graded right through the Notocene strip, but in Boby's Creek and Weka Creek the grading is not so perfect, and in the former the Ostrea beds cause a waterfall of about 20 ft.
The uplift which led to this revival is doubtless the same as- caused the raised beaches of 150 ft. and 2.50 ft., described by Speight (1912), near the mouth of the Waipara River. Its discontinuous nature is shown by a flight of terraces in the Waipara River above the linfestone gorge, as figured by Cotton (1919) and shown in Plate XVI. Witness to its recent origin is also borne by numerous cut-off meanders at various heights in Boby's Creek.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Fuss District . 341
A still more recent revival of erosion is shown by the existence of small channels, a foot or two in breadth and depth, within the rejuvenated por- tions of the small streams draining from the back of the cuestas of the Mount Brown and Mount Donald beds. This revival, in the opinion of Cotton,* may be due to the quicker run-off of storm- water owing to the eating-down of the original plant-covering by stock and rabbits, or to reduction of the plant-covering by slight desiccation of climate.
Caves and underground courses in the limestones are not a prominent feature of the area. Shelters caused by overhanging bluffs of Weka Pass stone are common, and are also developed in places in the Mount Brown limestones. The back slopes of the Weka Pass stone cuestas are marked by narrow fissures, generally parallel to the strike, which are mostly choked with' clay and debris to a depth of 8-10 ft. They are well displayed on the cuesta west of the Waipara River limestone gorge, and on the adjoining " grey marls " there are three large sink-holes occupied by lagoons. Sink- holes are also present in a similar position in the angle between the Weka Creek and the Weka Pass Stream. A persistent series of caves, said to be of considerable depth and extent, occurs at the foot of the Amuri limestone cuesta near Onepunga, just in front of the outcrop of the Weka Pass stone. The only underground course I have observed is in the Omihi Creek, north- east of Mount Donald, where the stream flows for a short distance under- ground in the Weka Pass stone. Springs and marsh}- areas are well dis- played in many places and at various horizons where loose sands rest on more impervious rocks — e.g., on the hillside below Trounce "s quarry, near Waikai«e, where sands below the Amuri limestone and giauconitic mudstone rest upon the Waipara greensands.
DETAILED STRATIGRAPHY. PiRIPAUAN.
The Piripauan rocks of the district include all those Notocene rocks below the Amuri limestone and the marls, mudstones, or sandstones down into which it passes. All the fossils obtained from this group have been determined as Upper Senonian, including the Reptilia of the " saurian t)eds," and the presence of Reptilia in the overlying Waipara greensands justifies their inclusion also in the Piripauan. The rocks are nearly 800 ft. thick in the Middle Waipara district, but they are not moTe than 150 ft. a few miles east of the Weka Pass. The thinning- out is due to overlap, since in the eastern end of the district the sequence commences with the uppermost division, the Waipara greensands. Within the Piripauan no unconformity has been detected by any observer. The beds in most cases pass gradually into one another, and the divisions recognized are only for convenience of description.
Coal-measures anU Ostrea Beds.
In the western part of the district a bed formed mainly of black oyster- shells is very persistent, but as coal-seams lie sometimes above and some- times below it it is, conveniently included with the coal-measures. The clearest sections are those of the Doctor's Gorge, Waipara River, and in the various tributaries of Boby's Creek.
r
* Personal communication.
342 Transactions.
9
Doctor's Gorge, Waipara River. — According to von Haast's account (1871), the coal-beds are 150 ft. thick, and consist of rusty-coloured loose sands, with some harder bands of limonitic sandstone, followed by white quartz sands, and enclosing several seams of very inferior lignite and shales, the former from 9 in. to 2^ ft. thick. These in turn are followed by angular, loose, quartzose sands, covered frequently with an efflorescence of sulphur, and not showing any stratification. They strike north and south, Avith an easterly dip of 33°, and rest on pre-Notocene rocks, which dip about 70° north-north-east. It appears that von Haast must have based the above description on beds some distance each side of the gorge, for on the river-banks the total thickness under the Ostrea bed does not exceed 40 ft. Park's account (1888) closely follows von Haast's, but in addition he records the presence of distinct plant-impressions from the shales — viz., Fagus Ninnisiana, Phyllites eucalyptoides , Griselinia myrtifolium, and a fragment of Coriaria {Cinnamomum ?).
The succeeding Ostrea bed is about 20 ft. thick, and really consists of two or three shell-beds with sandy layers between. In places it consists chiefly of shells of Ostrea, in others of Pugnellus, and in others again of both of these, while there are a lesser number of other species of pelecypod. The upper part of the upper shell-bed is locally cemented by a calcareous cement in the shape of large poecilitic plates of calcite, and contains a few grains of glauconite and feldspar, in addition to the quartz of which it mainly consists. This is presumably the rock referred to by McKay (1877b) as " glance sandstone." The moUusca collected at this locality bv McKay (1891) were determined by Woods (1917) as Trigonia hanetiana d'Orbigny, Ostrea sp. cf. dichotoma Bayle, and Pecten {Camptonectes) hectori Woods. In addition a species of Cardiuni is common, but does not appear to have been forwarded to Mr. Woods. Trechmann (1917) collected and described Pugnellus waiparensis.
Bobijs Creek. — In Boby's Creek and its tributaries there are numerous sections of these beds, as they wrap round several inliers of the pre-Notocene. rocks. I have not explored the area fully, and remain undecided whether or not there are two Ostrea beds represented. Where first seen, on going up Boby's Creek, the Ostrea bed is only about 2 ft. thick, anjl dips down- stream. It rapidly thickens, as it rises on the sides of the cliffs up-stream, to about 6 ft., and is underlain by grey sands with a few carbonaceous streaks and many ironstone partings, and with occasional yellow efflorescence. After about 100 ft. these sands pass down into a lignitic series of interbedded carbonaceous shales and grey sands, also of considerable thickness. The section then becomes obscure for some distance. An Ostrea bed again reappears at the waterfall, but the beds below it have not been studied. In Bell's Creek, between the two gorges of pre-Notocene rocks, there is a lignite- seam which has been worked by former occupants of Onepunga Farm.
Von Haast (1871) describes the beds in Boby's Creek as rusty-coloured loose sands, similar to those in the Waipara River, followed by several seams of lignite and shale, about 10 ft. in thickness, some of them of better quality than those of the Waipara River. These- in turn are followed by angular white quartzose sands, succeeded by the Ostrea bed. At the water- fall this consists mostly of complete specimens of the large Ostrea, but in other places- the shells are more fragmentary, and in places the bed is replaced by calcareous sands.
The fossils determined by Woods from the Ostrea bed of Boby's Creek were " Area " hectori Woods, Trigonia hanetiana d'Orb., and Ostrea sp. cf. dichotoma Bayle. In addition I obtained Cuadlaea sp., Cardiuni sp., and Pugnellus waiparensis Trechmann (?).
Thomson.^ — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 34:3
A peculiar feature of the Ostrea beds, perhaps most marked in Boby's Creek, is the strong smell of petroleum given out when the oyster-shells are freshly broken. I submitted specimens to the Dominion Analyst, but he reported that only a trace of petroleum could be determined analytically. The black colour of the oyster-shells and the odour of petroleum appear in New Zealand to be practically confined to the Piripauan Ostrea beds of North Canterbury.
McKay's Creek. — McKay collected in 1874 from the Ostrea beds of McKay's Creek, which is presumably one of the creeks entering the Waipara River from the north, above the limestone gorge, but he gave no detailed account of the beds in this locality. Woods determined from his collections the following species : Nemodon sp. and Pecten {Camptonectes) hector i Woods.
Birch Hollow (Plate XVII, fig. 1). — The beds below the Ostrea bed are much thicker to the north of the Waipara River, and are well exposed in Birch Hollow, at the upper end of the high terraces, where they form two large bluffs. They consist of a lower series of rotted conglomerates, 50 ft. thick ; a middle lignite series of grey sands and carbonaceous shales, in places passing into lignite-seams, together about 100 ft. thick ; and a higher series of yellow sands with ironstone partings, about 150 ft. thick. The Ostrea beds consist of a lower oyster-bed, 15 ft. thick, separated from a high similar bed, 1 ft. thick, by 20 ft. of sandstone. They contain Ostrea sp. cf. dichotoma Bayle and Pecten hectori Woods. The beds here are flatter than in the Waipara River, and strike north-north-east, with a dip of 15° east-south-east.
Weka Creek. — The Ostrea beds are well displayed in the Weka Creek, where they are about 40 ft. thick. At this locality I collected the speci- mens of Ostrea sp. cf. dichotoma Bayle figured by Woods, and he determined also Pecten {Camptonectes) hectori Woods from McKay's earlier collection. There are few other molluscs, but a fragment of a rhynchonellid was observed. The underlying rocks consist of loose white sands, 40 ft. thick, resting on 5 ft. of coal-shale, which here lies hard on the rotted argillite, and laterally dovetails into the sands.
The Ostrea bed is again seen as a thin band in the northern tributary
of Weka Creek rising near V/aikare, and may extend some distance to the
north-west m the Waikare-Hawarden district. East of the Weka Pass
these lower beds have not been observed, and they are certainly absent at
'the eastern end of the district.
" Saurian Beds " and Waipara Greensands.
Waipara River. — An almost complete section of the beds between the Ostrea bed and the base of the Amuri limestone is exposed in the banks of the Waipara River between the Doctor's Crorge and the limestone gorge (Plate XVI). They consist of sands, mudstones, and greensands, and may bCj conveniently termed the '* sulphur sands " and " sulphur mudstones," together constituting the " saurian beds," and the " Waipara greensands." The sulphur sands and mudstones are so termed from the presence of a yellow efilorescence on the rocks, formed of sulphur compounds, combined with a distinct smell of sulphurous gases in the near vicinity of the cliffs and talus, particularly- where these rocks are cut through by narrow gorges. The yellow efflorescence has not been chemically examined in the Waipara dis- trict, but a similar efflorescence on Clarentian mudstones in the Nidd Valley, near Coverham, has been reported on by the Dominion Analyst, who states,
344 Transactions.
" The encrustation contains a small quantity of free sulpliur. The water extract showed the presence of ferrous sulphate and small quantities of calcium and magnesium salts." The efflorescence or encrustation is presum- ably due to the oxidation of sulphide of iron, present mostly in a state of fine division in the rocks, but partly in well-defined small nodular con- cretions. The name of " saurian beds " is given because of the presence of large concretions containing saurian bones in the upper part of the sulphur sands and the lower part of the sulphur mudstones. This is the horizon from which most of the Piripauan saurians have been obtained both in this district and at Arauri Bluff ; but it should be noted that speci- mens have also been obtained both in the underlying coal-measures and in the overlying Waipara greensands. The latter rocks have usually been termed the concretionary greensands ; but this name is unsatisfactory- — first, because the concretionary beds compose only the lower part of the green- sands, and, second, because there is a higher greensand horizon with true concretions to which the name might equally refer.
The Ostrea bed in the Waipara River is followed by clean white sands, containing a few carbonaceous shaly partings near their base. After about 100 ft. they become much more argillaceous, and pass finally into streaky rocks, forming grey cliffs, and consist, when freshly broken, of a dark mud- stone matrix containing lighter-coloured streaks of glauconite and quartz sand in a calcareous base. At about -300 ft. above the Ostrea bed there is a thin band, about 6 ft. thick, consisting mainly of quartz sand and glauconite. This is succeeded by purple micaceous nmdstones with a shaly parting, which are perhaps 200 ft. thick. The sulphur efflorescence commences after the first 50 ft. of sands, and continues in greater or less intensity throughout. Well-defined, nearly circular concretions, mostly from 4 ft. to 9 ft. in diameter, commence about 100 ft. above the Ostrea bed, and continue along certain planes for a'bout 200 ft. (Plate XVII, fig. 2). Further similar concretions reappear in the middle and upper part of the purple mudstones. The concretions are formed of hard calcareous sandstone, and consist of grains of quartz with subordinate feldspar, glauconite, magnetite, and muscovite, set in a calcareous cement which is occasionally poecihtic, the individual calcite crystals being sometimes as much as an inch in diameter.
Fossils are not common in these concretions, but, owing to the keen search that has been made for saurian bones, a large number has been collected. McKay (1892) noted that out of a total of some 250 " boulders " examined only six or eight proved shell-bearing, and three were rich in shells. Usually in the shell-bearing concretion there is a mixture of nionocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plant-remains.- The pelecypods col- lected by McKay from this locaUty were determined by Woods (1917) as follows : Malletia (Neilo) cymbula Woods, Trigonia waiparensis Woods, and Thracia sp. In addition imperfect specimens of Belemnites were included, and gasteropods, which were sent to- Professor Wilckens, of Jena, before the war, and have not yet been described. The Reptilia collected from the " saurian beds " in this vicinity by Hood, Holmes, von Haast, and McKay, as determined by Owen, von Haast, Hector, and Lydekker, were : Leiodon haumuriensis Hector, Cimoliosaurus australis (Owen), C. hoodi (Owen), C. Jwlmesi (Hector), and C. haasti (Hector). Hood collected other speci- mens, which were lost in the s.s. " Matoaka," including bones which he judged to belong to Teleosaurus, but Hector (1874) considered it probable that the specimens should be referred to Leiodon.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XVI.
O
•O)
o
CO
oc
<N
-•r; -a
■Z, ^ ^
aj n " S ° c^
set, S
& - QJ
*— 1 CO
3 ^ o
S-l ..
* g s ^
-^ " o g
OJ C ■"■
o
p^
^^1
o .2 f^ ..
.ti ~ 05 D
G O
^ =" fi
C
o
03 «
^^
a; ^
P5 f'
g|
o3 C,
S "
■^ 03 d
» s s
(p "3 O
o §
S
.5 o
>
" 3
Pare p. 34J.']
.Tbans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI I.
Plate XVII.
iS!:^
Fig. 1. — Looking down Birch Hollow, Middle Waipaia. The lower cliff on the left shows the lignitic series, and the upper cliff the yellow sands of the Piripauan below the Ostrea bed.
Fig. 2. — Grey muddy sandstones with saurian concretions, Waipara River.
Tkans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XVIII.
Fig. 1. — Cliff of lower (concretionary) Waijjara greensands, Waipara River. ha c d b
Fig. 2. — View of the upjjer part of the Weka Pass, a, pre-Notocene rocks of the Moore's Hills block ; b, Waipara greensands ; c, Weka Pass stone surmounting Aniuri ' ' " limestone ; (/, Mount Brown beds in Mount Donald.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XIX.
Fig. 1. — ClifiE of Weka Pass stone overhanging Amuii limestone, Waipara River, near
limestone gorge.
Fig.
" Fucoids "' iii the Weka i'ass gieensand, clitis overlooking Waipara River
above limestone gorge.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipani and IVe/.-a Pass Distriet . 345
The question was raised by Holmes (c/. Hector. 1869) whether the saurian " boulders " were not derived, or at least '' deposited in the bed as rolled masses," since in some of them the saurian bones reach to the exterior, and appear there to be water- worn'. Von Haast (1871) confirmed this observation, but concluded that the concretions were in situ. McKay (1892, p. 99) was therefore led to describe the boulders in great detail to explain this phenomenon : " They are often encased in 5 in. to 6 in. of impure cone-in-cone limestone, or by an envelope of similar thickness com- posed of sandy calcareous matter, preserving fucoid stems so abundantly that these must have formed a perfect envelope round the nucleus and greater mass of the concretion. Interior to this cone-in-cone or fucoidal covering the concretion is a hard greyish-blue limestone rock, and the remains of various species of saurians when present for the most part appear near the centre ; but in cases in which considerable and connected portions of a saurian skeleton occur the bones are sometimes found through the whole diameter of the concretion proper, and into the cone-in-cone limestone or fucoidal envelope that surrounds the harder central portion. From the high cliff on the left bank of the river below the junction of Pirau Burn, concretions often fall into the channel of the river at its base, and in several- cases, as at present can be seen, they l^ave embedded in the marly greensands one-half or less of the cone-in-cone, more rarely of the fucoidal, envelope ; also boulders may be seen in situ from which one-half of the cone-in-cone envelope has been loosened and fallen off, leaving the con- cretion beneath perfectly round and smooth. When the calcareous matter accreting to form the boulder has from an}' cause been insufficient to include the whole of the remains within the concretion proper, some of the bones are fractured or jointed along the line joining the boulder and itS' envelope, and the bones thus appearing at the surface are polished as though the boulder had been formed mechanically, and transported to the position it liow or lately occupied by the action of running wat^r."
In the creek called by McKay the Pirau Burn the sands immediately above the Ostrea bed are well bedded by the interposition of numerous carbonaceous shaly partings, and present a great similarity to the sands under the Ostrea bed farther to the north-east.
The sulphur mudstones forming the upper part of the " saurian beds " are followed by the Waipara greensand, which may here be divided into a lower and an upper group. The lower group consists of 75 ft. of alternat- ing hard and soft greensandstopes, the hard bauds being 1 ft. to 2 ft. in thickness and an average of 7 ft. apart. The hard parts are not continuous, but have a concretionary appearance (Plate XVIII, fig. 1). They have generally been described as calcareous, but show little eft'ervescence with acid, and in thin section are found to consist of rounded grains of quartz and glauconite, accompanied by small pyritized fragments of organisms (probably radiolarian), set in a fine-grained granular matrix which is not birefringent. In hand-specimens the rock is mottled green and purple- grey. TJie upper group, 110 ft. thick, consists of softer, very dark green- sands with a good deal of argillaceous matter and frequently with a shaly parting. In the clift' on the south side at the upper end of the large river-meander these pass quite gradually into the succeeding glauconitic mudstones, but in the cliff on the north side at the junction with Birch Hollow there are a few bands of hard greensandstone at the top, similar to those of the lower series. These u]:)per greensands contain many pyrite concretions and have a marked yellow efflorescence.
346 Transactions.
Fossils are very scarce in the Waipara greensands, the most common being an obscure form from the lower group which has defied recognition. They consist of calcareous tubes, | in. to 1 in. in diameter and a few inches in length, the interior being filled with matrix. Von Haast (1871b) recorded the presence of " some shells which appear to be allied to Radiolites,"' and the specimens he collected are preserved in the Geological Survey col- lections. They resemble the calcareous tubes collected b}^ me, but are distinguished by the presence of nodal-like marks at intervals, giving the specimens an external resemblance to an equisete stem. Dr. Marie Stopes, who kindly examined the series of specimens, writes that they are certainlv not Equisetinean or structures of any higher plant, and that Professor Garwood, who also carefully examined them,' concluded that they were not algal ; she showed them also to specialists working on lowly animals, but none of them would claim them, and the consensus of opinion was that they were inorganic. Von Haast (1871a) recorded also from the lower group _■' Waldheimia leutmilaris and some pieces of a Pecten too small for recognition," and from the upper group two small Pectens, Waldheimia lenticularis and Scalaria hrowni (?). Park (1888) recorded a Waldheimia and a Pecten. from the lower group. Unfortunately, none of the above fossils are preserved in the Geological Survey collections. McKay (1877a) col- lected bones of Cimoliosaurus australis in a detached mass of greensand near the junction of Birch Hollow with the Waipara River, and in 1913 I obtained part of a saurian jaw with teeth in a hard band near the top of the upper group at the same locality. These two saurian occurrences serve to unite the Waipara greensands with the saurian beds in the Piripauan. There is every appearance of conformity, however, with the succeeding group.
Birch Hollow. — The sequence of the "' saurian beds " and Waipara greensands in Birch Hollow is essentially similar to ttiat in the Waipara River, but owing to the flatter dips, and the slipping of the sides of the narrow gorge, the thickness of the beds cannot be easily estimated. The creek is nearly choked below the Ostrea bed by the abundance of saurian concretions coming from the grey sandy mudstones. Many of these show saurian bones and a few are crowded with gasteropods, but are too hard to break with an ordinary hammer. A good collection of saurian remains could be made from this gorge if the difficulties of transport could be solved, but they are very considerable, as the sides form sandy cliffs nearly 200 ft. in height, while the bottom is choked for over a mile with fallen beech-trees and large boulders. The greensand bed separating the grey, streaky, sandy, concretionar)' mudstones below from the purple sulphur mudstones above is about 6 ft. thick, and is characterized by an abundance of small quartz pebbles of about ^ in. diameter. The purple micaceous mudstones are well exposed in the main northerly tributary, which I did not explore, and appear to be upwards of 200 ft. thick.. They do not appear here to bear any saurian concretions, and I noticed only one small concretion, of 4 in. diameter. The banded concretionary greensands do not appear to be more than 50 ft. thick, while the succeeding upper greensands at the mouth of the creek are perhaps thicker than in the Waipara River, and contain an abundance of pyrite nodules up to 3 in. or 4 in. in diameter. They are very dark, richly glauconitic, soft sandstones, with occasionally a tendency to assume a shalv parting, and in places have a very strongly marked sulphur efflorescence. From them I obtained a minute shark's tooth, con- sidered by Mr. P. G. Morgan to be Odontaspis sp., and similar to 0. attenvata (Davis).
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 347
Bohy's Creek. — The " saurian beds " and Waipara greensands of the Boby's Creek watershed closely resemble those in the Waipara River. The Ostrea bed is followed down-stream by sandstones forming grey to light- yellow cliffs, and becoming more argillaceous when traced upwards, finally passing into grey sandy mudstones with marked yellow efflorescence. Saurian concretions commence a very short distance above the oyster-bed, but rarely exceed 4 ft. in diameter. Near the top these grey mudstones are notably streaky and inclining to be purple, and they are succeeded by a bed of loose sand about 20 ft. thick, which in turn is followed by similar streaky mudstones rapidly passing up into purple micaceous mudstones, which here abut against the fault. The higher beds appear on the high terrace on the south bank and up the most easterly tributary on this side, and consist of the concretionary greensands, the still higher laeds not being exposed. The thicknesses of the above beds cannot be accurately esti- mated, as the bedding-planes are not well expressed, and the creek runs obliquely to the strike. In the upper part of Bell's Creek, besides the above rocks a small exposure of the upper Waipara greensands occurs. The whole series should be exposed in Boby's Creek above the waterfall, but I have not studied it there.
The following species of saurians, collected by Holmes, Travers, McKay, and von Haast, have been determined from the " saurian beds " of Boby's Creek : Cimoliosaurus australis (Owen), C. haasti (Hector), and C. caudalis Hutt.. From Hector's collection of 1867, Chapman (1918) identified the following ^fish-remains : Teeth of Scapanorhynchus suhulatus (Ag.) and of Odontaspis incurva (Davis), and vertebrae of Lamna (?). Presumably these are from the " saurian beds."
Weha Creek. — The Ostrea beds are followed by loose sands of consider- able thickness, which become more sulphurous and argillaceous in their upper part. The succeeding mudstones are harder than in the Waipara River, and in places are almost, flinty and contain impure flint nodules a few inches in diameter. They are slightly micaceous, and are pale lilac on Aveathered surfaces, with rusty joint- planes and an occasional yellow efflorescence. These flinty mudstones present a great resemblance to Clarentian flinty mudstones in the Kekerangu and Benmore areas both in texture and colour. In their upper part they become less hard, and greyer in colour. No saurian concretions are seen either in situ or in the stream-gravels lower, down, and are probably absent in this locality. The succeeding beds (Waipara greensands) are not here exposed, owing to a slip of Aniuri limestone covering them.
In the northern tributary of Weka Creek rising near Waikare the hard bands of the Waipara greensands crop out at a number of points or form sheadings on the lower hills below the high cuesta of Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, and cross over into the Waikare watershed at the western end of Waikare Township. Thence the Waipara greensands extend as a narrow strip to the east between the township and the hills, but are partly covered by surface deposits of soft limestone and sands. Loose greensands are exposed in the excavations for the Waikare hospital site.
Weka Pass- Waikare Saddle. — Between the Waikare flat^ and the upper ])art of the Weka Pass the upper Piripauan beds are disposed in a flatly- dipping anticline around the western end of the ridge of pre-Nptocene rocks which lies to the south of the Waikare Stream, and are exposed in the railway-cutting on the saddle near the 47 -mile peg from Chrktchurch. The sides of this cutting are now considerably slipped and Mavily grassed. Hutton (1885), who had an opportunity of examining this section soon after
34:8 Transactions.
the cutting was made, describes the beds, from below upwards, as bright- green argillaceous sands, calcareous green sandstone with shark's teeth, dark-grey micaceous sandy clay, and dark greensands. The dark-grey sandy clay passes in places into hard pale-lilac flinty mudstones similar to those observed in the Weka Creek.
East Side of Weka Pass. — In the valley entering the Weka Pass Stream from the east a little above the viaduct the hard bands of the' Waipara greensands form a well-marked cuesta in the upper half of the valley, which continues over the saddle down to the upper part of Chasm Creek. The hard bands appear to be about 100 ft. above the pre-Notocene rocks, and about 300 ft. below the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone contact.
Chasm Creek and Omihi Valley. — In the lower part of Chasm Creek and the more easterly tributaries of the Omihi Valley the Waipara greensands are not exposed, owing to an overlap first of the Amuri limestone and underlying sands, and finally of the Weka Pass stone on to the pre-Notocene.
Waikare Valley. — About eight miles east of Waikare, Notocene rocks appear on the south .side of the Waikare Valley and extend for some miles to the eastward. A continuous section of the beds below the Weka Pass stone is not exposed, but I observed in a small road entering the hills near what was Mr. Davy's farm that hard banded greensandstones, exactly similar to the lower group of the Waipara greensands, here form the base of the sequence, and rest directly on the pre-Notocene rocks. Higher up some loose sands were observed, but no typical Amuri limestone was seen, and the total thickness of the beds below the Weka Pass stone does not appear to exceed 100 ft.
Kaitangatan.
Amuri Limestone. ■ The upper part of the Amuri limestone throughout the district is a glistening-white, hard, very fine-grained limestone, which is generally at the surface closely jointed into small cuboidal blocks. The lower part is more argillaceous and greyer in colour, and has a much 'coarser fracture. It passes down by imperceptible stages into a grey mudstone, and this in turn becomes a glauconitic mudstone with nests of glauconite distributed in an apparently capricious manner. This latter rock in the Waipara River rests with apparent conformity on the Waipara greensands, and much resembles the uppermost saurian mudstone immediately underlying the concretionary greensands. In the eastern end of the district, however, the glauconitic mudstones under the Amuri limestone rest on loose sands, which appear to be interposed between them and the Waipara greensands. For this reason, and because no distinctively Piripauan fossils have been found in them, they have been included with the Amuri limestone.
The microscopical characters of the Amuri limestone of Weka Pass have been briefly described by Marshall (1916a), who describes it as a pure Glohigerina oo^e : " The chambers of Globigerina, which are generally isolated, are fairly numerous. By far the greater part of the rock consists of very finely grained calcite." Near the contact of the Weka Pass green- sand it " contains a considerable number of grains of quartz sand and some glauconite, as well as some brown mica."
A number of analyses of Amuri limestone from the Weka Pass have been published with a view to the comparison of its composition with that of pebbles in the Weka Pass greensand, or with that of the Weka Pass stone. These are collected in the following table, along with analyses of the latter rocks, and have been in part recalculated.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and We7va Pass District. 349
|
50 r-l 1 |
CO C<1 "M " |
0 0 rH |
|
|
f-H (M 00 ® 00 O 05 • >0 o: O » to -H . <N . . <N 00 (>) 00 O O • S-1 • • (N ^ ic eo |
0 6 0 rH |
0 0 0 00 . i> 0 • CO |
|
|
00 ::d lo CO 03 O fh , eo -^ 00 17- to • oi • ih r- -* 0 -* ■rji f-H fH ^H |
0 0 0 0 |
CO • Tj* |
|
|
1-* |
0 ci iri . ^ . . ^ . ;- . |
; |
10 >o 00 • 0 CO ^^ |
|
i-H |
0 0 0 • M • • 0 • ^ • |
; |
Oi CO 0 . 7H |
|
rH |
10 CO 00 . CO . . -H . 0 . '■ • 00 • • 6 • c^i • ■^ rH |
; |
to rH CO -6' 00 |
|
o 1-t |
eo 0 1^ 0 i> . to C-l . w . • "• r- '• C5 0 • oo • CO -M 'M |
; |
0 0 CO . t^ <i> • b CO |
|
OS |
<S> 0 CO 0 00 . ^ ^ .to . • • 00 • 00 cb • 6> • •^ to |
; |
0 rH 00 . Tt( CO • 6 00 |
|
00 |
CO . ffo C<l . Oi . • -^ • CO -^ • CO • Tt CO — 1 |
• |
to <M t^ ■ . rH 10 • CO t- . to M • -^ 00 |
|
t- |
eq >o (N 10 . I> . 00 ip . t> . • f- ■ CO 0 ■ ■^ • Til to r-^ |
||
|
«o |
Tjt 0 >-OI>cOO^O CO r- ip ^-cot'rH(^^ .oq cb Ah OSOOOO-^ '-^ ■* to |
0 0 |
OlrHr, 1 0 ^ CO 1 00 -^ b 00 |
|
>n |
(M ■* to rM Oi 01 0 CO 10 CO CO'>1-*-hO , ip t- — OOQOOrll .-^ Tff to |
0 0 |
l> CO 05 ^^ ^1 ^* r- 6 6 00 Tt< CO (N CO Tt* I-- c-1 b b J <x> 1 |
|
'i' |
<M 00 uo M rH 00 -^ 0 --H ^_,,__^'* CO |
§ 6 0 |
|
|
CO |
»n CO t- r^ 05 rH 00 -* 0 f- CO O-l (N . IC . . Tl< 1^ 0 lb 0 Cb ■ r-l • • i-H •* CO |
0 1 r-l |
CD ^ 10 CO . Ai b • 00 |
|
<N |
»CCOTi<THrH-* CO 0 C<ICOiOCOO^'M .0 .-<* t- 0 0 0: 0 a> • (fi • 0 '^ to , - |
0 |
CO Tt( . oD b • 00 |
|
tH |
t- OS Ti4 . . .0 . -H . . . C~ • . • M • lb • • • <N CO oq Tj* |
0 i-H |
CO <?> . . I> • • 10 |
|
3 |
|||
|
1 j |
0 :::::::§>:.§ 1 ^ 0="°"9|o 4:3.1 :« |
c
'■*3
o
fl o
to
4) O
CO
-a o
LO
t3 c6
05
CO
5c
03
ca
a o
05
O
CO
o
|
^ d |
c3 |
si R |
|
u |
CO |
|
|
0 |
JS |
<D |
|
c |
sc ■53 |
g |
Q s
30
ce 'C
o o
t-. 13 oa
§ <1 ^.
c _o
*-^
o
^ 2
be
.S cj
|
oa |
|
|
0 |
|
|
'> |
|
|
. |
|
|
^ |
in |
|
-*^ |
00 |
|
0 |
-H |
|
^ |
>. |
|
-^ |
c3 |
|
tij |
|
|
0 |
0 |
|
-i^ |
s |
|
-t^ |
n |
|
rrt |
|
|
X |
JO |
|
OQ |
|
|
0 |
|
|
^ |
|
|
ft |
0 00 |
o ce
3 03
|
-0 Hi |
r^ |
^ ^ |
!: |
||
|
-0 |
n |
p |
j;; |
||
|
a 0 |
0 |
71 4^ |
< |
||
|
rr |
c |
W |
|||
|
>i |
0 |
||||
|
0 |
s |
CD 0 |
C |
||
|
0 J3 |
" |
ft |
ce |
||
|
0 |
00 |
^ |
Si |
rr |
^ |
|
a |
Oi |
<; |
^ |
C2 |
o
i; »
03
03
a 3d
w
05
ft*^
-J =; S ce
o_§;2
rr o
c«2
re ^
Cj
5 bt
M
<D
-' .^ SC
.r. 00 .:i; -2
|S|fe
b -^
ft '*'
s ^
c; '♦^ s ce
ce
ca ft
CD ^^
o ce
Is
>
3
-3 0
rH O
ce
ce
CJ
o
!3
ee
o3
o
"* —
0)
ce
OJ CD
'« ce
o ft
ce o
pa o
c _; — M ""0=2 ^
P S S - c5sS.2
>,
a
ce
o
fto g
r* rH ^
7 «>
05
O CJ
aj 3
2^ -:
**-< . ce
^ ^Z:^. :z
"3 L" s;
■p rr ce
ce ^
60 g
o ce
krH "^H
ce >,,cc "~ —
S o
02 c3
- ^ ?f-' s ■>
ce
ft
ce
- ^
c« <; JO ^
_,i 00 ^ 00 60-^
13 CD .-^
IS 5b §
■*^ 05 2
a ^ i
S ^ To '^ ce ^
SJ -a! •—
05 P O
o ce
60 g d ce -Q o ^ ■ "
£ ce
ce = o cc o = a
!-l
ft ft
3
^^
!>i O
ce 'T?
~ ,f^
ce ft
s^
-*^ CD
c/2
■*^ CO --
o S 3 P ^ s -+' 5
CD ^ CD -^
cs*^ ce ?^
P5 <1
o c
a, a^
CD ^ ce SJ r3 ft
^ ft ce
> CO
o le <u »d
_ s -H fl O (35
ce CO
-^ 3 CO ;:-
ce sj
^ ce •« K •-!
O
ft ti O -S O 3 ^ ..d ■"* F~* ^^ 3
<
— < 'M to -^ 10 XI
c« =!§
ft 2
a
05
350 Transactions.
It will be seen that the hard white limestone at the top consists of 80 to 88 per cent, of carbonate of lime and 14 to 6 per cent, of silica. The grey limestone 50 ft. to 80 ft. below the upper surface contains only 66 per cent, of carbonate of lime.
The Amuri limestone contains few microscopic fossils either within the district or elsewhere. In the small gorge above the viaduct in the Weka Pass I observed a small fragment of a Pecten about 25 ft. below the upper surface. Foraminifera constitute a fair proportion of the rock, and from a collection which I made from the uppermost 3 ft. in the above locality Mr. F. Chapman determined the following forms : Guembelina globulosa (Ehr.), Bulimina obtusa d'Orb., Bulimina sp. nov., Globigerina cretacea d'Orb., Anomalina ammonoides (Eeuss), and Pulvinulina elegans (d'Orb.). From the same locality, 25 ft. to 30ft. below the upper surface, he determined Nodosaria annulata Reuss, Globigerina bulloides d'Orb., ^ Anomalina ammonoides (Reuss), and Pulvinulina elegans (d'Orb.). These forms, he considers, establish the Danian age of the rock.
The underlying glauconitic mudstones yield Foraminifera, Ostracoda, fish -scales and vertebrae, and fragments of molluscs and brachiopods. The fossiliferous nature of this horizon has only recently been established, and the specimens, excepting the brachiopods, have not been examined by specialists. The brachiopods include a species of Aetheia hardly dis- tinguishable from the Oamaruian A. gaidteri. The remainder bear no resemblance to Oamaruian species, and include a new genus of Terebratellid. I hope to describe these and other Cretaceous brachiopods in the near future.
Waipara River. — The best section through the Amuri limestone is that afforded by the banks of the Waipara River at the Limestone Gorge and on the south bank for some distance above it. The following beds are exposed : — -
Hard, white (chalky), closely-jointed limestone, including Feet. a few marly bands near the base . . . . 100-
Softer, grey, argillaceous (marly) limestone with 'Coarser
bedding and jointing . . . . . . . . 60
Grey mudstone, passing down into dark blue-grey streaky mudstone, with nests and streaks of glauconite . . 300
The upper white hmestone is thin-bedded and closely jointed in all directions. It forms nearly vertical cliffs, passing below into grassy talus-slopes. The grev limestone is thicker-bedded and less jointed, and has a spheroidal weathering like a mudstone. It is sometimes known as the " fucoidal limestone,"" from the presence of a peculiar fossil (?) known as the Amuri '' fucoid,"" shown in fig. 5. This consists of rudely conical masses of limestone, with the apex of the cone directed upwards, the diameter of the base ranging from a few inches up to 3 ft. From the apex of the cone coarse flutings radiate to the exterior, the flutings being rounded on the bottom, and the intervening ridges rounded or angular according to the shape of the flutings. The surfaces on which the latter are developed are not strictly conical, but sometimes almost spiral, as in the figure. Occasionally the flutings bifucate. The " fucoids "' occur chiefly in the main mass of the grey marly limestone, but are best displayed in a marly band, about 18 in. thick, 10 ft. above the base of the white limestone. Besides the " fucoids " the grey limestone contains numerous Foraminifera and many small chitinous flakes. It was to a small fragment of the Amuri " fucoid," labelled " Culverden," but more probably from the Waipara or Amuri Bluff, that Hutton gave the name of Pinna jolicata.
Thomson.- — Geology .of Middle, Waipara and Weka Fetss District . 351
The mudstones down into whicli the grey limestone passes are variable rocks, being in places ordinary dark-grey mudstones, in others very glauco- nitic mudstones, but for the most part consisting of a mudstone matrix, blue when freshly broken, white when weathered, containing small and large nests of glauconite in large grains. They thus resemble considerably the saurian sandy mudstones, but are more argillaceous and glauconitic. There appear to be about 300 ft. of these beds above the large river-meander on the south bank, and probably a greater thickness between the mouth of Birch Hollow and the limestone gorge on the south side. Foraminifera are abundant throughout, but are mostly rotted. Shell-fragments are present in a few places, while fish-scales and vertebrae and obscure plant-remains are fairly frequent. In the cliffs on the north bank of the river below Birch Hollow crushed tubes of Teredo are not infrequent, but no other shells were obtained. From a cliff" on the east side of the small creek on the right bank I obtained a number of fragments of brachiopods. It is eriiinently desirable that as complete a collection as possible should be made from this horizon.
Fig. 5. — The Amuri "fucoid."
BelVs Creek, Bohifs Creek. — In the upper part of Bell's Creek, and in a small tributary which has cut a gorge through the Amuri limestone, the lower, grey limestone and the underlying glauconitic mudstones are exposed in a number of small cliffs, not furnishing a connected section. The glauconitic mudstones resemble those in the Waipara River, and contain large and small Foraminifera* fish-scales, and various spines and spicules, but no shells were obtained except a single fragment of a brachiopod. Near the base these rocks contain numerous rounded white and green quartz pebbles up to J in. diameter, and small rounded pieces of retinite up to I in. diameter.
Weka Creek. — The Waipara greensands are not exposed in the main branch of Weka Creek, owing to a slip of limestone overlying them, and the succeeding glauconitic mudstones are also mostly obscured. The upper 12 ft. of the latter bed is exposed in the cliffs of a small creek entering from the west just above the limestone gorge, and consist of dark mudstones with nests of glauconite similar to that below the Amuri limestone in the Waipara River. They are directly succeeded by the marly limestone, of which about 30 ft. is exposed. The same mudstones occur in the bed of the Weka Creek at the junction of this tributary, and yield fish-scales and vertebrae and Foraminifera.
352 Transactions.
Weka Pass. — The exposures of the lower part of tlie Amuri limestone are not very good in the Weka Pass. Morgan, (1915) has noted the following sequence : —
(1.) Amuri limestone, fairly pure, 40 ft. or less in thickness. This
is much jointed and even shattered in places. (2.) Amuri limestone, argillaceous, about 40 ft. thick. This rock where exposed to weathering breaks into small cuboidal or irregularly-shaped fragments. (3.) Calcareous light-grey claystone, probably between 40 ft. and 50 ft. thick. Exposed surfaces break into very small frag- ments. (4.) Uncemented sand, with lumps of clay.
Waikare. — An important exposure has recently been made by the excava- tion for soft (surface) limestone in Trounce's pit, a mile west of Waikare. This pit lies on the grassy slopes below the outcrop of the outlier of Amuri limestone, and has passed through the surface deposit of soft limestone into a tough glauconitic mudstone, which exactly resembles those below the Amuri limestone at Weka Creek and the Waipara River. Mr. B. C. Aston has determined the carbonate of lime as 10 per cent. It contains numerous Foramanifera and rare sharks' teeth and brachiopods, including Aetheia sp. cf. gaulteri.
From borings made in the grassy slopes below the pit, and from the presence of springs farther down, it appears that the above mudstone rests on glauconitic sands, which in turn rest on some impermeable bed, along the top of which a series of springs appears.
Omihi Creek. — North-north-east of Mount Donald the Amuri limestone and underlying rocks are exposed in a small dry gorge tributary to the main tributary of the Omihi Creek. The lowest beds exposed are about 60 ft. of yellow sands, mostly fine-grained but with a fair proportion of large well-rounded quartz grains and much white mica. These become glauconitic and harder 3 ft. from the top, and are succeeded by 15 ft. of glauconitic mudstone, which passes up into 5 ft. of fucoidal argillaceous limestone with a good deal of glauconite. This is succeeded by the con- cretionary band of the Weka Pass stone, here about 6 ft. thick, which in turn is followed by 40 ft. to 50 ft. of typical Weka Pass stone.
The sands at the base are well exposed farther up the main tributary of the Omihi Creek, and rest upon the Waipara greensands.
Farther east, although there are no clear exposures, the beds between the Weka Pass stone and the pre-Notocene rocks greatly diminish in thick- ness, and it is probable that no Amuri limestone exists. East of Moore's Hill South the beds below the Weka Pass stone again increase in thickness, and near Davy's farm sands similar to those described above are seen between the Waipara greensands and the Weka -Pass stone.
#
Oamaruian. Weka Pass Greensand and Weka Pass Stone.
The " Weka Pass stone " is an old quarryman's name for the building- stone of the Weka Pass, and was introduced into geological literature by Hutton (1877), who included imder it not only the limestone, formerly used as a building-stone, but also the calcareous greensandstone down into which the limestone passes. McKay referred to the latter rock as the " greensand conglomerate," while Speight and Wild termed it the " nodular
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and. Weha Pass Disfricf . 353
band " or "" layer." Since it is not always nodular within the district, but is always more glauconitic than the overlying limestone, it is admissible to name it the " Weka Pass greensand," and to confine the name of " Weka Pass stone " to the overlying limestone. There are thus two greensand horizons both in the Weka Pass and the Middle Waipara — viz., the Waipara greensand below the Amuri limestone, and the Weka Pass greensand resting on the Amuri limestone. There. is a third greensand horizon in the Waipara River — viz., a facies of the "grey marls" resting on the Weka Pass stone.
The Weka Pass stone is an arenaceous, slightly glauconitic limestone, 50 ft. to 100 ft. thick, the calcareous part of which is composed of the tests of Foraminifera and a fine-grained base similar to that of the Amuri limestone. In some parts, where the terrigenous elements are feebly developed, the rock becomes almost indistinguishable from the Amuri limestone, and, like it, is then thin-bedded and closely jointed, but for the most part it is coarser in texture, is cream-coloured instead of white, and is thick-bedded and not closely jointed. Consequently it presents, as Morgan (1915) pointed out, a more massive appearance in natural exposures than the Amuri limestone. Its chemical composition is shown in Table IV, con- sisting mainly of 67 per cent, of carbonate of lime and 22 per cent, of silica, whereas the Weka Pass greensand contains only 47 per cent, of carbonate of lime and 35 per cent, of silica. The Weka Pass greensand, being a softer rock than the two limestones it separates,, is generally hollowed out, and the Weka Pass stone overhangs the hollow in a massive rounded ledge (Plate XIX, fig. 1). Where the Amuri limestone below is also cliffed the hollow of the greensand makes a marked break in the cliff, which is often occupied by a sheep-walk. Along certain parts of the outcrop the Weka Pass stone is apparently weaker towards erosion than the Amuri limestone, and instead of overhanging it in a cliff, as is usually the case, forms a small cuesta at the foot of the dip-slope of the more prominent Amuri limestone cuesta. This is the case between Onepunga Farm (to the south of Boby's Creek) and Mount Grey, and for a short distance north-east of the North Dean. At Onepunga the Weka Pass stone is rather more glauconitic than usual, and Speight and Wild have suggested that this and the greater abundance of phosphatic nodules are evidence that the old shore-line is being approached. More direct evidence would be an increase in the percentage and ^rain- size oi the terrigenous material ; and, as this is wanting, the suggestion lacks weight, more especially as the confirmatory evidence of overlap of the lower beds is absent in this locality.
The Weka Pass greensand presents two facies. In a few localities it is a simple slightlv glauconitic calcareous sandstone presenting no peculiarities. This is particularly the case in the middle part of the limestone clifis south of the Waipara River, between the road leading down from the Ram Paddock to the river and the limestone gorge. Lenticular masses of glauconitic material appear in the upper part of the Amuri limestone, and these gradually increase in number and size until the whole mass becomes glauconitic, and after a few feet passes insensibly into the Weka pass stone. At this locality " fucoids " are abundant in the upper part of the greensand (Plate XIX, fig. 2), including a peculiar type with curved transverse divisions like the septa of an Orthoceras, but unsymmetrical.
Elsewhere the Weka Pass greensand presents a very peculiar contact towards the Amuri limestone, a contact which has been repeatedh' claimed as unconformable and with which a very considerable proportion of the literature on the district has been concerned. \ Little can be added to the
12— Trans.
354 Transactions.
detailed descriptions by Morgan (1915, 1916) and tlie exhaustive discussion by Speight and Wild (1918). The upper beds of the Amuri limestone are not compact, but consist of small separated blocks of white limestone, a few inches in diameter, in the interstices of which there occurs a filling of calcareous greensand of the same nature as the overlying bed of greensand. The upper 1 ft. or 2 ft. are most affected, but the penetration of the lime- stone by the greensand occasionally reaches a depth of 6 ft. The blocks of limestone are mostly irregular in outline, and similar in shape to the cuboidal blocks isolated by jointing throughout the limestone. Morgan describes the fissures between the blocks as irregular cavities, following joint- planes to a great extent, but evidently enlarged by chemical erosion or solution, and mentions the existence of small peninsulas of limestone, some of which are joined only by a narrow neck to the main mass, extending several inches upward into the glauconitic sandstone. Speight and Wild describe the Amuri limestone as " jointed into flaky quadrangular blocks, the upper 2 ft. or more being bored by marine worms and the casts filled with glauconitic sandstone. The amount of boring increases progressive!}'- upwards until what may be called the transitional layer is reached." When I first examined the contact, in 1912, I noted occasional borings with round sections in the limestone, filled with glauconitic calcareous sandstone, but I formed the impression that the greater part of the penetration of the limestone by the greensand had taken place along joint-planes enlarged by solution, and after re-examining the contact with Speight and Wild's explanation in mind I am still of the same opinion, and agree with Morgan. I noted also in the gorge of the Weka Pass Stream above the viaduct that 5 ft. below the contact, where the limestone is practically undisturbed, there are occasionally bedded lenticular masses of glauconitic calcareous sandstone within the limestone. Speight and Wild observed a similar phenomenon in the Weka Cireek, where they describe the limestone as breaking into quad- rangular blocks, with interstitial calcareous greensand in layers parallel to the bedding in its upper portions, very occasional burrows extending to 6 ft. below the actual junction.
The uppermost part of the Amuri limestone, termed by Speight and Wild the " transitional layer," they describe as follows : " This consists in its lower part of Amuri limestone material thoroughly bored, with the interstices filled with glauconitic limestone. The result of the boring increases progres sively, and the quantity of glauconitic material increases ^mr* passu. The upper 6 in. is completely bored, so that peninsulas of Amuri liinestone project at times into the overlying glauconitic layer, and at times become detached and resemble subangular pebbles in appearance. They are more phosphatic than the underlying limestones, and the included glauconitic limestone is more phosphatic than the overlying glauconitic layer. Included in this band are small angular nodules, green or black in colour, which are strongly phosphatic. Very occasionally small well-rounded pebbles of quartz, about ^ in. in diameter, are met with."
The lowest layer of the greensand, described in the last part of the above extract, is termed by Speight and Wild the '' nodular layer." The great majority of the inclusions are vSubangular pieces of Amuri limestone, slightly phosphatized, and the true phosphatic concretions are relatively scarce and quite small. The limestone inclusions are most abundant in the lower 12 in. of the greensand, but occur sporadically up to 2 ft. from the base, and are then, according to Morgan, mostly rounded. In addition to the quartz pebbles noted in the Weka Pass, Speight and Wild record a well-rounded
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass Districf. 355
pebble of greywacke near Boby's Creek, while Morgan records one or two very small pebbles of greywacke, together with a small rounded phosphatic lump, probably a fragment of bone. I have obtained from various localities rounded quartz pebbles up to | in. diameter, a subangular pebble of quartz - schist 1 in. long, and flattened pebbles of schistose greywacke over 1 in. in diameter. The upper part of the greensand passes by an increase of its calcareous content quite gradually into the Weka Pass stone.
The Weka Pass stone and greensand contain fossils only sparingly, the chief horizon being at the transition bed of the two rocks, on the underside of the overhanging blufis so commonly developed. The richest locality for fossils is at Onepunga.
Cetacean bones occur fairly commonly, but are rarely perfect. I obtained an ear-bone of a whale from Onepunga. Sharks' teeth are fairly widespread, and I collected the following : From Onepunga, Isurus desori and Lamna apiculata ; north-west of Mount Brown, Odontaspis elegans ; cliffs overlook- ing Waipara River, Isurus retroplexus, I. desori (identified by Mr. P. Gr. Morgan). In addition Chapman identified the following species, believed to come from the Weka Pass stone, though the exact locality is uncertain : Odontaspis incurva, Odontaspis sp., Isurus desori, Carcharodon megalodon, and Scomhrochqoea cf. macrophthalma (Heckel). The specimen of Carcharodon megalodon was labelled " Boby's Creek," and Chapman states that he examined the matrix, and had no hesitation in stating that it came from the -Weka Pass stone. There is, however, no outcrop of this rock in the main branches of Boby's Creek, though the specimen may have come from the slopes of Mount Brown.
Of molluscs, Pecten huttoni and Epitonium lyratum are the most abimdant, and occur in the cliffs overlooking the Waipara River, north-west of Mount Brown, at Onepunga, in the Weka Pass, and in the upper part of the Weka Pass Stream. At Onepunga T obtained in addition Struthiolaria spinosa, Euthria media (Hutt.) ?, Voluta sp. cf. protorhysa Tate, Turris alius, Dentaliuni solidum, Limopsis aurita, Teredo heaphyi, and indeterminable species of Atiiria, Polinices, Architectonica, Pleurotomaria, Trochus, and Ostrea. From the cuesta between the Deans and the Waipawa River I obtained the holotype of Lima imitata Sut., and on the opposite side of the river observed casts of ribbed Pectens on the back slope of the cuesta.
Of brachiopods, Aetlieia gaulteri is most widespread, being found at Onepunga, between the Deans and the Weka Creek, and in the upper part of the Weka Pass Stream. Pachymagas cottoni n. sp. has been obtained from Onepunga and the clifis overlooking the W^aipara River. P. huttoni has been collected at Onepunga.
Foraminifera are fairly abundant as isolated large examples at many localities, while smaller species occur throughout the rock. From a col- lection made in the small gorge above the viaduct in the Weka Pass Mr. F. Chapman has identified {inter alia) Clavulina antipodum Stache, Polymorphina lingulata Stache, and TruncatuUna thiasa (Stache). From an examination of these and other Foraminifera and the sharks' teeth he considers that the rock is probably Eocene.
Echinoid fragments and spines "are common at many localities, and Graphidaria sp. and casts of other corals are found at Onepunga.
Hutton (1885 b, c) recorded a large number of fossils from the Weka Pass stone, including many of those mentioned above. The additional species (in modern nomenclature) are : Scaphella elongata, Volida attenuata (cf. F. sp. cf. protorhysa, above), Epitonium rotundum, Galeodea senex, Pleurotomaria
12*
356 Transactions.
tertiaria, Aturia ziczac var. australis, Lima laevigata, Peden wilUamsoni, P. fischeri, P. heethami var. B ; beside brachiopods, ecliinoids, corals, and sharks' teetb, in which Hutton's identifications cannot be so safely accepted. Unfortmiately, many of the older collections in the Canterbury Museum are labelled simply " Weka Pass," without reference to the exact horizon. It is possible that the species he identified as Lima laevigata should be L. imitafa, which resembles it in size.
The Weka Pass stone presents little variation in composition and thick- ness throughout the district. Morgan estimates it at 100 ft. thick in the Weka Pass Stream. Usually it is not so thick, the average being perhaps 60 ft. It succeeds the Amuri limestone everywhere this is developed, but in the tributaries of the Omihi Creek east of Mount Donald it overlaps the Amuri limestone and rests directly on the greywackes of the Moore's Hills block. No actual exposure of the junction can be seen, but there is a small, flat-lying outlier lying off the second V outcrop uphill east of Moimt Donald, and near the top of a road leading from the Waikare Valley, ■which approaches within 20 yards of an outcrop of greywackes, with only a few feet difference in level, so that not more than 20 ft. of beds can separate the two rocks. The neighbouring greywacke surface has all the characters of a recently stripped fossil peneplain. The Weka Pass stone in this neighbourhood is more glauconitic than usual, with fairly numerous dark phosphatic concretions, and has a peculiar pencil-like or thumb-like fracture.
The " Grey Marls " and Mount Brown Beds.
The beds following the Weka Pass stone have long been known as the ■' grey marls " and the Mount Brown beds, and the conformity or uncon- formity of these two sets of beds has been much canvassed, but there has been no close definition of what is to be included in these two series. " Grey marls " by common consent include any mudstone between the Weka Pass stone and the overlying limestones, which also by common consent are included in the Momit Brown beds ; but between these two limits there is also a considerable thickness of sands and sandstones ; and, moreover the upper limit-— viz., the lowest Limestone of the Mount Brown series — is not a persistent lithological horizon in the district. It will there- fore be convenient to describe these two " series " together.
Five limestones must be distinguished in the Mount Brown series, and may be conveniently indicated by the letters A, B, C, D, and E. The lowest. A, forms a cuesta on the Ram Paddock, and also on the watershed between Boby's Creek and the Kowhai River, towards Mount Grey. It is a white polyzoan impure limestone containing in places an abundance of large cup-shaped Polyzoa, and is the " white and yellowish calcareous sand- stone " of Hector (1869), and the " Bryozoa beds " of Haast (1871). The succeeding limestones, except the last, are mostly reddish-brown rubbly arenaceous limestones, the calcareous matter being largely comminuted shells of various marine organisms. Polyzoa, barnacles, or brachiopods in places constitute the greater part of the limestones, and there are also molluscan shell-beds. The second, B, forms the lower of the two limestone cuestas on the south-east side of the ^eka Pass, and contains few fossils except small cup-shaped Polyzoa and barnacles. It may possibly be the same as the third, C, which forms the lower 'band on the cliffs overlooking the Waipara River below the limestone gorge, and is characterized by the presence of the brachiopod Magadina waiparensis Thomson. The fourth, D, is the main band throughout the district, occupying the
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weha Pass Districf. 357
top of the ridge overlooking the Weka Pass, the greater part of the sky- line between the Weka Creek and the Waipara River, and the summit of Moimt Brown. It contains a rich brachiopod fauna, the commonest species being Magadina hrowni Thomson, Pachymagas jJCirH (Hutton), and species of Rhizothyris. The uppermost limestone, E, forms the cuesta. south- east of the main band, D, at the approach to the Weka Pass, and is characterized by the brachiopods Neothyris novara (von Ihering) and Stethothyris sxiffiata (Tate).
Middle Waipara, South of Boby's Creek Faidt. — Starting at the westerji end of the district, in the tributary of Boby's Creek rising near Mount Grey, the Weka Pass stone passes up gradually into grey mudstones, the typical "grey marls," which are here apparently 200ft. to 300ft. thick. They yielded Verconella costata, Malletia australis, Limojisis aurita, Pecten hnttoni, and Diplodon zelandica (Gray) ?. Above these the seetion is not clear, but there are sands containing Turritella and Malletia. The watershed between Boby's Creek and the Kowhai River is here occupied by a cuesta of the lowest Mount Brown limestone, A, which is a white polyzoan limestone, about 50 ft. thick. It yielded Pecten hnttoni, fragments of, a ribbed Pecten, and Pachymagas clarkei n. sp. The higher Mount Brown limestones were not here studied.
In Mount Brown two bands of reddish-brown limestone may be dis- tinguished. The lower, B, is not richly fossiliferous, but has yielded Anomia trigonopsis and Pecten jjaZmi^es. Bed C has not been identified, but the upper band, D, forming the summit, is thicker than usual. Fossils are scarce near the summit on either side, but in the cliffs overlooking the Waipara River, where over 100 ft. of limestone is exposed, there is a very persistent band, formed mainly of Magadina hrowni, near the top. From some holes at the base of the cliff I obtained an abundance of Bouchardia minima Thomson, besides Magadina hrowni, Pachymagas McKayi n. sp., Anomia trigonopsis, Pecten williamsoni Zittel(?), P. zelandiae, and Lima colorata.
Middle Waipara, North and North-east of Bohy's Creek Fault. — On the northern side of the Boby's Creek fault, in the north branch of Boby's Creek, the Weka Pass stone passes up gradually into grey mudstones, about 60 ft. thick. These are followed bv a considerable thickness of soft sandstones, separated into uppsr and lower divisions by a thin bed of mudstone con- taining Mopsea sp. and Foraminifera. The upper sands are cut off bv the fault.
The most complete section is that afforded by. the banks of the Waipara River below the limestone gorge, and partially repeated in the lower part of Boby's Creek owing to folding. The section is continued in the higher slopes to the east up to the horizon of the main Mount Brown limestone, and includes the following beds : — „
Main Mount Brown limestone (D) . . . . . . 60
Loose yellow-brown sands . . . . . . . . 80
Third Mount Brown limestone (C) . . . . . . 30
Bluish muddy sandstones with concretions, passing down
into polyzoan shelly beds and a grit at the base . . 200
Mudstones with thin sandstone intercalations . . 200
Whitish sandstones with thin mudstone intercalations . . 200
Glauconitic mudstone . . . . . . . . 25
795
358 ' Transactions.
The Weka Pass stone becomes glauconitic at its top, and passes quite gradually into glauconitic mudstones. The succeeding sandstones are in beds of 4 ft. to 10 ft., separated by mudstones 6 in. to 2 ft. thick. Some of the sandstones contain small rounded pebbles of foraminiferal calcareous sandstone, suggesting derivation by erosion from the Weka Pass stone. In the higher beds the sandstones are in thinner layers and ,the mud- stones thicker. Fossils are scarce throughout, and so tender as to be very difficult of collection. E'pitonium zelebori was obtained low down in the sandstones. Two shelly beds were noted on the right bank of the river, below the grit, both containing Pecten huttoni, the higher being similar to the polyzoan beds above the grit. The latter rock contains small pebbles of greywacke. It is succeeded by alternations of thin polyzoan limestones and bluish sandstones, and the latter beds continue to the base of the third Moimt Brown limestone (C), and contain poorly defined concretions with shells and plant-remains (Plate XX). Just above the polyzoan beds I obtained Paphia curta and a fine specimen of Pecten heethami var. B Hutt.
Part of the above sequence is repeated in the lower part of Boby's Creek, north-east of the fault, and in the banks of the Waipara River above and below the junction of Boby's Creek. The cuesta of the lowest Mount Brown limestone (A) on the Ram Paddock is composed of a whitish polyzoan calcareous sandstone, consisting chiefly of larger cup-shaped and smaller Polyzoa,- and yielding fairly numerous but poor specimens of Pachjmagas clarJcei n. sp., with rare pectens and echinoids. The limestone thins out rapidly along its strike in both directions, and obviously formed a polyzoan reef or shoal in the Oamaruian sea. To the west-south-west it crosses the Natural Bridge Creek, greatly diminished in thickness, just above the natural bridge, but does not continue to the east-north-east as far as the banks of the Waipara River. It apparently thins out also in the direction of its dip (south-south-east), but is presumably represented by the polyzoan beds near the bottom of Boby's Creek and those above described in the Waipara River.
In the Natural Bridge Creek, and in Boby's Creek below it, there is some gentle folding, so that a continuous section is difficult to trace. The polyzoan beds appear to be the lowest horizon exposed, and are succeeded by bluish muddy sandstones yielding Anomia trigonopsis, Pecten heethami, Pecten huttoni, and Nucula sagittata Sut., the latter species being first described from this locality. These are succeeded by current-bedded sands, on which a cream-coloured sandstone rests unconformably.
At the time of my first visit, in 1912, a recent slip had exposed a very clear unconformity on the side of the bluff facing the Waip^,ra River at the upper corner of the junction between Boby's Creek and the river (fig. 6). The rocks below and above the surface of the contact were of similar nature — viz., bluish muddy sandstone — but those below were not so clearly bedded. The upper beds contained pebbles and boulders of the same nature, and also of grey mudstones and of greywacke, as well as broken shells. This section had become obscure at the time of my visit in 1913. A short distance up the Waipara River, on the same bank, I observed some shell- beds, which must lie above the unconformity, containing casts of Cucullaea, ribbed Pectens, a large Dentalium, and many gasteropods.
The lower part of the " grey marls " is exposed on the back of the cuesta of Weka Pass stone between the limestone gorge of the Waipara River and the saddle north-west of the North Dean. Here 50 ft. of grey mud- stone follows the Weka Pass stone with every appearance of complete
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XX.
View across Waipara River below limestone gorge. 1, bluish-grey sandstones ; 2, lower Mount Brown limestone (C) ; 3, yellow-brown sands ; 4, main Mount Brown lime- stone (I)).
Face p. 358.]
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XXI.
Fig. 1. — Syncliue in tlie main Mount Brown limestone (B), Waipara River, north-east
side below Boby's Creek.
Fig, 2. — Cliff in Weka Pass Stream, below railway-cutting, 43J miles from Christcliurch. A fault with downthrow to the left intersects the clitf. 1, grey sandstone (top of " grey marls ") ; 2, hard calcareous conglomerate with shells ; . .. . 3,, lower Mount Brown limestone (B).
Thomson.- — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 359
conformity. Fossils are fairly plentiful, including corals and Foraminifera, but the molluscs are mostly in the condition of casts. They include Turritella carlottae Watson and Gorhula canaliculata Hutt. The succeeding beds are not exposed, but highev up the slope loose sands are seen.
The Middle and North Dean are composed of a yellow calcareous sandstone with many comminuted shells in certain bands, and frequent inclusions of a yellow-brown sandstone, which also forms separate bands. This is probably the second Mount Brown limestone (B). The main band (D) does not here form the crest of the range, but appears in rounded hills about half a mile to the south-east. Between B and D there are sands and further yellowish -white calcareous sandstones containing " fucoids," barnacles, Polyzoa, and echinoids.
The third Mount Brown limestone (C) is a yellow calcareous sand- stone, about 30 ft. thick, containing in places an abundance of Magadina waiparensis. It may be traced from near the South Dean to the cliffs opposite the meander in the Waipara River below the gorge, but appears to pass into a sandstone before the river is reached.
Fig. 6. — Unconformity at junction of Boby's Creek and tlie Waipara River.
The Main Mount Brown limestone (D) forms the crest of the cuesta on the cliffs near the Waipara River, but higher up the hill, towards the Deans, it falls back behind the crest. It is divided into tjvo parts by a persistent band of sand, 5 ft. thick, which contains occasional specimens of Ostrea, Anemia, and barnacles. The lower part is harder and not so rubbly as the upper, and contains few fossils but barnacles. The base of the upper part consists of a persistent shell-bed, 2 ft. thicks containing Pectem beethami, P. hurnefti, Lima colorata, Anomia trigonopsis, and casts of many other species, including Turritella. The remainder is the usual red-brown rubbly impure limestone, containing an abundance of Magadina browni. The main band is bent into a syncline where it reaches the Waipara River (Plate XXI, fig. 1) ; the lower part consists of alternating sands and calcareous sandstone, containing Pecten huttoni, while the under- lying sands contain Placxmanomia sp. and Pachymagas not sufficiently well preserved for specific identification'.
On the opposite side of the river the Main Mount Brown limestone (D) is exposed in a small syncline, truncated by the Boby's Creek fault. It is of the usual rubbly character, and yielded Pecten burnetti, Ostrea sp., Magadina browni, Rhizothgris rhizoida, and Pachymagas of the joarki series. Cup-shaped Polyzoa are fairly abundant.
360 Transactions.
Weka Creek. — In the Weka Creek the contact of the Weka Pass stone and " grey marls " is well exposed. Speight and Wild (1918) have noted that the agreement in dip is absolute, and the contact does not show any signs of unconformity, hut the Weka Pass stone exhibits on its upper surface a narrow bored zone similar to that on the upper surface of the Amuri limestone. " This is succeeded by 1 ft. of slightly glauconitic sandy marl, then by 12 ft. of slightly glauconitic sandstone, passing up into sandy marl and becoming more argillaceous higher up but still preserving 'something of its arenaceous nature."
The thickness of the sandy mudstones is difficult to estimate, as the creek here runs obliquely to the strike, but is about 70 ft. Near the top Amusium zitteli is fairly common, and there are also casts of other bivalves and gasteropods, at least two species of coral, fish -scales, and Foraminifera. Such shells as exist are mostly too fragile to collect. The mudstone is succeeded by a sandstone, and then there are alternations of sandstone and mudstone up to the horizon of the second Mount Brown limestone (B).
Weka Pass. — In the middle part of the Weka Pass Stream from the road-bridge over the stream downwards, and in the railway-cuttings oppo- site, there are several isolated exposures of the " grey marls," but no continuous section. The lowest beds, at the bridge, are typical sandy mudstones resting directly on the Weka Pass stone. The actual junction cannot be observed, but only about 3 ft. of beds is not exposed, and each rock appears to be approacheng the other in composition. From these sandy mudstones,- which appear to be about 50 ft. thick, I collected casts of Verconella, Crassateliies, Loripes, Nucula, and Nticulana.
Lower down the stream there are two large cliffs of well-bedded soft grey sandstone, and similar beds are exposed in the railway-cuttings above. The thiclcness of these sand.stones does not probably exceed 200 ft. They are again succeeded by a sandy mudstone of unknown thickness, exposed at the first bend of the stream above the cliff of the lower Mount Brown limestone described below: These are succeeded by loose sands, passing into a grey mudd}^ sandstone, together about 50 ft. thick.
In the upper part of the Weka Pass Stream only the lower part of the " grey marls " is exposed, as a typical sandy mudstone near the viaduct. From this rock I collected Limoj^sis aurita Brocchi (?) and Foraminifera, and McKay's earlier collection included Ampidlina niiocaenica Suter. A selection of the Foraminifera supplied by Mr. F. Chapman was as follows : Clavulina communis d'Orb., Bulimina inflaf.a Seguenza, Ehrenbergina serrata Reuss, Nodosaria vertebralis Pteuss, N. prismatica Reuss, N. consohrina d'Orb., N. longiscata d'Orb., Lingidina costata d'Orb., Cristellaria vortex d'Orb., C. gyroscalprum Stache, Glohigerina triloba Reuss, Truncatulina tliiara (Stache), Anomalina ammonoides (Reuss), Pidvinulina karsteni Reuss, and Rotalia soldanii d'Orb. These indicate, according to Mr. Chapman, that the horizon is probably Eocene.
Ther.e are two prominent calcareous horizons in the Mount Brown beds on the south-east side of the Weka Pass, lying about 400 ft. and 800 ft. respectively above the Weka Pass stone. The upper horizon (D) forms an escarpment on the crest of the ridge, and the lower (B) presents a less prominent escarpment as a salient half-way down the slope, but in the angle between 'the W^eka Pass Stream and the Weka Creek it forms a separate lower cuesta in front of the cuesta of the main band (D), and it assumes the same physiographic prominence between the Weka Creek and the North Dean, where, as alreadv noted, it forms the summit of the range.
Thomso:\'. — Gf^oJoyy of Middle Wai/umi and Weka Fuss Districf . 361
The lower horizon (B) consists, in the railway-cutting 43f miles from Christchurch, of upper and lower hard bands, 25 ft, and 20 ft. thick, separated by about 35 ft. of sands. Both bands consist of hard brown arenaceous limestone, with sandstone intercalations, forming cavernous cliffs owing to the weathering-out of included fragments of derived sand- stone. This phenomenon is well displayed in the cuesta between the Weka Creek and the Weka Pass Stream, where the derived fragments offer show clear bedding oblique to that of the enclosing rock. Fossils are scarce and consist chiefly of small cup-shaped Polyzoa and barnacles, but Anomia sp. and partial valves of Magadina were observed. The lower bands are exposed on a clifi below the railway-cutting, between it and the Weka Pass Stream, where they are intersected by a small fault with downthrow to the north (Plate XXI, fig. 2). The base of the lime- .stone on the northern (downthrown) side consists of a lenticular hard calcareous conglomerate enclosing specimens of CucuUaea, Struthiolaria tuherculata and many other gasteropods, and numerous barnacle {Balanns) fragments. Unfortunately the matrix is too hard to enable satisfactory specimens to be collected. The conglomerate rests upon soft grey sand- stones, of which the few feet exposed show no bedding, so that the pre- sence of an unconformity cannot be definitely asserted, but the presence of the derived fragments of sandstone in the overlying limestone makes it probable.
In the Weka Creek the lower limestone (B) flattens out just before reaching the creek-banks and is not exposed on the banks. It seems probable that it is cut off by a fault with dowmthrow to the south-east.
The third Mount Brown limestone (C) does not appear to be developed in the lower part of the Weka Pass or in the Weka Creek, but is again found not far below the main band (D) on the north-west face of Mount Donald, and for some distance to the south-west, where in a col in the cuesta it reaches the summit. It forms at the last pomt about 40 ft. of hard calcai;eous sandstone, in bands of 1 ft. to 3 ft. thick separated by shelly sands containing Magadina waiparensis, Anomia trigonojjsis, and Pccten burnetti. A little nearer Mount Donald the bands coalesce to form a shelly limestone containing an exceptionally large number of derived sandstone inclusions, which weather out and give it a very cavernous appearance. It contains Polyzoa, barnacles, and shelly fragments, including Magadina waiparensis and Anomia trigonopsis. On the north-western "face of Mount Donald the base contains a shell-bed with many casts of large gasteropods. It is here underlain by sands containing concretions.
The main Mount Brown limestone (D) forms, as already mentioned, the crest of the watershed south-east of the Weka Pass. It is divided by a persistent bed of sand, which outcrops just below the crest on the Weka Pass side, and yielded Pachymagas cottoni n. sp. and Waiparia abnormis. This limestone crosses the railway-line in the cutting 43 miles 21 chains from Christchurch. At the northern end of the cutting there is about 35 ft. of sands exposed below the lowest bed of limestone. These sands contain occasional shells, including Ancilla pseudaustralis, Pecten huttoni, and very fragile shells of Crepidula sp. Immediately below the lowest limestone bed is a thm bed of broken shells, including Anomia trigonopsis and Glycymeris sp. The lowest limestone bed is 5 ft. thick. It is succeeded unconformably by 25 ft. of sands, containing many small derived pieces of sandstone, and yielding Anomia trigonopsis. Then follows 3 ft. of lime- stone, succeeded by another 25 ft. of sands. These are succeeded by the
362 Transactions.
main mass of the limestone, 25 ft. thick, containing at the top a shelly band with Pecten huttoni, P. beethami, P. hurnetti, and Lima colorata. The limestone also contains many brachiopods, including species of Rhizothyris and Pachymagas, Magadina hrowni, and Terebratulina suessi. It is followed by 6 ft. of sands, and a further 16 ft. of nodular limestone, which con- tains Bouchardia minima, Magadina hrowni, a.nd Pachymagas sp. This is followed by 3 ft. of creamy calcareous sandstone, which, as will be seen later, is best regarded as forming the base of the next horizon.
Fossils are abundant in places on the dip-slopes of the main band (D), especially near the top of the small valley entering the Weka Pass Stream between the 43 m. 21 ch. and 43 m. 3ch. cuttings, and over the saddle at the head of this valley down to the first valley trending to the Omihi Creek. Here the uppermost rubbly band seen in the railway-cutting is well exposed near the foot of the main dip-slope, and yields a rich brachio- pod fauna, besides Pecten hurnetti, P. heethami, Pecten sp. nov., Li^na colorata, L. 'paucisulcata, L. lima, Ostrea angasi, 0. gudexi Suter (?), Anomia huttoni, A. furcata, Isurus desori (Ag.), I. hastalis (Ag.), small echinoids and fragments of larger species, and numerous cup-shaped and bottle-shaped Polyzoa. The brachiopods identified are Terehratulina suessi, Bouchardia minima, Magadina hrowni, Rhizothyris scutum n. sp., R. rhizoida, R. elongata n. sp., R. curta n. sp., R. crassa n. sp., R. elliptica n. sp., R. fortis n. sp., R. ohesa n. sp., R. joirum n. sp., R. ovata n. sp., R. amygdala n. sp., Pachy- magas hartrumi n. sp., P. speighti n. sp., P. haasti n. sp., P. hectori n. sp., P. parki, P. McKayi n. sp., P. morgani n. sp., and P. coxi n. sp.
The uppermost Mount Brown limestone (E) forms a prominent cuesta behind the dip-slope of the main band, and thence crosses the railway in the cutting 43 miles 2-3 chains from Christchurch, and descends into the Weka Pass Stream and Weka Creek a few yards above their junctions. The succession from the main band upwards may be followed without a break in the Weka Pass Stream and the Weka Creek, while parts of the beds are exposed on the escarpment of the cuesta to the east. The total thick- ness is about 100 ft., the last 35 ft. being formed by the uppermost lime- stone, which in the railway-cutting is a reddish-brown to yellow arenaceous limestone with numerous small pockets containing small pebbles, up to 5 in. in diameter, of greywackes and jaspers. It contains many polyzoan and echinoid fragments.
Immediately succeeding the main limestone (D) is a creamy calcareous sandstone a few feet thick, well exposed jUst above the foot of the dip-slope of the main band, where it yields Stethothyris suffiata and Neothyris anceps n. sp. When followed over the first saddle into the most easterly tributary of the Omihi Stream it forms a sharp V down-stream, and on the far side is 3 ft. thick and yields Pachymagas andrewi n. sp. It is here followed by a hard band 2 ft. thick, in turn succeeded by more soft creamy limestone, 3 ft. thick, yielding Lima colorata and Pachymagas cottoni n. sp. This is again followed by another hard band 1 ft. 6 in. thick, and the exposed section here ends with soft calcareous sandstone containing Lima colorata and Cucullaea alta var. B. The above limestone bands are included with the uppermost limestone (E) because of the occurrence in them of Stetho- thyris suffiata.
In the gorge of the Weka Pass Stream the above calcareous sands are succeeded by blue muddy sands, about 50 ft. thick, which contain fossils sparingly throughout, and include two shell-beds. The lower 20 ft. contains Cucullaea alta var. B. and Lima colorata fairly commonly, and also yielded
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 363
Turritella concava, Natica australis, Ampullina sufuralis, Verconella costata, Ancilla pseudaustralis, Surcida fusiformis, Limopsis zitteli, Pecten ivilliam- soni, P. huttoni, TeUina eufjonia, and Dosinia greyi. The lower shell-bed lies about 30 ft. below the limestone, and is exposed in the Weka Pass Stream at and below the suspension bridge, and also in the Weka Creek. It yielded Magadina browni, Neothyris novara, Rhizothyris curiosa, Crepidula monoxijla, C. gregaria, C. striata, PoUnices gibhosus, Galeodea sidcata, Sigapatella novae-zelandiae, Latirus brevirostris, Verconella costata, V. dilatata, Voluta arabica, Voluta sp. cf. protorhysa Tate, Ancilla novae-zelandiae, Dentalium solidum, Placunanomia incisura, Limopsis zitteli, Pecten crawfordi, P. burnetti, P. huttoni, Crassatellites attenuatus (fragments), Venericardia -purpurata, Cytherea sidcata, Protocardia alata, and Thracia n. sp. The upper, or Hinnites, shell-bed occurs at or near the base of .the limestone, and is exposed in the railway-cutting, in the Weka Pass Stream and its tributary crossing the railway-lme above the cutting, and in the Weka Creek. It yielded Neothyris novara, Stethothyris sufflata, Hemithjris nigricans mut., Dentalium solidum, Pecten crawfordi, P. burnetti, Hinnites Irailli, Lima paucisulcata, Ostrea angasi, Cytherea sulcata, Chione stutchburyi, Cochlodesma angasi, and Protocardia alata.
The limestone (E) closing the sequence of the Mount Brown beds contains a fair number of brachiopods and a few molluscs in the Weka Creek, the railway-cutting, and the cuesta leading to the Omihi watershed, and yielded the following species from these localities : Crepidula gregaria, Galeodea senex, Ancilla pseudaustralis, Anomia trigonop)sis, Antigojta sidcata, Pecten hurnetti, P. beethami, P. triphoohi Zitt. (?), P. hochsteiteri, Lima paleata, Terebratulina sp. cf. cancellata Koch, Stethothyris- sufflata, Neothyris novara, N. iheringi n. sp., Rhizothyris curiosa, R. media n. sp., R. scidum. n. sp., R. curta n. sp., R. eUiptica n. sp., R fortis n. sp., R. obesa n. sp., and Pachymagas hectori n. sp.
As the limestone cuesta. is traced from the Weka Creek past the first tributary of the Omihi Creek towards the second it exhibits no longer the characteristic brachiopods and becomes more of a hard shell-bed, the shells being mostly casts at the outcrop. It appears to be continuous past the back of Mount Donald towards the Waikare Valley, but has not been examined in this direction.
The summit of Moimt Donald forms an outlier of beds resting on the main limestone band (D). These appear to be the lower beds of the Stethothyris sufflata zone. Park (1905) stated that some mile and a half north of the pass, near the highest part of Mount Donald, the beds were richly fossiliferous, and gave a list of forty-eight species of cetacea, fish, molluscs, brachiopods, cirripedes, and echinoids. I have been unable to rediscover this locality.
Behind the cuesta of the main limestone (D), rimning from the Weka Creek towards the Deans, the first cuesta is that of a shelly calcareous sandstone containing fine pebbles, which lies about 120 ft. above the main band (D). This is presumably the uppermost band (E). It has not been recognized in the Waipara end of the district.
Wanganuian.
Greta B§ds.
The Greta, or Motunau, beds of the district are a variable series of
littoral beds, consisting largely of gravels and gravelly shell-beds, oyster-beds,
coarse sands, and blue calcareous or sandy mudstones, with rare lignite-seams.
364 Transactions.
The constituents of the gravels consist predominatingly of the harder elements of the pre-Notocene of the North Canterbury mountains — viz., greywackes, grits, quartzites, and jaspers ; but there are also pebbles of basalts and lamprophyre-like igneous rocks. No pebbles of the underlying Notocene beds have been observed, nor has any clear unconformity with the Mount Brown beds been detected, but the faunal break is such that one may well be suspected, and it is more than probable that outside the area an overlap of these beds on to the pre-Notocene will be discovered.
Those bands with a harder cement, mostly calcareous, stand up as cuestas on the back slopes of Mount Brown, the Deans, and the hills near Glenmark, but they are not well exposed in the small creeks draining these slopes, and the best sections are those of the Kowhai River in its main branches, the Waipara River, and the Weka Creek. An intermittent section is also yielded b}- the railway-cuttings between V/aipara and the Weka Pass.
Kowhai River and Mount Brown. — Only a part of the north branch of the Kowhai River was explored, and a discontinuous section of the Motunau beds observed in the creeks draining from Mount Brown. In a cliff facing- Mount Brown, the base of which is about 200 ft. above the top of the main limestone (D), there is an oyster-conglomerate about 50 ft. thick, yielding Ostrea arenicola, succeeded by 50 ft. of hard calcareous conglomerate, and resting on sands with a bed of fragile shell's.
In a tributary notching the cuesta of the Mount Brown beds, west of Mount Brown, lower beds are exposed. Above the main limestone (D), with Magadina browni, there is a gap of about 20 ft. in the succession, and then there is a further 10 ft. of brown calcareous polyzoan sandstone with much quartz, perhaps still in the Mount Brown series. This is followed by brownisli-green sands and 1 ft. of calcareous sandstone. The succeeding beds are 40 ft. sands, 10 ft. fine conglomerate with pebbles of jaspers, grey- wackes, and dark porphyritic rocks, 50 ft. brown sands, and 10 ft. fine con- glomerate oyster-beds with 8 in. boulders of a white calcareous sandstone containing friable fossils at the base, the same horizon being represented TOO yards down-stream by four separate oyster-beds separated by sands. After a gap of 50 ft. some 15 ft. of coarse conglomerate is exposed. The oyster-beds yielded Anomia huttoni, Ostrea arujasi, and 0. nelsoniana.
On the road from Onepunga to the Kowhai Valley the first beds exposed are oyster-beds and hard Coarse conglomerates, lying about 200 ft. above the main Mount Brown limestone (D). In the first large cliff in the north branch of the Kowhai River below there are fine conglomerates and sands, with many oyster-beds. The next prominent bed upwards in the sequence is again an oyster-conglomerate with a hard white calcareous cement. About a Cj[uarter of a mile down-stream the first mudstone is exposed, and is a very green rock without fossils. It lies about 300 ft. above the main Mount Brown limestone (D).
The upper part of the Greta beds is exposed in the lower part of the north branch of the Kowhai River and its numerous tributaries. The rocks are fine conglomerates, gravelly shell-beds, oyster-beds, sandstones and loose sands, blue mudstones and sandy mudstones, and thin lignite- seams. Continuous exposures are not found, and, judging from neighbouring- cliffs, the conglomerates and sandstones are lenticular and not persistent. Fossils are fairly abundant, but are in many cases very fragile. The oysters belong to the species Ostrea angasiy 0. arenicola, and 0. corrugata. An exhaustive collection of the other species was not made, but the following H-ere noted : Chione meridionalis, Gari Uneolata, Modiolus australis, Proto- cardia -pulchella, and SigajMtella novae-zelandiae. ,
Thomsox. — Geology of Middle WaijJara and Weka Pass District. 365
The heds are covered unconformably by the Kowhai gravels, the junction being' clearly seen in a tributary draining from Mount Brown. Mr. R. Speight informs me that a very good fossil-locality for the Greta beds has been discovered recently in the north branch of the Kowhai Eiver.
The first cuesta behind that of the main Mount Brown limestone (D) on the Mount Brown road consists of a fine conglomerate containing sparse pebbles of quartz, greywacke, and jaspers in a white calcareous cement, and lies about 100 ft. above the main limestone. Whether this represents the uppermost Mount Brown limestone (E), or, as seems more probable, the base of the Greta series, remains uncertain. A series of alternating sands and shelly gravels ca]>ped by a hard coarse conglomerate forms the next cuesta, lying at least 100 ft. above the former. The sliells represented are chiefly Glycymeris laticostata, Crepidula gregaria, and C. monoxyla ; but I collected also Antigona zelandica, Chione stutchburyi, Dentalium solidum, Dosinia greiji, D. suhrosea, Ostrea nelsoninna, Spisufa aequilateralis, and Verconella mandarina.
Waipam River — For some distance below the outcrop of the main Mount Brown limestone no Notocene beds are exposed on the north bank of the Waipara River, and the base of the Greta series does not outcrop at this point. The lowest beds seen lie on the south bank, at the bend of the river opj)Osite the end of the cuesta running down from Mount Brown (but on the oj^posite side of the Boby's Creek fault), and consist of sand- stones with concretions, followed by mudstone, on which rests 20 ft. of fine gravelly and sandy shell-beds containing Cerifhidea bicarinata, Tellina deUoidalis, Verconella dilatata, Venericardia difficilis, and other species too fragile to collect. This is followed by soft greenish mudstones yielding Ancilla mucronata, Cerifhidea bicarinata, Chione yatei, Cominella adspersa, C. quoyana, Crepidula gregaria, Mactra discors{'\), Ostrea angasi, Struthio- laria papulosa, and Tellina deltoidalis. Above this occur shelly conglome- rates 6ft. thick, containing Ancilla australis, A. pyramidalis, Barnea similis, ■ Sigapatella novae-zelandiae, Cerithidea bicarinata, Chione chiloensis, C. yatei, Ischnochiton maorianus, Cominella quoyana, C. adspersa, Crepidula costata, C. striata, C. monoxyla, Diplodon zelandica, Dosinia greyi, Lapparia corric- gata (?), Lutraria solida, Mangilia sinclairi. Modiolus australis, Musculus impactus^ Ostrea angasi, Rissoina vana, Seila chathamensis var., Verconella dilatata, V. mandarina, Terebra fristis, Trocmis tiaratus, Trophon corticatus, Venericardia . purptirata, Vohita arabica, Volutospina huttoni psewlorari- spina {\). To these about 20 ft. of mudstone succeed, containing fossils similar to the lower mudstones ; then a further 10 ft. of sandy and gravelly shell-beds (mostly Ostrea and Venericardia with Anomia huttoni), about 25 ft. of nmdstone, another Ostrea aiid Venericardia shell-bed, 12 ft. of muddy sands, 10 ft. of yellow sands, and 10 ft. of gravels', after which the section ends.
About a quarter of a mile down-stream on the north bank there is an exposure of mudstones with fossil wood resting on sandstones and shelly conglomerates. The mudstones yielded Arcopagia discidus, Cerithidea bicarinata, Chione ohiloensis, Crepidula monoxyla, Dosinia greyi, D. sub- rosea, Modiolus australis, Ostrea angasi, and Tellina deltoidalis. These are succeeded by a muddy sandstone. After a gap in the succession further sandstones and shelly conglomerates appear.
A boulder obtained from the river-bed farther down by a settler con- contained Ostrea ingens. The matrix was a pebbly calcareous sandstone, quite similar to some of the hard bands of the Greta beds forming small cuestas on the slopes towards the Deans.
366 Transactions.
Weka Creek. — The lowest beds of the Motunau series appearing in the Weka Creek are shelly conglomerates, which are followed on the right bank by greenish mudstones, 20 ft. thick, crowded with Chione stutchhuryi. The next beds to outcrop are a series of shell-beds yielding Ancilla novae- zelandiae, Anomia huttoni, Barnea tiara Tate, Calyptraea maculata, C. tenuis, Gari lineolata, Glycymeris laticostata, Mactra dubia, Mytilus canaliculus, Ostrea fatei, Spisula aequilateralis, Trochus conicus, and Verconella dilatata. Farther down-stream, in a high cliff near the road, there is a hard oyster- bed about 6 ft. thick, from which Ostrea arenicola was identified.
In ^ the railway-cutting 43 miles 2-3 chains from Christchurch the uppermost Mount Brown limestone (E) is followed, apparently quite con- formably, by a thin bed of white sand, showing on the south-west (creek) side of the cutting, succeeded by about 12 ft. of shelly conglomerate. This is followed by a yellow-brown polyzoan calcareous sandstone, greatly resembling the underlying limestone (E), of -which 12ft. is exposed. On the north-east side of the cutting, where the section is clearer, the shell- bed is divided in two by a mudstone intercalation, and there are loose brown sands, making a total of about 35 ft. of beds before the calcarous sandstone is reached. Park (1905) interpreted the upper calcareous sandstone as a portion of the Mount Brown beds, and considered that it was covered unconformably by the shell-beds which really underlie it. The constituents of the conglomerates are mostly coarse, hard greywackes and jaspers, but basalts and rotted lamprophyre-like igneous rocks are represented. The majority of the pebbles are 1 in. to 2 in. long, but a few up to Sin. were observed, all well rounded. The shells collected were Amphidesma australe, Ancilla novae-zelandiae, A. hebera, A. mucronata, Anomia huttoni, Cerithiella n. sp., Chione chiloensis, Crepidula gregaria, Dentalium solidum, Dosinia subrosea, D. greyi, Glycymeris globosa, G. laticostata, Ostrea angasi, 0. manu- briata, 0." tatei, Polinices ovatus, Sigapatella novae-zelandiae, and Spisula aequilateralis.
Kowhai Series.
The Kowhai series consists of tilted terrestrial gravels, resting uncon- formably on the Greta series, and containing boulders of all the under- lying Notocene beds as well as the greywackes of which they are mainly composed. The beds form the lower hills adjoining the Amberley-Waipara Plain, and have a larger development in the Moeraki Downs to the south- west of the district, and in the hills between Amberley and the lower gorge of the Waipara River. The best exposures are in the Kowhai River, but the beds are also seen in the creeks draining from the Deans and in the tributaries of the Omibi Creek.
Kowhai River. — In the high cliffs of the north branch of the Kowhai River north-east of Tobin's Road there are from 100 ft. to 200 ft. of brownish gravels dipping at a low angle to the north-east. The gravels are poorly sorted and poorly stratified, and consist mainly of greywackes, grits, and jaspers from the pre-Notocene rocks, with rare basalts. The boulders and pebbles vary from 1 ft. in diameter down to the smallest quartz grains, and there is a good deal of clay in the cement. In general shape they are angular, but the edges are always rounded. These gravels rest on a clay-bed about 18 in. thick, dipping 12° south-east, which has a sharp surface towards the gravels above, but passes down quite gradually to a series of grey gravels. These consist mostly of pebbles of the pre-Notocene, but contain also pieces of greensand, Amuri limestone, Mount Brown lime- stone with Magadina browni, and red and white sandstones.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle JVaipara and Weka Pass District . 367
In a tributary draining from Mount Brown unconformable contacts of these gravels with the underlying Greta beds are clearly exposed. In some cases the lowest bed of the Kowhai series rests on a surface obliquely truncating several beds of the Greta, series. In other cases the surface of contact is with a single bed, but shows clear evidence of erosion in its irregular contours.
PAET II.— DESCRIPTIVE PALAEONTOLOGY.
Considerable, collections of fossils were made by McKay and other member* of the Geological Survey, but came chiefly from the Piripauan. In 1912 and 1913 I spent several weeks in the district supplementing these collections, especially from Tertiary horizons, as a result of which I announced in 1913 that " although a classic locality for the determination of the relationships of the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass district is not well suited, owing to its poverty in molluscs, to become the standard of reference for the Tertiaries of New Zealand."
The description of the saurians by Owen, Haast, Hector, Lydekker, and Hutton has already been mentioned in the account of the exploration of tlie district. The Piripauan Pelecypoda were described in a palaeonto- logical bulletin by Woods (1917), while the Gasteropoda were forwarded before the war to Professor Wilckens, of Jena, now of Bonn, and their description has been delayed. The Tertiary Mollusca were determined by Mr. H. Suter, who described the new species in 1917. The fish-remains, both Cretaceous and Tertiary, were described by Chapman in 1918. More recent collections, in 1915 and 1919, have been determined by Mr. P. G. Morgan. The Foraminifera were also forwarded to Mr. Chapman, and he is preparing a palaeontological bulletin on this group. A few of the Brachiopoda have been noticed in my earlier papers on this group, and to render this account more complete a reference to these is given below, together with descriptions of the new species. The echinoids, cirripedes, and Polyzoa have not yet been determined, but there is little good material in these groups.
TERTIARY MOLLUSCA.
An attempt has been made to use the most recent nomenclature, and many of the names employed by Suter have been rejected on account of the criticisms by Iredale, Smith, and Hedley. From a geological j)oint of view these frequent changes in the names of common species are deplorable, but are a sign of the renewed activity in the study of the group. From a scientific standpoint there is no justification for neglecting any proposed change which bears on the face of it evidence of its correctness, and one can only hope that finality will soon be attained. In such a case as the species of the Volutidae, where the changes of generic appellation have been numerous, and authorities still difier, 1 have deemed it best to retain the original name Valuta. A few notes on individual species are appended.
Sella chathamensis Sut. var.
A specimen was obtained from the Greta beds of the Waipara River, on which Mr. Suter remarked in 1913 that it was more cylindrical than Recent examples. He added that this was the first record of this species fossil.
368 . Transactions.
Anomia furcata Sut.
This finely radially costate Recent species occurs abimdantly in dredge- spoils from Wellington Harbour, where it shows considerable variety of form and outline. A single specimen was obtained in 1919 from the main Mount Brown limestone (D), near the Weka Pass, and can be almost exactly ■ matched, both as regards form and ornament, with a Recent specimen. This is the first record of this species fossil.
Anomia trigonopsis Hutt.
All the specimens recorded under this name were determined by Mr. Suter in 1913 as A. walteri Hector. On seeing four specimens from the White Rock River, in South Canterbury, which I collected in 1917, Mr. Suter then expressed his conviction that Anomia walteri was a syno- nym of A. trigonopsis Hutt., and that the latter name should be used for the Recent species.
Ostrea angasi Sow.
Concerning specimens from the oyster-beds in the tributary of the Kowhai River notching the cuesta of the Mount Brown beds west of Mount Brown, Mr. Suter remarked that the left valve is strongly ribbed, but nevertheless they are not 0. corrugata Hutt.
Musculus impactus (Herrman).
This Recent species is Modiolaria impacta of the Manual. Mr. Suter remarked on a specimen from the Greta beds of the Waipara River that it is a much elongated form, but not M. elongata (Hutt.).
Mactra dubia (Hutt.).
1873. Corbida dubia Hutt., Cat. Tert. Moll, p. 18. 1911. Mactra chrydaea Sut., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 596. - 1914. Mactra chrydaea Sut., Pal. Bull. N.Z. Geol. Surv. No. 2, p. 49. When Suter discovered, on revising the type of Hutton's Corbida dubia, that it corresponded exactly with his own Mactra chrydaea, he rejected the earlier name on the ground that it was not figured by Hutton. This is against the International Rules, and Hutton's name must stand, unless it has been preoccuj)ied under Mactra, which is, of course, quite possible.
BRACHIOPODA.
Rhynchonellidae.
Very few specimens of rhynchonellids have been obtained, and the absence of species of this family and of the Terebratulidae, although they are so common in correlative rocks in the Trelissick Basin and at Oamaru, makes the group, unfortunately, less valuable than it otherwise might be for purposes of correlation. The species represented are as follows : —
Aetheia gaulteri (Morris).
. Cf. Thomson, Geol. Mag., dec. 6, vol. 2, 1915, p. 389, fig. 1, a, b. '
A few specimens have been obtained from the Weka Pass greensand' from various localities, and are of the broad type described as Terebratella sinuata by Hutton.
Tkans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LIl.
PL.A.TE XXII.
j:6»nimisassm»
Fig. 1. — Ehizothyris eUiptica n. sjj. Fro.
Fig. 2. — Rhizothyris amygdala n. sp. Fig.
Fig. 3. — Rhizothyris curiosa Thomson. FiG.
Fig. 4. — Rhizothyris media n. sp. Fig.
Fig. 5. — Rhiznthyris-ntrta n. sp. Fig. Fig. 6. — Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.).
(All slightly reduced.) Face p. 368.]
7. — Rhizothyris orata n. sp.
8. — Rhizothyris lateralis n. sp.
9. — Ehizdihyris pirum n. s]j. 10. — Rhizothyris srniiim n. sp. 11. — Rhizothyris elongata n. sp.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XXV.
• •0^:V^„^J&
-«¥v
It--'
^^"
14
Figs. 1, 2, ^.—Neothyris iherivgi n. sp. Figs. 8. 9, 10, ll.-P«c%/N«5ra.s2;«rAi{Hutt.).
Figs. 4, 5, G. 1 .-Pachymagas Madi n. sp. Figs. 12, 13, U.-Pachymagas speighti n. sp.
(All slightly reduced.)
Thomson. — (jreology of Middle Waipara and Weha Pass Dist7-ict . 369
Hemithyris nigricans (Sow,).
A mutation of this well-known Recent species is found in the uppermost Mount Brown limestone (E). It differs from Recent specimens only in its slightly smaller size and slightly more imbricated growth-lines. A similar mutation is found in Park's upper Hutchinsonian of Target Gully, Oamaru district, the lowest horizon from which any specimens referable to this species have been found.
Terebratulidae.
Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.).
Three specimens only of this species have been fovmd, in the top of the main Mount Brown limestone (D). They agree well with the type from the Curiosity Shop.
Terebratulina sp. cf. cancellata Koch. (Plate XXIV, figs. 14, 15.)
A single, not very well preserved specimen from the uppermost Mount Brown limestone (E) seems referable to the Terebratulidae from its epithyrid beak characters and labiate foramen, while a fine dichotomous striation suggests Terebratuliyia. These characters are combined only in the Recent Australian species Terebrahdina cancellata Koch, which, however, on account of its beak characters, will doubtless be made the type of a new genus. The specimen under consideration is larger than the average specimen of T. cancellata, but does not show the dorsal bipli6ation characteristic of adults of that species. Its dimensions are : Length, 38 mm. ; breadth, 30 mm. ; thickness, 21 mm.
No terebratulids other than the above have been obtaiijed, and the absence of Liothyrella is worthy of remark.
TeREBR ATELLIDA E .
Bouchardia minima Thomson.
Geol. Mag., dec. 6, vol. 5, 1918, pp. 260-61, fig. ], a, h, c.
This species occurs locally in abundance in the main Mount Brown limestone (D).
Magadina browni Thomson. Magadina waiparensis Thomson.
Trans. N.Z. InsL, vol. 47, 1915, pp, 399, 400, 402, 403, figs. 7, a-d, 8, a, b.
M. waiparensis has been found only in the third Mount Brown lime- stone (C) in the cliffs overlooking the Waipara River, and near Mount Donald. M. browni is extraordinarily abundant in places in the main limestone (D), and can be found in most exposures. It occurs rarely in the sandstones imder the uppermost limestone (E), It is strange that Magadina should be so abundant in the Waipara district and be absent or very rare from the Oamaru district. There are two specimens in the Geological Survey collection from locality 308, Oamaru formation, Oamaru, Hector, 1876. One is a specimen of M. browni, and the other a new species of Magadina. The locality record gives little information, and must be accepted with caution in view of the absence of similar specimens in the extensive collections made by Uttley, Park, and myself.
370 Transactions. *
Genus Rhizothyris Thomson.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, 1915, p. 399, figs. 5, a-d, 6, a, h.
Specimens of Rhizothyris are extremely abmidant in the main Mount Brown limestone (D), and less so in the uppermost limestone (E). Tliey present a great variety of form, the extremes being so different that it is impossible to imagine that they had not been differentiated into separate true-breeding races, although there are so many intermediates that it is obvious that the evolution either had taken place only a short time previously or was still in progress. Similar polymorphism is displayed by the specimens from Hutchinson's Quarry, Oamaru, the Maerewhenua green- sands, and the Curiosity Shop. As the forms are not exactly the same in these localities,, and as a stratigraphical value may be found -to attach itself to certain forms, it is desirable to create species for all the distinptive types. To show the interrelationships of these it will be necessary to describe here a few shells from the other districts. The bearing of the results on correlation is discussed in Part III of this paper.
The ancestral type from which all the species appear to have developed has not yet been found adult, but is represented by the half-grown shell of R. curiosa Thomson. This is shown by the growth-lines to have been a suborbicular shell with a broad, uncurved hinge-line, and without any folding. From it development in outline apj^ears to have proceeded along three main lines.
The first series is characterized by a retention of the broad, uncurved hinge-line, but there is an increasing elongation of the shell, combuied with an increasing narrowing of the front. To this series belong R. curiosa Thomson, R. media n. sp., R. scutum n. sp., R. rhizoida Hutt., and R. elongata n. sp.
The second series is also characterized by the retention of a broad, little-curved hiage-line, and by increasing elongation, but this is not accom- panied by a taperiag of the front, and the shells retain an elliptical shape. Here belong R. curta n. sp. and R. elliptica n. sp.
The third series is characterized by an increasing narrowing and curva- ture of the hinge-line, and elongation is accompanied by a narrowing of the front, so that the shape passes from subcircular through broadly ovate, ovate, to narrowly ovate. Here belong R. lateralis n. sp., R 'pirum n. sp., R. ovate n. sp., and R. amygdala n. sp.
There has also been development in the amount of folding, and at each stage in the development in outline folding may take place preventing further development of outline in quite the same manner as would be possible to an imfolded shell. The folding is in all cases simple ventral uniplication (sulcate or concavi-convex of Buckman). In general the effect of folding on outline is to produce a sudden truncation of the front. The folded shells are also generally more convex than the un- folded. Where necessary, species have been set up for the reception of the strongly folded and convex forms — viz., R. crassa n. sp., R. obesa n. sp., and R. fortis n. sp.
Mr. S. S. Buckman has also pointed out to me that a further discrimina- tion may be made according to the stage of foraminal developm^t. All the species are permesothyrid, and almost epithyrid, but in some there has been remigration of the foramen with the production of- pseudbtela. I am not yet clear as to the specific value of this criterion, and have not applied it in the present analysis.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waiparaand Weka Pass District. 371
Rhizothryis curiosa Thomson. (Plate XXII, fig. 3 ; Plate XXIV, fig. 5.) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, 1915, p. 399, fig. 6, a, h. Three specimens referable to this primitive species have been found in the uppermost limestone (E). It occurs also in the Curiosity Shop green- sand, the Ngapara limestone, and the Clarendon limestone.
Rhizothyris media n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 4 ; Plate XXIV, fig. 3.)
Similar to R. curiosa in shape and size, but slightly more elongate. The growth-lines repeat the outline of R. curiosa at about three-quarters the length of the dorsal valve, and the subsequent development is in the direction of^a narrowing front, making the outline shield-shaped instead of suborbicular. The sides curve outwards only very slightly from the broad, nearly straight hinge-line. The convexity, folding, and beak characters are essentially similar to those of R. curiosa. Length of holotype, 38*5 mm. ; breadth, 35 mm. ; thickness, 18 mm.
Type locality : Curiosity Shop, Rakaia River, Canterbury. Besides the type locality, this species occurs in the limestone of Fossil Point, Ashburton River (Haast coll.). One specimen from the lower shell-bed of the Weka Pass Stream and several from the uppermost Mount Brown limestone (E) are referable ^here.
Rhizothyris scutum n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 10 ; Plate XXIV, fig. 2.)
Shell in outline resembling a long herg,ldic shield. The hinge-line is nearly the breadth of the shell, and only slightly curved. The growth- lines repeat the outline of R. scutum at about three-quarters the length of the dorsal valve. The shell is very little folded, and both valves are rather depressed, as in R. curiosa and R. scutum. ' Length of holotype, 43 mm. ; breadth, 34 mm. ; thickness, 19*5 mm.
Type locality : Greensands, Hutchinson's Quarry, Oamaru. Besides the .type locality, this species occurs also in limestone near Clifden, Waiau, Southland (G. M. Thomson coll.), in the Curiosity Shop greensands, Rakaia River, and in the main Mount Brown limestone (D) and the uppermost limestone (E) of the Weka Pass.
Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.). (Plate XXII, fig. 6 ; Plate XXIII, fig. 7.)
1905. Bouchardia rhizoida Hutt., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37. p. 480,
pi. xlvi, fig. 7. 1907. Magellania rhizoida Iher., Ann. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires,
ser. 3, tom. 7, p. 473. 1915. Rhizothyris rhizoida Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, pp. 397-99, fig. 5, a. • The holotype, which comes from the Weka Pass, is a shell with worn beak, which led Buckman from an examination of the figure to state that the foramen was mesothyrid, but it is really perinesoth}Tid. Shells exactly matching the holotype in shape are not common, but the species may be allowed to include those shells intermediate in elongation between R. scutum and R. elongata which are moderately elongate, with a slightly curved hinge- line nearly the breadth of the shell, and a marked taper. These shells are moderately to strongly convex, and always show some folding.
The species is common in the main Mount Brown limestone (D), from which the holotype was doubtless derived, but does not appear to extend into the uppermost limestone. It is also common at Hutchinson's Quarry.
372 Transactions.
Rhlzothyris elongata n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 11 ; Plate XXIII, fig. 11.)
1905. Bouchardia elongata Park, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 541
{nomen nudum, ascribed to Hutton).
Three specimens only, of extremely elongate tapering form, have been collected — two by McKay from Hutchinson's Quarry, and one by myself from the dip-slope of the main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. All three are imperfect, and I have selected the least-damaged specimen from Hutchinson's Quarry as the holotype. The hinge -line is broad and little curved, and is nearly the breadth of the shell. The sides taper gradually to a narrow front. The convexity and folding is moderate in all three
specimens, and the beak little incurved.
Dimensions in Millimetres. Length. Breadth. Thickness. Holotype .. .. ..55 37 27
Paratvpe, Hutchinson's Quarry . . 34+ 23-5 10
Paratype, Weka Pass . . " . . 47 30 19+
Rhizothyris curta n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 5 ; Plate XXIV, fig. 1.)
Shell broadly elliptical, with a broad, little-curved hinge-line almost as broad as the shell; sides gently convex and regularly rounded, meeting the nearly straight front in obtuse angles. Valves moderately and nearly equally convex ; anterior commissure nearly straight, with only a very slight, broad, rounded ventral sinuation. Length of holotype, 37 mm. ; breadth, 33 mm.; thickness, 20 mm.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. The species occurs rarely in the type locality and in the uppermost Mount Brown limestone, and one specimen has been obtained from the concretionary bed, Deborah Cutting, Oamaru. It also occurs in a dwarfed form, up to 26 mm. long, in the Maerewhenua greensands.
Rhizothyris crassa n. sp. (Plate XXIII, figs. 8, 9J
Shell in outline resembling R. curta. Valves strongly convex, anterior commissure with a broad, fairly deep, ventral sinuation. Beak erect. Length of holotype, 41mm.; breadth, 37-5 mm. ; thickness, 27 mm.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. The 'species in common in the type locality.
Rhizothyris elliptica n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 1 ; Plate XXIII, fig. 3.)
1915. Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.) Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 398, fig. 5, d (not of Hutton).
Shell elongate-elliptical, hinge-line broad and little curved, sides lightly convex and regularly rounded, front rounded. Valves moderately convex, anterior commissure with a slight rounded ventral smuation. Length of holotype, 47 mm. ; breadth, 36 mm. ; thickness, 22 mm.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. The species is rare both in the type locality and in the uppermost Mount Brown limestone, and is also found in the Hutchinson's Quarry greensands. Dwarfed forms from 25 mm. to 32 mm. in length are common- in the Maerewhenua greensands.
Tno'siiiO'S .—Geplogy of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass Districf . 373
Rhizothyris fortis n. sp. (Plate XXIII, figs. 1, 2.)
Shell elongate-elliptical, hinge-line fairly bread and little curved, sides lightly convex, rounded, front narrowly truncate and nearly straight. Valves strongly convex, anterior commissure with a broad ventral sinu- ation. Beak nearly erect. Length of holotype, 60 mm. ; breadth, 44*5 mm. ; thickness, 36 mm.
Tvpe locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. Two specimens only referable to this species have been found in the type locality, and two in the uppermost Mount Brown limestone.
Rhizothyris obesa n. sp. (Plate XXIII, figs. 6, 10.)
The outline resembles that of R. scutum, but the hinge-line is slightly more curved, and there is a greater approach to an elliptical shape. The valves are markedly convex, a character which differentiates the species from both R. scutum and R. elliptica, and the shell is also more folded and the beak more incurved than in these species. Apparently corresponding to the incurvature of the beak, the foramen is slightly remigrant with an indication of pseudotela. Length of holotype, 48-5 mm. ; breadth, 39 mm.; thickness, 28-5 mm.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone (D), Weka Pass. A single specimen was obtained from the uppermost Mount Brown beds, in the Neothyris shell-bed of Weka Pass Stream.
Rhizothyris lateralis n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 8; Plate XXIV, fig. 4.)
Shell subcircular, hinge-line broad but slightly curved, sides convex and rounded, beak-margins nearly straight, front rounded. Valves moderately convex ; there is a broad rounded sinuation in the anterior commissure. Length of holotype, 38 mm. ; breadth, 37 mm. ; thickness, 20 mm.
Type locality : Mount Brown beds, Weka Pass. It is uncertain whether the specimen came from the main limestone or the uppermost limestone. No examples are known from other localities.
Rhizothyris pirum n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 9; Plate XXIII, fig. 5.)
Shell broadly ovate or pear-shaped, with a moderately broad and curved hinge-line, sides convex and rounded, front truncated and gently rounded. Valves moderately convex, anterior sinuation slight. Length of holotype, 34 mm.; breadth, 28 mm.; thickness, 18 mm.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. There is only one other specimen referable to the species, from the escarpment of the same beds, overlooking the Weka Pass.
Rhizothyris ovata n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 7 ; Plate XXIV, fig. 6.)
Shell ov^ate, with a moderately broad, curved hinge-line, sides lightly convex and rounded, front truncate and gently rounded. The valves are moderately convex, anterior sinuation slight. Length of holotype, 36 mm. ; breadth, 28 mm. ; thickness, 18 mm.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. The species is also known from the greensands of Target Gully and Hutchinson's Quarry, Oamaru, and by a single specimen from the Maerewhenua greensands. The majority of the specimens from the latter locality belong to a similar ovate species, but with a shorter beak.
374 Transactions.
Rhizothyris amygdala n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 2; Plate XXIII, fig. 4.)
Shell narrowly ovate or almond-shaped, beak rather short, hinge-line short and curved, sides convex and rounded, front narrowly truncated and gently rounded. Valves moderately convex, sinuation of the anterior iuargin broad and shallow. Length of holotype, 29'5 mm. ; breadth, 21 mm. ; thickness, 14 mm.
Type locality : Greensands of Hutchinson's Quarry, Oamaru. No other specimens than the holotype are known. Two anteriorly imperfect specimens from the main Mount Brown limestone agree closely in shape, except that the beak is longer.
Genus Pachymagas Iher.
As in the case of Rhizothyris, specimens of Pachymagas are abundant in the main Mount Brown limestone (D), and they present an even greater, variety of characters. Similar .series occur in the Hutchinsonian green- sands of Hutchinson's Quarry, Deborah, Kakanui, and other localities near Oamaru, while there is a different but even more varied assemblage in the Curiosity Shop greensands. The complexity of the problem, combined with the large amount of material, has delayed the com- pletion of my memoir on the Tertiary Brachiepods of New Zealand ; in the present paper I have restricted myself to the description of the majority of the species that can be recognized in the Waipara area, leaving a few till more satisfactory material can be obtained.
Among the already-described species in the Oamaruian three series may be recognized. The first includes P. parki (Hutt.), P. marshalU (Andrew), and P. trelissickensis Thomson, and probably also the Patagonian forms P. tehuelcha Iher. (the genotype) and P. gigantea Ortmann, and the Antarctic form P. antarctica Buckman. The shells are large, with a prominent mesothyrid foramen and beaks which are suberect to erect and not markedly carinatQ. The second series includes P. triangularis (Hutt.), P. huttoni Thomson, and the Patagonian form P. venter Iher. The shells are also large, with large mesothyrid foramens, with erect to incurved beaks which are carinate, and with flattened and broadly sinuated dorsal valves. The third series, perhaps generically distinct, includes P. ellipticus Thomson, a smaller shell with a small foramen which is submesothyrid, almost mesothyrid.* The majority of the specimens from the district belong to the P. parki series, while there is a fourth series represented by a new species, P. andrewi, with a large shell and a small foramen.
In Neothyris, which is a descendant of Pachymagas, the tendency is to increasing convexity, a restriction of the foramen, and the production and incurving of the beak with old age, so that one may conclude that in Pachymagas also the evolutionary process is from depressed to convex, from large to small foramen, and from suberect to erect and produced beak. Other characters which may be treated on evolutionary lines are the shape, the folding, dnd the cardinalia. The last, unfortunately, are rarely av&,ilable in specimens from the district, owing to the hardness of the matrix.
Pachymagas parki Series.
The species may be arranged according to shape in a series from sub- orbicular to narrowly ovate, but do' not all form a strictly phylogenetic series, owing to variations in the amount of folding.
* Cf. p. 380.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 375
Pachymagas marshalli (Andrew). (Fig. 7.)
1906. Magellania marshalli Andrew, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, p. 456, pi. iv, fig. 3, a, h.
The holotype is a poorly preserved, crushed, and somewhat distorted specimen, from which one may nevertheless conclude that it was originally a nearly suborbicular shell with short beak, broad, slightly curved hinge-line, rounded convex sides, and probably a rounded front. The convexity is slight, and the folding apparently almost negligible, but in the direction of incipient ventral uniplication. The beak is erect, little produced above the hinge-line, and possesses a mode- rate mesothyrid foramen with well- marked beak-ridges; Length of holo- type, 49 mm. ; breadth. 48 mm.
The dorsal valve was partially ground down by Dr. Andrew to ex-* pose the septum. The holotype is in the Otago Museum.
Type locaHty : Clarendon limestone, Fig. 1.—Pac7iymagas marshalli. Holotype. Milbnrn Quarry, Otago. No speci- Natural size,
mens are known from the Waipara district.
Smaller shells, up to 35 mm. in length, which agree closely in shape, occur in the Moilnt Somers limestone, and the greensands of Curiosity Shop, Kakanui, All Day Bay, and Three Roads.
Pachymagas cottoni n. sp. (Fig. 8.)
1908. Magellania sinuata Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40, p. 101, pi. xiv, fig. 3 (not of Hutton).
Shell broadly elliptical, with a beak of moderate length, a broad, slightly curved hinge-line, nearly straight sides, and a rounded front. Convexity
Fig. 8. — Pachymagas cottoni. Holotype. Natural size.
moderate, anterior commissure with a broad shallow ventral sinuation, flattened along the bottom. Beak erect, foramen moderate, mesothyrid,
376 Transactions.
attrite ; the beak-ridges are sharp. Length of holotype, 48 mm. ; breadth, 43 mm. ; thickness, 23 mm. The species differs from P. marshaUi only in slightly greater elongation.
Type locality : Sands below main Mount Brown limestone (D), ciiesta overlooking the Weka Pass.
Smaller specimens referable to this species occur in the second creamy calcareous sandstone overling the main Mount Brown limestone, in the Weka Pass stone at Onepunga, in the Oamaru district in the greensands of Landon Creek, Three Roads, Kakanui, All Day Bay, and Hutchinson's Quarry, and in the Caversham sandstone (A. McKay, loc. 309).
Pachymagas bartrumi n. sp. (Plate XXIV, figs. 7 9.)
Shell elongate, beak fairly short, obtuse, hinge-line nearly as broad as the shell, little curved, sides very gently convex, front slightly narrowed, rounded. Valves moderately convex, ventral valve bluntly carinate longitudinally, anterior commissure with a broad, shallow, flat-bottomed ventral sinuation. Beak nearly erect, foramen large, mesothyrid, attrite. Length of holotype, 48 mm. ; breadth, 38 mm. ; thickness, 25 mm.
This species represents a further stage, and, so far as is known, the extreme stage, of elongation of the series P. marshaUi, P. cottoni, but has an even broader hinge-line relative to the breadth of the shell.
Type locality : $oot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. The species is rare in the type locality, and is not known elsewhere.
Pachymagas speighti n, sp. (Plate XXV, figs. 12-14.)
Shell shield-shaped, with a rather short obtuse beak and a broad nearly straight hinge-line, whence the sides at first curve gently outwards to the middle of the shell and then taper quickly to a narrow produced front. Dorsal valve rather flat, reflected anteriorly, ventral valve moderately convex, bluntly carinate longitudinally, anterior commissure with a narrow, fairly deep, flat-bottomed sinuation. Beak nearly erect, little produced beyond the hinge-line, foramen moderately large, mesothyrid, attrite. Length of holotype, 41 mm. ; breadth, 37 mm. ; thickness, 21 mm.
This species, which agrees with the above three in the possession of a broad, straight hinge-line, differs from them in the narrowing of the front and the more pronounced folding. All the succeeding species possess narrower, and in general more curved, hinge-lines.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone. The species is rare in the type locality. A well-preserved cast, collected by Professor Park from the Deborah limestone, agrees closely in outline, but evidently belonged to a more convex shell.
Pachymagas clarkei n. sp. (Plate XXVI, figs. 3-6.)
Shell broadly elliptical, with a short, obtuse beak, a hinge-line of moderate breadth but nearly straight, gently curving sides and a shghtly produced front. Dorsal valve flattened, and sharply bent anteriorly to fit the notch in the moderately convex, bluntly carinate ventral valve, anterior commissure with a deep flat-bottomed sinuation of moderate breadth. Beak erect, little produced beyond the dorsal valve, with a larg6 mesothyrid, attrite foramen. Cardinal process short, narrow, sharp, little more than half the height of the hinge-trough. The species is shorter and broader than P. farki, but otherwise resembles it in shape, convexity,
Tno^isoy .—Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 371
folding, and beak characters. It has, however, a much less advanced cardinal process. Length of holotype, 35 mm. ; breadth, 31 mm. ; thick- ness, 18-5 mm.
Type locahty : Lower Mount Brown limestone (A), cuesta near Onepunga, where it is the commonest species.
Pachymagas haasti n. sp. (Plate XXV, figs. 4-7.)
Shell elliptical, beak short, obtuse, hinge-line rather narrow, slightly .curved, sides moderately convex, front slightly produced and gently rounded. Valves moderately convex, the ventral with a broad rounded longitudinal fold flattened anteriorly, anterior commissure with a moderatelv broad, shallow, flat-bottomed, ventral sinuation. Beak nearly erect, little pro- duced beyond the hinge-line, foramen moderately large, mesothyrid, attrite. Cardinal process not more, than one-third the length of the hinge-line, considerably less in height than the socket-ridges, rounded on the upper front surface, Length of holotype, 37-5 mm. ; breadth, 30 mm. ; thick- ness, 20 mm.
This species resembles the elliptical forms of P. parhi in shape and elongation and in beak characters, but is less strongly folded and possesses a less advanced cardinal process. It may be regarded as ancestral to P. parki.
Type locality: Grreensands, Deborah, near Oamaru. The species is common in most of the Hutchinsonian localities near Oamaru — viz., Devil's Bridge, All Day Bay, Three Roads — but is rare in Hutchinson's Quarry. It also occurs in the Clarendon limestone, the Ngapara limestone, and the Maerewhenua limestone. It is rare in the main Mount Brown limestone.
Pachymagas hectori n. sp. (Plate XXIV, figs. 10-13.)
Shell broadly ovate, beak fairly short, hinge-line rather narrow and curved, sides regularly rounded, front slightly produced, rounded. Valves moderately convex, ventral valve with a broad rounded fold, flattened anteriorly, dorsal valve with a broad, shallow, anterior sinus, anterior commissure with a broad, shallow, flat-bottomed anterior sinuation. Beak suberect, nearly erect, not produced far beyond the hinge-line, foramen fairly large, mesothyrid, attrite. Cardinal process short, low, comparable to that of P. haasti. Length of holotype, 39 mm. ; breadth, 33 mm. ; thickness, 21-5 mm.
This species differs from P. haasti in the ovate outline, and from P. 2)arl:i in the less advanced folding and cardinal process.
Type locality : Greensands of Landon Creek, near Oamaru. The species is common in most of the Hutchinsonian localities near Oamaru — e.g. Rifle Butts,. Three Roads, Kakanui, All Day Bay, and Deborah — but is rare at Hutchinson's Quarry. It also occurs in the Ngapara limestone, and one specimen is known from the Maerewhenua greensands (loc. 179, A. McKay). It occurs fairly commonly in the main Mount Brown lime- stone, while a single specimen has been obtained from the uppermost Mount Brown limestone.
There is a further species from the main limestone which differs from P. hectori chiefly in being narrowly and not broadly ovate. Unfortunately none of the dozen specimens which I have collected are sufficiently well preserved to serve as a type.
378 Transactions.
Pachymagas parki (Hutt.). (Fig. 9; Plate XXV, figs. 8-11.)
1905. Magellania parJci Hutt., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 476, pi. xlv, fig. 4.
1915. Pachymagas parki Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, • pp. 394-95, fig. 2, b (but not fig. 2, a). The holotype (fig. 9) is a distinctly ovate form, but the majority of specimens from the type locality have a similar broad but less curved hinge-line, and the sides are less convex. The front is produced as a narrow tongue. The beak is short and obtuse. The valves are moderately convex, the ventral with a longitudinal fold which is rounded and obscurely limited posteriorly, but anteriorly is more pronounced, flattened on top^ and sharply limited laterally ; the dorsal valve is sulcate anteriorly and sharply reflected to fit into the notch in the ventral valve ; the anterior commissure shows a fairly narrow, deep, flat-bottomed sinuation. A single specimen is known in which incipient ventral biplication is shown, the anterior commissure presenting the form of a W with rounded angles. The beak is erect^ not produced much beyond the hinge-line, with a moderately large, mesothyrid, attrite foramen.
Fig. 9.— Pachymagas parki (Kntt.). Holotype. Natural size.
The cardinalia were described and figured by me in 1915. Attention may be drawn to the prominent cardinal process, which is about half the length of the hinge-trough, higher than the socket-ridges, and somewhat swollen in front. Length of holotype, 37 mm. ; breadth, 29 mm. ; thick- ness, 17 mm.
Type locality : Greensands, Hutchinson's Quarry, Oamaru. Restricted as above to strongly folded forms, the species is known only from the type locality (where it is common), the tuffs of Whitewater Creek, Trelissick Basin (a single specimen collected by McKay), and the main Mount Brown limestone (where it is not very common). Two closely related species have been differentiated — viz., P. McKayi and P. morgani.
Pachymagas McKayi* n. sp. (Plate XXVII, figs. 1-3.)
Shell ovate, beak fairly long, hinge-line moderately broad, strongly curved, sides convex and regularly rounded, front somewhat produced. Valves strongly convex, especially the ventral ; folding similar to P. parki,
* Named after the late Mr. A. McKay. The International Rules demand that, for a genitive, to the exact and complete name of a male an "i" should be added. The New Zealand Geological Survey, following Hutton, have generally adopted the permissible practice of commencing such names with a small initial letter, but this case shows the disadvantage of this procedure.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass Disfricf . 379
but hardly so pronounced. Beak produced well beyond the hinge -line, erect, foramen large, mesothyrid. attrite. Length of holotype, 44 mm. ; breadth, 34mra. ; thickness, 25-5 mm.
This species, though somewhat less folded than P. parki, is more convex, and has a more prorhinent beak both as regards length and production dorsally of the hirige-line^
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. The species is common in this limestone, and is unknown elsewhere.
Imperfect specimens, believed to belong to this species, from the main limestone between Mount Brown and the road, have a cardinal process more prominent even than that of P. parki and comparable to that of Neothyris ovalis.
Pachymagas morgani n. sp. (Plate XXVII, figs. 4-6.)
Shell broadly ovate, beak moderately short, hinge-line narrow, not much curved, sides convex and rounded, tapering to a rather narrow produced front. Valves moderately convex, the dorsal with a narrow, shallow, median sulcus from about the middle, ventral with a broad rounded longitudinal fold a'nd flattened sides, anterior commissure sloping on each side to a moderately deep, rather narrow, flat-bottomed sinuation. Beak suberect, not much produced dorsally of the ventral valve, foramen fairly large, mesothyrid, attrite. Length of holotype, 47 mm. ; breadth, 41 mm. ; thickness, 24 mm.
This species is less strongly folded than P. parki, and has a narrower hinge-line and more convex sides. It difiers from P. hectori in its narrower and more produced front, due to' narrower folding. The cardinalia are imknown.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass, where it is moderately abundant. It is unknown outside the Waipara district.
Pachymagas coxi n. sp. (Plate XXVI, figs. 10-12.)
Shell roundly ovate, beak of moderate length, hinge-line moderately broad and curved, sides convex and regularly rounded, front rounded. Valves moderately convex, anterior commissure with a broad, shallow, flat- bottomed sinuation. Beak suberect, hardly produced dorsally of the hinge- line, foramen large rela,tively to the size of the shell, mesothyrid, attrite. Interior unknown. Length of holotype, 33 mm.; breadth, 29*5 mm. ; thickness, 17 mm.
This species, though smaller, agrees nearly in proportions of length and breadth with P. morgani, but has a more rounded front and broader folding. In these characters it agrees more nearly with P. hectori, but is broader, attains its greatest breadth nearer to the hinge-line, and is less convex.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. The species is fairly rare in the Mount Brown limestone, and has not been identified outside the district.
' Pachymagas huttoni Series.
Pachymagas huttoni Thomson. (Plate XXVI, figs. 7-9.)
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47,a915, pp. 395, 403, fig. 2, c. This species has already been described, but the holotype has not been figured, an omission I now rectify.
380 Transactions.
A single specimen from the WeJca Pass stone at Onepmiga, though only 22 mm. in length, agrees closely in all external characters with the holotype, and^ moreover, possesses the same fine texture of shell and the pale purplish- brown colour which seems to be characteristic of this species. In the orginal description the shell was described as suborbicular, but it is slightly more elongate than this, and perhaps more correctly described as broadly ovate.
P. huttoni occurs commonly in the Waitaki limestone at Maerewhenua and Ngapara, and is also known from the greensands at the base of the Maerewhenua limestone and the greensands overlying the Wharekuri lime- stone.
Pachymagqs andrewi Series.
Pachymagas andrewi n. sp. (Plate XXVI, figs. 1, 2.)
Shell broadly ovate, beak short, acute, hinge-line narrow, acute, sides convex and rounded, front slightly produced, rounded. Valves moderately convex, ventral valve with a broad rounded fold and slightly flattened sides, dorsal valve reflected anteriorly, anterior commissure with a broad, fairly deep ventral sinuation, not completely flattened along the bottom. Beak erect, slightly produced dorsally of the hinge-line, foramen small, mesothyrid, attrite. Cardinal process large and swollen, comparable to that of Neothyris ovalis. Length of holotype, 46 mm. ; breadth, 44 mm. ; thickness, 21 mm. (estimated). The ventral valve of the holotype is damaged, but the folding of this valve is well shown on a paratype.
This species differs from all the preceding in the smallness of the fora- men. It may conceivably belong to Neothyris and not Pachymagas. It differs from P. huttoni in the absence of the carination of the beak. In its small foramen it agrees with Terebratella lahillei Ihering, a species com- pared by its author with Pachymagas venter, and perhaps a member of that series, but it is more elongate and broadly oval instead of suborbicular.
Type locality : Creamy calcareous sandstone immediately succeeding the main Mount Brown limestone, foot of dip-slope of the latter, Weka Pass. The species is rare in the type locality, and not recognized elsewhere.
Genus Waiparia n. gen. Genotype, Pachymagas abnormis Thomson.
A genus of the Terebratellidae with a septum showing the remains of transverse bands, and therefore presumably with a loop of the Terebratelli- form pattern. Rostrum subapicate, foramen submesothyrid, having just left the hypothyrid position, deltidial plates conjunct — i.e., united between the foramen and the dorsal umbo. In these characters the genus differs from Pachymagas and Terebratella, in which the rostrum is trmicate and the foramen mesothyrid. Cardinalia simil^'r to those of young specimens and primitive species of Pachymagas, with strong socket-ridges but a slender septum, a hinge-trough with flatly inclined walls and a small cardinal process confined to the umbo. The bifurcations of the septum forming the anterior walls of the hinge-trough overhang slightly outwards, and are thus more excavate than is usual in Pachymagas, but much less so than the hinge- plates of Terebratella. The teeth of the ventral valve rise from swollen bases as in Pachymagas.
This genus may be considered as springing from the same stock as Pachy- magas, but lagging behind in foraminal evolution. It possibly gave rise directly to Pachymagas of the type of P. ellipticus, which possesses a fora- men which is submesothyrid but almost mesothryid.
Tkans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XXVI.
Figs. 1, 2. — Pachymagas anchewi n. sp. Fms. 10, 11, 12. — Pachymmjns coxi n. sp.
Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6. — Pacln/niaga.t clarkei n. sp. Figs. 13, 14, IJ. — Waiparia intermedia n. sp Figs. 7, S, 9. — Pachymagas huttoni Thomson. Figs. 16, 17, 18. — Waiparia nbnonnis n. sji.
(All slightly reduced. )
Face p. 380.]
Trans. N.Z. Tnst., Vol. LTI.
Plate XXVII.
^:
"^"^^^s^^.
8
Figs I 2. 3. -Pachymagas McKayi n. sp. Figs. 4, 5, d.—Pachymagas morgani n. sp.
Figs. 7, 8, 9.~Neothyris anrejis n. sp. (All slightly reduced )
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and. Weka Pass District. 381
Waiparia abnormis (Thomson). (Plate XXVI, figs. 16-18.)
1917. Pachymagas abnormis Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 412. This species, which I described in 1915, is characterized by its broad hinge-line and form only slightly more elongate than suborbicular.
Type locality : Sands interbedded with main Mount Brown limestone,
cuesta overlooking the Weka Pass. It is also found in the top layers of
the same limestone at the foot of 'the dip-slope, attaining here a length of
32 mm. with a breadth of 31mm. It also occurs at Whatatutu (E. de C.
^Clarke coll.), and in the Awamoan mudstones of All Day Bay.
Waiparia intermedia n. sp. (Plate XXVI, figs. 13-15.)
Shell broadly ovate, beak of moderate length, acute, hinge-line mode- rately broad, somewhat curved, sides convex and regularly rounded, front slightly produced. Valves moderately convex, the ventral longitudinally carinate, the carina flattened anteriorly, dorsal valve anteriorly reflected and with a slight anterior sulcus. Beak erect, slightly produced dorsally of the hinge-line, foramen moderately large, submesothyrid, deltidial plates conjunct. Length of holotype, 31-5 mm. ; breadth, 28-5 mm. ; thickness, 16 mm.
This species is more elongate than the former, the two being about equally folded.
Type locality : Foot of dip-slope, main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass. The species is fairly common in this locality, some of the shells being rather more convex and more strongly folded than the holotype. It also occurs in flattened specimens in the Awamoan mudstones. of All Day Bay, the Waikouaiti sandstone, and the Wharekuri greensand (McKay). There are forms still more elongate found in the greensand and mudstones of All Day Bay, and in mudstones at the junction of the Brown River with the Aorere River, Nelson. For these a further species must be set up.
Genus Neothyris Douville.
Neothyris campbellica (Filhol).
1885. Waldheimia campbellica Filhol, Mission de Visle Campbell, pp. 173-74, fig. 7, Nos. 1, 2.
This species was distinguished by its author from N. lenticidaris on account of its narrower shell and more detached beak. The shell is oval with a strongly curved hinge-line, the beak passing into the sides without an angle. The beak is considerably produced dorsally of the hinge-line, but is erect and not incurved towards the dorsal valve.
As thus defined from topotypes, the species is common in the Wanganuian. There is one specimen from the uppermost Mount Brown limestone which must be referred here.
Neothyris ovalis (Hutt.).
1873. Waldheimia lenticidaris Hutt., Cat. Terf. Moll. Eeh., p. 3^
(not of Deshayes). 1886., Waldheimia ovalis Hutt., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, p. 335. 1905. Magellania lenticularis ovalis Hutt., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37,
p. 475, pi. xlv, fig. 2. 1915. Neothyris ovalis Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 47, p. 395,
fig. 2, d, e.
382 Transactions.
This species was distinguished by its author from A^. lenticularis for much the same reason as in the case of N. camphellica — viz., the narrower shell — but it may be distinguished from the latter by its broader and less curved hinge -line, the sides making an obtuse angle with the beak. The beak is less produced dorsally of the hinge-line and is erect, with a foramen rather larger than that of N. campbellica and iV. lenticularis.
As thus defined the species is common in the Wanganuian, and there are several specimens from the uppermost Mount Brown limestone which may be referred here.
St Neothyris novara Iher. -
1864. Waldheimia lenticularis Suess, Reise der " Novara," Geol. Th., bd. 1, abth. 2, p. 56, taf. x, figs. 3a, ia, 46 (not of Deshayes). 1903. Magellania novara Iher., Ann. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires,
ser. 3a, t. 2, p. 326. 1905. Magellania novara Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, p. 475,
pi. xlv, fig. 3. 1907. Magellania Amegkinoi Iher., Ann. Mas. Nac. Buenos Aires, ser. 3a, t. 7., p. 472 (not of Ihering, 1903). As Ihering appears to have had before him at the^ time of naming this only the description and figures of Suess, the specimens treated by Suess must be regarded as the syn types. - Of these I select the specimen from Motupipi (fig. 4a, 4&) as the lectotype. This agrees with Button's inter- pretation of the species. Ihering in 1907 united the species with his Magellania Ameghinoi, but since, the thickness of the latter is stated never to exceed half the length, whereas in N. novara it is always more than half, the two may be easily distinguished.
The species is broadly oval like N. lenticularis, but has a much straighter hinge-line. In the lectotype, and in a few specimens from the Weka Pass, the sides make no angle with the beak; but in the majority of the specimens from the Weka Pass, and also in others from the Takaka limestone, the sides are less convex and make an obtuse angle with the beak. The species is common in the uppermost Mount Brown limestone.
Neothyris iheringi n. sp. (Plate XXV, figs. 1-3.)
Shell broadly oval, beak fairly long, acute, hinge-line long and sharply curved, sides convex, meetmg the beak and the rounded front without an angle. Shell moderately convex, folding slight. Beak considerably pro- duced dorsally of the hinge-line, erect and well detached from the hinge- line, foramen small, mesothyrid, attrite. Length of holotype, 49-5 mm. ; breadth, 44 mm.; thickness, 28-5 mm.
This species differs from N. novara and agrees with N. lenticularis in the strong curvature of the hinge-line. It is distinguished by the detach- ment of the beak from the latter, in which the beak is incurved towards the dorsal valve.
Type locality : Uppermost Mount Brown limestone (E), Weka Pass. The species is fairly abundant ia this locality, and is unknown elsewhere.
Neothyris anceps n. sp. (Plate XXVII, figs. 7-9.)
Shell ovate, beak large, obtuse, hinge-line rather narrow, strongly curved, sides convex and rounded, greatest breadth anterior to the middle, front
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District, 383
slightly produced. Valves moderately and regularly convex, folding very slight. Beak suberect, not produced dorsally of the hinge-line, foramen very large, mesothyrid, attrite, deltidial plates striate parallel to the hinge- line. The septum shows no sign of transverse bands, so that the loop is presumably Magellaniform. The cardinal process is of a primitive type, confined to the posterior part of the hinge-trough. Length of holotype, 53 mm. ; breadth, 42 mm. ; thickness, 27 mm.
The species is easily distinguished from other Neothyris by the size of the foramen.
Type locality : Creamy calcareous sandstone immediately following the main Mount Brown limestone, Weka Pass, where it is common.
Genus Stethothyris Thomson.
Stethothyris sufflata (Tate).
1880. Waldheimia (?) sufflata Tate, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austral., vol. 3, pp. 157-58, pi. vii, fig. 3; pi. viii, fig. 4.
1885. Magellania sufflata Hutt., Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41, p. 558.
1889. Magellania sufflata Tate, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austral., vol. 23, p. 253.
1905. Magellania siifflata Hutt., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, pp. 476-77.
Specimens from the uppermost Momit Brown limestone (E), thoiigh showing considerable variation, agree ciosely enough externally with the Australian species in shape, convexity, and folding, and in the incurvature of the beak. In the last character senile individuals often show a beak touching the dorsal valve, so that the pedicle must have atrophied.* The cardinalia are characterized especially by the flattening of the ventral surface of the socket-ridges anteriorly, the production of the crural bases into the hinge-trough (seen in young specimens), and the swollen nature anteriorly of the cardinal process, which, though large, is not very high.
The characters of the beak and cardinal process suggest derivation from a stock of considerable antiquity, and forbid its ascription to Neothyris, which only appeared at this stage and did not attain similar characters until a much later period in Neothyris lenticularis. The characters of the cardinalia are not inconsistent with derivation from those of Stethothyris uttleyi, and the shell shows the early sulcation of the dorsal valve exhibited by ;S. pectoralis, so that the species seems best placed in Stethothyris.
The species is common from the creamy calcareous sandstone following the main Mount Brown limestone at the Weka Pass to the top of the uppermost limestone, and is unknown elsewhere in New Zealand.
PAET III.— CORRELATIONS AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE
NOTOCENE.
CLARENTIAN. *
No beds belonging to this .division of the Notocene have been fomid in the district, nor in the North Canterbury area. In this it differs from east Marlborough, where the Amuri limestone is underlain by a great thickness of Clarentian beds (c/. Thomson, 1919a).
* Cf. BucKMAN, Pal. Ind., n.s., vol. 3, mem. 2, p. 17, 1917.
384 Transactions.
PIRIPAUAN.
The complete fauna recorded from the Ostrea beds is as follows : Nemodon (?) sp., "Area" hectori Woods, Cucullaea sp., Trigonia hanetiana d'Orb, Ostrea sp. cf. dichotoma Bayle, Pecteyi (Camptonectes) hectori Woods, Cardium sp., Pugnellus waiparensis Trechmann, and a rhynchonellid. Of these, Trigonia hanetiana and Pecten hectori are found also in the calcareous conglomerate and black grit respectively of Amuri Blufi and in the Ostrea bed of the Malvern Hills, and Ostrea sp. cf. dichotoma occurs also in the Ostrea bed of the Malvern Hills. Woods considers that the Trigonia and Pecten indicate that the Ostrea bed belongs to the horizon of the Amuri series of Amuri Bluff, and is equivalent to the Ostrea bed of the Malvern Hills.
The Ostrea bed of the Trelissick Basin contains Ostrea sp. and Inoceramus sp., which have not yet been obtained in specifically determinable specimens, and also a small rhynchonellid, as yet undescribed, which is specifically identical with one found in the Ostrea bed of the Malvern Hills. It may, therefore, be also correlated with the Ostrea bed of the Waipara.
Ostrea beds of similar stratigraphical position and presumably of the same age are known from the upper Motunau Kiver (McKay, 1881), from the Mount Cass Range,* and from the Harper River (Speight, 1917b). There must be other correlative beds in the area between Motunau and Amuri Bluft', but they have not been described in such a way that they can be identified and correlated.
Woods (1917) states that the fossils of the Amuri group of Amuri Bluff include only a few forms identical with species found in other parts of the world, but- these and the affinities of the other species show that the fauna is of the Indo-Pacific type, and is of Upper Senonian age. Of the Waipara species, Trigonia hanetiana is one of the characteristic species of the Quiri- quina beds of Chile, while the Ostrea is similar to a species found in the Senonian of other regions.
The complete saurian fauna from the " saurian beds " and Waipara greensands of the Waipara is as follows : Platecarpus oweni (Hector), Cimoliosanrus australis (Owen), C. hoodi (Owen), C. holmesi (Hector), C. haasti (Hector), C. caudalis Hutt., and Leiodon haumuriensis Hector. The " saurian beds " of Amuri Bluff contain an almost identical assernblage, concerning which Dr. C. W. Andrews has stated, according to Woods (1917), that it indicates an horizon near the top of the Cretaceous, and that it is very similar to the reptilian fauna of the Niobrara chalk of the United States, which is of Senonian age.
The fish-remaims from the " saurian beds " comprise Scapanorhyuhcus suhulatus (Ag.), a species ranging from Albian to Danian ; Odontaspis incurva (Davis), found also in the Tertiary of New Zealand and Australia ; and vertebrae of Lamna (?).
The Mollusca of the "saurian beds" include Malletia (Neilo) cymhida, which resembles M. pencana (Philippi) from the Quiriquina beds ; Trigonia waiparensis Woods, comparable in ornament with T. parva Briiggen from the Senonian of north Peru, and with T. crenifera Stoliczka from the Ariyaliir group, of southern India ; and Thracia sp. None of these species has been found at Amuri Bluff or the Malvern Hills. The gasteropods from the Waipara have not yet been described.
The " saurian beds " and Waipara greensands are without doubt correla- tive with the similar beds of Amuri Bluff. Saurians are also known from the
* IJ. Speight, personal communication.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 385
iieighbourliood of Greenhills, Gore Bay, the Jed River, and the upper Motunau, and a single bone has been obtained from the Malvern Hills in the concretionary beds above the Selwyn Rapids beds.
All the aboye beds which are correlatives of the Piripauan of the Waipara occur in the area between the Rakaia River and Kaikoura Peninsula, and in all these localities, except in the Malvern Hills, the Amuri limestone is found above the Piripauan. The only other beds of the same age in the South Island are those of Shag Point, doubtfully referred here. The fossils are poorly preserved, but they appear to include a Trigonia allied to T. pseudocundata, Hector and Pugnellus marslialli Trechmann.
In the North Island, Piripauan beds may occur in the east coast of Wellington Province and in the Gisborne district, but further exploration is wanted in these regions. In the North Auckland district there is a limestone somewhat similar to the Amuri limestone — viz., the hydraulic limestone — and it is imderlain in the Kaipara district by mudstones, greensands, and brown sandstones, yielding ammonites and other molluscs, and a saurian bone. Marshall (1917b) described two species of ammonites as Kossmaticeras with Senonian affinities, a third as Lytoceras sp. with Utatur affinities, an Oamaruian mollusc {Panope worthingtoni Hutt.) identified by Suter, and a cast of Phacoides (Here) sp., a genus which did not live before the Eocene according to Cossman ; and, moreover, he considered that the beds containing this fauna rest upon a Miocene limestone. Comment seems almost unnecessary. Woods has made it clear that the Clarentian and Piri- pauan faunas of Marlborough and Canterbury are typical Cretaceous faunas without any intermixture of Tertiary species. The probabilities seem to be that Piripauan beds are present in the Kaipara district, and that the Oamaruian Gibraltar limestone is faulted down, and does not really underlie the Piripauan. Panope worthingtoni Hutton is one of the species of which the type was missing when Suter redefined the Tertiary Mollusca, but Marshall's figure agrees very closely with Woods's figure of Panojoe clausa Wilckens from Amuri Blufi. The affinities of the specimens classed as Lytoceras sp. and Phacoides {Here) sp. may be neglected until better speci- mens are available, since neither retained the external ornament.
The hydraulic limestone also occurs in the Whangarei district, and Piripauan beds are also to be expected here, but no distinctive fossils have yet been found.
KAITANGATAN-AMURI LIMESTONE. ,
The reasons for which I have correlated the Amuri limestone with the Kaitangatan are that the Wangaloa beds of the Kaitangatan contain a fauna intermediate between those of the Piripauan and the Oamaruian, while the Amuri limestone occupies a stratigTaphical position between Piripauan and Oamaruian. No common species have yet been described. Trechmann (1917) considers, on the evidence of the Mollusca, that the Wangaloa beds "should apparently be of Maestrichtian age." Chapman, on the evidence of the fish-remains and Foraminifera, considers the Amuri limestone of Danian age.
In 1916^ I stated my conviction that the Amuri limestone is in itself a Cretaceo-Tertiary rock, Cretaceous at the base and Tertiary at the top, the reason for the latter statement being the occurrence in the Amuri limestone of the Trelissick Basin of an Oamaruian fauna in a tuS band 10 ft. from the top of the limestone. The rock I termed the Amuri limestone in the Trelissick Basin has the same stratigraphical position — i.e., it lies above rocks with a Senonian fauna, and underlies rocks with an Oamaruian fauna —
13— Trans.
386 Transactions
and, althougli it is usually more marly than the Amuri limestone of the coastal district, it is in places quite indistinguishable lithologically from it. Speight (1917a) has accepted this correlation. Now, however, from an examination of Foraminifera from two localities, Mr. Chapman considers that it is "probably Eocene." If this view is confirmed, it certainly demands an unconformity between this rock and the underlying Piripauan beds — an unconformity of which Speight was unable to find any trace. Nevertheless, in view of Chapman's correlation, it is unsafe to take into accoimt the molluscan fauna referred to above in attempting to correlate the Amuri limestone of the Waipara or Amuri Bluff.
Chapman's identifications of the Foraminifera make it quite clear, how- ever, that Marshall's correlation of the Amuri limestone with the Ototara limestone is mistaken. On the basis of the Foraminifera Chapman declares the Amuri limestone Danian, and the Weka Pass stone and " grey marls " Eocene. On the same basis Marshall declares the Ototara limestone Miocene. The correlative of the Ototara limestone in the Waipara section must, then, lie above the " grey marls," and this accords well enough with the evidence, to be discussed later, from the molluscs and brachiopods.
Outside the area north of the Rakaia River there is no limestone in the South Island that can be correlated with the Amuri limestone. It appears, however, to be present in east Wellington, and to be represented in North Auckland by the hydraulic limestone of the Kaipara and Whangarei dis- tricts. Marshall (1919) has remarked that I have objected to this correla- tion ; but what I objected to in 1917 was his correlation of the Whangarei polyzoan limestone with the Amuri limestone by first correlating the Wha- ngarei polyzoan and hydraulic limestone. I merely pointed out— and it is still true — that no palaeontological or stratigraphical evidence has been presented for the correlation of the Anauri limestone and the hydraulic limestone of the Whangarei district. Marshall the same year supplied the evidence so far as the hydraulic limestone of the Kaipara was concerned, and there is no reason to doubt that the hydraulic limestone of the two regions is the same. I do not agree, however, that the Whangarei poly- zoan limestone is of the same age or older, any more than is the limestone of Gibraltar Rocks, in the Kaipara district. I have observed Oamaruian mollusca below the polyzoan limestone of Horahora, and have little doubt that both it and the Gibraltar Rocks limestone are Oamaruian. The geological survey of this district, however, which is at present in progress, will doubtless settle this point.
OAMARUIAN.
The age of the Oamaruian has been commonly accepted as Miocene for some years, very largely on accoimt of Chapnlan's determination of the Foraminifera of Waikouaiti Head, and his demonstration of the Miocene age of the older Tertiaries of Australia. Having never been willing to admit that the contact of the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone, though doubtless a disconformity, could bridge the gap between Cretaceous and Miocene, I formed the opinion -either that the Amuri limestone must include the Eocene or that the Oamaruian ranged down from Miocene to , Eocene ; and a large part of my explorations for several years past have been directed to obtaining direct evidence of the age of the Amuri lime- stone, and to ascertaining the faima of the lower members of the Oamaruian. In 1915 I endeavoured to show that the beds at Waikouaiti from which the Foraminifera described by Chapman as Miocene were obtained were upper Oamaruian. There can be no doubt from the lists of fossils I have quoted
THO-Also^■. — Geology of Middle Waipara and WeJca Pa.is Dififn'rf. 387
earlier in this paper that the Weka Pass stone and " grey marls," as well as the Mount Brown beds, are Oamaruian ; and, as Chapman refers the Weka Pass stone and " grey marls " to the Eocene, it follows that the Oamaruian ranges from Eocene to Miocene. The contact between the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone is a disconformity, but bridges only the gap between Danian and Eocene.
Former geologists, notably Huttdn and Park, have correlated the Weka Pass stone with the Ototara limestone, believing the lower Oamaruian beds to be missing. Marshall, on the other hand, has correlated it with the Hutchinsonian. The evidence of the Foraminifera suggests that it cor- relates rather with the Ngaparan and Waiarekan. The evidence of the molluscs is indecisive ; that of the brachiopods, on the other hand, is prac- tical proof that the main Mount Brown limestone (D) is Hutchinsonian and the uppermost MouJit Brown limestone (E) Awamoan, leaving all the 800 ft. of lower beds, down to the Weka Pass greensand, for the Ototaran and Waiarekan.
Some remarks on the relative value of the Mollusca and Brachiopoda in correlation seem desirable in view of the recently expressed opinion of Marshall (1919) that the latter are far less satisfactory for purposes of correlation, the reasons being that they occur sporadically and in a small number of species as compared with the Mollusca, and that the species are hard to identify with certainty. The first is a valid objection, and is well illustrated in the Mount Brown beds, which are rich in Brachiopoda and yet have yielded only four specimens of Terebrahdma and none of. Lio- thyrella, genera which are abundant in the Trelissick Basin and at Oamaru. Nevertheless, the Brachiopoda are sufficiently widespread to enable their range to be established with a considerable degree of certainty, and it is illogical to neglect them if they are present in any rock and can be used. The small number of species is an advantage in one respect : it enables a single man to know the whole fauna intimately, and to apply to the whole of it every known method of study. This- is not the case with the moUuscan fauna, of six hmidred or eight hundred species ; and we can never expect entirely satisfactory results until we have students confining themselves to a few families, and studying these not from the point of view of New Zea- land Tertiary species5 alone, but making themselves familiar with all the species, both living and fossil, in all parts of the world.
One marked difference between the Oamaruian brachiopod and mol- luscan faunas is that the former is practically an extinct fauna, not sur- viving the Oamaruian, except for a very small percentage, whereas the latter shows a very much greater percentage of living species. The brachio- pods, therefore, would be expected to be of the greater value in correlation.
The chief disadvantages of the Tertiary moUuscan fauna are the great range of the majority of the species and the different facies of the fauna according to station, which makes it a matter of gTeat difficulty to ascer- tain accurately the range of any given species. Until this is known it is, of course, obvious that the occurrence of a species in a list gives little help. Marshall (1919) has given a list of characteristic species from his different series, 1)ut many of these species range widely in higher or lower series. Thus, of the Nukumaru series, Suter has determined Melina zelandica from the Waiarekan of the Oamaru district, and Marshall himself has recorded Struthiolaria Jrazeri from the Wangaloa beds. Of the Waipipi series, Car- dium spatiosum is known from the Awamoan of Oamaru and the Trelissick Basin. Of the Target Gully series, Venericardia j^seutes and Terehra orycfa range from Waiarekan to Awamoan, while Chama htittoni occurs in the
1.3*
388 Transactions.
Wanganuian of Castle Point. Of the Ototara series, Ostrea nelsoniana ranges from Waiarekan to Waitotaran, and Lima laevigata from Waiarekan to Hutchinsonian. Of tlie Wliarekuri series, Exilia dalli has one record from the Waiarekan and three from the Awamoan, while PoUnices huttoni has three from the Waiarekan and seven from the Awamoan. The above ranges are from my analysis of the Oamaruian fauna of Oamaru and South Canter- bury described below.
In reply to the charge of neglecting the large amoimt of palaeontological knowledge we already have, I can but point to the above statements, which show that it is very dangerous to generalize on our existing knowledge, and which justify my caution. It seems to me that two lines of advance are open. One is the more detailed study of the species on evolutionary lines (such as I have been attempting in the brachiopods and limpets) with a view to defining valid species of limited range, and to arrangmg the species in an evolutionary order. Cossman's and Murdoch's criticisms of Suter's identifications illustrate the possibilities, but the best results can be expected only from an evolutionary study. The othei: is a careful, and detailed analysis of the available lists with a view to discovering the range of the species as at present defined.
The procedure which promises the best results depends on the delimita- tion in New Zealand of stratigraphical or diastrophic provinces within the bounds of each of which the various rocks of given age are strati- graphically similar and can be correlated without further demur. One such district, in which none but Oamaruian marine rocks are develop«l, ranges from Oamaru to Mount Somers. The sequence is everywhere — coal-beds, sands, greensands, limestones, mudstones, and sands — except for some differences at Oamaru and Mount Somers due to the development of volcanic rocks.
Marshall has stated that endless confusion would be caused by attempts to place the various beds near Oamaru in the stages as defined by me. If this is the case in a district so simple as Oamaru, a district " midisturbed by any minor stratigraphic movements," and one on which Marshall is prepared to base the whole classification of the Notocene, then we may as well give up all detailed stratigraphy in New Zealand. Neither Park nor Uttley has encountered this endless confusion, but both have greatly increased our knowledge of the district by attempts to place the beds in the various stages. While it is not denied that there are difficulties, these are difficulties that exist in the nature of things, and not because of the adoption of certain stages, although the use of the latter has called attention to them, and will probably hasten their solution.
Taking the limestones as Ototaran [pace Park), we have the under- lying rocks Waiarekan* and the overlying rocks Awamoan, the Hutchin- sonian being mostly difficult of recognition, and perhaps included in the upper of the two limestones that are usually to be distinguished outside Oamaru. Within this province there are. numerous localities from which lists of fossils have been published, and in addition Mr. Suter determined all the old Geological Survey collections and also further collections made by me. These lists are as yet unpublished, but the Director of the Geological Survey has kindly given me access to them. I have divided the province into the geographical districts of Oamaru, Waitaki Valley, Waihao, Pareora, and Kakahu, and have plotted each occurrence in such a way that for each stage I have retained a record of how many districts and how many localities
* I have not taken into account Park's Bortonian, because in the type locahty for this stage the fossils are practically all casts.
o
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 389
within eacli district a given species has been collected from. Part of this analysis, applying to the species from the Waipara - Weka Pass district, is given below in Table V.
One immediate advantage of such a list is that it shows clearly which species are based on single or few records, suggesting, in such cases as that, for example, where a Recent species is recorded from the Waiarekan and no higher stage, that the specimens are in need of critical re-examination before this evidence for the range of the species can be fully admitted.
A striking feature of the lists is the number of species which range throughout the Oamaruian, and the comparatively few, except in the case of the Awamoan, which are confined to a single stage. The reason for the latter is that the majority of the good fossil-localities are Awamoan — viz., Awamoa, Target Grully, Ardgowan, Otiake, Pukeuri, Mount Harris, Blue- cliffs, Pareora River, White Rock River, Holme Station, Sutherland's, and Kakahu River. The only large lists from the Waiarekan are from Black Point (where the fossils are nearly all casts), Wharekuri, Waihao greensands, and Kakahu coal-beds. I directed most of my collecting to Waiarekan localities, in order to redress the balance ; but the results are still scanty compared with the Awamoan, and as a result the use of the analysis for comparison of fresh lists will tend to favour correlation with the Awamoan, as will be seen below.
The percentages of Recent species in the total faunas of the province may be estimated in two ways — viz., by actual records, or by implication : i.e., if a species in the Waiarekan is also known from the Awamoan or Recent it may be credited to the mtermediate rocks. The numbers of species and percentages of Recent species are as follows : By actual records — Waiarekan, 221 (Recent, 56 = 25 per cent.) ; Ototaran, 90 (Recent, 28 = 31 per cent.) ; Hutchinsonian, 97 (Recent, 36 = 37 per cent.) ; Awamoan, 336 (Recent, 113 = 34 per cent.) : by implication — Ototaran, 178 (Recent, 69 = 39 per cent.) ; Hutchinsonian, 207 (Recent, 82 = 40 per cent.) ; Awamoan, 347 (Receilt, 137 = 39 per cent.). It is to be expected that when the collections from the lower stages are as exhaustive as those from the Awamoan the percentages obtained by the two methods will approach one another more nearly, and also that there will be a regular increase from the Waiarekan to the Awamoan. It would be premature to assume that there had been a sudden introduction of new forms in the Awamoan, although that is the actual suggestion of the lists.
To ascertain the evidence presented by a fresh list from any locality, the best method appears to be to calculate the percentages of records in each stage of the species in the new list. A somewhat similar method was used by Marshall in 1919. If the analysed list is extended to include the stages older and yoimger than the Oamaruian, then for any given fresh list a series of percentages for each stage may be calculated which will rise to a maximum for the stage to which the list belongs. The nearer this maximum approaches 100 per cent, the higher the probability will become that the correlation is correct. The percentage of Recent species will fall into its place as only one of a series of percentages. At present, how- ever, owing to the fact that the faunas of the various stages are so incom- pletely known, and that the fuller knowledge of the Awamoan faima gives proportionately higher percentages for that stage, greater weight than will later be necessary must be attached meanwhile to the percentage of Recent species.
Applying the above method to the Wangaloa and Hampden faunas, we get the following percentages (using the method of implication) : — ■
|
Wangaloa |
Hampden |
|
Beds. |
Beds. |
|
. 51 |
42 |
|
. 39 |
39 |
|
. 35 |
32 |
|
. 35 |
30 |
|
. 35 |
32 |
|
. 8 |
9 |
390 Transactions.
Precinctive species
Waiarekan
Ototaran
Hutchinsonian
Awamoan
Recent species
The percentage of precinctive species in each of these faunas exceeds that of those ranging upwards into the Waiarekan or higher beds, and justifies Marshall's conclusion that they are both older than Oamaruian. a point upon which I had previously expressed doubt so far as the Hampden beds were concerned. The table also favours the correlation of the two faunas, although it should be noted that only six species are common to both, and these six species are all also Waiarekan.* We may therefore add the Wangaloa and Hampden lists as a fresh column to the analysed Oamaruian lists.
For stages later than the Oamaruian good lists are not available, and we must await Murdoch and Marshall's account of the Wanganui beds. For the purposes of this paper I have used the lists given by Hutton (1886) for Wanganui and Petane, supplementing them by unpublished determinations by the late Mr. H. Suter. These give a total of 219 species from Wanganui, with 80 per cent. Recent, and of 194 from Petane, with 79 per cent. Recent, and aire therefore grouped together and treated as Castlecliffian, though they may contain a few forms from a lower horizon. For the Waitotaran I have taken such published and unpublished records as were available from Waitotara and Patea, the Wairarapa limestone, the Awatere beds, and the Greta beds, omitting the two latter, however, when the correlation of the Greta beds themselves is being discussed below. Finally, I have admitted as intermediate between the Waitotaran and Awamoan the Kawa beds described by Bartrum (1919), together with the basal beds of the Palliser Bay section. The reasons for this will be given more fully below in discussing the Greta beds.
With this basis we may now attack the correlation of the beds of other localities in other diastrophic provinces. The logical procedure in such a province as that in which the Waipara district lies would be first to com- pile a similar analysis of the range of each species recorded from the Weka Pass stone, the " grey marls," the Mount Brown beds, and the Greta beds in the area within which these rocks can be recognized, and -then to com- pare the lists so obtained with the former list from Oamaru and South t'anterbury. If the correlations can be made without- reasonable doubt, a combined list will extend further our knowledge of the range of the various species, ai^d so on with the other provinces. This programme involves a great deal of further stratigraphical work and collecting throughout New Zealand, and it will be many years before it can be completely carried out. In the meantime I will show the method as applied to the species known from the district at present under discussion.
Table V gives the lists of species from the various rocks of the district, the Greta beds being also included for convenience. In these columns T signifies that the species was collected by myself, P that it is an additional species from Park's lists of 1905, and H from Hutton's lists of 1885 (b and c) and 1888. For comparison the records in the various stages, compiled as explained above, are also included, S signifying a single record, R that the species is rare (with only two or three records), C that it is common (with four or five records), A that it is abundant, and + and X one or more records.
They include Gilbertia paucisulcata (Marshall), which Mr. Suter determined in
my collections from the Waihao greensands.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weha Pass District . 391
|
Table V. — Range of Tertiary Molluscs |
FROM |
THE District. |
|||||||||||||
|
1 |
1 |
2 |
3 ' 4 ' |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
1 11 |
12 |
13 14 |
15 |
||
|
*Am,]phidesma australe (Gmel.) |
T |
S |
X |
X |
|||||||||||
|
* ventricosum (Gray) |
H |
. . |
. . |
X |
|||||||||||
|
Ampullina miocaenica Sut. |
i' |
S |
R |
, , |
. . |
||||||||||
|
suturalis (Hiitt.) |
, , |
T |
. . |
+ |
c |
R |
s |
A |
X |
, . |
|||||
|
Amusiurn zitteli (Hutt.) |
T |
. . |
. . |
. . |
s |
S |
s |
, , |
, , |
||||||
|
*Ancilla australis (Sow.) |
. . |
, , |
T |
s |
A |
X |
X |
||||||||
|
hebera (Hutt.) .. |
P |
. . |
T |
R |
A |
X |
X |
. . |
|||||||
|
* mucronata (Sow.) |
, , |
, , |
T |
s |
R |
X |
X |
||||||||
|
* novae-zelandiae (Sow.) |
. . |
T |
T |
+ |
A |
A |
X |
X |
. . |
||||||
|
jmpillata (Tate) . . |
T |
T |
R |
R |
A |
. . |
|||||||||
|
* pyramidalis (Reeve) |
T |
s |
X |
X |
|||||||||||
|
*Anomia furcata Sut. . . |
T |
. . |
. . |
. . |
, , |
, , |
|||||||||
|
* huttoni Sut. |
T |
, , |
T |
R |
s |
c |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
* trigonojisis Hutt. .... |
T |
T |
T |
R |
c |
X |
, , |
||||||||
|
Antigona sulcata (Hutt.) ... . . |
T |
S |
R |
. . |
X |
||||||||||
|
* zelandica (Gray) |
T |
. . |
A |
X |
X |
X |
|||||||||
|
*Arcopagia discidus (Dash.) |
T |
X |
X |
||||||||||||
|
Athleta huttoni pseudorarispina Sut. |
T ? |
. . |
. . |
. . |
|||||||||||
|
Aturia australis McCoy |
H |
P |
" • |
R |
S |
, , |
^ |
, , |
|||||||
|
^Barnea similis (Gray) . . |
T |
, , |
X |
X |
X |
||||||||||
|
— ■ — tiara Tate |
T |
. , |
X |
, , |
|||||||||||
|
*Calliostoma punctulatum (Mart.) |
P |
. . |
, , |
X |
X |
||||||||||
|
*Cantharidus tenebrosus A. Ad. . . |
H |
, . |
s |
S |
, , |
X |
|||||||||
|
*C'erithidea bicarinata (Gray) |
T |
X |
X |
||||||||||||
|
Cerithiella n. sjj. |
T |
. . |
. . |
. , |
, , |
||||||||||
|
Chione chiloensis (Phil.) |
T |
. . |
R |
X |
X |
||||||||||
|
meridionalis (Sow.) |
P |
T |
A |
JR |
c |
A |
X |
X |
X |
||||||
|
* stutckburyi (Gray) |
T |
T |
R |
X |
X |
||||||||||
|
* yatei (Gray) |
T |
S |
X |
X |
|||||||||||
|
*CocModesma angasi (C. & F.) . . |
' • |
i' |
S |
X |
|||||||||||
|
*Cominelta adspersa (Brug.) |
T |
. . |
X |
X |
X |
||||||||||
|
* quoyana (A. Ad.) |
T |
R |
X |
X |
|||||||||||
|
Corbi/la canaliculata Hutt. |
T |
, , |
A |
A |
. , |
, . |
|||||||||
|
Crassatellites attetvuatus (Hutt.).. |
T |
, , |
, , |
C |
X |
X |
X |
||||||||
|
* obesus (A. Ad.) . . |
P |
, , |
A |
c |
A |
, , |
, , |
||||||||
|
*Crepidula costata (Sow.) |
T |
, • |
C |
X |
X |
||||||||||
|
gregaria Sow. |
T |
T |
S |
s |
A |
X |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
* monoxyla (luess.) . . |
P |
T |
T |
. . |
S |
s |
A |
X |
X |
X |
|||||
|
striata Hutt. . . . . , |
T |
T |
, , |
s |
, , |
A |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
Cucidlaea alta Sow. |
P |
, , |
H? |
X |
_1- |
R |
s |
R |
A |
_ , |
|||||
|
var. B |
T |
, , |
S |
, , |
, , |
S |
, , |
, . |
|||||||
|
*Cymatium spengleri (Chemn.) . . |
P |
. . |
. . |
X |
X |
||||||||||
|
Dentalium mantelli Zitt. |
P |
. , |
X |
+ |
0 |
A |
s |
A |
, , |
X |
|||||
|
• solidum Hutt. |
T |
T |
T |
A |
c |
c |
A |
X |
X |
X |
|||||
|
*Diplodon zelandica (Gray) |
T |
T |
R |
s |
. . |
X |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
*Dosinia anus Phil. |
P |
. . |
. . |
, , |
, . |
X |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
* greyi Zitt. |
P |
T |
T |
X |
A |
, , |
, , |
A |
, , |
X |
X |
||||
|
* lambata (Gould) . . |
H |
. . |
. . |
. , |
R |
. . |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
magna Hutt. |
P |
. . |
S |
. . |
, . |
R |
X |
X |
• • |
||||||
|
* subrosea (Gray) . . |
T |
. . |
. . |
. , |
R |
X |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
Drillia wangawuiensis Hutt. |
H |
. . |
. , |
, , |
S |
, , |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
Ejyitonium lyratum (Zitt.) |
T |
P |
+ |
c |
C |
c |
A |
. . |
|||||||
|
rotundum. Hutt. . . |
H |
. , |
. . |
, , |
. . |
. , |
. . |
. . |
. . |
||||||
|
Euthria media (Hutt.) . . |
T ? |
. . |
, , |
s |
, . |
S |
. . |
, . |
|||||||
|
*Evarne linea (Mart.) . . |
. , |
P |
. , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
*Fusinus spiralis (A. Ad.) |
. , |
H |
. . |
. . |
. • |
A |
. . |
X |
X |
||||||
|
Galeodea senex (Hutt.) |
H |
P |
T |
, , |
+ |
s |
s |
s |
A |
X |
X |
, , |
|||
|
sulcata (Hutt.) . . |
, . |
T |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
X |
, , |
|||||
|
*Gari lineolata Gray |
, , |
P |
. . |
T |
A |
s |
s |
A |
X |
X |
X |
||||
|
Glycymeris cordata (Hutt.) |
, , |
H |
s |
. . |
s |
R |
. . |
X |
. , |
||||||
|
■ globosa (Rntt.) .. .. |
. . |
P |
. . |
T |
s |
. . |
. . |
0 |
X |
X |
. , |
||||
|
* laticostata (Q. & G.) |
T |
R |
s |
s |
c |
X |
X |
392
Transactions.
|
Table V. — Range of Tertiary Molluscs from |
THE |
District.— |
continued. |
||||||||||||
|
\ |
1 1 2 I |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 7 |
8 |
9 |
10 |
11 |
"i |
13 |
14 |
15 |
||
|
^frltjrtjyii.pTif'i w,oflpst(i ^Anfiras^ . . |
P |
■ |
t |
1 |
Y |
||||||||||
|
Hinnites trailli Hutt. . . |
T |
S |
. . i |
..1 |
|||||||||||
|
*Ischnochiton maorianus Iredale . . |
, , |
.. |
, , |
, , |
T |
, , |
1 . . 1 |
, , |
• • 1 |
, , |
.. ..' |
||||
|
*Li)iia bullata (Born.) . . |
p |
R |
S |
S |
X |
||||||||||
|
coloratn Hutt. |
T |
T |
s |
c |
A |
X |
|||||||||
|
imitata Sut. |
T |
.. |
, , |
||||||||||||
|
■ laevigata Hutt. . . |
H |
. , |
, . |
P |
. . |
. , |
, , |
s |
S |
s |
. . |
. • |
|||
|
* • limn (1j.) |
1 |
T |
S |
Y |
|||||||||||
|
paleata Hutt. |
.. |
V |
, , |
P |
T |
, , |
, , |
R |
R |
c |
, , |
.. |
|||
|
paucisulcata Hutt. |
T |
T |
s |
R |
|||||||||||
|
*Limopsis aurita (Brocchi) |
T |
T |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
X |
A |
S |
s |
A |
||||
|
insolita fSow.^ |
P |
||||||||||||||
|
zitteli Tlier |
T |
t" |
+ |
s |
c |
A |
X |
||||||||
|
L'litraria solida Hutt. . . |
.. |
.. |
x" |
||||||||||||
|
Macrocallista assimilis (Hutt.) . . |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
P |
, , |
R |
, , |
R |
C |
, , |
X |
X |
|
|
* muUistriata (Sow.) |
', , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
. , |
P |
S |
. , |
s |
A |
, , |
X |
X |
||
|
*Mactra discors Gray . . |
, , |
, , |
. , |
, , |
, , |
P |
. .1 |
, , |
, , |
, , |
R |
X |
X |
X |
|
|
dubia (Hutt.) |
, , |
, . |
. , |
. . |
T |
, . |
, , |
. . |
R |
. . |
X |
, , |
|||
|
* Mallet ia australis (Q. & G.) |
, , |
T |
. . |
, , |
, . |
. , |
s |
, , |
R |
A |
, , |
, , |
X |
||
|
*M.angilia anioena (Smith) |
P |
R, |
Y |
||||||||||||
|
* sinclairi (E. A. Smith) |
.. |
^ , |
T |
J , |
.. |
.. |
, , |
S |
,. |
X |
X |
||||
|
*Modiolus australis (Gray) |
, , |
, , |
. , |
, , |
, , |
T |
. . |
, . |
, , |
R |
c |
X |
X |
||
|
*Musculus imjMctus (Herm.) |
, , |
. . |
. . |
, , |
. . |
T |
. . |
, . |
. . |
. . |
. , |
. . |
X |
X |
|
|
*Mytilus canaliculus Mart. |
, , |
, , |
, , |
T |
' • |
X X |
|||||||||
|
* rtiagellanicus Lamk. |
, , |
, , |
P? |
, , |
. , |
, , |
, . |
, . |
....,x |
||||||
|
*Natica australis (Hutt.) . . |
T |
H |
X |
.. s |
" |
G |
X |
X X |
Y |
||||||
|
* zelandica Q. & G. |
.. |
.. |
.. |
+ |
R |
S (A |
X |
||||||||
|
*NeotJiais succincta (Mart.) |
, . |
. , |
. , |
, . |
P |
. . |
, , |
.... |
. , |
X |
, , |
||||
|
Nucula sagittata Sut. . . |
, , |
, , |
T |
. . |
. . |
X |
S |
S ' S 1 R |
. . |
, . |
. . |
||||
|
Olivella neozelanica (Hutt.) |
, ^ |
, , |
, , |
, , |
ii |
, , |
. . |
. , |
..i S |
X |
X |
, , |
|||
|
*Ostrea anqasi Sow. |
T |
T |
T |
. . |
.. R |
X |
X |
||||||||
|
arenicola Tate |
.. |
, , |
T |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
X |
X |
|||||
|
* corrugata Hutt. . . |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
T |
, , |
c |
, , |
S |
, , |
X |
X |
||
|
gudexi Sut. |
, , |
. , |
. . |
T ? |
. , |
, , |
, , |
R |
, , |
, , |
. . |
X |
|||
|
ingens Zitt. |
, , |
, . |
, , |
. . |
T |
. . |
. , |
. . |
. . |
. . |
. . |
X |
|||
|
manubriata Tate |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, . |
T |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
X |
||||
|
nelsoniana Zitt. . . |
, , |
^ , |
, , |
T |
, , |
S |
s |
s |
S |
, , |
X |
||||
|
* tatei Sut. |
, , |
T |
, , |
s- |
, , |
, , |
s |
, , |
X |
||||||
|
wuellerstorfi Zitt |
P |
+ |
V |
||||||||||||
|
Panope orbila (Hutt.) . . |
1 |
F |
P |
V |
R, |
s |
G |
A |
Y |
||||||
|
Paphia curta (Hutt.) . . |
.. |
1 |
T |
_ , |
R |
A |
X |
X |
|||||||
|
* intermedia (Q. & G.) |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
. . |
P |
, , |
, , |
, , |
. , |
, , |
X |
X |
||
|
Pecten beethami Hutt. . . |
, , |
_ , |
T |
T |
, , |
, , |
. , |
S |
, , |
A |
S |
, , |
, , |
||
|
— — var. B |
H |
T |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
||||||
|
burnetti Zitt. |
T |
T T |
H |
s |
S |
s |
X X |
||||||||
|
crawfordi Hutt. |
|||||||||||||||
|
difluxus Hutt. . . |
.. |
||||||||||||||
|
fischeri Zitt. |
H |
, , |
■, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
. . |
, , |
R |
||||
|
hochstetteri Zitt . . |
T T |
• ' |
• ■ |
+" |
s s A |
c |
a' A |
S S A |
|||||||
|
• hutchinsoni Hutt. |
P T |
||||||||||||||
|
huttoni (Park) . . ... |
T |
T |
T |
||||||||||||
|
palmipes Tate . . |
, . |
T |
. , |
, , |
, . |
, , |
, , |
. . |
. . |
||||||
|
* • radiatus Hutt. . . |
, , |
, , |
P |
1 |
, , |
R |
S |
. , |
X |
X |
|||||
|
trijjhooki Zitt. |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
T ? |
, , |
, . |
R |
, . |
X |
X |
||||
|
williamsoni Zitt. |
H |
P |
T |
^ , |
, , |
, , |
. , |
X |
, , |
, , |
|||||
|
* zelandiae Gra'^' . . |
T T |
P |
s |
X |
X |
||||||||||
|
n. sp. . . |
' |
||||||||||||||
|
Phos incisus (Hutt.) . . |
.. |
.. |
P |
.. |
, , |
.. |
X |
, , |
|||||||
|
Placunanomia incisura Hutt. |
( * • |
, , |
T |
, , |
, , |
s |
S |
A |
; , . |
.-. |
, . |
||||
|
Pleurotomaria tertiaria McCoy . . |
H |
1 |
, , |
, , |
, , |
, , |
i ^ |
s |
. . |
. . |
, , |
. . |
|||
|
Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.) |
. . 1 . . |
. . |
P |
T |
P |
IX |
I A |
s |
R |
A |
X |
X |
Thomson.— G-'eo/o^y of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District . 393
|
Table V. — Range of Tertiary Molluscs |
FROM THE |
District— |
-continved. |
||||||||||||
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 6 |
7 |
8 |
9 1 10 11 j 12 jl3,14(15 1 1 1 1 ' ' |
||||||||
|
PoUnices ovatm (Hutt.) |
T |
R R |
R |
A |
X |
X |
X |
||||||||
|
Protocardia alata Sut. |
T |
• ■ 1 • • |
, , |
1 |
|||||||||||
|
* pulchella (Gray) |
T |
X |
R S |
R |
R |
. .\.. |
|||||||||
|
Rissoina vana (Hutt.) |
T |
. . |
S |
XI.. |
|||||||||||
|
*Seila chathamensis Sut. var. |
, , |
T |
. . 1 . . |
, , |
xl.. |
||||||||||
|
*Sigapatella novae-zelandiae (Less.) |
P |
T |
T |
R t R |
R |
A |
X |
X X |
|||||||
|
* tenuis (Gray) |
T |
. . |
. . |
C |
X X |
||||||||||
|
*Spisula aequilateralis (Desh.) . . |
T |
• • ^ ' ' |
* . . |
. . |
X |
Xj.. |
|||||||||
|
Struthiolaria cincfa Hutt. |
, , |
H |
A S |
, , |
A |
X .. |
|||||||||
|
* papulosa (Mart.) |
. . |
T |
S .. |
. . |
C |
XX |
|||||||||
|
spinosa Hect. ' . . |
'i |
, , |
, . |
1 |
, , |
S |
. . . . |
||||||||
|
tuhercidata Hutt. |
T |
, , |
, , |
R |
, , |
R |
A |
. J. . |
|||||||
|
Surcula fusifonnis Hutt. |
T |
. . |
X |
A |
s |
S |
A |
X . . |
|||||||
|
Tar on brevirostris (Hutt.) |
. .i . . |
T |
, , |
, . |
. , |
, , |
A |
• • • • |
|||||||
|
*Tellina deltoidalis Hutt. |
, , |
T |
. , |
, , |
XiX |
||||||||||
|
* eugonia Sut. |
P |
T |
R |
, , |
. . |
..'X |
|||||||||
|
*-Terebra tristis Desh. . . |
T |
R |
, , |
.. R |
X X |
||||||||||
|
Teredo heaphyi Zitt. . . |
T |
, . |
X |
A |
c |
C A |
|||||||||
|
Thracia n. sp. |
T |
, . |
• . |
• • ■ ■ |
|||||||||||
|
Trochus conious (Hutt.) |
T |
s |
. . |
X X |
|||||||||||
|
* tiaratus Q. & G. . . |
T |
, , |
. . |
C |
X X |
||||||||||
|
*Trophon corticatus (Hutt.) |
• • |
T |
" |
. . |
. . |
.. |
X!X |
||||||||
|
Turris alius (Harris) . . |
T |
. . |
, , |
. . |
A |
.... |
|||||||||
|
*Turr)tella carlottae Wats. |
T |
, , |
A |
R |
. . |
A |
X X |
||||||||
|
cavershamensis Harris |
P |
. . |
A |
, . |
A |
||||||||||
|
concava Hutt. |
T |
R |
, , |
R |
A |
||||||||||
|
* rosea Q. & G. |
P |
, . |
. , |
• • |
X X |
||||||||||
|
* symmetrica Hutt. |
H |
X |
+ |
R |
s |
C |
X |
XX |
|||||||
|
*Vmbonium. zelandicum (H. & J.) |
P |
, , |
, , |
, , |
. . |
, , |
X X |
||||||||
|
*Venericardia difficilis (Desh.) |
T |
A |
R |
s |
A |
X |
X X |
||||||||
|
* purpurata (Desh.) |
T |
T |
R |
S |
c |
A |
X |
X X |
|||||||
|
*Verconella caudata (Q. & G.) |
. , |
H |
, , |
S |
, , |
XjX |
|||||||||
|
costata (Hutt.) .. |
T |
T |
r; s |
A |
X |
. . . . |
|||||||||
|
* dilatata (Q. & G.) |
T |
T |
s |
..i R |
A |
* ■ |
XX |
||||||||
|
* mandarina (Duclos) |
. . |
T |
R |
. . . . |
S |
X;X |
|||||||||
|
* nodosa (Mart.) . . |
P |
, , |
, , |
+ |
0 |
s |
, . |
A^ |
. . X |
||||||
|
orbita (Hutt.) |
. . |
P |
. . |
. . |
X . . |
||||||||||
|
* attenuata Hutt. . . |
H |
, . |
, , |
. . |
. . |
• > * • |
|||||||||
|
Valuta arabica Mart. |
T |
T |
■ |
R |
. . |
A |
X X |
||||||||
|
corrugata Hutt. . . |
P |
, , |
T |
+ |
R |
R R |
A |
X .. |
|||||||
|
* elongata Swains. . . |
P |
. . |
. . |
. , |
• ■ ■ ■ |
A |
. . X |
||||||||
|
sp. cf. protorhysa Tate |
T |
. . |
T |
.. |
. . |
.... |
. . .-. |
||||||||
|
*Zenatia acinaces (Q. & G.) |
•• |
P |
S |
S S ■ A |
X X |
||||||||||
|
Total number of species, 166 |
19 |
9 |
8 |
45 |
43 |
95 |
|||||||||
|
Number of Recent species . . |
1 |
3 |
1 |
18 |
15 |
64 |
' |
||||||||
|
Percentage of Recent species |
5 |
33 |
m |
40 |
34 |
67 |
Column.
1. Weka Pass stohe.
2. "Grey marls."
3. Lower Mount Brown beds (below
hmestone D).
4. Main Mount Brown limestone (D).
5. Uppermost Mount Brown beds (E).
6. Greta beds.
7. Wangaloa fauna from Marshall
(1917c).
S. Hampden beds from Marshall (1919).
Column.
9. Waiarekan stage of Oamaru and South Canterbury.
10. Ototaran stage of Oamaru and South
Canterbury.
11. Hutchinsonian stage of Oamaru and
South Canterbury.
12. Awamoan staee of Oamaru and South
Canterbury.
13. Kawa Creek beds from Bartrum
(1919) and PalHser Bay basal beds.
14. Waitotaran stage.
15. Castlecliffian stage.
394
Transactions.
If we now calculate the percentage of records in the various stages, using the method of implication, we obtain the following results : —
Table VI.
1 2 3 4 5 16
Percentage recorde.d from Wangaloa and Hampden
beds Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage
recorded from Waiarekan recorded from Ototaran recorded from Hutcliinsonian recorded from Awamoan recorded from Kawa Creek beds recorded from Waitotaran I'ecorded from Castlecliffian . . of Recent species
|
en |
26 |
19 |
22 |
12 |
20 |
26 |
|
42 |
50 |
88 |
62 |
66 |
60 |
|
|
52 |
58 |
100 |
62 |
75 |
69 |
|
|
42 |
54 |
100 |
75 |
73 |
69 |
|
|
52 |
61 |
100 |
75 |
80 |
83 |
|
|
10 |
23 |
44 |
25 |
58 |
53 |
|
|
5 |
19 |
44 |
25 |
49 |
49 |
|
|
5 |
15 |
33 |
13 |
40 |
37 |
|
|
5 |
15 |
33 |
13 |
4Q |
34 |
11
38
42
46
69
70
69*
77
67
* In calculating this percentage the records from the Greta and Awatere beds were excluded and only those from the North Island localities, or records by implication, were used.
1. Weka Pass stone.
2. Weka Pass stone and
combined.
3. "Grev marls."
grey marls "
4. Lower Mount Brown beds.
5. Main Moimt Brown limestone.
6. Uppermost Mount Brown limestone.
7. Greta beds.
It svill be seen that the analysis favours the correlation of all the beds up to the top of the Mount Brown limestone with the upper Oamaruian, and, if we group together the Weka Pass stone and " grey marls," of all with the Awamoan. Against this we have the positive evidence of the Foraminifera that the Weka Pass stone and " grey marls " are lower than Ototaran, and of the brachiopods that the main Mount Brown limestone is Hutchinsouian. It is obvious, therefore, that the range of the MoUusca is not yet sufficiently known to give confidence in its use in correlation, which tends unduly to favour correlation with the Awamoan.
If we examine in detail the list of species from the Weka Pass stone, we find that the species which are responsible for the relatively high value of the Awamoan records are only three- — viz., Strutliiolaria spinosa, Turris altus, and Pecten fischeri — all recorded from the Awamoan only. The finding of any two of these, or of the species without any record — -viz., Epitonium rotundum, Lima imitata, Pecten beethami var. B, Pecten wilhmn- soni, Voluta attenuata, and Voluta sp. of. protorhysa Tate — -in the Waiarekan or lower beds would bring the percentage of Waiarekan species up to that of the Awamoan.
The collections are scarcely large enough to use the percentage of Recent species with« confidence. This method would place the Weka Pass stone with the Wangaloa and Hampden beds, the " grey marls " with the Ototaran, the middle Mount Brown beds again with the Wangaloa and Hampden beds, the main Mount Brown limestone and the uppermost Mount Brown limestone in the Hutchinsonian or Ototaran. A curious coincidence in the percentages is that the uppermost limestone shows a lower percentage than the main Mount Brown limestone, just as do the Target Gully beds compared to the upper Hutchinsonian in Target Gully, and the total Awamoan fauna compared to the total Hutchinsonian fauna of Oamaru and South Canterbury. In the present case little stress can be laid upon this point, as the list from the main Mount Bro'mi limestone contains so many species collected by Park in 1905 from an horizon not quite definitely determined.
There is still another way in which the moUuscaii evidence can be looked at — viz., from the point of view of the range of the- species within the district. Thus Pecten huttoni and Dentalium solidum range through
THO:\rsoN, — Geology of Middle Waipqra and Wela Pass District. 395
the 900 or more feet of strata from the Weka Pass stone to the uppermost Momit Brown beds, and in Oamaru range through a similar thickness of beds wliich probably formed at much the same rate. This suggests that the whole of the Oamaruian is represented in the Waipara sequence, and that the Weka Pass stone correlates with the Ngaparan and Waiarekan, and the uppermost Mount Brown beds with the Awamoan.
The general conclusion to be derived from the evidence of the MoUusca is, then, that taken by itself it is not conclusive as to exact cor- relation with Oamaruian stages, and does " not stand in the way of the positive correlations demanded by the brachiopods and Foraminifera.
The range of the brachiopods occurring in the district is shown in the following table : —
Table VII. — Range of Tertiary Brachiopods from the District.
2 I 3 4 5 6 7
10
Aetheia gaidteri (Morris) Hemithyris nigricans (Sow.) Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.) Terebratulina of. cancellata Koch Bouchardia mininm Thomson Magadina waiparensis Thomson
browni Thomson
Rhizotkyris curlosa Thomson
media Thomson
scutum. Thomson
rhizoidn (Hutt.)
elongata Thomson
curta Thomson
crassa Thomson
— — elliptica Thomson fortis Thomson . .
obesa Tliomson
- lateralis Thomson
pirum Thomson
ovata Thomson
amygdala
Pachymagas cottoni Thomson
bartrumi Thomson
clarkei Thomson
haasti Thomson
hectori Thomson
parki (Hutt.)
McKayi Thomson
morgani
coxi Thomson
huttoni Thomson
andrewi Thomson
Waiparia abnormis (Thomson)
intermedia Thomson . .
Neothyris campbcllica (Filhol)
ovnlis (Hutt.)
novara (Iher.)
• iheringi Thomson
— — anceps Thomson Stethothyris sufflata (Tate) . .
X
+
+
X
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ ?
+ cf.
+
+ + + + + +
+ +
X
X X X X
X
X X X
X
X
X
X X X X X X
w w
0
b b
b b
b b
b
0 0
o
H H H
H H H H
ii
H H H
H H H
H
A A
A A
W
w w
Column.
1. Weka Pass stone.
2 Lowest Mount Brown limestone (C).
.?. Second Mount Brown limestone.
4. Main Mount Brown Limestone (D).
5. Uppermost Mount Brown beds.
Column.
6. Waiarekan.
7. Ototaran.
8. Hiitchin^onian.
9. Awamoan. 10. Wan<?anuian.
The letters in columns 6-10 are the initials of the stage-names, which help to o-uide the eye better than an asterisk.
396
Transactions.
Owing to the fact that so few brachiopods are recorded from the Waiarekan and the Awamoan elsewhere, the percentage of records of the Waipara species from the various Oamaruian stages, though favouring the correlation of the main Mount Brown limestone with the Hutchinsonian, is little more conclusive than in the case of the molluscs. It is shown in the following table : —
Table VIII.
|
1 |
2 |
|
|
Percentage of species recorded from Waiarekan . . Percentage of species recorded from Ototaran Percentage of species recorded from Hutciiinsonian . . Percentage of species recorded from Awamoan Percentage of species recorded from Wanganuian Percentage of species not recorded elsewhere |
4 32 48 8 0 40 |
0 . 28 33 6 16 44 |
1. Main Mount Brown limestone (D).
2. Uppermost Mount Brown beds.
When the affinities of the species not recorded elsewhere are taken into consideration, the case for the correlation of the main Mount Brown lime- stone with the Hutchinsonian, and for the uppermost Mount Brown beds with the Awamoan, becomes much stronger. The fauna of the former horizon consists entirely of species closely related to Hutchinsonian forms, with the exception only of Bouchardia minima, known elsewhere Only from the Ototaran, and Magadina hrowni, not known in the southern Oamaruian localities. The fauna of the uppermost Mount Brown beds contains characteristic large species, not easily overlooked, which are absent from the southern Oamaruian localities- — viz., Stethothyris suffiata, Neothyris novara, N. iheringi, and N. anceps — suggesting that either this horizon is unrepre- sented at Oamaru, or that it does not there yield brachiopods, which is the case with the Awamoan, while the Hutchinsonian affinities of part of the remainder, mainly Rhizothyris, are offset by the Wanganuian affinities of another part, Hemithyris and Neothyris.
The species of Rhizothyris and Pachymagas which range from the main Momit Brown limestone into the overlying beds consist for the most part of- species not so advanced as regards elongation and folding as those confined to the main limestone. The explanation seems to be that the more primitive stocks had a longer range, while the more highly evolved forms, possessing no further potentialities of evolution, were narrowly restricted in time. The occurrence of the two species Rhizothyris elongata and Pachymagas ;;:)arA;^ only in the Hutchinson Qiiarry greensand and in the main Mount Brown limestone would of itself favour the correlation of these two beds, but when the advanced nature of their evolution is taken into account it enormously strengthens the case for the correlation. Combining all three points of view, we may conclude that the evidence is sufficiently strong to sujjport definitely the correlation of the main Mount Brown limestone with the Hutchinsonian and of the uppermost beds with the Awamoan. The evidence of the brachiopods as to the correlation of the beds below the main limestone is inconclusive.
Combining all lines of evidence, we find the following correlations indicated : —
Uppermost Mount Brown beds — Awamoan.
Main Mount Brown limestone — Hutchinsonian.
Lower Momit Brown beds — Ototaran.
" Grey marls " and Weka Pass stone — Waiarekan.
Thomsox. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 397
WANGANUIAN.
The Greta beds have a wide distribution in the neighbouring Lowei Waipara, Upper Waipara, Greta, .and Motunau districts, where the nature of the beds and of the fossils are generally similar to those of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass. They are also known to occur in the Oaro Valley, near Amuri Bluff. No considerable collections of any extent or receiitly named are available from any of these localities. In 1913 I collected carefully from the Greta beds of the Lower Waipara, but obtained onl}?- twenty-seven species, of which twenty, or 74 per cent., are Recent species. The extinct species were CalUostoma waiparense, Crepidula gregaria, Lutraria solida, Pecten tripJiooki, P. craiofordi, Ostrea arenicola, and 0. nelsoniana (?).
Owing to the absence of a comprehensive list of Waitotaran fossils from the typical locality, the percentages of records of the various stages shown in Table VI favours correlation of the Greta beds rather with the Castlecliffian than with the Waitotaran, but the presence of such forms as Ostrea ingens suggests that the true correlation is with the Waitotaran. With this the percentage of Recent species, 67 per cent., is also more in accord. Marshall gives 60-70 per cent, for the Waipipi series, which apparently includes the Waitotaran, and 80-90 per cent, for the Castlecliff series. Final decision as to correlation of the Greta beds must be post- poned until lists from the Wanganui-Patea districts are available.
Only :a small number of species are common to the Greta and Awatere beds, although the latter have usually been correlated with the former Park (1905) obtained forty-two species from the Starborough Creek beds, of which 71 per cent.- were Recent ; from the same beds I obtained fifty- seven species, of which only 51 per cent, were Recent. The two lists combined give seventy-seven species, of which 60 per cent, are Recent.
Marshall (1919) has suggested that the Greta and Awatere beds may occupy a position intermediate between the Target Gully series (Awamoan, with 30-40 per cent, of Recent species) and the Waipipi series (Waitotaran, with 60-70 per cent, of Recent species). The list of species from the Greta -beds, numbering ninety-five, with 67 per cent., of Recent species, is now sufficient! v extensive to make it very improbable that the suggestion is correct. In the Middle Waipara district the Greta beds follow directly upon the uppermost Mount Brown beds, with only 34 per cent, of Recent species, and the sudden doubling of this percentage gives a strong presump- tion of unconformity. If beds bridging the palaeontological gap can be found in any other part of New Zealand the evidence Jor unconformity will be conclusive.
In 1913 I pointed out that the Starborough Creek beds of the Awatere Valley were underlain by a great thickness of beds, in the lower parts of which Miocene {i.e., Oamaruian) types such as CucvUaea and Limopsis occurred. The collection from Tatchell's Creek was not in very satisfactory condition, but yielded Ancilla sp., Gardium spafiosium Hutt. ?, C. maorinum Sut. L CJiione meridionalis (Sow.) ?, Cominella lurida (Phil.), Dentalimn soli- dum Hutt., Leda semiteres Hutt. ?, Limopsis aurita (Brocchi), L. catenata Sut., Macidopteplum elegantissimum (Siit.) ?, Mytilus striatus Hutt., Ostrea angasi Sow. ?, Panope orbita (Hutt.), Pecten Imttoni (Park), Struthiolaria cincta Hutt. ?, S. tubercidata Hutt., Turritella symmetrica Hutt. ?, Verconella dilatata (Q. & G.) ?, and Voluta corrugata Hutt. This fauna appears to be characteristically Oamaruian, so that if the beds containing it underlie the Awatere series conformably an intermediate fauna should be found.
398 Transactions.
In 1919 I pointed out that the blue mudstones of the Palliser Bay dis- trict, which in their upper part contain a Waitotaran and probably above that also a Castlecliffian fauna, also contain Oamaruian species near the base. Those collected were Antigona zelandica (Gray), Cominella adspersa (Brug.), C. purchasi^nt., Dosinia anus (Phil.), D. subrosea {Gxslj), DentaUum solidum Hutt., Galeodea senex (Hutt.j, Paphia curta (Hutt.), Polinices gib- bosus (Hutt.) ?, Stnithiolaria tuherculata var., *S. papidosa var. While the Oamaruian afi&nities of this fauna are apparent, three species — viz., Cominella adspersa, C. purchasi, and Dosinia anus — are not known from the Oamaruian of Otago and South Canterbury. It seems quite possible that this fauna will prove to be intermediate between the Awamoan and the Waitotaran.
In 1919 Bartrum also described a series of beds at Kawa Creek which overlie Oamaruian beds unconformably, but contain a fauna with strong Oamaruian affinities, although the percentage of Recent species is 62 in a collection of 74 species. The percentage of records in the various stages is as follows : Wangaloa and Hampden beds, 8 ; Waiarekan, 42 ; Ototaran, 50 ; Hutchinsonian, 54 ; Awamoan, 64 ; Waitotaran, 62 ; Castlecliffian, 68. Probably when a fuller list of Waitotaran species is available for comparison Bartrum's conclusion that the famia is intermediate between Awamoan and Wanganuian will be substantiated.
DIASTROPHIC PROVINCES IN NEW ZEALAND.
In 1917 I discussed the application of diastrophic criteria to the corre- lation and classification of the younger rocks of New Zealand, and while agreeing with Marshall, Speight, and Cotton (1911) and later expressed views by Marshall on a certain diastrophic unity of all these younger rocks, necessitating the use of an inclusive name, for which I proposed "Notoceiie," I gave briefly the evidence for the existence of minor diastrophic districts during the general relative crustal inactivity between the great post-Hokonui and Kaikoura deformations. This evidence consisted of the differences in age of the oldest and youngest marine Notocene rocks of different districts, proving differences in the dates of sea-advance and sea-retreat in these districts, and also differences in age of the main limestone member of the sequence in different districts — viz., the Amuri, Ototara, and Takaka lime- stones— proving that the period of maximum sea-advance was not every- where contemporaneous. To avoid confusion between geographical and diastrophic districts, I propose now to call the latter " provinces."
Marshall (1919), who appears to have misunderstood the argument, states, "I can reasonably hold that no proof has been given of these supposed ' local diastrophic movements in New Zealand, and I can quote the Oamaru district, at least, as one in which the Tertiary strata are continuous over a large district without any indication of being affected by local diastrophic action." It is evident that I stated the argument too briefly by omitting to define more explicitly the diastrophic provinces. This omission I remedied last year (1919, p. 310), when I defined the provinces of the east-coast of the South Island. The Oamaru geographical district, which is understood as comprising the coastal area between the Kakanui and Waitaki Rivers, but excludes Shag Point, forms, with the adjacent Waitaki, Waihao, Pareora, Kakahu, and Mount Somers districts, a diastrophic province extending from the Kakanui to the Rakaia Rivers, and I quite agree with Marshall that within it there is no diversity of diastrophism exclusive of local volcanic phenomena. Excluding the variations due to the development of volcanic rocks, foimd chiefly in the Oamaru and Mount Somers districts, the strati- graphical sequence and fossils of these districts are almost identical. The
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Jl'eka Pass District. 399
diastropliic history of the whole of this province appears to have been as follows : Emergence of the pre-Notocene rocks during Clarentian, Piri- pauan, and Kaitangatan, ending with peneplanation : submergence with sedimentation in the Ngaparan or Waiarekan, attaining its maximum in the Ototaran ; a cessation of sedimentation before the deposition of the Hutchinsonian, perhaps due to standstill of land and sea, during which a phosphatization of the upper surface of the Ototara limestone took place ; gradually shallowing of the sea during the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan, followed by emergence at the end of the Awamoan ; deposition of terres- trial gravels during the Wanganuian ; block-faulting, with tilting of the Oamaruian and Wanganuian beds about the close of the Wanganuian.
The jMiddle Waipara and Weka Pass district, on the other hand, forms part of a diastropliic province extending from the Rakaia River to Kai- koura Peninsula. The stratigraphical sequence is not so constant as in the southern province, owing to aii overlap traceable in the older beds, and there are still large parts of the province that have not been described in detail. The diastrophic history appears to have been as follows : Emer- gence of the pre-Notocene rocks during the Clarentian, without complete attainment of peneplanation ; partial submergence and sedimentation during the Piripauan and Kaitangatan, with progressive overlap on the diversified surface ; a cessation of sedimentation before the deposition of the Oamaruian, probably due to a standstill of land and sea, during which' a phosphatization- of the Amuri limestone took place ; renewed depression of the Amuri limestone and the old land, leading to an overlap of the Weka Pass stone over the Piripauan and Kaitangatan on to the now peneplaned pre-Notocene (lower Oamaruian) ; shallowing of the Oamaruian sea with oscillations of movement during which the " grey marls " and Mount Brown limestones were deposited, with interformational unconformities (upper, Oamaruian) ; uplifts, perhaps of the nature of block movements, exposing fresh areas of pre-Notocene rocks to rapid erosion, with deposition of the Greta beds (early Wanganuian) ; uplifts, with folding or tilting and erosion of the whole marine Notocene, 'and deposition of the terrestrial Kowhai beds (late Wanganuian) ; block-faulting about the close of the Wanganuian, with renewed folding or tilting of both the marine and terrestrial Notocene series.
The diastrophic histories of these two areas are thus seen to be markedly dissimilar. In the northern province marine beds, both older and younger, are developed which have no counterpart in the southern ; the nature of the beds of correlative age (Oamaruian) is different in the two areas ; and the relationship of certain beds is different. The greatest difficulty in the geology of each area is the nature of the conditions which permitted phos- phatization of the upper surfaces of certain limestones. Whatever these conditions were, they happened at different times in the two provinces. The stratigraphical unity within the boundaries of each province, and the diversity between the two, are salient facts that demand recognition.
Two of the classifications proposed for the younger rocks of New Zea- land have failed to recognize the existence of the diversity of stratigraphical and diastrophic history in the above and other provinces — viz., the Cretaceo-Tertiary classification of Hector and the single rock-series classifi- cation of Marshall. In each of these a supposed uniformity of stratigraphy has been assumed by the mistaken correlation of the Amuri and Ototara limestone^. The majority of the other classifications — those of Hutton, von Haast, Park. Morgan, and Woods — recognize the distinctness of these lime- stones, and therefore part at least of the diversity of the above provinces, but explain the facts by postulating important earth-movements between
400 Transactions.
different members of the series, causing unconformities of regional classi- ficatory value. They fail, however, to recognize the grander fact that all the younger rocks were deposited in a period of relative crustal inactivity between the epochs of major diastrophism, and on this account should be grouped into one grand system. This is recognized in the classifications of Marshall and Thomson. Each of the above types of classification will now be examined in detail with regard to its applicability to the palaeonto- logical and stratigraphical facts brought out in this paper, and in relation to the explanation it offers for the diversities exhibited in the three main diastrophic provinces of the east coast of the South Island.
The Cretaceo-Teetiary Formation of Hector.
It has been stated by Park that the theory of a conformable succession bridging the gap between the Cretaceous and Tertiary in New Zealand was first proposed by Hutton, but later abandoned by him, and was after- wards taken up by Hector. I have failed to discover the evidence for this statement in any of the published writings of Hutton, though Hector (1892) states that when he used the term " Cretaceo-Tertiary " in 1877 it was a revival of a term which had been in abeyance for some years. Hector's adoption of the formation in 1877 appears to be a direct outcome of the views he always held as to the Mesozoic age of all the coalfields in New Zealand. Thus when Provincial Geologist of Otago he classed the marine rocks of Oamaru, Hampden, Caversham, &c., under a "Tertiary Oamaru series, but the coal-measures of Kaitangata, Clutha, Shag Point, &c., under a Carbonaceous series, and considered it as possibly upper Mesozoic.
In 1870, after he had visited the Waipara district, the North Canterbury rocks now included in the Notocene were grouped by Hector in the Cata- logue of the Colonial Museum as follows : —
/ B. Upper or Struthiolaria series . . . . Motunau, Lower Gorge of the
Waipara River.
C. Middle or Cue itZZaea series ., ... Waikari, Lyngdon, Hurunui Tertiary J^ ^ Mound, Upper Trelissick.
D. Older or Ototara series . . . . Deans, Weka Pass, Curiosity
Shop, Selwyn River, Lower \ • Trelissick.
i E. L(da marls or Aotea series . . . . > Conway River, AVaiau-ua.
Mesozoic \ F. Chalk and chalk marls . . . . (Amuri Bluff).
(G. Ferruginous sandstones or Waipara series Boby's Creek, Culverden.
In this grouping of the LeHa marls (which subsequently were termed the " grey marls ") with the Chalk or Amuri limestone and the Waipara series in the Secondary as opposed to the Mount Brown beds of the Deans in the Older Tertiary, the Cretaceo-Tertiary formation was clearly foreshadowed. In 1877 Hutton included the " grey marls " in his Oamaru system, and the Amuri limestone and underlying beds in his Waipara system. Hector (1877a), in commenting on Hutton 's paper, rejected Hutton 's classification, and in a table of beds of Amuri Bluff included the " grey marls " and fucoidal limestone (Weka Pass stone) with the Amuri limestone in a Chalk group, recognizing also two lower groups, which he named the Greensand group and the Amuri group. In the following volume of Reports of Geological Explorations (1877b) he used the name of Cretaceo-Tertiary formation for a part of the, sequence in the Kaipara district, and in the following volume again (1877c) it appeared for the first time in a general table of New Zealand formations, though not in its final form. The following table shows the various names applied to the divisions or series of the formation.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 401
|
^ |
|||||||||||
|
• |
0) |
||||||||||
|
25 |
|||||||||||
|
03 |
|||||||||||
|
rvirf |
|||||||||||
|
^5 |
S^-H |
||||||||||
|
E3 |
0 |
CQ |
|||||||||
|
cS |
© |
6 |
• S |
||||||||
|
00 |
c |
s |
r^ |
0 |
|||||||
|
6 a |
E3 |
o |
o |
.2 |
0 |
, |
|||||
|
o |
Qi |
-*i |
-^ |
33 |
03 |
||||||
|
00 00 |
9^ |
a: |
CO |
;h |
-»:> |
||||||
|
3 5 |
B O o |
3) "is a S |
g 5 a < |
c 1— I |
S 0 c 0 |
-l-i 0 cS |
rQ 03 1 p-l |
OJ a § 0 |
|||
|
B |
-o |
ij |
-a |
^ |
'-^. |
•^ |
r« |
•■^ |
|||
|
03 |
|||||||||||
|
OQ |
0 |
||||||||||
|
_a3 |
|||||||||||
|
*tH |
|||||||||||
|
» |
m |
03 00 |
|||||||||
|
73 |
'3 |
;^ |
|||||||||
|
X |
0 |
0 |
C |
||||||||
|
00 00 r-1 |
-2 |
.2 73 |
<rH rH |
03 •rH |
a |
||||||
|
cS |
M |
si) |
0 |
||||||||
|
^H |
o |
p^ |
0 |
>5 |
0 |
||||||
|
r |
cS |
^ |
^ |
P |
cfi |
.is! |
1 •■ |
||||
|
O O |
"S |
'S |
■3 |
0 cS |
"& 0 |
Is 9 |
|||||
|
o |
S |
O |
^ |
0 0 |
S |
Oh |
0 |
||||
|
e |
-o |
« |
-s |
« |
•-^ |
ti |
■« |
•-sS |
|||
|
^ |
|||||||||||
|
-* |
a |
||||||||||
|
00 |
p |
||||||||||
|
00 |
eS |
. |
6 |
rt |
|||||||
|
3 |
cd |
r« |
cc |
c3 |
|||||||
|
-^ O -^ O |
Is |
3 0 |
. 3 , 0 |
Is 0 0 |
|||||||
|
e |
<j |
o |
■^ |
^ |
■^ |
t5 |
r^ |
||||
|
CO P4 |
03 |
g |
|||||||||
|
cS |
O _M |
rt |
0 |
. ^ |
|||||||
|
oT'i |
m |
"""^ |
"3 |
||||||||
|
r- 00 |
33 |
2 |
g cS |
9 |
0 |
0 |
0 g |
||||
|
s |
eg |
aj |
"cS |
;i2 K |
c^ tJO |
IK |
rO |
'S |
|||
|
^ |
^ |
.— ?-< |
-l^ ^ |
r- ' |
SC c3 |
||||||
|
>S |
o |
'o |
- j5 |
a ;^, |
^^ |
.§ |
■^ 0 |
||||
|
o O |
CO |
■< |
"m 1— 1 |
i^ -« |
|||||||
|
8 |
-d |
u |
'«* |
<a |
■^ |
&5 |
|||||
|
02 |
,^ |
, |
k^ |
||||||||
|
QD |
F-l |
p— . |
|||||||||
|
§ |
3 |
-1-= |
0 |
||||||||
|
Ch |
g |
^ 0 |
|||||||||
|
. |
< |
^ |
rQ |
||||||||
|
c3 |
73 |
^ — |
JH |
||||||||
|
« |
01 |
o 3"j |
73 s |
03 0 |
ce c |
||||||
|
00 1-H |
73 |
IK 0 |
73 (-H 3 |
73 5 |
|||||||
|
"9 ?? |
«5 O |
"3 |
-1 CO = g |
CO '3 |
1 |
||||||
|
•s f |
-4J |
-^ |
'o |
||||||||
|
o O |
03 |
ci ;s o |
S g |
1— i |
0 0 |
||||||
|
e |
-O |
0 |
'^ |
su |
=»^ |
*5 |
402 Transactions. '
The beds below the black grit of Amuri Bluff were placed in a distinct Lower Greensand formation, and the horizon of the black grit was corre- lated with the coal-beds of the Waipara and all the other chief coal- measures of the country. This had the effect of removing from the Cretaceo- Tertiary formation the ammonites, belemnites, Trigoniae, &c. fomid so ^ abundantly in the calcareous conglomerate of Amuri Bluff. In 1892 Hector admitted that the Lower Greensand formation could not be maintained as a distinct formation, and considered it a local expansion of the Ostrea bed of the Waipara district, a view later demonstrated to be correct by Woods (1917).
Hector's Cretaceo-Tertiary theory rested on two claims : first, that all the rocks of the Waipara district from the coal-measures up to and in- cluding the " grey marls " formed a single conformable " formation " and palaeontological unit, and were separated from the overlying Mount Brown beds by an unconformity ; and, secondly, that all the important coal- measures in New Zealand, together with the conformably associated rocks, belonged to the same " formation."
As regards the first claim, Hector appears never to have studied the contact of the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone carefully. In his first account of the district he did not discriminate between the two rocks, and after Hutton had made the distinction, and had claimed the contact as an unconformity, emphasizmg its palaeontological importance as a plane above which no Cretaceous fossils ranged, and below which no Tertiary fossils occurred, Hector apparently made no special study of the contact, and was content to rely on McKay's attempts to combat Hutton's criticisms. He insisted strongly, however, on the existence of an unconformity between the " grey marls " and the Mount Brown beds, publishing a map of the Weka .Pass in support of his contention. The map was, however, little more than a diagram, and does not appear to have been based on a detailed survey. Hector was either miaware of, or ignored, the range of Tertiary Mollusca above and below the miconformity, and made no attempt to analyse their range, contenting himself with a statement of characteristic species from the Cretaceo-Tertiary and higher formations, species which are now known to have a considerable range above or below the rocks he included in each formation.
McKay (1887a) made a more serious attempt to meet Hutton's criti- cisms. He reaffirmed the conformity of the two rocks on the ground of their parellelism of dip and strike, and attributed the so-called shattering of the Amuri limestone to jointing and a subsequent working-down of the loose greensand into the joint-planes. He endeavoured to refute Hutton's statement that pebbles of Amuri limestone were enclosed in the Weka Pass greensand by publishing an analysis of a phosphatic nodule as a proof that all the supposed pebbles were concretions, and he made a very strained comparison of the pebbles with concretions in the Waipara greensands. From later analyses it is now clear that the analysis quoted by McKay referred to one of the phosphatic concretions found rarely near the contact, and not to the majority of the supposed pebbles, which are only slightly phosphatized, and are undoubtedly fragm^ents of Amuri limestone. McKay also published an analysis of Amuri limestone which showed a high per- centage of insoluble residue described as sand, and argued from this that Hutton's statement that the Weka Pass stone overlapped the Amuri limestone on to the old rocks on the neighbouring Mount Alexander Range had no significance, as a sandy limestone might easily pass in a few miles into a sandstone. Here again McKay's analysis has been shown by later chemical study not to be typical of the Amuri limestone. In answer to Hutton's
Thomson .—Geology of Middle Waipura and Wtka Pass District. 403
contention that no Tertiary species were found below the contact McKay published a list of Tertiary species found below the Amuri limestone in North Canterbury and Marlborough. As no descriptions or figures of these species were supplied, and as the statement rested solely on McKay's identifications, it did not gain acceptance, and Woods's later study of the Cretaceous Pelecypoda does not bear it out. It should be noted, however, that Henderson (1918) collected a shell from beds below the Amuri lime- stone of the Cheviot district which was determined by Suter as Malletia australis (Q. & G.). The existence of a few of the wide-ranging Oamaruian Mollusca below the Amuri limestone would not excite surprise, and, though invalidating the absolute truth of Hutton's contention, would not destroy the truth of the claim that the faunas known from the rocks above and below the contact are characteristically distinct. Hector's first claim, that the Cretaceo-Tertiary formation is a satisfactory unit in the classification of the Waipara sequence, has been destroyed by Hutton's criticisms, rein- forced by later studies.
It should be noted that von Haast adopted a grouping of the rocks different from those of both Hector and Hutton, and included all the beds from the coal-measures to the top of the Weka Pass stone in a Waipara system of Cretaceo-Tertiary age. The correlations he claimed for this system were those of Hutton's Waipara system and not those of Hector's Cretaceo-Tertiary formation. Park also in 1905 adopted the same grouping as von Haast for his Cretaceous Waipara system, in the mistaken belief that the Weka Pass stone contained no Tertiary fossils. Hutton's criticisms, reinforced as above, are eqiially valid against these groupings of the Wai- para rocks.
Hector's second claim for the correlation in the Cretaceo-Tertiary for- mation of all the important coal-measures rested on the following general argument : —
" In northern Canterbury, as far south as the Rakaia River, the coal rocks are overlaid by fossiliferous strata, which, besides the Plesiosauroid reptiles for which the Waipara district is famous, contain a few secondary genera, such as Belemnites, Aporrhais, Inoceramus, and Trigonia ; but the great mass of the associated moUuscan fauna agrees with that of the coal rocks in other parts of New Zealand, while the specially Cretaceous forms are rare or absent from the fossiliferous horizons immediately overlying the coal-seams. If, therefore, after eliminating the comparatively few fossils which form the peculiarities df two localities, the bulk of those remaining are fomid to be the same, there need be no hesitation in consideiing strata showing the same succession of like characters in its different divisions as belonging to the same series ; and, if in any one of these localities there is evidence that the beds are of Cretace'ous age, the other must be regarded as of that age also. But if, in addition to this, there be, in those localities where the lower beds lack fossils proving their Cretaceous age, a presence of Cretaceous forms in the higher beds of the same series, the correct- ness of the correlation will in this way be corroborated. It is partly by evidence of this kind that the Cretaceous age of several of our coal-bearing areas is sought to be established.
" In South Canterbury, on the east coast of Otago, and on the west coast of the South Island markedly. Cretaceous fossils are found in the calcareous members of the higher part of the coal-bearing series. The Cretaceous character of the Echinodermata found in the Cobden limestone, also present in the Ototara stone, warrants the reference of these beds to a period anterior to that of any Tertiary deposit in the Islands, the oldest
404 Transactions.
of which is at least Middle Eocene, and separated by an unconformity from the underlying beds. To distinguish this latter the term ' Cretaceo- Tertiary ' has been made use of, as it is believed that the series bridges over the gap which separates the Lower Eocene from the Cretaceous rocks of Europe." (Hector, 1882, pp.'xxii-xxiii.) i
Park (1888a) in commenting on the stratigraphical and palaeontological difficulties in the correlation of two distinct groups of beds, " the one characterized by a fauna and flora with ' a distinctly Tertiary facies, the other by forms of an equally pronounced Secondary type," put forward another argument as accepted by the supporters of the correlation, although Hector himself does not seem to have used it in his writings : " The rela- tion existing between these two groups has not been very satisfactorily ■^ determined, but they are at present supposed by the Survey to be in a manner horizontal equivalents- — that is, the result of contemporaneous deposition, the Tertiary strata being taken to represent the shallow- water, and the Secondary strata the deep-water, conditions of the same period."
It appears probable also that the fossils of the Selwyn Rapids beds in the Malvern Hills greatly strengthened McKay and Hector in their belief in the correctness of the correlation of the " saurian beds " and Waipara greensands with the greensands underlying the Ototara limestone in South Canterbury and Otago. The Selwyn Rapids beds lie a little distance above an Ostrea bed extremely similar to that in the Waipara district, and the nature of the rocks is similar to that of the "saurian beds." No one has ever questioned that the Selwyn Rapids beds belong to a horizon below the Amuri limestone. .The majority of the fossil Pelecypoda, however, belong to or closely resemble genera which are common in the Tertiary, and von Haast originally believed the fauna to be a Tertiary one. As these beds lie geographically between the North and South Canterbury localities, they seemed to offer themselves as a stepping-stone in correlation. The Cretaceo-Tertiary formation was supposed for some geographical reason to contain fewer distinctively Cretaceous forms as it was traced south.
The flaw in* Hector's argument, by which it falls to the ground, is the incorrectness of his premise that the great mass of the molluscan famia associated with the saurians in northern Canterbury agrees with that of the coal rocks in other parts of New Zealand. Woods's examination of the Pelecypod fauna associated with the saurians failed to bring to light a single species known from the rocks of the Oamaru and South Canterbury or the West Coast coalfields, and there is little reason to suppose that the case will be any better when the gasteropods are described. *
Hutton (1885 b, c) perceived clearly the flaws in Hector's arguments, but his criticisms were weakened by two circumstances. The first was that the Upper Cretaceous faunas were not described, and the only satisfactory collections were those of the Geological Survey, which were inaccessible to him. The second was his own mistake in regard to the Pareora system. In this he included the Awamoan beds and all the Otago and South Canter- bury localities now correlated in the Awamoan ; but he also included in it the Waiareka greensands, the Enfield beds, and the Hampden beds, which are clearly below the Ototara limestone. He pointed out the distinctively Tertiary facies of the faimas of these beds, as opposed to the Cretaceous facies of the beds below the Amuri limestone ; but in claiming that these beds lay above the Ototara limestone he gave McKay (1887b) a handle for upsetting a part of his criticism, although a part that was not really essential to the problem. Consequently Hutton's criticism of the corre- lations assumed by the Cretaceo-Tertiary theory failed to carry conviction to Hector and McKay, or to gain general acceptance.
Thomson. — -Geology of Middle Wnipara and Weka Pass Districf . 405
Park's revision of the marine Tertiaries (1905) helped to emphasize the purely Tertiary nature of the supposed Cretaceo-Tertiary rocks of South Canterbury and Otago. The recognition by' Uttley and Thomson (1914) of the infra-position of the Waihao greensands in respect to the Ototara limestone, together by the demonstration by Woods (1917) of the purely Cretaceous nature, of the beds below the Amuri limestone in North Canterbury, removed the weaknesses of Button's position. His criticism thus reinforced is absolutely destructive of the correlations assumed by Hector.
The Cretaceo-Tertiary theory thus failed both in its classification of the rocks of the northern province (Rakaia River to Kaikoura Peninsula), and in its correlation of the rocks of the southern province (Kakanui River to Rakaia River). By falsely correlating Piripauan with Waiarekan rocks it failed to recognize the diversity between these two provinces. It failed also, owing to false correlation of the Piripauan and Clarentian rocks, to recognize the diversity between the northern of these two provinces and that extending from the Hapuku River to Cape Campbell. The Cretaceo-Tertiary theory of Hector must be absolutely discarded. Until we have new accormts of all Notocene localities, however, it will be necessary for the student to have a clear understanding of Hector's classification and its fallacies, because for many localities McKay's accounts of the stratigraphy are stiU the only or the best accounts available, and they are all couched in terms of this classification.
Hutton's Classification and its Successors.
Button's final classification (1900) of the younger rocks of New Zealand differed little from that he proposed in 1872, and was as follows : —
Cainozoic system —
Wanganui series . . . . . . Newer Pliocene.
Older Pliocene. Miocene. Oligocene . Upper Cretaceous.
Glacier epoch Pareora series Oamaru series Waipara system
His views of the diastrophic history during these periods are contained in the following extracts : " About the middle of the Jurassic period folding of the rocks [of the Hokonui system] occurred along the same north-east and south-west axis ; the Alps were formed, and the present land of New Zealand may be said to have been born, for since then it has never been submerged. ... In the Upper Cretaceous the land sub- sided, and New Zealand was reduced to comparatively small limits. . . . A little before the commencement of the Tertiary era the rocks were folded once more, the land rose again. . . . This was the last folding of rocks in New Zealand on an, extensive scale, for all the younger rocks usually lie in the same position in which they were originally deposited, and circle round the bases of the hills formed by older rocks. Not only was the last touch given in the Eocene period to the internal structure of the mountains, but the chief valleys were also deeply scoured out, so that when the land sank again in the Oligocene period these valleys were filled up with marine limestones and other rocks. The Oligocene and Miocene were periods of depression separated by a slight upheaval which lasted only for a short time. ... In the older Pliocene came the last great upheaval. All the islands were joined together, and the land stretched away to the east and south. ... On the mountains of the South Island large glaciers were formed, and the torrential rivers rmining from them tore into discon- nected fragments the Miocene marine rocks which obstructed their vallevs.
406 • Transactions.
. . . Subsidence seems to have commenced first in the southern portion of the North Island. ... At a later date sinking began in the South Island also. . . . This sinking has again been followed by an elevation of all parts of New Zealand, the centre of the North Island rising as a large flat dome, on the summit of which stand Ruapehu and Tongariro ; while the South Island has also been elevated several hundred feet. And this elevation appears to be still going on."
Hutton excluded the Greta beds from his Wanganui series, and thus did not recognize one of the factors distinguishing the North Canterbury from the South Canterbury and North Otago diastrophic province. The explanation his classification gives for the other differences between the two provinces depends on extensive folding between the periods of deposition of the Waipara system and the Oamaru series.
Speight and Wild (1918) have amply demonstrated that there was no extensive folding between the deposition of the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone, and the palaeontological evidence shows that the gap between, the two rocks is not nearly so extensive as Hutton supposed. Park (1905) claimed that the Pareora series was an integral part of the Oamaru series, and Uttley and Thomson (1914) and Gudex (1918) have demonstrated that it forms the upper part ; Hutton's slight upheaval between the two series (Oamaru and Pareora) was postulated' owing to a misreadmg of the stratigraphy of the Waihao district, and has no existence in the sense- in which he claimed it, though there is probably a disconformity below not the Awamoan but the Hutchinsonian.
The great flaw in Hutton's scheme of classification was, however, his failure to recognize the magnitude of the post-Wanganui movements, the Kaikoura orogenic movements, the demonstration of which we owe to Cotton (1916). Owing to his exclusion of the Greta and Awatere beds from his Wanganui series and their correlation in his Paeroa series, Hutton postulated a great upheaval after the latter, followed by a glacial epoch, and a subsidence during which the Wanganui beds were deposited. With a later elevation. We now laiow that the great upheaval culminated after the deposition of the Wanganui beds, and that to it are due many of the effects which Hutton referred to the post-Hokonui folding. Hutton, therefore, failed to recognize the necessity of grouping his Waipara and Cainozoic systems into one grand one, sharply distinct from all others in New Zealand, and, while there are great elements of value in his classification and correlations, his scheme must be profoundly modified.
Park (1905) corrected two errors in Hutton's work — v^z., the un- necessary separation of the Pareora and Oamaru series, and the mistaken correlation of the Greta and Awatere beds in the Pareora series ; but he retained the major faults of Hutton's scheme — viz., the erroneous con- clusion as to extensive folding between the Waipara and Oamaru systems, and the failure to recognize the bearing of the Kaikoura orogenic movements. Morgan (1916c) proposed a general classification of the younger rocks as follows : — ' •
Pliocene.
Local imconformities.
Upper Miocene.
Probable local unconformities.
Middle and Lower Miocene.
Unconformity.
Eocene.
Unconformity (?).
Cretaceous (with possibly some early Tertiary strata).
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and WeJca Pass District. 407
He considered that from the Middle Miocene to the Pleistocene differen- tial movements in some part or another of New Zealand were almost constantly in progress, and consequently that a series of local strati graphical breaks exists, no two of which are exactly synchronous, but that in all parts of New Zealand there is a decided unconformity at the base of Hutton's Oamaru system, or series. So far as the facts under discussion are concerned no serious criticism of this scheme can be made, except that the rocks he terms " Lower Miocene," which include the base of the Oamaruian, are probable Eocene.
Woods (1917) has not proposed any general classification of the yoxmger rocks other than Cretaceous, but speaks of the " Cenomanian overlap " in the Clarentian, and the Senonian transgression in the Piripauan, correlating these two periods of local sea-advance in New Zealand with world-wide transgressions. If these transgressions were considered to result solely from difEerential movements of sea-level their localization in parts of the New Zealand area would have to be ascribed to original differences in relief. As a matter of fact, Woods also admits differential movements of the land- surface, for he postulates an uplift in east Marlborough after the Lower Utatiir (Clarentian) period, since the Middle Utatur beds are not known to be represented there. Woods considers the Amuri limestone as probably Eocene and unconformable to the Cretaceous, and therefore presumably the result of a third transgression. There is, however, no stratigraphical evidence for unconformity below the Amuri limestone either in the Waipara or at Coverham, and the much greater thickness of this rock at Coverham receives no explanation.
Marshall's Classification.
Marshall has successfully demonstrated the general fact that the younger rocks in most localities form an accordant series, without important angular unconformities between the various beds, and, further, that the beds in any one locality are those of a sedimentary cycle with progressive characters of depth of deposition towardsthe middle limestone members. He claims for these that they are not merely general facts but universal facts for the New Zealand area ; that there were no differential land-movements during the deposition of the beds ; that the lack of angular unconformities proves the absence of palaeontological disconformities ; that there is only one main limestone in the series in any one locality ; that it was deposited at the period of maximum submergence, and consequently that the limestones are correlative in all areas ; and that the localization of the various beds, or, in other words, the differences between the provinces I have defined above, can be explained solely by overlap on a^surfjace of high relief. All this is claimed in support of his classification of all the yoimger rocks as a completely conformable ensemble in the Oamaru system, ranging in age from Senonian to Pliocene.
Most of these claims are open to serious criticism! Angular unconformities are rarely seen, but are nevertheless not absent ; while palaeontological disconformities are also present. For instance, in the Kaiwhata River, east Wellington, there is a conglomerate containing boulders of Cretaceous sandstones, greensands, and basalts, similar to those outcropping near by, and also boulders of shell-rock, apparently derived, containing Oamaruian fossils, including Pecten huttoni. The conglomerate has a mudstone matrix and passes up into mudstones. There is obviously an unconformity here between two members of the younger rock-series. Morgan and Henderson have described unconformities in numerous places, and it cannot reasonably
108 Transactions.
be doubted that they occur. Disconformities, or planes representing periods of standstill and non-deposition, are also known — e.g., that between the Weka Pass stone and Amuri limestone, and that between the Hutchinson Quarry beds and Ototara liinestone. The probability of a palaeontological disconformity between the Greta beds and the Mount Brown beds has been discussed above. Important differential earth-movements were certainly operative in the production of the great Marlborough conglomerate. There is more than one limestone in North Canterbury and in North Auckland — e.g., in the Waipara there are the Amur-i limestone, the Weka Pass stone, and the Mount Brown limestones. The main limestones are of different ages in various localities, and there are at least three distinct calcareous horizons in the younger rocks — viz., those of the Amuri limestone, the Ototara lime- stone, and the Wairarapa limestone — with possibly a fourth in the Takaka limestone, each of these rocks representing in their respective localities the period of maximum submergence. The claims made by Marshall for his Oamaru system are not justified on the facts.
Marshall has not elaborated the possibilities of simple overlap, combined with subsequent (Kaikoura) differential movements, in explanation of the localization of various beds, and it will be instructive to do so. I am indebted to Dr. J. Henderson for this suggestion. According to this hypo- thesis, if the sea-bottom seaward of the Oamaru district were to be uplifted^ and dissected it would reveal in the seaward part a sequence like that of the Clarence Valley, followed inland by one like that of the Waipara, with finally the Oamaruian sequence farthest inland. The Oamaru district differs from the Waipara and Weka Pass district, and that in turn- from the Clarence Valley, in that it has not been so much uplifted by the Kaikoura movements. The Waipara district should be succeeded inland by an area similar to the Oamaru district, if erosion has not destroyed it. This is probably the case, for the Piripauan and the Amuri limestone are unknown on the Culverden side of the Hurmiui-Waiau depression where Oamaruian beds are found. As the sea commenced to withdraw again after the maximum overlap in the Oamaruian, the lower Wanganuian beds should not be found so far inland as the Oamaruian ; and this too is the case, for the Greta beds are not,, so far as I know, found inland of the Amuri limestone. Similarly, in,- east Marlborough, the Clarence and Awatere Valleys with their Clarentian beds should be followed inland by an area like the Waipara with Senonian beds and Amuri limestone, and this in turn by an area like Oamaru. The latter may be represented by the Picton area, but the Senonian intermediate area is missing. Towards the upper Clarence any such beds might have been destroyed by uplift and erosion, but in the upper Wairau they slioidd surely have been preserved. Again, the Clarence Valley area should preserve not only the lower Wanganuian as well as the Oamaruian, but also the upper Wanganuian, which is not the case. -
The arrangement of the three provinces along the coast-line, with the- Waipara type between the Oamaru and Clarence Valley types, is again in accord with the hypothesis ; but this demands a progressively greater eleva- tion of the two northern areas either by warping or by block-faulting. This is found in east Marlborough, but there is little evidence of it in North Canterbury.
It will thus be seen that this hypothesis that simple overlap' with sub- sequent differential elevation is the cause of the present localization of the various types of stratigraphical sequence is in accord with many of the facts, but by itself cannot satisfactorily explain them all. It does not explain, for instance, why the lower Wanganuian beds are confined within the
Thomsox. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 409
boundaries of the Oamaruian overlap in North Canterbury, but transgress these bounds in the lower Awatere Valley. Difierential earth-movements during the Notocene must also be invoked to explain the facts of distribution as well as those of the relationships of some of the superposed series of rocks.
Marshall (1919) has combated my criticisms of his use of the term " Oamaru " for his system, and, as the nomenclature of the younger rock- series as a totality is a matter of considerable importance, it seems advisable to critize further his reasons for wishing to retain the term.
" 1. Historical : (a.) The locality is the one from which the first col- lections of fossils in New Zealand was made." Actually the first fossils mentioned in geological literature were those collected by Dieffenbach in the Chatham Islands, and at East Cape, Parengarenga, Kawhai, and Whangaroa. These were determined generically by Gray, as mentioned in Diefienbach's Travels. Mantell also observed fossils in the Wanganui district before he visited Oamaru.
" (b.) Hutton's Oamaru sj'^stem included nearly all the strata in the district, and his Oamaru system includes the majority of the rocks classed in the Oamaru system by me. The retention of the name will serve to keep alive the memory of the man who did so inuch spade-work in the palaeonto- logy and stratigraphy of New Zealand." It is true that Hutton included nearly all the rocks of the Oamaru district in his system, but he excluded the Awamoa beds. His system did not include the Shag Point beds or the Amuri limestone and underlying beds, which are included by Marshall. If the Clarentian is also included by Marshall — and I fail to see how any .consistent grounds can be found for excluding it — then in the Clarence Valley area his Oamaru system will embrace more than seven times the thickness of the beds which in that area correlate with Hutton's Oamaru system.* Hutton's name Avill live for his spade-work in palaeontology and his clear reasoning in stratigraphy without the retention of the Oamaru system, and it is difficult to see how an extension of his system to embrace the Waipara system can be considered otherwise than as a desire to forget his memory, ^gince he spent nearly thirty years of his life in endeavouring to secure recognition for his separation of the two systems.
"3. In the Oamaru district there is a fuller development of the various strata of a fossil-bearing nature than elsewhere." To establish this Marshall includes in the Oamaru district the whole area between Shag Point and the Waihao River, although it has hitherto included only the area between the Kakanui and Waitaki Rivers. But, granting this, he quotes the Wharekuri, Waihao greensands, and Bortonian as separate horizons, although it is more than probable that they are about the same. The Oamaru district, thus conceived, includes only Piri]3auan, Kaitangatan and Oamaruian rocks, whereas the Waipara district includes all these together with the overhang fossiliferous Greta beds (Waitotaran) and imfossiliferous Kowhai beds (perhaps Castleclifiian), whUe the Clarence Valley possesses a still fuller sequence. No single locality, however, has the complete sequence of the younger rocks.
Marshall has comitered by suggesting that " Notocene " should mean either that this is the farthest southern point where such rocks have been found or that the formation is common to southern latitudes. In science a term takes the meaning its author gives to it, and my definition of " Notocene " is perfectly explicit.
* This is admitting the Clarentian as 3,000 ft., the Amuri limestone as 2,000 ft. (both low estimates), and the Weka Pass stone and " grey marls " as 700 ft. (a liigh estimate).
410 Transactions.
DIASTROPHIC HISTORY OF THE EAST COAST OF THE SOUTH ISLAND.
Althougli my proposal of the term *' Notocene " was made before all the facts brought out in this paper were known to me, the reasons which I advanced for this grouping of, the yomiger rocks were stated in terms sufficiently general to admit of considerable latitude in detail, and the new facts do not in any way invalidate the usefulness of the grouping. All the Notocene rocks in the three provinces in the eastern part of the South Island Vere deposited between the two eras of major (mountain-building) diastrophism, the post-Hokonui (early Cretaceous) and Kaikoura (late Pliocene or pleistocene) orogenic movements. That the intervening period, during which the Notocene rocks were deposited, was one of relative crustal stability is proved by the general accordance of the Notocene rocks and the absence of planes of acute angular unconformity. Not only was it not claimed that there were no unconformities or disconformities, or that there were not minor diastrophic movements during this period of relative stability, but the existence of the latter, in combination with differential movements of sea-level, was postulated to explain the stratigraphical diversity of the various provinces. •
An attempt may now be made to analyse more closely the succession of events which gave rise to the main elements of the stratigraphy of the three provinces. That there were world-wide transgressions and regressions of the sea during the period from middle Cretaceous to the present day cannot be doubted, and these must have left their trace in New Zealand. The areas affected by these eustatic movements; however, are . not the same for each movement, consequently there must have been also differential movements of the lithosphere in the Notocene. Moreover, there seems to have been a tendency, up to the close of the Oamaruian at least, for the sea to keep, possession of the area it gained from the land, suggesting that the area was prepared for the transgression by a down- warping movement which continued in the same area from one transgression to another.
The first transgression, the " Cenomanian overlap," covered' only a part of east Marlborough, now occupied by Clarentian rocks. A subsequent regression is perhaps indicated by the thinning-out of the Amuri limestone towards the old shore-line in the neighbourhood of the Bluff Kiver and Herring River, but in the Coverham area deposition appears to have gone on uninterruptedly ruitil the upper Oamaruian. I formerly suggested that the Clarentian sea gradually enlarged its borders and that the basal Notocene beds in the Puhipuhi Mountains would prove to be intermediate between Clarentian and Piripauan. This hypothesis has not yet been tested. The next transgression, the Piripauan (Senonian), affected a large area between Kaikoura Peninsula and the Rakaia River, attaining its greatest penetration of the present land in the latter neighbourhood. That the surface at this time was still fairly diversified seems to be proved by the overlap of the various Piripauan beds in the Waipara district. The Piripauan sea still covered the area of the Clarentian transgression, there depositing the basal beds of the Amuri limestone, but the^ fresh area gained from the land was considerable.
The Piripauan rocks are succeeded, apparently without any strati- graphical break, by the Amuri limestone, the deposition of which demands a clear sea of considerable depth. The area occupied by this limestone is, however, closely restricted within that occupied by the Piripauan beds, and there is no overlap over the Piripauan recorded except for the very slight one I have described east of the Weka Pass. Indeed, the Amuri
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District. 411
limestone is absent from part of the Piripaiian area — viz., the Malvern Hills — and. according to Chapman's determination of the age of the supposed Amuri limestone of the Trelissick Basin, from that area also. Whether this absence is due simply to the replacement of calcareous by clastic deposits on approaching the shore-line, or to local uplifts, remains uncertain. If the former were the case a littoral fauna of different age from the Piripauan should be found. What remains certain is that the Amuri limestone sea did not appreciably widen its borders over the Piri- pauan sea, though it was probably deeper, and consequently we cannot speak of a Kaitangatan transgression in North Canterbury, but must suppose that the Piripauan sea was deepened, without being extended, by local downwarping or block-faulting.
The succeeding Oamaruian rocks, which can hardly demand as deep a sea as the Amuri limestone, transgress widely over the latter formation to the, west and south, and the extension of the sea-margin thus indicated was not a gradual one but a sudden one. The surface of the land before this transgression is known to have been of very low relief — i.e., a peneplain ■ — and the attainment of such a surface demands a period of standstill of the strand-line.* This is in accord with the contact between the Weka Pass stone and the Amuri limestone, which represents a period during which deposition practically ceased, perhaps b}^ a shallowing due to regressions, and boring and solution of the upper surface of the Amuri limestone took place. The general lithological similarity of the Oamaruian beds of South Canterbury with the Piripauan beds of North Canterbury suggests similar conditions of coastal relief, so that, although there is direct evidence for a sufficiently diversified surface during the Piripauan to admit of overlap, the relief must have been small. Consequently the period of time recjuired for peneplanation during standstill of the strand was probably not great. The significance attached to the contact between the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone by Hutton and Park, as representing a period of uplift and great erosion, was a mistaken one, and the time interval between the two rocks was very much less than they supposed. Never- theless the contact was a correct one to choose for classification, and. Hutton's Waipara and Oamaru systems are two well-defined natural divisions of the rocks in North Canterbviry, whereas Hector's Cretaceo- Tertiary formation was an unnatural one.
The Oamaruian transgression and regression were not perfectly regular eustatic movements with the Ototara limestone as the middle member representing the period of maximum depression of the land. The contact between the Ototara limestone and the Hutchinson Quarry greensand is very similar to that between the Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, and was probably due to a similar cause — viz., a sudden shallowing of the sea, followed by a period of standstill, There is a similar contact in South Canterbur}' between a lower foraminiferal limestone and an upper polyzoan limestone or calcareous sandstone exhibited both at Waihao and on Mount Craigmore, in the Pareora district. No palaeontological evidence is forthcoming, however, for the correlation of these two phos- phatic horizons, and in the Totara Valley, near Pleasant Point, there is another phosphatic horizon at the top of the upper limestone. Similarly, in the Waipara district, the presence of bored contact between the 'Weka Pass stone and the "grey mayls," and the unconformities in the latter rocks and between them and the lower Mount Brown limestone in the Weka Pass, are suggestive of considerable oscillation of movement during the Oamaruian.
* I am indebted to Dr. Cotton for calling my attention to this important conclusion.
412 Transactions.
Tlie absence of marine rocks above tlie Awamoan in South Canterbury and North Otago, and the probable unconformity between the Mount Brown beds and the Greta beds, suggests a marked regression at the close of the Oamaruian. The succeeding transgression of the Greta and Awatere beds affected an area quite different from that affected by the Oamaruian trans- gression, these beds being entirely absent from Otago and South Canterbury, and in North Canterbury, so , far as is at present known, being confined within the area of the Piripauan beds. In the Awatere district, however, they overlapped the undeilying Notocene rocks on to the pre-Notocene. This distribution can hardly be explained as the result simply of a shallower transgression, though no doubt it was shallower than that of the Oamaruian, but demands differential crustal movements for its explanation — viz., uplift in the south preventing transgression of the sea ; uplifts to the west in North Canterbury restricting the area of the transgression and exposing a surface of pre-Notocene rocks of marked relief to erosion resulting in the gravels of the Greta beds ; and subsidence in the Awatere area. Differential crustal movements at about the same or a slightly earlier period are also demanded in east Marlborough by the presence of the great Marlborough conglomerate. Park's separation of the Greta beds mider the Wanganui system in 1905 was a correct classification.
The Greta transgression was brought to an end by earth-movements which caused tilting of the marine Notocene rocks in North Canterbury, and during the subsequent erosion the terrestrial Kowhai beds were deposited. Finally came the major block-faulting of the Kaikoura orogenic movements, by which all ih.Q Notocene beds wer^ warped or tilted and the Southern Alps and Kaikoura Mountains came into existence as high ranges. The subsequent history comes into the Notopleistocene, and does not fall within the scope of this paper.
BIBLIOGEAPHY.
Baetexjm, J. A., 1919. A Fossiliferous Bed at Kawa Creek, West Coast, South of Waikato River, New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 101-16.
Chapman, F., 1918. Descriptions and Revisions of- the Cretaceous and Tertiary Fish- remains of New Zealand, Pal. Bull. N.Z. Geol. Surv. No. 7, pp. viii, 46, map, and 9 plates.
Cotton, C. A., 1912. Typical Sections showing the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and Weka Pass Stone at Weka Pass, Proc. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44, pp. 84-85.
1916. The Structure and Later Geological History of New Zealand, Geol. Mag.,
dec. 6, vol. 3, pp. 243-49, 314-20. — — 1918. River Terraces in New Zealand, N.Z. Journ. Sci. Tech., vol. 1, pp. 145-52
' (ref. to p. 146, fig. 3). Davis, J. W., 1894. Report on the Fossil-Fish Remains of New Zealand (abstract,
with rectified locaUties by Sir J. Hector), Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1892-93,
No. 22, pp. 93-120, and table. Forbes, C, 1855. On the Geology of New Zealand, with Notes on its Carboniferous
Deposits, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 11, pp. 521-30. GuDEX, M. C, 1918. The Succession of Tertiary Beds in the Pareora District, South
Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 244-62 (ref. to p. 246). Ha AST, J., 1870a. Notes on a Collection of Saurian Remains from the Waipara River,
Canterbury, in the Possession of J. H. Cockburn Hood, Esq., Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 2, pp. ,186-89.
1870b. On the Geology and Palaeontology of the Waipara District, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 2, p. 420 (abstract only).
1871a. On the Geology of the Waipara District, Canterbury, with Geological
Maps and Sections, Itep. Geol. Explor. during 1870-71 [No. 6], pp. 5-19.
1871b. On the Geology of the Amuri District, in the Provinces of Nelson and
Marlborough, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1870-71 [No. 6], pp. 25-46.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District . 413
Haast, J., 1879. Geology of the Provinces of Canterbury and Westland, New Zealand,
Christchurch, 486 pp. Hector, J., 1869. Waipara District, Canterbury, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 186S-09
[No. 5], pp. x-xiii.
1870, Catalogue of the Colonial Museum, Wellington, New Zealand, pp. 157, 183,
190, 193.
1874. On the Fossil Reptilia of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 6, pp. 353-58,
pis. 27-31.
1877a. Marlborough and Amuri Districts, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1873-74
[No. 8], pp. ix-xiii.
1877b. Kaipara District, Rep. Geol. Explor during 1874-76 [No. 9], pp. v-vi.
1877c. Table of Classifications, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1876-77 [No. 10],
jip. iii-v.
1879. Geology, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1878-79 [No. 12], pp. 1-17.
1882. Waitaki Valley and Alps of Otago, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1881 [No. 14],
pp. xxi-xxxii.
1884. System of Classification, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1883-84, No. 16,
pp. x-xv
1886. Detailed Catalogue and Guide to the Geological Department's Exhibits at the
Indian and Colonial Exhibition, and Outline of the Geology of New Zealand, pp. 101.
1887a. [Weka Pass] Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1886-87, No. 18, pp. xi-xiii,
plan and section.
1887b. The Lower Greensand and Cretaceo-Tertiary Formations, Rep. Geol.
Explor. during 1886-87, No. 18, pp. xxxii-xxxiv.
1887c. Index to Fossiliferous Localities in New Zealand, -Rep. Geol. Explor. during
1886-87, No. 18, pp. 255-70.
1888. Waipara and Weka Pass, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1887-88, No. 19,
p. xxxviii.
1892. Waipara, Rep. Geol Explor. during 1890-91, No. 21, pp. 1-Hii.
Henderson, J., 1918. Notes on the Geology of the Cheviot District, N.Z. Journ. Sci.
Tech., vol. i, pp. 171-74.
Hood, J. H. Cockburn, 1870. Geological Observations on the Waipara River, New
Zealand, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 26, pp. 409-13. Htjtton, F. W., 1872. Sjaiopsis of the Younger Formations of New Zealand. Rep.
Geol. Explor. during 1871-72 [No. 7], pp. 182-84.
1877. Report on the Geology of the North-east Portion of the South Island, from
Cook Straits to the Rakaia, Rep. Ged. Explor. during 1873-74 [No. 8 ], pp. 27-58, map and sections.
1885a. Sketch of the Geology of New Zealand, Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc, vol. 41,
pp. 191-220.
1885b. On the Geological Position of the " Weka Pass Stone " of New Zealand,
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41, pp. 266-278.
1885c. On the Correlations of the " Curiosity-shop Bed " in Canterbury, Ne-sj'
Zealand, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 41, pp. 547-84.
1886. The Wanganui System, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 18, pp. 336-67.
1888. On some Railway Cuttings in the Weka Pass, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20.
pp. 257-63, pi. xiv.
1893. On a New Plesiosaur from the Waipara River, New Zealand, Quart. Journ-
Geol. Soc, vol. 49, Proc, p. 151 (abstract).
1894. On a New Plesiosaur from the Waipara River, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 26,
pp. 354-58, pi. xlii.
— — 1900. The Geological History of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 32, pp. 159-83.
Lydekker, R., 1888 and 1889. Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the
British Musexim {Natural History), 2 vols. McKay, A., 1877a. Report on Weka Pass and Buller District, Rep. Geol. Explor.
during 1874-76 [No. 9], pp. 36-42.
1877b. On the Reptilian Beds of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 9.
pp. 581-90.
414 Transactions.
McKay, A., 1877c. Oamaru and Waitaki Districts, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1876-77 [No. 10], pp. 41-66 (ref. to pp. 44-45).
1881. On the Motunau District, Ashley County, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1879-80
[No. 13], pp. 108-18.
1887a. On the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and Weka Pass Stone,
Weka Pass, North Canterbury, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1886-87, No. 18, pp. 78-91.
1887b. On the Identity and Geological Position of the Greensands of the Waihao
Forks, Waihao Valley, South Canterbury, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1886-87,
No. 18, pp. 91-119. 1892. On the Geology of the Middle Waipara and Weka Pass Districts, North
Canterbury, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1890-91, No. 21, pp. 97-103. Marshall, P., 1912. The Younger Rock Series of New Zealand, Geol. Mag., dec. 5,
vol. 9, pp. 314-20.
1913. The " Cretaceo-Tertiary " of New Zealand, Geol. Mag., dec. 5, vol. 10,
pp. 286-87, — — 1916a. The Younger Limestones of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. IriM.. vol. 48. pp. 87-99.
1916b. Relations between Cretaceous and Tertiarv Rocks. Trans. N.Z. InM.,
vol. 48, pp. 100-19.
1917a. Geology of the Central Kaipara, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 433-50.
1917b. Fossils and Age of the Hampden (Onekakara) Beds, Trails. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 49, pp. 463-66. r- 1917c. The Wangaloa Beds, Trans. N.Z. hist., vol. 49, pp. 450-60.
1919. Fauna of the Hampden Beds and Classification of the Oamaru System,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 226-50. Marshall, P., Speight, R., and Cotton, C. A., 1911. The Younger Rock-series of
New Zealand, Trans N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 378-407. Morgan, P. G., 1915. Weka Pass District, North Canterbury, 9th Ann. Rep. (n.s.)
N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pari. Paper C.-2, pp. 90-93. 1916a. Soft-limestone Deposits of Ca2:)e Campbell, Ward, and Waikari Districts,
lOfh Ann. Rep. (n.s.) N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pari. Paper. C.-2b, pp. 15-17.
1916b. Notes of a Visit to Marlborough and North Canterbury, with Especial
Reference to Unconformities post-dating the Amuri Limestones, lOfh Ann. Ann. Rep. (n.s.) N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pari. Paper C.-2b, pp. 17-29.
1916c. Records of Unconformities from Late Cretaceous to Early Miocene in
New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 1-18.
1919. The Limestone and Phosphate Resources of New Zealand (considered
principally in relation to Agriculture), Part I, Limestone, Bull. N.Z. Geol. Surv. (n.s.). No. 22. 316 pp., maps, &c. (ref. to pp. 217-24, 236-37). Owen, R., 1861. On the Remains of a Plesiosaurian Reptile (Plesiosaurus australis) from the Oolitic Formation in the Middle Island of New Zealand, Rep. Brit. Assoc. Trans., pp. 122-23.
1870. Notice of some Saurian Fossils discovered by J. H. Hood, Esq., at
• Waipara, Middle Island, New Zealand, Geol. Mag., vol. 7, pp. 49-53, pi. 3, figs. 1-5. Park, J., 1888a. On the Probable Discovery of Oil and Coal in Wairarapa North County, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1887-88, No. 19, pp. 20-24 (ref. to p. 23).
1888b. On the Geology of Waipara and Weka Pass Districts, Rep. Geol. Explor.
during 1887-88, No. 19, pp. 25-35, with map.
1905. On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and Canterbury, with Special Reference
to the Relations existing between the Pareora: and Oamaru Series, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, pp. 489-551.
1911. The Unconformable Relationship of the Lower Tertiaries and Upper
Cretaceous of New Zealand, Geol. Mag., dec. 5, vol. 8, pp. 538-49.
1912. Tertiary Fossils in the Weka Pass Stone, Geol. Mag., dec. 5, vol. 9, p. 336.
1913. Classification of the Younger Stratified Formations of New Zealand, '^'eoi-
Mag., dec. 5, vol. 10, pp. 438-40. "" — 1917. The Relationship of the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Cainozoic Formations of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 392-94.
Thomson. — Geology of Middle Waipara and Weka Pass District . 415
Speight, R., 1912. A Preliminary Account of the Lower Waipara Gforge, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44, i^p. 221-33.
1915. The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47,
pp. 33&-53.
1917a. The Stratigraphy of the Tertiary Beds of the Trelissick or Castle Hill
Ba^sin, Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 49, pp. 321-56.
1917b. An Unrecorded Tertiary Outlier in the Basin of the Eakaia, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 49, pp. 356-60.
1919. The Older Gravels of North Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51,
pp. 269-81. Speight, R., and Wild, L. J., 1918. The Stratigraphical Relationship of the Weka
Pass Stone and the Amuri Limestone, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, pp. 65-93
{see also Wild and Speight). SuTER, H., 1917. Descriptions of New Tertiary Mollusca occurring in New Zealand,
accompanied bv a Few Notes on Necessary Changes in Nomenclature, Part I,
Pal. Bull. N.Z^ Geol. Stirv. No. 5, pp. x, 93, 13 pi. Thomson, J. Allan, 1912a. On a Discovery of Fossils in the Weka Pass Stone, New
Zealand, Geol. Mag., dec. 5, vol. 9, pp. 335-36. — 1912b. Field-work in East Marlborough and North Canterbury, 6th Ann. Rep.
(«..s.) N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pari. Paper C.-9, pp. 7-9. 1913. Results of Field-work, 7th Ann. Rep. [n.s.] N.Z. Geol. Siirv., Pari. Paper
C.-2, pp. 122-23.
1914. Classification and Correlation of the Tertiary Rocks, 8th Ann. Rep. (n.s.)
N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pari. Paper C.-2, pp. 123-24.
1916. The Flint-beds Associated with the Amuri Limestone of Marlborough,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 48-58. 1917. Diastrophio and other Considerations in Classification and Correlation,
and the Existence of Minor Diastrophic Districts in the Notocene, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 397-413. — — 1918. On the Age of the Waikouaiti Sandstone, Otago, New Zealand, Trans. N.Z.
hist., vol. 50, pp. 196-97. ■ 1919a. The Geology of the Middle Clarence and Ure Valleys, East Marlborough,
New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 51, pp. 289-349. • 1919b. Range of Tertiary Mollusca in the Oamaruian of North Otago and South
Canterbury (abstract), N.Z. Journ. Sci. Tech., vol. 2, p. 286. ■ 1919c. Geological and Palaeontological Notes on the Palliser Bay District, N.Z.
Journ. Sci. Tech., vol. 2, pp. 281-82. Trechmann, C. T., 1917. Cretaceous Mollusca from New Zealand, Geol. Mag., dec. 6,
vol. 4, pp. 294-305, 337-42. Wild, L. J., and Speight, R., 1919. The Limestones of Canterburj^ considered as a
Possible Source of Phosphate, N.Z. Journ. Sci. Tech., vol. 2, pp. 180-92. Woods, H., 1917. The Cretaceous Faunas of the North-eastern Part of the South
Island of New Zealand, Pal. Bull. N.Z. Geol. Surv. No. 4, jip. vi, 42, and 20 pi.
416 Transactions.
Art. XXXIV. — Additional Facts concerning the Distribution of Igneous
Rocks in Neiv Zealand : No. 2.
By J. A. Bartrum, Auckland University College.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 22nd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 16th .July, 1920.]
Plate XXVIII.
In these notes I wish, to record a few identifications of rocks from various places, some possessing considerable interest ; others are quite ordinary types, but none the less it may be useful to have their occurrences placed upon record.
QUARTZ-NORITE,
Cleddau-Hollyford Saddle, South-west Otago.
This rock was gathered, with others, by Mr. R. W. Holmes, Engineer- in-Chief. New Zealand Public Works Department, from the Cleddau- Hollyford Saddle in 1890. In section it appeared to contain an unusual pyroxene, and after some study was sent to Dr. J. A. Thomson, Director of the Dominion Museum, who was so good as to give the rock consider- able attention, and who very kindly has handed over to me the results of his work. His observations corroborated and considerably amplified my own, but unfortunately sufficient information for exact determination is not available from the section, and Mr. Holmes was unable to find the remainder of the rock from which the chip for sectioning was originally taken. I am also greatly indebted to Dr. Thomson for other help, particularly for pointing out that a mineral in this same rock, carelessly identified by me without full investigation as apatite, is probably zoisite, a fact made almost certain by its high index of refraction, straight extinction, low polarization tints, distinct biaxial character with high optic axial angle, and, so far as I can judge from rather unsatisfactory tests, positive optical character.
The rock itself is a fairly coarse-grained dioritic type showing no out- standing characteristics in hand-specimen. Under the microscope it is seen to be a moderately typical norite but for two considerations : first, the plagioclase, which slightly exceeds the ferro-magnesian minerals in amount and with these latter comprises practically the whole of the rock, is somewhat acid, being in the main andesine-labradorite ; secondly, there is distinct acidity, signalized by the presence of a little interstitial quartz. The chemical analysis given below, for which I am indebted to the Dominion Analyst, through the courtesy of Mr. P. G. Morgan, Director of the New Zealand Geological Survey, fully exempUfies these characteristics, and shows that chemically the rock is an intermediate type. Mineralogically, however, it is very closely allied to the norites, and for this reason I have classed it with them.
The structure is coarse and even-grained, the ferro-magnesians occasion- ally being recognizably ophitic to the plagioclase. Of the former group of minerals, one that would ordinarily be identified unhesitatingly as hyper- sthene is probably the most prominent, whilst pale-green augite and deep
Tfans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LI I.
Plate XXVIIT.
Fia. 1.
Fio
Fig. 1. — Quartz-norite, Cleddau-Hollyford Saddle, illustrating the structure and the mineral relationshijjs. The field of the photograph coincides with a portion of the diagrammatic sketch of the text-figure, and the identification of the minerals is possible from the labelling of that sketch. The enclosure of hypersthene by augite is evident at the left-hand end of the horizontal diameter, whilst the jienetration of the same augite crystal by zoisite (dark) is also recognizable. The interstitial quartz is very obvious. In the lower right-hand quadrant it is just possible to recognize some fine lamellae of augite intergrown with a crystal of hypersthene-like pjTOxene (dark). Crossed nicols. Magnification, 35 diameters.
Fig. 2. — Dolerite, Silverdale, Auckland. The general ophitic structure can readily be recognized, as also the bar-like growths of iron-ore. Crossed nicols. Magni- fication, 20 diameters.!
'V ft*,* ^- •
-1 ''> '•
\1 .• #:. M
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. — Basalt, near old wharf, Ti Point, Whangateau Harbour. A typical olivine phenocryst. fringed by a rim of oxidation, set in a groundmass in which augite plays an important part. Ordinary light. Magnification, 35 diameters.
Fig. 4. — Basalt, Ohakune ballast-pit. A central crj'stal of olivine (dark) with wide celyphitic rim of augite (mainly white). Some feldspar laths show up in the groundmass, but the olivine laths are here inconspicuous owing to clouding by haematite, whilst abundant vesicles also render the slide dark. Crossed nicols. Magnification, 21 diameters.
Face p. 416.]
Bartrum. — The Distribution of Igneous Bocks in Neiv Zealand. 417
reddish-brown biotite are also very common. Reasons will be given later for the belief that probably a third pyroxene is also present. The hyper- sthene is in fairly idiomorphic crystals, and preceded the augite, whilst the biotite is later, for its large fresh crystals poecilitically enclose pyroxene, iron-ore, and even quartz grains. The pyroxenes all show imperfect schiller structure ; they are occasionally fringed by a Httle bright grass-green hornblende, which from its association appears largely resOrption-prodUct, though perhaps in part outgrowth. Ilmenite is fairly abundant in coarse irregular masses, but magnetite also is common.
Diagrammatic Sketch (x 45) illustrating Rel.\tions of Zolsite to OTnER
Minerals, and General Structure. (See Plate XXVIII, fig. 1.) All. = augite ; Hy. = hypersthene ; PI. = plagioclase ; Q. = quartz ; Z. = zoisite.
Amongst the primary minerals I must finally mention the mineral identified at first by me as apatite, but recognized by Dr. Thomson as zoisite. It is in occasional rather allotriomorphic crystals up to 0-6 mm. in diameter, and one crystal is encased in a zone of iron-ore. In the instance portrayed by the figure above and the photomicrograph of Plate XXVIII, fig. 1, and in one other, the zoisite is enwrapped (by augite in the text-figure) in a manner that makes it certain that it was formed before the later stages of crystallization of the rock, and therefore is primary. The plagioclase includes occasional rutile needles.
An Undetermined Pyroxene.
A number of crystals of a pyroxene were observed in this rock, which in many respects greatly resembles hypersthene, but from other consider- ations I am inclined to believe must be referred to a closely allied mono- clinic pyroxene of a series either identical with or analogous to that of which the now well-known enstatite-augite is a member. These pyroxenes show a microscopic twinning lamination parallel to their elongation, and in addition are frequently intergrown with minute plates of obvious mono- clinic pyroxene approaching diopside, besides containing irregular inclu- sions of this latter mineral. The pleochroism distinctive of hypersthene
14 — Trans.
418 Transactions.
is general, the optical character is negative, and the elongation positive, whilst the optic axial angle is small. Most important of all, however, the extinction, whilst often nearly straight, reaches generally as high as 5° with the composition-planes of the lamellae, and in one or two crystals angles of over 15° are got with the cleavage. Were it that only one or two crystals showed the obliquity of extinction one might suspect some inaccuracy of observation, but at least eight in the slide show it. Further, even greater obliquity of extinction, with similar very finely microscopic twinning, is shown by nearly a dozen crystals of apparently identical hypersthene-like pyroxene in a noritic rock discovered at Milford, and described later in this paper (see p. 420).
In some instances the lamellae are here much broader than in others, whilst the extinction angles generally range up to 15°, but in one case up to as much as 42°. As a rule, the lamellae extinguish together in the one direction, but this is by no means invariably the case. In the Milford, as in the Cleddau-HoUyford rock, there is parallel intetgrowth with fine lamellae of augite. It may be thought that the crystal in which the extinction angles of the lamellae reached 42° exemplifies a similar parallel intergrowth with augite, but this is not so, for the lamellae are very dis- tinct and comprise the whole mineral, which certainly is not an ordinary monoclinic pyroxene, for it is optically negative and has the distinct hypersthene-hke pleochroism already noted. There is, however, one pecuh- arity of this crystal that may have a bearing upon the matter — namely, the optic axial angle appears to be large.
Only one further observational fact now remains to be mentioned in connection with this pyroxene, but it is of importance : the plane of the optic axes coincides with the composition-plane of the lamellar twin. Since the extinction is oblique, this plane must be at right angles to the plane of symmetry — that is, to the 100 plane — as in normal hypersthene. The lamellar twin appears not to follow the plane 110 frequent in the inter- growths of rhombic and monoclinic pyroxenes, for all the sections showing the lamination distinctly are approximately at right angles to the optic axial plane ; nor is it the common 010 plane.* It is much more reasonably the 100 plane observed by Bowen in artificial cUno-enstatite.t On this supposition, however, it is difficult to understand why the lamellae often appear all to extinguish in the same direction.
Enough data are available to show that a monoclinic pyroxene of unusual type is exhibited in the sections from the Cleddau-Hollyford and the Milford rocks. It approaches hypersthene, but differs from it in its obhque extinction, and it seems probable that it is a monocHnic member of a series embracing this latter. It is obvious that much of the mineral in the sections that is apparently hypersthene may really be this mono- clinic pyroxene viewed in sections lying near the orthopinacoid.
Chemical Classification.
An analysis of the Cleddau-Hollyford quartz-norite by the Dominion Analyst gave the results tabulated in column A below. In columns B and C the analyses of somewhat similar rocks are quoted from Iddings.J
* See H. RosENBUscH, Mikroskopische Physiographie der Mineralien und Gesteine, vol. 1, pt. 2, p. 149, 1905.
t N. L. Bowen, The Ternary System Diopside-Forsterite-Silica, Am. Journ. Sci. (4), vol. 38, pp. 207-64, 1914.
J J. P. Iddings, Igneous Rocks, vol. 2, p. 218, 1913.
Bartrum. — The Distribution of Igneous Bocks in New Zealand. 419
The norms and classifications method are also appended.
BiOg AI2O3
FeO MgO CaO ■NaaO K2O H2O TiOg GO2
P2O5 MnO
|
ited by • |
the CLP. |
W. quantitative |
|
A. |
B. |
C. |
|
5246 |
53-50 |
52-8 |
|
18-58 |
22-20 |
17-8 |
|
4-76 |
3-60 |
1-2 |
|
4-03 |
2-64 |
4-8 |
|
4-72 |
2-00 |
4-8 |
|
8-56 |
9-45 |
12-9 |
|
3-86 |
4-26 |
3-0 |
|
1-14 |
0-61 |
0-5 |
|
0-57 |
1-50 |
1-2 |
|
0-60 |
0-45 |
0-5 |
|
0-51 |
;; |
;; |
|
0-14 |
0-35 |
99-93
100-56
99-5
Norms and Classification.
Quartz
Orthoclase
Albite ..
Anorthite
Diopside
Hypersthene
Magnetite
Ilnienite
Apatite
(Water)
|
A. |
B. |
C. |
|
2-64 |
4-2 |
2-2 |
|
6-67 |
3-3 |
2-8 |
|
32-49 |
36-2 |
25-2 |
|
30-02 |
39-8 |
33-6 |
|
7-07 |
5-8 |
24-8 |
|
11-08 |
3-4 |
7-0 |
|
6-96 |
5-1 |
1-6 |
|
1-22 |
0-9 |
0-9 |
|
1-24 |
, , |
, , |
|
(0-57) |
(1-5) |
(1-2 |
99-96
100-2
99-3
Classification .. II.5.3(4).4 'II.5.'4.'5 ir.5.4.'5
(Andose.)
A. Quartz-norite, Cleddau-HoUyford Saddle, New Zealand. (Dominion
Analyst.)
B. Quartz-gabbro, Carrok Fell, England.
C. Gabbro, Druim an Eidhne, Isle of Skye.
The norm agrees well with the observed mineral composition, although it is difiicult to account for the apatite shown by the norm and indicated by the chemical analysis : apatite appears to be practically absent from the section examined.
Another more typical coarse norite was amongst the material collected by Mr. Holmes from the Cleddau-Hollyford Saddle. The plagioclase (labradorite) and ferro-magnesian minerals are subequal ; of the ferro- magnesians, hypersthene and augite are both plentiful, the former the more so ; it is often finely lamellar ag in the quartz-norite, but the extinction appears here to be straight. A brownish-green hornblende clouded by dust-like iron-ore occurs in large crystals which poecilitically enclose the pyroxenes and some feldspar. Some of the augite is intergrown with the amphibole ; it is occasionally lamellar, passing to diallage. The hypersthene 14*
420 Transactions.
is largely converted to a finely fibrous, tufted, alnnost colourless aggregate bordered by green ; it is referred with some diffidence to tremolite and actinolite.
NORITE, Wairau Creek, Milford, Auckland.
I found a very-well-rounded boulder about 5 in. in diameter included in the sandstones of the Waitemata beds at the mouth of Wairau Creek, a little north of Lake Takapuna, and quite unaccompanied by other boulders or pebbles. It is a very coarse norite with plagioclase (medium labradorite) a little more plentiful than the ferro-magnesian minerals, which are hypersthene (including an alhed pyroxene dealt with on p. 417) and less abundant diallage. The hypersthene is being converted into talc, and particularly adjacent to cracks there is chloritization and the entrance of fine pyrite.
DOLEEITE, Swinging-basin, Silverdale, Auckland.
This occurs as coarse angular blocks several feet in diameter, unearthed during excavation for the swinging-basin at the Silverdale (Wade) wharf on the Welti Stream, which flows to the east coast about twenty miles north of Auckland. Though apparently the actual outcrop is not laid bare, yet this cannot be far distant, unless — a suggestion their comparative freedom from weathering would negative — the blocks come from the formerly over- lying Waitemata beds now removed by erosion froTto the stratigraphically lower hydraulic limestone of this area, but which contain large blocks of andesite and perhaps other igneous types not far distant on Whangaparaoa Peninsula. The site of discovery of the dolerite is immediately adjacent to where McKay maps one of his serpentine dykes* (which, however, I was unable to locate during my brief visit), and the idea suggested itself that there might be some connection between the intrusion of the two rocks. Professor W. N. Benson remarks anent this point, after examination of the dolerite section, " It ,does not contain albite, and is more like the post-peridotitic than the pre-peridotitic of my New South Wales dolerite
dykes."t
Macroscopically the rock is a very dark finely holocrystalUne type with inconspicuous glistening lath-like feldspars and prominent chloritized ferro- magnesian mineral. In section the most striking feature is the ophitic structure ; the mass consists largely of large labradorite laths, between which is faintly pleochroic partially chloritized pink augite in somewhat columnar crystals, and a profusion of irregular iron-ore growths and skeleton crystals enwrapped by the pyroxene (see photomicrograph, Plate XXVIII, fig. 2). The feldspars are fairly fresh, but a Uttle secondary calcite and a very great deal of chlorite developed from the augite are present.
BASALT,
" SuGARLOAF," Matakana-Leigh Road, Rodney County.
The " Sugarloaf " is a conical knob a little west of the main road from Matakana to the Omaha, and about two miles from Matakana. It is mapped as igneous by Cox in his report on the geology of the Rodney and Marsden
* A. McKay, On the Occurrence of Serpentine Dykes in Cretaceo-Tertiary Strata near the Wade, Auckland, Rep. Geol. Explor. during 1883-84, pp. 99-101, 1884. t Letter dated 13th September, 1918.
Bartrhm.— TAe Distribution of Igneous Rocks in New Zealand. 421
Counties,* and is in fact a basalt neck breaking tbrougb the massive con- cretionary greensands of the Waitemata series, which are well exposed near by. The basalt is a fairly typical holocrystalline t5^pe, rich in coarse idiomorphic phenocrysts of oUvine and pale-greenish augite, with numerous smaller intermediate crystals of plagioclase showing good fluxional arrange- ment. The groundmass is largely of small feldspar laths enclosing a moderate number of pyroxene grains and small magnetite crystals.
BASALT,
Ti Point, Whangateau Harbour, Kodney County.
This occurrence is referred to as a dyke and also mapped by Cox in the paper just quoted. Several sections were cut from various parts of the mass forming the small peninsula of Ti Point. There is often good fluxional banding shown in the field, but the differences in section are unimportant, except that flow structure is better shown in some sections than others. There are resemblances to the x\uckland basalts, but the chief differences lie in the more sharply idiomorphic nature of the large very abundant olivine phenocrysts, and the greater proportion of augite in the finely holocrystalline groundmass (see photomicrograph, Plate XXVIII, fig. 3). Feldspar scarcely occurs in the first generation, and augite is unimportant. The olivine is almost invariably oxidized on its margins, and stained thereby a deep reddish. This phase of oxidation accompanying extrusion is even better exemplified by a basalt from Ohakune, next to be described.
Mr. H. G. Cousins, Director of the Teacherb' Training College, Auckland, closely studied this rock some years ago, and very kindly has allowed me to read his unpublished thesis thereon. He shows that the eruption has burst through the Waitemata beds, and concludes, mainly from consider- ations of denudation, that the period of extrusion was probably Upper Miocene. I entirely agree with him that it was probably not contempo- raneous with that of the basalts of Auckland, but much earlier.
BASALT, Public Works Department Ballast-pit, Ohakune.
I am indebted to Mr. F. E. Mason, of the Seddon Memorial Technical College, for specimens of this rock. My sections are decidedly interesting, and deserve comment. Much of the material is highly scoriaceous, and stained a deep chocolate-red through oxidation.
The phenocrysts are coarse glomeroporphyritic groups of colourless augite and a few olivine crystals. In the groundmass are but a few augite crystals, with subequal parts of plagioclase laths and another mineral comprising the main portion. This other mineral is also lath-like, is greatly stained by haematite as a result of oxidation of contained ferrous compounds during the final phases of the eru^ption, and seems certainly to be olivine, for it has straight extinction, very high refraction and birefringence, and a high optic axial angle. The optical character was not satisfactorily deter- mined. Fine iron-ore is moderately abundant. Occasionally, as the photo- micrograph (Plate XXVIII. fig. 4) depicts, the olivine phenocrysts are enwrapped more or less celyphitically by a rim of augite.
' ^^__ \
* S. H. Cox, Geology of the Rodney and Marsden Counties, Rep, Geol. Explor. during 1879-80, pp. 13-39, 1881.
422 Transactions.
HYPEESTHENE-ANDESITE,
South-east Flank op Mount Hikurangi, Whangarei District.
A greyish porphyritic rock with idiomorphic phenocrysts of hypersthene, coarse plagioclase from the acid end of the series, and rare brownish-green hornblende. There are in addition numerous smaller lath-like feldspars, arranged with noticeable parallelism, and some fairly large sporadic iron- ore crystals, enclosed with the major phenocrysts in a somewhat lithoidal irresolvable matrix in which magnetite specks furnish the only recognizable mineral, and which appears to be densely cryptocrystalline. The hyper- sthene is not plentiful, and is only in small crystals in the two sections cut, though occasional crystals reaching as much as 1 J in. in length can be gathered in the field.
Art. XXXV. — The Conglomerate at Albany, Lucas Creek, Waitemata
Harbour.
By J. A. Bartrum, Auckland University College.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 22nd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st
^ December, 1919 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1920.}
I
Plate XXIX.
About 200 yards up-stream from the lower wharf at Albany (see locality map), conglomerate bands outcrop which have given rise to abundant cobbles strewing the banks of Lucas Creek in the vicinity. They are without doubt members of the local Tertiary sequence known as the Waitemata beds, but their horizon therein is doubtful, for folding and faulting are common in the sandstones on the shores of the upper Waitemata Harbour (into which Lucas Creek flows) and obscure the sequence. The writer is inclined to place the conglomerate bands amongst the lowest of the Waite- mata beds in the near vicinity of Auckland, but there is at present no means of fixing their absolute horizon, and, as the purpose of this paper lies rather in the direction of describing the interesting assortment of rock- varieties in the bands than in discussing their stratigraphy, this aspect will not receive further attention herein.
The main band of conglomerate near Albany is about 12 ft. thick, and has a strike that is approximately north-east by east and south-west by west, and a dip of 45° up-stream to the north-west by north. About 20 ft. beneath it is a similar band of smaller cobbles 2 ft. in thickness. Not many yards down-stream the direction of dip is reversed, the sandstones dipping gently in an approximately south-east direction. The actual reason for the reversal is obscure : it may be anticlinal structure, for there is evidence at Riverhead favouring this explanation, although the conglomerate was not found to reoccur in the down-stream section.*
* A much-weathered coarse conglomerate is exposed at Cut Hill, about two miles south-south-east of the Albany outcrop, but it appears that this band is not the same as the Albany one.
Baetrum. — The Conglomerate at Albany.
423
424 Transactions.
The material of the bands consists of very-well-rounded pebbles and boulders usually a few inches in diameter, but reaching as much as \\ ft., set in fine mortar ; they appear typical sea-beach drift, a conclusion borne out by the discovery of shell-fragments in a somewhat calcareous fine grit- conglomerate about 20 ft. to 25 ft. in depth overlying the upper conglome- rate band, and outcropping, therefore, up-stream from it. In facies these boulders consist mainly (perhaps 90 ^ per cent.) of rocks of holocrystalline igneous character, many distinctly gneissic in structure, along with grey- wackes, andesites, and occasional trachytes and cherts.
No attempt was made to trace these conglomerate bands across the low hills, rising to about 400 ft. above sea-level, immediately west of Lucas Creek, because of the heaw overburden of residual clav general upon the hills of the district ; they were looked for and picked up again in the low-lying wide basin adjoining the Rangitopuni and Mahoenu Streams (see locality map), into which the roads from Albany to Riverhead descend, and where one can find not only distinctive shoading but also several outcrops adjacent to the main road to Riverhead. About two miles east of this latter place, just above the conglomerate is a quartz-rich grit which passes into a fine grit-breccia about 1 ft. in depth, containing fragments of wood, pumice, and a very dense felsitic mica-rhyolite in fragments ranging up to |in. in diameter The dip is about 80° to the south-south-west. In the main conglomerate band of this outcrop jasperoid argillite, greywacke, and a good deal of andesite, some of it very coarsely porphyritic and very strongly oxidized, are frequent, in addition to the dioritic types common at Albany. Towards Riverhead the band of grit- breccia characterized by the pumice and other rhyolite thickens consider- ably, and the material also is coarser, forming a very curious firmly cemented breccia where it is exposed in the tideway near the paper-mills at Riverhead. It is not far above the main conglomerate band — here of much smaller pebbles than elsewhere ; below this latter also are several distinct bands, each about 2 ft. in depth, of fairly coarse conglomerate. The tide was unsuitable for close investigation of these bands during the writer's visit, but they did not appear to be of special interest.
Petrography op the Conglomerate Bands.
In a recent volume of these Transactions the writer (Bartrum, 1917) described gneissic diorites discovered in loose boulders at Albany, and suggested that they had come from a boulder-bed known to outcrop near by in the Waitemata beds. Upon visiting the locality he soon found that his surmise was correct, and recognized several other rock-types in addition to the two represented in the specimens first given to him. There are several plutonic types, which nearly all show the effects of considerable pressure' notably granulation in various stages of intensity. The complete list is as follows : —
(a.) Rocks of sedimentary facies.
1. Greywackes (fairly common).
2. Jasperoid argillite (rare).
3. Chert (rare).
No particular attention was accorded the pebbles of sedimentary facies, as the writer's interest lay chiefly with the igneous types, so that the above list may be very incomplete. The greywackes and argillite are obviously derived from the " Maitai " rocks, which form the basement of the Waitemata beds. The chert resembles rocks of similar appearance which
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XXIX.
Fig 1.
Fig.
Fig. I.
Fig.
-Granodiorite. The lower half of the photomicrograph illustrates a large crystal of amphibole ophitically enclosing plagioclase. Above this, granulation and shadow extinction are just detectable in the quartz. Crossed nicols. Magni- fication, 20 diameters.
-Banded dioritic gneiss. The granulitic structure is well exhibited. Crossed nicols. Magnification, 21 diameters.
liG. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 3. — Dolerite showing the lath-like foi-m of the feldspars, which are ophitically enwrapped by amphibole. Crossed nicols. Magnification, 21 diameters.
Fig. 4. — Trachyte. The upper portion of the coarse white mineral is plagioclase, the lower sanidine, the intervening dark area being a gap in the section. Crossed nicols. Magnification, 21 diameters.
Face p. i2/.l
Bartrum. — The Conglomerate at Albany. 425
are common in the liydraulic limestone member of the Oamaru system of Marshall (1911, pp. 22 et seq.) ; such an origin would raise no fresh difficulty, for Hector (Cox, 1881, p. 29) and Henderson (1914, p. 157) have observed pebbles of the hydraulic limestone itself in Tertiary conglomerates in various places in the Warkworth-Mahurangi district and elsewhere, from which Henderson has deduced the discontinuity of sequenc^e of the rocks of the Oamaru system in that district, which is not far distant from Albany. '
(b.) Rocks of igneous origin.
1. Granodiorite (granulated).
2. Quartz-diorite (granulated). .3. Banded dioritic gneiss.
4. Diorite (granulated)".
5. Anorthosite.
6. Dolerites.
7. Andesites of varied type.
8. Trachytes.
9. Rhyolite (not in the main boulder-band itself).
The granulated ^iorites preponderate amongst the igneous types, and must constitute 80 per cent, of the pebbles in the outcrop of the con- glomerate at Albany.
Description of Types.
1. Granodiorite (granulated). A fairly common type. A fresh coarse-grained rock, outwardly dioritic and rich in hornblende. In section notably and coarsely ophitic (see Plate XXIX, fig. 1). The light-coloured minerals comprise nearly two-thirds of the rock : basic andesine is the most abundant of them, and next in order come orthoclase and quartz, this last interstitial and abundant. The darker minerals consist of a very little coarse iron-ore and large hornblende crystals enclosing smaller ones of andesine in perfect ophitic manner. A little apatite furnishes the only accessory besides the iron- ore. The efiects of severe pressure are very obvious — shadow extinction and 'granulation of quartz and sometimes orthoclase, and bending of the twinning lamellae of the plagioclase.
2. Quartz-diorite (granulated).
This type was described in an earlier paper by the writer (Bartrum, 1917, p. 423) ; it approaches the granodiorite mineralogically, but differs from it structurally.
3. Bamled Dioritic Gneiss.
The banded structure is quite obvious in hand-specimen. In section it is somewhat lost sight of owing to the mosaic-like structure resulting from complete granulation (see Plate XXIX, fig. 2). In composition it is practically the same as the general granulated diorite next to be described, and there is no need to supplement the brief description of this type published in the earlier paper just referred to.
4. Diorite (granulated).
Judging by macroscopic examination, the vast majority of the pebbles
and boulders of the conglomerate belong to this type — a moderately fine
even-grained dioritic rock, showing numerous glistening feldspars and darker
amphiboles. Usually under the microscope there is sufficient granulation
426 Transactions.
of the borders of the crystals to give an appearance approaching that of a mosaic, owing to the rather equidimensional rounded crystals of green amphibole and plagioclase in approximately equal proportions. A little iron-ore is present, and usually sphene, the latter sometimes quite plentiful. Pyrite is a common secondary adjunct. Much of the amphibole is fibrous, and in cases is developed as uralite from central kernels of unchanged augite. In one or two sections the feldspars have a distinct broad lath-like form.
5. Anorthosite.
A boulder of this roek about 18 in. in diameter was found in the debris of an outcrop of conglomerate alongside the Albany-Riverhead Road. Macroscopically it is a greyish or bluish-white crystalline rock resembhng marble, and weathering to a white kaolinitic product. It has small patches of green chlorite, and others of a reddish-brown mineral which apparently is a chloritized mica aUied to biotite, and which shows distinct pearly cleavage- faces.
Seen in section, almost the whole of the rock appears as a highly refractive colourless mineral. Its allotriomorphic equidimensional crystals are very strongly cleaved, are fractured, and are separated by zones of a weakly refractive substance which also penetrates the fractures in the main mineral and has every appearance of being a derivative from it. A Uttle chlorite (perhaps derived from biotite) and zoisite are also present.
The mineral constituting the mass of the rock shows some perthitic inter- growths, much irregular twin-lamination, and occasional definite twin- lamellae giving extinction angles of 45° on either side* of the composition plane. It was tentatively identified by the writer as a basic plagioclase, and Dr. J. Allan Thomson has been kind enough to confirm this identification. The residuum of feebly refractive mineral was regarded by the writer as a zeolite, but Dr. Thomson suggests that it is largely a more acid feldspar.
No exact quantitative chemical analysis of the rock was made, but Mr. A. H. Bowell, of Auckland University College, performed tests which showed that it is essentially a silicate rich in alumina and lime, with only traces of iron and potassium, and very little magnesia. No attempt was made to ascertain the sodium content.
The writer is convinced that this rock is a plu tonic type, for he considers that the finely crystalline material is secondary in origin ; he therefore classes it as an anorthosite, a rock of somewhat rare occurrence.
6. Dolerites.
Three specimens of dolerites were collected showing slight differences in the hand-specimen, and only with difficulty separable from the diorites. In mineralogical character they are very similar to the diorites, for they consist of amphibole and basic andesine, the former slightly in excess of the latter. Coarse irregular ilmenite is general, and is sometimes associated with sphene. There is usually a little secondary pyrite and epidote. There are two important differences from the diorites : (a) absence of granulation or other signs of intense pressure, (b) structure. It is on the basis of the structure that they are here classed as dolerites ; the texture is coarse and even- grained, and the amphibole has markedly ophitic relations to the long irregular laths of feldspar, as Plate XXIX, fig. 3, well shows.
Some of the greenish amphibole is fibrous uralite obviously derived from augite, as in the diorites, for cores of unreplaced earlier mineral survive. Generally the amphibole is a coarse green hornblende, but often it is a finely bladed, or even granular, apparently secondary variety.
Bartrum. — The Conglomerate at Albany. 421
7. Andesites.
In general the amdesitic material is much weathered and altered, the ferro-magnesian minerals in particular having been afiected. It was not to be expected, considering the wealth of variety of our Auckland andesites, that any new types would be revealed. Several varieties, however, were discovered, some with plagioclase as the chief phenocryst, others with some or other ferro-magnesian mineral more prominent in the first generation ; but as a rule chlorite and other secondary aggregates greatly mask the original nature of the rocks. Mention may be made of the following varieties : —
Hypersthene-andesite. — Macroscopically a particularly coarsely porphy- ritic type with coarse phenocrysts of pyroxene and feldspar. The hyper- sthene is accompanied by some augite and is largely replaced by calcite. Some small serpentine pseudomorphs suggest olivine. The groundmass is hyalopilitic.
Pyroxene-andesite. — Another very coarsely porphyritic andesite, rather light grey in colour. In section phenocrysts of colourless hypersthene are both abundant and coarse, along with large equally colourless augite crystals. Most of the rest of the rock is composed of much smaller phenocrysts and intermediate lath-hke crystals of plagioclase, there being quite a minor amount of the microcrystalline residuum of feldspar, pyroxene, and a little magnetite. There is some coarse totally resorbed hornblende.
Another interesting andesite, in which plagioclase is the only important phenocryst, shows an abundance of branching growths of iron-ore in the groundmass. The ferro-magnesian phenocrysts are small, infrequent, and greatly altered. There are common inclusions of aggregated quartz grains, often with epidote and chlorite, around which the iron-ore growths form a conspicuously dense halo-like border. Coarse secondary epidote is frequent.
8. Trachytes.
These are rare ; only two types were found, both typical trachytes, so far as macroscopical examination is concerned, but one characterized by a little biotite and the other by a little hornblende.* In section both types show many idiomorphic plagioclase phenocrysts, with more numerous but smaller sanidine ones.
In the hornblende-bearing type the amphibole is the green variety, and is in scattered idiomorphic crystals. The groundmass is almost entirely feldspathic : a few plagioclase laths are clear-cut and determinable, but the main mass is of small ill-defined crystals lacking the albite lamination, and presumably alkali-feldspar. Plate XXIX, fig. 4, shows the general structure fairly well.
Though the biotite of the biotite variety is apparent in the hand- specimen, the only section cut shows no phenocr5^sts of that mineral, but numerous small shreds of it in a groundmass built up almost wholly of narrow laths of feldspar which lack the albite twinning and often show good fluxional arrangement. f
9. Rhyolites.
Fragments of a curious white porcellanous felsitic rhyolite are frequent, along with pumice and other material, in a thin band of grit-breccia
* A third variety has been found since the above was written ; it is a silky rock with phenocrysts of conspicuous greenish- brown hornblende.
t A third type has been found recently ; it has fairly conspicuous phenocrysts of brown anaphibole.
4:28 Transactions.
already described as exposed about two miles from Riverhead alongside the Albany-Riverhead Road, and again near the paper-mills at Riverhead itself, where the fragments are much coarser. The finer portions of the grit-breccia are largely angular quartz grains with flakes of biotite, small grains of the whitish rhyolite, and some of fine argillite.
The rhyolite exhibits a few corroded quartz phenocrysts of moderate size, and plentiful small rather rod-like flakes of brown biotite in a dense ground- mass of minute microlites of feldspar, which are arranged more or less in parallelism with the biotite flakes, and are enwrapped by a small amount of irresolvable base from which they have only imperfectly separated.
Significance of the Material of the Albany Conglomerate.
The probable origin of the sedimentary material included in the con- glomerate has already been sufficiently considered (see p. 424),' for it raises no point of especial interest. The igneous constituents, however, present a very different case.
There is very general agreement amongst New Zealand geologists (Fraser and Adams, 1907, table' facing p. 22) that the eruptions of andesite which have contributed so largely to the building of Coromandel Peninsula and other northern parts of Auckland Province probably began before the Miocene, and thus before the period of formation of the Waitemata beds, which are commonly regarded as Upper Miocene in age. Andesitic eruptions have evidently been common since pre-Jurassic times, for andesitic pebbles are found in JuraSsic rocks in the Cape Colville Peninsula (Fraser and Adams, 1907, p. 52j, at Port Waikato (Bartrum, 1917, p. 422), and elsewhere. The writer has observed andesitic debris capping hills adjacent to the hill route between Riverhead and Helensville, not many miles from Riverhead, which may represent an extrusion of pre- Waitemata time.
Rhyolites are first known in the Auckland Province from the sup- posedly pre-Jurassic sediments (Tokatea Hill series) of Coromandel Pen- insula (Fraser and Adams, 1907, p. 43), and have considerable importance from early in the Tertiary (Fraser and Adams, 1907. table facing p. 22). Their only special interest as concerns this paper is that they have not been recorded previously from any of the other conglomerate or grit bands in the Waitematas.*
The presence in abundance of gneissic rocks in the Albany conglomerate raises an interesting question regarding the earlier geological history of the North Island of New Zealand, but so large a one that it is inadvisable to deal with it at all fully in a paper such as this, devoted mainly to petrographic description. Briefly, the facts are these : —
1. Gneissic plutonic rocks occur in the North Island of New Zealand in conglomerates at Alexandra, in the King-country (Park, 1893) ; at the gorge of the Waipaoa River, Poverty Bay (Sollas and McKay, 1906, pp. 175 et seq.) ; in Cretaceous or early Tertiary beds in the Whangaroa district (Bell and Clarke, 1909, p. 50) ; in " Maitai " conglomerates in the Hautotara Mountains of south-east Wellington (Sollas and McKay, 1906, p. 185) ; and, as now recorded, at Albany.
* This statement requires some modification: C. E. Fox (1902, p. 462) records fragments of pumice. Their presence is, however, no necessary indication of the vicinity of a rhyolitic terrain, for pumice can be naturally transported immense distances by water. An interesting example of this fact is furnished by the presence of abundant pumice in sub-recent shore-deposits at the Big Omaha, south of Cape Rodney, which has probably been carried by the coastal drift around Cape Colville from the east coast.
Bartrum. — The Conglomerate at Albany. 429
2. The basement rocks* of the North Island consist of shales and greywackes which are largely unfossiliferous and therefore of uncertain age, though in part mid-Mesozoic (Marshall, 1911, p. 20). These rocks were subjected to compression in the later Mesozoic which locally was moderately intense, but caused no noteworthy metamorphism in the North Island area. In the Whangaroa district, it is true, schistosity is locally developed in altered igneous rocks associated with the basement strata of that district (Bell and Clarke, 1909, p. 44), though it is still by no means certain that folding movements earlier than the late Mesozoic may not have affected them. In the South Island metamorphism is very general in the members of the oldermass associated with rocks lithologically similar to those of the basement rocks of the north, but it is probable that this metamorphism long antedated the late Mesozoic orogenic movements (Morgan and Bartrum, 1915, pp. 67-71).t
Plutonic intrusions are r&re in the North Island, but such as there are perhaps synchronize with the vastly greater ones of the west coast of the South Island. Fraser and Adams (1907) assign a pre-Jurassic age to the Moehau intrusion of Coromandel Peninsula, whilst Marshall inclines to the belief that the olivine-norite at Ahipara, in North Auckland, underlies the Mesozoic (" Maitai ") beds of that district — an important conclusion— and considers the schillerization of the augite of the norite evidence of intense pressure. It is necessary to add that it is obvious from his paper that Marshall (1908) believes that this pressure was associated with the late Mesozoic orogenic movements. In the South Island some at least of the granite and other batholithic intrusions, if not Palaeozoic, wefe certainly very early Mesozoic in age, for pebbles of granite and other plutonic types are found in a conglomerate near Nelson (Marshall, 1904).
Having regard, then, to the probable early date of the plutonic intru- sions of the North Island, and to the lack of noteworthy metamorphism throughout the sediments of the oldermass, there is surely justification for more than a suspicion that the gneissic constituents of the con- glomerates already mentioned are vestiges of a land area which antedated the period of deposition of the Mesozoic (" Maitai ") sediments, and which suffered in turn folding and severe erosion so that intrusive batholiths were uncovered and caused to protrude. Support is afforded this idea by the presence of dioritic material in Jurassic shales in Coromandel Peninsula (Fraser and Adams, 1907), of granitic pebbles in Jurassic sand- stones at Kawhia (McKay, 1884), and of a foliated granite in a con- glomerate in the " Maitai " rocks of the Hautotara Mountains of south- east Wellington (Sollas and McKay, 1906, p. 185) ; but it must be admitted that these plutonic rocks have not been found in the lowest rocks of the sequence either at Coromandel or Kawhia, whilst they are absent from many other known conglomerate bands in the basement rocks. Much can be argued both for and against this view that the writer is inclined to favour with regard to the significance of the gneissic boulders, but one cannot ignore the possibility that these rocks disclose a glimpse of the early geological history of the North Island of which we are ignorant. In the present state of our knowledge it is impossible to come to any conclusions as to the exact date of the abysmal injections, beyond that
* The "oldermass" of Cotton (Cotton, 1916).
t Mr. Morgan favours an Aorere age (Ordovician) for several great rock-iinits in Westland and south-west Nelson usually grouped in the Maitai system of early to mid- Mesozoic age.
430 Transactions.
it was pre- Jurassic, but the conviction grows upon the writer that Pro- fessor Park's (Park, 1893, pp. 358-59) early view of the great scientific importance of the discovery made nearly thirty years ago of gneissic rocks in the King-country was not an exaggerated one.*
Summary and Conclusion.
In the Albany-Riverhead district conglomerate bands occur in the Waitemata (probably Upper Miocene) beds, two of which are particularly well exposed near Albany, and contain material of very varied petrographic nature. The various igneous types are described above, and it is pointed out that the gneissic rocks there and in other conglomerates elsewhere in the North Island perhaps furnish evidence of a terrain injected by batho- lithic intrusions, subjected to compressional stresses and eroded before the deposition of the main mid-Mesozoic sequence of the North Island.
The occurrence of anorthosite is particularly interesting in view of the limited distribution of this type of rock.
In conclusion, the author would like to thank Mr. A. H. Bowell, of Auckland University College, for performing chemical tests upon the anorthosite, and Dr. J. A. Thomson, Director of the Dominion Museum, for most valuable help in the determination of this same rock.
List of Papers cited.
Bartrum, J. A., 1917. Additional Facts concerning the Distribution of Igneous Rocks
in New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 418-24. Bell, J. M., and Clarke, E. de C, 1909. The Geology of the Whangaroa Subdivision,
Hokianga Division, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 8 {n.s.). Cotton, C. A., 1916. The Structure and Later Geological History of New Zealand,
Geol. Mag. {n.s.), dec. 6, vol. 3, pp. 243-49 and 314-20. Cox, S. H., 1881. Geology of the Rodney and Marsden Counties, Bep. Geol. Ezplor.
during 1879-80, pp. 13-39. Fox, C. E., 1902. The Volcanic Beds of the Waitemata Series, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 34, pp. 452-93. Fraser, C, and Adams, J. H., 1907. The Geology of the Coromandel Subdivision,
Hauraki, Auckland, N.Z. Geol. Bull. No. 4 {n.s.). Henderson, J., 1914. Coal Possibilities of the Warkworth District, 8th Ann. Bep. {n.s.)
N.Z. Geol. Surv. McKay, A., 1884. On the Geology of the Kawhia District, Bep. Geol. Ezplor. during
1883-84, pp. 140-48. Marshall, P., 1904. Boulders in a Triassic Conglomerate, Nelson, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 36, pp. 467-71.
1908. Geology of Centre and North of North Island, TraTis. N.Z. Inst., vol. 40,
pp. 79-98.
1911. New Zealand and Adjacent Islands, Handbuch der regionalen Geologie,
pp. 20 et seq. Morgan, P. G., and Bartrtjm, J. A., 1915. The Geology and Mineral Resources of the
BuUer-Mokihinui Subdivision, West port Division, N.Z. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 17
(n.s.). Park, J., 1893. On the Occurrence of Granite and Gneissic Rocks in the King-country,
Trans. N.Z. Iiut., vol. 25, pp. 353-62. SoLLAS, W. J., and McKay, A., 1906. The Bocks of Cape Colville Peninsula, vol. 2.
f
* The writer would add that since writing the above he has been fortunate enough to find several bands of conglomerate in the " Maitai " rocks outcropping in the north of Great Barrier Island, and that in these bands there are abimdant granite boulders and occasional garnet-granulites, if macroscopic appearances are not deceptive.
I
Hudson. — N .Z. Insects illustrating Principle of Sexual Selection. 431
Art. XXXVI. — On some Examples of New Zealand Insects illustrating the Darwinian Principle of Sexual Selection.
By G. V. ituDSON, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 24th September, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1920.]
Notwithstanding constant attempts to refute or profoundly modify Darwin's theory of natural selection, or the " survival of the fittest," it cannot be denied that this theory remains to this day the only satisfactory explanation of the innumerable instances of adaptation to conditions which are manifest to the most casual observer of plants and animals. It is not, however, my intention this evening to give instances of the operation of natural selection amongst our New Zealand insects, although practi- cally every species might be utilized in corroboration of Darwin's great theory. My object on this occasion is to direct attention to Darwin's subsidiary theory of sexual selection, which some of his immediate fol- lowers were convinced had been a most potent factor in the evolution of the more advanced attributes of the higher animals, but which has unaccountably been allowed to drop into the background by many present- day biologists. Some may perhaps urge that the theory of sexual selection, as propomided by Darwin in his Descent oj Man, is an out-of-date doctrine, superseded by more precise modem researches into the minute structure of organisms. Before, however, any such general statement can be accepted a more complete explanation than that afforded by sexual selection must be given of the actual facts existing in nature, and this I think I can safely say has not yet been done. Without further preliminaries I will now direct attention to a few of the facts referred to, and will use our New Zealand insects in illustration of my remarks.
1. Order Hemiptera. Suborder Homoptera.
The suborder Homoptera includes the cicadas, lantern-flies, and their allies, as well as the aphides, scale insects, &c.
The family Cicadidae, often popularly known as " locusts " or " singers," the first name being most misleading, is one of the best-known families of New Zealand insects. We have upwards of a dozen species, of which the largest, Melamjnalta cingulata is often extremely abundant in the late summer. At this season the singing of the males, as they rest on the branches of trees and shrubs, is sometimes almost deafening, and the noise may be best likened to that produced by a number of frying-pans simultaneously in operation on a very hot fire. This sound is produced by two complicated organs connected with the respiratory system of the male, and situated on the underside of the base of the abdomen. It is solely confined to that sex. The singing is undoubtedly attractive to the female, and close observation of the insects in their natural haunts often discloses the fact that the keenest rivalry exists belrween two or more males to . captivate a female by means of their music. It is impossible to assign any other use to these complicated organs, and the instmct to use them, than that here indicated. The sound emitted certainly does not intimidate the enemies of the cicada, as they are all much preyed
432 Transactions.
upon by birds ; and even if it did repel certain potential enemies, such special means of protection would be far more necessary for tbe preser- vation of the female whilst depositing her eggs than it would be for the male.
2. Order Orthoptera.
In the small order Orthoptera, which includes the wetas, grasshoppers, crickets, walking-sticks, and allied insects, we have several striking instances of the operation of sexual selection.
The Stenapelmatidae, or wetas, were long supposed to be destitute of sound-producing organs, although possessing an auditory organ on each of the tibiae of the anterior pair of legs. A careful examination of the side of the second abdominal segment of both sexes, however, reveals the presence of about six minute file-like organs, which are operated upon by the inner edge of the base of the femur of the hind legs, these legs being raised above the insect's back when it is stridulating. By this means the weta can produce a harsh grating sound, which is employed to intimidate enemies and also possibly as a call or lure to the female. This stridulation of the weta may often be heard in the bush at night.
In the males of the true grasshoppers with short antennae (Acridiidae) a long file-like structure is situated on the inner side of the thigh of the hind leg, and the sound produced is used to attract the female.
In addition to the stridulating-apparatus, the male of our commonest weta (Deinacnda megacephala) has a huge head and jaws, the corresponding parts in the female being of the ordinary size. These males are sometimes found in holes in trees and similar situations, and are often accompanied by several females, the proportion of the sexes in this particular species being about one male to three females. As wetas come abroad only at night, it is difficult to obtain much precise information regarding their habits ; but I think there can be little doubt that a very keen rivalry must exist between thQ males, and the great head and formidable jaws have been acquired as the result of this rivalry, the most ferocious, powerful, and * well-equipped males having alone succeeded in leaving descendants. Apart from theoretical considerations, the preponderance in the number of females, the reverse proportion to that usually subsisting amongst insects, is strong presumptive evidence that a large proportion of males must perish, and the only conceivable means by which this unusual disparity in the numbers of the sexes could be brought about is through the destruction of the weaker individual males during their contests to possess the females.
In the Locustidae, or long-horned grasshoppers, a vein on one of the wing-cases of the male is furnished with minute ridges, and the sound is produced by the insect rubbing this against a raised vein on the other wing-case. Coedicia oUvacea, a beautiful leaf-like insect occurring in Australia, which to my knowledge has been common round Nelson for thirty-five years, is an excellent example of this family. In the autumn evenings its chirj)ing may often be heard in all directions.
In. the true crickets (Gryllidae) both wing-cases bear file-like organs which are rasped together by the insect and thus produce the well-known chirping. Our example of /this family is the black Australian cricket (Gryllus servillei), which is also Yerj abundant in the Nelson Province, and its stridulation is a most familiar sound on fine summer evenings.
Referring to the diversity of these special soimd-producing organs in the males of the Orthoptera (crickets and grasshoppers) and the Hemiptera-
Hudson. — N .Z. Insects illustrating Principle of Sexual Selection. 433
Homoptera (cicadas), Darwin remarks that " throughout the animal king- dom we often find the same object gained by the most diversified means ; this seems due to the whole organization having undergone multifarious changes in the course of ages, and as part after jjart varied different variations were taken advantage of for the same general purpose. The diversity of means for producing sovmd in the three families of Orthoptera and in the Homoptera impresses the mind with the high importance of these structures to the males, for the sake of calling or alluring the females. We need feel no surprise at the amount of modification which the Orthoptera have undergone in this respect, as we now know, from Dr. Scudder's remarkable discovery, that there has been more than ample time. This naturalist has lately found a fossil insect in the Devonian formation of New Brunswick, which is furnished with ' the well-known tympanum or stridulating-apparatus of the male Locustidae.' The insect, though in most respects related to the Neuroptera, appears, as is so often the case with very ancient forms, to connect the two related Orders of the Neuroptera and Orthoptera."*
The males of the walking-stick insects, or Phasmidae, are extremely attenuated creatures, whilst the females are much stouter and larger, and exhibit such great structural difierences that, in the absence of exact knowledge to the contrary, they might easily be referred to a different species, or even genus. In both sexes the appearance of the insect is most perfectly adapted for concealment amongst vegetation, and the extra- ordinary disparity between the sexes in this case is very difficult to explain.
3. Order Neuroptera.
In the order Neuroptera, which includes the termites, stone-flies, may- flies, dragon-flies, caddis-flies, &c., there is little direct evidence of the operation of sexual selection. In one of our largest may-flies, Ichtkyhotus hudsoni, the male has two caudal setae which are very much longer than the three possessed by the female. It is difficult to say, however, which sex is the more ornamented. Of much greater interest for the purposes of this paper are the nuptial dances in which the may-flies engage, and which must often arrest the attention of those who are not entomologists. This flight takes place shortly before sunset, and during its performance the may-flies rise and fall in the air almost in perpendicular lines, and it is at this time that pairing takes place. Of these remarkable dances Dr. Sharp remarks that to the may-flies themselves the movements may, by the number of the separate eyes, by their curved surfaces, and by the innumer- able facets composing them, be multiplied and correlated in a manner of which our own sense of sight allows us to form no conception. We can see on a summer's evening how beautifully and gracefully a crowd of may- flies dance, and ye may well believe that to the marvellous ocular organs of the flies themselves these movements form a veritable ballet-dance.
Amongst our small slender-bodied dragon-flies (Agrionina), often known as " demoiselles," the males of Xanthagrion zealandicum have crimson bodies, the females being dull bronze ; and in Lestes colensonis the body of the male is marked with much more vivid blue than that of the female. In the tribe Cordulina it is noteworthy that the male of Somatochlora smithii has a brilliant metallic-green head, legs, and thorax, the same parts in the female being much duller.
* Descent of Man, 2nd ed., pp. 288-89, 1890.
434 Transactions
A. Order Diptera.
In the great order Diptera, which includes all the two-winged flies, there is usually very little difference in colour between the sexes, and the only striking difierences noticeable, so far as our New Zealand species are concerned, occur amongst the Tipulidae, or " daddy-long-legs," in which the males of some of the species either have very long antennae, or antennae furnished with long plumes or branches. The supposed use of these elaborate antennae to the male will be explained when we consider the secondary sexual characters of the Lepidoptera. The male of one of our handsomest Tipulidae, Cerozodia plumosa, has magnificently branched antennae. The female is at present unknown, and is possibly semiapterous. ' This at least would explain why collectors have not yet succeeded in finding her.
5. Order Lepidoptera.
Notwithstanding the fact that ornamental colouring is more in evidence in the great order Lepidoptera, comprising the varied tribes of the butter- flies and moths, than in any other order of insects, instances of the direct operation of sexual selection are perhaps not quite so numerous or so striking as might have been anticipated. It is true that in the case of many species, especially amongst tropical butterflies, the males are more brilliantly and beautifully coloured than the females ; yet, on the other hand, there are many thousands of species where both sexes are equally ornamental. In such cases Darwin assumes that the highly ornamental colours and patterns were first acquired by the males* through sexual selection and afterwards equally inherited by both sexes. He points out that in considering the effects of sexual selection in the Lepidoptera it must be borne in mind that the courtship of butterflies is a prolonged affair. The males sometimes fight together in rivalry ; and many may be seen pursuing or crowding round the same female. Unless, then, the females prefer one male to another, pairing must be left to mere chance, and this does not appear probable. If, on the other hand, the females habitually, or even occasion- ally, prefer the more beautiful males, the colours of the latter will have been rendered brighter by degrees, and will have been transmitted to both sexes or to one sex, according to the law of inheritance which has prevailed. The process of sexual selection will have been much facilitated if the con- clusion can be trusted, arrived at from various kinds of evidence, that the males of many Lepidoptera, at least in the imago state, greatly exceed the females in number.*
So far as New "Zealand is concerned, there is not a great number of Lepidoptera where the males are more strikingly ornamental than the females. The tropical-looking Hypolimnas holina, a wide-ranging species,' found through the Pacific islands and Australia, and casually in New Zealand, has the male blue-black, with a large white blotch in the middle of each wing surrounded by a wide ring of iridescent blue. The female is rather variable, black, with white and orange-brown markings ; and, although highly ornamental, almost entirely lacks the brilliant glistening blue which is so characteristic of the male.
The females of our common tussock-butterfly, Argyro-phenga antipodum, are usually much lighter coloured than the males, and the same applies in a more marked degree to the female of our small mountain-butterfly
* Descent of Man, 2nd ed., p. 317, 1890.
Hudson. — N .Z. Insects illustrating Principle of Sexual Selection 435
Erehia hutleri. In this respect these Satyrid butterflies show a striking resemblance to many of their European relatives which have the females lighter coloured than the males, but it is perhaps questionable whether they can be called more brilliant.
A much more striking instance of the direct operation of sexual selection is afforded by our very interesting endemic little butterfly Chrysojihanus holdenarum. In this species the male is of a most refulgent metallic purple, the female being dull yellowish-brown with a row of blue spots around the margin of each wing. This butterfly frequents stony places in river-beds, where the males may constantly be observed displaying their brilliant colours to the rather dingy-looking females, which generally appear to regard their attentions in an unconcerned manner. Again, the male of our small blue butterfly Lycaena labradus is, in common with the males of most members of the genus throughout the world, a glistening blue, whilst the female is drab-grey.
Probably of greater interest than colour and wing-markings are the special scent-producing organs which exist in certain male butterflies and other Lepidoptera for the purpose of attracting the female, and of which no trace can be found in that sex. Attention was first directed to these organs by Fritz Mliller in 1877, who at the same time emphasized their significance in connection with Darwin's theories, which were then steadily gaining ground in the scientific world.*
We have in New Zealand several good examples of special scent- producing organs in male Lepidoptera. In the male of that strong-flying, very wide-ranging butterfly Danaida plexippus there is a pocket-like struc- ture situated on the hindwing, close to vein 2, which is absent in the female, and is undoubtedly a scent-producing organ. Amongst moths the male of our beautiful moss-green Noctuid Erana graminosa has a large fold in the costal edge of the forewings which conceals ^.n extensible tuft of long pink hairs. These hairs when stirred with a pin emit a most agreeable vanilla- like perfume. A similar structure exists in the male of Rhapsa scotosialis. The remarkable lobe in the much-contracted hindwing of the males of our curious genus Tatosoma is a pocket-like organ, which in the absence of any evidence to the contrary must also be regarded as scent-producing. The male of Declana leptomera has large tufts of hair on the tibiae of the hind- legs, similar tufts being found amongst some of ou'r smaller Lepidoptera, and it is almost certain that these structures are for the purpose of emitting perfumes agreeable to the female.
A very great many observations have been made during recent years by Drs. Dixey and Longstafi on the scent-organs and scents emitted by tropical butterflies ; and the use of these special structures by the males, for the purpose of attracting the females, has been placed practically beyond a doubt. At the same time it must not be forgotten that certain species of butterflies emit odours of a disagreeable nature which serve to protect them from the attacks of birds and other enemies ; but in these instances the scent-producing power is not confined to the male sex.
In regard to our moths, a fair number exhibit considerable differences in the colouring and markings of the sexes, but except in the case of one or two day-flying species the males are not more brilliant or more beautiful than the females. The sexes of Xanthorhoe semijissata and
* For translation of Fritz Miiller's papers on this subject see appendix to Dr. LongstafE's work, Butterfly -hunting in many Lands. *
436 Transactions.
X. orophyla are almost identical in colour, but have very different markings. Selidosema fenerata differs strikingly in both wing-outline and colour, the forewings of the male being pale yellowish-brown, those of the female pale grey. The sexes of our beautiful forest-dwelling moths Azelina gallaria and A. ofhio'pa differ in size, colour, and wing-outline. Declana glacialis, a brilliant day-flying mountain species, which almost certainly mimics the distasteful species belonging to the genus Metacrias, has the male much more brilliantly coloured than the female, and this is almost certainly due to the operation of sexual selection.
In the family Tortricidae remarkable sexual disparities exist in certain species belonging to the genus Harmologa, which are found high up on our southern mountains, and fly rapidly in the hottest sunshine. Of these probably the largest and handsomest species is Harmologa trisulca, recently discovered at Arthur's Pass. The male is a very rich reddish-brown with a vivid orange-yellow longitudinal stripe on the forewings, the hindwings being dark greyish-brown. In the female the forewings are dull ochreous and the hindwings pale straw-colour. The other mountain species of the genus exhibit a similar class of colouring, but in the lowland species, which fly at dusk or by night, the difference between the sexes is unimportant, and the males are not more brilliantly coloured than the females.
Our largest native lepidopteron, the well-known Hepialus virescens, exhibits most striking sexual differences in wing-outline, colouring, and markings. AH, these characters are, in the female, more concordant with the usual type of the genus than in the male, and it is a fair inference that the peculiarities of the male have been more recently acquired. The general colouring of both sexes of Hepialus virescens is equally protective when the insect is resting amongst foliage ; but probably that of the male is more beautiful, and certainly brighter, than that of the female, and hence may have arisen t;hrough sexual selection. In connection with our insect, it may perhaps be of interest to mention that in its close British ally the Ghost-moth {Hepialus humuli) all the wings of the male are snow- white, the forewings of the female being dull-yellowish and the hindwings grey. Of this species Mr. Richard South tells us that the males may be seen in the evening, sometimes in numbers, in grassy places, swaying themselves to and fro without making progress, and appearing as though they dangled from the end of an invisible thread ; the female flies straight, and, as a rule, in the direction of one or other of the pendulous males.* In this case it would appear that the unusual disparity in colour between the sexes has been beneficial to the species in enabling the female to discover the male, a reverse arrangement to that usually subsisting. In the Shetland Islands the white male of the Ghost-moth is usually replaced by a variety {thulensis) in which the male is coloured very similarly to the female, and this is explained by the fact that in that northern latitude the summer nights are never dark, and the conspicuous white colouring of the male is not necessary.
In many species of moths, especially those having females of obscure or retiring habits, the antennae of the males are heavily branched on each side, or, as it is technically termed, bipectinated, those of the female being slightly branched or simple. In these species the males have the power of discovering a female even when situated at a considerable distance. Collectors habitually turn this fact to good account, for if they happen to
* R. SotfTH, The Moths of the British Islands, ser. 3, p. 361.
Hudson. — N .Z. Insects illustrating Principle of Sexual Selection. 437
breed a female tliey can, by enclosing the same in a gauze-covered box and placing it at an open window, attract quite a large number of males. Experiments have been made to ascertain the means by which the males are enabled to find the female when situated at such remote distances, and the mode of tracking by scent does not afiord a satisfactory explanation. In fact, there appears to be little doubt that the mysterious faculty is located in the heavily branched antennae, and that some sort of communi- cation is set up of the nature of wireless telegraphy.
6. Order Hymenoptera.
In this important order, which includes the ants, bees, wasps, ichneumon flies, and their allien, the principal differences between the sexes relate to special structures, such as the pollen-bearing apparatus of the hive-bee, useful to the female in tending the young. They do not, therefore, concern us in connection with the subject of this paper. A few of the Hymenoptera are brilliantly coloured in both sexes, and in those instances where warning colours are not indicated this may be due to the efiects of sexual selection.
7. Order Coleoptera.
The order Coleoptera, comprising the beetles, is the highest order of insects, and also contains the greatest number of species, of which about 150,000 are known to science. Commencing with that division known as the Lamellicorns, on account of the structure of their antennae, we find that a striking disparity between the sexes exists in our native stag-beetles. The males of the genus Lissotes have a large head and jaws and a very large prothorax, these salient features being strikingly absent in the females. Amongst allied genera in the tropics the most bizarre forms exist, many of the males having huge horny processes on the crown of the head and on the back of the prothorax ; and unless these extraordinary structures are useful in making ah impression on the female sex it seems impossible to assign any reason for their presence in the male sex alone.
The male of our interesting, though dull-coloured beetle, Rhipistena luguhris, has the joints of the antennae furnished with long lateral processes, the whole organ forming a conspicuous fan. This remarkable structure is also present in the female, but in a very reduced form. In the male of our most beautiful Longicorn beetle, Coptomma variegata, the antennae are nearly twice as long as in the female, and in a variable degree this disparity prevails amongst the numerous Longicorns we have in New Zealand. The male in the curious genus Exilis, a genus belonging to the Anthribidae, a family of weevils, also possesses enormously long antennae, those of the female being often less than half the length. The male of Psepholax coronatus, a short stumpy -looking weevil, has a conspicuous coronet pf spines on the back of each of its elytra. This structure is entirely absent in the female and in all the other members of that extensive genus of weevils. Very striking sexual differences are also present in Paranomocerus sjnculus, the male of this fine weevil being fully twice the size of the female, and furnished with a long rostrum and very long elbowed antennae.
All the sexual disparities amongst our native beetles are, however, completely overshadowed by those present in the huge Brenthid Lasio- rhjnchus harbicornis, undoubtedly one of the most striking and interesting insects we have in New Zealand. The male, which is usually about twice the length of the female, has an enormous rostrum, with the antennae
438 ■ Transactions.
arising from its extremity. The rostrum of the female is of a totally difierent structure, with the antennae arising from its middle. Many years ago Dr. Sharp, one of our greatest authorities on the Coleoptera, was so impressed by the extraordinary sexual disparities exhibited by this beetle that he wrote to the late Mr. Helms, at Greymouth, requesting him to endeavour to find out something about the insect's habits. Mr. Helms, who was then one of our keenest entomologists, replied that the female Lasiorhynchus harbicornis is indefatigable in' her boring efforts, but that the huge male stands by as a witness, apparently of the most apathetic kind. I am not aware that later observers have elicited any further information on this interesting subject.
In addition to the above special examples it should perhaps be added that some beetles are brilliantly coloured and have beautiful markings, and nearly all are ornamented with elaborate sculpture. From a strictly utilitarian standpoint it is difficult to see how such endowments are of any direct benefit to the possessor in the ordinary struggle for existence ; but if the principle of sexual selection be admitted the presence of such elaborate adornments is quite intelligible.
This completes the examples specially selected for the purpose of this paper. It should perhaps be explained that other instances of the operation of sexual selection could have been found, even amongst our native insects, but it has not been deemed desirable to extend the paper to an undue length. To those who have studied Part II in Darwin's Descent of Man it will be iinnecessary to state that even more convincing examples can be found amongst other classes of animals (notably birds), and also in other lands. It may be safely said tliat sexual selection has been a most powerful factor in organic evolution, operating in countless instances wherever its progress has not been stopped by the more rigorous principle of natural selection. Darwin clearly demonstrated that sexual selection has taken a very prominent part in the evolution of man, and there is no reason why its efiects should not continue in the future. That a principle of such profound importance should receive so little practical attention is indeed surprising. We constantly hear of the paramount importance of education, and latterly we have heard a great deal about the benefits of discipline and of physical training. Every naturalist knows, however, that the effects of the most vigorous and successful training are not inherited by the offspring of those who are trained : each generation has to start to learn afresh. Not so, however, in the case of selection, the effect of which is permanent. It is a fact of the highest certainty that individuals possessing certain special attributes, if selected for breeding purposes, will transmit those attributes to their offspring. Hence we can see why the effects of sexual selection are so manifold throughout the whole animal kingdom.
Watt. — Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. ■ 439
Art. XXXVII. — The Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand. By Morris N. Watt, F.E.S.
{Read before, the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 3rd December, 1919 ; received by Editor, 31st December, 1919 ; issued separately, 16th July, 1920.]
■ " Plate XXX.
INTRODUCTION.
Perhaps no other class of insects is so fascinating to study as the leaf- miners. Inconspicuous and retiring in their habits, these tiny atoms easily escape notice ; this and their microscopic size have kept these insects among the least known in any country. But actually their study is comparatively easy. Their life-cycle is so short, especially the active or larval part of it, that there is little worry about procuring fresh food. Infected leaves can be kept fresh sufficiently long if placed in a damp atmosphere and the air not allowed to stagnate. I have found glass Petrie dishes invaluable for this purpose ; a piece of damp blotting-paper in the bottom of the dish keeps the interior sufficiently moist, and if the lids be lifted fairly frequently, so as to change the air, a plentiful crop of moulds is prevented. Leaves can be kept sufficiently fresh in this way for several weeks — quite long enough to allow the larvae to pupate. In other cases branchlets bearing the infected leaves may be kept in water in vases ; and where the larval stage is long, or the observer wishes to watch the insects tmder natural conditions, the entire food-plant, if not too large, may be carefully trans- planted. Occasionally it has been necessary to transfer a larva from a withered leaf to a fresh one, a small artificial gallery being first constructed under the cuticle of the fresh leaf and the larva coaxed into it. In the case of one minute weevil-larva eight such transfers had to be made during the three months of larval life. Some larvae do not confine themselves to one leaf, and destroy several or many in their lifetime. The ^embers of another class of larvae are pseudo-miners ; they act the part of miners for a part only of their larval existence. It is not sufficient to observe these insects in a state of captivity ; it is essential to observe them in the field. Rearing them is the only way in which the collector can obtain perfect specimens (otherwise unprocurable) in plenty for his collection. There are no slack months in the j-ear for the investigator of leaf-mining insects ; they are almost as plentiful in winter as in spring, and undoubtedly winter is the time to look for new species.
Of the seventy species that I have at present under observation the . great majority are either new or only recently described. There are indications that New Zealand possesses a large number of leaf-mining insects. I have never yet failed to come home from an expedition with several species new to me. It has therefore become necessary to divide the paper into a number of parts, and for the sake of order and complete- ness each part will deal separately with a single genus or group in so far as they are kno\\Ti. Odd species will be published in separate parts. The parts at present in hand are : The genus BedeUia ; the Nepticulids ; several species belonging to the ginus Glyphteryx ; the Elachistidae ; the genus Gelecia (all belonging to the Lepidoptera) ; new species of the genus Phijtomyza (leaf -mining Diptera) ; the leaf -mining weevils. There is also in preparation a monograph on the New Zealand gall-producing insects.
440 Transactions.
PART I.— THE GENUS PARECTOPA (LEPIDOPTERA).
This part comprises the life-histories of— (1) Parectopa citharoda Meyr., (2) P. zorionella Hudson, (3) P. panacitorsens n. sp., (4) P. panaci- vermiforma n. sp., (5) P. panacicorticis n. sp., (6) P. panacifinens n. sp., (7) P. aellomacha Meyr., (8) P. panacivagans n. sp.
Of the remainder of the genus, P, aethalota Meyr. {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, 1889, p. 185), P. leucocijma Meyr. {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, 1889, p. 184), and P. miniella Feld. (see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, 1889, p. 185) have not yet been observed. These complete the genus in New Zealand as at present known.
Those studied are all miners of the long-gallery type, and all except P. citharoda make their coc6on and pupate in the tei;minal part of the mine. P. citharoda offers other interesting details distinct from the rest of the genus. At present the only ova found and described belong to P. citharoda. Owing to lack of time and material I have had to omit the descriptions of the larvae of this genus, but a complete account will be given later in a supplementary part, which it is hoped will also include the species not given in the present paper. From what little I have seen of the larvae, there will be some extremely interesting points to bring to light. In my early paper on P. citharoda I gave a short sketch of the setal plan, but in light of more recent work this needs revision, and Fracker's nomenclature (" The Classification of Lepidopterous Larvae," Illinois Biological Mono- graphs, vol. 2, No. 1, 1915) should be adopted. The head-capsule and head- setae need investigation.
The Chief Characteristics oj the Parectopa Pupa.
In shape long and slender, more or less blimtly rounded at the head (except for the pointed cephalic plate), and gradually attenuated towards the other extremity. Length averaging from 5 mm. to 8 mm. Attached to the front in its uppermost part is a heavily chitinized cutting-plate (the cephalic plate) directed upwards and forwards ; on either side of this, and about midway between it and the base of the antenna, is usually a short stout incurved cornu ; while in front of the cephalic plate is a pair of promi- nent tubercles bearing each a long slender seta. The antennae cover a portion of the outer lateral part of the pigmented eye, and extend usually the whole length of the body ; they are segmented and free in their lower part. Mandibles are present, one on either side of the labrum, but are small. The maxillary palpi are very distinct in P. citharoda, adjoining the margin of the antennae externally and occupying the lower border of the eye, between it and the first legs and maxillae ; in the other species, however, they are obscure and doubtful. The labial palpi are long and slender, and about one-sixth of the body-length. The maxillae are long and slender, and usually reach to about midway between the ends of the first and second legs ; usually a portion of the lateral margin of the upper fifth of the maxilla is encroached upon by the femur of the first leg. The third legs appear from below the second, and extend generally as far as the seventh abdominal segment. Forewings long and narrow, with pointed incurved extremities, and occupying about one-half the body-length. The ventral appendages, with the exception of the wing-tips, third legs, and antennae at their caudal extremities, are not free. The prothorax is much narrower in the mid-dorsal region than laterally. Mesothorax is the longest segment of the body, and is extended caudally. Metathorax about as long as the abdominal segments, and the wings occupy a narrow strip
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. LII.
Plate XXX.
i^^^^<^ ^^^^>
10
Face p- 440.]
(For names see next page.)
Fig. 1. — Parecfopa citharoda. Fig. 6. — P. panarifinens.
Fig. 2. — P. zorionella. Fig. 7. — P. panacitorsevi (North Island variety).
Fig. 3. — P. panacitorsens. Fig. 8. — P. uellomacha.
Fig. 4. — P. panacivermiforma.. Fig. 9. — P. panacivermiforma {Southlslsindiorm).
Fig. 5. — P. panacicorticis. Fig. 10. — P. panncivagans.
(All magnified about 5 diameter.?.)
Watt. — Leaf-mining Insects of Nexv Zealand. 441
as far as the second segment. Abdominal segments of about equal length, except for the terminal three ; dorsum thickly covered with very fine spines ; movement can take place between 4-5, 5-6, 6-7 ; spiracles small, circidar, slightly elevated, covered by the wings in the first abdominal segment, obsolete in the eighth, absent in the ninth and tenth. Cremaster absent, the terminal segment being bluntly rounded or produced into two finger- like processes, each bearing a minute apical hook. Setae present, slender ; a dorsal pair on meso- and meta-thorax and abdominal segments except the last ; a dorso-lateral pair and a lateral pair on most of the abdominal segments, details of which are given under the difierent species.
The pupa is extruded from the cocoon as far as about the first legs, and always with its dorsal surface next the surface of the leaf on or in which the cocoon is constructed. The appendages are therefore outermost. As soon as the imago has become freed it retreats to the underside of the leaf, where it shelters quietly while the wings expand and dry.
Meyrick (" Kevision of the New Zealand Tineina," Trans. N .Z. Inst., vol. 47, 1915, p. 227) gives the chief characteristics of the Gracilariadae as: " Head with appressed scales. Antennae 1 or over 1. Labial palpi slender, ascending, tolerably pointed. Maxillary palpi moderate, filiform, por- rected. Fore wings with 7 and 8 stalked or separate. Hind wings lanceolate or linear." And he then divides the three genera as follows : —
Middle tibiae not thickened —
{a.) Posterior tibiae with bristly projecting scales above : Acrocercops. (&.) Posterior tibae without bristly scales : Paredopa.
Middle tibiae thickened with dense scales ; posterior tibiae without bristly scales : Gracilaria.
Hence the absence of the thickening of scales on the middle and posterior tibiae is the distinguishing characteristic of Parectopa.
(1.) Parectopa citharoda Meyr. (The Wattle ParectQpa). (Plate XXX, fig. 1.)
Paredopa citharoda Meyr., Trans. N .Z. Inst., vol. 48, 1916, p. 418 ; W^att, loc. cit., pp. 407-13.
For th^ sake of completeness I recapitulate below the chief points from my earlier paper on this species, together with a little new material that I have noted since publishing the paper referred to.
Meyrick' s Original Description.
" $. 10 mm. Head probably white (injured). Palpi white. Thorax white, patagia dark fuscous. Abdomen dark grey, sides obliquely striped with white, ventral surface white. Forewings very narrow, moderately pointed ; dark bronzy-fuscous, towards apex lighter and more bronzy ; five .slender white blackish-edged streaks from costa, first three very oblique, first from J, reaching half across wing, second from middle, reaching more than half across wing, its apex closely followed by a short fine dash, third shorter, fourth fine, direct, reaching termen, dilated on costa, fifth just before apex, fine, inwardly oblique, cutting through a small round blackish spot ; a white dorsal streak from base to middle, terminated by an oblique projecting streak reaching nearly half across wing ; a white triangular spot on dorsum beneath apex of second costal streak ; a short outwardly- oblique white streak from tornus : cilia greyish, with white bars on costal markings, and dark-fuscous median and apical lines above apex separated with whitish. Hind wings dark slaty-grey : cilia fuscous."
442
Transactions.
In ^11 perfect specimens the liead is white.
This pretty little moth may be found basking in the sun on the leaves of its food-plant, or flying about the shrub. Few were seen to fly far from the bush even when beaten out. It is not very shy, and can be knocked straight into the kiUing-bottle without using the net. Its attitude of rest is peculiar, the body being held at an acute angle to the surface of the leaf, with the head lowermost, almost touching the leaf ; the hind legs are kept close to the body, and elevate the hinder part in the air, while the first and second legs are held almost at right angles to the body, close together, and slightly forwards. The Panax moths rest with the head end elevated. There are several broods during the summer, larvae being found at any time between the months from July to March. Most possibly the larva hibernates in the cocoon.
Distribution. .
Wanganui. During the last few years this moth has become very plentiful wherever its food-plants happen to be growing. In December of 1919 the young leaves of the wattles in the Virginia Lake Eeserve were badly infected. I also came across new and old mines in the Botanical Gardens in Wellington in September.
' Food-plants.
The Australian broad- and narrow-leaved wattles {Acacia pycnantha, Acacia saligna). Indigenous food-plants still unknown. It would seem as though this moth had been introduced from Australia.
Egg-laying. The eggs are laid on either side of the young tender leaves in no specially favoured part. They are also to be found on the young stems and seed-pods. The egg is flat, wafer-like, slightly rounded above, with a narrow irregular margin or rim round the circumference. Average dimen- sions 0-65 mm. by 0-45 mm. No marked sculpture except very minute white elevations arranged in a somewhat hexagonal pattern. Shiny ; colour a pale transparent white ; strongly cemented to the leaf ; period of incubation about fourteen days.
The Mine.
The mine may be on either side of the leaf ; is a long, narrow, slightly
expanding gallery, more or less tortuous in direction, and generally up and
down the long axis of the leaf. Total length from 7 in. to 8 in. Colour of
early part of mine white, with a thin brown or black central line of f rass ;
Fig. 1. — Mine of P. citharoda in Acacia saligna. (Natural size.)
later a somewhat lighter green than the rest of the leaf-surface ; this portion of the mine loosely packed with fine frass granules. The cuticle over old mines rapidly dies and becomes brown. Badly infected leaves wither and fall from the tree. The final inch or so of the mine is often expanded into a somewhat irregular, narrow, elongated blotch.
Watt. — Leaf-mining Insects of Neiv Zealand. 443
The Larva.
In the first stadium the minute larva is light green in colour, head light brown ; it bears no setae. These do not appear till the third and last stadium, in which the general colour is light greenish-yellow with a faint white spiracular line. Length 6-7 mm. ; spiracles minute, circular ; pro- legs on segments 3, 4, and 5, each armed with a single short transverse bar of about seven booklets. Body covered with minute hairs. Eevised details of the chaetotaxy will be given in a future paper, together with details of the head-sclerites, &c., when a comparison of all the Parectopa larvae will be given. Number of larval stadiums three, the first and second about ten days each, the third about twenty days. When full-grown the larva leaves the mine and descends to the vegetation round the foot of the tree, amongst the dry fallen leaves of which it constructs its cocoon.
The Cocoon.
This is an extremely pretty little -structure of white silk ; usually con- structed in some concavity ; its upper and outer surface slightly rounded, and covered with minute white fleecy globules, the majority of which may be removed by blowing upon them. These globules are excreted by the larva during the construction of the cocoon, and are ejected from the interior through rents torn in the covering of the cocoon by the larva itself, eighty to a hundred or more being so ejected. The construction of the cocoon occupies about two days.
The Pupa.
Colour white, to light yellow, to black with obscure white markings (see description of a typical Parectopa pupa above). The following are the chief characteristics : Head bluntly rounded ; cephalic plate small, having a comparatively broad, transverse, semicircular, serrated cutting-edge ; the plate is quadrilateral, being continued dorsally, and is depressed just behind the cutting-edge ; the antennae extend some distance past the terminal abdominal segments ; clypeus somewhat j^rominent, and bears a small tubercle and seta on either side just above the labrum ; no lateral cornua or frontal tubercles ; maxillary palpi quite distinct, fairly broad, sculptured with fine transverse rugae ; labrum and mandibles a little distance above the lower margin of the eyes ; maxillae narrow in their entire length, and about one-fifth of the body-length ; first legs extend beyond the termina- tion of the maxillae and meet in the mid-line, about one-quarter the body- length, their femora occupying a long narrow strip along the outer lateral margin of the maxillae ; second and third legs as in type ; prothorax quadrilateral, occupying a narrow strip between the antennae, only slightly narrower in the mid-dorsal region ; setae present but extremely minute, only the dorsal pair being present in the meso- and meta-thorax and first abdominal segment ; in segments 2 to 6 inclusive the same three pairs of setae as in type ; in segment 7 the dorsal pair only, and no setae were discovered in segments 8, 9, and 10 ; no cremaster, terminal segment bluntly rounded and bare ; movement takes place between 4-5, 5-6, 6-7, but the pupa is not active ; no sign of any lateral flanges on the abdominal seg- ments ; average length of pupa 4-5 mm. A table of the chief measurements was given in the earlier paper, which "the above notes are not intended to replace. Duration of the pupal stage, eleven days to a month or longer, according to climatic conditions.
444 Transactio7is.
Dehiscence.
The front, with its cephalic plate, clypeus, labrum, eyes, labial palpi, and maxillae, becomes separated in one piece, but remains attached at the lower extremity of the maxillae by loose slips. There is a slight splitting along the dorsal margin of the antennae, but no violent rupture takes place, and the antennae and first and second legs retain their connection and position in one piece on either side. The vetex remains attached to the prothorax, but is cleft down its vsrtical suture ; this cleft, continuing and dividing the prothorax, extends about half-way down the mid -dorsal region of the mesothorax.
(2.) Parectopa zorionella Hudson (The Coprosnia Parectopa). (Plate XXX,
fig. 2.)
Parectopa zorionella Hudson, Ent. Mo. Mag., 3rd ser., vol. 4, p. 62, 1918.
The Imago.
Since Mr. Hudson's desciiption of this little moth is not readily acces- sible to all entomologists in New Zealand, I take the liberty to reprint it here : " The expansion of the wings is | in. The forewings are elongate- oblong Avith the costa strongly arched ; very dark brownish black with very vivid steely -blue reflections ; there is a large semicircular silvery-white spot on the costa a little beyond the middle ; an oblique silvery-white bar beyond f, and two much smaller bars just before the apex ; there are three minute silvery spots on the dorsum. The hindwings are dull steely-grey. The cilia of the forewings are black ; of the hindwings dark grey tinged with bronze towards the body."
The adult moth is not by any means common in the field, possibly owing to the widespread destruction of the Jarvae and pupae by hymen- opterous parasites ; the great majority of mines tUmt I have examined were so infested. Mr. Hudson says the imago may be found among light scrub in November. I myself have not seen the moth outside my breeding- dishes. As soon as it has emerged from the cocoon it retreats to the shelter of the underside of the leaf, where it rests in its peculiar attitude of head elevated, while its wings spread and dry.
Distribution. The mines of this moth are common on Mount Egmont to an altitude of nearly 4,000 ft. I have found them there during the last three years, and take the following extracts from my notebook : " 10/1/17, only old vacated mines found ; 22/4/17, old mines, fresh mines, and larvae plentiful, no pupae ; 23/12/17, mines and pupae." Of those obtained 22/4/17 the imagos emerged about the middle of Aiigust following. Mr. Hudson records the perfect insect in November in the Botanical Gardens, Wellington, where I have found the mines quite plentiful in February, but chiefly parasited. I was in Wellington again in June and found many mines, but all empty ; in September I found no mines ; in December a number of pupae were obtained; and from these the imagos emerged about the end of the same month. Pupae obtained on Egmont in the beginning of January all emerged during the month. A few mines have been found in Wanganui, but so far none in the South Island. I am able to note that since the preparation of this paper Mr. George Howes found pupae at Waitomo about the end of March, 1920. It would appear as though there were two, if not three, broods in the year.
Watt. — Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand.
445
• Food-plants.
Coprosma grandifolia (kanono, raurakau), C. tenuifolia (karamu), C. liicida (karamu), C rohnsta (karamu), C. retusa (taupata).
It was chiefly in the young plants of these shrubs that the mines were found, and within a foot or so of the ground. No doubt other species of Coprosma are also attacked.
Egg-layimj.
The ovum has not yet been observed. It is laid, however, invariably on the under-surface of the leaf, and as a rule near the midrib, and in the lower (basal) half of the leaf. Laid singly, and rarely more than two on any one leaf. ' .
The Mine.
The larva mines directly into the leaf through the bottom of the egg. The mine is at first a long, slender, slightly tortuous, gradually widening gallery ; the first centimetre or so being on the under-surface of the leaf, close against the cuticle, showing up white and silvery by reflected
Fig. 2.-^Mine of P. zorionella in Coprosma. (Two-thirds natural size.) (X — X, point where the mine leaves the under-surface of the leaf and comes close under the ujiper cuticle.)
light. The remainder of the mine, however, is on the upper surface. In the last stage the gallery expands, more or less abruptly, into a large irregular blotch. The gallery at first is about 0-5 mm. in width, its
Fig. 3. — Trace of mine of P. zorionella in Coprosma. (Two-thirds natural size.) (X — X, point where mine changed from lower to upper portion of the leaf.)
margins regular ; on the upper surface of the leaf, however, the margins become irregular and slightly serrated, the margin of the blotch being very irregular as a rule, but the dentations are comparatively large and rounded. The gallery may attain a length of from 4 in. to 6 in., according to the
446 Transactions.
limits of the leaf in which it is contained ; in small leaveti it becomes incorporated in and obliterated by the blotch — so much so that no sign of any gallery can be found. It usually follows the midrib or margin of the leaf along its greater extent, sometimes being deflected by the coarser veins ; in this manner its course may be slightly tortuous, but rarely - markedly so. The midrib forms an impassable barrier except at its upper end. The irregular blotch may cover an expanse of about 1| square inches. Colour of the mine conspicuously' white or light green, sometimes discoloured a bright reddish-brown, but patchy in character. That part of the leaf covering the blotch is, in fleshy leaves, more or less mottled in shades of green according to the closeness of the mine to the outer cuticle. Frass exceedingly scanty, black, finely granular, occupies a thin line near one side of the gallery, sometimes abruptly changing from one side to the other. After the first moult the granules are- irregularly scattered over the floor of the mine. Leaves are seldom found containing more than two mines. The blotch is almost invariably boimded on the outside by the margin of the leaf.
The Larva.
The first moult occurs about 6 cm. or 7 cm. from the commencement of the gallery. Structural details of the larva are reserved for a future paper.
The Cocoon.
The cocoon is a delicate structure of white sUk within the blotch part of the mine. It is oval in outline, and compressed above and below. Average .size 10 mm. by 4 mm. The head end may be slightly broader than the other. It is not conspicuous from the exterior, a very slight puckering of the leaf aroimd its circumference, and a small degree of fuUness in that part, alone betraying its presence. On holding the leaf up against the light the pupa may be distinguished by its shadow, and its health determined by the vigour of its movements when so disturbed. There is no evidence on the exterior of any prepared place for exit.
The Pupa.
As seen from the side the pupal outline is rounded at the head (except for the cephalic plate), and more prominent dorsally. There is a slight stricture in the dorsal outline at the pro thorax, otherwise the dorsal outline is abiiost straight. Ventrally there is a fairly deep stricture between the eye and the first leg, occupied by the maxillae. Ventral profile somewhat rounded, the body becoming slightly attenuated towards the caudal extremity. A ventral view of the pupa shows the cephalic plate occupying about one-third of the width of the head between the antennae ; the outline from its base to the antenna is almost straight ; the greater diameter is opposite the caudal extremity of the labial palpi, the body from here becoming gradually attenuated caudally.
The head : Cephalic plate well developed into a long, slender spear- point, about one and a half times the length of the eye, twice as long as its ventro-dorsal diameter at its base, projected forward at an angle of about 45° to the long axis of the pupa ; the pair of frontal tubercles bear long and slender setae, slightly longer than the cephalic plate ; no trace of lateral cornua. Eyes large, prominent, only slightly covered by base of antenna. Labrum situated between eyes at about their middle. Mandibles small but encroaching caudally upon the labrum. Labial palpi
Watt. — Leaf -mining Insects of New Zealand.
Ul
long and slender, slightly expanded in their middle third. Maxillae broad above, narrowed between first legs, but slightly expanded at their tips, which are situated about midway between first and second legs.
Ms
nh
I \
J \
I \
71'
\! V,
Fig. 4. — Pupa of P. zorionella, ventral view. Fig. 5. — Lateral view of head. Fig. 6. — Dorsal view.
cp, cephalic plate ; A, antenna ; F, front ; LP, labial palpi ; Max, maxillae ; Li, L2, L^, first, second, and third legs ; Wi, forewing ; V, vertex ; E, eye ; P, prothorax ; mp, maxillary palp ; Ms, mesothorax ; Mt, metathorax ; Wo, hindwing. (All figures of pupae are carefully drawn to scale, but all are not necessarily to the same scale. )
Maxillary palpi obscure. Antennae segmented, parallel in their lower three-fifths, but separated by the second and third legs, extended whole length of body.
448
Transactions.
Thoracic appendages : Legs as described in type ; first legs about twice as long as labial palpi ; second legs constricted in their middle one-third by the first legs and maxillae, about one-third as long again as the first, and terminate just above tips of fore wings ; second legs terminate just below the junction of segments 6 and 7, about half-way between the ends of second legs and antennae. Fore wings reaching about the middle of the fifth segment, pointed, and slightly incurved. Prothorax constricted mid-dorsally. Mesothdrax as in type. Metathorax as in type, wings not extending beyond first segment. Abdominal segments, spiracles, and setae as in type, also the thoracic setae. The first abdominal segment bears only the dorsal pair of setae. All the setae are directed caudallv. There is a slight lateral ridge on segments 2-8 inclusive. The dorso-lateral seta is situated just dorsal to the ridge, below the level of the spiracle, is shorter than the lateral seta, which is situated close against the dorsal margin of the wing in segments 2-5, and caudal to the spiracle. On segments 5-8 inclusive there is a second rather more prominent lateral ridge, ventro-lateral and parallel to the other ; the lateral seta and spiracle are situated between these two ridges.
The pupa is very active if disturbed, twirling its abdomen in great haste ; movement occurring between segments 4-5, 5-6, 6-7. Segment 9 bears only the dorsal pair of setae, while 10 bears no setae at all, but has a short pair of fleshy tubercles ventrally, each armed with a minute hook ; there is a pair of minute tubercles dorsally, while caudally the segment is pro- longed into two fairly stout finger-like protuberances, each armed with a minute hook at the tip.
Colour of pupa before dehisence : Head black, eyes dark red, ventral appendages black with white markings, mesothorax black, metathorax and abdominal segments light grey.
Chief Measurements of Pupa.
|
Measurement at |
Length from Tip |
Transverse |
Ventro-dorsal |
||
|
of Cephalic Plate. |
Diameter. |
Diameter. |
|||
|
Mm. |
Mm. |
Mm. |
|||
|
Base of eyes |
0-88 |
0-82 |
0-71 |
||
|
End of labial palpi |
1-65 |
I -00 |
0-88 |
||
|
End of first legs . . |
2-59 |
0-94 |
0-94 |
||
|
End of maxillae . . |
300 |
0-94 |
0-94 |
||
|
End of second legs |
3-76 |
0-82 |
0-88 |
||
|
End of forew ings . . |
4-00 |
0-76 |
0-82 |
||
|
End of third legs . . |
4-76 |
0-58 |
0-59 |
||
|
End of antennae . . |
5-88 |
0-28 |
0-29 |
||
|
Extreme length |
5-SS |
Dehiscence.
The pupa is extruded through the upper cuticle of the leaf as far as the third or fourth abdominal segment. The legs become separated in one piece on either side, but remain attached at their lower extremites by small slips. The front, with cephalic plate, eyes, labial palpi, maxillae, and antennae, remains in one piece, but is not lost. Dorsally there is a rupture across the epicranial suture, thus freeing the front and its append- ages, and down the mid-dorsal arm of this suture, extending through the prothorax and upper two-thirds of the mesothorax.
Watt. — Leaf-mining Insects of Netv Zealand.' 449
(3.) Parectopa panacitorsens n. sp. (The Panax Underside Moth).
(Plate XXX, fig. 3.)
The Imago.
9 mm. Head and thorax white ; antennae grey-whitish ; palpi white with indistinct ring of black at apex of second joint, and a distinct sub- apical ring of black on terminal joint ; abdomen grey-whitish ; legs white, ringed with black, posterior tibiae white. Forewings light fuscous, mark- ings white, interrupted with ochreous ; a narrow dark-ochreous streak along costa at base to ^, a small mdistinct white area at \, a slightly larger and more distinct one at -|, a square white patch at \, a narrow outwardly-oblique white streak at f reaching nearly two-thirds across wing, a small transverse white bar near apex, a broad white streak along dorsum from base to |, interrupted at \ and \ by an outwardly-oblique wedge- shaped spot of ochreous, that at \ being very dark ; cilia dark grey with two black lines. Hindwings and cilia dark grey.
There is also a North Island variety, which attacks Nothojxinax Sinclairii. (Plate XXX, fig. 7.)
8 mm. Head light grey-whitish ; palpi white with two black rings ; antennae grey-whitish. Thorax grey-white with narrow central streak of fuscous dividing caudally into a small V-marking. Abdomen dark grey ; legs white with black rings. Forewings golden brown irro rated with black ; markings white, tending to be indistinct ; cilia hght brown with a distinct black line, blackish externally. Hindwings dark grey ; cilia dark grey on costa, lighter bronze-gre)^ on dorsum.
Distribution.
Several mines were found at Aberfeldy, in the Wanganui district, in I\Iay of 1918, but all were old. Several mines with pupae were obtained in the Bush Keserve, Flagstaff, Dunedin, early in November, 1919, and these emerged during the first week of December.
The North Island variety is a fairly common little moth in season on Mount Egmont at 3,000 ft. Numbers of mines were found in the vicinity of the North Egmont House and Dawson's Falls, and beside the track on the way up the mountain. Pupa were obtained fairly plentifully in December and early January, and these emerged during January and February. First found in December, 1916. No- larvae or fresh mines were found during a short trip taken to the mountain in April of 1917.
F'ood-plant.
Nothopanax arhoreum (whauwhaupaku).
The North Island variety was found only in very young plants of NotJiopanax Sinclairii, generally within a foot or so of the ground.
The Mine.
The egg is laid on the under-surface of the leaf, but otherAvise in no more favoured position. The mine is entirely on the' under-surface of the leaf ; no signs whatever of it on the upper surface. Throughout its whole course it is a simple gallery, and very tortuous in its direction. Commenc- ing with a width of a little under 1 mm., it has a width of 3--4 mm. in its later parts. The chief direction is in the long axis of the leaf, and the outer portions of the leaf are more mined than the centre — in fact, nearly three- quarters of the entire margin of the leaf forms the external margin of the
15 — Trans.
450
Transactions.
mine. The gallery twists and turns, and in its course follows so close against the earlier portions that the partition between them is broken down, and finall}^ the entire mine appears to form a huge blotch occupying about one- half the leaf-surface. Though thus closely following its former track, it rarely crosses it except under direct need. The midrib forms a barrier, except in its upper and thinner part, where it is invariably crossed.' The final length of the mine may average as much as 26 in. Colour in the early stages white with a fine brown central line occupied by the frass ;
Fig. 7.
-Mine of P. panactitorsens in a leaf of Nothopanax arboreum. The dotted line shows the course taken by the larva ; the heavily dotted line is the earliest part of the mine. (Two-thirds natural size.)
the remainder of the mine, however, is only a shade paler green than the .rest of the leaf, and so is most inconspicuous. The track can be made out by the fine black frass granules strewn in close convex lines across the gallery ; these are quite j)lain on the under-surface of the leaf if looked for, thus demonstrating the extreme thinness of the covering cuticle. There is a narrow portion of the gallery on either side not occupied by frass, so this outer margin is somewhat lighter in colour. The margins of the gallery are regular and even.
Fig. 8. — Part of track of P. panacitorsens on underside of leaf of Nothopanax Sindairii. Fig. 9.— The same leaf showmg part of mine visible on upper surface. (Natural size.)
In the case of Nothopanax Sindairii the whole leaf is so mined that the entire under-cuticle can be lifted off. The mine is not conspicuous, but a trained eye can detect the paler colour of the under-cuticle, its
Watt. — Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand.
451
freedom from attachment to the surface of the leaf, and faint frass lines. The only evidence on the upper surface of the leaf is an unusual crinkled appearance, and sometimes short lengths of the later stages of the mine where the larva has eaten deeper into the substance of the leaf and reached the upper cuticle ; the pale-green portion of the mine so exposed is readily noticed. Frass is finely granular, very scanty, and offers no characteristic features. Very rarely, and then only in the larger leaves, were two larvae found working in the same leaf.
The Cocoon.
The cocoon is constructed within the terminal part of the gallery, and invariably close against the outer margin of the leaf, and usually on that side opposite the one in which the mine commenced. Shape ovoid, slightly broader at head end, 7 mm. by 3 mm. ; its long axis parallel to the leaf- margin. It consists only of a very thin covering of white silk. Its presence is quite conspicuous, due to the infolding and puckering-up of the leaf round about it, and the small area of white transparent cuticle at the head end prepared for the pupal dehiscence. The pupa thrusts the fore part of its body through this window (vv^hich is, of course, on the under-surface of the leaf) at dehiscence.
In the North Island variety the cocoon is a small, flattened, oval structure of white silk within the mine, generally found near the base of the leaf. It can best be detected by holding the leaf up against the light, when the pupa may be seen within. Externally its presence may be detected on the upper surface by a slightly elevated portion of the leaf. Size, 6 mm. by 2*5 mm. There appears to be no prepared outlet for the pupa.
The Pupa.
The head as seen from the side is somewhat pointed, but rounded as seen ventrally, with a slight incision at base of antennae. Cephalic plate long and slender, three-bladed, sharply pointed, twice as long as broad
II
Fig. 10. — Ventral view of head of pupa of P. panacitorsens. Fig. 11. — Lateral view.
at its base, slightly longer than length of eye. Lateral cornua well deve- loped, incurved, in length about three-quarters that of the plate. Frontal tubercules and setae long and slender, situated just caudally to the base of the cephalic plate ; bottom of labrum about the same level as base of
IS""
452
Transactions.
eyes ; maxillary palpi obscure. Head, thoracic, and abdominal append- ages as in type. Only a very narrow slip of the first femur is seen between the maxillae and first legs. Antennae slightly longer than body. There is a small dorso-lateral ridge on all abdominal segments. The meso- and meta-thoracic dorsal setae are long and slender, and directed upwards and outwards ; only the dorsal setae found on segments 1 and 2 ; they exist on all the other abdominal segments except the last, and are directed caudally ; the dorso-lateral setae in segments 3, 4, and 5 are characteristic, being extremely long and slender, those on segment 3 being the longest and as long as the width of the body at this part ; they are all mounted on prominent tubercules at the cephalic end of the lateral ridges, and project upwards and outwards. The dorso-lateral setae on segments 6, 7, and 8 have a similar position, but are small and directed caudally ; there is a minute lateral seta ventral to and below the spiracle close against the outer or dorsal margins' of the wing, and is found in segments 3-7 inclusive. All other particulars as in type. Tenth abdominal
segment bi-digitate.
Chief Measurements of Pupa.
|
Measurement at |
Length from Tip of Cephalic Plate. |
Transverse Diameter. |
Ventro-dorsal Diameter. |
|
|
Mm. |
Mm. |
Mm. |
||
|
Base of eyes |
0-76 |
0-76 |
0-55 |
|
|
End of labial palpi |
1-55 |
0-83 |
0-79 |
|
|
End of 'first legs . . |
2-48 |
0-72 . |
0-79 |
|
|
End of maxillae |
3-10 |
0-62 |
0-76 |
|
|
End of second legs |
3-38 |
0-5.5 |
0-72 |
|
|
End of forewmgs . . |
3-79 |
0-45 |
0-62 |
|
|
End of third legs . . |
4-62 |
0-24 |
0-27 |
|
|
End of tenth segment |
5-10 |
|||
|
End of antennae . . |
5-38 |
• • |
Dehiscence.
A transverse split along the epicranial suture frees the frontal head- piece, with its cephalic plate, antennae, labial palpi, and maxillae, all in one piece, and this is forced forward, but retained in its lower extremity by loose slips ; the first and second legs form a separate piece on either side, but are retained more or less in position ; a mid-dorsal splitting cleaves the vertex, prothorax, and upper two-thirds of the mesothorax.
(4.) Parectopa panacivermiforma n. sp. (The Panax Vermiform Moth).
(Plate XXX, figs. 4 and 9.)
The Imago.
10 mm. Head white ; palpi white, with a few black scales on outer side of apex of second joint and a distinct black subapical ring on terminal joint ; antennae grey-whitish. Thorax white, with a narrow central line of light iuscous branching caudally into a small V-shaped marking around meta- thorax ; legs white with black rings. Abdomen grey-whitish. Forewings light bronze-brown, suffusely irrorated with black ; markings white ; base of wing to about ^ white with a fine streak of dark fuscous along, costa, and a small outwardly-oblique spot of dark fuscous about the middle ; three short outwardly-oblique white markings on costa in middle |, the
Watt. — Leaf-mining Ir^sects of ]\^ew Zealand.
453
outermost being the smallest, the interspaces densely irrorated with black ; three rather obscure lines of white in outer J ; cilia whitish with distinct band of black internally and a second indistinct one externally ; a small triangular spot of white on dorsum at about \ ; two rather less distinct white spots at |. Hindwings dark-grey ; cilia grey on costa, grey with bronzy reflections on dorsum.
Distribution. Found pleiitifully on Mount Egniont in the vicinity of North Egmont House and Dawson's Falls (3,000 ft.). Many larvae were found here in April of 1917. The pupae may be obtained about the end of December, and emerge during January and February. Also found at Dimedin, on Flagstaff Hill, chiefly aroimd the margin of the bush. The pupae are to be obtained in November ; larvae are plentiful in the early part of the month. The first imagos emerged on the 16th December.
Food-plant.
Nothopanax Sinclairii; Nothopcmax simplex (haumakoroa), in South Island.
Egg-laying.
The egg itself has not yet been found, but the following few particulars have been gleaned from observations on young mines. The eggs are laid singl}", rarely more than one or two on any one leaf, upon the upper surface, and near but rarely touching the midrib, and generally in the lower part of the leaf towards the stem.
The Mine. The mme is a vgry characteristic one. . It is a simple gallery throughout, and vermiform in character, the loops being very closely applied to one another, never anastomosing or crossing. As a rule the gallery at first
Figs. 12, 13. — Mines of P. panacivermiforma in Nothopanax Sinclairii.
(Natural size.)
winds" backwards and forwards in slightly increasing distances, closely applied to itself, and in a direction more or less parallel to the long axis of the leaf ; then with an almost remarkable abruptness it changes its
454
Transactions.
direction for one almost at right angles to the earlier one, now crossing the leaf in curved sweeps from edge to midrib, this latter forming a certain obstacle to trespass on the other half of the leaf. The spot where the general change of direction takes place no doubt marks the situation where the larva underwent its first moult. On reaching the upper region of the leaf the mine becomes less vermiform in character and becomes rather tor- tuous in its direction, crossing the midrib in its upper and thinner part, and continuing down the other half of the leaf in more or less close proximity to the midrib or outer margin. This latter portion of the mine is often deeper in the leaf than the earlier vermiform part, and consequently is more difficult to detect. In this final part the width of the gallery is about /^ in. The entire mine is in the upper surface of the leaf, and no trace of it can be seen beneath. Colour of mine a paler green than other portions of the leaf, but even so the mine is not a very conspicuous object ^t a little distance. The terminal portion of the gallery may be slightly enlarged, and within it the cocoon is constructed, a small area of the upper cuticle of the leaf at the extreme end of the mine being first prepared to a transparent thinness for the exit of the pupa later. The frass is finely granular, pale in colour, not very abundant, and occupies a rather broad band in the central third of the gallery.
The South Island type differs from the above. In the earlier part the mine is a simple vermiform gallery very similar to that of P. -panax- vermiformella both in size and character ; later, however, instead of ending in a somewhat tortuous and widened gallery, it expands into a
Figs. 14, 15. — INIines of P. panacivermiforma (South Island) in leaves of Nothopanax simplex. (Natural size.)
relatively large blotch, which^may occupy the entire leaf in small ones, or all or the greater part of one half of the leaf in larger ones. The entire mine is on the upper surface of the leaf, and is pale green in coloiu, and not very conspicuous at a distance The final blotch may occupy about
Watt. — Leaf -mining Insects of New Zealand.
455
1 square inch ; it is generally more closely applied to the outer margin of the leaf, where there is plenty of room. The midrib forms a barrier in its basal two-thirds. The blotch is irregular in shape, but all irregularities are rounded. Frass is finely granular, black, scanty. Old mines soon become white and conspicuous.
I have not yet been able to study the larva.
The Cocoon.
This is a small oval structure of thin white silk within the terminal part of the mine. The roof of cuticle protecting it above is slightly thicker than elsewhere in the mine. The position of the cocoon is not a constant one, but is generally alongside the midrib or outer margin of the leaf ; sometimes, however, it occupies a position between these, lying more or less at right angles to their general direction. It is most generally found about the middle third of the leaf. Dimensions, 7 mm. by 3' mm. Quite frequently the cocoon causes a slight infolding of the leaf in its immediate vicinity, but this is not so constant as in some of the other Panax moths ; n>ost generally a small hump on the upper surface of the leaf is all that reveals its existence.
In the South Island form the cocoon is constructed in a small narrow extension of the terminal part of the blotch, close to the upper cuticle of the leaf. It is usually near the outer margin of the 'eaf, about its middle or in its upper half. The white silken lining is very thin and frail, and causes a slight local puckering of the leaf. The small white window at the end of the cocoon is similar to that of P. imnacifinens and others. Size, 6 mm. by 2 mm.
The Puva.
All the essential characteristics are the same as in the other Panax moths. The cephalic plate is about as long as wide at its base, and the lateral cornua are short and of about half the length of the plate ; the labrum is slightly above the lower margin of the eyes ; mandibles promi- nent. Prothorax wide laterally against the antenna, but almost obliterated
16
Fig. 16. — Head of pupa of P. panacivermiforma, ventral view. Fig. 17.— Lateral view.
in the mid-dorsal region. Antennae reach to the eighth abdominal segment. Regarding the setae, these are the same as in P. panacitorsens ; in the tenth segment the dorsal setae are replaced by a pair of short pointed tubercles ; segment 8 bears all three pairs of setae ; segment 9 bears the dorsal pair only. The two caudal appendages are well developed. The
456
Transactions.
pupa is very active if disturbed, twirling its abdomen vigorously ; two distinct movements are made, a circular twirling and a side-to-side movement. Movement takes place between segments 4-5, 5-6, 6-7, also very slightly between 2-3, 3-4. Colour at first pure crystal-white, later changing to light yellow. Just prior to emergence the wings and frontal parts become speckled grey, eyes black, upper half of antennae and legs speckled grey, lower half light yellow except for the tips. Headpiece and abdominal segments light yellow, except dorsally, where they are darker in colour.
Chief Measurements of Pupa.
|
Length from Tip |
Transverse |
Ventro-dorsal |
|||
|
of Cephalic Plate. |
Diameter. |
Diameter. |
|||
|
Mm. |
Mm. |
Mm. |
|||
|
Base of eyes |
0-23 |
0-52 |
0-42 |
||
|
End of labial palpi |
0-86 |
0-69 |
0-65 |
||
|
End of first legs . . |
1-55 |
0-65 |
0-62 |
||
|
End of maxillae |
1-89 |
0-62 |
0-59 |
||
|
End of second legs |
2-24 |
0-52 |
0-59 |
||
|
End of forewings . . |
2-52 |
0-45 |
0-55 |
||
|
End of third legs . . |
3-08 |
0-31 |
0-31 |
||
|
End of antennae . . |
3-28 |
0-24 |
0-21 |
||
|
Extreme length |
3-45 |
In the South Island form the antennae are as long as the body. The setal plan is identical with that of P. panacitorsens. Colour at first pearly
Fig. 18. — Pupa of P. panacivermiforma (South Island form), ventral view. Fig. 19. — Dorsal view.
white with a faint tinge of green ; later the eyes become black, and the appendages mottled grey and white." The abdominal segments 3-6 inclusive become black dorsally, and this pigmentation remains in the cast skin.
Watt. — Leaf-mining Insects of 'New Zealand.
457
Chief Measurements of Pupa.
|
Length from Tip |
Transverse |
Ventro-dorsal |
|||
|
Measurement at |
of Cephalic Plate. |
Diameter. |
Diameter. |
||
|
Mm. |
Mm. |
Mm. |
|||
|
Base of eyes |
0-51 |
0-65 |
0-48 |
||
|
End of labial palpi |
1-21 |
0-76 |
0-72 |
||
|
End of first legs . . |
2-06 |
0-69 |
0-69 |
||
|
End of maxillae |
2-76 |
0-62 |
0-69 |
||
|
End of second legs |
2-83 |
0-55 |
0-65 |
||
|
End of forewings . . |
3 17 |
0-48 |
0-62 |
||
|
End of third legs . . |
3-90 |
0-27 |
0-27 |
||
|
End of antennae . . |
4-27 |
, • |
. , |
||
|
Extreme length |
4-30 |
■ Dehiscence.
The pupa pierces the prepared window at the head of the cocoon on the upper surface of the leaf. All details as to splitting are identical with those of P. panacitorsens, and so need not be repeated.
(5.) Parectopa panacicorticis n. sp. (The Panax Bark Moth). (Plate XXX,
fig. 5.)
The Imago.
?. 7.-8 mm. Head and thorax dark grey irrorated with white ; palpi white with apex of second joint and subapical ring of terminal joint black ; antennae grey-blackish, whitish towards apex ; abdomen dark grey above, white beneath ; legs white with black rings. Forewings dark grey to black, densely irrorated with white ; a series of short, outwardly-oblique white marks on costa, three before | ; at |, f , and f a larger wedge-shaped spot of white with a smaller one on its outer side ; a narrow line of black separates the white apical spot from an indistinct band of white on its inner side : a small conspicuous white triangular area on dorsum at |, a small white spot at f and another at | ; cilia white at apex, elsewhere grey. Hindwings and cilia dark grey.
In male the wing-expanse is shorter, about 6 mm. ; the white markings are more conspicuous, those on costa at | and f especially so ; the ventral surface of the abdomen is whitish tinged with grey.
This species approaches P. aethalota Meyr. very closely. I have never seen it on the wing, all my specimens being reared from pupae.
Distribution.
It is quite common on Mount Egmont at an altitude of 3,000 ft., and is plentiful in the vicinity of the Mountain House and down the mountain track. I have also found it at Dunedin in the bush behind the Botanical Gardens, and more plentifully in the Bush Reserve on Flagstaff Hill. Several old mines have been found at Aberfeldy, in the Wanganui district. The following dates give some idea as to the time of its appearance, &c. : Egmont— 10/1/17, pupae found ; 21/4/17, young larva ; 23/12/17, many pupae obtained. Dunedin — 20/17/19, a few young larvae found (these
4:58 Transactions.
pupated about the middle of November) ; 2/12/17, many pupae found (these all emerged during January).
This little moth is attacked a great deal by a hymenopterous parasite at present unidentified.
Food-plant.
Nothopanax arhoreum (whauwhaupaku).
Egg-laying.
The eggs are laid singly on the bark of the young stems of the food- plant. There appears to be no especially favoured position, except that it has been noticed that the region about the expanded bases of the leaves is rarely chosen, some more or less exposed position on the internode being utilized. A description of the ovum must wait until fresh unhatched ova can be obtained. They should be looked for during the months of January and February.
The Mine. |
The mine is a simple gallery throughout. At first about 0'5 mm. in width, it increases gradually to about 3 mm. The general direction is along the young stem in the internodes in its long axis. • On reaching a node where the large expanded base of the leaf-stalk closely embraces the greater part of the stem the mine follows the obstruction a varying distance, eventually turning down into the next internode or retracing its way back in its old internode, turning again in a similar manner on reaching the other extremity. In this way the internodes become more or less occupied by long galleries, while at the nodes the mine may enlarge and quite envelop the stem. Blind branches are rarely found. The
Fig. 20. — Mine of P. panacicorticis in stem of Nothopanax arhoreum. (Two-thirds natural size.)
mine may at times become somewhat tortuous, and in places more or less expanded oMang to several parts intercommunicating. As a general rule but one internode will be occupied by any one mine, though sometimes a mine may extend -into two. Where two mines are occupying the rather small area offered by a single internode, their galleries may intermingle indiscriminately without any attempt at mutual avoidance. Such crowding is rarely found. The colour of the mine at first is white, and later white or a very pale brown ; it is most conspicuous. The frass is scanty, and in the earlier portions of the mine occupies a narrow central line in the gallery. Details of the larva are reserved for a future monograph.
The Cocoon.
This structure is built in the terminal portion of the mine somewhere in the internode, very rarely against the base of the leaf -stalk. It is constructed of white silk, but is very thin, almost transparent, and is
Watt. — Leaf -mining Insects of New Zealand.
459
covered externally by the thin outer cuticle of the stem. It is somewhat cylindrical in shape, with roimded ends ; average size about 10 mm. by 2-5 mm. It forms quite a conspicuous little bulge on the side of the stem, its long axis parallel to that of the stem.
The Pupa. Of the head-parts, the cephalic plate is about twice as long as broad at its base ; the lateral cornua are represented by two extremely small tubercles, only slightly elevated ; labrum slightly above lower margin of the eyes. All the chief characteristics are the same as in P. panacitorsens. Individual characteristics in the Panax moths are hard to find. The forewings normally extend to the lower border of the fifth abdominal segment, while the third legs reach to the lower border of the seventh, and the antennae to that of the eighth or ninth. Regarding the setae,
21 ' 22
Fig. 21. — Head of pupa of P. panacicorticia, ventral view. Fig. 22. — Lateral view.
these are the same as P. panacitorsens, with the exception that the dorso- lateral seta was present in the second segment ; all three pairs were found in 8 and 9, and 10 bore a small dorsal pair and a larger dorso-lateral seta at the base of each caudal appendage. The lateral ridges are very rudimentary. The dorso-lateral setae in 2-6 inclusive are directed upwards and outwards, that on segment 3 being the longest, and in length about equal to two-thirds the width of the body at that point. Colour golden brown, darker on dorsum of head and thorax and segments 3-6 inclusive.
Chief Measurements of Pupa.
|
Measurement at |
Length from Tip |
Transverse |
Ventro-Iateral |
||
|
of Cephalic Plate. |
Diameter. |
Diameter. |
|||
|
Mm. |
Mm. |
Mm. |
|||
|
Base of eyes |
0-76 |
0-69 |
0-51 |
||
|
End of labial palpi |
, ' . |
1-41 |
0-79 |
0-72 |
|
|
End of first legs . . |
, , |
2-24 |
0-79 |
0-76 |
|
|
End of maxillae |
, , |
2-65 |
0-76 |
0-72 |
|
|
End of second legs |
, |
2-97 |
0-69 |
0-72 |
|
|
End of forewings . . |
• • |
3-28 |
0-66 |
0-63 |
|
|
End of third legs . . |
• . |
3-97 |
0-38 |
0-48 |
|
|
End of antennae . . • |
• |
4-41 |
, , |
• ■ |
|
|
Extreme length |
.. |
4-89 |
• • |
460 Transactions.
Dehiscence.
Exactly the same as in P. panacitorsens and all the other Panax Parectopas. There is here no external evidence of any prepared exit from the cocoon, but the pupa always emerges at the uppermost end, and here also with its ventral appendages outermost.
This moth is a favourite prey to parasites, two species having been reared but not yet identified — in fact, quite 90 per cent, of all the Panax Parectopas are destroyed by these parasitic Hymenoptera. Usually there is but a single parasite to each post ; this parasite constructs its small cylindrical cocoon within that of its host, and later emerges through a circular outlet gnawed in the upper end of the latter structure.
(6.) Parectopa panacifinens n. sp. (The Panax Marginal and Central
Moth). (Plate XXX, fig. 6.)
The Imago.
2, TO mm. ; ^, 8 mm. Head whitish with a dorsal streak of fuscous ; palpi whitish, with apex of second joint and a well-defined subap'cal ring on terminal joint black ; antennae fuscous. Thorax light fuscous with a fairly broad central line of darker fuscous, and on either side a narrow rather obscure dorso-lateral line of dark fuscous. Abdomen grey-black legs whitish ringed with black. Fore wings brown ifrorated with black markings white, the black irrorations being somewhat denser on their margins ; a narrow slightly wavy streak of white along dorsum from near base to f , interrupted by a small patch of brown about | (this white streak is more pronounced in the male) ; three distinct short outwardly-oblique white lines from costa at -J-, ^, §. the outermost one being the narrowest and longest, the centre one the most conspicuous and almost square ; a narrow outwardly-concave transverse bar of white near apex, broadest against the costa ; cilia fuscous with a distinct black line. Hindwings and cilia fuscous.
Distribution.
Numerous on Mount Egmont at 3,000 ft. Pupae are to be obtained during November and December, the imagos appearing in January. Also found in the Bush Reserve on Flagstaff Hill, Dunedin, in November, the imagos emerging early in December.
Food- plant. Nothopanax arhoreum (whauwhaupaku) .
The Mine.
The egg is laid on the upper surface of the leaf, generally near the midrib. The mine is a simple gallery, white in colour, on the upper surface of the leaf ; increases in width very gradually to about 2 mm. ; its total length is about 16 in. ; its character is very constant, and altogether it is a most conspicuous object. The larva on hatching burrows immediately into the leaf, and heads in in more or less of a straight line till the margin or midrib of the leaf is encountered, after which this obstacle is closely followed. Out of several hundred examined, no cases showfd any tendency on the part of the newly hatched larva to mine in a spiral, as in the case of P. aellomacha. Its course invariably takes it close around the greater portion or entire margin of the leaf, closely follo'WT.ng the digitations and
Watt. — Leaf -mining Insects of New Zealand.
461
any incursions made by other insects, and also along one or both of the sides of the midrib, this forming a barrier only in its basal three-quarters. The gallery then follows a more or less tortuous course within these boundaries ; if the leaf be large it will rarely cross earlier jiarts of its own track, and will wander in a vermiform manner along one half of the leaf, generally that half opposite the one on which the egg was laid ; in smaller leaves almost the entire upper surface will be mined in a very compli- cated manner, but there is never any tendency to blotch formation as in P. 'panacitorsens. Loops may be thrown out from the straight central portion of the gallery against the midrib, but never blind branches : this is characteristic. The way in which the gallery closely follows the margin of the leaf nearly all the way roimd was very characteristic of the Eo-mont
Figs. 23, 24, 25. — Typical mines of P. pa7iacifinens in leaves of Nothopanax arboreum. (Two-thirds natural size.)
mines, but was not so constant in the Dunedin ones. Perhaps the chief characteristic of the mine is the absence of blind branches. Frass is almost negligible, black, very finely granular, and is irregularly distributed. As a rule it is deposited at the margins of the mine, alternately on either side m the early parts, but later is arranged in close curved lines, convex forwards, transversely across the gallery. In the final stages it tends to become somewhat fluid in character.
The Cocoon. The cocoon is constructed in the slightly expanded terminal part of the mine, somewhat deeper in the leaf than the rest of the gallery. Its position may be alongside the midrib, the outer margin, or one of the coarser veins of the leaf. The small cylindrical structure of white silk pulls in the cuticle of the leaf in its vicinity and causes the leaf here to become slightly elevated, puckered, and infolded, affording it greater protection. A small, thin, almost transparent white window is constructed in the upper surface of the leaf at the end of the cocoon by the larva just prior to pupatioii. Size, about 8 mm. by 3 mm.
462
Transactions.
^ The Pupa.
The pupa differs hardly at all from the other Panax moths. cephaHc plate is rather short, and about as long as wide at its base ; the lateral cornua are well developed, and are about equal in length to that of the plate ; in some of the Dunedin specimens, however, they were not free, but soldered down to the headpiece around the front of the base of the cephalic plate. There is a strongly marked mid- dorsal ridge on vertex, meso- and meta-thorax, and extending slightly on to the first abdo- minal segment. The prothorax is narrow. Antennae variable in length, sometimes slightly longer than the body. Setae exactly as in P. 'panacivermiforma
The
Fig. 26. — Head of pupa of P. panacifinens,
ventral view. Fig. 27. — Lateral view.
Chief Measurements of Pupa.
|
Measurement at |
Length from Tip |
Transverse |
Ventro-dorsal |
||
|
of Cephalic Plate. |
Diameter. |
Diameter. |
|||
|
Mm. |
Mm. |
Mm. |
|||
|
Base of eyes |
0-72 |
0-79 |
0-55 |
||
|
End of labial palpi |
1-51 |
0-96 |
0-90 |
||
|
End of first legs . . |
2-58 |
0-90 |
0-86 |
||
|
End of maxillae . . , . |
2-86 |
0-86 |
0-86 |
||
|
End of second legs |
' |
3-51 |
0-72 |
0-86 |
|
|
End of forewings . . |
3-90 |
0-69 |
0-83 |
||
|
End of third legs . . |
4-89 |
0-48 |
0-51 |
||
|
End of antennae . . |
5-45 |
^ ^ |
|||
|
Extreme length |
.5-65 |
Dehiscence. Exactly as in P. panacivermiforma.
(1.) Parectopa aellomacha Meyr. (The Panax Branching Moth).
(Plate XXX, fig. 8.)
Gracilaria aellomacha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 21, p. 184, 1889. Parectopa aellomacha Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 228, 1915.
Mey rick's Original Description.
*' c? ?. T-9 mm. Head and palpi snow-white, palpi with apex of second joint and a subapical ring of terminal joint black. Thorax snow-white, with a small black spot on shoulder. Forewings snow-white ; markings fuscous, irrorated with dark fuscous ; a cloudy central longitudinal streak from near base to disc above anal angle, more or less obsolete towards base, connecting obscurely with about seven oblique costal and about four
Watt. — Leaf-mining' Insects of New Zealand.
463
oblique dorsal streaks (these vary somewhat) ; costal streaks usually alter- nately slender and thick ; a fuscous apical spot : cilia grey, round apex white, with two dark fuscous lines and a black apical hook. Hindwings
fuscous-grey, cilia paler."
Distribution.
I liave so far found this species only on Mount Egmont, about 3,000- 4,000 ft., where it is quite plentiful. Pupae were obtained during December and January, emerging in February. Young larvae were found in April of 1917. Meyrick records it from "Wellington and Christchurch, in September, January, and February ; four specimens.
' Food-plant.
Nothopanax arhoreum (whauwhaupaku).
The Mine.
The mine is a most characteristic one. It is rare to find more than one mine in a leaf. The egg is invariably laid upon the upper surface near the midrib, and generally in the basal portion of the leaf. The larva on hatching at once mines into the leaf through the shell of the egg, and as a general rule takes several spiral turns before mining in any definite direc- tion. This spiral nature of the earliest portion of the mine is characteristic. The mine throughout is a very gradually widening gallery, never becoming blotched, and rarely do portions cross each other except in the smaller leaves. The final width is about 2 mm. Its direction invariably takes it
Figs. 28, 29. — Mines of P. aellomacha in leaves of Nothopanax arhoreum.
(Two-thirds natural size.)
along both sides of the midrib, this obstacle being crossed in its upper and thinner part ; from these long straight portions a varying number of blind arms or branches of varying lengths, mostly straight but sometimes slightly curved, sprout out into the leaf. As a rule the greater number will be confined to one half of the leaf. These blind branches sometimes follow the course of the veins of the leaf, but most often do not, generally treating these as no obstacle ; they do not often reach as far as the outer margin of the leaf, but may do so, and may follow it a short distance ; the result is, however, always the same — a single blind-ended branch, never loops as in the case of P. panacifinens ; and rarely is any of the margin of the leaf so mined. The branches are all more or less parallel to one another, and rarely cross ; they are all more or less equal in width, about 2 mm. The mine is found only in the younger leaves, and is pale green in colour, the tips of the branches often being white, showing where the larva came close against the upper cuticle. No evidence of the mine is to be found on the underside of the leaf, and in its natural state the mine is not a very conspicuous
464
Transactions.
object, though so very striking when seen in picked leaves. Old mines become white, but otherwise do not discolour the leaf ; they are con- sequently far more conspicuous objects than the fresh ones. The mine is slightly deeper in the leaf than that of P. panacifinens. The total length of the mine may reach to 12 in. or 16 in. Frass is very finely granular;
^'^^^^^^'- - The Cocoon.
The cocoon is a somewhat cylindrical structure of thin white silk, with
all the characteristics of P. panacifinens. It is within the mine in the
upper part of the leaf, and is protected by a somewhat thicker covering
than the rest of the mine. It is slightly elevated, and as a rule causes a
local pinching of the leaf. It is invariably foimd alongside the midrib in
the basal third of the leaf. Size, 7 mm. by 2 mm. Its small white window
is quite conspicuous at the head end of the structure ; it is fan-shaped, with
its broadest part upon the surface of the leaf. Old cocoons soon become
discoloured brown. ^7 t.
Ihe Pupa.
The pupa of this moth is practically identical with that of P. panaci- finens ; on the average it may be slightly smaller ; its lateral cornua are relatively more developed, and are about one-half the length of the cephalic plate. The arrangement of the setae is the same in both, but in aellomacha the dorsal setae are short and fine, the dorso-lateral ones rather stout and long. The following measurements were taken from a typical
specimen : — -
Chief Measurements of Pupa.
|
TVTpncnrpTnpTit". nf" |
Length from Tip |
Transverse |
Ventro-dorsal |
||
|
iU.caaUXciiiciiL' tX\j |
of Cephalic Plate. |
Diameter. |
Diameter. |
||
|
Mm. |
Mm. |
Mm. |
|||
|
Base of eyes |
. |
0-69 |
0-76 |
0-63 |
|
|
End of labial palpi |
, |
1-44 |
0-86 |
0-79 |
|
|
End of first legs . , |
2-76 |
0-79 |
0-76 |
||
|
End of maxillae . . |
303 |
0-69 |
0-76 |
||
|
End of second legs |
3-28 |
0-63 |
0-69 |
||
|
End of forewings . . |
3-65 |
0-51 |
0-60 |
||
|
End of third legs . . |
4-55 |
0-38 |
0-35 |
||
|
End of antennae . . |
5-03 |
, , |
, , |
||
|
Extreme length |
5-59 |
Dehiscence. This takes place on the upper surface of the leaf, and is identical with that of P. panacifinens.
(8.) Parectopa panacivagans n. sp. (The Lancewood Parectopa).
(Plate XXX, fig. 10.)
The Imago.
8 mm. Head white at the sides, black above and against thorax ; palpi white with two black rings ; antennae black suffused with white below and towards base. Thorax white, black against tlie head, and caudally a small black V-shaped mark ; legs white with black rings. Abdomen blackish grey, Forewings black, slightly irrorated with white ; markings white ; from base to ^ white with a small central spot of black ; a short narrow outwardly-oblique line of white on costa at ^, another slightly larger and triangular spot a little beyond | reaching half across wing ; a short narrow oblique line of white at | ; an indistinct inwardly-curved
Watt. — Leaf-mining Insects of yew Zealand.
465
transverse line of white near apex ; a small white apical spot ; a broad outwardly-oblique line of white on dorsum at ^, and a small white spot at I ; cilia grey-black. Hindwings dark grey ; ciha grey-black.
Distribution.
This appears to be a rather rare moth. It was found first at Aberfeldy, in the Wanganui district, in 1917. The larvae are to be found in December, the pupae in January, and the imagos emerge in February. Old mines were found in Dunedin in May and July.
Food-jplant.
Found mining in the long tough leaves of the young lancewood, Pseud-o- panax crassifolium (horoeka), but more commonly in the young succulent leaves of the mature tree.
Egg-lmjing.
The egg is laid singly on the upper surface of the leaf, generally close to the midrib.
The Mine.
The mine throughout is a simple gallery, more or less straight in its direction. It is made entirely in the upper surface of the leaf, and there is no trace of it to be seen below. The mine starts in a more or less oblique direction till it reaches the midrib or margin of the leaf ; this it follows till it reaches the end of the leaf, and it then either turns back alongside its former track or continues back along the barrier on the other half of the leaf. It never crosses the midrib except in its upper part. On the margin of the leaf the mine closely follows all the irregulari- ties of outline, and extends into the bases of the serrations of the leaf. Portions of the earlier mine may be enveloped by the later broader
Fig. 30.— Mine of P. panacivagans in the lancewood -leaf. (Tvi^o-thirds natural size.)
gallery. The average length may be about 10 in. ; commencing with a width of 0'5 mm., the terminal part of the gallery measures about 4 mm. across. Colour light green in fresh mines. There is no tendency to branch. Margins of the mine fairly regular and white. Mines are not very con- spicuous at a short distance. Frass is almost fluid in nature, and occupies a fairly broad brown band in the centre of the early gallery, but in the wider part is dark green or black, and often forms an unbroken line on one side of the gallery ; it is sometimes deposited in short curved transverse lines with the concavity directed forwards. It appears to be deposited chiefly on the upper cuticle of the leaf.
The Larva.
Flattened, moniliform ; colour yellowish with broad green dorsal stripe. About 6 mm. in length. A detailed description is kept for a future paper on the Parectopa larvae.
466
Transactions.
The Cocoon.
The cocoon is constructed within the terminal part of the niine, either close alongside the midrib or on the outer margin of the leaf. It is slightly deeper in the substance of the • leaf than the rest of the mine. It is cylindrical in shape and slightly curved. The scanty silken lining causes a local pinching and puckering of the leaf, and raises the cuticle above the surface of the leaf. It bears a small white almost transparent window at one end, prepared for the pupal emergence. Its position is generally in the basal half of the leaf. Size, 12 mm. by 3 mm.
The Pwpa.
Closely resembles the pupa of the Panax moths in all particulars, cephalic plate is moderate in length, but fairly
massive
The the lateral
3! oz
Fig. 31. — Pupa of P. panacivagans, ventral view. Fig. 32. — Dorsal view. Fig. 33. — Lateral view.
cornua are about equal in length to the plate. Prothorax broad against the antennae, but is lost in the mid-dorsal region. Setae exactly as in P. panacitorsens ; the lateral setae are relatively long.
Chief Measurements of Pupa.
|
Measurement at |
Length from Tip of Cephalic Plate. |
Transverse Diameter. |
Ventro-dorsal Diameter. |
||
|
Base of eyes End of labial palpi End of first legs . . End of maxillae . . End of second legs End of forewings . . End of third legs . . End of antennae . . Extreme length |
Mm. 0-53 1-29 212 2-65 2-82 3-18 3-88 4-65 4-6.". |
Mm. 0-70 0-82 0-76 0-70 0-70 0-65 0-41 |
Mm". 0-53 0-76 0-76 0-76 0-76 0-53 0-35 |
Dehiscence.
This takes place on the upper surface of the leaf and is identical in all respects with that of the Panax moths.
PEOCEEDING:S
469
- PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS.
Wellington, 30th January, 192 0.
The annual meeting of the Board of Governors was held in the Dominion Museum Library on Friday, the 30th January, 1920, at 10 a.m.
Present : , Dr. L. Cockayne, President (in the chair) ; Mr. B. C. Aston, Professor Charles Chilton, Professor T. H. Easterfield, Mr. C. A. Ewen, Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, Mr. H. Hill, Professor H. B. Kirk, Professor J. Malcolm, Dr. P. Marshall, Professor H. W. Segar, Professor A. P. W. Thomas, Hon. G. M. Thomson, Dr. J. Allan Thomson, and Mr. A. M. Wright.
Mr. Park attended as delegate from the Manawatu Philosophical Society, and apologized for the unavoidable absence through illness of Mr.. M. A. Eliott.
The Hon. Secretary called the roll.
Apology for non-attendance was received from the Hon. Sir F. H. D Bell, Minister of Internal Affairs.
The President welcomed the new members of the Board of Governors — Mr. A. M. Wright and Professor J. Malcolm. He also stated that the Board was glad to receive Mr. Park (with power to address the meeting, but not to vote) as delegate from the Manawatu Society, especially as the important matter of the 1921 Science Congress at Palmerston North was to be considered.
Presidential Address. — Dr. L. Cockayne then delivered his presidential address (see page xxv).
On the motion of Professor Easterfield, it was resolved, That the President be thanked for his address, and be asked to allow it to be published in the Transactions.
Incorporated Societies' Reports and Balance-sheets were received and laid on the table. No reports were received from the Wanganui Philosophical Society or from the Poverty Bay Institute.
'Standing Committee's Report. — The annual report of the Standing Com- mittee was read, and adopted with a slight amendment.
Report of the Standing Committee for Year ending 31st December, 1919.
Meetings. — Ten meetings of the Standing Committee were hfeld during the year, the attendance being as follows : Dr. Cockayne (President), 4 ; Professor Kirk, 9 ; Professor Easterfield, 8 ; Hon. G. M. Thomson, 2 ; Professor Segar, 1 ; Professor A. P. W. Thomas, 1 ; Mr. C. A. Ewen, 4 ; Dr. J. Allan Thomson, 7 ; Mr. Birks, 3 ; Mr. Parr, 4 ; and Mr. Aston, 10.
470 Proceedings.
Hector Memorial Award. — The 1919 medal and prize, which was awarded to Dr. P. W. Robertson, was handed to the Department of Internal Affairs on the 25th March, 1919, for remitting to the High Commissioner's Office for presentation to Dr. Robertson. A cable was published in the daily papers of the 12th December, 1919, announcing that the High Commissioner, Sir Thomas Mackenzie, had publicly presented the medal to Dr. Robertson in London.
War Boll of Honour. — This has been brought up to date, and will be sent to the Hon. Editor for publication in volume 52 of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.
Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, volume 51, was issued to the societies in bulk in September, 1919. The Proceedings of the annual meeting in January, 1919, were published in pamphlet form, and distributed to societies on the 26th March, 1919, as well as being printed in the Transactions.
Publications. — The followmg have been placed on the mailing list by the Standing Committee, and will in future receive the Transactions as published : — Museo Civico Storia Naturale di Genova. Anales del Museo Nacional de B. Aires.
Adviser of Fisheries, Norway, Fiskeridirektren, Postboks, 226, Bergen. Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry.
International Institute of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, Canada. Tumbull Library, Wellington, N.Z. American Chemical Society. Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
Resolutions of the Standing Committee not otherwise mentioned in this report are —
It was resolved to present a bound copy of Maori Art to Mr. Evan Parry, to mark the New Zealand Institute's appreciation of his work in New Zealand.
It was resolved to publish the minutes of the annual meeting as sopn as possible, and that the Publication Committee be instructed accordingly.
It was resolved to grant power to the Hon. Librarian to formulate certain rules to be observed by those using the Institute library, and issue certain circulars regarding library matters.
It was resolved, That the members of the Standing Committee of the New Zealand Institute desire to express their sympathy with Mrs. Broun and her daughters in the great loss which they have sustained by the death of Major Broun.
It was resolved. That Professor Easterfield, Dr. Thomson, Mr. Ewen, and the Hon. Secretary be a committee to formulate resolutions of the New Zealand Institute which have the force of regulations, in order that, where advisable, they might be gazetted.
Financial Position of the Institute. — A deputation from the Standing Committee waited upon the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs, Major Hine, in September, with reference to the financial position of the Institute and the necessity for an increased grant for general expenses. As a result the sum of £500 was placed on the supplementary estimates ior the year's expenses, and a promise was given that the question of making a- permanent increase to the Institute's statutory grant of £500 per annum would be faArourably considered.
It is desirable that some more simple method of dealing with interest which accrues at the Savings-bank from time to time shall be devised. If some resolution were passed to the effect that all interest earned at the Savings-bank would be credited to some definite purpose it would simplify book-keeping considerably. The suggestion is made that all such interest should be credited to the Endowment Fund.
A sum of £250 voted by the Department of Internal Affairs for binding the books of the Institute library was paid into the Institute's account on the 28th March, 1919.
National Efficiency Board's Report : Census of Industries. (This was a report to the Government, which included the New Zealand Institute's Scientific and Industrial Research Committee's report: see pp. .326-27, vol. 50.) It was resolved at a meeting of the Standing Committee held on the 17th January, 1919, to remind the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs (Hon. G. W. Russell) of his promise to communicate further on the making of a census of industries. At a meeting of the Standing Committee on the 11th March, 1919, Dr. .J. Allan Thomson reported that Professor Easterfield and he had interviewed the Hon. the Minister (Hon. G. W. Russell) with reference to compiling a census of industries. The Minister considered it was a matter more for the Science and Art Board.
The Science and Art Board had considered the matter, and passed the following resolutions : —
" (1.) That this meeting urges upon the Government that the time has come when the establishment of a Board to superintend and organize scientific research and the advancement of industrial efficiency should no longer be delayed.
Annual Meeting. 471
" (2.) That the scheme adopted by the Efficiency Board, being the well-considered opinion of the scientific bodies of New Zealand, has the foremost claim on the attention of the Government.
" (3.) Pending the establishment of such a Board, that a joint committee of the New Zealand Institute and the Science and Art Board be authorized to undertake a preliminary investigation into the following matters : (a) Industrial problems requiring scientific research ; (6) facilities for research in New Zealand laboratories ; (c) the number and status of scientific men available for research ; {d) register of research work in progress ; (e) existing facilities for the training of research students ; (/) existing facilities for technical education in the training of artisans ; {g) existing facilities for the training of agricultural students ; (/i) that the sum of £250 be granted to the above committee for secretarial assistance."
On the 3rd April, 1919, a letter, dated 14th March, 1919, was received from the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs (Hon. G. W. Russell), informing the Institute that the Government could not at present see its way to adopt the report of the National Efficiency Board, but has given instructions for the compilation of an annual census of industries for the future.
The President (Dr. Cockayne), Professor Easterfield, and Dr. J. Allan Thomson gave evidence before the Parliamentary Committee on Industries, and reported that the Committee was distinctly favourable to the proposals of the Institute's Scientific and Industrial Research Committee forwarded to the Government through- the National Efficiency Board.
Annual Re-ports and Balance-sheets. — The annual reports and balance-sheets of the following incorporated societies had been received, and were laid on the table : — Wellington Philosophical Society, up to 30th September, 1919. Auckland Institute, up to 20th February, 1919. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, up to 31st October, 1919. Otago Institute, up to 30th November, 1919. Manawatu Philosophical Society, up to 31st October, 1919. Nelson Institute, up to 31st December, 1918. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, up to 31st December, 1918. No reports had been received from the Poverty Bay and Wanganui societies.
, Clerical Work of the Iv^stitute. — It will be necessary to appoint a permanent paid official to assist the honorary officers of the Institute. The administration of the vote for research grants has thrown much additional work on the Hon. Secretary and Hon. Treasurer. The present practice of burdening the honorary officers with a mass of routine work, which a junior office assistant could well do, is very irksome, and will result in losing the services of experienced honorary officers. What is suggested is that a pa,id official shall be appointed to —
(a.) Act as Assistant Secretary, Assistant Treasurer, Assistant Editor, and Assistant
Librarian. (6.) Compile indexes of the Transactions from year to year, and compUe a decen- nial index for publication of the 41st to the 50th volume, (c.) Compile catalogue cards for the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, (d.) Do such other clerical work for the Institute as is from time to time necessary.
Fellowship. — The regulations passed at the last annual meeting have been duly gazetted, and the election of the original Fellows has been held, Mr. C. A. Ewen, the Honorary Treasurer, acting as returning officer. It was found impossible to arrange for the election of four ordinary members at the annual meeting in January, as By the time the election of the Original Fellows had been completed Regulation 7 (c) — which provides that six months' notice of the names of nominees should be given to the Fellows selecting-^could not be complied with. It was decided that the institution of the Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute should be explained to the scientific world by articles to be written for Nature and Science.
Kapiti Island. — A deputation from the Standing Committee —Dr. Cockayne (Pre- sident), Professor Kirk, Dr. Cotton, Dr. J. Allan Thomson, and Mr. Aston — waited on the Hon. the Minister of Lands (Hon. D. H Guthrie) with regard to Kapiti Island in particular, and in general asking for recognition of the Institute as an advisory body to the Government on all matters dealing with sanctuaries. The following is a precis of the shorthand notes of the Minister's Private Secretary : —
" Deputation to the Hon. D. H. Guthrie, Minister of Lands, WeUington. — 9th Julv, 1919.— Introduced by Mr. W. H. Field, M.P.
" Professor Kark stated that he would like to see the sheep difficulty dealt with. Although the Government had done a large amount of good work on Kapiti Island,
472 Proceedings.
it was being nullified by the effects of the sheep. One course was to clear out the sheep altogether and extinguish the Native titles, and another would be to stock only that part of the island which has been cleared. The general request which the Institute wished to make was that it should be recognized by the Government in all matters dealing with sanctuaries.
"The Hon. Mr. Guthrie said that, so far as his Department was concerned, the assistance of the Institute would have the fullest consideration. AjDj^arently it was feared that the sheep would interfere with the native fauna. If at any time it were decided to use the whole of the island as a sanctuary, it would be easy to remove the sheep. He thought, however, that the matter was more in the province of the Hon the Minister of Internal Affairs.
" Dr. Allan Thomson jDointed out that the only legislation dealing with the matter was embodied in the Scenery Preservation Act, which was administered by the Lands Department. The bird-life of the Dominion had been suffering through divided control, and, as a result of a conference held a few years ago, Mr. Phillips Turner and himself ■nere appointed to act as a committee to advise their separate Departments.
" Professor Kirk asked if the Minister would agree to api:)oint a representative of the Institute to the committee with Dr. Thomson and Mr. Turner.
" Hon. Mr. Guthrie said that he would have to consult the Minister of Internal Affairs. He thanked the deputation for coming to see him on the matter, and added that if at any time the Institute should desire to make definite recommendations on any points connected with the sanctuaries he would be pleased to receive them."
The Hon. the Minister of Lands (Mr. Guthrie), under date of 23rd December, 1919, has written asking the Institute to nominate a representative to act on the committee which he projioses to set up to advise the Government on Kapiti Island.
Donation of Partial Set of " Transactions.'" — In addition to those institutions to which the Standing Committee has donated sets of Transactions, a partial set has this year been donated to the Tauranga High School. ,
Resohdions of the Institute. — Recognizing the desirability of arranging and publish- ing the regulations and resolutions of the Institute in such a manner that they can be referred to easily, the Standing Committee has ajjpointed a sub-committee to deal with the matter. It is desirable that the regulations should be brought up to date, and any resolutions which have the force of regulations should be gazetted. It will be necessary to amend the research -grant regulations to accord with the conditions laid down by the Hon. the Minister on page 536, volume 49. The amendments to the regulations passed in recent years should be incorporated in the general regulations and reprinted in volume 52.
The Library is still in an unsatisfactory state, and the Hon. Librarian has been authorized to formulate and enforce certain rules to be followed by those using the library.
Catalogue of Fishes. — A matter which has been before the Institute year after year is the compilation of a catalogue of the fishes of New Zealand. The Government has now requested the Institute to submit an estimate of the cost, and the Standing Com- mittee has appointed the Hon. G. M. Thomson and Dr. J. Allan Thomson a sub-committee to compile the estimate.
Protection of the Fauna. — With regard to the protection of native birds, it was resolved to ask the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs for an opportunity of seeing the proposals of the Government, with a view to rendering the fullest assistance in the matter before the jDroposals are laid before Pa^hament. The Department of Internal Affairs, in reply (11th March, 1919), promised to submit a copy of the Animals Protection Bill to the New Zealand Institute for any remarks that the Board might wish to make. The resolutions passed at the last annual meeting regarding the fauna of Macquarie Island have been sent to the Royal Society of Tasmania and to the Premier of that State.
The New Zealand Institute has now received a letter, dated 29th November, 1919, from the Secretary of the Royal Society of Tasmania, stating that at a recent con- ference in Brisbane a resolution was passed asking the Government to declare the island a sanctuary. The letter also stated that there was now a movement afoot to obtain a renewal of Mr. Hatch's lease, which had been cancelled by the Tasmanian Government. It was suggested that New Zealand societies might write to the Premier of Tasmania supporting the jjroposal for a sanctuary at Macquarie Island.
The incorporated societies of the New Zealand Institute have been circularized with regard to the Tasmanian society's request, in order that they may contribute support to the movement.
Annual Meeting. 473
International Research Council. — It was resolved to expend up to £25 in payment of the expenses of a delegate from England to a meeting of the above in Brussels. Dr. Dendy was chosen by the Standing Committee to represent the New Zealand Institute at the meeting, and his rejjort has recently been received. He stated that the confer- ence was most interesting, and that, although no question arose of special interest to New Zealand, he hoped that the Dominion might benefit by the organization of scientific research which the Conference was endeavouring to establish.
Resolutions passed at the Canterbury Philosophical Institute's Science Congress, held in February last, were received from the Hon. Secretary, Canterbury Philosophical Institute. The Hon. Secretarj;^, New Zealand Institute, was authorized to remit them to the Departments concerned. The following is a synopsis of the replies : —
(1.) The Hon. the Minister of Agriculture stated that he was largely in agreement with the resolutions. A Pure Seeds Bill had already been drafted, and the preparation of legislation to provide for the purity and standardization of spraying-compounds was under way. The importance of the soil survey was also recognized. Hitherto the difficulty had been one of staff ; but it was hoped to arrange this in the near future.
(2.) The Hon. the Minister of Mines replied that an endeavour was being made to secure the services of a suitable officer for the position of Palaeontologist to the Geological Survey.
(3.) The Hon. the Minister of Marine stated that the investigation into climatic winds would be considered as soon as Mr. Bates returned to the Dominion.
(4.) The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs replied (a) that the provision of a Milne-Shaw seismograph had been approved, and that an order for its purchase was being forwarded to the High Commissioner ; (6) that the establishment of an herbarium would receive careful consideration when the necessary accommodation was available.
Collection of New Zealand Coleoptera. — The Standing Committee have approved of certain steps which the Director of the Dominion Museum proposed to take with the object of having a collection of New Zealand Coleoptera retained in the Dominion.
■ Lord Jellicoe's Visit. — The President (Dr. Cockayne) and Professor Easterfield waited on Admiral Jellicoe on H.M.S. " New Zealand " as a deputation from the New Zealand Institute to tender any information regarding the best body in New- Zealand qualified to give scientific advice. The Admiral thanked the members of the deputation for their attendance and advice.
The following is the portion of Lord Jellicoe's report to the New Zealand Governor- General which deals with the organization of scientific research in the Navy : —
" It is very necessary that the fullest use should be made by naval officers of the advances of science. . . . It is recommended that the Admiralty should be asked to keep the New Zealand Naval Board advised as to the progress made by the Scientific Research and Experiment Department. It is also recommended that an organization on similar lines should be provided in New Zealand when practicable.
" From the existing New Zealand Institute, wliich has technological sections, and which can undertake investigation in general j^hysical and chemical problems, a nucleus of a Naval Scientific and Research Department could be formed.
" A number of the best scientists should be selected to form the Department under the Presidency of the C.N.S., New Zealand Naval Board. A scientist of -wide experience should be appointed as Vice-President.
" In the first instance the work of the scientists of the proposed Sciei^tific Research and Experiment Department . . . might be carried out at Victoria University College, Wellington."
Publication of Congress Papers. — The publication of the proceedings, papers, and addresses which constituted the first Science Congress held under the auspices of the New Zealand Institute was arranged as follows : —
(1.) -The Christchurch daily papers, in the first place, gave very full, prominent, and accurate reports of the work of the Congress day by day.
(2.) Later, the Journal of Science and. Technology devoted two special numbers, issued together (No. 4 and No. 5 of volume 2, issued July, 1919), to the publication of those features of the Congress which were suitable for publication in the Journal and which were not reserved for publication in the Transactions of the New Zealand Insti- tute. This is really the best official record of the work of the Congress, being a connected narrative of the proceedings, the title of every paper being given and (where not required for the Transacliorhs) some account of each paper. A number of the shorter papers were printed in full ; and, in addition, photos of some of the cliief dignitaries of the Congress.
474
Proceedings.
(3.) Finally, volume 51 of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, published in September, 1919, has proved a fitting medium for publishing several papers by well- known authorities who desired that course.
It is satisfactory to know that the Hon. G. W. Russell, the late Minister of Internal Affairs, has expressed to the President (Dr. Cockayne) his great apiDreciation of the manner in which the proceedings of the Science Congress have been printed and published.
Interest on Savings-bank Deposits. — On the motion of Mr. C. A. Ewen, seconded by tlie Hon. G. M. Tliomson, it was resolved, That the accrued i^nterest from deposits in the Savings-bank be allotted to the N.Z. Institute Endowment Fund from time to time.
Hon. Treasurer's Reports. — The Hon. Treasurer moved, and Dr. Allan Thomson seconded, That the Hon. Treasurer's reports — (1) Statement of Receipts and Expenditure for Year ending 31st December, 1919, (2) State- ment of Liabilities and Assets as at 31st December, 1919, (3) Statement of Research Grant Fund for Year ending 31st December, 1919, all duly- audited by the Auditor-Geperal — be adopted. Carried.
Receipts and Expenditure for the December, 1919.
Expenditure. £ s. d.
Government Printer — Printing vol. 50, £547 ; and papers, £19 6s.
|
New Zealand Institute.- |
—Statement of |
||||
|
Yeab |
ENDING |
31ST |
|||
|
Beceipts. |
£ |
s. |
d. |
||
|
Balance at 31st December, |
|||||
|
1918.. |
372 |
16 |
4 |
||
|
Savings-bank interest to |
|||||
|
31st December, 1919 . . |
14 |
6 |
8 |
||
|
Government statutory grant |
500 |
0 |
0 |
||
|
Government special grant |
|||||
|
for binding |
250 |
0 |
0 |
||
|
Government extra grant for |
|||||
|
1919-20 |
500 |
0 |
0 |
||
|
Publications sold |
67 |
12 |
3 |
||
|
Affiliated societies' levy. |
|||||
|
1919.. .. ".. |
131 |
12 |
0 |
||
|
Government grants for re- |
|||||
|
search work . . |
1 |
,790 |
0 |
0 |
|
|
Refund by Canterbury |
|||||
|
Philosophical Institute, |
|||||
|
part grant made 6th |
|||||
|
March, 1917 . . |
60 |
0 |
0 |
||
|
Refund from Public Trustee |
|||||
|
— Customs duty on Hec- |
|||||
|
tor Memorial Medals |
2 |
18 |
4 |
||
|
£3 |
,689 |
5 |
7 |
Printing vol. 51, £730, and papers, £61 lis. 6d.
Governors' travelling - ex- penses
Lawson, Sydney— Prints for vol. 51
Secretary's expenses — post- age, stationery, and clerical work . .
Fire-insurance premiums on library
Legal expenses . .
Bank charge, 5s. and 5s. . .
Transactions purchased
Expenses Professor Kirk to Kapiti Island . .
Research grants, as per list
566 6 0
791 11 6
32 0 2
12 15 0
34 5 3
5 5 0 3
5 415
0
5
10
0
1
7
By balance, as under.
0 0 0 0
0 0
1,871 0 11 1,818 4 8
£3,689 5 7
Balance in —
Bank of New Zealand . . Post Office Savings-bank
Made up as follows : — Endowment Fund
Balance Government grants for research . Institute's general purposes balance Accrued interest. Post Office Savings-bank
Approved by Auditor-General.
£ s. d.
762 0 0
1,056 4 8
£1,818 4 8
£ s. d.
4 18 1
1,509 13 0
252 7 0
51 6 7
£1,818 4 8
Annual Meeting.
475
New Zealand Institttte.
-Statement of Liabilities and Assets at 31st December, 1919.
|
Liabilities. £ s. d. |
Assets |
£ |
s. |
d. |
|||||
|
To Hecto |
r Memorial Fund 1,057 3 11 |
By Balances in hands Pub- |
|||||||
|
Hutto |
n Memorial Fund 856 14 5 |
lic Trustee- |
— |
||||||
|
Carter |
Bequest .. 4,505 11 6 |
Hector Memorial |
|||||||
|
Balance Government |
Fund |
1,057 |
3 |
11 |
|||||
|
grants for research |
H u 1 1 0 n Memorial |
||||||||
|
purposes .. .. 1,509 13 0 |
Fund |
. , |
, , |
856 |
14 |
5 |
|||
|
Balance Endowment |
Carter Bequest |
4,505 |
11 |
6 |
|||||
|
Fund in Post Office |
Outstanding accounts . . |
14 |
5 |
3 |
|||||
|
Savings-bank . . 4 18 i |
, Balance in |
Bank of New |
|||||||
|
Balance .. ,. 317 18 10 |
Zealand |
762 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Balance in Pos |
t Office |
||||||||
|
' |
Savings- By Balance |
bank • • |
1,056 |
4 |
8 |
||||
|
£8,251 19 9 |
£8,251 |
19 |
9 |
||||||
|
£317 |
18 |
10 |
|||||||
|
1 |
New Zealand Institute.' — Government Research Grants. |
||||||||
|
Dr. |
Or. |
||||||||
|
1919. |
£ |
s. |
d. |
£ |
s. |
d. |
|||
|
Jan. 1. |
By Balance on hand |
75 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
April 3. |
Government grant |
55 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
June 26. |
Government grant |
1,500 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Nov. 21. |
Government grant |
185 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Oct. 22. |
Government grant |
50 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Feb. 6. |
To Grant to L, J. Wild . . |
30 |
6 |
0 |
|||||
|
Feb. 28. |
Grant to Professor Jack |
25 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
May 5. |
Grant to Dr. C. E. Adams |
55 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Aug. 11. |
Grant to Professor John Malcolm |
25 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Sept. 11. |
Grant to Professor T. H. Easterfield |
15 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Sept. 20. |
Grant to Professor John Malcolm |
25 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Oct. 29. |
Grant to R. Speight . . |
50 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Nov. 14. |
Grant to W. G. Morrison |
30 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Nov. 20. |
Grant to G. Brittin |
20 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Nov. 20. |
Grant to Professor John Malcolm |
35 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Nov. 25. |
Grant to Professor T. H. Easterfield |
15 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Nov. 28. |
Grant to G. Howes |
30 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Dec. 5. |
Grant to Professor John Malcolm |
35 |
0 |
0 |
|||||
|
Oct. 15. |
By Refund by Canterbury Philosophical Inst |
1- |
|||||||
|
tute, part grant made 9th March, 1919 |
60 |
0 |
0 |
||||||
|
Dec. 19. |
To Grants to Dr. J. Allan Thomson |
• |
25 |
7 |
0 |
||||
|
415 |
7 |
0 |
|||||||
|
Balance on hand |
. 1 |
,509 |
13 |
0 |
|||||
|
£1 |
,925 |
0 |
0 |
£1,925 |
0 |
0 |
Clerical Work of the Institute. — The Board went into Committee to consider the proposal to appoint a permanent paid official to assist the honorary officers of the Institute. After some discussion it was resolved, on the motion of the Hon. Secretary, seconded by Dr. J. Allan Thomson, That authority be given to the Standing Committee to engage a paid whole-time official to assist the honorary officers of the Institute, at a salary not exceeding £200 per annum.
Fellowship : Method of Election. — On the motion of Professor Chilton, seconded by Mr. Hill, it was resolved, That a committee consisting of the President, Professor Segar, Mr. Ewen, and Mr. Hogben be appointed to draw up rules for the election of Fellows of the Institute, and to report to the Standing Committee.
Catalogue of New Zealand Fishes. — The Hon. G. M. Thomson stated that he had gone into the subject of producing a catalogue of New Zealand
476 Proceedings.
fishes, and estimated that it would cost at least £1,725. On his motion, seconded by Professor Kirk, it was resolved. That this meeting of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute re-urges upon the Government the necessity of preparing and publishing an illustrated catalogue of New Zealand fishes as a work of national importance, and that this work should be undertaken at as early a date as possible.
International Research Council. — The action of the Standing Committee in arranging for a delegate (Professor Dendy) to represent New Zealand at the International Research Conference at Brussels was approved. Dr. J Allan Thomson summarized the published reports of the Conference. On the motion of Dr. Thomson, seconded by Professor Chilton, it was resolved. That the following resolution of the International Research Council be referred to the Government for favourable consideration : —
" Considerant que les pertes resultant de la guerre ne pourront etre pleinement reparees que par le travail dirige de plus en plus dans la voie de la technique fecondee elle-meme par de nouvelles decouvertes scientifiques ; considerant que I'oeuvre humanitaire et sociale ainsi devolue a la science a besoin d'etre largement outillee et subventionee : La Conference emet le voeu de voir les Gouvernements, representes dans la Societe des Nations, s'entendre pour constituer un budget international des sciences et con- tribuer ainsi aux travaux des Associations Internationales. "
Financial Position of the Institute. — The financial position of the Institute was discussed at length. The President explained that a deputation had waited upon the Hon. J. B. Hine recently, and had secured an additional £500 towards the general expenses of the Institute. On the motion of Mr. Ewen, seconded by Mr. Hill, it was resolved. That for every copy of volume 52 of the Transactions received by the incorporated societies a contribution of 2s. 6d. towards the cost of printing shall be made during the current year by such society.
On the motion of the Hon. G. M. Thomson, seconded by Dr. P. Marshall, it was resolved. That this meeting of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute urges on the Government the necessity of amending section 10 of the New Zealand Institute Act by deleting the words " five hundred poiinds " and substituting the words " one thousand pounds," in accordance with a definite promise made by a Minister of Internal Affairs, and in view of the fact that a supplementary sum of £500 was paid during 1919 pending the alteration of the Act.
The Public Trustee's Reports on the Carter Bequest, the Hutton Memorial Fund, and the Hector Memorial Fund for the year ending 31st December, 1919, were adopted.
Hutton Memorial Research Fund. — Statement of Account for the Year ending
31sT December, 1919.
By Balance
Public Trust Office- Interest to 31st December, 1919, at
4^ per cent. . . . .
Bonus interest to 31st March, 1919 . .
To New Zealand Institute Account — Grant to Miss Mestayer for research work . . Balance
By Balance
|
£ s. d. 36 15 11 3 11 7 |
Dr. £ s. d. 10 0 0 856 14 5 |
Cr. £ s. d. 826 6 11 40 7 6 |
|
£866 14 5 |
£866 14 5 |
|
|
• • |
£856 14 5 |
Annual Meeting. 477
Hector Memorial Fund. — Statement of Account for the Year ending 31st
December, 1919.
|
By Balance |
. , |
. , |
|||
|
Public Trust Office- |
|||||
|
Interest to 31st December, |
1919, |
at |
£. |
s. |
d. |
|
4i per cent. |
, , |
45 |
14 |
5 |
|
|
Bonus interest to 31st March, |
1919 |
4 |
11 |
7 |
|
Dr. |
Cr. |
|
s. d. |
£ s. d. |
|
. |
1,067 19 9 |
To New Zealand Institute Account —
Dr. P. W. Robertson — Hector Prize for
1919 .. .. .. .. 45 0 0
Allan G. Wyon — Twelve bronze Hector
50 6 0
«
|
Medals . . C. A. Ewen — Duty on medals . . |
13 2 2 18 |
6 4 |
1 |
61 0 ,057 |
0 10 1 0 3 ll |
|
|
Public Trust Office : Petty expenses — Exchange Balance |
« |
|||||
|
(1 |
n |
,118 |
5 9 |
£1,118 5 9 |
||
|
By Balance . . • . . |
« • |
£1,057 3 11 |
Carter Bequest. — Statement of Accoitnt for the Year ending 31st December,
1919.
Dr. Cr:
Residuary Account. £ s. d. £ s. d.
By Balance .. .. .. .. .. .. 4,342 5 4
PubKc Trust Office- Interest to 31st December, 1919, at £ s. d. 4* per ceni, . . . . . . 195 3 9
Bonus interest to 31st March, 1919 . . 18 2 5
.. 213 6 2
To Balance . . . . . . . . . . 4 , 555 11 6
£4,555 11 6 £4,555 11 6
By Balance .. ... .. .. .. .. • £4,555 11 6
Assets. £ s. d.
Balance as per account . . . . .... . . 4 , 555 11 6
Liabilities. £ §. d.
Legacy — Museum and New Zealand Institute . . . . 50 0 0
Balance Public Trustee's commission . . . . . . At scale rates.
Hiitton Research Grant Fund. — A report from Miss Mestayer regarding the grant of £10 towards work on the New Zealand Mollusca was received. There were no applications" for further grants.
Hutton Award Committee. — The President then opened the sealed recommendation of the Hutton Award Committee, which proposed that the award should be made this year to the Rev. J. E. Holloway, D.Sc. Professor Charles Chilton moved, and the Hon. G. M. Thomson seconded, That the report be adopted. Carried.
478 Proceedings.
Report of the Hutton Memorial Award Committee.
The Committee of Award unanimously recommend that the medal for 1920 be awarded to Rev. John E. Holloway, D.Sc.
The Committee have reviewed the claims of other biologists and geologists, but have been so impressed by the brilliant work of Dr. Holloway, by his patience and enthusiasm in his search for material, by his keenness of observation, and by the highly important results obtained in his researches on the life-histories of the Lycopo- diaceae, as well as that on the embyrology of Tmesipteris — botanical studies of .out- standing merit and of far-reaching interest — that they place his work on a higher plane than that of other men whose publications may nevertheless be more numerous.
W. B. Benham, Convener.
Hector Award Committee. — ^The President also opened the sealed recommendation of the Hector Award Committee, which proposed that the award should be made this year to Mr. S. Percy Smith, for ethnology. Mr. H. Hill moved, and Professor Thomas seconded, the adoption of the report. Carrie.d-
Report of Hector Memorial Award Committee.
All members of the Hector Award Committee — Messrs. Spencer, Cheeseman, Thom- son, and myself — agree that the award of the medal for ethnology should be made to Mr. S. Percy Smith. This conclusion is based on his remarkable services to science, as shown in his voluminous writings and his conducting of the Journal of the Polynesian Society since 1892. . • Elsdon Best.
Publication Committee's Report. — The report of the Publication Com- mittee was adopted on the motion of Dr. Marshall, seconded by Professor Chilton, and it was also resolved, That the Committee be recommended to proceed as soon as possible with the publication of Mr. Dixon's papers on mosses.
Report of Publication Committee.
Forty papers were accepted for publication in volume 51 of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, and the volume was issued on the 1st September, 1919. It is of average size, and contains xviii plus 548 pages (of which 89 are devoted to the Proceedings and Appendix), 33 plates (one coloured), and a large number of text-figures. No date appears now on the title-page but the actual date of publication (1919 in this case), and the words " for the year 1918 " appearing at one place on the cover are due to an oversight in proof-reading.
No bulletins have been issued during the year.
For the Committee.
C. A. Cotton, Hon. Editor.
Hon. Librarian's Report. — ^The Hon. Librarian read his report, and moved, That the report be adopted. The motion was seconded by Mr. Hill and carried.
Report of the Library Committee.
The incoming exchanges have been received, registered, and placed upon the shelves. A list of those received for 1918 was prepared by a member of the committee and printed in the Appendix of the Proceedings, pp. 536-39. Owing to the suspension of the Smithsonian International Exchange, a number of important American publica- tions were not received during 1918 and 1919, but these are now beginning to come to hand.
A few sample volumes have been bound, but the quotations received were so discouraging as regards price that no further action has been taken in regard to the expenditure of the £250 voted for this purpose by the Government.
Information has recently been received from the Director of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature that the publications mentioned in the report of this committee for 1918 have now been noted for inclusion in the International Catalogue. Before this letter came to hand, however, a letter from the Secretary of the Royal Society was received, pointing out the difficulties in carrying out the further pubhcation of the catalogue, and asking for the consideration of the position by the New Zealand Institute as the Regional Bureau for New Zealand.
Annual Meeting. 479
The International Catalogue originated at a conference summoned by the Roj'al Society in 1896, and the finance of the undertaking was secured by a loan of £7,500 advanced by the Royal Society. Germany formally mthdrew from the convention in 1914, and the Royal Society undertook the direct control during the crisis. The aggregate net loss for the first eleven years of issue is £2,556 2s. Id. A sum of £8,500 •was raised to relieve the Royal Society from the heavy liabilities they had incurred down to the 14th issue.
It seems clear that the catalogue, in its present form, cannot be self-supporting. It can only be continued with the assistance of a permanent endowment or of external subscriptions towards the expenses of the Central Bureau. The Royal Society Avill not be able again to undertake responsibility for the whole catalogue. Faihng this, it is recommended that the form of the catalogue should be simplified by the omission of the subject indexes, and should consist simply of a quinquennial authors' list for each science, the Central Bureau to co-operate with any organizations dealing with a single subject, such as that at present responsible for Science Abstracts.
In the opinion of your committee the catalogue could have little value iii such a form, and the question for the Board of Governors to decide is whether the Inter- national Catalogue is of sufficient value to warrant an annual contribution by way of endowment. This can only be done, under present conditions, by a Government- grant ad hoc.
J. Allan Thomson, Hon. Librarian.
Research Grant Committee's Report. — The Hon. Secretary read some additions to the Research Grant Committee's report already circulated, and moved, That the report be adopted. The motion was seconded by Professor Thomas, and carried.
Report of Research Grant Committee.
(Professor Easterfield, Mr. F. W. Furkert, and Mr. B. C. Aston.)
(For previous reports see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 50, p. 333, and vol. 51, p. 462.)
Mr. L. P. Syriies, who was in 1916 granted £50 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) for investigating the decay of apples and other fruits in cold storage, reported that for health reasons, as well as pressure of business, he was unable to take up the investigation. On the 11th October, 1919, he therefore refunded the sum of £50.
Mr. L. BirJfs, to whom £10 had been granted in 1916 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) for investigating the electrical prevention of frosts in orchards, was by reason of his transfer to Wellington unable to continue the experiments. Therefore, on the 11th October, 1919, he refunded the grant of £10.
3Iessrs. R. Speight and L. J. Wild, to whom £50 was granted in 1916 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) for the investigation of the phosphatic lime- stones of Canterbury, reported on the 19th December, 1919, that in the beginning of the year they examined the limestone country at Mount Somers and in the Rangitata Valley, and also the chalk at Oxford, with the object of finding phosphate. The results obtained were almost entirely negative. This work necessitated the expenditure of about £7, leaving a balance of about the same sum of the original grant. Owing to the restrictions on travelhng in the middle of the year (and other causes) it was found impossible to carry on the work ; but the grantees would be glad to receive permission to expend the balance on further investigation, especially in the Mount Somers district.
Professor R. .Jack, to whom £25 was granted in 1917 (through the Otago Institute) for investigating the electrical charge on rain, reported on the 1st January that owing to pressure of University work he had been unable to utilize the grant. As this 3'ear Professor Jack expects to have further, assistance, and a graduate prepared to undertake the work under his direction, he hopes that the New Zealand Institute will grant a further extension for a year.
Professor C. Chilton, to whom £50 was granted in 1918 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) for investigating New Zealand flax (phormium), reported on the 27th December, 1919, that it had been impossible to do much since the last reports had been submitted. Mrs. Jennings (now Dr. Bella D. MacCallum) had made the preliminary investigations ; but early in 1919 she had to leave for England. At Cambridge University Dr. MacCallum has qualified still further for the investigations necessary, and it is hoped that before long she will return to the Dominion and resume work on the New Zealand flax. Out of the grant of £50 a balance of £39 is still unexpended.
480 Proceedings.
Profenf^or J. Malcolm, to whom £30 was granted in 1918 (through the Otago Institute) for research in New Zealand plant poisons, reported on the 17th December, 1919, that there was still about £14 13s. of the grant in hand. The research on pukateine was continued during the vacation, but pressure of teaching- work had prevented the completion of a paper begun on the subject. Professor Malcolm would like to have the final report postponed until December, 1920.
Professor W. P. Evayis, to whom £200 was granted in 1918 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) for investigating New Zealand brown coals, reported on the 22nd December, 1919, that the fractionating column — mentioned in his previous report--had at last come to hand. As it was more likely to be of general use in the laboratory than for the special purpose of this research, it had been paid for entirely out of laboratory funds. Analyses and experiments had been made in connection with (1) Avoca coal, (2) Homebush coal, (3) Mount Somers coal, (4) Mossbank coal. Of the £200 grant a balance of £10 Cs. 2d. remains unexpended. Professor Evans desires a further grant of £200 to continue the investigations in 1920.
Mr. Guy Brittin, to whom £100 was granted in 1919 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbur}') for research in fruit-tree diseases, reported on the 16th Decem- ber, 1919, that the general work had been proceeding. This consisted of special pruning and spraying, and noting the effects. The microscopical investigations had been delayed by the difficulty of procuring the requisite apparatus ; but owing to the kindness of Professor Kirk he had obtained the loan of a Cathcart microtome, which enabled him to prepare sections of some of the later stages of the diseases being investi- gated. At the time of reporting only £1 12$. had been expended.
Professor C. C. Farr, to whom £100 was granted in 1919 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) for experiments on the porosity of insulators, reported on the 7th January, 1920, that the whole of this grant had been expended in the construction of a testing- vessel, which cost £95, and its fittings. Investigations will commence immediately Professor Farr returns from Australia.
Mr. W. G. Morrison, who in 1919 was granted £70 to £100 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) for research in the natural regeneration of exotic and indigenous forest-trees in connection with natural afforestation of high country, reported in December, 1919, that a certain amoimt of useful data had been collected, and many interesting photographs taken. This information would be used in connection with a paper to be read before the Philosoijhical Institute of Canterbury. The amount so far expended was £13 18s. 3d. Mr. Morrison asks for a continuance of the grant.
Mr. G. S. Thomson and Hon. G. M. Thomson, who in 1919 were granted £50 (through the Otago Institute) for a research into the economic value of whale-feed, reported on the 3rd December, 1919, that the aj^paratus ordered from England had not come to hand, and, owing to adverse weather conditions, there had been almost no opportunities for collecting. It is desired that the grant be renewed for another year.
Professor J. Malcolm, to whom £250 was granted in 1919 (through the Otago Institute) for a research on New Zealand fishes, reported on the 17th December, 1919, that he had secured the services of a research worker and carried out the anaylses of several of the common food-fishes, including groper, kingfish, moki, blue cod, &c. A paper entitled " Food Value of New Zealand Fishes, Part I," had been forwarded to the Hon. Editor. £115 had been expended, and a liability to the extent of £25 had been incurred for apparatus. It is hoped that another grant will be made to enable the work to be continued.
Mr. R. Speight, to whom £225 was granted in 1919 (through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) for a geological survey of Malvern Hills, reported on the 19th December, 1919, that owing to the lateness of receipt of the money no expenditure had yet been made. Mx. Speight devoted all the time he could to the preparation of a report on the coal-measures at Broken River — an investigation which has some bearing on the problems to be considered at Malvern -and was submittmg a paper on the geological features of these beds. Work on the research for which the grant was specially given would, however, be commenced forthwith.
Messrs. Lancaster and Comes, to whom £50 was granted in October, 1919 (through the Auckland Institute), for forestry research, expect to commence work early in 1920.
Dr. C. E. Adams, to whom £35 was granted in 1919 (through the Wellington Philosophical Society) for astronomical research, reported on the 5th January, 1920, that the total amount of the grant had been remitted to the British Astronomical Association, London, for the purchase of apparatus. A transit micrometer is on the way to Wellington, and as soon as this instrument is in operation a further report will be made. '
Annual Meeting. 481
Dr. C. E. Adams, to whom £150 was granted (through the Wellington Philosophical Society) for research in connection with astronomical sites, reported on the 14th January, 1920, that a programme of test observations was being arranged, and would be available for use in the field in May, 1920, when it was proposed to begin in the South' Island at about 45° S. latitude.
Professor H. B. Kirk, to whom £25 was granted in 1917 (through the WeUington Philosophical Society) for investigating methods of killing mosquitoes and larvae, reported on the 3rd January, 1920, that the whole of the grant had been expended. The experiments made confirmed the view expressed in the previous report that the cresoles in the pure state are not very effective, and that neither they nor the phenols are so effective as a mixture of all together. During 1919 he obtained no positive results of equal value with those he had already obtained — that is, that he had found no larvicide of equal efficiency with hght oil. Experiments had also been made with tangle-foot mixtures.
Professor T. H. Easterfield, to whom £250 was granted in 1919 (through the Wellington Philosophical Society), reported that the investigation on mineral oils, waxes, and resins has been proceeding steadily since July last, and the first instalment of the investigation will be ready foi; publication by May next. Of the sum of £250 granted for the research, £98 19s. has been expended (almost entirely on the salaries of assistants), leaving a balance of £151 Is.
Dr. J. Allan Thomson, to whom £100 was granted in 1919 (through the Wellington Philosophical Society) for a research into the chemical characters of igneous rocks, reported on the 28th January, 1920, that the work could not be begun until November, 1919, owing to the delay in arrival of the necessary literature from America. Since then Dr. Allan Thomson has had University students at work tabulating and plotting rock-analyses. So far (January, 1920) £53 12s. 6d. had been expended.
Thomas H. Easterfield. f. w. furkert. B. C. Aston.
Professor Kirk explained that the item of expenditure, " Professor Kirk, travelling-expenses to Kapiti Island, £5 Is.," referred to the expenses of Mr. Bendall as well as his own.
Mr. Hill asked whether the Colenso botanical collection was being well cared for, and the President assured him that it was.
Correspondence : Resolutions oj Science Congress. — The replies from Government Departments to the resolutions passed at the Science Congress, 1919, were read by the Hon. Secretary. On the motion of Professor Kirk, it was resolved, That the matter be referred to the Standing Committee to take whatever action may be necessary in following up these resolutions.
National Efficiency Board's Report. — A letter, dated 14th March, 1919, from the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs was read. The letter stated that the Government could not at that time see its way to adopt the report of the National Efficiency Board, but had given instructions for the compilation of an annual census of industries. On the motion of Professor Easterfield, seconded by Mr. Hill, it was resolved. That the Mnister of Internal Affairs be approached by a deputation urging that efiect be given to the resolutions of the National Efficiency Board.
Proposed Contour Map. — A letter of the 20th August, 1919, from the Wellington Philosophical Society, urging the preparation of a contoured topographical map, was read. On the motion of Dr. J. Allan Thomson, seconded by Mr. Hill, it was resolved, That in the opinion of the New Zealand Institute the preparation of a contoured topographical map of New Zealand, on as large a scale as practicable (say, 1 : 25,000), is now an imperative necessity, as the map is required for agricultural, geological, and geographical purposes.
16— Trans.
482 Proceedings.
Carter Bequest. — Letters of the 17tli March, 1919, and the 23rd April, 1919, from the Wellington Philosophical Society, were read. On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by Mr. Wright, it was resolved, That the New Zealand Institute will view with satisfaction vigorous steps in the direction of developing the Carter Fund to the point at which the wishes of the benefactor can be carried into effect.
Science Congress, 1921.— -The President urged the importance of holding this Congress, and the suitability of Palmerston North for the meeting. He also invited Mr. Park (delegate from Palmerston North) to address the Board on this subject.
Mr. Park stated that preliminary steps for holding the Congress had already been taken, and various local bodies had been approached. All were taking up the matter enthusiastically, and a number of the best men had been appointed to carry out the project. They hoped to arrange a few local tours for the visitors to the Congress.
On the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by Professor Easterfield, it was resolved. That in confirmation of the action of the Standing Committee the Board of Governors accepts the invitation of the Manawatu Philo- sophical Society to hold the 1921 Science Congress at Palmerston North.
The question of fixing a date was discussed, and Mr. Park pointed out that an endeavour was being made to avoid clashing with the fixtures of the Australian societies.
On the motion of Professor Easterfield, seconded by Professor Thomas, it was resolved, That the Standing Committee be authorized to act with the Manawatu Society in making all arrangements in connection with the Palmerston meeting, and to co-opt such additional members as they deem desirable.
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. — With regard to the letter of the 25th June, 1919, from the Koyal Society, the President stated that the letter had already been circulated among the Governors, and drew attention to the fact that the catalogue was very little used. After some discussion it was resolved, on the motion of Dr. J. Allan Thomson, seconded by Professor Kirk, That a letter be written to the Secretary of the Eoyal Society expressing the view of the New Zealand Institute that the Inter- national Catalogue of Scientific Literature would be of little value without the subject index. If this is retained, the New Zealand Institute will urge on the Government of New Zealand to subsidize a subscription for three further copies of the catalpgue for the incorporated societies of the Institute.
Resignation of Hon. Editor. — The President read a letter (dated the 5th November, 1919) from Dr. C. A. Cotton, resigning his position as Honorary Editor, and expressed his appreciation of the admirable way in which Dr. Cotton had performed the duties of Editor. On the motion of Professor Chilton, seconded by the Hon. G. M. Thomson, it was resolved. That Dr. Cotton's resignation be accepted with great regret, and that the thanks of the Board be conveyed to him for the excellent services he had rendered as Hon. Editor.
Proposed New Regulations of the Institute. — A letter of the 28th March, 1919, from the Wellington Philosophical Society, was read, bringing before the notice of the Institute a suggestion to amend clause 6 of the Fellowship Regulations by deleting the words " is a British subject and." A motion to this effect was moved by Professor Kirk, and seconded by Professor Easterfield, but the motion was lost.
Annual Meeting. 483
Kapiti Island. — A letter of the 23rd December, 1919, from the Hon. the Minister of Lands, was read, stating that steps were being taken to set up a committee to advise the Government on Kapiti Island, and asking the Institute to nominate a representative to act on the committee. It was resolved, on the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by the Hon. Gr. M. Thomson, That Professor Kirk be appointed the Institute's representative on this committee.
On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by the Hon. G. M. Thomson, it was resolved. That the Government be again urged to take prompt action in extinguishing the remaining Native titles on Kapiti Island, and in putting an end to the damage being done by sheep.
Indexing " Transactions.'" — A letter of the 20th December, 1919, from ,the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, was read. The letter asked what steps had been taken with regard to indexing volumes 41 to 50. It was decided that the matter be left to the Standing Committee, to be kept steadily in view for action when the facilities were available.
Samoan Geophysical Observatory. — The Hon. Secretary read a letter from Professor Farr, urging the importance of this observatory, and the necessity for compensating Dr. Anghenheister for the expense of maintain- ing it during the war. Dr. Adams, Government Astronomer, attended, and gave the Board first-hand information obtained during his recent visit to Samoa.
On the motion of Mr. Wright, seconded by Dr. Marsjiall, it was resolved, That, in view of the great importance of the Samoan geophysical observa- tory, a committee consisting of the President-elect, Professor Farr, Pro- fessor Marsden, Professor Somerville, and Mr. G. Hogben be set up to confer with the. Government Astronomer and the Minister of External Affairs as to the best means to be adopted for the maintenance of the Samoan Observatory.
Macqiia/rie Island. — A report dated the 13th January, 1919, was received from Mr. H. Hamilton, dealing with the preservation of the fauna of Mac- quarie Island. It was resolved. That Mr. Hamilton be thanked for his kindness in preparing the report. On the motion of Dr. Marshall, seconded by Mr. Aston, it was further resolved, That the New Zealand Institute would welcome action by the Tasmanian Government in the direction of declaring Macquarie Island a sanctuary for animals and plants.
Hamilton Prize. — A letter of the 17th January, 1920, from the Welling- ton Philosophical Society, was read, offering to hand over the balance of the Hamilton Fund on certain conditions. Professor Easterfield stated that the Wellington Society had consulted the relatives of the late Mr. Hamilton, and that they were in sympathy with the money being devoted to a prize for encouraging beginners in scientific research. On the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by Dr. Thomson, it was resolved. That the offer be accepted, and the matter be left in the hands of the Standing Committee to meet the Wellington Philosophical Society and draw up rules for the Hamilton Prize.
New Zealand Flax. — On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by Dr. Cockayne, it was resolved. That the Government be urged to take effective steps to investigate the cause and treatment of " yellow-leaf " and accompanying diseases in New Zealand flax, and advised that this
16*
484 Proceedings.
can best be done by sucb liberal treatment of the Cawthron Institute as would enable it to bring to New Zealand the best available plant- pathologist, who should devote his time to this subject for as many years as might be necessary.
Dominion Museum. — It was moved by Professor Easterfield, seconded by Dr. Marshall, and carried, That the attention of Cabinet be drawn to the urgency of the need of a new and fireproof museum to accommodate the valuable scientific collections at present housed in the old wooden building in Museum Street.
Forestry Matters. — On^ the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by Professor Chilton, it was resolved. That the Institute convey to the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs its congratulations on the formulating of a definite forest policy.
Sir David Hutchins. — It was resolved, on the motion of the President, seconded by the Hon. G. M. Thomson, That the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute extends to Sir David Hutchins its congratulations
o
on the honour recently conferred on him by His Majesty the King.
Election of Hon. Members. — The nominations for honorary membership were then considered. Professor Easterfield and Professor Segar were appointed scrutineers. The voting resulted in the election of Sir J. G. Frazer, D.C.L. ; Professor J. W. Gregory, D.Sc, F.R.S. ; Sir A. D. Hall, M.A., K.C.B., F.R.S. ; Sir Douglas Mawson, B.E., D.Sc. ; Mr. Henry Woods, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Travelling-expenses. — It was moved by Professor Kirk, seconded by Dr. Marshall, and carried. That the travelling-expenses of members of the Board be paid.
Election of Officers. — The officers for the year 1920 were unanimously elected as follows : President, Professor T. H. Easterfield ; Hon. Editor, Mr. Johannes C. Andersen ; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. C. A. Ewen ; Hon. Librarian, Dr. J. Allan Thomson ; Hon. Secretary, Mr. B. C. Aston.
Election of Committees. — Publication Committee : Professor Kirk, Dr. Cotton, xvir. Johannes C. Andersen, Dr. J. Allan Thomson, and Mr. Aston.
Library Committee : Professor Somerville, Dr. J. Allan Thomson, and Dr. Cotton.
Research Grants Committee : Dr. J, Allan Thomson, Mr. Furkett, and Mr. Aston.
Hector Award Committee : Dr. Marshall (convener), Mr. T. F. Cheese- man, Dr. Chilton, Professor Easterfield, and Dr. Cockayne.
Hutton Award Committee. — Dr. Benham (convener), Dr. Marshall, Rev. Dr. Holloway, and Dr. Cockayne.
Regulations Committee : Mr. Johannes C. Andersen, Dr. J. Allan 'Thom- son, Mr. Ewen, and Mr. Aston.
Date and Place of Next Annual Meeting. — It was moved by Dr. Chilton, seconded by Mr. Hill, and carried. That the date and place of the next annual meeting be left in the hands of the Standing Committee to arrange, in conjunction with the Manawatu Philosophical Society.
Mr. M. A. Eliott. — On the motion of Professor Easterfield, seconded by Professor Thomas, it was resolved, That the Board of Governors hears with regret of the serious illness of Mr. M. A. Eliott, and trusts that he will have a speedy recovery.
Annual Meeting. 485
Votes of Thanhs were accorded to — (1) The Hon. G. W. Russell, for assistance rendered to the Institute during his term of office as Minister of Internal Affairs ; (2) the honorary officers of the Institute, for their services during the past yef^r ; and (3) to the« Standing Committee, for services rendered during the year.
Authority to confirm the minutes of the annual meeting was granted to the Standing Committee.
Resolutions of Sympathy. — That the most hearty sympathy of the Board be accorded the relatives of Professor Maclaurin, late President of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
That the most hearty sympathy of the Board be accorded the relatives of the late Dr. Etheridge, Director of the Australian Museum.
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Since the 30th September, 1918, eight meetings have been held — the annual general meeting, one special and six ordinary meetings — when papers were read as follow : —
18th December, 1918 (annual general meeting) : W. Donovan, " The Distillation of Waikaia Shales " ; P. G. Morgan, " New Zealand Clays."
30th April, 1919 : S. H. Jenkinson, " Majority and Proportional Repre- sentation."
28th May: E. K. Lomas, "Spiders"; R. L. Andrew, "Seasonal Variations in the Wellington Milk-supply."
25th June : D. Jenness, " Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-1918."
23rd July : R. W. Holmes (President), " Notes on Decimal Coinage and the Metric System."
6th August (special meeting) : E. Marsden, " Gun-location on the Western Front."
27th August : R. L. Andrew, " Some Analyses of Human Milk with reference to Infant Feeding " ; G. B. Bradshaw, " The Bomb Calorimeter."
24th September : G. V. Hudson, " On some Examples of New Zealand Insects illustrating the Darwinian Principle of Sexual Selection " ; R. W. Holmes and A. C. Gifiord, " Mount Tutoko and the Darran Mountains."
The average attendance has been forty.
At the annual general meeting the annual report and audited balance- sheet were adopted.
Abstract.
Council Meetings. — Eleven meetings of the Council have been held, when consider- ation has been given to the following matters :- —
Research Grants. — A Government grant of £2,000 was made available through the New Zealand Institute in January, and applications were invited from members. The following grants have since been made : Astronomical Section, £55 for apparatus for astronomical research; Professor T. H. Easterfield, £200, "The Mineral Oils, Waxes, and Resins of New Zealand " ; Dr. C. E. Adams, £150, " Testing of Observatory-sites " ; Dr. J. Allan Thomson, £100, " The Chemical Characters of Igneous Rocks."
An application from Dr. C. E. Adams for a grant for assistance in computing a table of mathematical functions is under consideration.
486 Proceedings.
Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute. — Owing to the deaths of six honorary members of the New Zealand Institute, the Council was called upon to submit six names for election to the honour. At the annual general meeting of the Institute Dr. J. W. Mellor was elected, the five remaining vacancies to be filled at a later meeting.
Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute. — In conformity with the regulations of the New Zealand Institute, the Council nominated the following for election to this honour : C. E. Adams, B. C. Aston, T. Broun, C. A. Cotton, W. P. Evans, C. C. Farr, A. C. Gifford, C. Monro Hector, G. Hogben, R. W. Holmes, G. V. Hudson, H. B. Kirk, J. S. Maclaurin, P. G. Morgan, R. J. Scott, H. W. Segar, S. Percy Smith, R. Speight, E. E. Stark, A. P. W. Thomas, J. Allan Thomson, E. Phillips Turner.
Lectures in Practical Astronomy. — The Astronomical Section submitted a syllabus of lectures in practical astronomy, and after consideration the Council referred it back to the Section for preparation of a suitable scheme.
Topographical Map of New Zealand. — The Geological Section referred the need of a topographical map of New Zealand to the Council for its recommendation, and the Council found on forwarding the request to the Government that a maj) of this kind would shortly be put in hand.
Roll of Honour. — Now that the war is over, a complete roll of honour of members who have served overseas is being jirei^ared.
King Telescope. — The society's telescope presented by Miss Jessie King is now in use, and a plate commemorating the gift has been approved by the Council and will shortly be attached to the mounting.
Standard Time. — The Council forwarded the report of the Committee on New Zealand Standard Time to Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Jellicoe for his consideration, asking his supjDort to the scheme, as a measure of economic efficiency.
Longitude-determination. — The Council approved the Astronomical Section's re- commendation that New Zealand should take advantage of the longitude-determination by wireless signals to be carried out between Australia and Greenwich shortly, and forwarded the letter to the Department of Internal Affairs, the reply being that the Government could not see its way to take part in the work. ,
Membership. — The roll of the society stands at 181, as follows : Life members, 9 ; on active service, 13 ; ordinary members, 159 During the year one fife member died ; four orcUnary members died" and eight resigned ; fort^^-two new members were elected, but ten of these did not become members.
Library. — One meeting of the Library Committee was held during the year. The periodicals hitherto ordered from booksellers are now being ordered from the publishers. Many of the volumes are in an incomplete state, and for this reason no binding has been done this year.
The sum of £59 7s. 6d. was allocated to the library, of which £36 8s. lOd. has been expended, leaving a balance of £22 18s. 8d. This amount added to last year's balance makes a total of £112 Is. 9d. to be expended.
Committee and Officers for 1920. — President, — R. W. Holmes, I.S.O., M.Inst.C.E. Vice-presidents-^. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S. ; A. C. Gifford, M.A., F.R.A.S. Council— nsdon Best, F.N.Z.Inst. ; T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst. ; G. V. Hudson, F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst. ; H. B. Kirk, M.A., F.N.Z.Inst. ; W. S. La Trobe, M.A. ; E. K. Lomas, M.A., M.Sc. ; E. Marsden, D.Sc. ; P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.S. ; J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc, F.N.Z.Inst. ; G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. Secretary and Treasurer — C. G. G. Berry. Auditor — E. R. Dymock, F. I.A.N. Z. Repre- sentatives to New Zealand Institute — H. B. Kirk. M.A., F.N.Z.Inst. ; T. H. Easterfield, M.A. Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst.
ASTRONOMICAL SECTION.
Four meetings were held, when papers were read as follow : —
4th June, 1919 : A. C. Gifford, " Graphical and Numerical Illustrations of Solar Attraction."
2nd July : D. M. Y. Sommerville, " Pe;riodogram Analysis."
3rd September : C. J. Westland, " Rapid Method of calculating Occultations " ; C. E, Adams, " Reform of the Calendar."
Wellington Philosophical Society. 487
Owing to the general interest of the paper, the mefeting of the 6th Ai:^ust was made a special society meeting.
Committee. — Six meetings of the Committee have been held, and the following subjects have been considered : Testing of sites for observatories ; Carter Bequest ; Lectures in practical astronomy ; Determination of longitude ; Research at the Observatory.
Observatory, — During the early part of the year the Observatory was closed OAving to difficulty in having repairs carried out ; latterly it has been ojaen on the second and fourth Tuesday evenings, and good average attendances have resulted. The building and instrument are in good repair ; a plate to commemorate the gift of the King telescope is in preparation for attaching to the instrument. Arrangements have been made with the Kelburn Tramway Company' for a combined tram and Observatory ticKet ; and a sign notifying that the Observatory is open is lighted up in Tramway Avenue on Observatory nights. Dr. C. Monro Hector has very generously presented to the Section a bookcase and a cupboard to contain accessories, and a 20 in, celestial globe. Professor Sommerville and the Honorarj^ Secretary have been in charge.
Besearch. — A Government research grant of £55 has been made to the Section through the New Zealand Institute.
Committee and Officers for 1920. — Honorary Member — Miss Mary Proctor. Chair- man— A. C. Gifford, M.A., F.R. A.S. V ice-Chairmen — D. M. Y. Sommerville, M.A., D.Sc; W. S. La Trobe, M.A. Committee— E\a,n Parry, B.Sc, it.I.E.E. ; C. P. Powles ; H. Clark, M.Sc, Ph.D.; C. Monro Hector, M.D., B.Sc, F.R.A.S. ; G. S. Hooper; R. D. Thompson, M.A. Director and Curator of Instruments — C. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S. Honorary Treasurer — C. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S. Honorary Secretary — C. G. G. Berry.
Two members of the Committee having left the Dominion — viz., Mr. Evan Parry and Professor H. Clark — their places were filled by Mr. J. Darling and Professor E. Marsden, D.Sc.
TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.
Six meetings were held, when papers were read as follow : —
14th Maj% 1919 : S. H. Jenkinson, inaugural address, " The Design of the Modern Locomotive."
11th June: P. G. Morgan, "The Clavs of New Zealand."
9th July: A. J. Paterson, "Carburettors."
13th August: R. E. Robertson, •" The Progress and Development of Railway Brakes."
17th September : A. Seifert and T. H. Easterfield, " The Past and Future of the Flax Industry."
loth October : L. Birks, " The Mathematical Basis of Hydro-electric-power Rates."
Date of Meetings. — From September the date of meetings of the Technological and Geological Sections was interchanged, the former Section now meeting on the third Wednesdaj' in the month.
Committee and Officers for 1920. — Chairman — W. S. La Trobe, M.A. Vice- Chairmen — J. S. Maclaurin, D.Sc, F.C.S. ; A. J. Paterson. Committee — R. W. Holmes, I.S.O., M.Inst.C.E. ; F, W. Furkert, AssocM.Inst.C.E., A.M.LM.E. : H. Sladden, member of Board of Surveyors ; E. Marsden, D.Sc. ; L. Birks, B.Sc, M.I.E.E, Honorary Secretary — A. C, Owen, B.E., A. M.I.E.E.
GEOLOGICAL SECTION.
Six ordinarv meetings were held, when pa'pers were read as follow : —
21st August, 1918 : G. L. Adkin, " The Post-Tertiary History of the Ohau River and of the Adjacent Coastal Plain."
18th September, 1918 : J. Allan Thomson, " The Geology of the Southern Wai- rarapa District"; G. L. Adkin, " Further Notes on the Horowhenua Coastal Plain and the Associated Physiographic Features."
16th October, 1918 : G. Uttley, " Tertiary Geology of the Waitaki Valley between Duntroon and Kurow"; W. M. Davis, "The Significant Features of Reef-bordered Coasts."
21st May, 1919: P. G. Morgan, "The Tertiary Beds of Central Otago"; P. G. Morgan, " Glentunnel Coalfield, Malvern Hills, Canterburj^"
488 Proceedings..
18th June^ S. A. R. Mair, " Roadmaking Stones of Wellington and Taranaki."
16th July : J. Allan Thomson, " Brachiopod Genera," and " Some Conglomerates of East Marlborough."
At the meeting held on the 16th July it was resolved. That, in the opinion of the Section, the preparation of a contoured topographical map of New Zealand on as large a scale as practicable (saj% 1 : 125,000) is now an imperative necessity, as the map is required for agricultural, geological, geographical, and other puri:)Oses.
Committee and Officers for 1920. — Chairman — G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. Vice- Chairman — E. K. Lomas, M.A.,'M.Sc. Committee — R. W. Holmes, I.S.O., M.Inst.C.E. ; J. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc, B.Sc. in Eng. (Metall.); P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.S. ; M. Ongley, M.A. ; J. A. Thomson, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Hon. Secretary— C. A. Cotton, D.Sc, F.G.S.
HISTORICAL SECTION.
The annual meeting and six general meetings were held, when papers were read as follow : — ■
15th October, 1918 : Elsdon Best, " Native Tradition of the Death of Marion du Fresne at Bay of Islands in 1772, First Visit of Captain Cook and De SurviUe in 1769, &c." ; Johannes C. Andersen, " Place-names in New Zealand, with Special Reference to Banks Peninsula."
17th December : Colonel Porter, C.B., " Lesser-known Maori Customs."
20th May, 1919 : Elsdon Best, " Bush Settlers of the Wellington District " ; Johannes C. Andersen, " The Mission of the ' Britomart ' at Akaroa in 1840."
17th June : Rev. Father Gilbert, " Survey and Plan of the New Zealand Company's First Settlement " ; Dr. C. Prendergast Knight, " An Episode in the Life of Sir George Grey."
15th July : Dr. J. Allan Thomson, " On the Preservation of Records and Manu- scripts, and the Inauguration of an Historical Journal" ; Colonel Porter, C.B., " Camp- fire Anecdotes of Fields, Battles, and Bivouacs " ; Johannes C. Andersen," Maori String Games."
19th August : H. G. Christie, " Old Maori Middens at Paremata, Porirua " \ F. P. Wilson, " The Attitude of the British Government towards New Zealand before 1841."
21st October : H. Baillie, " Our First Navy."
Donations. — A large album of views of Wellington, dated 1885, was presented to the Section by Mr. R. W. Holmes, and nine views of old Otaki and Welhngton, and of early gun-boats, by Mr. H. Baillie.
Committee and Officers for 1920. — Chairman — Elsdon Best, F.N.Z.Inst. Vice-Chair- man — Colonel T. W. Porter, C.B. Committee — Dr. C. Prendergast Knight, F. P. Wilson, H. Baillie, W\ A. Edwards, E. N. Hogben.
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
At the annual meeting (23rd February, 1920) the annual report of the Council was read and adopted.
Abstract.
In the fifty-second annual report of the Auckland Institute and Museum, which the Council now submits to the members, an endeavour is made to give an account of the financial and general condition of the Institute, and to briefly summarize the work it has performed during the year.
Members. — The number of new members elected since the last annual meeting has been seventeen. On the other hand, twenty-four names have been removed from the roU — seven by death, twelve by resignation or removal from the provincial district, and five for non-payment of subscription for more than two consecutive years. There is thus a net loss of seven, the number on the roll at the present time being 455.
In the list of members removed by death will be found the name of Major T. Broun, the well-known authority on the New Zealand Coleoptera. Major Broun's connection with the Institute commenced in 1875, and from thfen to almost the day of his death the greater part of his time was devoted to his favourite study. The results of his work have been published from time to time in the separate parts of the Manual of the Neiv Zealand Coleoptera, in the Transactions and Bulletins of the New Zealand Institute, and in
Auckland Institute. 489
various other publications. Through his continuous energy and activity, it can be said that no other family of New Zealand insects has been so carefully investigated as the Coleoptera. Major Broun's death will be severely felt by all workers in New Zealand entomology. The remaining members withdrawn from the roll through death are : Mr. J. Batger, who served .on the Council for several years, and was President for 1899-1900 ; Mr. F. D. Halstead, Mr. J. M. Blair, Mr. R. Mitchelson, Mr. W. J. Speight, and Mr. E. V. Ralf)h.
In this part of the report it should be mentioned that under Regulations 20 to 26 of the New Zealand Institute, gazetted 4th September, 1919, the Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute was constituted, the object being to mark distinction or research in science. It was provided that the first Fellows should number twenty, ten of whom became Fellows automatically on account of possessing certain cjuahfications, the remaining ten being elected in a manner prescribed by the regulations. Out of the total number of twenty Fellows appointed, the following are members of the Auckland Institute : Air. T. F. Cheeseman, Mr. D. Petrie, Professor H. W. Segar, and Professor A. P. W. Thomas.
Finance. — The total revenue of the Working Account, after deducting the balance •in hand at the beginning of the year, has been £1,886 }3s. 3d., being an advance of no less than £207 lis. 6d. on the amount for the previous year, which was rather smaller than usual. Examining the various items, it M'ill be seen that the members' subscriptions have yielded £407 8s., showing a slight decrease. The receijDts from the Museum Endowment, consisting of rents and interest, have amounted to £816 Os. 8d. being an advance of £102 7s. 9d. on last year's income. The invested funds of the Costley Bequest have provided £449 10s., almost exactly the same as that of the previous year. The remaining items call for no special remark. The total expenditure has been £1,753 16s., and the cash balance in hand is £259 16s. 9d.
The invested funds of the Institute and Museum, now amounting to £23,154 14s. Id., have been increased during the year by the sum of £209 Os. 4d., mostly derived from the sale of some small endowments.
Meetings. — The satisfactory results obtained during the session of 1918, described in last year's report, induced the Council to still further increase the number of meetings, and to pay greater attention to the proper illustration of all suitable lectures. Altogether ten meetings have been held, at which the following lectures were delivered, or papers for publication contributed : Dr. J. W. Mcllraith, " Some Modern Views on Education and the Social Unrest"; Professor H. W. Segar, "The Attenuated Sovereign"; Dr. K. Mackenzie, " Cancer and its Relation to Public Health " ; Professor G. Owen, " The Discovery and Properties of Radium " ; Professor G. Owen, " The Lessons of Radium " ; J. A. Bartrum, " Some Aspects of the Geological History and Cultural Development of Man " ; W. S. Vernon, Electricity in the Home " ; T. L. Lancaster, " Energy and Living Organisms " ; F. E. Powell, " Ferro-concrete Ships " ; J. A. Bartrum, " The Conglomerate Band at Albany," and " Additional Facts concering the Distribution of Igneous Rocks in New Zealand" ; D. Petrie, " Descriptions of New Flowering-jDlants " ; T. F. Cheeseman, " Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the Flora of New Zealand." The attendance at the w hole of the meetings was remarkably good ; in fact, at Professor Owen's two lectures on radium the hall, although seating nearly four hundred, proved quite insufficient to accommodate all those desiring to hear the lecturer. The papers written for the purpose of publication have been forwarded to the Editor of the Transactions, and will doubtless appear in Volume 52, now being sent to press. It should be mentioned that Volume 51, containing the papers read before the various branches of the Institute during 1918, was not received for distribution until late in 1919.
Library. — The annual balance-sheet shows that the actual expenditure over the Mbrary has been £153 3s. 6cl., but there are still some outstanding accounts to be provided for. An order for over seventy volumes, despatched some time before the last annual meeting, arrived about the middle of March ; and another for close upon ninety volumes, forwarded last September, was received shortly after the beginning of this year. In addition to the purchase of books, the magazines and other serial pubhcations sub- scribed to by the Institute have been regularly received, and made available for the use of readers in the library. The usual expenditure has been incurred in binding the pub- lications of societies and scientific journals, about fifty volumes having been added from that source alone. As in past years, various presentations and exchanges have been received from British, American, and colonial societies, together with several donations from private individuals.
In previous reports the Council has remarked on the growing scarcity of shelf-room in the library. It has now to state that no further accommodation is available therein. Under such circumstances, the Library Committee has been authorized to erect a tem- porary range of shelving in the small room opposite the curator's office. When this is
490 Proceedings.
done the demand for space will be slightly mitigated ; but even then it is difficult to see how the natural growth of the library can be accommodated for more than a very few years to come. In the library, as in all other deijartments of the work of the Institute and Museum, the call for more space is loud and insistent.
Museum. — With the exception of a short period devoted to cleaning and rearrange- ment, the Museum has been open to the public throughout the year. The attendance of visitors has been satisfactory, as will be readily admitted when the following statistics are considered. Taking the attendance on Sundays first, the register kept by the janitor shows that 25,839 jjeople entered the building on that day, being an average of 496 for each Sunday. The greatest attendance on any one day was 854, on the 1st June ; the lowest 28, on the 5th October, an unusually wet day. On the nine cliief holidays of the year the total number of visitors amounted to 6,193, or an average of 688 for each holiday. The largest holiday attendance was 986 on ' Easter Monday, closely followed by 934 on King's Birthday. From the want of recording mechanism it is not possible to give the actual attendance on ordinary week-days ; but taking occasional counts as a basis for calculation, it seems evident that the average daily number of visitors can be safely taken as 250, which would give a total of 75,750. Adding to this number the figures already given for Sundays and holidays, the grand total becomes 107,787. This is the first time the number of visitors has exceeded 100,000, although in several previous years a close approach to it has been made.
In the present crowded state of the Museum it is practically impossible to make any changes of importance therein, or to exhibit more than a small proportion of the many additions that are being regularly received. Under existing cu-cumstances all that can be done is to keep the collections in good order and condition, and to be satisfied with those minor alterations and improvements that can still be carried out. Among these may be mentioned the rearrangement of the collection of New Zealand shells ; the working into their proper places of some additions that have been made to the mounted series of New Zealand birds ; the mounting for exhibition of a con- siderable number of articles presented to the Maori collection : and several changes in the Foreign Ethnographical Hall.
By far the m6st important donation made to the zoological department of the Museum is a series of four skins of the larger North American mammals, presented by Mr. James Dunning, of Remuera, who obtained them during a recent hunting expedition to the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. There is a fine specimen of the moose, the largest existing member of the deer family ; an unusually fine example of the Alaskan brown bear (Ursiis middendorfii), the largest of all bears; a specimen of the black bear; and one of the remarkable big-horn sheep, with its enormous spiral horns. It is much to be regretted that there is not room in the Museum for the exhibition of four such large and attractive animals. As it is, the skins have been properly treated, and will be packed away until the erection of a new Museum makes it possible to exhibit them. Among other additions belonging to this class, attention should be directed to the gift made by Mrs. L. Moses of a handsome plate-glass show-case, containing 300 species of foreign shells and thirty-five corals. Thanks are also due to Mr. G. Henning and Mr. Hallyburton Johnstone for some mteresting specimens of New Zealand birds.
In the Maori Department special interest will be taken in the discovery by Messrs. Hovell and Bell of an ancient Maori workshop near Katikati Harbour, apparently not very far distant from the locality visited by Captain Gilbert Mair, and described by him in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute (vol. 35, p. 240). <An insiiection made by the ciirator under the guidance of Mr. Hovell proved that the workshoji covers quite a large area. The explorations made have resulted in the formation of a large collection of stone adzes and other implements in various stages of manufacture, together with numerous grindstones, borers, drill-points, &c. Mr. Hovell has set aside for the Museum an extensive series of the articles obtained, with the object of supjilying material for the construction of a special group illustrating the manufacture of stone weapons by the Maoris. A portion of this material has already arrived m Auckland, and the remainder will gradually follow. An illustrative group of the character mentioned above, prepared according to modern methods, would form a most interesting exhibit in the Maori Court of the new Museum. The Council have tendered the cordial thanks of the institution to Mr. Hovell for his liberal action ; also to his colleague, Mr. R. W. Bell, who has deposited his valuable Maori collection in the Museum.
Other noteworthy additions to the Maori Hall comprise an ancient historic taiaha bearing the name of Rongotakitaki, and formerly the property of the Ngapuhi warrior Kawhiti, presented by Mr. George Graham ; a fine greenstone tiki, a greenstone poria, several stone adzes and fisTiing-weights, donated by Mr. D. Shanks, Mangatangi :
Auckland Institute. 491
an ancient bone comb, presented by Mr. F. E. Stewart, per Cajotain Gilbert Mair; a remarkably large and fine greenstone adze, with a series of six picked ordinary adzes, contributed by Mr. C. Ansell. The Council have also to acknowledge, with many thanks, the receipt of a cheque for £25 from Mr. Guthrie Smith, which, at his desire, has been expended in the purchase of certain interesting Maori cai'vings from Rotorua. A valuable and instructive addition is a life-size model of a Gilbert-Islander, wearing a remarkable armour made of coconut sinnet, and carrying a long fighting-spear armed with sharks' teeth. Complete sets of this armour, the use of wliich was confined to a small part of Polynesia, are now rare and difficult to obtain. The Museum is thus greatly indebted to Mr. A. J. Ellis for presenting the admirable specimen now in the Museum. The model of the warrior was prepared in the Museum.
In foreign ethnography the most important acquisition is a collection of Indian swords, armour, art treasures, &c., comprising no less than eighty-nine articles. It was originally formed between the years 1860 and 1890 by the late Mr. James E. Yates, who at that time occupied an important position in the Indian Public Service. On his retirement he emigrated to New Zealand, and died at Gisborne a few years ago. The collection, which has considerable intrinsic value, is now presented to the Museum by his daughters, in memory of their father. The importance of the gift has been suitably acknowledged to the donors, and the collection has been placed on exhibition in the entrance hall of the Museum.
There has been received from the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, a welcome donation of eighteen watches and movements of eighteenth-century age. These are part of a series of 1,500 antique watches presented to South Kensington by the well-known collector Mr. Evan Roberts, with the stipulation that those specimens not required for the national collection should be distributed among a number of selected institutions. It is gratifying to find that the Auckland Museum has been chosen as one of tlie participants.
The thanks of the Museum are due to Dr. A. C. Purchas for an interesting collection of sixteen* Egyj^tian antiquities, obtained by him while serving in Egypt with the Medical Branch of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. It forms an appropriate supplement to the collections obtained from the Cairo Museum some two or three years ago. Some valuable suggestions made by Dr. Purchas respecting the extension of the Egyptian collections in the Museum will be gladly acted upon when circumstances permit.
War Collections. — The Council have pleasure in announcing the receipt of a valuable collection of between twenty and thirty guns, revolvers, pistols, &c., formed by the late Mr. D. Evitt, for many years in business in Auckland as a gunsmith. It is now presented to the Museum by his family as the " David Evitt Collection." The articles date between the years 1750 and 1860, and will constitute an excellent introduction to the war collection now being formed, particularly as it includes examples of the well-known " Bro^\ii Bess " flint-lock gun and other types, which, from the reign of William III for quite one hundred years, constituted the standard weapons of the British Army.
A considerable number of small collections have been received from returned soldiers and others, and the following may be specially mentioned : Private J. M. Griffen, N.Z.M.C, presents numerous articles obtained in Egypt, Salonica, and France ; Major G. S. Chceseman contributes a varied assortment collected in Egyjjt, the Sinai Peninsula, and Palestine ; Mr. J. D. Whitcombe presents the house flag of the German trading-vessel " Elfrida." the last to navigate the South Pacific after the outbreak of the war ; while Captain Boscawen donates several interesting articles obtained at Gallipoli or in France,
Since the last annual meeting there has been much correspondence with the Govern- ment relative to the distribution of war trophies and war collections generally ; and a deputation representing both the city and the Museum waited upon the Premier on his return from Europe. The result has been to smooth away many difficulties, and especially to afford more information as to the intentions of the Government. So far as can be ascertained, no distribution of trophies will be made until the whole of the material has arrived in the Dominion, and has been properly examined and catalogued. This having been done, all those trophies positively identified as having been captured by a particular unit of the Expeditionary Forces will be sent to the nearest headquarter towTi of the regiment to wliich the unit belongs. The remainder of the material, constituting by far the greater portion of the whole, will be subject in the first instance to the selection of one sample of each kind of trophy for the National Museum at Wellington. The remainder will be divided into four parts, to be distributed mthin the four chief districts of the Dominion : and a cUstinct promise has been given to the effect that the ^vishes of the local Museums shall receive full consideration. In addition, it is stated that " long ago instructions
492 Proceedings.
were given that, where possible, four samples of allotted trophies should be secured — one to go to the National Museum, and the rest to the three other Museuifis." So the matter rests at present.
The Domain Site and a New Museum. — In last year's report the Council dwelt at considerable length on the drawbacks and deficiencies of the present Museum buildings, and showed that the existing site was not large enough for ^jresent requirements, to say nothing of future needs. It then described the steps that had been taken to obtain a site in the Auckland Domain, and the sympathetic readiness with which the proposal was received by the Aucldand City Council. Finally, it announced that the passage through Parliament of the Auckland Institute and Museum Site Empowering Act had vahdated the action of both the City Council and the Institute, and that the site — admittedly one of the finest in Auckland — was now open to be dealt with as soon as the necessary funds were available. It is now the duty of the Council to state what action has been taken since tlie last annual meeting. At a meeting of the Council held in Marcli last it was decided that the best chance of successful effort was to be found in securing the co-operation of the City Council, then preparing to discuss the shape that the war memorial for the Cit}' of Auckland should take, and the following resolution was carried : " That this Council affirms the suitability of a modem Museum as the selected form of war memorial for the Auckland District ; such Museum to be erected on Observatory Hill, in the Auckland Domain, and to have special reference to war-memorial exhibits, including a hall devoted to such. It is further suggested that the special committee of the City Council appointed to consider the question be earnestly requested to favourably consider the proposal, and to commend it to the citizens as the most suitable project to commemorate the war, and as being in the interests of the citizens generally." The above resolution was duly forwarded to the City Council, which had also received numerous other proposals from various sources. All these were carefully considered by the City Council and its advisory committee, with the result that the erection of a modern Museum on Observa- toiy Hill was accepted as the most suitable war memorial for the Auckland District.
The erection of a new Museum building will now necessitate some organized move- ment to raise funds. There seems to be no serious rivalry to this project ; on the other hand, there is every indication that it is coming more and more into favour, even on the part of a section of the community which at the outset hesitated to give its support, with the result that the commimity will probably now be imited in its favour. The building will combine with Museum accommodation suitable halls for the adequate display of war trophies, also galleries to contain photographs of those members of the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces who have specially distinguished themselves. The groimds will permit the suitable displaj' of those large armaments which cannot be provided for in any building.
The cost of building on the Domain site will doubtless be considerable, and will probabty not be less than £100,000. It must be remembered that the first instalment of Museum buildings must provide not only for immediate needs and for the display of the exhibits in a modern manner, but must also be sufficiently extensive to accom- modate many invaluable collections at present in private hands, but which, if they can be displayed in an adequate manner, will be donated to the citizens of Auckland, thus forming a priceless addition to the Museum.
The Council is in commmiication with the Right Hon. the Prime IMinister with a view to securing a subsidy from the Government towards the erection of the building. The position has been fully set out to the Government as follows; "The Auckland Mu.seum occupies an anonaalous position as regards State assistance, as is proved by the following facts respecting the four chief museums of the Dominion. In Canterbury from £18,000 to £25,000 has been expended in erecting the Museum, every peimy of which came from public funds. In Otago the original buildurgs cost £12,500, also all derived from public f\mds. Half the cost of an addition made some ten or twelve years years ago was also borne by the Government. Whatever li^s been done in the past in Wellington has been done directly by the Government, and in the immediate future a large expenditure is contemplated for the erection of an entirely new Museum. In Auckland alone has the governing body of its Museum been compelled to provide almost the whole cost of erecting buildings, and, while the bequests and the monetary contribu- tions made to the Museum amount to over £20,000, the total sum given by the Govern- ment barely reaches £3,500, all of which was granted many years ago. Had the Museum Council been able to provide intact the whole of the benefactions made to the Museum, the revenue of the institution would have been much greater, but it has been necessary to use a large proportion for enlarging the site of the Museum and erecting buildings, an exi^enditure which in the other Museums has been provided for out of public funds. In no other part of the Dominion have such large benefactions in money been made to Museums as in Auckland and so little done by the Government. Surely the public
Auckland Institute. 493
spirit evidenced by the citizens of Auckland should have received more assistance and more appreciation than has been shown by past Governments of the Dominion. The claims of Auckland in this connection are such that the proposal for a subsidy should commend itself favourably to the consideration of the Government. This, however, will not absolve our community from a very considerable voluntary effort. If this is well organized and the claims of the Museum substantially placed before the citizens of Auckland there need be little fear of an inadequate response." It is hoped that the Government will grant a pound-for-pound subsidy — namely, £50,000 — and that the balance of £50,000 be then raised by volmitary subscriptions, for which purpose suitable action will be duly undertaken.
Election of Officers for 1920. — President — Mr. J. H. Gunson, Mayor of Auckland. Vice-Presidents — Hon. B. Mitchelson ; Mr. C. J. Parr, C.M.G., M.P. Council— Vvoiessoi- C. W. Egerton ; Mr. J. Kenderdiue ; Mr. T. W. Leys ; Mr. E. V. Miller ; Mr. T. Peacock ; Mr. D. Petrie, F.N.Z.Inst. ; Pro- fessor H. W. Segar, M.A., F.N.Z.Inst. ; Professor A. P. W. Thomas, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst. ; Mr. J. H. Upton ; Mr. H. E. Vaile ; Professor F. P. Worley, D.Sc. Trustees— Mi. T. Peacock; Mr. J. Reid; Professor A. P. W. Thomas, M.A., F.N.Z.Inst. ; Mr. J. H. Upton ; Mr. H. E. Vaile. Secretary and Curator —Mr, T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.N.Z.Inst. Auditor— "^t. S. Gray.
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTEEBUBY.
At the annual meeting (3rd December, 1919) the annual report and audited balance-sheet were adopted.
Abstract.
Council. — Twelve meetings of the Council have been held during the year. Owing to removal or temporary absence from Canterbury the following members of Council fomid it necessary to resign, viz. : Messrs. W. H. Skinner (Vice-President), W. G. Aldridge (Librarian), L. Birks, and M. H. Godby. Mr. A. M. Wright was elected a Vice-President in place of Mr. Skinner, but shortly after also found it necessary to resign, and Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf was elected in his place. The following members of the Institute were elected members of the Council to fill the vacancies caused : Miss M. E. Herriott (Librarian), and Messrs. H. F. Skey, G. Holford, and Dr. F. J. Borrie.
Meetings of the Institute. — Eight ordinary meetings and one additional ordinary meeting were held at Christchurch. At the opening meeting Dr. C. C. Farr delivered his presidential address, on " Some Physical Discoveries of the Last Thirty Years." Lectures of general interest were delivered by the Hon. G. M. Thomson, on " The Nat.ralization of Animals in New Zealand"; by Mr. R. G. Robinson, on "Phases of Practical Forestry " ; by jMr. H. T. Ferrar, on " Aeroplane Surveying in Palestine " ; and bj- Mr. A. V. Mountford, on " Leather." Fifteen technical papers were read, com- prising botanical (five), chemical (four), geological (two), historical and general (two). Exhibits of scientific interest were displayed by Messrs. R. G. Robinson — ^Indian timbers; S. Page — variations in the genus Clematis; R. Nairn — Laburnum Adami ; and W. Martin- — nme sjiecies of eucalypt attacked Ijy scale (Ericoccus coriaceum), and a beetle (Paropsis sp.) causing much damage to the leaves.
In accordance with a recommendation from the last aimual meeting, two meetings of the Institute were held at Timaru and one at Ashburton, where the following addresses were delivered : Dr. Charles Chilton, " Aims and Asijirations of the New Zealand Institute " ; Dr. C. C. Farr, " The Building-stones of the Universe " : Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, " The Present Status of Darwmism " ; Mr. A. M. Wright, " Science and Lidustry, with Special Reference to the Freezing Industry." These meetings were both successful and well attended, and it is hoped the Institute will see its way to hold similar meetings in the future.
Membership. — The membership has been greatly increased during the year, mainly as a result of the Science Congress held in February. From 177 in 1918 the number has risen to 230 in 1919. Fifty-eight new members were elected, while five member- ships lapsed.
494 Proceedings.
Ohihiary. — Tt is with regret that the Council has to record the deaths of Sir Jolin Denniston, Mr. T. W. Adams, and Mr. Gilbert Anderson, all of whom were members of long standing, who had taken a keen interest in the activities of the Institute. The Council further takes this opportunity of recording its sense of the loss to the Institute and to the cause of science resulting from the death of the late Major Broun, New Zealand's foremost coleopterist.
Fellowship's of the JSew Zealand Institute. — The Council has pleasure in announcing that, in accordance with the regulations, the first election of Fellows of the New Zealand Institute has been held, and that three of our members are now original Fellows — viz.. Dr. Charles Chilton, Dr. C. C. Farr, and Mr. R. Speight. The congratula- tions of the Institute are extended to these gentlemen on the distinction conferred upon them.
Government Research Grants. — The Clovemment this year voted £2,000 to the New Zealand Institute for the purjaose of providing research grants. On the application of the Council the following grants were made to members : £225 to Mr. R. Speight for a geological survey of the Malvern Hills ; £100 to I>r. C. C. Farr for research on the porositA'' of porcelain used for making insulators ; £100 to Mr. G. Brittin for researches on fruit-tree diseases ; and £70 to £100 to Mr. W. Morrison for research on afforestation on the Spencer Ranges. For various reasons, the researches on prevention of frosting in orchards and causes of decay in fruit in cold storage have had to be discontinued, and the grants have been returned.
Co-ordination of Science and Industry. — -The Council has continued to press on the responsible authorities the necessity for some means of makmg known to manufacturers the latest scientific discoveries relating to their various industries. The Council has urged the immediate appointment of an Industrial Reader, and later of a Department of Scientific Research, and in this connection has had the benefit of a consultation with Mr. C. M. Ollivier (Chairman of the Christchurch Bi-anch of the Canterbury Progress League). Copies of a report on the same topic by a committee of the Industrial Association of Canterbury have been tabled. A donation of £10 has again been made towards the equipment of the Technological Section of the Public Library, which the Institute was instrumental in having established.
General Meetings of the New Zealand Institute — Science Congress, 1919. — At the invitation of the Pliilosophical Institute of Canterbury the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute decided, at the annual meeting in January, 1918, to hold a series of public meeting of the members of the Institute at Christchurch early in the year 1919. During the year 1918 preliminary arrangements for the programme were made by the Standing Committee of the New Zealand Institute, while the local arrangements were attended to by the Philosojihical Institute. In November, 1918, owing to the ilhiess of some members of the sub-committee of the New Zealand Institute that was dealing with the matter, and other causes, the Standing Committee asked the Philosophical Institute to take over the whole control of the preparation for the meetings. This was done, and, although unexpected difficulties arose as the result of the influenza epidemic, the series of meetings was successfully held from 4th to 8th February, 1919, and was largely attended both by visitors from other parts of New Zealand and hy the members of the local pubUc. His Excellency the Governor-General and the Mmister of Internal Affairs were present at the opening meeting, at which the President, Dr. L. Cockayne, delivered his presidential address. The scientific papers contributed were so numerous that four Sections had to be arranged to meet simultaneously — viz., (1) Biology and Agriculture ; (2) Geology; (3) Chemistry, Physics, and Engineering; (4) General — and on the last day of the Congress ]the first Section was separated into two subsections. Biology and Agri- culture, in order to deal with the pajiers contributed. In addition to the meetings of the Sections, three evening meetings, besides the opening ceremony, were devoted to public lectures and were largely attended, while general excursions were made to Lake Coleridge, the Agricultural College, Riccarton Bush, Dyer's Pass, &c., and sectional excursions to places of scientific and industrial interest. The Institute is greatly indebted to the Board of Governors of Canterbury College for the use of the College buildings for the meetings, and to numerous residents of Christchurch for the hospitality extended to visiting -members, particularly to E. F. Stead, Esq., at whose residence a most enjoyable garden party was held. The Council feels that the success of the meetings, and their influence, both in stimulating the scientfic work of the Institute and of bringing its results prominently before the public, fully compensate for the labour involved, and it trusts that similar general meetings of the Institute will be held in other parts of New Zealand at suitable intervals.
The Library. — The accommodation in the library is now greatly overtaxed, and great difficulty is experienced in finding room for new volumes. It has therefore been necessary to make some provision for increasing the accommodation, and representations
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 495
have been made to the Board of Governors of Canterbury College to have the library housed at the Pubhc Library in any contemplated extension of that building. This request has been most generously met by the Board of Governors. The conditions arising from the war still hinder the proper development of the library, and only a few books in addition to the journals have been purchased. The work of keeping the binding of the journals up to date is still hindered by the non-arrival of certain parts. A number of completed volumes have been bound, however, and are now on the shelves, while others are still at the binders'. The exchange copies of publications of other societies are now arriving more regularly, and the Hon. Librarian has acknowledged during the year the receipt of various books and pamphlets from the Queensland Museum, the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the Department of Mines, New Zealand, as well as from Mr. L. P. Symes and Mr. H. T. Ferrar.
Riccarton Bush. — The Institute's representative on the Board of Trustees of the Riccarton Bush rejjorts that the bush has been carefully attended to during the year, and is in good condition. Improvements have been made to the paths, additional seats have been provided, and an automatic gas heater for, boiling water has been provided, under an appropriate shelter, for the convenience of visitors. Other improvements will be made as soon as funds permit, but in the meantime these are only barely sufficient for the ranger's salary and the necessary upkeep of the bush. The bush continues to be largely used by the general public and by botanical students. Dr. C. Chilton has again been elected the Institute's representative on the Board of Trustees. '
Preservation of Sinclair's Grave and of Butler's House.- — The Council has for some time been negotiating with the owner of " Mesopotamia," on the upper reaches of the Rangitata River, with a view to the permanent preservation of the grave of Dr. Sinclair, one of New Zealand's pioneer botanists, and of the cottage formerly occupied by Samuel Butler, the celebrated New Zealand author. These negotiations promise to be successful.
Memorial Tablet. — With the approval of the Hon. W. Eraser, Minister of Public Works, the Council has had a marble slab erected at the Lake Coleridge power-house to perpetuate the memory of Hans Christian Oersted, the Danish scientist, who first dis- covered the magnetic effect of an electric current, and thereby made possible all modem electrical machinery. This year marks the centenary of his great discovery.
Tunnel Research Fund. — As these investigations are now complete, and the Research Fund is still almost intact, the Government has given permission to the Insti- tute to retain the balance for research work. The unspent balance of £142 16s. 3d. has accordingly been set aside as the basis for a Research Fund. The report of the Tunnel Investigation Committee is published in volume 51 of the Transactions of the Neic Zealand Institute.
Samoan Magnetic Observatory. — Representations have been made by the Council to the Hon. the Minister of Marine to arrange for the observations of the Samoan Magnetic Observatory to be continued, and the Minister has replied stating that the matter will receive his attention.
Finance. — The balance-sheet shows the total receipts, including the balances from the previous year, were £523 16s. 3d. This includes the sum of £83 2s. 9d., special con- tributions towards the expenses of the Science Congress. Of the exjienditure, £73 14s. lid. has been expended on the library, including the sum of £10 contributed to the Technical Library and £77 9s. 6d. in connection with the Science Congress. The Institute levy of £23 2s. 6d. has been paid, and research grants amounting to £60 returned to the New Zealand Institute, leaving a balance of £70 2s. Id. to the credit of the Ordinary Account. In connection with the Tunnel Investigation Account £4 lis. was expended on the prejjaration of the final report, and the balance of £142 16s. 3d. has, with the consent of the Minister of Internal Affairs, been transferj-ed to a Research Fund Account. The Life Members' Subscription Account now stands at £158 19s. 7d., deposited with the Permanent Investment and Loan Association of Canterbury.
\_
Election of Officers for 1920. — President — Mr. L. P. Symes. Vice- Presidents — Dr. C. Coleridge Farr, Mr. A. M. Wright. Hon. Secretary — Mr. W. Martin, 51 Matai Street, Riccarton. Hon. Treasurer — Dr. Charles Chilton. Hon,. Librarian — Miss E. M. Herriott Council — Captain G. E. Archey, Mr. J. Drummond, Mr. G. Holford, Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, Mr. M. H. Godby, Mr. L. J. Wild. Representatives on the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute~Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, Mr. A. M. Wright. Representative on the Board of Trustees of the Riccarton Bush-^Bv. Charles Chilton. Hon. Auditor — Mr. J. 0. Jameson.
496 Proceedings.
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
At the annual meeting (9th December, 1919) the annual report and audited balance-sheet were adopted.
Abstract.
Seven meetings of the Institute were held. At these meetings the following papers were read, and have since been forwarded to the New Zealand Institute for publication in the Transactions : D. L. PoppelweU, " Notes on the Indigenous Vegetation of Ben Lomond, with a List of Species," and " Notes on the Indigenous Vegetation of the North-eastern Portion of the Hokonui liills, with a List of Species " ; Professor J. Park, " On the Occurrence of Striated Boulders in a Palaeozoic Breccia near Taieri Mouth " ; A. Philpott, " Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera " ; Charles E. Clarke, " New Lepidoptera," and " Lepidoptera of Auckland and King-country " ; H. Beattie (communicated by H. D. Skinner), " The Southern Maoris and Greenstone," and " Native Lore of the Southern Maoris " ; Dorothy Johnson, B.Sc. (communicated by J, Malcolm), " Food Value of New Zealand Fish " ; M. Winifred Betts, M.Sc, " Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite Belt, Nelson, Part 1, No. 3," and " The Rosette Plants of Cass."
The following addresses were dehvered during the session : " Fifty Years' Science Progress in New Zealand " (presidential address), by the Hon. G. M. Thomson ; " Some Recent Theories on the PeopUng of the Pacific," by Mr. H. D. Skinner ; "Insect-collecting in Australia," by Mr. W. G. Howes; "Revolutionary Sociahsm," by the Ven. Archdeacon Woodthorpe ; "Earthquakes, and their Significance," by Professor W. N. Benson ; " The Economics of Power," by Professor D. B. Waters.
The speakers at the Jubilee conversazione were the President, Mr. Alex. Bathgate, and Sir James Allen.
Librarian's Report. — During the past year the expenditure on the purchase of books has been less than usual. This is partly owing to the fact that the University is now recognizing the need of adding new zoological and botanical works to their library which is housed in the Museum ; while the estabhshment of a lectureship in ethnology has led that institution to build up a library in this subject. As these books are available to members of the Institute, there is the less need of buying books of a purely scientific character : hence more money will be available for binding back numbers of periodicals, &c., some of which, for one reason or another, have been allowed to accumulate. Thus a good many volumes of Nature should now be bound, and so relieve much shelf-room, and a number of volumes of the publications of the Indian Geological Survey, and other works.
The subscription to Science Progress has been resumed ; and a new periodical, Botanical Abstracts, ha^s been added to our list.
The Museum has received, as usual, a number of reports of various Government Departments, as well as publications of museums and universities in various countries. These are for the most part of a technical character.
The- University Council has agreed to provide the money for the erection of a new set of shelves for the accommodation of the rapidly-increasing collection of ethno- graphical works. It is hoped that during the coming year a large lecture-room will be erected for the biology class, which will be available for the Institute meetings, so that part of the existing lecture-room may be utilized for a needed extension of the library.
Membership. — -During the year three members have died and eleven have resigned. Six new members were elected, so that the roll now stands at 158, as compared to 166 at the end of last year.
Balance-sheet. — The year's transactions show a debit balance of £6 18s. 7d. This is due to some extra non-recurring items of expenditure — viz., £10 to University Council for installing electric light in the biology lecture-room ; £20 to defray part of Dr. Tillyard's travelling-expenses ; and the additional expenditure due to the Jubilee celebrations.
Work of the Council.
Seven rheetings of the Council were held during 1919. In addition to the usual routine work of managing the affairs of the Institute in general, the following items of special business were dealt with : —
Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute. — At the request of the New Zealand Institute, the Council forwarded a list of eighteen nominations for the election of ten original Fellows. Of the eighteen, eight were subsequently elected.
Otago Institute. 497
Research Grants.^In response to the announcement made by the New Zealand Institute that a sum of £2,000 had been allocated by Government for research purjjoses, three applications were sent in from the Otago members, and were afterwards approved of, viz. — (1) From W. G. Howes, F.E.S., for £30 to defray expenses connected with his work on entomology to be carried out in co-operation with Dr. Tillyard, of Sydney ; (2) from G. S. Thomson, B.Sc, for £50 for expenses connected with the study of the composition of " whale-feed " ; (3) from Professor J. Malcolm, for £250 for a research into the food value and composition of New Zealand fishes.
Dr. Tillyard' s Visit. — Towards the end of last year this Institute, at the suggestion of the Council, invited Dr. Tillyard, of Sydney, to visit this part of New Zealand to investigate some of the local entomology. Owing to shipping difficulties the visit had to be postponed till this year, and Dr. Tillyard is now in the Dominion. The Council has set aside the sum of £20 to defray part of the cost of his visit.
Jubilee of the Institute. — The celebration of the Jubilee took the form of a conver- sazione in the University. Invitations were sent to the other afifihated societies and to the other' scientific bodies in New Zealand and Australia, as well as to prominent men in the Dominion. A large number of congratulatory letters were received. The Council begs to express its thanks to the University Council for granting the use of their buildings and apparatus on this occasion.
Election of Officers for 1920. — President — Dr. R. V. Fulton. Vice- Presidents— Hon. G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst., M.L.C., and W. G. Howes, F.E.S. Hon. Secretary — Professor W. N. Benson, B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. Hon. Treasurer — H. Brasch. Hon. Librarian — Professor W. B. Benham, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Council—ProiesHov W. B. Benham, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. ; Professor R. Jack, D.Sc. ; Professor J. Park, F.G.S. ; Professor J. Malcolm, M.D. ; Messrs. H. Mandeno, H. D. Skinner, B.A., and G. S. Thomson, B.Sc.
TECHNOLOGICAL BRANCH.
At the commencement of the session the committee of this Branch decided not to attempt a syllabus.
The members were convened for the annual and only meeting on the occasion of a lecture by the Chairman of the Branch (Professor Waters) before the parent Institute, on the 14th October, 1919. The annual meeting was not well supported, and was adjourned till next year.
ASTRONOMICAL BRANCH.
The annua] meeting, on the 9th December, was the only meeting held, Mr. R. Gilkison, Chairman of the Branch, in the chair. The Branch is looking forward to a reawakening of interest in its special subject now that the war is over, and the following office-bearers for 1920 were elected : Chairman, Mr. R. Gilkison ; Vice- Chairmen — Professor Jack, Professor Park, and Professor White ; Committee — Rev. D. Dutton, F.R.A.S., Dr. P. D. Cameron, Messrs. H. Brasch and C. Frye ; Hon. Secretary — Mr. J. C. Begg.
MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Ten meetings of the Council and nine general meetings were held, at which the following papers were read : Dr. E. C. Barnett, " Medical Experiences at the Front " ; Mr. Black, Curator of Borough Reserves, " Noxious Weeds " ; J. W. Poynton, S.M., " Radium " ; W. R. Mummery, F.I.C., " The' Action of CoUosols in relation to Bacteriology " ; W. E. Bendall, " Kapiti as a Reserve for Native Flora and Fauna " ; Miss Ironside,
498 Proceedings.
M.A., " The Evolution of the Enghsh Drama " ; Professor Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst., " Explosives " ; Rev. H. G. Blackburne, M.A., " English Cathedrals " ; R. Edwards, C.E., " The Land we live in " ; R. H. F. Grace, " Are other Worlds than ours inhabited ? "
At the annual meeting (21st November, 1919) the annual report and audited balance sheet were adopted.
Abstract.
During the year the society has had to lament the loss of five of its members by death — Messrs. J. E. Vernon, M.A. ; R. Gardner; D. Buick, M.P. ; S. Greer; and J. Robertson. Three members have left the district — Messrs Barnicoat, Sinclair, and G. Seifert — the two former, however, still retaining their membership. One member, Dr. Bett, has returned from active service. On the other hand, in consequence of a convass undertaken by the President, Secretary, and Messrs H. Seifert and Park, and confined as yet chiefly to the Square and Rangitikei Street, nine who had resigned have renewed their membership, and thirty-five new members have been elected. This is so far satisfactory ; but it is not enough. If the society is adequately to discharge its functions the members must not be content with jiajdng their subscriptions, but must take an active interest in its proceedings. The attendance of members at the general meetings continues to be very poor.
The Curator reports that during the year thirty exhibits have been added to the Museum, and sixteen books, together with a number of pamphlets and journals, to the library ; and that the average daily attendance has been thirty-one.
A very generous offer was made by Mr. Robert to lend to the Museum for from seven to ten years the whole of his valuable collection of animals, birds, weapons, shells, coins, books, and other curios, nearly equalling in number our present collection. This offer might probabty haj^e resulted in a permanent transfer to the Museum ; but your Council were compelled very reluctantly to decline the offer on account of their total inability to house the exhibits, as the Borough Council, to whom the matter was referred, had regretfully expressed their inability at present to provide increased accommodation, and the society had no funds for the purpose.
Mr. W. E. Bendall, in the unavoidable absence of the President, represented the society in an expedition made with Professor Kirk, at the request of the Institute, to examine the capabilities of the Island of Kapiti as a reserve for the preservation of the native fauna and flora, and on his return wrote a valuable report, which was read before the society.
The Council was also represented by Mr. Park at a meeting in Wellington of representatives of the bodies interested, and on a subsequent deputation to the Minister in Charge of the Tourist Department to urge upon the Government the need of improving the Tongariro National Park by extending its boundaries, by making roads, and by erecting huts for the accommodation oi visitors. The deputation was very sympathetically received by the Minister, who seemed to recognize fully the need for the suggested improvements, and promised to use his influence to have them carried out as far as the funds at the disposal of the Government would allow. It will be well for your incoming Council to keep this matter in view, and, if necessary, to bring renewed j^ressure on the Government.
The decision of the New Zealand Institute to hold a biennial meeting for the reading and discussion of papers, a plan which was so successfully inaugurated in January last at Christchurch, has opened a prospect of greatly extended usefulness for the Institute and all its branches. On the motion of your President, your Council sent a formal invitation to the Institute to hold its next meeting at Palmerston North. The invitation was accepted, and the meeting will be held in Palmerston in January or February, 1921. It is to be hoped that every, member of our local' society will consider himself personally concerned in ensuring the triumphant success of that meeting.
Election of Officers for 1920. — President — J. Murray, M.A. Vice- Presidents — M. A. Eliott, H. Seifert. Officer in Charge of the Observatory — R. H. F. Grace Secretary and Treasurer — K. Wilson, M.A. Council — Dr. Bett, M.B., Ch.B., M.R.C.S., M.R.C.P. ; C. N. Clausen ; J. A. Colquhoun, M.Sc. ; R. Edwards. C.E. ; J. B. Gerrand ; E. Larcomb, C E. ; W. R. Mummery, F.I.C. ; W. Park, F.H.S. ; C. T. Salmpn ; A. Whitaker.
APPENDI
501
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908. 1908, No. 130.
An Act to consolidate certain Enactments of the General Assembly relating to the New Zealand Institute.
Be it enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : —
1. (1.) The Short Title of this Act is the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908.
(2.) This Act is a consolidation of the enactments mentioned in the Schedule hereto, and with respect to those enactments the following pro- visions shall apply : —
(a.) The Institute and Board respectively constituted under those enactments, and subsisting on the coming into operation of this Act, shall be deemed to be the same Institute and Board respec- tively constituted under this Act without any change of consti- tution or corporate entity or otherwise ; and the members thereof in office on the coming into operation of this Act shall continue in office until their successors under this Act come into office.
(b.) All Orders in Council, regulations, appointments, societies incor- porated with the Institute, and generally all acts of authority whi-ch originated under the said enactments or any enactment thereby repealed, and are subsisting or in force on the coming into operation of this Act, shall enure for the purposes of this Act as fully and effectually as if they had originated under the corresponding provisions of this Act, and accordingly shaH-, where necessary, be deemed to have so originated.
(c.) All property vested in the Board constituted as aforesaid shall be deemed to be vested in the Board established and recognized by this Act.
(rf.) All matters and proceedings commenced under the. said enact- ments, and pending or in progress on the coming into opera- tion of this Act, may be continued, completed, and enforced under this Act.
2. (1.) The body now known as the New Zealand Institute (herein- after referred to as " the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland Insti- tute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland Institute, and such others as heretofore have been or may hereafter be incorporated therewith in accordance with regulations heretofore made or hereafter to be made by the Board of Governors.
(2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso facto members of the Institute.
3. The control and management of the Institute shall be vested in a Board of Governors (hereinafter referred to as " the Bjoard "), constituted as follows : —
The Governor :
The Minister of Internal Affairs :
Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council, of
whom two shall be appointed during the month of December
in every year :
502 Ap'pendix.
Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, WelHngton, Christchurch, and Dunedin during the month of December in each alternate year ; and the next year in which such an appointment shall be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine :
One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated societies during the month of December in each alternate year ; and the next year in which such an appointment shall be made is the year one thousand nine hundred and nine.
4. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council, the two rdembers longest in office without reappointment shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors.
(2.) Subject to the last preceding subsection, the appointed members of the Board shall hold office until the appointment of their successors.
5. The Board shall be a body corporate by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and hold lands for the purposes hereinafter mentioned.
6. (1.) The Board shall have power to appoint a fit person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all necessary work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to provide him with such further assistance as may be required.
(2.) The Board shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a committee to assist him in the work of editing the same.
(3.) The Board shall have power from time to time to make regu- lations under which societies may become incorporated with the Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be incorporated if such regulations are not complied with ; and such regu- lations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law.
(4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose of them as it thinks fit.
(5.) The Board shall have control of the property from time to time vested in it or acquired by it ; and shall make regulations for the management of the same, and for the encouragement of researcli by the members of the Institute ; and in all matters, specified or unspecified, shall have power to act for and on, behalf of the Institute.
7. (1.) Any casual vacancy in the Board, howsoever caused, shall be filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board.
(2.) Any person appointed to fill a casual vacancy shall only hold office for such period as his predecessor would have held office under this Act.
8. (1.) Annual meetings Df the Board shall be lield in the month of January in each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual meeting.
(2.) The Board may meet during the year at such other times and places as it deems necessary.
(3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance-sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the Institute.
Netv Zealand Institute Act. 503
9. The Board may from .time to time, as it sees fit, make arrange- ments for the holding of general meetings of members of the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in New Zealand by any means that may appear desirable.
10. The Minister of Finance shall from time to time, without further appropriation than this Act, pay to the Board the sum of five hundred pounds in each financial year, to be applied in or towards payment of the general current expenses of the Institute.
11. Forthwith upon the making of any regulations or the publica- tion of aiay Transactions, the Board shall transmit a copy thereof to the Minister of Internal Afian-s, who shall lay the same before Parliament if sitting, or if not, then v?ithin twenty days after the commencement of the next ensuing session thereof.
Schedule.
Enactments consolidated. 1903, No. 48.— The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903.
REGULATIONS.
The following are the regulations of the New Zealand Institute under the Act of 1903 :—'•■
The word "Institute" used in the following regulations means the New Zealand Institute as constituted by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903.
Incoeporation of Societies.
1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the pro- visions of the New Zealand Institute Act, 1903, unless such society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than £25 sterling annually for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the President for the time being of the society.
2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £25.
3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one -third of the annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main- tenance of the New Zealand Institute.
4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue specified in Regulation No. 3 aforesaid in manner provided shall from henceforth cease to be incor- porated with the Institute.
«
* New Zealand Gazette, 14th July, 1904.
504 ♦ Appendix.
Publications.
5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti- tute, and then may be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Institute regarding publications : —
(a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of —
(1.) A current abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled " Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute " ;
(2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as herein- after mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of Governors shall from time to time determine to publish, to be intituled " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."
{b.) The Board of Governors shall determine what papers are to be published.
(c.) Papers not recommended for publication may be returned to their authors if so desired.
{d.) All papers sent in for publication must be legibly written, type- written, or printed. >
(e.) A proportional contribution may be required from each society towards the cost of publishing Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute.
(/.) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor- tional number of copies of the Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors.
Management of the Pkoperty of the Institute.
6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor- porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any otlier of the property of the Institute.
7. All donations by societies, public Departments, or private indi- viduals to the Institute shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt and shall be entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct.
Honorary Members.
8. The Board of Governors shall have power to elect honorary members (being persons not residing in the Colony of New Zealand), pro- vided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed thirty.
9. In case of a vacancy in the list of. honorary members, each incor- porated society, after intimation from the Secretary of the Institute, may nominate for election as honorary member one person.
10. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the President of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him \ie submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting.
Begulations . 505
Geneeal Eegulations.
11. Subject to the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, and to the foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs.
12. Upon application signed by the President and countersigned by the Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under Eegulation No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the fore- going regulations of the Institute are complied with by the society.
13. In voting on any subject the President is to have a deliberate as well as a casting vote.'
14. The President may at any time call ^i meeting of the Board, and shall do so on the requisition in writing of four Governors.
15. Twenty-one days' notice of every meeting of the Board shall be given by posting the same to each Governor at an address furnished by him to the Secretary.
16. In case of a vacancy in the office of President, a meeting of the Board shall be called by the Secretary within twenty-one days to elect a new President.
17. The Governors for the time being resident or present in Wellington shall be a Standing Committee for the purpose of transacting urgent business and assisting the officers.
18. The Standing Committee may appoint persons to perform the duties of any other office which may become vacant. Any such appoint- ment shall hold good until the next meeting of the Board, when the vacancy shall be filled.
19. The foregoing regulations may be altered or amended at any annual meeting, provided that notice be given in writing to the Secretary of the Institute not later than the 30th November.
The following additional regulations, and amendment to regulations, were adopted at a general meeting of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, held at Wellington on the 30th January, 1918, and at Christchurch on the 3rd February, 1919. (See Netv Zealand Gazette, No. 110, 4th September, 1919.)
Eegulations governing the Fellowship of the Institute.
20. The Fellowship of the New Zealand Institute shall be an honorary distinction for the life of the holder.
21. The Original Fellows shall be twenty in number, and shall include the past Presidents and the Hutton and Hector Medallists who have held their distinctions and positions prior to 3rd February, 1919, and who at that date are members of the Institute. The remaining Original Fellows shall be nominated as provided for in Eegulation 26 (a), and shall be elected by the said past Presidents and Hector and Hutton Medallists.
22. The total number of Fellows at any time shall not be more than forty.
23. After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows, as pro- vided in Eegulation 21, not more than four Fellows shall be elected in any one year.
24. The Fellowship shall be given for research or distinction in science.
506 Appendix.
25. No person shall be elected as Fellow unless he is a British subject and has been a member of one of the incorporated societies for three years immediately preceding his election.
26. After the appointment and election of the Original Fellows as pro- vided in Regidation 21 there shall be held an annual election of Fellows at such time as the Board of Governors shall appoint. Such election shall be determined as follows :—
(a.) Each of the incorporated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christ- church, and Dunedin may nominate not more than twice as many persons as there are vacancies, and each of the other incorporated societies may nominate as many persons as there are vacancies. Each nomination must be accompanied by a statement of the qualifications of the candidate for Fellowship.
(6.) Out of the persons so nominated the Fellows resident in New Zea- land shall select twice as many persons as there are vacancies, if so many be nominated.
(c.) The names of the nominees shall be submitted to the Fellows at least six months, and the names selected by them submitted to the Governors at least three months, before the date fixed for the annual meeting of the Board of Governors at which the election is to take place.
{(l.) The election shall be made by the Board of Governors at the annual meeting from the persons selected by the Fellows.
(e.) The methods of selection in subclause (b) and of election in sub- clause (d) shall be determined by the Board of Governors.
(/.) The official abbreviation of the title " Fellow of the New Zealand Institute " shall be " F.N.Z.Inst."
Amendment to Regulations.
Regulation 5 (a) of the regulations published in the New Zealand Gazette of the 14th July, 1904, is hereby amended to read : —
" (a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of —
" (1.) Such current abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute as the Board of Governors deems desirable ;
" (2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the incorporated societies or any general meeting of the New Zealand Institute (subject, however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of Governors shall from time to time for special reasons in each case determine to publish, to be intituled Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."
Hutton Memorial Fund. > 507
THE HUTTON MEMORIAL MEDAL AND RESEARCH FUND.
Declaration of Trust.
This deed, made the fifteenth day of February, one thousand nine hundred and nine (1909), between the New Zealand Institute of the one part, and. the Pubhc Trustee of the other part : Whereas the New Zealand Institute is possessed of a fund consisting now of the sum of five hundred and fifty- five pounds one shilling (£555 Is.), held for the purposes of the Hutton Memorial Medal and Research Fund on the terms of the rules and regu- lations made by the Governors of the said Institute, a copy whereof is hereto annexed : And whereas the said money has been transferred to the Public Trustee for the purposes of investment, and the Public Trustee now holds the same for such purposes, and it is expedient to declare the trusts upon which the same is held by the Public Trustee :
Now this deed witnesseth that the Public Trustee shall hold the said moneys and all other moneys which shall be handed to him by the said Governors for the same purposes upon trust from time to time to invest the same upon such securities as are lawful for the Public Trustee to invest on, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the purposes set out in the said rules hereto attached.
And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee to pay all or any of the said moneys, both principal and interest, to the Treasurer of the said New Zealand Institute upon being directed so to do by a resolution of the Governors of the said Institute, and a letter signed by the Secretary of the said Institute enclosing a copy of such resolution certified by him and by the President as correct shall be sufficient evidence to the Public Trustee of the due passing of such resolution : And upon receipt of such letter and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the Public Trustee : And in no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to inquire into the administration of the said moneys by the Governors of the said Institute.
As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year hereinbefore written.
Resolutions of Board of Governors.
Resolved by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute that —
1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the committee of subscribers to the Hutton Memorial Fund be called " The Hutton Memorial Research Fund," in memory of the late Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys sub- scribed and granted for the purpose of the Hutton Memorial, and all other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose.
2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Governors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.
3. A sum not exceeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronze medal to be known as " The Hutton Memorial Medal."
508 Appendix.
4. The fund, or sucli part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid, shall be invested in such securities as aforesaid as may be approved of by the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund.
5. The Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded from time to time by the Board of Governors, in accordance vpith these regulations, to persons who have made some noticeable contribution in connection with the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.
6. The Board shall make regulations setting out the manner in which the funds shall be administered. Such regulations shall conform to the terms of the trust.
7. The Board of Governors may, in the manner prescribed in the regulations, make grants from cime to time from the accrued interest to persons or committees who require assistance in prosecuting researches in the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.
8. There shall be published annually in the "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute" the regulations adopted by the Board as afore- said, a list of the recipients of the Hutton Memorial Medal, a list of the persons to whom grants have been made during the previous year, and also, where possible, an abstract of researches made by them.
Eegulations undee which the Hutton Memoeial Medal shall be
AWAEDED AND THE EeSEAECH PuND ADMINISTEEED.
1. Unless in exceptional circumstances, the Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded not oftener than once in every three years ; and in no case shall any medal be awarded unless, in the opinion of the Board, some contribution really deserving of the honour has been made.
2. The medal shall not be awarded for any research published previous to the 31st December, 1906.
3. The research for which the medal is awarded must have a distinct bearing on New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology.
4. The medal shall be awarded only to those who have received the greater part of their education in New Zealand or who have resided in New Zealand for not less than ten years.
5. Whenever possible, the< medal shall be presented in son«e public manner.
6. The Board of Governors may, at an annual meeting, make grants from the accrued interest of the fund to any person, society, or commit- tee for the encouragement of research in New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology.
7. Applications for such grants shall be made to the Board before the 30th September.
8. In making such grants the Board of Governors shall give preference to such persons as are defined in regulation 4.
9. The recipients of such grants shall report to the Board before the 31st December in the year following, showing in a general way how the grant has been expended and what progress has been made with the research.
10. The results of researches aided by grants from the fund shall, where possible, be published in New Zealand.
11. The Board of Governors mav from time to time amend or alter the regulations, such amendments or alterations being in all cases in con- formity with resolutions 1 to 4.
Hutton Memorial Fund. 509
Award of the Hutton Memorial Medal.
1911. Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.K.S., University of Otago— For researches in New Zealand zoology.
1914. Dr. L. Cockayne, F.L.S., F.E.S. — For researches on the ecology of New Zealand plants.
1917. Professor P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc. — For researches in New Zealand geology.
1920. Eev. John E. Holloway, D.Sc. — For researches in New Zealand pteridophytic botany.
Grant from the Hutton Memorial Eesearch Fund.
1919. Miss M. K. Mestayer— £10, for work on the New Zealand Mollusca.
HECTOR MEMORIAL RESEARCH FUND.
Declaration of Trust.
This deed, made the thirty-first day of July, one thousand nine hundred and fourteen, between the New Zealand Institute, a body corporate duly incorporated by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, of the one part, and the Public Trustee of the other part : Whereas by a declara- tion of trust dated the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand nine hundred and twelve, after reciting that the New Zealand Institute was possessed of a fund consisting of the sum of £1,045 10s. 2d., held for the purposes of the Hector Memorial Research Fund on the terms of the rules and regulations therein mentioned, which said moneys had been handed to the Public Trustee for investment, it was declared (intier alia) that the Public Trustee should hold the said moneys and all other moneys which should be handed to him by the said Governors of the Institute for the same purpose upon trust from time to time, to invest the same in the comn:4on fund of the Public Trust Office, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the purposes set out in the said rules and regula- tions in the said deed set forth : And whereas the said rules and regu- lations have been amended by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute, and as amended are hereinafter set forth : And whereas it is expedient to declare that the said moneys are held by the Public Trustee upon the trusts declared by the said deed of trust and for the purposes set forth in the said rules and regulations as amended as aforesaid :
And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee shall hold the said moneys and all other moneys which shall be handed to him by the said Governors for the same purpose upon trust from time to time to invest the same in the common fund of the Public Tru-st Office, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the pur- poses set out in the said rules and regulations hereinafter set forth :
And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee to pay, and he shall pay, all or any of the said moneys, both principal and interest, to the Treasurer of the said New Zealand Insti- tute upon being directed to do so by a resolution of the Governors of the said Institute, and a letter signed by the Secretary of the said Insti- tute enclosing a copy of such resolution certified by him and by the President as correct shall be sufficient evidence to the Public Trustee of the due passing or such resolution : And upon receipt of such letter and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said
,510 Appendix.
Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the Public Trustee : And in no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to inquire into the adminis- tration of the said moneys by the Governors of the said Institute.
As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year first hereinbefore written,
ICules and Regulations made by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute in relation to the Hector Memorial Research Fund.
1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington Hector Memorial Committee be called " The Hector Memorial Reseaich Fund," in memory of the late Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. ITie object of such fund shall be the encouragement of scientific research in New Zealand, and such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed and granted for the purpose of the memorial and all other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose.
2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Go- vernors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.
3. A sum not exceeding one hundred pounds (£100) shall be expended in procuring a bronze medal, to be known as the Hector Memorial Medal.
' 4. The fund, or such jDart thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid, shall be invested in such securities as may be approved by the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund by providing thereout a j)rize for the encouragement of such scientific research in New Zealand of such amount as the Board of Governors shall from time to time determine.
5. The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize shall be awarded annually by the Board of Governors.
6. The prize and medal shall be awarded by rotation for the follow- ing subjects, namely: — (1) Botany, (2) chemistry, (3) ethnology, (4) geo- logy, (5) physics (including mathematics and astronomy), (6) zoology (including animal physiology). . ♦
In each year the medal and prize shall be awarded to that investi- gator who, working within the Dominion of New Zealand, shall in the opinion of the Board of Governors have done most towards the advance- ment of that branch of science to which the medal and prize are in such year allotted.
7. Whenever possible the medal shall be presented in some public manner.
Award of the Hector Memorial Research Fund.
1912. L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S.— For researches in New
Zealand botanv.
1913. T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D. — For researches in chemistry.
1914. Elsdon Best — For researches in New Zealand ethnology.
1915. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.— For researches in New
Zealand geology.
1916. Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. — For researches in physics.
1917. Charles Chilton, M. A. ,D.Sc.,F.L.S.,C.M.Z.S.— For researches
in zoology.
1918. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S.— For researches in New
Zealand systematic botany.
1919. P. W. Robertson — For reseai-ches in chemistry.
1920. S. Percy Smith — For researches in New Zealand ethnology.
Regulations for Government Research Grant. 511
REGULATIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE GOVERNMENT
RESEARCH GRANT. ^
All grants shall be subject to the following conditions, and each grantee shall be duly informed of these conditions ; —
1. All instruments, specimens, objects, or materials of permanent value, whether purchased or obtained out of or by means of the grant,. or supplied from among those at the disposal of the Institute, are to be regarded, unless the Research Gi'ants Committee decide otherwise, as the property of the Institute, and are to be returned by the grantee, for disposal according to the orders of the committee, at the conclusion of his research, or at such other time as the committee may determine.
2. Everv one receiving a grant shall furnish to the Research Grants Committee, on or before the 1st January following upon the allotment of the grant, a report (or, if the object of the grant be not attained, an in- terim report, to be renewed at the same date in each subsequent year until a final report can be furnished or the committee dispense with further reports) containing (a) a brief statement showing the results arrived at or the stage which the inquiry has reached ; [h) a general statement of the expenditure incurred, accompanied, as far as is possible, with vouchers ; (c) a list of the instruments, specimens, objects, or materials purchased or obtained out of the grant, or supplied by the committee, which are at present in his possession ; and {d) references to any transactions, journals, or other publications in which results of the research have been printed. In the event of the grantee failing to send in within three months of the said 1st January a report satisfactory to the committee he may be required, on resolution of the Board of Governors, to return the whole of the sum allotted to him.
3. Where a grant is made to two or more persons acting as a committee for the purpose of carrying out some research, one member of the said committee shall assume the responsibility of furnishing the report and receiving and disbursing the money.
4. Papers in which results are published that have been obtained through aid furnished by the Government grant should contain an acknow- ledgment of that fact.
5. Every grantee shall, before any of the grant is paid to him, be required to sign an engagement that he is prepared to carry out the general conditions applicable to all grants, as well as any conditions which may be attached to his particular grant.
6. In cases where specimens or preparations of permanent value are obtained through a grant the committee shall, as far as possible, direct that such specimens shall be deposited in a museum or University college within the province where the specimens or material were obtained, or in which the grantee has worked. The acknowledgment of the receipt of the speci- mens by such institution shall fully satisfy the claims of the Institute.
7. In cases where, after completion of a research, the committee directs that any instrument or apparatus obtained by means of the grant shall be deposited in an institution of higher learning, such deposit shall be subject to an annual report from the institution in question as to the condition of the instrument or apparatus, and as to the use that has been made of it,
* In addition to these regulations the Standing Committee is also bound by certain resolutions which appear on page 536 of volume 49, Trans. N.Z. Inst., and which grantees are also bound to observe.
512 Appendix.
Research Grants from Vote (£2,000) during Year ending 31st March,
1920.
Through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : —
Mr. Guy Brittin, £100 for research in fruit-tree diseases.
Professor C. Coleridge Farr, £100 and £30 for experiments on the
porosity of insulators. Mr. W. G. Morrison, £70 to £100 for research in the natural regeneration
of exotic and indigenous forest-trees in connection with natural
afforestation of high country. Mr. R. Speight, £225 for a geological survey of Malvern Hills. Professor W. P. Evans, £200 for research on New Zealand brown coals.
Through the OtagQ Institute : — ■
Professor J. Malcolm, £250 and £25 for a research on New Zealand fishes. Mr. G. S. Thomson and the Hon. G. M. Thomson, £50 for a research
into the economic value of whale-feed. Mr. W. G. Howes, £30 for research work on Neuroptera.
Through the Auckland Institute : —
Messrs. Lancaster and Cornes, £50 for forestry research.
Through the Wellington Philosophical Society ": — Dr. C. E. Adams, £35 for astronomical research. Dr. C. E. Adams, £150 for research in connection with astronomical
sites. Professor T. H. Easterfield, £250 for investigation on mineral oils, waxes,
and resins. Dr. J. Allan Thomson, £100 for a research into the chemical characters
of igneous rocks. Professor E. Marsden, £125 for research on the disintegration efiect of
a particles on matter, and £60 for research on gas and electricity
for domestic purposes.
THE CARTER BEQUEST.
For extracts from the wiU of Charles Rooking Carter see vol. 48, 1916, pp. 565-66.
513
NEW ZE Land institute
,A"
ESTABLISHED UNDEB AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OP NEW ZEALAND INTITULED THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867; RECONSTITUTED BY AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND UNDEB THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903, AND CONTINUED BY THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.
Auckland Institute
BOARD OF GOVERNORS. EX OFFICIO.
His Excellency the Governor-General. The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs.
NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT.
Mr. Charles A. Ewen (reappointed December, 1918) ; Dr. J. Allan Thom- son, F.G.S., F.N. Z.Inst, (reappointed December, 1919); Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S., F.N. Z.Inst, (reappointed December, 1919) ; Dr. Charles Chilton, F.L.S'., C.M.Z.S., F.N.Z.Inst. (reappointed December, 1918).
N ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES (DECEMBER, 1919).
^Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A.-,
Wellington Philosophical Institute ... jp^ofe^gsor^T' H. Easterfield,
I M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst. ^Professor H. W. Segar, M.A.,
Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst. Professor A. P. W. Thomas,
M.A., F.N.Z.Inst.
■DUM u- 1 T ^-i ^ t n i. -u (Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury... |^^._ ^ ^^ Wright, F.C.S.
(Hon. G. M. Thomson, F.C.S. , Otago Institute ..'. ... ... \ F.L.S. , F.N.Z.Inst., M.L.C.
(Professor J. Malcolm, M.D. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute ... Mr. H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. Nelson Institute ... ... ... Dr.L. Cockayne, F.L.S., F.E.S.,
F.N.Z.Inst. Manawatu Philosophical Society ... Mr. M. A. Eliott.
Wanganui Philosophical Society ... Dr. P. Marshall, M.A., F.G.S. ,
F.N.Z.Inst. Poverty Bay Institute ... ... Ven. Archdeacon H. W.
WilHams, M.A.
OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1920.
President: Professor T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst.
Hon. Treasurer: Mr. C. A. Ewen.
Hon. Editor : Mr. Johannes C. Andersen.
Hon. Librarian : Dr. J. Allan Thomson, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst.
Hon. Secretary: Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C, F.C.S., F.N.Z.Inst. (Box 40, Post-of&ce, Wellington).
17— Trans.
514
Appendix.
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.
Name of Society.
Secretary's Name a- ^ Vddress.
^rbu
Date of Affiliation.
Wellington Philosophical
Society Auckland Institute
Philosophical Institute of
Canterbury Otago Institute
Hawke's Bay Philosophical
Institute Nelson Institute . .
Manawatu Philosophical
Society Wang an ui Philosophical
Society Poverty Bay Institute. .
C. G. G. Berry, Railway Build- ings, Wellington
T. P. Cheeseman, Museum, Auck- land
William Martin, 51 Matai Street, Riccarton, Christchurch
Professor W. N. Benson, Univer- sity, Dunedin
C. F. H. Pollock, P.O. Box 166, Napier
E. L. Morley, Waimea Street, Nelson
K. Wilson, 92 Rangitikei Street, Palmerston North
C. R. Ford, College Street, Wa- nganui
John Mouat, Adams Chambers, Gladstone Road, Gisborne
10th June, 1868. 10th June, 1868. 22nd October, 1868. 18th October, 1869. 31st March, 1875. 20th December, 1883. 6th January, 1905. 2nd December, 1911. 1st February, 1919.
FOEMEE HONOEAEY MEMBEES.
Agassiz, Professor Louis. Drury, Captain Byron, R.N. Finsoh, Professor Otto, Ph.D. Flower, Professor W. H., P.R.S. Hochstetter, Dr. Ferdinand von.
Darwin, Charles, M.A,, F.R.S. Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Grey, Sir George, K.C.B.
Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S.
1870.
Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D.,
F.R.S., O.M. Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.S.,
C.M.G. Owen, Professor Richard, F.R.S. Richards, Rear-Admiral G. H.
1871.
Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1872.
I Stokes, Vice-Admiral J. L.
1873.
Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G.C.M.G. Giinther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Pickard-Cambridge, Rev. 0., M. A., F.R.S., C.M.Z.S. -
McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S. Newton, Alfred, F.R.S.
Pilhol, Dr. H.
RoUeston, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S.
Berggren, Dr. S.
Clarke, Rev. W. B., M.A., P.R.S.
1874.
Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S.
1875.
I Sclater, P. L., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
1876.
I Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S.
Former Honorary Members. 515
1877. Baird, Professor Spencer P. | Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G.
1878.
Garrod, Professor A. H., F.R.S. I Tenison-Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S.
Miiller, Professor Max, F.R.S. |
1880. The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G. C.M.G.
Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S. Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.
Gray, Professor Asa.
Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., F.R.S.
Beneden, Professor J. P. van. Ettingshausen, Baron von.
1883.
Thomson, Sir William, F.R.S.
1885.
Wallace, Sir A. R., F.R.S., O.M.
1888.
McCoy, Professor Sir F., K.O.M.G., D.Sc, F.R.S.
1890. Riley, Professor C. V. ^ i p >«^
1891. /CS^nO"* ^'o^^\
Davis, J. W., F.G.S., F.L.S. /->> ^ '^•-«b> ^-(\ <^^
/^; ■ \Oi
1895. Lj LIBRARY 130
Mitten, William, F.R.S. \^\ "^•'^ / 7
• 1896. '^^>^«^^><
Langley, S. P. | Lydekker, Richard, F.R.S. \^ |f^ )v^
1900.
Agardh, Dr. J. G. I Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.'
Avebury, Lord, P.O., F.R.S. |
1901. * Eve, H. W., M.A. . | HoWes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S.
1906. Milne, J., F.R.S.
1909. Darwin, Sir George, F.R.S. .
.1914. Arber, E. A. NeweU, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.L.S.
FORMEE MANAGER AND EDITOR.
[Under the New Zealand Institute Act, 1867.]
1867-1903. Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
17*
516 Appendix.
PAST PEESIDENTS.
1903-4. Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S.
1905-6. Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
1907-8. Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., F.C.S.
1909-10. Hamilton, A.
1911-12. Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S.
1913-14. Chilton, C, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S
1915. Petrie, D., M.A,, Ph.D.
1916-17. Benham, W. B., M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S. , F.R.S.
1918-19. Cockayne, L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst.
HONOEAEY MEMBEES.
1877. Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge.
1890.
LiVEESiDGE, Professor A., M.A., F.R.S., Fieldhead, Coombe Warren, Kingston Hill, England.
NoRDSTEDT, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Uni- versity of Lund, Sweden,
1891. ^
GooDALE, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
1894.
CoDEiNGTON, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadhurst Rectory, Sussex, England.
Thiselton - Dyer, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., Witcombe, Gloucester, England.
1901. GoEBEL, Professor Dr. Carl von, University of Munich.
1902. Sars, Professor G. 0., University of Christiania, Norway.
1903. Klotz, Professor Otto J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada.
1904.
Rutherford, Professor Sir E., D.Sc, F.R.S. F.N.Z.Inst., Nobel Laureate, Cambridge, England.
David, Professor T. Edgeworth, F.R.S., C.M.G., Sydney University, N.S.W.
Honorary Members. 517
1906.
Beddard, F.E., D.So., P.E.S., Zoological Society, London.
Beady, G. S., D.Sc, F.R.S., University of Durham, England.
1907. Dendy, Dr. A., F.R.S., King's College, Meyrick, E., E.A., F.R.S., Marlborough
University of London, England. DiELS, Professor L., Ph. ., University of Marburg.
College, England. Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S., Tun- bridge Wells, England.
1910. Bruce, Dr. W. S., Edinburgh.
1913.
Davis, Professor W. Morris, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
Hemsley, Dr. W. Botting, F.R.S., Kew Lodge, St. Peter's Road, Broadstairs, Kent, England.
1914.
Balfour, Professor I. Bayley, F.R.S., Royal Botanic Gardens, Ediiiburgh.
Hasvtell, Professor W. A., P.R.S, Mimi" hau, WooUahra Point, Sydney.
1915.
Bateson, Professor W., F.R.S., Merton, Surrey, England.
1916.
Massart, Professor Jean, University of Brussels, Belgium.
1919.
Mellor, Joseph William, D.Sc. (N.Z.), Sandon House, Regent Street, Stoke-on-Trent,
England.
1920.
Fraser, Sir J. G., D.C.L., No. 1 Brick Court, Temple, London. E.C. 4.
Gregory, Professor J. W., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.G.S., University, Glasgow.
Hall, Sir A. D., M.A., K.C.B., F.R.S.,
Ministry of Agriculture, London. Mawson,' Sir Douglas, B.E., D.Sc, The University, Box 498, G.P.O., Adelaide.
Woods, Henry, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., University, Cambridge.
OEIGINAL FELLOWS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
(See New Zealand Gazette, 20th November, 1919.) Aston, Bernard Cracroft, F.I.C., F.C.S. *|Benham, Professor WiiUam Blaxland, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.Z.S.
fBest, Elsdon. *tCheeseman, Thomas Frederick, F.L.S., F.Z.S.
*tChilton, Professor Charles, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., M.B., CM., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. *tiCockayne, Leonard, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
tEasterfield, Professor Thomas Hill. M.A., Ph.D.. F.I.C., F.C.S. Farr, Professor Clinton Coleridae, D.Sc, F.P.S.L., AssocM.Inst.C.E. Hogben, George, C.M.G., M.A.," F.G.S.
Hudson, George Vernon, F.E.S. ■»
Kirk, Professor Harry Borrer, M.A. ttMarshall, Patrick, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.E.S. *Petrie, Donald, M.A., Ph.D.
tRutherford, Sir Ernest, Kt., F.R.S., D.Sc, Ph.D., LL.D. Segar, Professor Hugh William. ]\I.A. Smith, Stephenson Percy, F.R.G.S. Speight, Robert, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S.
Thomas, Professor Algernon Phillips Withiel, M.A., F.L.S. *Thomson, Hon. George Malcolm, F.L.S., M.L.C. Thomson, James Allan, M.A., D.Sc, A.O.S.M., F.G.S.
* Past President. t Hector Medallist. % Hutton Medallist.
518
Appendix.
ORDINARY MEMBERS.
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life members.]
Ackland, E. W., P.O. Box 928, Wellington.
Adams, C. E., D.Sc, A.I.A. (London), F.R.A.S., Hector Observatory, Wellington.
Adkin, G. L., Queen Street, Levin.
Andersen, Johannes C, Turnbull Library, Bowen Street, Wellington.
Anderson, W. J. M.A., LL.D., Education Department, Wellington.
Andrew, R. L., Dominion Laboratory, Wel- lington.
Anson, Miss J. C, Victoria College.
Aston, B. C. F.I.C., F.C.S., F.N.Z.Inst., P.O. Box 40, Wellington.
Atkinson, E. H., Agricultural Department, Wellington.
Bagley, G., care of Young's Chemical Com- pany, 14 Egmont Street, WeUington.
BaiUie, H., Public Library, W^ellington.
Bakewell, F. H., M.A., Education Board, Mercer Street, Wellington.
Baldwin, E. S., 215 Lambton Quay, Wel- lington.
Bell, E. D.. Panama Street, WelUngton.
Bell, Hon. Sir Francis H. D., K.C., M.L.C., Panama Street, WelUngton.
Berry, C. G. G., 35 Bolton Street, Wellington.
Best, Elsdon, F.N.Z.Inst., Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Blair, David K., MJ.Mech.E., 9 Grey Street, Wellington.
Brandon, A. de B., B.A., Featherston Street, WeUington.
Bretherton, A. C, PubUc Trust Office, Wel- lington.
Bridges, G. G., 2 Wesley Road, Wellington.
Brodrick, T. N., Under-Secretary, Lands and Survey Department, Wellington.
Brown, J., Experimental Farm, Weraroa.
Burbidge, P. W., M.Sc, Victoria University College, Wellington.
Burnett, J., M.Inst.C.E., care of M. Burnett, of Richardson, McCabe. and Co., 11 Grey Street, Welhngton.
Burton, Richard F., Longner Hall, Salop, Shrewsbiiry, England. *
Cameron, Dr. R. A., 148 Willis Street, Wel- lington.
Campbell, J., F.R.I.B.A., Government Archi- tect, Public Works Department, Welling- ton.
Carter, W. H., care of Dr. Henry, The Terrace, Wellington.
Chamberlin, T. Chamberlin, Crescent Road, Khandallah.
Chapman, Martin, K.C., Brandon Street, Wellinston.
Chudleigh, E. R., Orongomairoa. Waihou.
Clark, Professor H., Victoria University Col- lege, WeUington.
Clarke, J. T., care of Messrs. Searle, Joy, and Co., 61 Victoria Street, WelUngton.
Cockayne, L., Ph.D., F. L.S., F. R. S., F.N.Z.Inst., Ngaio, WeUington.
Comrie, L. J., M.A., Wapiti Avenue, Epsom, Auckland.
Cotton, C. A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Victoria Univer- sity College, Wellington.
Cowan, J., Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington.
Crawford, A. D., Box 126, G.P.O., WeUington.
Crawford, Miss, Girls' CoUea;e, WeUington.
CuU, J. E. L., B.Sc. in Eng. (Mech.), PubUc Works Department, WelUngton.
Curtis, H. F., 19 May Street, Wellington.
Darling, J., Kelburn.
Davies, V. C, Devon Street, New Plymouth.
Donovan, W., M.Sc, Dominion Laboratory, WeUington.
Dore, A. B., Bacteriological Laboratory, Wellington. " Dougall, Archibald, 9 Claremont Grove, Wel- lington.
Dymock, E. R., F.I.A.N.Z., A.I.A. V., Wood- ward Street, WelUngton.
Eamshaw. W., 4 Watson Street, WeUington.
Easterfield, Professor T. . H., M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst., Victoria University College, WelUngton.
Edwards, W. A., The Grange. 307 WUlis Street, Wellington.
Ewen, Charles A., Heretaunga, Upper Hutt.
Farquhar, Alfred S., M.A., Scots College, Wel- lington.
Ferguson, WilUam, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., M.LMech.E., 131 Coromandel Street, Wel- lington.
Findiay, Sir John G., K.C., LL.D., 197 Lambton Quay, Wellington.
FitzGerald, Gerald, A.M.Inst.C.E., P.O. Box 461, WeUington.
Fletcher, Rev. H. J., The Manse, Taupo.
Fortune, Alfred, Hviia Road, Hataitai.
Fox, Thomas 0., Borough Engineer, Miramar, Wellington.
Freeman, C. J., 95 Webb Street, WelUngton.*
Frengley, Dr., Hatton Street, Karori.
Freyberg, C, Macdonald Crescent, WelUng- ton.
Fulton, J.. 14 North Terrace, Kelburn.
Fulton, W. H. J., 14 North Terrace, Kelburn.
Furkert, F. W., A.M.Inst.C.E., PubUc Works Department, WelUngton.
Roll of Members.
519
Garrow, Professor J. M. E., B.A., LL.B., Victoria University College, Wellington.*
Gavin, W. H., Public Works Department, Wellington.
Gibbs, Dr. H. E., 240 WiUis Street, WelUng- ton.
Gifford, A. C, M.A., F.R.A.S., 6 Shannon Street, Wellington.*
Gilbert, Rev. Father T. A., St. Patrick's College, Wellington.
Goudie, H. A., WTiakarewarewa.
Gray, W., Maurice ville.
Hamilton-, H., A.O.S.M., 58 Bowen Street, Wellington.
Hanify, H. P., 18 Panama Street, Welling- ton.
Hansford, George D., Parliamentary Build- ings, Wellington.
Hastie, Miss J. A., care of Street and Co., 30 Cornhill, London E.C.*
Hector, C. Monro, M.D., B.Sc, F.R.A.S., * 200 Willis Street, Wellington.
Heenan, J. W., Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington,
Helyer, Miss E., 1 3 Tonks Grove, Wellington.
Henderson, J., M.A., D.Sc, B.Sc. in Eng. (Metall.), Geological Survey Department, Wellington.
Hetherington, Miss J,, Training College, Wellington.
Hicks, P. L., Bacteriological Laboratory, Wellington.
Hislop, J., Internal Affairs Department, Wel- lington.
Hodson, W. H., 40 Pirie Street, Wellington.
Hogben, E. N., Boys' High School, Palmerston North.
Hogben, G., C.M.G.,M.A., F.G.S.,F.N.Z.Inst., 32 Crescent Road, KhandaUah.
Holm, Miss A., 31 Patanga Crescent, Welling- ton.
Hoknes, R. W., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-in- Chief, PubUc Works Department, Welling- ton.
Hooper, Captain G. S., Grant Road, North Wellington.
Hooper, R. H., 6 St. John's Street, Wel- lington.
Hudson, G. V., F.E.S., F.N.Z.Inst., View Road, Karori.
Jack,. J. W., 170 Featherston Street, Wel- lington.
Jenkinson, S. H., Railway Department, Wel- lington.
Jobson, Miss Nancy, M.A., Queen Margaret College, Wellington.
Johnston, Hon. G. Randall, care of Martin Chapman, Esq., K.C., Wellington.
Joseph, Josei^h, P.O. Box 443, Wellington.
Kennedy, Rev. Dr. D., F.R.A.S., Green- meadows, Hawke's Bay.
King, G. W., B.E., care of A. H. King, P.O. Box 116, Chi'istchurch.
Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A., F.N.Z.Inst., Victoria Universitj^ College, Wellington."
Kissell, P. T. M., Public Works Department, Wellington.
Knight, C. Prendergast, 126 Bolton Street, Wellington.
La Trobe, W. S., M.A., Technical College, Wellington.
Lawrence, C. A., 53 Aurora Terrace, Wel- lington. V
Levi, P., M.A., care of Wilford and Levi, 15 Stout Street, Wellington.
Lomas, E. K., M.A., M.Sc, Training College, Wellington.
Lomax, Major H. A., Araruhe, Aramoho, Wanganui.
Longhurst, W. T. A., Scots College, Welling- ton.
Luke. John P., C.M.G., M.P,, Hiropi Street, Wellington. I McArthur, Captain Charles, KhandaUah.
McCabe, Ultan F., care of Richardson and McCabe, 11 Grey Street, Wellington.
McDonald, J., Dominion Museum, Welling- ton.
McKenzie, Donald, care of Mrs. Elizabeth McKenzie, Marton.
MacJaurin, J. S., D.Sc, F.C.S., Dominion Laboratory, Wellington.
MacLean, F. W., M.Inst.C.E., Chief Engineer, Head Office, Railway Department, Wel- lington.
McSherry, Harry, Box 49, Pahiatua.
Marchbanks, J., M.Inst.C.E., Harbour Board, Wellington.
Marsden, Professor E., D.Sc, Victoria Uni- versity College. Wellington.
Mason, J. Malcolm, M.D., F.C.S., D.P.H., Lower Hutt.
Maxwell, E., Marumarunui, Opunakft.
Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E., 145 Dixon Street, Wellington.
Mestayer, R. L., M.Inst.C.E., 139 Sydney Street, Wellington.
Millar, H. M., Public Works Department, Wellington.
Mills, Leonard, New Parliamentary Buildings, Wellington.
Moore, G., Epa.raima, via Masterton.
Moore, W. Lancelot, care of H. D. Cook, Bank Chambers, Lambton Quaj% Welling- ton.
MoorhousCj W. H. Sefton, 134 Dixon Street, WeUington.
Morgan, P. G., M.A., F.G.S.. Director of Geo- logical Survey, Routh's Buildings, Welling- ton. ,
Morice, Dr. C. G., 21 , Portland Crescent, Wellington.
Morice, J. M., B.Sc, Town Hall, Welling- ton.
Morison, C. B., Stout Street, Wellington.
Morrison, J. C, P.O. Box 8, Eltham.
Morton, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., City Engineer, Wellington.
Murphy, B. E., M. A., B.Com:, LL.B., Victoria College, Wellington.
520
Appendix.
Myers, Miss P., B.A., 26 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington.
Neill, W. T., Lands and Survey Department, Government Buildings, Wellington.
Newman, A. K., M.B., M.R.O.P., M.P., 56 Hobson Street, Wellington.
Nicol, John, 57 Cuba Street, Wellington.
Norris, E. T., M.A., Registrar, University of Xew Zealand, Wellington.
Ongley, M., M.A., Geological Survey Depart- ment, Wellington.
Orchiston, J., M.I.E.E., 16 Rimu Road, Kel- burn.
Orr, Robert, Heke Street, Lower Hutt, Wel- lington.
Owen, A. C, Public Works Departmisnt, Wellington.
Parr, E. J., Education Department, Wel- lington.
Parry, Evan, B.Sc, M.I.E.E., A.M.List.C.E., • Electrical Engineer, Public Works Depart- ment, Wellington.
Paterson, A. J., City Engineer's Office, Town Hall, Wellington.
Patterson, Hugh, Assistant Engineer, Public Works Office, Ngatapa.
Pearce, Arthur E., care of Levin and Co. (Limited), Wellington.
Pearson, G. A., New Zealand Railways, Wel- lington.
PhiUipps, W. J., Dominion Museum, Welling- ton.
Philbps, Coleman, Carterton.*
Phipson, P. B., F.C.S., care" of J. Staples and Co. (Limited), Wellington.
Pierard, A. C, Bacteriological Laboratory, Wellington.
Pigott, Miss Ellen, M.A., Victoria University College, Wellington.
Pomare, Hon. Dr. M., M.P., Wellington.
Porteous, J. S., 9 Brandon Street, Wellington.
Porter, Colonel T. W., C.B., 12 Austin Street, Wellington.
Powles, C. P., 219 Lambton Quay, Wellington.
Reakes, C. J., D.V.Sc, M.R.C.V.S., Agricul- tural Department, Wellington.
Reid, W. S., 189 The Terrace, Wellington.
Richardson, C. E., P.O. Box 863 (11 Grey Street), Wellington.
Rona^Tie, R. H. P., 50 Tinakori Road, Wel- lington.
Roy, R. B., Taita, Wellington.*
Salmond, J. W., K.C., M.A., LL.B., Crown Law Office. Wellington. '
Shields, IMiss C, Girls' College, Wellington.
Short, W. S., Under-Secretary, Public AVorks Department, Wellington.
Shrimpton, E. A., Telegraph Department, Wellington.
Sladden, H., Lower Hutt, Wellington. Smith, M. Crompton, Lands and Survey De- partment, Wellington. Sommerville, Professor D. M. Y., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Victoria University College, Wel- lington. Spencer, W. E., M.A., M.Sc, Education De- partment, Wellington. Stout, T. Duncan M., M.B., M.S., F.R.C.S.,
164 Willis Street, Wellington. Strachan, J. R., Land Transfer Office, Wel- lington. Sunley, R. M., View Road, Karori. Tennant, J. S., M.A., B.Sc, Training College,
Wellington. Thomas, J., South Wellington School. Thompson, R. D., M.A., Victoria University
College, Wellington. Thomson, J. AUan, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., Dominion Museum, Wellington. Thomson, John, B.E., M.Inst.C.E., 17 Dork- ing Road. Brooklyn, Wellington. Thomson, R. G., 11 Austin Street, Wellington. Thomson, R. W., P.O. Box 366, Wellmgton. Thomson, W. M., M.A., M.B., Ch.B., Hawera. Tily, H. S., B.Sc, H.M. Customs, Wellington. Tolley, H. R., 34 Wright Street, Wellington. Tombs, H. H., Burnell Avenue, Wellington. Toogood, H. F., 11 Grey Street, Wellington. Treadwell, C. H., 4 Panama Street, Wellington. Turner, E. Phillips, F.R.G.S., Lands and Sur- vey Department, Wellington. Uttley, G., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Scots CoUege,
Wellington. Vickerman, H., M.Sc, A.M.Inst.C.E., Public
Works Diepartment, Wellington. Vosseller, F. W., Baker's Buildings, Feather-
ston Street, Wellington. Waterworth, A., 286 Lambton Quay, Wel- lington. Westland, C. J., F.R.A.S., Hector Observa- tory, Wellington. Widdop, F. C, District Railway Engineer,
Thorndon Office, Wellington. Wilmot, E. H.. Surveyor-General, Wellington. Wilson, Charles, Parliament Library, Wel- lington. Wilson, F. P., M.A., Victoria College, WelUng-
ton Wilson, Sir James G., Bull's. Woodward, Mathew F., B.A., Scots College,
Wellington. Wyles, G. W., Assistant Signal Engineer,
Railways, Wellington. Wynne, H. J., Railway Department, Welling- ton. Young, J. S., Railways, Wellington.
Roll of Members.
521
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. [* Honorary and life members.]
Abbott, R. H., City Chambers, Queen Street,
Auckland. Abel, R. S., care of Abel, Dykes, and Co.,
Shortland Street, Auckland. Adlington, Miss, Aratonga Avenue, Epsom. Aickin, G., Carlton Gore Road, Auckland. Alexander, J., Shortland Street, Aucklantl. Alexander, L. W., 1a Victoria Buildings,
Auckland. Algie, R. M., M.A., University College, Auck- land. Alison, A., Devonport Ferry Company, Auck- land. Alison, Hon. E. W., M.L.C., Devonport
Ferry Company, Auckland. Alison," E. W., jun.. Bank of New Zealand
Chambers, Swanson Street, Auckland. Alison, Ernest, Takapuna. Allen, John, Cheltenham Avenue, Devonpoit. AUum, John, National Electrical and Engineer- ing Company, Wellesley Street, Auckland. - Ambury, S. «!., Greenwood's Corner, One- hunga. Anderson, E., Rernuera Road, Remuera. Andrews, F. N., care of Andrews and Clark,
Queen Street, Auckland. ^ Ardern, P. S., M.A., Remuera. Arey, W. E., Victoria Arcade, Auckland. Arnutage, F. L., Gleeson's Buildings, High
Street. Arnold, C, Swanson Street, Auckland. Arnoldson, L., Quay Street, Auckland. Arthur, T. B., Elliott Street, Auckland. Atkinson, H., Grafton Road, Auckland. Bagnall, H. N., Mason's Avenue, Ponsonby. Baker, C C, Ewington and Baker, Durham
Street East, Auckland. Baker, G. H., Commerce Street, Auckland. Ball. W.'T., Sylvan Avenue. Mount Eden. Bamford, H. D., LL.D., New Zealand Insur- ance Buildings, Auckland. Bankart, A. S., Strand Arcade, Queen Street,
Auckland. Bankart, F. J., Shortland Street, Auckland. Barr, J., Public Library, Wellesley Street,
Auckland. Ban, J. M., Auckland Savings-bank, Auckland. Barry, S., Queen Street, Auckland. Bartlett, W. H., Queen Street, Auckland. Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc, University College,
Auckland. Bates, T. L., Alfred Street, Waratah, New- castle, New South Wales.* Beattie, Dr. R. M , Mental Hospital, Avondale. Bell, R. W., Waihi.
Bickworth, J. H., P.O. Box 1018, Auckland. Binney, E. H., care of Binney and Sous, Furt
Street, Auckiaid. Birch, F. W., Highwic Avenue, Epsom. Biss, N. L. H., Sliortland Street, Auckland. Blomfield, E. C.i, Parr and Blomfield, Short- land Street, Avickland.
Bloomfield, G. R., "The Pines," Epsom.* Bloomfield, H. R., St. Stephen's Avenue,
Parnell.* Bloomfield, J. L. N. R., St. Stephen's Avenue,
Parnell. Bodle, F., N.Z. Loan and Mercantile Com- pany, Albert Street, Auckland. Bradley, Samuel, Onehunga. Braduey, H., Queen Street Wharf, Auckland. Brett, H., Star Office, Shortland Street,
Auckland. Briffault, R., M.D., New Zealand Expedition- ary Force. Brown, Professor F. D., Remuera. Brown, E. A., Cleave's Buildings, High Street,
Auckland. Briice, W. W., Williamson Chambers, Short- land Street, Auckland. Buchanan, A., Legal Chambers, Wyndham
Street, Auckland.* Buddie, C, Wyndham Street, Auckland. Buddie, H. D., Victoria Avenue, Remuera. Burns, R... Customs Street, Auckland. Burt, A., care of A. T. Burt and Co., Customs
Street, Auckland. Bush, W. E., City Engineer, Auckland. Butler, J., Kauri Timber Company, Customs
Street, Auckland. Butler, Miss, Girls' Grammar School, Auckland. Buttle, B., Kaiapoi Woollen Company,
Elliott Street, Auckland. Buttle, G. A., Victoria Arcade, Auckland. Buttle, J., New Zealand Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland. Cadman, F. P., care of Holland, GiUett, and
Co., Customs Street, Auckland. Caldwell, D. R., Cambridge. Campbell, J. P., care of Russell, Campbell, and
McVeagh, High Street, Auckland. Carlaw, J., 226 Symonds Street, Auckland. Carpenter, J. M., Newmarket. Carr, E. J., care of Carr and Haslam, Gladstone
Chambers, Quay Street, Auckland. Carse, H., Kaiaka, Mangonui. Carter, C. M., Lake Town, Takapuna. Carter, M., Smeeton's Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland. Casey, W., Hamilton Road, Ponsonby. Caughey, A. C, care of Smith and Caughey,
Queen Street, Auckland. Caughey, J. Marsden, care of Smith and
Caughey, Queen Street, Auckland. Chambers, S. G., 106 Victoria Arcade, Queen
Street, Auckland. Chatfield, Dr. H. A., Victoria Street East,
Auckland. Cheal, P. E., Cameron Road, Remuera. Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.N.Z.Inst.,
Museimi, Auckland. Choyce, H. C, Remuera Road, Remuera. Clark, A., Wellesley Street, Auckland. Clark, H. C, Wellesley Street, Auckland.
522
Appendix.
Clark, M., Wellesley Street, Auckland. Clark, E. G., care of Robertson Bros., Quay
Street. Auckland. Clarke, S. I., Wynyard Street, Auckland. Clay, T. B., care of S. Vaile and Sons, Queen ' Street. Auckland. '
Clayton,' C. Z., Ellerslie. Clayton, D. L., Kauri Timber Company,
Customs Street. Auckland. Cleave, A., High Street, Auckland. Clinch, J. A., Ph.D., Training College, Auck- land. Coates, T., Orakei.
Coe. James. Mount Eden Road, Auckland. Colbeck, W. B., New Zealand Insurance
Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland. Cole, Rev. R. H., Gladstone Road, Parnell. Cole, W., Mount Eden Road, Auckland. Coleman, J. W., Lower Queen Street, Auck- land. Colwill, J. H., Swanson Street, Auckland. Coomljes, F. H., Victoria Avenue, Remuera. Cooper, Mr. Justice, Supreme Court, Auckland. Cooper, A. N., care of Russell, Campbell, and
McVeagh, High Street, Auckland. Copeland. M., 97 College Hill. Auckland. Cory-Wright, S., B.Sc, New Zealand Expedi-
tionarj^ Force. Court, G., Karangahape Road, Aiickland. Court, J., Hamilton Road, Auckland. Court, J. W., care of J. Court (Limited),
Queen Street, Auckland. Cousins. H. G., Normal School, Wellesley
Street, Auckland. Craig, J. C, care of J. J. Craig (Limited),
Queen Street, Auckland. Crompton, W. J., 3 Mount Pleasant Road,
Momit Eden. Crook, John, 10 Prospect Terrace, Mount Eden. Cuff, J. C, Emerald Hill, Epsom. Culling, T. S., Ferry Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland. Culpan, W., care of Hesketh and Richmond,
Wyndham Street, Auckland. Davis, Elliot R., care of Hancock and Co.,
Customs Street, Auckland. Davis, Ernest, care of Hancock and Co.,
Custopis Street, Auckland. Dearsly, H.. P.O. Box 4B6. Auckland. De Guerrier, F. E., Tramway Company,
Auckland. Dempsey, J., Newmarket., Dennin, John, care of Hon. E. Mitchelson,
Waimaiiku. Dettmann, Professor H. S.. University College,
Ai^okland. Devereux, H. B., Howick. Donald, A. W., care of A. B. Donald, Queen
Street, Auckland. Donald, J. B., care of A. B. Donald, Queen
Street, Auckland. Downard, F. N. R., "The Cadton," Cam- bridge. Duder, R. W., Devonport. Duncan. A.. Railway Office, Auckland. Dunnmg, James, Lucerne Road, Remuera.
Duthie, D. W., National Bank of New Zealand, Wellington.
Eady, A., Queen Street, Auckland.
Earl, F., K.C., Swanson Street, Auckland.
Edgerley, Miss K., Girls' Grammar School, Auckland.
Edmiston, H. J., care of Champtaloup and Edmiston, Queen Street, Auckland.
Edson, J., Waimarama, Tudor Street, Devon- port.
Egerton, Professor C. W., University College, Auckland.
Ellingham, W. R., Customs Street, Auckland.
Elliot, G., Bank of New Zealand Buildings, Swanson Street, Auckland.
Elliot, W., Bank of New Zealand Buildings, Swanson Street, Auckland.
Ellis, A. F., Argyle Street, Ponsonby.
Ellison, T., Ellison's Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.
Endean, J., jun., Waitemata Hotel, Auckland.
Entrican, A. J., Customs Street, Auckland.
Entrican, A. R., University College, Auckland.
Entrican. J. C, Customs Street, Auckland.
Evans, E. W., care of Brown, Barrett, and Co., Customs Street, Auckland. |
Ewen, J. F., care of Sargood, Son, and Ewen (Limited), Victoria Street West, Auckland.
Fairclough, Dr. W. A., Imperial Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland. -
Fallon. W.. Union Buildings, Customs Street, Auckland.
Farrell, R., Anglesea Street, Auckland.
Fenwick, Dr. G., New Zealand Expeditionary Force.
Fenwick, R., care of T. and S. Morrin, Auck- land.
Ferguson, A. M., care of John Burns and Co. (Limited), Customs Street, Auckland.
Fisher, F. S., Birkdale.
Fleming, G. H., Remuera Road, Remuera.
Fleming, J., 142 Grafton Road, Auckland.
Florance, R. S., Stipendiary Magistrate, Gis- borne.
Fowlds, Hon. G., Queen Street, Auckland.*
Fowlds, G., jun.. Queen Street, Auckland.
Frater, J. W., Stock Exchange, Auckland.
Frater, Captain W., Manukau Road. Parnell.
Furness, C. H., Customs Street East, Auck- land.
Garhck, G. C, Tonson GarUck (Limited), Queen Street, Auckland.
Garrard, C. W., M.A., Education Offices, Auck- land.
George, G,, Technical College, Wellesley Street, Auckland.
George, Hon. S. T., St. Stephen's Avenue, Parnell. '
Gerard, E., Union Buildings, Customs Street, Auckland.
Gibson, Noel, Dilworth Institute, Remuera.
GilfiUan, H,, St. Stephen's Avenue, PameU.
Gillett, J., care of Holland and GiUett, Customs Street, Auckland.
GilUes, A. W., Glenalvon, Waterloo Quadrant, Auckland.
Roll of Members.
523
Girdler, Dr., Khyber Pass Road, Auckland.
Gleeson, J. C, High Street, Auckland.
Goldie, A., Wallace Street, Ponsonby.
Goldie, D., Imperial Buildings, Auckland.
Goldie, H., Imj^erial Buildings, Auckland.
Gordon, Dr. F. W., Hillsborough.
Gorrie, H. T., care of Buckland and Sons, Albert Street, Auckland.
Graliam, A. G., care of Briscoe and Co., Customs Street, Auckland.
Graham, G., P.O. Box 166, Auckland.
Grant, Miss J., M.A., Devonport.
Gray, A., Smeeton's Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.*
Gray, S., Mount Eden Borough Council Offices, Mount Eden.
Gribbin, G., Imperial Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.
Griffin, L. T., Museum, Auckland.
Grossmann, Professor J. P., University College, Auckland.
Gulliver, T. V., 503 New Zealand Insurance Buildings, Auckland.
Gunson, J. H., Mayor of Auckland, Church Road, Epsom.
Gmison, R. W., Clifton Road, Takapuna.
Haddow, J. G., Wyndham Street, Auckland.
Haines, H., F.R.C.S., Shortland Street, Auck- land.
Hall, Edwin, SeacUff Road, Onehunga.
Hamer, W. H., C.E., Harbour Board Offices, Auckland.
Hansard, G. H.. Sanford's Buildings, Customs Street, Auckland.
Harbutt, S. J., Selwyn Road, Epsom.
Hardie, J. C, care of Hardie Bros., Queen Street, Auckland.
Harding, E., Dargaville.
Hardley, J. W., Customs Street, Auckland.
Harris, Louis, Huntly.
Harvey, A., Lower Albert Street, Auckland.
Hay, 1). A., MontpelHer Nursery, Remuera.
Hay, Douglas, Stock Exchange, Auckland.
Hayr, H. H., Union Bank Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.
Hazard, W. H., Customs Street West, Auck- land.
Heather, H. D., Fort Street, Auckland.
Hemmingway, W. H., Union Buildings, Cus- toms Street, Auckland.
Herming, G., Customs Street, Auckland.
Herries, Sir W. H., M.P., Welhngton.
Hesketh, H. R., Hesketh and Riclmiond, Wyndham Street, Auckland.
Hesketh, S., Hesketh and Richmond, Wynd- liam Street, Auckland.
Hill, J. C, care of Hill and Plummer, Queen Street, Auckland.
Hills, J. M., Arney Road, Remuera.
Holderness, D., Harbour Board Offices, Auck- land.
Horton, E., Herald Office, Queen Street, Auckland.
Horton, H., Herald Office, Queen Street, Auckland.
Houghton, C. v.. New Zealand Shipping Company, Quay Street, Auckland.
Hovell, S. W., Waihi.
Howey- Walker, A., Queen Street, Auckland.
Hudson, C, Mount Eden Road, Auckland.
Hunter, Ashley, C.E., Swanson Street, Auck- land.
Hutcliinson, F. R., St. Heliers.
Ick-Hewins, Dr., Howick.
IngUs, Dr. R. T., New Zealand Expeditionary Force.
Isaacs, R. C, St. George's Bay Road, Pamell
Jackson, J. H., Customs Street, Auckland.
Jackson, Thornton, Jackson and Russell, Auckland.
Johnson, H. Dmibar, 151 Newton Road, Auckland.
Jolmson, Professor J. C, M.Sc, University College, Auckland.*
Johnston, Hallyburton, Ngatea, Hauraki Plains.
Jolmston, J. B., Stewart and Johi^ston, Wynd- ham Street, Auckland.
Joll, L., Mount Eden.
Kalaugher, J. P., Education Offices, Auck- land,
Kenderdine, J., Sale Street, Auckland.
Kent, B., Lower Symonds Street, Auckland.
Kent, G. S., St. Stephen's Avenue, Parnell.
Kissling, H. P., St. Stephen's Avenue, Par- nell.
Knight, G., Asquith Avenue, Momit Albert.
Laidlaw, R. A., Hobson Street, Auckland.
Lamb, J. A., Arney Road, Remuera.
Lamb, S. E., B.Sc, University College, Auck- land.
Lancaster, T. L., B.Sc, University College, Auckland.
Lang, Sir F. W., M.P., Queenstown Road, Onehunga.
Lamer, V. J., Swanson Street, Auckland.
Laurie, B. A., care of W. S. Laurie and Co., Customs Street, Auckland.
Lawson, H. W., National Bank of New Zea- land, Queen Street, Auckland.
Leighton, F. W., High Street, Auckland.
Le Roy, E., 42 Queen Street, Auckland.
Lewisham, W. C, care of Robertson Bros., Quay Street, Auckland.
Leyland, S. H., care of Leyland and O'Brien, Customs Street West, Auckland.
Leyland, W. B., care of Leyland and O'Brien, Customs Street West, Auckland.
Leys, Cecil, Star Office, Shortland Street, Auckland.
Leys, T. W., Star Office, Shortland Street, AucUand.
Lintott, G. S., Customs Street East, Auckland.
Logan, R., Government Insurance Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.
Long, D., Farmers' Freezing Company, Queen Street, Auckland.
Long, W. H., Woodford Road, Mount Eden.
Lowe, Dr. De Clive, Lower Sjmionds Street, Auckland:
524
Appendix.
Lunn, A. G., care of Collins Bros., Wyndham Street, Auckland.
McCullough, Hon. W., Thames.
McDonald, Rev. W., Gardner Road, Epsom.
Macfarlane, J. B., Fort Street, Auckland.
McFarlane, T., C.E., Coromandel.
McGregor, W. R., University College, Auck- land.
Mcllraith, Dr. J. W., Commercial Hotel, Whangarei.
Mcintosh. D. T., Railway Offices, Auckland.
Mackay, G. J., Queen Street, Auckland.
Mackay, J. G. H., Ellison Chambers, Queen Street, Auckland.
Mackay, P. M., Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Mackellar, Dr. E. D., Manukau Road, Par- nell.
McKenzie, Captain G., Devonport.
Mackenzie, Dr. Kenneth, Princes Street, Auckland.
Macky, T. H., care of Macky, Logan, and Co., Elliott Street, Auckland.
McLaughlin, T. M., Phcenix Chambers, Queen Street, Auckland.
MacmiJlian. C. C, care of Auckland Institute, Auckland.*^
McVeagh, R., Russell, Campbell, andMcVeagh, High Street, Auckland.
Mahoney, T.. Swanson Street. Auckland.
Mains, T., Tram Terminus, Remuera.
Mains, W., Tram Terminuis, Remuera.
Mair, Captain G., Rotorua.
Mair, S. A. R., Hunterville, Wellington/
Major, C. T., King's College, Remuera.
Makgill, Dr. R. H., Health Department, Wel- lington. *
Mander, F., M.P., Ranfurly Road, Epsom.
Marriner, H. A., New Zealand Insurance Com- pany, Queen Street, Auckland.
Marsack, Dr., New Zealand Expeditionary Force.
Marshall, J., Te Ataahna. Remuera Road.
Mason, Mrs. F., care of Bank of Australasia, Manaia.
Massey, Right Hon. W. F., M.P., Wellington.
Matthews, H. B., Clonberu Road. Remuera.
Maxwell, L. S., Lower Hobson Street, Auck- land.
Mennie, J. M., Albert Street, Auckland.
MiUer, E. V., Chelsea, Auckland.
Miller, E. N., Albert Street, Thames.
Milne, J., care of John Chambers and Son, Port Street. Aucldand.
Milne, Miss M. J., Remuera.
Milne, Stewart, care of Milne and Choyce, Queen Street, Auckland.
Milroy, S., Kauri Timber Company, Customs Street West, Auckland.
Milsom, Dr. E. H. B., 18 Waterloo Quadrant, Auckland.
Mitchelson, Hon. E., Waitaramoa, Remuera.
Mitchelson, E. P., Motutara, Waimauku.
Morrison, A. R., Palmerston Buildings, Auck- land.
Morton, E., Customs Street, Auckland.
Morton, H. B., Taumata, Wapiti Avenue, Epsom.
Moses, H. C, No Deposit Piano Company,
High Street, Auckland. Mulgan, A. E., Star Office, Auckland. Mulgan. E. K., Education Offices, Auckland. Mullins, P., Shaddock Street, Mount Eden. Murray, G. T., C.E., Public Works Office,
Auckland. Myers, Hon. A. M., M.P.. Campbell and
Ehrenfried Company, Auckland. Myers, B., Symonds Street. Auckland. Napier, W. J., Napier, Fitchett, and Rees,
A.M. P. Buildings. Queen Street, Auckland. Nathan, C. J., care of A. H. Nathan and Co.,
Customs Street, Auckland. Nathan. D. L., care of L. D. Nathan and Co.,
Shortland Street, Auckland. Nathan, N. A., care of L. D. Nathan and Co.,
Shortland Street, Auckland.* Neve, B., Technical College, Wellesley Street,
Auckland. Niccol, G., Customs Street West, Auckland. Nicholson, O., Imperial Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland. Nolan, H. 0., St. Stephen's Avenue, Parnell. Oliphant, P., 24 Symonds Street, Auckland. Oliver, W. R. B.,F.L.S., H.M. Customs, Auck- land.* Osmond, G. B., Royal Insurance Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland. Ostler, H. H., care of Jackson, Russell, Tunks,
and Ostler, Shortland Street. Auckland Owen, Professor G., D.Sc, University College,
Auckland. Parr, Hon. C. J., C.M.G., M.P., Shortland
Street, Auckland. Partridge, H. E., Albert Street, Auckland. Patterson, D. B., Ellison Chambers, Queen
Street, Auckland. Peacock, T., Queen Street, Auckland. Perkins, A. W., care of Dalgety and Co.,
Customs Street West, Auckland. Petiie. D., M.A., Ph.D., F.N.Z.Inst., " Rose-
mead," Ranfurly Road, Epsom. Philcox, T., 11 Fairview Road, Momit Eden. Philson, W. W., Coiomal Sugar Company,
Quay Street, Auckland. Pond, J. A., F.C.S., Queen Street, Auckland. Porter, A., care of E. Porter and Co., Queen
Street. Auckland. Potter, E. H., P.O. Box 230, Auckland. Pountney, W. H., Fort Street, Auckland. Powell, F. E., C.E., Ferry Buildings, Queen
Street Auckland. Poynton, J. W., 63 Epsom Avenue, Mount
Eden. Price, E. A., Cambria Park, Papatoetoe. Price, T. G., 109 Queen Street, Auckland. Pryor, S. H., 26 Pencarrow Avenue, Mount.
Eden. Pulling, Miss, Diocesan School, Epsom. Purchas, Dr. A. C, Carlton Gore Road,
Auckland. Pycroft, A. T., Railway Offices, Auckland. Ralph, AV. J., Princes Street, Auckland. Rangihiroa, Dr., -care of Public Health Depart- ment Auckland. Rawnsiey, S., Federal Street, Auckland.
Roll of Members.
525
Rayner, Dr. F. J., Queen St^et Auckland. Reed, J. R., K.C.. " Cargen," Eden Crescent,
Auckland. Raid, J., Alten Road, Auckland. Renshaw, F., Sharland and Co., Lome Street,
Auckland. Rhodes, C, "Ronaki," Remuera. Richmond, H. P., Arney Road, Reniuera. Robb, J., Victoria Avenue, Mount b.den. Roberton, A. B., Heather, Roberton, and Co.,
Fort Street, Auckland. Roberton, Dr. E., Market Road, Remuera. Robertson, Dr. Carnck, Alfred Str.et, Auck-
Robertson, James, Market Road, Remuera Roche, H., Horahora, near Cambridge, Wai-
RoHett, F. C, Herald Office, Queen Street,
Auckland. Rowe, J., Onehunga. Suiell E. N. A., Russell, Campbell, and
McVeagh. High Street. Aucklaiid. Saunders; W. R., Commercial Umon Insur- ance Company, Auckland. Saxton. A. C, Fym ont, Sydney. Scott, D. D., Kempthome, Prosser, and Co.,
Albert Street, Auckland. Scott, Rev. D. D., The Manse, Onehunga Sppc^ner C, St. Stephen's Avenue. Farneii. Igtr Professor H. W M.A., F.N.Z.Inst.,
Manukau Road, Parnell. Shakespear, Mrs. R. H., Whangaparaoa. Shaw. F., Vermont Street,' Pons on by. Shaw, H., Epsom. . . ^ ,
Ifrnmunds, Rev. J. H., Wesley Trammg Col- lege, Epsom. " Simson, T., Mount St. John Avenue, Epsom Sinclair, A., Kuranui, Symonds Street, Auck-
Sindair, G., care of Pilkington and Co., Queen Street, Auckland. ^ iri „
Skeet H. M., Pencarrow Avenue, Mount iiclen.
Smeeton, H. M., Remuera.
Smith, E., New Brighton. Miranda.*
Smith, H. G. Seth, 88 Victoria Avenue, Remuera.* , ,. ^ , „
Smith, Captain James, Frankhn Road, Pon-
Smith,Mrs. W. H., Princes Street, Auckland. Smith, S. Percy, F.R.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst., New
Si^tCw. Todd, Brooklands, Alfred Street,
Auckland. , . i i j
SomerviUe, Dr. J., Alfred Street, Auckland. SomerviUe, J. M., Chelsea, Auckland. Spedding, J. C, Market Road, Remuera. Stanton, J., Fort Street, Auckland. Stewart, D. F., care of R. S. Lamb and Co., 32 Jamieson Street, Sythiey. . , , ,
Stewart, J. W., Wyndham Street, Auckland Stewart, John A., Kainga-tonu, Ranfurly
Road, Epsom. Stewart, R. Leshe, care of Brown and Stewart,
Swanson Street, Auckland. ^ -n, ,
Streeter S C, Enfield Street, Mount Eden. Suter, A., Loutis, Clonbern Road, Remuera. Swan', H. C, Henderson.
Swanson, W., Queen Street, Auckland Talbot, Dr. A. G., A.M.P. Bmldmgs, Queen
Street, Auckland. „, ,, . -r, t c
Thomas, Professor A. P. W., M.A., F.L.S.,
F N Z Inst., Mountain Road, Epsom. Thornes, J., Queen Street, Auckland Tibbs, J. W., M.A., Grammar School, Auck-
TinnV H., Union Club, Trafalgar Square,
London.* » 1 1 j
Tole, Hon. J. A., Queen Street, Auckland. Townson, W., Thames. Trounson, J., Northcote. » ,, j
Tudehope, R., WeUesley Street, Auckland. Tunks, C. J., Jackson, RusseU, Tunks, and
Ostler, Shortland Street, Auckland. Turner, E. C, care of Turner and Sons,
Market Square, Auckland. , ^ .,-..
Upton, J. H., Bank of New Zealand Bmldmgs,
Swanson Street, Auckland. Upton, P., South British Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland. . , , , Upton, P. T., P.O. Box 878, Auckland. Upton, Selwjm, Star Office, Auckland. Vaile E. E., Broadlands, Waiotapu. Vaile, H. E., Queen Street, Auckland Vernon, W. S., M.A., University College,
Auckland. . o, ^ a i
Virtue, P., Roller MiUs, Quay Street, Auck-
WaTe," Captain, H. L., New Zealand ExpecU-
tionary Force. Wake, F. W., Cleave's Buildings, High Street, ,
Auckland. . ,
Walker, Professor MaxweU, Umversity Col- lege, Auckland. Walklate, J. J., Electric Tramway Company,
Auckland. . ^
Wallace, T. F., Waihi Gold-mmmg Company,
Shortland Street, Auckland. Ware W., Portland Road, Remuera. Warn'ock, J. A., 2 King Street, Grey Lynn. Wells T U , Westbourne Road, Remuera. White, P. C, care of S. White and Sons,
Customs Street West, Auckland. Wliite R. W., WeUington Street, Auckland. Whitley, W. S., Albert Street, Auckland. Wliitney, C. A., Colonial Ammunition Com- pany,- Auckland. Whittome, F., Newmarket. Williams, N. T., National Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland. , ^ , ^ .... WiUiamson, C, Commercial Bank Buildings, Auckland. , , ,
WiUiamson, J. D., Northern Club, Auckland. Wilson, Anch-ew, District Surveyor, Hangatiki. Wilson, C. A., P.O. Box 1081, Auckland Wilson, F. W., Herald Bmldmgs, Queen
Street, Auckland. , ^ , -^
Wilson, G. A., Wilson and Canham, Ferry
Buildings, Auckland. Wilson, H. M., Town Hall, Auckland. Wilson, J. A., care of A. Eady and Sons,
Queen Street, Auckland. Wilson, J. M., Portland Road, Remuera. Wilson, John, New Zealand Insurance Bmld- ings. Queen Street, Auckland.
526
Appendix.
Wilson, Listen, Upland Road, Remuera. Wilson, Martyn, Roselle, Lower Remuera. Wilson, Mrs. R. M., RusseU Road, Remuera. Wilson, W. R., Herald Office, Queen Street, Auckland.
Wing, S., HeUabys Limited, Shortland Street, Auckland.
Winkelmann, H., Victoria Arcade, Auck- land.
Winstone, F. M., Claude Road, Epsom.*
Winstone, G., Customs Street East, Auck- land.
Wiseman, F., Queen Street, Auckland.
Wiseman, J. W., Albert Street, Auckland.
Withy, E., care of Auckland Listitute, Auck- land.* Wood, Right Rev. C. J., D.D., Bishop of
Melanesia, Norfolk Island.* Woodward, W. E., Union Bank of Australia,
Queen Street, Auckland. WooUams, W. H., Queen Street, Auckland. Worley, Professor F. P., D.Sc, University
College, Auckland. Wright, R., care of A. B. Wright and Sons,
Commerce Street, Auckland. WyUie, A., C.E., Electrical Power Station,
Breakwater Road, Auckland. Yates, E., Albert Street, Auckland. Young, J. L., Henderson and Macfarlane,
Union Buildings, Customs Street, Auckland.
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. [* Life members.]
Acland, Dr. H. T. D., 381 Montreal Street, Christchurch.
Acland, H. D., 42 Park Terrace, Christchurch.
Aldridge, W. G., M.A., Technical School, Invercargill.
Alexander, R. E., Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln.
Allan, H. H., M.A., F.L.S., High Street, Ash- burton.
Alhson, H., care of Harman and Stevens, Christchurch.
Alpers, O. T. J., 69 Fendalton Road.
Anderson, Mrs., Murchiston, St. Martin's, Christchurch.
Anderson, J. G., M.Sc, Boys' High School, Invercargill.
Archey, G. E., M.A., Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.
Bates, D., Sumner.
Baughan, Miss B. E., Sumner.
Beaven, A. W., care of Andrews and Beaven, Moorhouse Avenue, Christchurch.
Beere, Miss M., Bank of New Zealand, Christ- church.
Belshaw, Horace, High School, Ashburton-
Bell, E. J., care of Public Library, Christ- church.
Berry, R. E., 165 Manchester Street, Christ- church.
Bevan-Brown, C. E., M.A., Boys' High School, Christchurch.
Bingham, S. C, 31 Gracefield Street, Christ- church.
Bird, J. W., M.A., Nelson College, Nelson.
Birks, L., B.Sc, care of PubHc Works De- partment, Wellington.
Bishop, F. C. B., 10 Cranmer Square, Christ- church.
Bishop, R. C, Gas Office, 77 Worcester Street, Christchiu-ch.
JBissett, J. W., Kaiapoi WooUen Company, Christchurch.
Blanch, G. E., M.A., Christ's CoUege, Christ- church.
Booth, G. T., 242 Papanui Road, Christchiirch.
Borrie, Dr. F. J., 236 Hereford Street, Christ- church.
Borrie, Miss, 236 Hereford Street, Christ- church.
Bradley, Orton, Charteris Bay.
Boag, T. D., Bryndwyr.
Brittin, Guy, Riwaka, Motueka, Nelson.
Broadhead, H. D., M.A., Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Brock, W., M.A., Education Office, Christ- chiu-ch.
Brockett, A. E., M.Aj, B.Com., Technical CoUege, Christchurch.
Brown, Professor Macmillan, M.A., LL.D., " Holmbank," Cashmere HiUs.*
Burnett, T. D., Mount Cook, Fairhe.
Callaghan, F. R., M.A., Education Office, Auckland.
Campbell, J. W., Chancery Lane, Christchurch.
Chilton, Professor C, D.Sc, M.A., LL.D., F.N.Z.Inst., F.L.S., Canterbury CoUege, Christchurch.*
Christensen, C. E., Hanmer.
Clark, W. H., 100 Bealey Avenue, Christ- church.
Cocks, Rev. P. J., B.A., St. John's Vicarage, Clmstchurch.
Cocks, Miss, Colombo Road South, Christ- church.
Colee, W. C, M.A., Schoolhouse, Opawa.
Coles, W. R., 256 Wilson's Road, Christchtu-ch.
Collins, J. G., care of Collins and Harman, Christchurch. ^
CorkiU, F. M., B.Sc, Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Cowley, S. R., 156 Antigua Street, Christ- church.
Dash, Charles, 233 Norwood Street, Becken- ham, Christchurch.
Roll of Members.
527
Day, James S., care of Dominion Trust Com- pany, 163 Hereford Street, Christchurch.
Deans, John, Kirkstyle, Coalgate.
Deans, William, Sandown, Waddington.
Dickinson, S. R., M.A., St. Andrew's, Christ- church.
Dobson, A. Dudley, M.Inst.C.E., City Coun- cil Office, Christchurch.
Dorrisn-Smith, Major A. A., D.S.O., Tresco Abbey, Scilly, England.
Drummond, James, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Lyttelton Times, Christchurch.
English, R., P.C.S., M.I.M.E., Gas Office, Christchurch.
Evans, Professor W. P., M.A., Ph.D., Canter- bury College, Christchurch.
Everist, W., Dyer's Pass Road, Christchurch.
Fairbaim, A., 53 Pendalton Road, Christ- church.
Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc, F.P.S.L., F.N.Z.Inst., Canterbury College, Christ- church.
Ferrar, Miss, 450 Armagh Street, Christ- church.
Ferrar, H. T., M.A., F.G.S., Hackthorne Road, Cashmere, Christchurch.
Flesher, J. A., 169 Hereford Street, Christ- church.
Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc, Christ's College, Christchurch.
Foster, Dr. A., 135 Hereford Street, Christ- church.
Foweraker, C. E., M.A., Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Francis, J. W. H., care of Rhodes, Ross, and Godby, Hereford Street, Christchurch.
Freeman, Dr. D. L., N.D.A., Teclinical Col- lege, Christchurch.
Gabbatt, Professor J. P., M.A., M.Sc, Canter- bury College, Christchurch.
Garton, John W., Woolston Tanneries (Li- mited), Woolston, Christclnxrch.
Garton, W. W., M.A., Elmwood School, Christchurch.
Gibson, Dr. F. Goulburn, 121 Papanui Road.
Gilling, W. 0. R., M.A., B.Sc?, 206 West- minster Street, St. Albans, Christchurch.
Godby, M. H., M.A., B.Sc, Hereford Street, Christchurch.
Godby, Mrs M. H., Fendalton, Christchurch.
Goss, W., Peterborough Street, Christchurch.
Gould, George, 4 Fendalton Road, Christ- church.
Gourlay, E. S., 415 River Road, Christchurch.
Gourlay, H., 519 Manchester Street, Christ- church.
Graham, Charles H. E., School, Tai Tapu.
Gray, G., F.C.S., Lincoln.
Greenwood, F., B.A., Education Office, Christ- church.
Grigg, J. C. N., Longbeach.
Gudex, M. C, M.A., M.Sc, Boys' High School, Christchurch.
Guthrie, Dr. John, Armagh Street, Christ- church.
Hall; Miss, 42 Gloucester Street West, Christ- church.
Hamilton, W. M., 365 Papanui Road, Christ- church.
Hansen, Dr. D. E., M.A., M.Sc, Teclmical College, Christchurch.
Haszard, H. D. M., F.R.G.S., Lands Office, Christchurch.
Hajaies, E. J., Canterbury Museum, Christ- church.
HajTsvard, J. R., 48 Peterborough Street, Christchurch.
Henry, G., care of P. Kennedy, 178 St. Asaph Street, Christchurch.
Herring, E., 28 Paparoa Street, Papanui.
Herriott, Miss E. M., M.A., Canterbury Col- lege, Christchurch.
Hewitt, S. J., 234 Selwyn Street, Christchurch.
Hight, Professor J., M.A., Litt.D., Canter- bury College, Christchurch.
Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., D.Sc, Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln.*
Hill, Mrs. Carev, Clifton, Sumner.
Hitchings, F., "F.R.A.S., 69, Durham Street, Sydenham.
Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S., Science and Art Museum, Plymouth, England.
Hogg, E. G., M.A., F.R.A.S., Hackthorne Road, Cashmere, Christchurch.
Hogg, H. R., M.A., F.Z.S., 7 St. Helen's Place, London E.C.
Holford, George, B.Ag., care of P.O. Box 921, Christchurch.
Holland, H., 108 St. Asaph Street, Christ- church.
Hoiloway, Rev. J. E., D.Sc, Hokitika.
Howard, E. J., care of Trades Hall, Christ- church.
Humphreys, G., Fendalton Road, Fendalton.
Ingram, John, 39 Mansfield Avenue, St. Albans.
Irving, Dr. W., 56 Armagh Street, Christ- church
Jameson, J. O., Hereford Street, Christchurch.
Jamieson, A. W., 404 Hereford Street, Christ- church.
Jamieson, W. G., Deans Avenue, Lower Riccarton.
Jennings, Bella D., M.A., D.Sc, care of Captain Cross, 49 Crescent Road, Welling- ton.
Johnston, A. A., M.R.C.V.S., Papanui Road, Christchurch.
Kaye, A., 429 Durham Street, Christchurch.
Keir, James, care of P. and D. Dmioan (Limited), Christchurch.
Kidson, Lieutenant E. R., M.Sc, care of H. T. Kidson, Van Dieman Street, Nelson.*
Kirkpatrick, W. D., F.R.H.S., M.A., Red- cliffs, Sumner.
Kitchingman, Miss, Hackthorne Road, Cash- mere.
Knight, H. A., Racecourse Hill.
Laing, R. M., M.A., B.Sc, Boys' High School, Christchurch.
Laurenson, J. B., Box 381. Christchurch.
Lester, Dr. G. M. L., 2 Cranmer Square, Christchurch.
528
Appendix.
Longworth, H. E., Somerfield Street, Sprey-
don. Louisson, Dr., M. G., 136 Worcester Street,
Christchurch. Louisson, Hon. C, M.L.C., care of Crown
Brewery, Christchurch. Macartney, R., Tai Tapu. Macbeth, N. L., Canterbury Frozen Meat Company, Hereford Street, Christchurch.
McBride, T. J., 15 St. Albans Street, Christ- church.
MaoGibbon, Dr. T. A., Royal Exchange Build- ings, Christchurch.
Macleod, D. B., M.A., B.Sc, Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Marriner, H. J., Sumner.
Marsh, H. E., Cashmere.
Marshall, Mrs., 148 Esplanade, New Brighton.
Martin, William, B.Sc, Education Office, Christchurch.
Meares, H. 0. D., Fendalton.
Mills, Miss M. M., M.A., Temuka.
Morkane, Dr. C. F., 153 Hereford Street, Christchurch.
Montgomery, John, 27 Garden Road, Christ- church.
Morrison, W. G., Hanmer.
Mountford, A. V., F.C.S., Woolston Tan- neries (Limited), Woolston, Christchurch.
Murray, Miss F. B., Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Murray, W., " Balgownie," Opawa.
Nairn, R., Lincoln Road, Spreydon.
Neal, N. P., Agricultural College, Lincoln.
Newburgh, W. S., care of Newburgh, Best, and Co., Cathedral Square, Christchurch.
Newton, A. Wells, 58 Brittan Street, Linwood.
Oliver, F. S., care of C. E., Salter, Hereford Street, Christchurch.
OlUver, Miss F. M., M.A., M.Sc, Waimate.
Ollivier, C. M., Lower Riccarton, Christ- church.
Owen, H., care of Cook and Ross, Christ- church.
Overton, Miss, 24 Hereford Street, Christ- church.
Page, S., B.Sc, Canterbury College, Christ- church.
Pairman, Dr. J. C, 21 Latipier Square, Christ- church,
Pairman, Dr. T. W., Governor's Bay.
Pannett, J. A., Cashmere Hills.
Paterson, A. D., care of H. Hobday, 60 Here- ford Street, Christchurch.
Pearson, Dr. A. B., Hospital, Christchurch.
Pemberton, 0. B., care of A. and P. Rooms, Manchester Street, Christchurch.
Penlington, G., F.N.Z.I.A., Warrington Street, St. Albans.
Powell, P. H., M.Sc, Canterbury CoUege, Christchurch.
Prudhoe, J. C, 20 Kidson Terrace, Cashmere.
Purchas, Rev. A. C, M.A., Hokitika.
Purdie, William C, Agricultural College, Lincoln.
Pumell, C. W., Ashburton.
Purnell, George P., 106 Gloucester Street,
Christchurch. Rands, Henry, M.A., Canterbury College,
Christchurch. Raymond, S. G., K.C., Heaton Street, St.
Albans. Reece, W., Dyer's Pass Road, Cashmere. Relph, E. W.. care of New Zealand Farmers'
Co-operative. Rhodes, A. E. G., B.A., Fendalton. Rhodes, Miss B. R. E., care of Canterbury
CoUege, Christchurch. Rhodes, Hon. R. Heaton, M.P., Tai Tapu. Robinson, R. G., Darfield. Robinson, W. F., F.R.G.S., Canterbury Col- lege, Christchurch. Ross, R. G., P.O. Box 450, Christchurch. Rowe, H. v., M.A., Canterbury College,
Christchurch. Ryder, A. R., Boys' High School, New Ply- mouth, " Sanders, C. J. , care of Dominion Yeast Com- pany, Christchurch. Sandston, Dr. A. C, Latimer Square, Christ- church. Schneider, P., 164 Durham Street, Christ- church. Scott, G., Manchester Street, Christchurch. Scott, Professor R. J., M.Inst.C.E., F.A.LE.E.,
Canterbury CoUege, Christchurch. Seager, S. Hurst, F.R.I.B.A., Cathedral
Square, Christchurch. Seth-Smith, B., 25 Stratford Street, Fendal- ton. Sheard, Miss F., M.A., B.Sc, Girls' High
School, Christchurch. Simpson, Dr. W., Latimer Square, Christ- church. * Sims, A., M.A., care of Sims, Cooper, and
Co., Hereford Street, Christchurch. Skey, H. F., B.Sc, Magnetic Observatory,
Christchurch. Skinner, W. H., New Plymouth. Slater, Dr. F., Sumner. Slocombe, C, B.Sc, Agricultural Department,
Nelson. Snow, Colonel, Holmwood Road, Christchurch. Speight, R., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., F.N.Z.Inst.,
Canterbury Museum, Christchurch. Stark, E. E., B.Sc, P.O. Box 526, Christ- church. Stead, E. F., Ham, Riccarton. Steele, G. P., care of Wilton and Co., Welling- ton. Stevens, J. E., Deaf-mute Institute, Sumner. Stevenson, Dr. J., Fendalton. Stevenson, James, Flaxton. St. John, Charles E., 745 Colombo Street,
Christchurch. Stone, T., LyiteUon Times Office, Christchurch. Struthers, J. B., 129 Holly Road, Christchurch. SuUivan, D. G., Sun Office, Christchurch. Symes, Dr. W. H., M.B., B.Sc, 63 Worcester
Street, Christchurch.* Symes, Langford P., 20 May's Road, Papanui. Tabart, Miss Rose, 97 Papanui Road, Christ- church.
Roll of Members.
529
Taylor, A., M.A., M.R.C.V.S., Canterbury Agricultural CoUege, Lincoln.
Taylor, G. J., 440 Madras Street, St. Albans.
Templin, J. R., 10 Wroxton Terrace, Fendal- ton.
Thacker, Dr. H. T. J., M.P., 25 Latimer Square, Christchurch.
Thomas, Dr. J. R., 29 Latimer Square, Christ- church.
Tripp, C. H., M.A., Timaru.*
Waddell, John, 220 Armagh Street, Christ- church.
Wall, Professor A., M.A., Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Waller, F. D., B.A., West Christchurch Dis- trict High School.
Warren, F. M., 56 Clyde Road, Riccarton.
Waymouth, IVIrs., care of Mrs. R. M. Hughes, St. Buryan, S.O., Cornwall, England.
Weston, G. T.. B.A., LL.B., 152 Manchester Street, Christchurch.
Whetter, Dr. J. P., 211 Gloucester Street, Christchurch.
Whitaker, C. Godfrey, care of Booth, Mac- donald. and Co., Carlyle Street, Christ- church.
Whitehead, Rev. Canon, Selwyn CoUege, Dunedin.
Wigram, Hon. H, F., M.L.C., 1 Armagh Street, Christchirrch.
Wild, L. J., M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln.
Wilding, Frank S., Hereford Street, Christ- church.
Wilkins, T. J. C, B.A., Somerfield Street School, Spreydon.
WilUams, C. J. R., M.Inst.C.E., 21 Knowles Street, St. Albans.
Wright, A. M., A.I.C, F.C.S., 482 Lincoln Road, Christchurch.
Valentine, J. A., Education Office, Hokitika.
OTAGO INSTITUTE. [• Life members.]
Allan, Dr. W., Mosgiel.
AUen, Hon. Sir James, M.P., 90 Clyde Street. AUen, Dr. S. C, 220 High Street. Anscombe, E., 171 Princes Street, Balk, 0., 13 Driver Street, Maori Hill. Barnett, Dr. L. E., Stafford Street. Barr, Peter, 3 MontpeUer Street. Bathgate, Alex., 85 Glen Avenue, Morning- ton.* Beal, L. 0., Stock Exchange Buildings. Begg, J. C, Fifield Street, Roslyn. BeU, A. Dillon, Shag VaUev.* Benham, Professor W. B., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
F.N. Z. List., Museum. Benson, Professor W. N., B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.,
University. Betts, MissM. W., M.Sc, Museum. Black, Alexander, 82 Clyde Street.* Black, James, care of Cossens and Black, 164
Crawford Street. Bowie, Dr. J. T., London Street. Bowron, G. W., 426 Moray Place. Boys - Smith, Professor W. L., Studholme
House. Brasch, H., 99 London Street. Brent, D., M.A., 19 New Street, Musselburgh.* Browne, Robert, care of Post office, Morrins-
ville. Buchanan, N. L., 44 Bronte Street, Nelson.* Buddie, Dr. Roger, care of Buddie and Button,
W,^Tidham Street, Auckland. Butchers, A. G., M.A., John McGlashan College,
Maori Hill. Cameron, Dr. P. D., 585 George Street. Chamberlain, C. W., 6 Regent Road. Chapman, C. R., 135 Town Belt, Roslyn. Church, Dr. R., 257 High Street.
Clarke, C. E., 51 King Edward Road. Clarke, E. S., Woodhaugb: Colquhoun, Dr. D., 218 High Street. Coombs, L. D., A.R.I.B.A., Stuart Street
and Octagon. Crawford, W. J., 179 CarroU Street. Dalrymple, Rev. A. M., M.A., 65 District
Road, Mornington. Davidson, R. E., Hawthorne Road, Morning- ton. Davies, 0. V., 109 Princes Street. Davis, A., Test-room, Cumberland Street. De Beer, I. S., 75 London Street. Duncan, P., " Tolcarne," Maori Hill. Duniop, Professor F. W., M.A., Ph.D., 95
Clyde Street. Dutton, Rev. D., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., 37 Marion
Street, Caversham. Edgar, G. C, Market Street. Edgar, James, 286 York Place. Farnie, Miss W., M.A., Museum. Fels, W., 84 London Street.* Fenwick, Cuthbert, Stock Exchange. Fenwick, Sir G., Otago Daily Times Office. Fei^guson, Dr. H. L., C.M.G., "Wychwood,"
Musselburgh Rise. Fisher, T. R., 29 Alexancb-a Street, St. Clair. Fitchett, Dr. F. W. B., 8 Pitt Street. Fleming, T. R., M.A., LL.B., Education
Office. Frye, Charles, Gasworks, Caversham. Fulton, H. v., Agricultiu-al and Pastoral
Society, Crawford Street. Fulton, Dr. R. V., Pitt Street. Garrow, Professor J. M. E., LL.B., Victoria
College, Welhngton.* Gibson, G. W., Silverton, Anderson's Bay.
530
Appendix.
Gilkison, E.., 14 Main Road, North - east Valley.*
Gowland, Professor W. P., M.D., University.
Goyen, P., F.L.S., 136 Highgate, Roslyn.
Gray, J. A., 762 Cumberland Street.
Green, E. S., Education Office.
Guthrie, H. J., 426 Moray Place East.
Hall, Dr. A. J., 36 Stuart Street.
Hamilton, T. B., M.A., B.Sc, John Mc- Glashan College.
Hanlon, A. C, 16 Pitt Street.
Henderson, M. C, Electrical Engineer's Office, Market Street.
Hercus, G. R., 20 Albert Street.
Hooper, B. B., A.R.I.B.A., A.M.P. Buildings.
Howes, Miss Edith, Adelaide.*
Howes, W. G., F.E.S., 432 George Street.
Hungertord, J. T., Gasworks.
IngHs, Professor J. K. H., M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., University.
Jack, Professor R., D.Sc, University.
Jeiiery, J., Anderson's Bay.
Joachim, G., Randall Street, Mornington.*
Johnson, A. G., M.Sc, King Edward Tech- nical College. •
Johnson, J. T., 46 Littlebourne Road, Rosljni.
Johnstone, J. A., Driver Street, Maori Hill.
Jones, F. J., Railway Engineer's Office.
King, Dr. F. Truby, C.M.G., SeacUff.
Laing, John, 86 Queen Street.
Lee, Robert, P.O. Box 363.
Loudon, John, 43 Crawford Street.
Lowry, J. M., Pubhc Works Department.
McCurdie, W. D. R., Town Hall.*
Macdougall, W. P., jun., 642 George Street.
McEnnis, J. E., Pubhc Works Office, Christ- church.
McGeorge, J. C, Eglinton Road, Mornington.
McKellar, Dr. T. G., Pitt Street.
Mackie, A., Test-room, Cumberland Street.
McNair, J., Railway Engineer's Office.
Malcolm, Professor J., M.D., University.
Mandeno, H., New Zealand' Express Com- pany's Buildings.
Marshall, Angus, B.A., Technical College.
Mason, J. B.
Melland, E., Arthog Road, Hale, Cheshire, England.*
Mihies, J. W., 39 Lees Street.*
Milhgan, Dr. R. R. D., University.
Morrell, W. J., M.A., Boys' High School.
Nevill, Right Rev. S. T., D.D., Bishopsgrove.
Newlands, Dr. W., 12 London Street.
O'Neill, Dr. E. J., 219 High Street.
Overton, T. R., Test-room, Cumberland Street.
Park, Professor J., F.G.S., University.
Payne, F. W., 90 Princes Street.
Petrie, D., M.A., F.L.S.,F.N.Z. List., Ranfurly Road, Epsom, Auckland.*
Philpott, A., Queen Street, Invercargill.
Pickerill, Professor H. P., M.D., B.D.S., University.
Poppelwell, D. L., Gore.
Price, W. H., 55 Stuart Street.*
Rawson, Miss G. H., Home Science Depart- ment, University.
Reid, Donald, jun., 9 DowUng Street.
RUey, Dr. F. R., 6 Pitt Street.
Ritchie, Dx. Russell, 400 George Street.
Roberts, E. F., 128 Highgate, Roslyn.
Roberts, John, C.M.G., Littlebourne.
Ross, H. I. M., 614 Castle Street.
Ross, T. C, care of Ross and Glendining (Limited).
Rouse, Percy, Burnside Chemical Works.
Rutherford, R. W., 36 Playfair Street, Cavers- ham.
National Bank Buildings. G., R.N.Z.A. Barracks, Wel-
Salmond, J. L. Sandle, Major S.
lington. Sargood, Percy,
Marin oto," Newington.
Scott, J. H., Converter Station, . Cumberland
Street. Shacklock, J. B., Bayfield, Anderson's Bay, Shennan, Watson, 367 High Street. Shepherd, F. R., 36 Cargill Street. Shortt, F. M., care of John Chambers and
Sons, Stuart Street. Sim, Mr. Justice, Musselburgh Rise. Simpson, George, 98 Russell Street. Simpson, George, jun., 9 Gamma Street,
Roslyn. Skinner, H. D., B.A., Museum, King Street. Smith, C. S., Star Office. Smith, J. C, 196 Tay Street, Livercargill. Solomon, S., K.C., 114 Princes Street. Somerville, W. G., 18 Leven Street, Roslyn. Stark, James, care of Kempthorne, Prosser,
and Co. Stewart, R. T., 21 Gamma Street, Roslvn. Stewart, W. Downie, M.P., LL.B., 11 Heriot
Row. Stout, Sir Robert, K.C.M.G., WeUington. Tannock, D., Botanical Gardens. Theomin, D. E., 42 Royal Terrace. Thompson, Professor G. E., M.A., University. Thomson, W. A., A.M.P. Buildings. Thomson, Hon. G. M., F.L.S., F.N.Z.Inst.,
M.L.C, 99 Eghnton Road, Mornington.* Thomson, G. S., B.Sc, 99 Eglinton Road,.
Mornington. Vanes, R. N., A.R.I.B.A., National Bank
Buildings. Walden, E. W., 12 DowUng Street. Wales, P. Y., 2 Crawford Street. Walker, A., Lloyd's Surveyor, Wellington. Waters, Professor D. B., A.O.S.M., University. White, Professor D. R., M.A., 83 St. David
Street. Whitson, T. W., 584 George Street. Williams, J., B.Sc, F.C.S., Otago Boys' High
School. Wingfield, J. E., 663 Castle Street. Woodthorpe, Ven. Archdeacon, Selwyn House,
Cumberland Street. Young, Dr. James, Don Street, Invercargill.
Roll of Members.
531
HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. •»- [* Life members.]
Anderson, Andrew, Napier.
Armour, W. A., M.A., M.Sc, Boys' High
School, Napier. Ashcroft, Mrs., Napier. Ashcroft, P., Napier. Asher, Rev. J. A., Napier. Beattie, A. L., Napier. Bennett, H. M., Napier. Bernau, Dr. H. F., Napier. Bissell, E., Port Ahuriri. Blake, V. I., Gisborne. Chadwick, R. M., Napier. Chambers, Bernard, Te Mata. Chambers, J*, Mokopeka, Hastings. Clark. ^. P., Eskdale. Cottrell, H., Napier. Dinwiddle, W., Napier. Duncan, Russell, Napier. Edgar, Dr. J. J., Napier. Edmimdson, J. H., Napier. Foley, M., Napier. Guthrie- Smith, H., Tutira. Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon, Wa.ipukurau. Haslam, Professor F. W. C, Napier. Henderson, E. H., Te Araroa. Herrick, E. J., Hastings. HiU, H., B.A., F.G.S., Napier. Hislop, J., Napier.* Holdsworth, J., Havelock North. Humphrey, E. J., Pakipaki. Hutchinson, F., jun., Rissington. Hyde, Thomas, Napier. Kennedy, C. D., Napier. Kerr, W., M.A., Napier Boys' High School. Large, J. S., Napier.*
Large, Miss L., Napier.
Leahy, Dr. J. P., Napier.
Loten, E. G., Napier.
Lowry, T. H., Okawa.
McLean, R. D. D., Napier.
Metcalfe, W. F., Kiritahi, Port Awanui.
Moore, Dr. T. C, Napier.
Morris, W., Hastings.
Newton, I. E., Napier.
Northcroft, E. F., Napier. ^
Oates, William, J. P., Tokomaru Bay.
Ormond, G., Mahia.
O'Ryan. W., Waipiro Bay.
Ballot, A. G., Napier.
Pollock, C. F. H., Napier.
Ringland, T. H., Napier.
Russell, H. J., Napier.
Sagar, Mrs. M. J., Napier.
Smart, D. L., Napier. ^
Smith, A. E. N., Napier.
Smith, J. H., Olrig.*
Strachan, D. A., M.A., Napier.
Stubbs, G., Napier.
Thomson, J. P., Napier.
Tiffen, G. W., Gisborne.
Vautier, T. P., Napier.
Wheeler, E. G., Havelock North,
Whetter, R. G., Napier.
Williams, F. A., Napier.
WilUams, F. W., Napier.
WiUiams, Ven. Archdeacon H. W., Gisborne.
Wilhamson, J. P., Napier.
Wills, W. H., B.A., Port Ahuriri.
Wilton, T, J., Port Ahuriri.
NELSON INSTITUTE.
Bett, Dr. F. A., Trafalgar Square. . Borlase, W., 96 Nile Street. Field, T. A. H., M.P., Ngatitama Street. Gibbs, F. G., M.A., CoUingwood Street. Graham, Mrs. C, Bridge Street. Knapp, F. V., Alfred Street. Lancaster, G. J., M.A., Nelson College.
Morley, E. L., Waimea Street.
Mules, Bishop, Trafalgar Square.
Redgrave, A. J., Hardy Street.
Strachan, J., care of Land Transfer Office,
Government Buildings. WhitweU, F., Drumduan, Wakapuaka. Worley, W. F., Trafalgar Street South.
532
Appendix.
MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. [* Life members.]
Abraham, R. S., Fitzherbert West.
Akers, H., Duke Street.
Bagnall, H. G., 30 Te Aweawe Street. •
Barnicoat, J. L., Union Bank.
Barnett, Dr. E. C, M.R.C.S., M.R.O.P., Fitzherbert Street.
Batchelar, J. 0., WiUow Bank.
Bayly, Mrs.^ Patea.
Bendall, W. E., Dairy Union.
Bennett, G. H., The Square.
Bett, D. H. B., M.B., Ch.B., M.R.O.S., M.R.C.P., Broad Street.
Blackbourne, Rev. H. G., M.A., Vicarage.
Burges, A., 139 Featherston Street.
Callanan, F.
Cameron, W. B., 24 Russell Street.
Canton, H. J.
Clausen, A. E.
Clausen, C. N., Rangitikei Street.
Cockayne, A. H.
Cohen, M., Broad Street.
Collins, J. M., care of J. J. Niven and Co.
CoUinson, L. H.
Colquhoun, J. A., M.Sc, High School.
Connell, F. W.
Cooper, T.
Crabb, E. H.
Cunningham, G. H., Department of Agri- culture.
Daly, A. J., George Street.
Edwards, R., C.E., Duke Street.
Eliott, M. A.. The Square.
Fitzherbert, W. L.
Gerrand, J. B., The Square.
Grace, R. H. F.
Graham, A. J., The Square-
Guy, A.
Hankin, F. M. S., Ferguson Street.
Hanuay, A., care of Manson and Barr.
Hepworth, H.
Hodder, T. R., Rangitikei Street.
Holben, E. R. B.
Holbrook, H. W. F.
Hopwood, A.
Hughes, J. R., C.E.
Hunter, W.
Hurley, E. 0.
Ironside, Miss, M.A., High School.
Johnston, J. Goring, Oakhurst.
Lambert, W. H.
Larcomb, E., C.E., Roy Street.
Larconib, P.
Mahon, A.
Manson, T., "Fitzherbert Street.
Moore, Miss.
Mummery, W. R., F.LC, care of J. Nathan
and Co. Munro, J., Bank of New South Wales. Murray, J., M.A., High School. Nash, N. H. Needham, F.
Newman, E., M.P., Marton. Noedl, A. ,
Oram, M. H., M.A., LL.B., Rangitikei Street. Park, W., F.R.H.S., College Street. Peach, Dr. C. W., M.B., CM., Broad Street. Pope, Dr. E. H. Poynton, J. W., S.M.* Preece, Captain G. A., N.Z.C. Salmon, C. T., Assoc, in Eng., Rangitikei
Street. Seifert, A., George Street. Seifert, H.
Seifert, L., George Street. Sheppard, F. J. Sim, E. Grant.
Sinclair, D., C.E., Terrace End. Sinclair, N. H. Smith, W. W., F.E.S., Public Reserve, New
Plymouth. Stevens, J. H., Church Street. Stowe, Dr. W. R., M.R.C.S., M.R.C.P., Linton
Street. Sutherland, A., Boimdary Road. Taylor, C, George Street. Turner, W.
Waldegrave, C. E., Broad Street. Welch, W., F.R.G.S., Mosman's Bay, N.S.W.* West, E. V.
Wliitaker, A., Grey Street. Wilson, K., M.A., Rangitikei Street.* Wollerman, H., Fitzherbert Street. Wood. J. R.
Wright, A. H. M., College Street. Young, H. L., Cuba Street.
WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. [* Life member.]
Allison, Alexander, No. 1 Line, Wanganui.
AUison, Thomas, Ridgway Street, Wanganui.
Amess, A. H. R., M.A., CoUegiate School, Wanganui.
Atkinson, W. E., Hurworth, Wanganui.
Bassett, W. G., St. John's HiU, Wanganui.
Battle, T. H., Architect, Wanganui.
Bourne, F., F.I.A.N'.Z., Ridgway Street, Wa- nganui .
Brown, C. P., M.A., LL.B., CoUege Street,
Wanganui. Burnet, J. H., Sti John's Hill, Wanganui. Cave, Norman, Brunswick Line, Wanganui. Cowper, A. E., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui. Crow, E., Technical College, Wanganui. Cruickshank, Miss, M.A., M.Sc, Girls' College,
Wanganui. D'Arcy, W. A., 11 Campbell Street, Wanganui.
Roll of Members.
533
Downes, T. W., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.
Drew, Harry, Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.
Duigan, Herbert, Ridgway Street, Wanganui.
Dunkley, R., F.I.A.N.Z., Wickstead Place, Wanganui.
Dunn, Richmond, St. John's Hill, Wanganui.
Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S., CoUege Street, Wanga- nui,
Gibbons, Hope, Wanganvii East.
Hatherly, Henry R., M.R.C.S., GonviUe, Wa- nganui.*
Hutton, C. C, M.A., St. John's Hill, Wanga- nui.
Jack, J. B., Native Land Court, Wanganui.
Jones, Lloyd, Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.
Liffiton, E. N., J. P., Ridgway Street, Wanga- nui.
McFarlane, D., Ridgway Street, Wanganui.
Mackay, C. E., Mayor of Wanganui.
Marshall Professor P.. M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.N. Z.Inst., Collegiate School, Wanganui.
Murdoch, R., Campbell Place, Wanganui.
Murray, J. B., St. John's HiU, Wanganui.
Neame, J. A., M.A., CoUegiate School, Wa- nganui.
Poison, D. G., St. John's HiU, Wanganui.
Sturge, H. E., M.A., Collegiate School, Wanga- nui.
Talboys, F. P., Tramways Manager, Wanga- nui.
Ward, J. T., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.*
Watt, J. P., B.A., LL.B., Ridgway Street, Wanganui.
Watt, M. N., St. Jolin's HiU, Wanganui.
WiUiamson, J. -P., CoUege Street, Wanganui.
Wilson, Alexander, M.D>, Wickstead Street, Wanganui.
f
POVERTY BAY INSTITUTE.
Abbey, Rev. W. H. E., 251 Palmerston Road,
Gis borne. Aitkin, Rev. James, St. Andrew's Manse,
Gisborne. Beale, A. M., Waipiro Bay. Beere, Major A. G., CUfford Street, Gisborne. Black, G. J.^ Kaiti. Blair, James, Kaiti.
Blake, V. I., Survey Department, Aucldand. BuU, H., Gladstone Road, Gisborne. Burnard, L. T., Gladstone Road, Gisborne. BusweU, W. H., Borough Council Office,
Gisborne, Cuthert, A., Gladstone Road, Gisborne. Florance, R. S., Kaiti. Foote, F., High School, Gisborne. Goffe, W. E., Ormond Road, Mangapapa. Gray, Mrs. Charles, Waiohika, Gisborne. Greer, Miss ]\J<, Ormond Road, Gisborne. Hutchinson, E. M., Waihuka, Gisborne. Kenway, Howard, Waiohika. Gisborne. Kinder, J., Gladstone Road, Gisborne. Lees, E. L., Childers Road, Gisborne. Lysnar, W. L., Stout Street, Whataupoko,
Gisborne.
Mander, M. B., Riverside Road, Gisborne.
Mann, E. H., Lowe Street, Gisborne.
Maunder, G. H., Stout Street, Gisborne.
Mirfield, T., Gladstone Road, Gisborne.
Mouat, John, Gladstone Road, Gisborne.
Muir, A. L., Fitzherbert Street, Gisborne.
Oakley, Mrs., Grey Street, Gisborne.
O'Ryan, WiUiam, Waipiro Bay.
Parlane, Rev. James, Stout Street, Gisborne.
Poole, M. P., Puha.
Rowley, F. J., Ormond Road, Gisborne^
Sheppard, Mrs. W., Whataiipoko, Gisborne.
Sievwright, Miss M., Whataujjoko, Gisborne.
Steele, A. H., Tahunga.
Tiffen, G. W., Gisborne.
Townley, John, Gladstone Road, Gisborne.
Tucker, H. G., Makauri.
Turner, J. C. E.^ Wairoa.
Wainwright, Rev.
Walker, Mrs., Fox Street, Gisborne.
Ward, Rev. E., Waerengaahika.
WiUiams, A. B.
Williams, Ven. Archdeacon H. W., Naurea,
Patutahi. Wilson, Rev. G. D., Te Karaka.
534 ^ Appendix.
SEEIAL PUBLICATIONS EECEIVED BY THE LIBRAEY OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 1919.
New Zealand.
Geological Survey : Bulletins.
Houses of Parliament : Journals and Appendix.
New Zealand Official Year-book.
Polynesian Society : Journal.
Statistics of Neiu Zealand.
Australia.
Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers : Proceedings. ■ Australian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14 : Reports. Commonwealth of Australia, Fisheries : Parliamentary Report.
New South Wales.
Agricultural Department, N.S.W. : Agricultural Gazette.
Australian Museum, Sydney : Records ; Annual Report.
Botanic Gardens and Government Domains, N.S.W. : Report.
Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.
Linnean Society of N.S.W. : Proceedings.
Northern Engineering Institute of N.S.W. : Papers. ^
Public Health Department, N.S.W. : Annual Report.
Queensland. '■ '
Geological Survey of Queensland : Publications. Eoyal Society of Queensland : Proceedings.
South Australia.
Adelaide Chamber of Commerce : Annual Report.
Department of Chemistry, South Australia : Bulletins.
Mines Department and Geological Survey of South Australia : Mining
Operations; G.S. Bulletins and Reports; Metallurgical Reports;
Synopsis of Mining Laivs. Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia : Annual
Report. Eoyal Society of South Australia : Transactions and Proceedings.
Tasmania. Eoyal Society of Tasmania : Papers and Proceedings,
Serial Publications received by Library. 535
Victoria.
Advisory Committee : Report on Broion Coal.
Department of Agriculture : Journal.
Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria : Victorian Naturalist.
Mines Department and Geological Survey of Victoria : Annual Report ;
Bulletins ; Records. Public Library, Museum, and National Art Qallery of Victoria : Annual
Beport. Eoyal Society of Victoria : Proceedings.
Western Australia. Geological Survey of Western Australia : B^dletins.
United Kingdom.
British Association for the Advancement of Science : Beport.
British Museum : Catalogues ; Guides ; Scientific Beports of British
Antarctic Expedition, 1910. Cambridge Philosophical Society : Proceedings. Geological Society, London : Quarterly Journal. Geological Survey of Great Britain : Summary of Progress. Linnean Society : Journal (Botany) ; Proceedings ; List of Members. Liverpool Biological Society : Proceedings. Marine Biological Association : Journal. Mineralogicai Society : Miner alogical Magazine. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers :
Transactions ; Annual Beport. Oxford University : Calendar.
Eoyal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain : Journal. Eoyal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh : Notes. Eoyal Colonial Institute : United Empire. Eoyal Geographical Society : Geographical Journal. Eoyal Physical Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings. Eoyal Scottish Geographical Society : Scottish Geographical Magazine. Eoyal Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings ; Transactions. Eoyal Society, London': Proceedings (Series A, B) ; Phil. Trans. (Series
A, B) ; Year-book. Eoyal Society of Literature : Transactions. Eoyal Statistical Society, London : Journal. Victoria Institute, London : Journal of Transactions.
Belgium. Librairie Nationale d'Art et d'Histoire : Les Cahiers beiges.
Denmark.
Acad. Eoy. de Sciences et de Lettres de Denmark : Fordhandlinger ;
Memoir es. Dansk. Naturh. Foren., Kjobenhavn : Videnskabelige Meddelelser. Kong. Dansk. Videnskab. Selskab. : F or handling er ; Skrifter.
536 ' Appendix.
France.
Societe de Chimie Industrielle, Paris : Chimie et industries. Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris : Bulletins. Societe de Geographic : La Geographie. Soci6te Zoologique de France : Bulletin.
Holland and Dutch East Indies.
Banka Tin : Jaaresverslag von de Winning. Eijks Ethnographisch Museum, Leiden: Verslag.
Italy.
Eeale Societa Geographica, Eoma : Bollettino.
Bevista Geographica Italiana.
Societa Africana d'ltalia : Bollettino.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa : Processi verbali.
Norway. Bergens Museum : Aarhok ; Aarberetning .
Spain. Junta de Ciences Naturals de Barcelona : Series hotanica, geologica.
India and Ceylon.
Agricultural Department, Calcutta : Report on Progress Of Agriculture. Agricultural Eesearch Institute and College, Pusa : Report. Colombo Museum ; Spolia Zeylanica.
Japan.
Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee, Tokyo : Bulletin. Imperial University of Tokyo : Journal of the College of Science. Tohoku Imperial University, Sendai : Science Reports.
Malay States. Malay States Government Gazette.
Africa.
South African Association for the Advancement of Science : SoiUh African Journal of Science.
Canada.
Department of Naval Service : Annual Report ; Tide Tables.
Mines Department, Geological Survey Branch: Memoirs; Summary
Report ; Museum Bulletin. Mines Department, Mines Branch : Bulletins ; Annual Report ; other
publications.
Serial Publications received by Library. 537
United States.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia : Proceedings.
American Geographical Society, New York : Geographical Bevieiv.
American Institute of Mining Engineers : Transactions.
American Philosophical Society : Proceedings.
Caiifornian Academy of Sciences : Proceeduigs.
Chicago University : Journal of Geology.
Franklin Institute : Journal.
Library of Congress, Washington : Report.
Lloyd Library, Ohio : Index.
Minnesota University and Geological Survey : Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin. -^
Missouri Botanical Gardens : Annals. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard: Bulletin; Annual Report;
Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences : Proceedings. New York Academy of Sciences : Annals. Ohio Journal of Science. Ohio State University : Bulletin. Smithsonian Institution and U.S. National Museum: Annual Report;
Miscellaneous Collections ; Contributions to Knowledge ; Bulletins ;
Contributions fj'om U.S. National Herbarium. Tufts College : Studies (Scientific Series). U.S. Department of Agriculture : Journal of Agricultural Research;
Monthly List of Publications. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey : North
American Fauna ;- Bulletins. U.S. Geological Survey : Annual Report ; Professional Papers ; Mineral
Resources ; Btilletins ; Water-sup2)ly Papers. University of California : Bulletin of Department of Geology. Wagner Free Institute of Science : Transactions.
Argentine. Academia Nacional de Ciencias : Boletin.
Mexico. Institute Geologic© de Mexico : Anales.
Peru. Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru : Boletin.
Hawaii. Bishop Museum : Memoirs.
Philippines. Bureau of Science : Philippine Journal of Science.
Tahiti. Societe d'Etudes Oceanniennes : Bulletin.
638
Appendix
LIST OF INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH
THE PUBLICATIONS OP THE INSTITUTE ARE PRESENTED BY THE GOVERNORS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute.
Neiv Zealand.
Cabinet, The Members of, Welhngton. Executive Library, WelHngton. Free Pubhc Library, Auckland.
„ Christchurch,
„ Dunedin.
„ Wellington.
Turnbull Library, Bowen Street, Wellington. Government Printer and publishing staff (6 copies). Library, Auckland Institute, Auckland.
Auckland Museum, Auckland.
Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Biological Laboratory, University College, Auckland.
Biological Laboratory, University of Otago, Dunedin.
Biological Laboratory, Victoria University College, Wel- lington.
Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.
Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch.
Cawthron Institute, Nelson.
Department of Agriculture, Wellington.
Dunedin Athenseum.
General Assembly, Wellington (2 copies).
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier.
Mana.watu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North.
Nelson College.
Nelson Institute, Nelson.
New Zealand Geological Survey.
New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.
New Zealand Institute, Wellington. ,
Otago Institute, Dunedin.
Otago Museum, Dunedin.
Otago School of Mines, Dunedin. ' Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.
Polynesian Society, New Plymouth.
Portobello Fish-hatchery, Dunedin.
Eeefton School of Mines.
Southland Museum, Invercargill.
Thames School of Mines.
University College, Auckland.
University of Otago, Dunedin.
Victoria University College, Wellington.
Waihi School of Mines, Waihi.
Wanganui Museum.
Wellington Philosophical Society.
List of Free Copies. , 539
Great Britain.
Athenaeum Subject Index to Periodicals, 11 Bream's Buildings,
Chancery Lane, London E.G. Bodleian Library, Oxford University.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, London. British Museum Library, London.
„ Natural History Department, South Kensington,
London S.W. Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge University. Colonial Office, London. Clifton College, Bristol, England. Geological Magazine, London. Geological Society, Synod Hall, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh.
„ London.
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London. High Commissioner for New Zealand, London. Imperial Institute, London. Institution of Civil Engineers, London. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, 34 Southampton
Street, Strand, London. Leeds Geological Association, Sunnyside, Crossgate, Leeds. Linnean Society, London. Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool. Liverpool Biological Society.'
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth. Natural History Society, Glasgow. Nature, The Editor of, London. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich. North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engmeers,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Patent Office Library, 25 Southampton Street, London W.C. Philosophical Society of Glasgow. Eoyal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,
59 Great Kussell Street, London W.C. Eoyal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh. Eoyal Colonial Institute, London.
Eoyal Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, London S.W. Eoyal Institution, Liverpool. Eoyal Irish Academy, Dublin. Eoyal Physical Society, Edinburgh. Eoyal Scottish Geographical Society, Synod Hall. Castle Terrace,
Edinburgh. *■ ^
Eoyal Society, Dublin.
„ Edinburgh.
„ London.
Eoyal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, London. Eoyal Statistical Society, London. University Library, Cambridge, England.
„ Edinburgh.
Victoria University, Manchester. Victoria Institute, London. William Wesley and Son, London (Agents). Zoological Society, London.
540 Appendix.
British North America.
Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
Hamilton Scientific Association, Hamilton, Canada.
Institute of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica.
International Institute of Agriculture, Department of Agriculture,
Ottawa, Canada. Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John's. Nova-Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Halifax. Eoyal Canadian Institute, Toronto.
South 'Africa.
Free Public Library, Cape Town.
South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town
South African Museum, Cape Town.
Ehodesia Museum, Bulawayo, South Africa.
India.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. Colombo Museum, Ceylon. Geological Survey of India, Calcutta. Natural History Society, Bombay. Eaffles Museum, Singapore.
Qiieensland.
Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Eoyal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.
New South Wales. Agricultural Department, Sydney.
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney. Australian Museum Library, Sydney. Department of Mines, Sydney.
Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney. Engineering Institute of New South Wales, Watt Street, Newcastle. Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney. Public Library, Sydney. Eoyal Society of New South Wales, Sydney. University Library, Sydney.
Victoria.
Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne. Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry, Danks Buildings,
391 Bourke Street, Melbourne. Field Naturalists' Club, Melbourne. Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne. Legislative Library, Melbourne. Public Library, Melbourne. Eoyal Society of Victoria, Melbourne. University Library, Melbourne. Advisory Council of Science and Industry, 314 Albert Street, East
Melbourne.
List of Free Copies. 541
Tasmania.
Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart. Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.
South Australia.
Public Museum and Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide. Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide. University Library, Adelaide.
Western Australia. Government Geologist, Perth.
Btcssia.
Emperor Peter I Agricultural Institute, Woronesh.
Finskoie Uchonoie Obshchestvo (Finnish Scientific Society), Helsing- fors.
Imper. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo lestestvo - Ispytatelei (Imperial Moscow Society of Naturalists).
Kiefskoie Obshchestvo lestestvo-Ispytatelei (Kief Society of Natural- ists).
Norway.
Adviser of Norwegian Fisheries, Bergen. > Bergens Museum, Bergen. University of Christiania.
Sweden.
Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm. Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm.
De7imark.
Natural History Society of Copenhagen.
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literature of Copenhagen.
Germany.
Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin.
Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.
Konigliche Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft, Konigsberg, E.
Prussia. Konigliches Zoologisches und x\nthropologisch - Ethnographisches
Museum, Dresden. Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn. Naturhistorischer Museum, Hamburg. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfort-an-der-Oder. Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum (Stadtisches Museum fiir Volkerkunde)
Cologne. Redaction des Biologischen Centralblatts, Erlangen. Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfort-am-Main Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wiirttemburg, Stuttgart. Zoological Society, Berlin
542 Appendix.
Austria.
K.K. Central-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, Vienna. K.K. Geologische Eeichsanstait, Vienna.
Belgitmi and the Netherlands.
Academie Eoyal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Arts de
Belgique, Brussels. La Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels. Mus^e Teyler, Haarlem. Netherlands Entomological Society, Hazepaterslaan 5, Haarlem.
Sivitzerland. '
Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Societe des Sciences Naturelles), Bern.
France. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Societe Zoologique de France, Paris. Societe de Chimie Industrielle, 49 Rue de Mathurins, Paris.
Italy.
Biblioteca ed Archivio Tecnico, Rome.
Museo Civice di Storia Naturale, Genova.
Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Gomparata della R. Universita,
Turin. Orto e Museo Botanico (R. Instituto di Studi Superiori), Florence. R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti, Modeha. R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome. Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples. Societa Africana d'ltalia, Naples. Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome. ' Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturgbli, Pisa.
Spain. Junta de Ciencies Naturals, Barcelona, Apartado 593.
United States of America.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York. „ Davenport, Iowa.
„ Library, Philadelphia.
San Francisco. American Engineering Societies' Library, 29 West 39th Street, New
York. American Geographical Society, New York. American Journal of Science (Editors), Yale University, New Haven,
Conn. American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Boston Society of Natural History.
Chemical Abstracts, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Connecticut Academy, New Haven. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
List of Free Copies, 543
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Journal of Geology (Editors), University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Leland Stanford Junior University, California.
Lloyd Library, Cincinnati.
Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
National Academy of Sciences, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. Nevs^ York Academy of Sciences, 77th Street and Central Park West,
New York. Philippine Museum, Manila. Rochester Academy of Sciences. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Tufts College, Massachusetts.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. University of Montana, Missoula. Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia.
Brazil.
Escola de Minas, Rio de Janeiro. Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo.
Argentine BepiMic. ^
Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Cordoba. Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres.
Uruguay. , Museo Nacional, Monte Video.
Ja^an. College of Science, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo.
Haivaii.
Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu. National Library, Honolulu.
Java. Society of Natural Science, Batavia.
INDEX.
AUTHORS OF PAPERS.
Adkin, G. L. — Examples of Readjustment of Drainage on the Tararua pages
Western Foothills . . . . . . . . . . . . 183-191
Andersen, J. C. — The Mission of the " Britomart " at Akaroa in August,
1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-89
Bartrum, J. A. —
Additional Facts concerning the Distribution of Igneous Rocks in New
Zealand : No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 416-422
The Conglomerate at Albany, Lucas Creek, Waitemata Harbour . . 422-430
Beattie, H. —
The Southern Maori, and Greenstone . . ' . . . . . . 45-52
Nature-lore of the Southern Maori . . . . . . . . 53-77
Betts, M. W. —
Notes from the Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass.
No. 7— The Rosette Plants : Part I . . . . . . . . 253-275
Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite Belt, Nelson :
Part I— Structure of some of the Plants (No. 3) . . . . 276-314
Cheeseman, T. F. — Contributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the Flora of
New Zealand : No. 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-16
Chilton, Charles. — Some New Zealand Amphipoda : No. 1 . . . . 1-8
Clarke, C. E. — ■
New Lepidoptera . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Lepidoptera of Auckland and the King-country . . . . . . 36-41
Donovan, W. — 5ting-ray-liver Oil . . . . . . . . . . 29
Donovan, W., and Burton, G. C— The Distillation of Waikaia Oil-shale . . 27-29 HOLLOWAY, J. E. — Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lyco-
podium : Part IV — The Structure of the Prothallus in Five Species . . 193-239 Hudson, G. V. —
Illustrated Life-histories of New Zealand Insects : No. 1 . . . . 32-34
On some Examples of New Zealand Insects illustrating the Darwinian
Principle of Sexual Selection . . . . . . . . . . 431-4:38
Johnson (Mrs.), D. E.— The Food Values of New Zealand Fish : Part I . . 20-26 Marshall, P. —
The Tawhiti Series, East Cape District .. .. .. .. 109-110
The Hampden Beds and the New Zealand Tertiary Limestones . . 111-114
Marshall, P., and Murdoch, R. —
The Tertiary Rocks near Wanganui . . • . . . . - . 115-128
Some Tertiarj^ Mollusca, with Descriptions of New Species . . . . 128-136
Martin, W. — Pteridophytes of Banks Peninsula (Eastern Portion) . . 315-322
Meyrick, E. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . . . . . . 30-32
Park, J. — On the Occurrence of Striated Boulders in a Palaeozoic Breccia
near Taieri Mouth, Otago, New Zealand . . . . . • . • 107-108
Pbtrie, D. — Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants . . . • 17-19
Phelpott, a. — Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . . 42-44
Poppelwell, D. L. —
Notes on the Indigenous Vegetation of the North-eastern Portion of
the Hokonui Hills, with a List of Species . . . . • • 239-247
Notes on the Indigenous Vegetation of Ben Lomond, with a List of
Species .. .. .. .. .. .. •• 248-252
RowE, E. A. — The Influence of Salts of the Alkali and Alkaline-earth Metals on
the Solubility in Water of Calcium Carbonate (a) in the Presence of Air
free from Carbon Dioxide, (b) in the Presence of Excess of Carbon Dioxide 192
Thomson, J. Allan. — The Notocene Geology of the Middle Waipara and
Weka Pass District, North Canterbury, New Zealand . . . . 322^15
Uttley, G. H. —
Tertiary Geology of the Area between the Otiake River (Kurow District)
and Dimtroon, North Otago . . . . . . • • • • 137-153
Tertiary Geology of the Area between Wharekuri and the Otiake River,
North Otago . . . . . . . . - • • • 154-168
Remarlis on Bulletin No. 20 (New Series) of the New Zealand Geological
Survey .. .. - .. .. .. •• .. 169-182
Wall, A. —
Ranunculus paucifolius T. Kirk : its Distribution and Ecology, and the
Bearing of these upon certain Geological and Phylogenetic Problems 90-105
Helichrysurn dimorphum Cockayne — a Hybrid ? . . • • • • 106—107
Watt, M. N.— The Leaf-mining Insects of New Zealand . . . . • - 439-466
Marcus F. Marks, Government Printer, Wellington. — 1920.
MBL/WHOI LIBRARY
iiiH y
R3 3
PUBLiCATlONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
TRANSACTIONS.
Complete sets and partial sets, loijether with tlie index to the forty volumes of the first series, can be supplied to nou-members at special orices, which will be quoted on application. Vols. 11. 12, 15 to 37 inclusive, and 39 can be supi'lied at .5s. per volume to uon- members and at 2s. per volume to members.
Vol. 1, second edition
Vols. 2, 3, 4, and 8. (Out of pnnt.i
The price for the other volumes will be given on application lo the Secretarv. '^. he pi'ice varies according to the number in stock.
INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS, VOLS. 1-40.
Part 1— Authors and Titles of Papers ; Piirt -I— Subject-index
MAORI ART.
A few sets of the five parh, of this work are in hand. For set of five Separate copies of the par's can be obtained.—
Part 1 (Canoes). (Out of prin..i
Part 2 (Houses) — This is a double piirt, and cuntains coloured plate' of rafter-patterns . .
Parts 3, 4, and 5 . . . . • . ■ • ■ • each
Specially designed covers for the full work in maroon cloth
MANGAREVA DICTIONARY. By E. Teegear. 1899
LIBRARY CATALOGUE of the Joint Libraries of the Geological Survey, the Museum, New Zealand Institute, and the Wellington Philosophical Society.
1st edition, 1890. (Out of print.) 2nd edition, 1900
CATALOGUE OF THE CARTER COLLECTION OF NEW ZEALAND BOOKS.
Catalogue and three Supplements. (Out of print.)
MANUAL OP THE NEW ZEALAND COLEOPTERA.
By Major Broun.
Part 1, 1880; Part 2, 1881; Part 3, 1886; Part 4, 1886; /art 5, 1893 ; Part 6, 1893 ; Part 7, 1893 . .
BULLETIN No. 1. New Genera and Species of Coleopiera. By Major Broun.
Part I
Part II Part III Part IV
Part V
( To members
I
I To members
I
I To members
To members
(To members
BULLETIN No. 2. Revision of the New Zealand (
Byrrhidae. By Major Broun. ( To members
BULLETIN No 3. Studies in the Brvologv of New Zealand. By H. N. Dixon, M.A.
Part I
Price.
£ b. d.
1 i 0
F.L.S.
Part II
(To members To members
0 2 0
4 4 0
|
u |
7 6 |
|
0 |
5 0 |
|
0 |
b 0 |
0 1 u
0 1 0
1 1 0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
[The publications of the Institute may be obtained on application to the Secretary, Wellington, N.Z., or from the London agents. Messrs. William Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Street. Strand, London W.C.I
PUBLISHED BY THE PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY,
INDEX FAUNAE NOVAE ZEALANDIAE. Edited by £ s. a. Uaotain F. W. Hutton, 'Svo .. .. .. . . 0 12 (i
SUBANTARCTIC ISLANDS OF NEW ZEALAND. Edited
by Dr. Ghas. Chilton, 2 vols., 4vo
To membere.
2 2 0 1 0 0
|
.-S^ -'^ ^ ■ -'"r M ^pS *^ :t^ ■ -^ |
'*#^ L'*^ |
y^.v^*:.. . ^, |
A |
|
■dt- -idA diS. ' ja iiSL ■.^- '..ii- |
.-*.' |
||
|
1 -ll.:,:W #. M M :«r |
■# ■ M |
||
|
^^^ ='€ M ■% |
r:: i^ |
||
|
r -^ ''^ -i^ ^ |
i^.^
r^m
"% ,,
^^Mwmif
|
S: -.«»;■■ |
'M |
■if ■■« MmmW^ |
M'^MWW^ M |
|
|
-L |
i '^ ^ -m ■^^m^'^ |
RF^i^^flllf4l&fif^3MP^^bl |
||
|
t*-' |
.^ 'fe.- ...■ ■•>... ^'.. - •;■> ia:: .'•« |
|fe. ';- - ■BE-' ;'■ ^^^K ' ■' ^Bl ■ '~^B- - ^K |
||
|
m^M^y |
||||
|
.ji^ m :m |
gjK;i^K';]|K^jp''^H |
|||
|
'^mMM |
'i ;-?§ ^ , . _ ': |
|||
|
^I^H |
-m m |
'« .* |
||
|
-*■■' 'c 5S5. * |
||||
|
^^' ,» |
i iar |
^1^ -M it ■' .*"^-*^-'^' |
-. • V- , ■ ;r.' '-; i-i ■ 3fr nl^. 'Wm t^
mm. 4 « € *
§--1f*4
:^>^«^:-%^*^'j|
4 « « € t'-tH'^"*"
. ■■■« ■# -f :^ vi
*» ■'! S % *■ -^4 -*■ ■* » •*•
^ "'^f '"« 'i^
,^ . n
f ' f
;# ^^
lib iU^. T.'^'T ^
X
I
St^Vh^
%>a'wL.
^ -S
|
1 |
! |
1 |
'^aPHe'I'' |
1 |
|||
|
US |
fciMB^^a |
Ep |
l^fl |
ipOJE |
1 |
^ |
BSb^ |
|
H''-''^^^EK'' |
^HbL' -'■^^^Kl^ |
JailBB^''.'- |
^^H '^'i^^KT' ^"^^^Bi |
p.v |
h^i^^Hj |
||
|
Ifll |
n^ |
M| |
■■BM^BBKir.HB |
1 |
01 |
||
|
^^H |
Bi^B^ |
9mP |
SmM |
^j^n^^^^KV^ |
p |
■l^ |
|
|
^^l^^^l |
HH |
mm |
HBa\:' 1 |
He ^ Ji^^^^'^^n |
1 |
Hj |
|
|
^^R |
^H^ |
^wi |
^jJH|^J|k^!'j |
■ |
••''-■ |
|0| |
"«? ':-^
•i. m
«, ;t
^i,;)tf
;l-''t
mrm
^^^Ha. V^^^^.'^ '''^^^w ' -f^^^E ' '^fl
*■ n
.^'^'tmM'i
m'W
MM
flM'M
.'^.A
myM.
m ^'^^
|
I' m 3 M M "'i^' ■ -itf |
|
|
4 4 "i 'i -^ 'i ^i |
|
|
; M ,^ |
|
|
'?t |
■ * • . , !t2' ^^ i^ !** *■? sV' |
|
•*^^-.^- |
.%.■?; -^ ■% ,^t % .■# |
.L«.i
|
■ f |
^^H |
|
H |
*■"■-»■ -V
■M. '0
1'