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TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS

AND

REP O bevy

OF THE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

OF

ADELAIDE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA,

FOR 1877-78.

ADELAIDE:
Printed at the Advertiser General Printing Office.

"1878.

Philosophical Society of Adelaide.

SSE So)

PATRON :
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR W. F. D. JERVOIS, G.C.M.G., C.B., &e.

PRESIDENT:
PROFESSOR RALPH TATE, F.G.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS :
CHARLES TODD, Esg., C.M.G., F.R.A.S., &e.
R. INGLEBY, Esq., Q.C.

HON. SECRETARY : HON. TREASURER:
WALTER RUTT, Esq., C.E. | THOMAS D. SMEATON, Ese.

MEMBERS OF COUNCIL:
D. B. ADAMSON, Esa. S. J. MAGAREY, Esq., M.B.
F. CHAPPLE, Esq., B.A., B.Sc. WALTER RUTT, Hsq., C.E.
R. INGLEBY, Esg., Q.C. ““! “THOMAS D. SMEATON, Esa.
JAS. MACGEORGE, Esa. PROF. TATE, F.G.S., &e.

CHARLES TODD, Ese., O.M.G., F.R.AS., &e.
(REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNOR.)

51,0 ASSISTANT. SECRETARY’: fu27
MR, A. MOLINEUX.

CONTENTS.

Abstract of Proceedings, Session 1877-78
Annual Report
Anniversary Address by Professor R. Tate ...

Dr. Schomburgk on Plant Fragments found in the Tombs, and other
Monumental Buildings of the Ancient Hgyptians

Mr. Otto Tepper on the Decrease of many Species of Insects and the
Increase of some in South Australia

Mr. Otto Tepper on the Habits and Description of a new South
Australian Beetle (Melolontha destructor)

Mr. H. H. Hayter on Infantile Mortality in South Australia

Mr. Gavin Scoular on the Origin of Mineral Veins, with special
reference to the Barossa District (abstract)

Mr. W. T. Beduall on Australian Trigonias and their Distribution
Professor R. Tate on the Recent Marginellide of South Australia
Professor R. Tate on the Fossil Marginellidee of Australasia ...
Mr. Otto Tepper on a New Theory of Whirlwinds (plate iii.)

Rev. J. H. Tenison Woods on New Species of Fossil Corals from
Aldinga, &c. (plates i. and ii.)

Professor R. Tate on Notes on the Correlation of the Coral-bearing
Strata in South Australia, with a list of Species of Fossil Corals

Mr. T. HE. Rawlinson, ©.H., on Subterranean Water Supply in the
Interior (abridged)

List of Members and Rules and Regulations of the Philosophical
Society of Adelaide...

PAGE.

56

61

104
120
124

12

TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS

AND

150 Nala @ aces

OF THE

Philosophical Society of Adelaide,

FOR 1877-78.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

OrnpINARY MEETING, 27tH NoveMBER, 1877.

Professor TaTx, F.G.S., V.P., in the chair.

‘THe Hon. Secretary laid on the table “The Statute Index of
Tasmania for 1876.”

Mr. A. Adamson, jun., was elected an ordinary member.

The CuarrMAN read a letter referring to the supposed bones of a
whale visible in the Murray Cliffs, near Blanchetown. f

Mr. D. C. F. Moopts (visitor) read a paper on “The Non-introducs
tion of Diseased Cattle,” which was followed by a discussion.

OrpInARY Meetine, 18ta DeceMBER, 1877.

J.S. Luoyp, Esq., Hon Treasurer, in the chair.

The Rey. W. R. FiuetcHer, M.A. (member), reid a paper on “ The
Exploratica of Palestine,’ which was followed by a discussion.

OrnDINARY M®ETING, 5TH FEBRUARY, 1878.

Professor TatTF, E.G.S., V.P., in the chair.

The following gentlemen were elected ordinary members : —Messrs.
W. 'lownsend, M.P., 8. Knevett, J. J. Stuckey, M.A., and A. Ringe
wood,

Professor Tats, F.G.S., V.P., exhibited a piece of rock from
Hallett’s Cove, which showed a polished and scratched surface, indica-
tive of glacial action.

Dr. Schompurck (member) read a paper on “ Plant-fragments
found in the Tombs and other Monumental Buildings of the Ancient
Egyptians,” which was followed by a discussion.

2

Mr. T. D. Smeaton, P.V.P., took the chair while Professor TATE
read a paper communicated by Mr. Otto Tepper on ‘‘ The Decrease of
many Species of Insects and the Increase of some in South Australia,”
which was followed by a discussion.

Ordinary Mrerine, 26vH Frpruary, 1878.

Professor TATE, F.G.S., V.P., in the chair.

The CHAIRMAN announced that the Council had received the resig-
nation of Mr. W. C. M. Finniss as Hon. Secretary, and that Mr. Walter
Rutt would act as Hon. Secretary pro tem.

The CHAIRMAN exhibited a selection of fossils, obtained from the
Murray Cliffs at Glenforslan, near Blanchetown, in which the original
shell is replaced by selenite. He considered these shells to be Eocene,
and that our South Australian Tertiary-beds were of older date than
had been suspected. A discussion upon the subject ensued.

Orpinary MeeEtine, 191TH Marcu, 1878.

Professor TaTE, F.G.S., V.P., in the chair.

Mr. Thos. Harry was elected an ordinary member.

Notice of motion was given by Messrs. Tate, Ingleby, Smeaton,
Wilson, and Todd, proposing alterations in the Rules, and it was resolved.
that the same should be printed and circulated.
fucizo Messrs. D. B. Adamson, A. W. Dobbie, J. Macgeorge, and B. H.
Babbage, Professor Lamb, and Dr. Schomburgk, with the Council, were
appointed a Committee to arrange for a Conyersazione ; Mr. W. Rutt to
act as Hon. Secretary.

My, T. D. Smzaron took the chair while Professor TatE read a paper
communicated by Mr. Gavin Scoular, on “ The Origin of Mineral Veins,
with special reference to the Barossa District.”

The Hon. SECRETARY pro tem. read a paper communicated by Mr.
H. H. Hayter, F.S.8., Government Statist of Victoria, on “ Infantile
Mortality in South Australia.” A discussion followed, which was
adjourned to the next ordinary meeting.

ConvVERSAZIONE, 15TH APRIL, 1878.

The Conversazione was held in the Town Hall, Adelaide, which
was filled with philosophical instruments, collections of natural history,
and other objects of scientific interest, as well as illustrated works upon
natural history, and a few specimens of the fine arts. Numerous experi-
ments were performed with the apparatus, and two or three telephones
were in operation throughout the evening.

OrpinaRny Meetine, 21st May, 1878.

Professor Tats, F.G.S., V.P., in the chair.

The Hon. Secretary pro dem. laid on the table a copy of a paper
“On the motion of a screw in an infinite mass of liquid,” by Professor

3

Lamb, and of “A catalogue of the plants in the Botanic Garden,
Adelaide,” and of “The Annual Report of the Botanic Garden for the

1877,” by Dr. Schomburgk. Copies of the last two works were
distributed among the members present.

The following gentlemen were elected ordinary members :—Messrs.
Geo. Brunskill and W. L. Ware.

The cordial thanks of the Society were presented to those gentlemen
not being members of the Society who had assisted by sending exhibits
to the late Conversazione.

The existing Rules were repealed, and a new code, as proposed by
the Council, was passed with a few verbal amendments.

The adjourned discussion upon Mr. Hayter’s paper on “ Infantile
Mortality in South Australia ” was continued.

Orptnaky Meetrine, 18TH June, 1878.

Professor TaTE, F.G.S., V.P., in the chair.

The following officers were elected for the remainder of the session:
—As Honorary Secretary, Mr. Walter Rutt, C.E.; as Vice-President,
Mr. T. D. Smeaton ; as Member of Council, Mr. D. B. Adamson.

The Hon. Secretary laid on the table “ The Statistical Register
for Victoria for 1876,” and “‘ Statistics of Friendly Societies for Victoria
for 1876.”

Mr. C. A. Witson (hon. member) drew attention to the recent dis-
covery of two more planetoids.

The Hon. Secretary read a paper, communicated by Mr. Otto
Tepper, on ‘The Habits and Description of anew South Australian
Beetle (Melolontha destructor),” which was followed by a discussion.

The Hon. SECRETARY read a paper, communicated by Mr. W. T.
Bednall, on “ Australian Trigonias and their Distribution,’ which was
followed by a discussion.

Professor Tats, F.G.S., V.P., read abstracts of two papers on
“Recent South Australian Marginellide” and on “Fossil Australian
Marginellide.”

Specimens in illustration of the foregoing papers were exhibited.

Mr. T. D. Smzaton, V.P., exhibited the imago and chrysalides of
a large brown and white butterfly, which had within the last few years
established itself in South Australia. A discussion followed, in which
it was asserted that the species was Danais Archipus, that its original
habitat was the United States of America, and that it had been observed
in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and elsewhere in the Southern
Hemisphere.

OrpinaRy Meetine, 16TH Juty, 1878.

Professor TaTr, F.G.S., V.P., in the chair.

The following gentlemen were elected :—As Corresponding Mem-
bers—Messrs. H. H. Hayter, F.S.S., Gavin Scoular, and Otto Tepper
as Ordinary Members—Mr. A. Adamson, Colonel Biggs, and Dr. Verco,
M.D., M.R.C.S.; as Associate—Mr. Stirling Smeaton.

4

The Hon. Secretary laid on the table a “List of Land Shells
collected on Fitzroy Island,” by Mr. John Brazier, C.M.Z.S.

The CoarrMan exhibited specimens illustrative of a paper recently
presented by himself to the Linnzean Society of New South Wales on
«‘ Three new species of Helices ;” also corals, including one new species,
illustrative of a paper presented to the same Society by the Rey. J. E.
T. Woods, F.L.S., F.G.S., honorary member of this Society, on “The
extra-tropical corals of Australia.”

The Hon. SEcRETARY read a paper by Mr. Otto Tepper, corres-
ponding member, on ‘‘ Whirlwinds,” which was followed by a dis-
cussion. a

OrvinaRy Meetine, 20TH August, 1878.

Professor Tats, F.G.S., V.P., in the chair.

The CHAIRMAN referred to his having found near the Murray Mouth
a sandpiper, whose foot was clasped by a large Donax shell, which it had
probably carried from the Middleton beach. ‘This incident illustrated by
analogy Darwin’s suggestion that the wide distribution of fresh-water
animals and plants was due to the agency of aquatic birds.

Mr. Samvuret Hices, F.G.S. (visitor), read a short abstract of “A
list of minerals found in South Australia,” which he was compiling for
presentation to the Society ; and the paper was followed by a discussion.

Mr. Cuartes Topp, C.M.G., F.R.A.S., M.S.T.E|, member of
Council, read a paper on “ Tne Telephone and the Microphone,” followed
by experiments.

OrDINARY MEETING, 17TH SEPTEMBER, 1878.

Professor Tats, F.G.S., V.P., im the chair.

The Hon. SEcRETARY laid upon the table “ The Statistical Recister
of Victoria for 1877 ; parts 1 and 2 ;” several volumes of “The Bulletin
of the Signal Service of the United States for 1874;” “Smithsonian
Report for 1876 ;” and “ Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria
vols. 13 and 14.” ,

Mr. E. P. Nesbit, jun., was elected Auditor.

Mr. R. Ingleby, Q.C., drew attention to the sympathy existing
between the weather intheSouthern and that in the Northern Hemisphere.
In the latter there had occurred successively a stormy, a dry, a hot, and
a wet season. The two former we had already experienced here, and he
anticipated a hot summer, and probably a wet November and December.

The CHarrMAN stated that the old rocks of our hills had hitherto
been supposed to be destitute of fossils. He exhibited specimens of a
paleozoic limestone obtained by Mr. O. Tepper, corresponding member
near Maitland, which showed possible traces of organic remains. Mr.
eee had written that he had since found more decisive evidences of

ossils.

Mr. Smeaton, V.P., having taken the chair, Professor Tatm read a
paper by the Rey. J. H. T. Woods, honorary member, on “The Fossil
Corals of Aldinga.”

Professor Tats then read some supplementary notes on “ 2
lation of the Tertiary Strata of South erat ah a list of eee
Tertiary Corals.”

5

Specimens in illustration of the foregoing papers were exhibited.

The Hon. SECRETARY read a paper on *‘ Subterranean Water Supply
in the Interior,” by Mr. T. Rawlinson, C.E., communicated through Mr.
C. Todd, C.M.G., which was followed by a discussion.

Annus Mexrrtine, 8tH OcToBER, 1878.

Professor TaTz, F.G.S., V.P.,-in the chair.

The following gentlemen were elected :—As Honorary Member—
Mr. W. Macleay, F.L.S.; as Ordinary Member—Mr. William Thow.

The Hon. Szcrerary laid on the table the “Statistical Register
for Victoria for 1877; part 5,” the ‘‘ Meteorological Observations
recorded at the Adelaide Observatory for 1876,” and the same for the
first three months of 1878.

The Rules adopted upon the 21st May, 1878, were confirmed.

Mr. C. Topp, C.M.G., M.S.T.E., exhibited a new insulator designed
by himself for use with iron poles. The porcelain umbrella was pro-
tected by an iron shield, and was screwed on to an iron pin, which
penetrated to within one- eighth of an inch of the iron shield, being pre-
vented from touching it by an annular distance piece of ebonite. The
pin acted as a lightning discharger, and would obviate the difficulty
arising from the constant fracture of the ordinary insulators when. placed
upon iron poles.

Mr. C. A. Witson laid on the table copies of the Garden and
Field, containing an article written by himself on ‘The American
Butterfly. ” He also exhibited two ancient deeds of the 14th and 15th
centuries.

The Annual Report and Balance-Sheet were read by the Hon.
Secretary and adopted, and it was resolved that they sheuld be printed
and published in the transactions of the Society.

The anniversary address having been delivered by the Chairman, it
was resolved that the address be printed in the transactions of the
Society.

The CHaIRMAN announced that His Excellency the Governor had
accepted the position of Patron of the Society, and it was resolved that
the Hon. Secretary communicate to His Excellency the thanksof the
Society.

The following gentlemen were elected as Officers and Council for the
ensuing year :—

President—Professor R. Tate, F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents—R. Ingleby, Q.C., and C. Todd, C.M.G., F.R.A. s,
M.S.T.E.

Treasurer—T. D. Smeaton.

Honorary Secretary— Walter Rutt, C.E.

Members of Council—D. B. Adamson, F. S. Chapple, B.A., BSc.
Jas. Macgeorge, and 8. J. Magarey, M.B.

‘Tt was resolved that an Assistant Secretary be See ai the
appointment and the remuneration to be left to. the Couuci

The thanks of the Society were accorded to the retiring Treasurer
(Mr. J. S. Lloyd), and to Mr. C. A. Wilson, who retired from the
Council ; and a similar vote was passed to the other officers and members
of Council for the past year.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
OF THE
ADELAIDE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDING SEPTEMBER 30TH, 1878.

Tn presenting to the members of this Society the twenty-fifth Annual
Report of its proceedings, the Council have pleasure in stating that the
papers which have been laid before the members during the past year
have been of a character worthy of the Society, embodying the results of
a considerable amount of original research; and it is a cause of regret
that the attendance of members and their friends at our meetings has not,
as a rule, been so large as might reasonably have been expected from the
quality of the matter submitted. The following is alist of the papers
laid before the Society during the year :—

“ The Non-introduction of Diseased Cattle,” by Mr. D. C. F. Moodie.

“The Exploration of Palestine,” by Rev. W. R. Fletcher, M.A.

“ Plant-fragments found in the tombs and other monumental build-
ings of the Ancient Egyptians,” by Dr. Schomburgk, Dr. Ph., &c.

‘The Decrease of many species of Insects, and the Increase of some,
in South Australia,” by Mr. Otto Tepper.

“ The Origin of Mineral Veins, with special reference to the Barossa
District,” by Mr. Gavin Scoular.

‘Infantile Mortality in South Australia,” by Mr. H. H. Hayter,
FSS.

“The Habits and Description of a new South Australian Beetle
(Melolontha destructor)” by Mr. Otto Tepper.

“ Australian Trigonias and their distribution,” by Mr. W. T. Beduall.

“ Recent Australian Marginellidee,” by Professor Tate, F.G.S. —

“ Fossil Australian Marginellidze,” by Professor Tate, F.G.S.

“ Whirlwinds,” by Mr. Otto Tepper.

‘A list of Minerals found in South Australia,” by Mr. Samuel
Higgs, F.G.S.

“The Telephone and Microphone,” by Mr. Charles Todd, C.M.G.,
F.R.A.S., M.S.T.E.

“The Fossil Corals of Aldinga,” by Rev. J. E. Tenison Woods,
F.LS., F.G.S., &e.

“'Vhe correlation of the coral-bearing strata of South Australia, with
a list of species of tertiary corals,” by Professor R. Tate, F.G.S.

is She ae water supply in the Interior,” by Mr. T. E. Rawlin-
son, C.E.

In addition to the ordinary meetings of the Society, a very successful
Conversazione was held in the Town Hall, Adelaide, during the month of
April, which, as your Council believes, excited considerable interest in
scientific subjects, not only among the members of this Society, but also
among the general public.

The following works have been presented to the Society’s library
during the year :—

“The Statute Index of Tasmania for 1876.”

7

Sea motion of a screw in an infinite mass of water,” by Professor
‘Lamb.
“Catalogue of plants in the Botanic Garden, Adelaide,” by Dr.
Schomburgk, Dr. Ph.

“Annual Report of the Botanic Garden for 1877,” by Dr. Schom-
‘burgk, Dr. Ph.

“Statistical Rezister of Victoria, parts of 1876 and 1877.”

List of Land Shells collected on Fitzroy Island; by Mr. John
Brazier, C.M.Z.S.

During the year the Council carefully considered the Rules of the
Society, and came to the conclusion that it was advisable to revise them,
and the amended code, adopted by the Society on the 21st May, is now
in force. The chief alterations consist in the numerical increase in the
Council, the admission as corresponding members of residents in this
Province at a distance from Adelaide, and the creation of the new class
of Associates.

Several changes in the Council have taken place, due in part to the
adoption of these Rules, and in part to the resignation of the Honorary
Secretary, Mr. W. C. M. Finniss. On the 18th June Mr. Walter Rutt,
C.E., was elected Honorary Secretary; Mr. T. D. Smeaton, whose office
as Past Vice-President was abolished, was elected Vice-President; and
Mr. D. B. Adamson a Member of Council.

It is with deep regret that the Council record the death of Mr.
John Howard Clark, one of the founders of the Society, and for many
years one of its most active members. Mr. Clark filled successively for
a considerable time the offices of Secretary and Treasurer ; and although
-of late ill-health prevented him from taking any active part in the pro-
ceedings of the Society, his interest in all matters connected with science
and literature remained to the last unabated.

The number of members of all classes on the Society’s roll at the
commencement of the past session was 103, and the present number is
101, as shown. in the annexed table. The large number of apparent
resignations is due to the fact that the names of several gentlemen, who
haye for some years discontinued their subscriptions without formally
sending in their resignations, are now omitted :—

| oe. During Current Year. 3s oé |
_&S7 | Elected. | Died, | Resigned.|| 2,37
Ordinary Members ...... 88 9 1 12 84
| Honorary Members ...... Pag _ 2 = 13
Corresponding Members = | 3 _— =
PNSBOCIAGES) 5..2.scc.c0cess50- = 1 — = 1
otal... esses: 103 13 3 12 101

8

It is now some years since the proceedings of this Society have been
printed. The Council have, after due ccnsideration, decided to recom-
mence their publication in a form which will be more handy, and more in
accordance with that adopted by most of the scientific societies of the
world, than that in which they were formerly issued; and they hope that
the state of funds will enable the Society to continue the publication
from year to year.

Arrangements have been made with the Governors of the South
Australian Institute for the exhibition at the Society’s monthly meetings
of any interesting specimens of Natural History which may have been
presented to the Museum of the Institute durimg the previous month.
This will not only impart an additional interest to the meetings, but will
be a means of making known the contributions which are continually
being made to the Museum, and which cannot at present through want
of space be utilized for public exhibition.

In conclusion, the retiring Council would express a hope that their
successors will be supported in their efforts to develop the objects of the
Society by the united assistance of its members. They desire to im-
press upon all the desirability of placing upon record in its transactions
the accumulated results of the observation and research of the scattered
population of this province, which will otherwise be lost to science. They
would also draw attention to the opportunity which is afforded by the
new class of Associates to ladies and young men to take an interest in
the diffusion and advancement of the arts and sciences.

WattTerR Rutt, Hon. Sec.

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11

ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS
BY
PROFESSOR RALPH TATE.

f)
GENTLEMEN—The duty of closing this session with an address, which I
have been requested to undertake, has not devolved upon me through
custom, and it may therefore seem to be presumptious on my part to
have accepted it ; but I have willingly acceded to the request, because I
wish to take the opportunity of touching upon some topics which cannot
conveniently be communicated in the ordinary way, and to establish a
precedent that will be good to follow at each anniversary of this Society.

T have thought that an account of the general progress that has
recently been made towards a better knowledge of the Natural History
of South Australia, accompanied by a series of remarks upon the best
ayailable authorities to be consulted upon such subjects, might supply a
want which I know by personal experience is often felt, and at the same
time would form a not inappropriate address from the chair which I have
now the honour to occupy. The task of compiling such information
would not be very difficult to one who had at his command the well-
furnished libraries of the Royal, Linnean, Geological, and Zoological
Societies of London; but the few weeks which intervened between my
acceptation of the Chair of Natural Science in the University of Adelaide,
and my departure for the scene of my future labours, did not afford me
time to consult any of those rich stores of scientific literature for this
purpose. The information which I am able to submit to you has, there-

fore, been obtained under adverse circumstances —e.g., isolation from
many sources of information, and from the assistance of experts—and in
some cases from second-hand sources; and it is not to be expected that
the lists of works should be exhaustive, but they will give to the student in
search of particular information a clue which may be followed up to the
desired source. Our public library is ill supplied with works relating to
the Natural History of the Province, and those needful works of reference
‘supplementary thereto, though some endeavours are being made to supply
the deficiencies. It, moreover, seems to me that the usefulness of the
Reference Library is at present practically nullified through the want of
‘accommodation for readers, and by not allowing access to, and freedom
-of selection from, the skelyes. The library of the University is being
zapidly enriched with works indispensable to the student in Natural

12

Science ; these are, for the most part, distinct from those in the National
Library. In the following pages the sign * prefixed to the title of a work
indicates that the work is in the Library of the South Australian Institute,
and a + that it isin the University Library. 1t will be the privilege of
the President elect of this Society to enlarge my summary of works and
papers bearing upon the Natural History of this country, and to keep the
members en cowrant with what has been done during his year of office to
increase our knowledge of the natural products of this continent.

In making ourselves acquainted with the actual extent of our know-
ledge respecting the Geology, Mineralogy, Zoology, and Botany of South
Australia, we are brought face to face with the fact that there are many
missing pages, and even chapters, in its history, and we shall learn that
our knowledge in many departments is mere technical barrenness. It is
one of the functions of the Society to make good these desiderata, and
to make the knowledge we have and shall acquire real, practical, and
interesting. From what follows, you may gather that there is great
scope for work in many branches of Natural Science. No member can.
plead the want of a subject, and each one, by the careful examination of
the natural objects around him, may collect facts which may furnish
data for others of higher scientific attainments to collate, arrange, and
draw conclusions from —all that is demanded is strict accuracy of
detail, and allowing the facts to speak for themselves. Identi-
fication of species is a portion, though small, of the business.
of systematic biology, and short synoptical faunas are useful to the
general naturalist. When our Zoology shall have been well investigated,.
popular hand books and elaborate memoirs will doubtlessly follow. In.
the preparation of synopses of our fauna, localities should be accurately
noted, particularly in the case of insects and land shells, which are of all.
others those whose local stations are most closely dependent on vegeta-
tion. Hitherto the work of description has been done at home, with the~
disadvantage of mistakes of habit and of multiplication of species,.
which would be obviated if the species were described in their native
country. It seems to be a fruitful source of error as to locality, that of
giving the place whence the specimens were despatched as that of the
habitat. Several glaring mistakes of this kind might be mentioned.
One will suffice. Moloch horridus is recorded by Gray, “ Lizards of
Australia,” from Adelaide and W. Australia. Several species originally
described as from New Holland, have not yet been referred to their true-

13

-Stations ; and the mistake has been made by some authors by confound-
ing South and Southern Australia.

Before entering upon the consideration of the chief subject matter
of this address, I must premise that my remarks do not refer to the
Northern Territory, unless specially so stated; and that it will be
obvious to all that the Natural History of South Australia, thus restric-
ted, cannot be studied without reference to that of neighbouring colonies,
which together form one large natural province, capable, however, of
being subdivided into regions. These regions are not to be defined by
existing governmental boundaries, though the preliminary investigations
may not inconveniently be regulated by them. The definition of natural
regions must be the result of long and patient study ; and we have not
yet the data for formulating them.

ZOOLOGY.

Crass Mammat1a.—* That we know more of the fauna of Australia
than of other English colonies in different parts of the world is certain,
but no thanks are due from us for this knowledge, either to the Imperial
or to any of the Colonial Governments. The unassisted enterprise of a
private individual has produced the two splendid works upon the
Mammals and Birds of Australia, which we all turn to with pleasure
whenever reference is required toa member of these twoclasses of Aus-
tralian animals. Mr. Gould’s ‘Mammals of Australia’ was completed in
1863. Since that period the little additional information received re-
specting the terrestrial mammals of Australia has been chiefly furnished
by Mr. Krefft, late of the Australian Museum, Sydney, and by his
-suecessor, Mr. HE. P. Ramsay, in various papers and memoirs. On the
marine mammals, however, which were scarcely touched upon by Mr.
Gould, we have a treatise by Mr. A. W. Scott, published at Sydney, in
1878, which contains a good deal of useful information concerning the
seals and whales of the Southern Hemisphere.”—Dr. P. T. Sclater,
Opening Address, Biological Section, the British Association,

‘September, 1875.

Mr. F. G. Waterhouse, the curator of the Institute Museum,
furnished a classified catalogue of the mammals and birds which are met
with in South Australia, to Mr. Harcus’s (*f) “South Australia, 1876.”
The list contains the names of sixty-four terrestrial and three marine
mammals, and is unaccompanied by reference to localities. This omission
is agreat defect, as no judgment can be formed as to their distribution within
our province or totheir relation to neighbouring ones; and creates doubt

14

as to the actual occurrence of some species which are usually considered
to be restricted within narrow limits in distant parts of the Continent.
It is also to be regretted that observations on the habits and distribution
of our indigenous mammals are not extant, as year by year they
will become more difticult to make, and many of the most rare or
local seem to be doomed to extinction through the repellent and exter-
minating influence of advancing culture of the soil.

Ciass AvrEs.—The magnificent series of seven volumes of Mr.
Gould’s (*) “ Birds of Australia” was finished in 1848; and in 1869 a
supplementary volume was issued containing similar full-sized illustra-
tions of about 80 species. In 1865 Mr. Gould reprinted in a quarto.
form, with additions and corrections, the letterpress of his great work,
and published it under the title of a “ Handbook to the Birds of Aus-
. tralia.” This is a convenient work for general reference.

My criticisms on Mr. Waterhouse’s List of Mammals will apply with
equal force to that of his South Australian Birds. The number of
species there quoted for this province is 860 ; but Mr. E. P. Ramsay, in
his ‘‘ List of Australian Birds, 1877,” makes mention of only 343. The
discrepancy is more than accounted for by the degradation of so-called
species to the rank of varieties, whilst Mr Ramsay’s list contains a few
species not enumerated by Mr. Waterhouse.

Crass Repritia.—(t) “On the Snakes of Australia” we have an ex-
cellent work, published in 1869 by Mr. Gerald Krefft, in which a list of
the South Australian species will be found. The late Dr. Gray has
written many papers on the Tortoises and Lizards of Australia. Of the
latter we have to thank Dr. Gunther for a complete monographic list
published in 1875 in one of the newly-issued numbers of the (f) “ Voyage
of the Erebus and Terror.” Most of the plates of this work were also
issued in 1867 by Dr. Gray in his (+) “ Facsiculus of the Lizards of Aus-
tralia and New Zealand.”

Cxiass AMPHIBIA.—An indispensable work in this department is Dr.
Gunther’s (*t) “ Catalogue of the Batrachia Salentia,” published in 1858,
which embraces all the Australian species of the class then known; but
additions have since been made and referred to by Keferstein, in his

new and little-known Batrachians from Australia, (+) “ Neue und wenig
bekannte Batrachier aus! Australien.” As localities are given in both
works, it will be an easy task to prepare a list of the South Australian
species ; and doubtless from the small number therein recorded for this
province, an increase to it wouid reward the collector.

15

Cuass Pisces.—For information on the fishes of Australia reference-
must be made to the ichthyological portion of the (*) “Zoology of the
Erebus and Terror,” by Sir John Richardson, and to the same author’s-
papers on Australian fishes in the “ Annals and Magazines of Natural.
History,” 1842-1843, and ‘‘Transactions and Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London,” 1839-1840. Whilst Gunther’s Catalogue
(*) of the Fishes of the British Museum, complete in eight volumes, is
absolutely indispensable to any one engaged in the study of fishes; and
no ichthyologist should be without “ Cuvier’s and Valencienne’s His
toire Naturelle des Poissons.”

The Count F. de Castlenau has in the last few years published in the
** Proceedings of the Zoological and Acclimatization Society of Victoria,.
1872,” several papers on the fishes of the Melbourne Fishmarket and of
other parts of Southern Australia, which include a completa synopsis of
the known Australian species.

It may be of interest to know that the fishes of Port Darwin have’
recently undergone critical examination at the hands of Mr. W. Macleay
(Proc. Linnean Soc. N. S. Wales, 1878). One hundred and twelve
species are cataloged, 21 of which are described as new. Frequent refe-
rence is made to Dr. Bleeker’s “ Atlas Ichthylogique des Ind. Or. Nederl.”

Sus-Kinepom Mo.uiusca.—In the department ef Marine Concho-
logy we have a good foundation to work upon in the “ Lists of all the
known species of marine mollusca of the province of South Australia,”
by G. F. Angas, which are contained in the Proc. Zool. Soc., London,
for the year, 1865. The number of species therein recorded is :—Cephalo-
poda, 2; Branchiogastropoda, 229; Conchifera, 96; Brachiopoda, 1.
Seventy-eight of the species were unknown to science till described from
Mr. Angas’s specimens, during the eighteen months preceding the publi-
cation of the ‘ Lists’ by Messrs. H. & A. Adams, H. Crosse, and
himself.

Such are the results of Mr. Angas’s indefatigable exertions during a
residence of some years in this province; and because nearly every
species mentioned had been collected by him, the catalogue is that of the
bona fide molluscan inhabitants of our waters. Though Mr. Angas still
pays considerable attention to Australian conchology; yet he has not
published anything further in continuation of the above-mentioned
papers, excepting that of correcting the nomenclature of a few species.
in papers on the molluscan fauna of New South Wales, published in
Proc. Zool. Sov., ranging from 1867 to 1877, and adding three new forms

16

in a paper published in this year. These papers are invaluable to the
South Australian conchologist, as a fair proportion of shells are common
to the two areas. Mr. Angas, in his papers, op. cit., 1865, not only
gives lists of names, but adds remarks on the habitats and distribution
of each species, and supplies references to works wherein the species are
described or figured. .

The bibliography is certainly voluminous, but a large number of
the descriptions and figures are collected together in a monographic form
in Reeve’s ‘ Iconica Conchologica.” The University Library contains the
monographs of the more important Australian genera, and the following
works dealing with Australian shells :—Lamarck, ‘ Animaux sans Verte-
bres,’ 7 vols.; Menke, ‘ Molluscorum Novee Hollandiz ; Quoy & Gaimard,
‘Voyage de l’Astrolabe; Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Samarang ;
Journal de Conchyliogie; Cruise of H.M.S. Curagoa; Gould’s ‘ Otia.

A glance at the numbers of representatives of each class of the
mollusca, recorded by Mr. Angas, reveals the paucity of cephalopods and
brachiopods, and the absence of pteropods; whilst a reference to the
papers discovers the absence of an entire order—that of Nudibranchs or
sea slugs. ‘I'he poverty of the brachiopods is doubtlessly real, though a

second species, Kraussia Lamarckiana, is known by me to occur; but it

is not so with regard to the cephalopoda. Ten species of naked cephalo-
pods I have collected in St. Vincent’s Gulf, but so little attention has
been paid to animals of the class in Australia that ovr book knowledge
respecting them is very meagre. A careful examination and description
of all the existing species would well repay the researches of any one of
our naturalists. Quoy and Gaimard describe some Australian cuttlefish,
and D’Orbigny’s Monograph, and Gray’s Catalogue of the classes are in-
. dispensable.

The absence of pteropods and nudibranchs from Mr. Angas’s lists may

be intentional on the author’s part, and it is not unreasonable to infer

that examples of each class exist on and off our shores, as they are both
well represented in the seas of the east coast of the continent. Of Ptero-
pods, 14 species are known in New South Wales. The chief works
relating to the class are :—Eydoux and Souleyet, ‘ Voyage of the Bonite,’
(1836-37), and Rang and Souleyet, ‘ Histoire Nat. des Mollusques Ptero-
podes,’ 5 pl. (1852.) The nudibranchs of New South Wales are 34 in
mumber, most of which are described as new, and beautifully illustrated
by M. Crosse, (*) Journal de Conchyl, 1864.

The classes Polyzoa and Tunicata are not noticed by Mr. Angas, the

17

study of which is not generally pursued by conchologists. I will allude
to them separately.

The additions to our lists of species of marine mollusca are recorded
“in the following works and papers :—A. Adams, in Sowerby’s “ Thesaurus
Conchyliorum,” describes three species of Atys from Port Lincoln; and
“Reeve identifies two species of Cyclostrema from the same locality with
previously known Japanese shells. These and the foregoing species are
described and figured in Reeve’s “ Iconica Conch.”

Mr. T. Bednall, in a “ List of South Australian Marine Shells,”
privately printed 1874, inserts thirteen gasteropods and three bivalves
not previously known to occur with us.

A census of the marine gasteropods, bivalves, and brachiopods of
‘Tasmania and the adjacent islands (Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1877), is
the work of the Rey. J. E. Tenison Woods. It bears evidence of con-
siderable labour spent in its preparation, as it contains all the species
recorded by previous authors, and all the new species, which are many,
described by Mr. Woods in two papers published by the same Society ;
and the claims of critical and duubtful species are discussed. Those
interested in the distribution of the constituents of the marine fauna of
Australia will find this production of great service. The horizontal
ange of some of the species is indicated; but the omissions in this
respect are unfortunately many, and the comparative unity of the Tas-
‘manian fauna is rendered more apparent than real. Mr. Woods makes
‘known the occurrence of eleven gasteropods and one bivalve in the south-

eastern part of our coastline, which are not mentioned as South Aus-
tralian by previous observers,

He has also corrected the names of some
-of our species.

The same author, in a paper “On some new Marine Mollusca,”
Roy. Soc. of Victoria (1877), states on my authority that Pectunculus
laticostatus, so abundant in a fossilized state in Southern Australia and
“Tasmania, is living in St. Vincent’s Gulf.
Angas, Proc. Zool. Soc., March 1878, adds two species of Mitra and
one of Stphonaria to the local fauna—the three are new to science.

In the pages of this volume will be found a small contribution by
myself to South Australian conchology.

Mr. Angas is now publishing in Proc. Zool. Soc. an appendix to his
‘list of 1865. From material received from me he adds fifteen known
‘species of gasteropods and seven of bivalves to our fauna, and describes

_as new to science seven species of gasteropods and four of bivalves. A
B

18

second collection recently forwarded has not been reported on. The
total recorded additions are—Gasteropoda 58, Conchifera 16, Brachio--
poda 1; but these do not exhaust our Imowledge, as I am acquainted
with nearly as many more unrecorded species.

Cuass Potyzoa.—Some evidence of the neglected state of Australian:
zoophytolozy up to comparatively recent times may be gathered from the
circumstance that out of fifty-four species of twenty-four genera of
Polyzoa described by Busk in the Appendix to “ Voyage of the Rattlesnake”
(1852), forty species are new or undescribed, and four genera are insti-
tuted. Forty-two were collected in Bass’s and Banks’ Straits, one at Port
Adelaide, the remainder off other parts of the Australian Continent.

Some of our Australian species are common to the seas of Europes
these are described in (t) Johnston’s ‘‘ British Zoophytes.”

In 1860, Macgillivray, in Trans. Phil. Inst., Victoria, vol. iv., pp.
97-98, one plate, and pp. 159-168, two plates (in Library Philosophical
Society, Adelaide) wrote upon the Polyzoa of Southern Australia. Four
species are credited to South Australia. Professor Hutton’s Catalogue of
the Marine Mollusca of New Zealand (1875) should be consulted.

In 1875 there appeared (*) Part III of Busk’s Catalogue of the Polyzoa
8yo, 34 plates. This contains descriptions of sixteen Australian species
of Cyclostomatous Polyzoa, only five of which had been previously
recorded—two by Macgillivray and three by Busk, op. cit. (Copies of
Parts I. and II. of the Catalogue of Polyzoa are not in the colony, and
these portions of the work are out of print.)

Rey. J. E. Tenison Woods, in Trans. Roy. Soc. of New South
Wales (1877), describes two new species of South Australian Polyzoa
belonging to the genus Serialaria.

Hincks, “‘ Notes on the genus Retepora,” An. & Mag. Nat. Hist.,
May, 1878, describes two new species of the genus, and supplies much
fuller and more minute diagnoses than we have from the authors who
named them—of three others—all of which are stated to have been col-
lected in South Australian waters.

Professor Hutton, in a short paper recently communicated to the
Royal Society of Tasmania, describes six new species, and identifies
nineteen with known forms. These were collected by myself upon the
shores of St. Vincent’s Gulf. Some of them are of great interest.
Tubulipora flabellaris had not been found in the Southern Hemisphere
before, and Vincuwlaria maorica had previously been known only asa

miocene fossil.

19

The total number of known South Australian polyzoa is thirty-five.

Cxiass Tunicata.—Quoy and Gaimard describe and figure fourteen
species of simple and compound ascidians from the south-west and
south-east coasts of Australia. Some of these will doubtless be found
to form a part of the comparatively rich tunicate-fauna of our shores.

Land AND FResH-WatER Motiusca.—A special work on the Land
Snails of Australia exists as (t)“ A Monograph of Australian Land Shells,”
by Dr. Cox, published in 1868. The figures of some of the South Aus-
tralian species are not accurate, and the diagnoses are not always sufti-
ciently full. The number of South Australian Helices published in
Dr. Cox’s mionograph is twenty-two; but since then additions have been
made, which mae a total of thirty-four. Mr. Angas describes six in
Proc. Zool. Soc. for the years 1868, ’75, 75, ’76, and 77; Mr. Brazier
two in the same journal for 1871 and 1872, and a third in Proe, Lin.
Soc, N. S.W., vol. 1., 1875; and I have made known three other forms
in Proce. Lin. Soc., N.S. W., vol. 2, 1878. No advance has been made in
the numbers of species of the other genera constituting our terrestrial
molluscan fauna. I think that a revision of our species is needed, but

efore considering the claims of several to specific rank it will be desir-
able to have more information respecting their distribution. Most of
our land snails are, according to book knowledge, very restricted, and
each is more or less isolated. If this be really so, then we should seek
to establish a connection between their isolation and the development
of that character proper to each.

No attempt has been made to bring together in a monograph the
scattered sources of information concerning the fresh water mollusca of
Australia. But the Rey. J. E. Tenison Woods has arranged the fresh
water shells of Tasmania, wide, “On the Freshwater Shells of Tas
mania,” (Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania), 1876 ; of which there are 28 uni-
valves and four bivalves, the majority being describedas new to science.
Woods in 1875 held the opinion that this part of the Tasmanian fauna
is perfectly distinct from that of Australia, and that its facies or general
character is not Australian; but two years later, when describing some
new freshwater shells inhabiting Victoria (Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict, 1878),
he takes an opposite view. The freshwater shells of Australia and
Tasmania have a common character, and many of them are wicely dis-
tributed, being common to several hydrographical areas. The identifi-
cation of the South Australian species will involve considerable labour,
as all the Australian freshwater shells and their animals must be re-

20

viewed before any satisfactory result can be arrived at. We have in the
extra-tropical part of this province several species of Physa, some Lym-
nea, an Ancylus, Planorbes, Melanie, Paludine, and several so-called
Bithynias and Paludestrinas, a Pomatiopsis, Unios, and a Cyrena.,
Some South Australian Physe are described in Reeve’s Monograph of
the genus. The Cyrena of the Lower River Murray is named C. Angast
by Prime, Journ. de Conch., vol. xii, 1864; and Mr. Angas in Proc.
Zool. Soc., 1877, describes a new Paludinella from Lake Eyre.

Cuass InsecTa.—Entomology has long been a favourite pursuit
among Englishmen, Frenchmen, and Germans, and with so many
workers and with an almost unbounded field of research, it is not sur-
prising to learn that the literature of this class of animals is most yolu-
minous. Of late years specialists have arisen, and the modern biblio-
graphy of any order of insects is more compact and accessible. The
descriptions of Australian insects are scattered through so many publica-
tions that their long array is enough to dishearten the tyro at the very
commencement; but there are a few works which deal largely with
Australian entomology, these are:—Donoyan’s ‘‘ South Sea Insects,”
1805; “ Boisduyal—Entomology of the Voyage of the French Sur-
veying ship the Astrolabe ;” Guerin—“ Zoology of the Voyage of the
Coquille ;” and Germar—“ Linnean Entomology ” (1848); Angas—“South
Australia Illustrated,” 1847, figures on plate 48, twelve species of ortho-
ptera, neuroptera and hemiptera, on plate 51 thirty-one species of coleo-
ptera, and plate 37 is devoted to lepidoptera.

Moreover Mr. G. Masters has afforded great aid to the student in
the orders Lepidoptera and Coleoptera by the publication of catalogues
of the names of all the described species known to inhabit Australia, ac-
companied with a reference to the description of each.

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA. —His “Catalogue of the Described Diurnal
Lepidoptera,” 1873, contains the names of 202 butterflies, and of these it
would seem that only seven are recorded as inhabiting this province. Mr.
G. F. Angas in his “S. Australia Tll.,” figures on plates 37 seven species
of Diurnal Lepidoptera, two of them are unnamed, one of which has
probably been described by Felder, and as three of the species are not
recorded for South Australia by Mr. Masters, the total number of
butterflies known to occur with us is ten. Mr. Angas has represented on
the same plate sixteen species of moths. Mr. Wallace (“Distribution of
Animals,” vol. 1, p. 404), states that in South Australia there are Jess
than thirty-five species; but does not give the names of the species.

21

OrpER CoLropreRa.—The “‘ Catalogue of the described Coleoptera
of Australia,” by Masters (1871-1874), enumerates 5,607 species of
beetles of all kinds, which are distributed among 57 families; of these
592 species, belunging to 36 families, occur in South Australia. The
largest er ups represented by our Coleopterous fauna are—Carabidee, 103
species, being 11°8 per cent. of the total of Australian species ; Bupres-
tidze, 59, or 17°6 per cent. ; Curculionide, 122, or 14:0 per cent.; Ceram-
bycidee, 111, or 27:0 per cent. ; Tenebrionidze, 48, or 11-7 per cent.

Some of the families are very disproportionately represented; thus
we have only 1 out of 78 Australian Staphylinidee, and 11 out of 157
Elateridz, but 26 out of 60 Anthicide. This circumstance is explained
partly by the fact that the Australian species of certain families have
not been monographed, and partly because collectors have not interested
themselves about certain others.

A large number of our South Australian beetles will be found
described in—‘‘ The Entomologist,” by Newman (1842) ; “ Transactions
Entomological Soc. of New South Wales,” by Macleay, twe vols. ;
“Notes on Australian Coleoptera,” by Castelnau, Trans. Roy. Soc.
Victoria, vol. 8, pp. 30-38 and 95-225 (1867-68).

“The Journal of the Linnean Society of London” contains the
following papers relating to Australian Coleoptera :—“ Descriptions jof
new species of Stigmodera,” by H. Saunders, vol. ix., 1867, two plates.
This paper contains the characters and figures of fifty undescribed species
of the genus Sfigmodera from Australia ; five of the naw species occur at
Adelaide. “Contributions towards a knowledge of the Curculionids,”
by F. Pascoe, part 1., vol. x., 1869, three plates. Seventy-nine Austra-
lian species are described, about one-half figured ; fifteen of the species
are recorded from South Australian localities. Part 11., vol. xi., 1871,
Tour plates, contains descriptions of twenty-one new Australian species,
four of which are stated to have been coilected in this neighbourhood.
Part 111., vol. ix., 1872, four plates, contains descriptions of thirty-two
unrecorded Australian species, three of which are South Australian.
In the appendix to (ft) “Captain King’s Coasts of Australia, 1827,” will
be found a ‘Catalogue of Insects,” by W. Sharp Macleay, including
descriptions of new species, but unaccompanied with illustrations, and
without localities. The Coleoptera number 108, the majority of which
are new. (+t) “ Discoveries in Australia,” by Commander Stokes, two
vols., 1846. An appendix to vol. 1. of this work is devoted to “ Descrip-
tions of new or unfigured species of Coleoptera,” by A. White. Hightee
species are illustrated by two plates, and described.

22

Additions to the list of South Australian Coleoptera have been made
known through the following papers :—Mr. J. S. Baly, (+) “ Annals and
Magazine of Natural History,” November 1877, describes thirteen new
species of Phytophagous beetles from Australia—four of which
are from Gawler, one being the type of a new genus; and in the number
for January, 1878, two species of Chrysomelide. The same author has
communicated a similar paper to the “Journ. Linnean Society,” vol.
xiii. (1878), in which seven new species obtained from Gawler and
Adelaide are described.

(*) The British Museum Catalogues of the Longicornia, by Mr. F. Smith,
1853, 1855, 10 plates, make mention of 102 species inhabiting Australia.
In 1859, Mr. F..P. Pascoe, to whom our knowledge of the Australian
longicorn bettles is almost entirely due, published a list of the 259 Aus-
tralian species of this favourite group in vol. ii. ‘‘ Journal of Entomo-
logy,” illustrated by two plates ; and seven years after in the (+) Proc.
Linnean Soce., vol. ix, 1866, he furnished another list which contains
nearly 500 species. He writes:—“If we take into consideration the
economy of these insects, their usually short lives in the perfect state,
and their attachment to certain trees in which their larvee have fed, con-
fining their distribution to very narrow limits, we can scarcely avoid
drawing the conclusion that we are still very far from having a complete
list.” Of the new species described in the latter paper fourteen are
South Australian, from the neighbourhood of Gawler, collected by Mr.
Odewahn. This brings up the total number of recorded South Austra-
lian species to 126. In a supplementary paper in the same volume, Mr.
Pascoe adds seventeen new species, one of which is South Australia, and
in the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” May, 1867, four new
forms are described.

OrnDER HymEnoprerRA.—Mr. F. Smith in the British Museum
“Catalogue of Hymenopterous Insects,” 7 vols., 47 plates, 1853-
1859, gives a complete list of all the known species of bees, hornets,
wasps, ants, and their allies with references to the synonyma, and des-
eribes many new species, the majority of which are illustrated by litho-
graphic plates. The number of Australian species recorded is 533, and of
these 71 inhabit this colony. For the solitary and social wasps the chief
source of information is Saussure’s monograph of the family, “ Etudes
s. la Famille des Vespides,” 3 vols., 1852-56, which contains figures of
all the Australian species, excepting the six new species described by
Smith in the above-named catalogue. The same author, in (ft) Brench-

23

Wey’s “Cruise of H.M.S. Curagoa,” 1873, describes some new Australian
species, and gives diagnoses of some previously known, 18 in all, which
_are beautifully represented by three coloured plates.

OrpER Nrvroprera.—The number of described species of this

-order known to occur in South Australia is only ten. The chief work
in which species are diagnosed are :—King’s “Coasts of Australia ; ”
Appendix by W. Sharp MacLeay ; (five dragonflies catalogued, three new.)
Adam White, in “ Kyre’s Exped. into C.. Australia,” describes and figures
a neuropter, probably South Australian. (*) “Catalogue of Neuropter-=
ous Insects,” by F. Walker, 4 parts, 1852-53, contains descriptions of
eight South Australian species. (*) “Catalogue of Termitina,” by Dr.
Hagen, 1858; ‘‘ New Genera and Species of Neuropterous Insects, &c.,”
by McLachlan, in (}) “Proc. Linnean Soe., vol, ix, 1866; and “On a
Systematic Classification of the Ascalaphide.’ by the same author, loc.
cit, vol. xi., 1873. In the latter part specific characters are given of four
South Australian species, two of which had been previously undescribed.

OrpeR Diprera.—(*)“ List of Dipterous Insects’—F. Walker,
seven parts, 12 mo., 1848-1855. This work contains the names of
338 Australian species of flies, 184 of which are described as new kinds.
South Australia is represented by eight species orly, four of which are
new ; but Mr. Tepper informs me that he has 80 species of the order in
his local collection. Frequent reference is made by Mr. Walker in con-
nection with the Australian forms to Macquart’s. Diptera Exotica and
Supplement.

Orver, OrtHOPTERA.—The chief works relating to Australian
insects of the family of the cockroaches are :—Saussure, Revue Zoologie,
vol. xvi. and Melanges Orthopterologiques (1863-72); Wattemoyle,
Noveau Systeme des Blattaires; (*) Walker, Catalogue of Blattarize, 8-vo.,
1868, and Supplement 1869.

The two volumes by Mr. Walker contain all the recorded species up
to date, 111 of which are Australian. Diagnoses are given of forty-eight
species, five of which are from this province ; the total South Australian
forms are eight.

The “ Catalogue of Dermaptera Saltatoria,” F. Walker, five vols.,

-8-vo., 1869-1871, deals with the remaining families of the order Ortho-
ptera, and includes the crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, &c. The number
of Australian species is 160, of which 124 are fully described in that
work ; for the rest reference isgiven to Serville, Hist. Orth., and Erichson’s

- Aychiy f. Naturgeschicht.” The number recorded from South Aus-

24

tralia is thirteen, making a total of twenty-one orthopterous insects. Mr.
Tepper reports that sixty are known to him.

Prof. Wood-Mason, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. July 1877, describes und
records new orthopterous insects of the families Phasmidee and Mantidze
from Northern Australia.

OrpER Homorrrra.—-165 is the number of Australian Cicads and
their allies catalogued by Mr. F. Walker (*), ‘‘ List of Homopterous
Insects,” four parts, eight plates, 12 mo., 1850-1858; forty-two of
these are referred to by name, whilst 123 are fully described; in the
former are two South Australian species, figured in Eyre’s expedition ;
and in the latter are nine, obtained at Adelaide. Though seven species of
thrips and scale insects are known to occur in Australia, yet so far as
regards published sources of information, no South Australian species has
been determined.

OrpER HeEmiprErA.—Much of our information respecting the Aus-
tralian examples of this order is contained in the works of Dallas and
Walker, published by the British Museum authorities under the mislead-
ing titles of (*) ‘‘ List of Hemiptera,” 12-mo., part 1.,11 pl. (1851); and
part m., 4 pl. (1852) and (*) “Catalogue of Hemiptera Hetero-
ptera,” 8 yols., 8-vo., 1867-1878. The latter work by Walker, is
supplementary to and in continuation of the former; taking
the two together, there are recorded 298 species belonging to
Australia ; of these, forty-four are South Australian. In Dallas’s
List ten South Australian species are described, and in Walker’s
Catalogue nineteen; for the remaining thirteen we need to consult no
less than eight separate publications. These are :—Donovan, Insects of
New Holland; H. Schaff, Wanz. Insects ; Hrichson, Archiv f. Naturg.,
vol. 8; Guerin, Voy. Coquille; Hope, Catalogue (1837); Serville Hist.
Hemiptera ; Westwood, Trans. Entomol.Soc.; Stal, Ofv. K. Vet. Ak. Forb,
xxii1. Some of the types of the new species from this province form
part of the collection in the National Museum at Melbourne.

Crass Myriapopa.—The British Museum (*) ‘ Catalogue of the
Myriapoda” (1856) gives a complete description of all the genera and
species of centipedes, millepedes, and their allies known to exist. Of
the 23 Australian species therein recorded, only one is with certainty
known to be South Australian.

Crass ARACHNIDA.—In Koch’s (t)“ Arachnides Australiens” we have
a masterly monograph of Australian spiders. The work was commenced
in 1871, and up to the end of last year 21 fasiculi of 968 pages and 84-

25

plates in quarto have been issued. In addition to Continental examples
of the class, there are described spiders from New Caledonia, New
Guinea, New Zealand, and some of the Polynesian Isles. The chief
materials have, however, been obtained from the north-east and eastern
parts of Australia. South Australia has furnished only one species-
(Lycosa lacertosa, p. 952, t. 82, 1.6); it isfrom Adelaide. That only
one species of spider is recorded from this Province will appear most
extraordinary ; but the knowledge of the existence of many forms and of
remarkable variety proves most conclusively that this department of
zoology has been lamentably neglected by us. The difficulties attending
their preservation can no longer be an excuse for overlooking these
creatures; and the study of their habits, which I believe to be in the
highest degree interesting, especially the wonderful mimicry of some and
the intelligence exhibited by others, has at all times been accessible to
us. There cannot be a doubt that the field of observation is an extensive
one, and as soon as the student shakes off a natural antipathy to
spiders he will find in them much to encourage him to devote a large
share of attention to these much maligned animals.

Directions for the preservation of arachnids will be found in Mr.
O. P. Cambridge’s paper “ On some new genera and species of Araneidea”
—Annals and Magazine of Natural History, January, 1877—which,
moreover, contains the description of another South Australian spider~
(Aganippes subtristis), the type of a new genus, obtained at Adelaide,
Five other Australian species are here described. Further, supplement-
ing the great work of Koch, is a paper by H. H. B. Bradley on the
araneides of the Chevert Expedition, Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S W., vol 2.

Cuass Crusracea.—Milne Edward’s “Histoire Naturelle des-
Crustaces,” 3 vols., 1834-41, is absolutely indispensable to one occupied
in the study of Crustaceans. And though I am not aware of the publi-
cation of any work specially devoted to this branch of Australian
Zoology, yet several Decapodous Crustaceans which inhabit the shorea-
of this continent are described and figured in the following works :—

Dana, “ U. States Exploring Expedition, Crustacea,” (1852-53. )

Tt Miers, “ Zoology of the Erebus and Terror, Crustacea,” (1874).
In this work twenty-three species of crabs, soldier crabs, and shrimps,
are described from New Zealand, Australia, and the South Seas;.
twenty-two of them are figured. ‘

* Miers, “Catalogue of New Zealand Crustacea,” (1876), three-

plates.

26

+ White, in Juke’s Voy., H.M.S. Fly (1847), describes a new
-genus, and five species of Australian crabs; and in Voy. of H.M.S.
Rattlesnake (1852) two new species of Decapodous Crustaceans.

+ Miers, “ Revision of the Plagiusunez,” An. and Mag. Nat. Histe
Feb. 1878, gives, a "synonymic list, with brief diagnoses and remarks
-of the species of this small and well defined vroup of the Grapsoid
Brachyurous Crustaceans ; four Australian species are referred to.

Bell, “ Catalogue of Crustacea,” Part I, Leucosiade, Trans. Linn.
Soc., vol. xxi., 1855, describes and figures seven Australian species of
the family, One species, Philyra levis, inhabits Port Adelaide. The
only other references to South Australian Decapods that I know of are
made by Gray in Eyre’s Exped. Central Australia, in writing upon the
species of fresh water crayfish of Australia and Tasmania.

The following may advantageously be consulted :—

White, “ List of Crustacea,” Brit. Mus. Cat. (1847.) De Haan,
“Fauna Japonica” Crustacea (1850.) Heller, ‘“ Voy. Novara,” Crus-
-tacea (1865).

Sus-ciass AMpuipopa.- In the (*) “ Catalogue of Amphidous Crus-
tacea,’ by Spence Bate, 8 vo., pp. 400, 59 plates, 1862, the author brings
together in a systematic arrangement all the Amphipods that were then
known to science. Descriptions and figures are given, taken from speci-
mens in the British Museum; but where examples of species have not
been procurable, the description by the author of the species has been
followed accompanied by copies of figures when illustrated. The num -~
ber of Australian species is eleven, distributed as follows :—Seven in
“New South Wales, one common to New South Wales and South Aus-
tralia, one Tasmanian, one South Australian, and one locality unknown .
The two S. Australian species <Adlorchestes Gaimardi, M.EKds., and
Amphithoe Australiensis, Bate, are marine, whilst a fresh water Amphi-
pod, possibly the Gammarus Verreauxt, M.Kd., described from New
Holland, and one or two of the aberrant forms of the sub-class, at least,

-await identification.

OrpER Isopopa.—Many species of this order inhabit our shores,
and a few land forms are not unfamiliar objects. I do not know any
special work treating of them; but some information respecting them
may be gleaned from the general works given under ‘Crustacea.’

Of Phyllopodous Crustaceans, three species have ,been exhibited
‘before this Society, one Lepidurus Angasi, Baird, will be found described
.and figured in Proc. Zool. Soc., 1866. The others a Branchipus and an,

27

Estheria have not been identified. A new species of the former from
Peak Downs, Queensland, is described in the “‘ Journals des Museums,
‘Godeffroi,” No. 12.

The only book information that I am in possession of respecting the
Ostracodous Crustaceans of Australia is that comprised in the three
following papers by the Rev. R. King in f Proc. Roy. Soc. of Tasmania.
“Qn some species of Daphniade found in N. S. Wales,” vol. il.,
part ii., p. 243. et seq. (1853) five plates. “On some Australian Entom-
ostracans,” id. p. 253, three plates, and vol. iii., pt. 1, 1855. In these
papers thirty-six species are described all with new specific names, and
one new genus is instituted for two of them.

The (ft) “‘ Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia,” by C. Darwin,—
published by the Ray Society, represents the present state of our
knowledge of these Crustaceans, though twenty-four years have elapsed.
In Part I Lepadides, 10 pl.,8 vo., 1851, the Pedunculate Cirripedes are
described; eight are recorded from Australia, three of which are

‘peculiar, one [bla quadrivalvis, being confined to St. Vincent’s Gulf,
Part IL, 30 pl. (1854) is devoted to the Balanidz or acorn shells
twenty-two inhabit the Australian shores, eleven of which are peculiar
‘the South Australian species are two of Acaste.

Crass ANNELIDA.—Baird, W. ‘‘ New species of Tubicolous Anne-
lides,” Proc. Linnean Society, Vol. vir., three plates, 1864. In this
paper are described new species of tube-building worms which form part
of an extensive collection of annelides in the British Museum. The
family Serpulidze was established by Linnzeus, in which he included the
Molluscan genus Vermetus, the shelly tubes of which bear a close resem-
blance to those of Serpula. Dr. Baird shows that a more detailed know-
ledge of the animals is necessary to fix them with certainty in their
systematic position ; thus an examination of the animal inhabiting the
tube, named Vermetus cariniferus, by Gray, which inhabits our coasts,
has resulted in its removal from the molluscan class of Gasteropods to
the family Serpulidae of the Class Annelida. The species described
include four from New Zealand and three from Australia.

Baird.—“ Contributions towards a monograph of the species of Anne-
Jides belonging to the Aphroditacea,” op. cit., vols. vui-1x. The
Aphrodites include the sea mice, many of which are remarkable for
their size and from being covered with brilliantly-shining and splendidly
irridescent hairs. The only South Australian species of the family
“recorded is Aphrodita Australis, Baird, which was obtained at Port

28

Lincoln, and is34 to 4 inches in length. This paper gives a list of the
known species and descriptions of new ones. Thirteen species out of a
total of 146 inhabit the seas of Australia and New Zealand. The chief
works referred to for Australasian aphroditacea are—Kinberg, “ Ofver-
sigt af Kongl. Vetenkaps— Akademiens Forhandlinger” (1855), and
“ Fregatten Kugenies Resa ;” and Schmarda, “ Neue Wirbellose Thiere.”

Baird.—*Contributions towardsa Monograph of the Amphinomacea,”
op. cit., vol. x., 3 plates, 1868. A list of the known species is given,
and eight Australasian species are recorded, four of which are described
as new.

Baird, ‘‘ Remarks on several genera of Annelides belonging to the
group Hunicea,” op. cit., vol. x. (1869). The animals of this group are
the marine worms, so remarkable for their great length. Five Australian
species are mentioned, three of which are described for the first time.

Baird, op. cit., vol. xi (1873), describes some new species of Anne-
lida and Gephyrea, chiefly from Patagonia and New Zealand.

Quoy and Gaimard make known two species of Turbellarian worms,

Cuass Entozoa.—Mr. G. Krefft has written an octavo work on
“ Australian Entozoa,” which contains a list of all the intestinal worms
observed in Australia, and descriptions of new species, illustrated by
three plates.

Cxiass HeninopermMatTa.—OrpeER EcuinomiEa.—Our knowledge
of the sea urchins of Australia is embodied in a paper by the Rev. J. H.
Tenison Woods, entitled “*‘ The Echini of Australia”—Proc. Lin. Soe. of
N.S.W., 1877. The author, at the request of Mr. Macleay, undertook to:
describe the Echini collected by him in the Chevert Expedition, and took
the opportunity of collocating isolated observations on the distribution of
this group of marine animals in the Australian seas, except the western
portions. His list contains 56 species, three of which are new to science.
He divides Australia into three marine provinces, the north-east, the east,
and the southern. Respecting the southern, which concerns us most,.
he writes that it has a peculiar fauna which possesses what are called the
truly Australian genera, such as Amblypneustes, Holopneustes, Micro-
cyphus, and Linthia; and further remarks—“I cannot find much con-
nection between our tertiary fossil fauna and what we see in the present.
Australian seas.” Three species are common to both, while not only are
Australian genera remarkably absent, but even a whole sub-order—the
Desmostichia is scarcely represented at allin our fossil formations. In.
fact, the separation between our tertiary and recent Echini is almost.

29

complete. A very few species and a small number of genera are common
to the tertiary and recent periods, but our commonest species are not
even generically represented.” Thirteen species are stated to inhabit our
shores, and in a supplementary paper, op. cit., 1878, another one is
added.

The chief works relating to the Australian branch of the subject
are :(t) L. Agassiz, “Monographies des Echinodermes,” 1838-41; A. Agassiz,
“Revision of the Echini,” 1873; (*) Gray, “Catalogue of the Recent
Kchinida Irregularia,” 1855.

Other Orders of the Echinodermata.—A general work, combining
the results of previous fragmentary knowledge on the Echinoderms is
the(t)‘‘Histoire Naturelle des Echinodermes,” by Dujardin and Hupe, 1862.
A large number of Australian star-fishes was described by Gray in an
appendix to Jukes’s Voyage of the Fly, the majority of which was later
figured by the same author in his + “Synopsis of Species of Starfish,”
16 plates, 4 vo., 1866. + Muller and Troschel’s “System der Asteriden,”
1842, is a monograph of the then known species of starfish and brittle
stars (illustrated by 12 plates; some jAustralian species are mentioned.
Quoy & Gaimard, “Voy. Astrolabe,” describe three species of Aus-
tralian holothurians.

Crass Activozoa.—Some South Australian Madreporarie and
Actiniz are described in the “ Voyage de l’Astrolabe”, and in (}) Ellis
and Solander, “ Natural History of Zoophytes” (1786), all of which
have been cited by MM. Edwards and Haime (+) “ Histoire Naturelle des
Corallaires,” 3 vols. and atlas (1857-60). The position of the coral fauna
in temperate Australia is stated by the Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods to be
as follows—“ Up to this time all these discoveries (those made by deep-
sea dredgings) have had but little effect on the knowledge of the Aus-
tralian forms. I may say that the Extratropical Madreporaria of Aus-
tralia have been literally untouched. Yet a special interest is attached
to them on account of what has been made known through geological
researches.” The above quotation is froma a paper “on the Extratropical
Corals of Australia,” illustrated by three plates, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
1877. We have to thank Mr. Woods for throwing light on the subject
and science is deeply indebted to him for what he has effected in this and
other departments of Australian Natural History. In his paper eleven
new species are described, and it has been found necessary to institute
two new genera for two of them. From his knowledge of the fossil
forms he has been enabled to show that some of our tertiary species still

30

exist in the Australian seas. Only three species of corals are known to:
inhabit our shores; one of them is described as new by Mr. Woods.

The Alcyonarian Polypes inhabiting Australian seas are, accord-
ing to Gray, nineteen in number ; most of them are described in two of
the British Museum publications :—(*) Catalogue of the Pennatularide,
and (*) Catalogue of Lithophytes, by J. E. Gray, 8vo., 1870.

Crass Hyprozoa.—Busk, in (*) Voyage of the Rattlesnake, records
and describes thirty-one species of Sertularian Zoophytes from Australia,
Thirteen are from Bass’s Straits and north coast of Tasmania, the rest are
tropical forms. The following works should also be consulted :—(t)
Johnston’s “ British Zoophytes” ; Allman’s “ Monograph on Gymnoblastic
Hydroids” ; Hutton, “ New Zealand Sertularians”, Trans. New Zealand
Inst., vol. v., 1872 ; Coughtrey, ‘‘ New Zealand Hydroida”, id. vols. vu.

and Vui.
BOTANY.

PuaneErocamic Borany.—Australia had not long been colonized
before its flowering plants began to attract scientific attention, and
during the first half of this century such eminent botanists as Robert
Brown, Solander, Sir Joseph Banks, Cunningham, Labillardiere, Sir Joseph
Dalton Hooker, Bidwell, and others, laboured on the spot to elucidate
the Botany of Australia. In our day much has been done by other emi-
nent men to further the work of their predecessors. I need only allude
to the labours of Baron von Mueller and Bentham as instances; and South
Australia has been distinguished by the researches of our Dr. Schom-
bur gk. The sum of all these labours is the (*) “ Flora Australiensis” by
Dr. Bentham, the seventh and concluding volume of which has just been
issued. In the preparation of this work the author has been most ably
assisted by Baron von Mueller and others, who, from their knowledge of
the living plants, have enabled Dr. Bentham to obviate those disadvan-
tages he necessarily laboured under.

Dr. Schomburgk has given us a Synopsis of the Flora of South Aus-
tralia, which has been mostly compiled from the abovementioned work,
and an able dissertation on the physiognomy of the vegetation of this
col ony (‘“‘ Flora of South Australia” in (*) Harcus’s “South Australia,”
1876.) Though we may safely say that the flora of this province has
been well determined, for it must not be forgotten that the early botan-
ical investigaticns of Baron von Mueller were carried on in our midst,
yet, te quote tl e words of Dr. Schomburgk, “by the constantly-occurring
new discoveries, especially in the central parts of South Australia, the

31

synopsis cannot be considered quite complete.” Indeed, a complete revi-
gion of the latter part of Dr. Schomburgk’s Synopsis is rendered necessary
by the publication of Vol. VII. of the Flora Australiensis. A reduction
in the number of species is obtained by suppression of names, regarded
as synonymic by Bentham, and by expurgation of others not known to be
South Australian ; whilst on the other hand the list is largely increased
by species not previously known to occur within our boundaries. That
Dr. Bentham does not, however, fully state the extent of our knowledge
is clear when he omits such familiar plants.as Typha angustifolia,
Lemna trisulca, and some others, from the South Australian lists. Com-
paring the two sources of information, I find that the order Liliaceze is-
reduced from 25 species to 14, but five others are added ; Juncacezx, from
25 to 14, nine new; Xyridez, from six to one ; Commelynacee, Aroideze,.
Typhaceze, Lemnacez, and Eriocauleze, which we thought to contain 15
South Australian species, are, according to Bentham, unrepresented ;
Alismaceze is reduced from two to one species, but 11 are added; Restia-
ceze, from eleven to four, but six are added; Cyperaceze, from thirty-
three to eighteen, but thirty-four additional species are given, nine be-
longing to Central Australia ; Graminez is reduced from eighty-three to
thirty-nine, but sixty-five are added, making a total of 104 grasses,
thirty-two of which are Central Australian. The lycopods and their
allies are only represented by two species, where we were believed to
possess eight ; the ferns are reduced from thirty-five to sixteen, but
Dicksonia antarctica is the only addition. Of the 243 species catalogued
by Dr. Schomburgk 184 are retained, to which 136 are added, making a
total of 270 species of the orders from Liliaceze to Filices,

Despite the efforts of the many able men that have laboured
in this department of Australian biology, I think that the field
jis not exhausted; and though we cannot expect to be rewarded
by our search for undiscovered species, yet the habits of known
plants, of which we have a very limited knowledge, afford a very
favourable opening for further researches. The modes of fertili-
zation of our native plants, and the mutual dependency of certain
plants and animals, are subjects about which very little is known. A
reader of Darwin’s “Fertilization of Orchids,” or Sir John Lubbock’s
* British Wild Flowers,” canuot fail to be incited to a practical examina-
tion of the phenomena therein described ; and be it known that several
of the orders to which especial interest is attached are abundantly repre-
sented in this colony. Dr. Bentham, who has investigated the stigmatic

32

apparatus of Gloodenoviee, one of our largest orders, especially commends
to the attention of Australian botanists the manner in which impregna-
tion is impeded or facilitated in this group of plants. He writes :—“ As
far as can be judged from dried specimens, there seems to be considerable
. diversity in the impediments opposed by the structure of the parts, as
well as in the contrivances provided for overcoming these obstacles. The
progress of development, -however, can only be watched on the living
plant ; and it is in order to call to the subject the attention of any ob-
servers who may be resident in Australia that I lay before the Society
-the peculiarities which I have observed.”—Journal of the Linnean
Society Botany, vol. x., p. 204, 1868. The same author makes a similar
appeal in his paper “ on the Styles of Australian Proteaceze,” 1. cit. vol.
xiii., p. 58, 1871. As his observations on the peculiar fecundating appa-
ratus of the plants of this order, which includes our common Banksias
and Grevillias, were made almost exclusively on dried specimens, ‘‘ they
will require to be supplemented, and probably in several instances cor-
rected by those who can watch the process of ripening and mutual
action of the anthers and stigma on the living plants.”

The distribution of our native plants, especially in relation to hydro-
graphical and geological conditions, requires working out; and little is
known respecting their medicinal uses. Economic botany has, however,
received much attention at the hands of Dr. Schomburgk, and the
successful efforts made by that gentleman to acclimatise useful and
ornamental plants have laid the country under a debt of gratitude to
“him. The Botanical Garden needs no advocate; and its Director has
not been unmindful of the claims of systematic botany to be adequately
_represented; yet it lacks one important adjunct, namely, a museum of
-economic botany, devoted to the illustration not only of the raw
materials industrially valuable, but also of steps in the processes by
which, they are rendered available for our use.

Cryprogamic Borany.—The present state of our knowledge of the
Orders Filices, Lycopodiaceze, and their allies will be found in yolume
‘VIL, “Flora Australiensis.” From the circumstance that many of the
Australian fungi are either identical with European species or so nearly
allied to them, the peculiar Australian forms being few in number, it
cannot be hoped that any satisfactory determination of them can be
undertaken in this country, though it is no bar to extended observations
on the recorded species or to the search for undiscovered ones. The Rey.
M. J. Berkeley has given a list of “ Australian Fungi, received principally

33

from Baron F. yon Mueller and Dr, R. Schomburgk ;’ J ourn. Lin. Soc.,
vol. 13, pp. 155, et seq., 1872. The number catalogued is 235, of which
43 are South Australian.

Marine Alye.—Figures of many Australian seaweeds are given in
Harvey’s “ Nereis Australis,” and in Hooker’s “Flora of New Zealand’
and “Flora of Tasmania ;” but in (+) Harvey’s “ Phycologia Australica,”’
vols. 5, 8vo, 1858-1863, we have a more comprehensive history of this
class of Australian plants. In this work the more characteristic sea-weeds
are illustrated by coloured drawings, accompanied when necessary with
such magnified dissections as will enable any one possessed of a micro-

scope to refer with certainty the figure to the plant which it represents,
The number of plates is limited to 300, but at least one species of every
genus is figured. The species which are figured in earlier works are not
repeated in the Phycologia Australica, except in the case of types of
forms which could not be omitted without injury to the scope of that
work. <A synopsis of all known Australian alge is given; and the
number of actually known species dispersed along the Australian coasts
is 799; of these we appear to have 138 on our shores. The work lacks
method in the arrangement of the descriptions, and the omission of a
conspectus of the genera is a serious defect.

GEOLOGY.

The general geology of South Australia is represented ona, (}) “ First
Sketch of a Geological Map of Australia,” by R. Brough Smyth, 1875,
which embodies the labours of Selwyn and Woods and the inedited
observations of our Survey Department and of some explorers. The
country south of Lake Eyre is shown to be occupied by Silurian,
Tertiary, and Igneous rocks. Though the broad features seem to be
pretty correctly pourtrayed (for as the scale is only 110 miles to an inch
no accurate definition can be expected), yet extensive patches of tertiary
rocks are known to exist where Silurian is shown, and in the Western
District protrusions of the latter are omitted. Moreover, no distinction
is drawn between our older and newer tertiaries, which are so widely
separated from each other in point of time ; and also the two uncon-
formable sets of the Paleozoic rocks, which were described by Selwyn,
are not separately coloured.

The salient points of our geology about which we want to have
accurate information are :—The metamorphic or igneous character of the
granites; the order of succession of the fundamental rocks ; the age of

34

the newer paleozoics; the distribution of the upland congiomerates
and ferruginous sandstones of the foot hills of the Adelaide Chain, and
proofs of their supposed miocene age and fresh-water origin—the same
in regard to the ‘‘ desert sandstones” of the interior; the correlation of
the marine older tertiaries of the various disconnected tracts; extended
observations on glacial signs, and the probable connection of the newer
drift deposits with them; and lastly, accurate measures of recent eleva-
tion of the land.

I must not attempt a history of South Australian geology, but will
content myself with a list of the works relating to the subject.

1814.

Flinders, “ Voyage Terra Australis.”

1843.* Sturt, “Two Expeditions into South Australia.”
1846.+ Jukes, ‘‘Sketch of the Geol. Structure of Australia,” Brit.

1846.
1859.
1860.
1860.
1862.

1866.

1866.

1866.
1872.

1875.

Ass. Reports, p. 68. if

Burr, ‘Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of S.
Australia” (Adelaide).

Selwyn, “Geol. Notes of a Journey in 8. A.” Parl. Report
No. 120. Five plates of sections and map.

Burr, “Geol. of a Part of S. Australia.” Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. xvi.

Woods, Geol. of the Southern Part of S. Australia.” Quart,

Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xvi.

Woods, “Geological Observations in S. Australia.” 8yo,
404 pp. (London).

Woods, “ Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of the S.
Eastern District.” 8yvo, 33 pp., map and two plates of
sections (Adelaide).

Hanson, ‘‘ Geology of the South-East and Port Elliot Dis-
tricts.” Phil. Soc. of Adelaide.
Woods, id. in reply to the above.

Ulrich, “ Mineral Resources north of Port Augusta.” Parl,
Rep. No. 65, pp. 23, 9 plates of sections and map.

Higgs, “Remarks on the Mining District of Yorke’s Penin-
sula.” Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. of Cornwall, vol. 9.,
part 1, pp. 122-131.

35

1875. Smyth, “ First Sketch of a Geological Map of Australia”.
1877. Tate, “Strata exposed in the Government Well, Murray
Plains.” Geological Magazine, Nov., 1877.

1878. Tate, “Note on the Correlation of the Murray Tertiaries ”

(pub. herewith).

A most valuable addition to the geological literature of Australia
is the recently-published “Remarks on the Sedementary Formations of
New South Wales,” by the Rev. W. B. Clarke, F.R.S. This work isan
index to the immense service rendered by that veteran to geology gene-
rally, although more particularly confined to the paleozoic rocks of
New South Wales, to which he devoted forty years of his life and his
remarkable talents.

MINERALOGY.
This important branch of South Australian Natural Science will be
separately dealt with by Mr. 8. Higgs, F.G.S.

PALAZONTOLOGY.

The known fossiliferous rocks of South Australia proper belong to
the older and newer tertiary period. The fossils of the latter are closely
related to the existing fauna, whilst those of the former make part of a
large extinct fauna and flora, and which must be studied in relation to
those of the equivalent strata in Victoria and Tasmania. Great advances
have of late been made towards a better knowledge of the older tertiary
fossils of these two colonies, and the chief sources of information are—

McCoy, ‘‘ Decades of the Prodromus of the Paleontology of
Victoria,” 1-v., 1874-78. The fossils described and illustrated are chiefly
tertiary, belonging to various classes of animals.

Mueller, “ Observations on New Vegetable Fossils,” 1874.

Woods, “ On some Tertiary Fossils from Table Cape,” 2 pl., Trans
Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1874.

Woods, “ Notes on the Tertiary Fossils of Tasmania,” loc. cit., 1876.

South Australian Tertiary Fossils have been specially dealt with in
the following papers and works :—

The Rev. J. E. Woods described and figured five species of pectens
from Mount Gambier, in Trans. Phil. Soc. of Adelaide, 1865. This was
followed in the same year by another on the Brachiopoda from the same

36

locality. Five species are figured and described. Additional species are
made known by Etheridge in a paper ‘On some species of Terebra-
tulina, Waldheimia, and Terebratella from Mount Gambier and the
Murray Cliffs, (Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1876, 2 pl.) This
paper gives descriptions of five species of fossil palliobranchs, which are
illustrated by well executed drawings contained in two lithographic
plates. Two species are decidedly new, Terebratulina Davidsoni, and
Waldheimia Taylort, but a third species described as new under the
name of W. Gambierensis is identical with W. grandis, Woods. The
other species illustrated are W. Gartbaldina, Davidson, and Terebratella
compta, Sow. The Rey. J. E. Tenison Woods describes and figures some
Australian tertiary brachiopods (Trans. Roy. Soc. N. 8. Wales, 1877),
and notes the occurrence of two of them in the South Australian
deposits. In a paper which I have prepared the S. Australian fossil
species, twenty-two in number, are treated in a monographic form.

The echinodermal fauna of the Australian tertiary rocks is one of
remarkable interest, and has received attention from not a few paleon-
tologists. The Rev. J. EH. Tenison Woods figured and described three
species of sea urchins from Mount Gambier in the transactions of this
Society, published in 1866 ; one of the species had been previously made
known. The next contribution to the subject was by Dr. Laube,
(+) “ Ueber einige fossile Echiniden von den Murray Cliffs in Sud
Australien” (Sitz. d. k., Akad. d. Wissench, Wien, 1869), who describes
and figures as new eight species, but two of these had been made.
Inown by Mr. Woods. Next R. Etheridge, jun., in Quart. Journ,
Geol. Soc., 1875, gives a reswmé of all that had been published on the
S. Australian fossil tertiary echinoderms, but overlooked the important
communication thereon made to this Society by Mr. Woods, and by
means of drawings illustrates certain detailed characters which were not
noted by Laube. Dr. Dunean, in the same Society’s journal for 1877
describes eleven new species from the Australian tertiary deposits, and
identifies three living species as met with in a fossil state; four species
are added to the local list. Collections made by me among our older
tertiaries contain most of tne species described by Duncan from localities
beyond this province.

The last addition is Salenia Tertiaria, Tate, described and figured in
the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1877. This beautiful fossil is the subject
of some lengthy remarks by Prof. Dr. Duncan in his anniversary address
read before the Geological Society of London, February 17, 1878, and in

37

a series of articles “ On the Salenids,” published in the Ann. and Mag,
of Nat. History; in part m., “on a third form of recent Salenix, and on
the Salenie from the tertiary deposits,” July, 1878, the learned author
writes respecting our species—“ It is a fine form of Sa/enia, with all the
characters of the cretaceous species, except the distribution of the pores
in the ambulacra. In the older Salenie there is a pair of pores to each
ambulacral tubercle, and one intermediate, or in other words, two pairs
are in relation to each tubercle. The Salenta described by Prof. Tate
has but one pair. This is the case with the recent species, so far as is
known.” |

The total number of recorded Echinoderms from our Tertiaries is
fifteen, but that is not a moiety of those collected by me from the
Murray and Aldinga Cliffs. The chief additional genera are Pentacrinus,
Temnechinus, Fibularia, Laganum, Henuaster, Hchinobrissus, Lintha,
and Comaster. The systematic description of the new species is being
proceeded with, and I hope soon to have the pleasure of communicating
to you asummary of the results arrived at.

The Polyzoa, which constitute so prominent a feature in the Ter-
tiary fauna of South Australia, many of the strata being made up of
their debris, have been much neglected, and the field is almost untrodden.
From their variety of form and the beauty of their ornament they are
highly attractive to the microscopist. Professor Busk in 1860 examined
a collection from Mount Gambier, forwarded by the Rev. J. E. Tenison
Woods, ano classified them into forty species of sixteen genera; thirty-
six of the former were considered undescribed, and three of the latter
being new; but being unaccompanied by descriptions or figures, the list
published in the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. is of no aid to the student
Mr. Woods, in his “ Geol. Obsery. in 8. A.,” attached specific names to
some polyzoa figured on a lithographic plate in that work; and further
added a little to our knowledge ina paper, “ Proc. Roy. Soc. of Victoria
for 1862.” Buta more important step was made by him in communi-
cating to the Roy. Soc. of N. S. Wales, 1876, descriptions of “Some
Tertiary Polyzoa from Mount Gambier.” Thirteen new species are techni-
cally described and illustrated by two well-executed lithographic plates ;
they are Eschara, 10 sp., Pustulipora, 2 sp., and Tubilipora, 1 sp.

The present state of our knowledge of the coral fauna of the Ter-
tiary strata of Australia is given by Mr. Woods in the introduction to his
paper published herewith, and that of the S. Australian tertiaries in a
supplementary note added by me.

38

A few gasteropodous shells from the Murray and Aldinga beds are
described by me in a paper communicated to this Society.

One other fossil from our rocks has been made known; it is the so-
called Belemnites senescens, described by myself in the Quart. Journ. Geol:
Soc., May, 1877. Its reported occurrence on the Murray is an error,
but I have found it at Surveyor’s Point, Yorke’s Peninsula. Professor
McCoy in Decade V. Prod. Pal. of Vict., describes and figures the axis of
a zoophyte, under the name of Graphularia Robine, obtained from the
Tertiary strata. He points out its very close resemblance to the guard
if a Belemnite, and suggests that the so-called discovery of belemnites in
the tertiary strata of South Australia is based upon a similar fossil. It
is unfortunate for science that Professor McCoy is so oblivious of the
labours of others, else he might have taken some pains to clear up the
doubt. To me the two fossils are identical, and if the generic name
must be changed, then the fossil must, according to the law of priority,
be known as Graphularia senescens. I have not found a phragmacone,
but two specimens exhibit a regularly conical alveolar cavity; and
until I can clear away the mysterious nature of this cavity I must hold
the question of the systematic position of the fossil as not proven.

A few foraminifera and ostracoda from the Murray and Mount
Gambier beds have been determined by Professors Rupert Jones and
Brady, the names of which have been published in Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., 1860, and Geol. Mag., Juiy, 1876.

In cunclusion, I may quote the words of my friend, the Rev. J. E.
Tenison Woods, who writes, (Pro. Roy.Soc. of Tasmania, 1876) :—‘ It will
be seen from this brief sketch that the tertiary formations of Australia
have occupied many minds, yet our progress, so far, has been somewhat
slow. This is the more remarkable as it has long been believed among
scientific men that the development of Australian geology must reveal
facts of the utmost importance to science generally.” This belief is day
by day finding confirmation at my hands; already our Tertiaries are
known to contain genera hitherto regarded as of secondary age, and the
facts are accumulating which go far to prove that the lower portions of
them are older than they have hitherto been regarded, and may indicate
a palzeontological overlap of tertiary on secondary. So large a number of
organic remains have to be arranged, classified, and compared that my
labours in this direction are not sufficiently advanced to enable me to
submit to you a comprehensive view of the question.

39

In the'department of newer Tertiary Paleeontology a very important
addition has been made to that fauna which immediately preceded the
present one. [I allude to the determination made by Professor Owen of
the former existence of a large wingless bird on this continent, founded
on a tibia obtained in the Mount Gambier District. This bone, he
writes, determines beyond question the fact of the former existence in
Australia of a wingless or flightless bird of the size of Dinornis
Hlephantopus, but of a genus nearer akin to Casuarius and Dromarius.”
It is named Dromornis Australis, and indications of its former extensive
range in this continent are a femur obtained at Peak Downs, Queensland,
in 1869, a pelvis at Goree, near Mudgee, in 1876, and a femur from the
Wellington Valley Caves, N.S. Wales. All these bones and the South
Australian tibia are considered by Professor Owen to be parts of the
same genus if not species. The first to recognise the affinities of this
bird was our hon. member, the Rev. J. E. Tenison Woods, and it
redounds to his skill as a comparative anatomist that the opinion he
expressed has been corroborated by the greatest living anatomist. The
original discovery is recorded in his “ Report on the Geology and
Mineralogy of the South-Kast, &c.,” p. 7, 1866, from which I extract
the following :—“ In sinking a well on the edge of a swamp fourteen
miles N.N.W. of Penola, some bones have been dug up, which were this
day (April 25, 1866) recovered by me. They comprise two tibias and
two tarso-metatarsal benes, and show them to have belonged to some
struthious bird very nearly alliel to the emu. . . From the size of the
bones it was evidently a larger, heavier, and moreclumsy bird. .. .
I should propose the provisional name of Dromarius Australis for the
bird. It is certainly quite extinct, hut appears to have been con-
temporaneous with the natives, for these bones are marked with old
scars, one of which must certainly have been inflicted by a sharper
instrument than any in the possession of the natives at present;
there were, however, fragments of flint buried with the bones, and a
native well is distant about fifty yards away.”

Professor Owen’s “The Fossil Mammals of Australia” will ever
remain a classic work, and is the only source of information regarding
the extinct kangaroos, wombats, and their allies which are occasionally
met with in the superficial deposits and caves of this province, and
of other parts of the continent.

40
OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY.

The work of the past year warrants the opinion that the two funda-
mentil objects of this Society have been studiously kept before us
Its founders were desirous that it should not only afford an agreeable
medium of intercommunication to those whose tastes led them to the
pursuit of similar studies; but that it should also present a means of
illustrating and recording the many interesting natural phenomena which
are altogether peculiar to this country, and which it is to be feared would
be otherwise in a few years’ time irrevocably lost to the records of
science. In respect to the latter and more important object, I affirm that
the Society has attained a larger measure of results than at any other
period of itsexistence. We shall have removed for one year at the least
the reproach made against us by the President of the Linnean Society of
New South Wales in his anniversary address, that South Australia had
not contributed anything to the literature of natural history. This
success is in part due to the knowledge of the fact that the Society would
make every endeayour to renew the publications of its transactions, and
thus by guaranteeing that original observations so laboriously effected
should be published in a more tangible and permanent form than hitherto,
authors have been induced to make this Society the channel of communi-
cation with the scientific world at large. The publication of such papers
must always be regarded us a matter of necessity, as by such means are
we only enabled to keep up friendly relations with learned bodies else-
where. Though we haye been ambitious to secure only original papers
for our evening meetings, and have sought to press capable men into the
service of the Society, yet we have not unfrequently been reminded of
an insufficiency of supply; but we, nevertheless, believe that as the im-
portance and usefulness of the Society are better known, the difficulty
in this respect will become less and less. At any rate, our present
success can hardly fail to stimulate those who have aided us to fresh
exertion, and to encourage those who have not yet assisted us to enter
the vast arena of research. A remark made by Mr. J. 8. Lloyd on the
public estimation in which the Society is held, in his ‘paper on “The
present position of the Society,” read July 24, 1866, would seem to apply
with equal force now as then, and it may be repeated :—‘ Of course the
amount of good effected by the Society has to be taken in some measure
upon trust; but we feel that it is to the advantage of ourselves and the
colony that attention should be given to science, literature, and art, and
because the positive or practical benefit effected by us may not be exactly
arrived at, either by weight or measure, we are not the less certain that

«a

it has an existence. At any rate, it is easy to retort upon cavillers that
‘the results would be more generally satisfactory if the Society received
more general support.” Our numbers have not correspondingly increased
with the i increase of population, and it has only been in the last two years
that any sensible augmentation has been effected; uevertheless, the
eighty members of to-day represent a much smaller percentage of the
aristocracy of intellect than the sixty members of ten years ago. Is it
apathy or indifference that causes so many to stand aloof, who from their
profession or position in society should support us by their influence and
subscription? Or have our meetings been of so desultory a character as
to be repellent? To them I would appeal for the rectifying of the evils
of a one-sided policy, for be it remembered that the improvement of
any art or science varies directly with the number of intelligent persons
engaged therein.

Our RELATIONSHIP TO THE SouTH AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE ig
somewhat anomalous. By the Statutes and Regulations of Incorporation
we are—

1. Allowed an independent action.

2. Required to contribute a sum towards the working expenses of
of the Institute.

3. Entitled to the use of a room, and also to the services of one
or more of the officers of the Institute, at such times and in
such manner as may be agreed upon with the Board of
Governors.

4, And we have virtually resigned all claim to property actually
acquired, for it is enacted that the property of the Society
preserved in the room of the Institute cannot be permanently
removed nor otherwise disposed of without the consent of the
Board of Governors.

Thus on the one hand we pay £12 per annum for the use of a room,
and resign all rights to the property we have acquired by gift or pur-
chase; whilst on the other, we receive such trivial assistance as the
addressing of a few postal cards once a month, and have possibly the
power to recovery penalties; and it would seem also that the Board of
Governors “ have the power out of the funds placed at their disposal to
make a grant to any Society so incorporated in aid of the special objects
of such Society.” By common consent this Society has been excluded
from participating in grants to incorporated Societies, but it 1s not so
expressed by the terms of the Act ; and the regulation which gives the

“9

Institution a lien on the property of an incorporate Society is not so
unreasonable as it appears, if the property has been acquired by aid
readered by the Institute. We are placed at a great disadvantage by
the present arrangements, and I would urge upon your Council the
desirableness of securing more equitable ones; and I think you will
agree with me that £12 per annum is too large a contribution or share
of working expenses, and be it observed that the Society of Arts which
has the exclusive use of a room contributes only £5 per annum. More-
over, the lien on our property should be removed, and at once in view of
its greatly increased value in the form of surplus stock of our own publi-
cations, and of exchanges of publications of other Societies.

It may now be asked—What benefits will the Institute derive from
us? Most certainly it should not expect pecuniary ones; and I dismiss
the question without argument as it is a universally conceded postulate
that it is the duty of the State to aid science. If permitted, I believe
that this Society would largsly benefit the Institute through its Museum.
And with this object in view your Council requested your Representative
Governor to move the Board of Governors to cause to have exhibited at
our monthly meetings all objects presented to or purchased for the
Museum during each preceding month. By this means it was thought
that our members would be gratified, and that the remarks elicited and
explanations offered would give publicity to the donations and thus serve
a good purpose. Moreover, by thus affording those likely to be most
interested an opportunity of examining the new acquisitions, the Society’s
records would keep the memory of them alive, though the objects them-
selves had been consigned to oblivion in boxes and cellars, there to await
the advent of an enlightened Government before again seeing the light.
Though the Board concurred with the view of your Council, yet no
practical effect has up to the present time been given to the resolution:
there may be difficulties which we know not of, but if a Committee
were empowered to act all obstacles to the attainment of our object
might probably be removed.

OUR PUBLIC MUSEUM.

This reference to the Museum naturally leads me to speak of that
public institution. Not only is this Society through its representative at
the Board of Governors identified with the Museum, but it has been

43

instrumental in founding it, for according to Mr. J. 8. Lloyd “the
formation of a Museum was looked upon as one of the objects of the
Society; and no doubt the efforts of the Society in this direction were
not altogether without effect, and they have probably borne fruit in the
Museum attached to the present Institution.” But this Society as the
exponent of natural science in this colony may legitimately occupy itself
_ with the question as to whether or not the Museum is fulfilling its
proper functions ?

A good deal of carping criticism has been indulged in of late in re-
spect to it, but with this I have no sympathy. No man can be found
pussessing specific knowledge in every department of a general Museum,
but I think that if greater facilities were offered to the student in any
given branch of our local Natural History, voluntary help of a useful
kind would be forthcoming. I propose to examine the question which I
haye raised from a higher standpoint, and to indicate the chief
directions in which reform is needed. By directing your attention to the
shortcomings of the existing Museum, I trust that you will use your in-
fluence to have them remedied in the Museum of the future. Agitation
upon museum reform has been active of late in England, and I have
largely availed myself of the opinions of the museum reformers, as I find
them to be applicable to our own case ; the arrows that I shall shoot are,
therefore, not all from my own quiver.

A well-arranged Museum is valuable to the State in various ways.
In its highest sense it encourages a love of knowledge for its own sake,
apart from any selfish aims; it isa necessary instrument of training in
Natural History, and it assists in raising up men possessed of scientific
knowledge, to whom appeal may be made for trustworthy information
touching the means to be employed for the development of our natural
food resources and concerning the character of the natural agents ob-
structive to that development. A knowledge of the life history of
noxious insects enables the entomologist to suggest the right means to
keep them in check; and this fact has been fully recognised in the
United States, England, France, and Germany. Legislative acts relating
to the preservation of birds, fish, oysters, &c., passed by the countries
named, have all been lictated by the zoologist. How practically useful
and instructive would our Museum be if the rocks, minerals, fossils, and
manufactured mineral products of the country were displayed in such a
manner as to show in what new directions capital may and may not be
invested,

44

A Museum is, moreover, a means of spreading culture among the in-
telligent lower classes, and such visitors leave it all the better for having
been there, as it is impossible that they should not carry away some sort
of idea which otherwise would not have occurred to them. But for the
wants of the public a descriptive Guide Book containing elementary in-
planations is necessary for the right understanding of the objects exhi-
bited. The effect of museums is to elevate a man’s character; and if
our Sabbatarian teachers would admit that truth, access to the Museum
on Sundays would no longer be denied to those who have no other oppor-
tunity in the week, and who do not go to church or chapel. For my
part, I am unconvinced by the specious arguments which seek to
justify the opening of our Botanic Gardens, and its museum and zoological
collection, and the closing of the Zoological Museum on Sunday after-

noons.

In our Museum we have not only to consider the wants of the gazing
public, but also to provide for the requirements of the special student
and to afford materials for the savant in promoting original research
which functions ought not to be sacrificed for the benefit of mere sight-
seers. For the former we must have mounted skins of vertebrates
showy insects in their perfect stage, prettily-coloured shells, miniature
groves of coral, and the like. But Science and Instruction require a
great deal more—the animal must be exhibited as far as possible in all
its parts, and in all phases of its life; the skin of the kangaroo should be
aceompanied by its corresponding skeleton; the bird with its nest and
eges; the perfect insect, with its eggs, larva, and pupa; shells, with the
animals which produce them, and in every case the station and habit of
the animal should be affixed to the specimen.

Collections of typical specimens of this country are absolutely neces-
sary for the advancement of Natural History studies, as the teaching of
the elements of the science should be by means of the familiar objects
around us. It is a reproach to this State that its Museum so imperfectly
—I might say, hardly at all—represents its natural characters ; for it
happens that the things most characteristic of the country are not thought
worth exhibiting ; our mineral industzies are absolutely unrepresented, if
I may except a very few specimens of gold and copper ores. Though I hold
that our colonial productions should be most fully represented ; yet it is
not necessary that all should be exhibited, but nevertheless all should
always be open to the inspection of the student.

45

Our Museum is too small to have any educational value worth
naming, and in its present state it teaches too little by attempting too
much, and J think it would be far better to exhibit fewer specimens
which should fully tell their own tale, than to heap so many together
without labels; and because its present resources are so limited, the
greatest amount of good will probably be effected by confining attention
to the formation of a provincial collection.

The lack of patriotism among those who regulate the affairs of the
Museum has been most deplorably shown in some instances that have
come to my knowledge—it pains one to recall them. Nevertheless, may
T ask why two diamonds, unique as crystals, and which were found within
the colony, do not form part of the National Museum collection ?
Will another, subsequently found and purchased by our Govern-
ment, find a home with us? Again, why has not that choice
collection of our native beetles formed by the late Mr. Odewahn
been secured for the country? For, be it known that the Museum
does not possess a specimen of the diamond, and that all it has
representative of the large coleopterous fauna of South Australia is a
small case of dilapidated beetles. If the Museum were the property of
this Society, or other body not having adequate means for efficient main-
tenance, a reasonable answer would be expected not only to such specific
questions, but to others that I have already touched upon.

Is the Museum fulfilling its proper functions? I need not press for
an answer, as I know that it is the universal opinion that it does not. The
chief causes for this may be summarised under the heads of space, work-
ing expenses, and management.

The present Museum accommodation is lamentably deficient, and yet
a great mistake is about to be made with that to be contained in the new
Institute building, as the space will be only large enough to hold the
already exhibited specimens, no provision being made for the display of
objects stored away, and of those not already collected. It moreover
presents the sad fault of an upper gallery. It would also be well to
profit by the example of the United States, who fully recognise the fact
that the expense of a grand building starves the museum within.

A well-arranged Museum is of necessity costly ; money measures the
power of procuring glays-cases and suitable specimens, but as the funds
necessary for efficiency should be provided out of the public purse, since
it is for the public weal, it is to be hoped that they will be ona scale
commensurate with the largeness of the object to be achieved, provided
that itis not narrowed down by curtailment of accommodation.

46

As tomanagement. In the first place, the abnormal connection be-
tween the Museum and the Library should be severed, as their interests
are somewhat antagonistic. This view is advocated by the press, and in
an article in the Advertiser, October 23, 1876, it is there urged that “ the
keeping up of our reading-room in its present state of efficiency, and the
formation and development of a free public library, is enough to tax the
energies of a single body of men. As for a Museum, we do not think it
should be regarded as a part of the Institute at all.” It has always
seemed to me that it would be an advantage to establish some kind of
connection between the Museum and the University—a centre of liberal
education where science asserts its proper position—because those who
have had most experience in oral teaching will probably be best qualified
to assist in its oversight. The principles which are recognised as applic-
able to education in general apply equally to the arrangement of museums
in so far as their educational functions are concerned. The order in
which the kuowledge of things is best received and retained in the
memory is precisely that in which the things themselves were evolved,
consequently, the arrangement which in a Museum is best adapted to
impart instruction is at the same time that which best records the history
of the things exhibited. As the University must have a Museum, and
impressed with desirableness of economising space and effort, I suggested
to the Council that it should seek to amalgamate the two interests. At
a meeting of the Council, held December 15, 1876, two resolutions were
unanimously carried, the one affirming the inexpediency of having more
than one Museum for the Province, and the other appointing a Committee
to confer with the Governors of the Institute about the whole question.
The results of that conference have not been publicly made known. But
there still remains another course to be followed, by which the evils of
having two Museums may be avoided; that is by each one becoming to
some extent exhaustive in a special direction.

It may not be too late to direct the attention of the proper
authorities to the existing defects, with the view of carrying out the
urgently needed reform in connection with the proposed new Museum.

LOCAL AID TO SCIENCE.

While on the subject of National Aid to Science, I may remind you
that your efforts to induce the State to undertake a geological survey of
the colony, which at one time seemed likely to be crowned with success
have proved futile. The reason assigned for not instituting such a depart-
ment is that of expense. We, who believe that such an organisation

47

would be able to render considerable service to the country, must feel
regret at this determination of the Government, and regard the decision
as an instance of false economy. We hope that a survey is only tem-
porarily deferred, and must note with pleasure that step in this direction
is shortly to be made by the investigation of the Hydro-geological charac-
ter of certain waterless areas. .

South Australia has afforded little aid to the scientific examination
of the country and its natural products, but it is to be hoped that as
natural science asserts its position its claims on the public purse will be
less grudgingly allowed than as hitherto. Much of our knowledge has
been gained by private enter prise, but there are many investigations which
should be undertaken, and which are far beyond the limited means of the
scientific man. Take for instance, the exploration of the deeper parts of
the sea off our shores, which might be easily carried on during the
periodical trips of the Government steamer, and I believe that voluntary
scientific aid is available. Apart from the scientific results likely to be
gained by such exploration, much knowledge may be acquired relating to
deep-sea fish which might prove industrially valuable.

‘ i unc fae Wr
ated CHAT PERC ABR

oh Hi ey Wei hoe ae

Me PAA LAY

ON THE VEGETABLE FRAGMENTS FOUND IN THE TOMBS
AND OTHER MONUMENTAL BUILDINGS OF THE
ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.

By Ricuarp ScHomBureck, Pu.

Director of Botanic Gardens, Adelaide; Knight of the Imperial Order
of the Crown; of the Order of Merit of Phillippe the Magnani-
mous, and the Order of the Crown of Italy; Mem. Imperial
Carol. Leopold Acad., &c.

(Reap Fesruary 5, 1878).

The large collection of plant-remains in the Egyptian Museum,
Berlin, obtained from the tombs and other monumental buildings of the
Ancient Eeyptians has been re-examined by the late Professor Alexander
Braun. The notes of this investigation having been found amongst the
deceased’s papers, Professors Ascherson and Magnus of Berlin thought
it was due to the memory of that great botanist to make them public.
My friend Prof. Ascherson has kindiy favoured me with a copy of these
notes, and I consider them so highly interesting that I could not forbear
shaping them into a Paper.

The most reliable sources from which we have gained our knowledge
of the plants cultivated by the Ancient Egyptians are :—Firstly —From
the plant remains which have been found in their tombs and other
monumental buildings, which are now preserved in the museums of
Berlin, London, Vienna, Paris, Turin, Leyden, and Florence. Secondly.
—The numerous representations of. plants on the monumental structures
which the Ancient Egyptians used for sacred and profane purposes give
us also an idea of the vegetation, although they are inferior to those of -
animals. Thirdly.—The writers of classical antiquity supply us with a
very good description of the Flora of Ancient Egypt.

A very interesting fact has been ascertained by comparing the plant-
remains of nearly 5,000 years old with living examples of the same
species, that is, that no essential variation between the two is noticeable,

D

50

except only in the fruit of the pomegranate, in which a slight deviation
is observable. But on comparing the ancient flora of Egypt with the
modern one we find that a change regarding the distribution of several
plants has taken place. Many plants at present cultivated in Heypt, not
a sign of them has been traced in Ancient Hgypt; and on the other
hand, plants which were plentiful 5,000 years ago have disappeared from
the Lower Nile territory. There is no doubt that several plants and
fruits entombed found their way by commercial intercourse from other
parts of the world.

The fruit trees of modern Egypt are the date, sycamore, nabok
(Zizyphus Spina-Christi, Willd.), opuntia, orange, citron, apricot, peach,
fiz, mulberry, apple, pomegranate, banana, pear, plum, and grape ; of all
these fruits only the date, sycamore, fig, grape, and pomegranate, were
known to the Ancient Egyptians. It was the happy thought of Pro-
fessor Unger to disintegrate and examine the unburnt bricks of
which the Pyramids of Dashur Group have been built, with the view to
the discovery of the plant materials which had been used in their pre-
paration. The bricks were immersed in hot water, the earthy part crum-
bled away, leaving the vegetable portion free. Amongst the organic
remains detected was Hragrostis Abyssinica (Linn.,) or Teft, a grami-
naceous plant, which is cultivated for its grain up to the present day in
Abyssinia. This discovery favours the assumption that Teft was culti-
yated by the Ancient Egyptians. Prof. Unger found also abundance of
wheat and barley straw, grains of both the cereals, and a few capsules of
the flax-plant.

Of cereals found entombed, the Berlin Museum possesses several
kinds of wheat. There is some of Triticum vulgare, mixed with which
are a few grains of barley ; also Zriticwm turgidum (Linn.), the prevail-
ing kind now in cultivation in Egypt, called Egyptian wheat, and two
other kinds—Triticum spelta (Linn.), and Triticwm monococcum (Linn.),
neither of which is cultivated at the present time. Professor Unger
ascertained the fact that from the abundance of the wheat and barley
straw in the bricks of the Pyramids of Dashur these cereals must have
been extensively cultivated. Triticum vulgare antiquorum likewise
occurs in the bricks, and, strange to say the same variety was found by
Professor Heer in the remains of the Lake-dwellings in Switzerland.
The barley has been determined as Hordewm hewxastichon (Linn.) It is
still believed that wheat-grains taken from the Egyptian mummies have
germinated ; this is as good as proved to be impossible, and is probably

51

an intentional attempt at deception, for whenever mummy-wheat was
supposed to have germinated tit was undoubtedly recent grain mixed
with it. The true mummy-wheat is dark brown and carbonised.

The cultivation of flax must have also been very extensive, and
manifold were the uses made of the linen, and principally in the embalm-
ing of the dead, and for the garments of the priests, who only were
allowed to wear it. Inthe Berlin Museum are preserved two Ancient
Egyptian flax-combs; between the teeth are still some fibres attached,
which by microscopical examination prove to be flax. Two kinds of
flax have been determined from the entombed seeds, viz.—Linum
humile (Mill.), and Linum angustifolium (Huds.). The latter plant is a
perennial, a native of the Mediterranean region, and not cultivated at
present. The former is still cultivated in Abyssinia, though not for the
sake of its fibre and oil, but for the seed, which is used by the lower
classes for food, and is generally eaten during Lent. The seed is roasted
and ground, the flour is mixed with water to a paste, to which is added
salt and pepper. A very interesting fact is that the seed of Linum
humile has lately been found in the Pile-dwellings in Switzerland, and it
is the opinion that the inhabitants were of African origin.

The sycamore (Ficus sycomorus) was one of the most abundant trees
of Ancient Egypt, and is still so at this day. Religious worship was
paid to this tree by the ancient Egyptians, and it was dedicated to the
deities—Isis, and Nutpe. The departed soul received also under
the holy sycamore tree the wreath of vindication. A great part of the
wooden objects of Egyptian antiquity in the Berlin Museum are pre-
pared from the wood of the sycamore. Its fruits are found often en-
tombed, and are smaller and less flavoured than those of the common fig.
One of the relics of the Berlin Museum, found in a tomb, is a cake ona
layer of sycamore leaves.

The extensive culture of the olive in Ancient Egypt had been spoken
of by ancient authors, and Theophrastus mentions the appearance of the
olive in the Oasis of the Desert of Libya, where the tree at the present
time is growing; but hitherto the fruit has not been found in any of the
tombs, the hard stone of which would have preserved well. The Berlin
Museum possesses a relic made from olive branches—five small bundles,
each containing three small branches, are tied together with strips of palme
leaves. Professor Lepsius, the great authority on Egyptian antiquity,
believes this bundle has been used for the same purpose as the rod is used
at the present time to chastise children. Many funeral-wreaths pres

52

pared from olive-leaves have been found, but these belong to the period
ef Osarkon, 22nd and 25th dynasties; they were the symbol of vindica-
tion of the departed soul before the judgment of Osiris. There are other
funeral wreaths in the possession of museums made of the leaves of
Mimusops Kummel, embellished with flowers of Acacia Nilotica (Del.), but
they belong to a later epoch, that of the Roman-Greek. ‘The use of the
flowers of this common Neyptian tree for wreaths has been mentioned by
Theophrastus. Chrysanthemum coronarium (Linn.), a native of the Medi-
terranean, and cultivated at the present time in our gardens, is only found
in Egypt growing near Alexandria, and was no doubt cultivated in the
flower gardens of the Ancient Kgyptians. A Centawrea, the species of
which could not be determined, occurs. Other wreaths are decorated
with the flowers of thegilue lotus.

The hefore-mentioned Acacia Nilotica was the only tree of any size
in Ancient Ngypt producing a durable wood suitable for ship building,
but this only in lengths of, at the most, nine to ten feet.

Amongst the entombed fruits are alse found juniper berries, probably
of Juniperus excelsa (Bbrst.), which kind inhabits Asia Minor, the Island
Tharos, and Abyssinia ; whilst the common juniper, Juniperus Pheniciais |
a native of the Mediterranean, and does not, as is the case with all the
Conifer, appear in Modern Egypt; therefore it is doubtful if the
tree was wild or was cultivated in Ancient Hyeypt; and it is more admis-
sible, that the berries of Juniperus Phenicia and also the objects made
from coniferous wood found their way from Syria or Asia Minor. No
doubt the juniper berries were used for fumigation as at present.

The culture of the date palm in Ancient Egypt was undoubtedly as
extensive as at the present time. The tree extends over the whole of
North Africa and part of Asia Minor; but its real home is not known.
Its fruit is found abundantly in the tombs; so also that of another palm,
Hyphene Thebaica(Mart.). The latter palm, which is frequently men-
tioned by ancient authors, is distributed over the greatest part of North
Africa, and is found in Guinea. A third kind of palm fruit is that of
Hyphene Argun (Mart.), which at present grows in the Nubian Desert ;
the finding of this fruit in the tombs is the more interesting because the
tree is not cultivated in Modern Egypt, nor was it, it is believed, in
Ancient Egypt.

The pomegranate, Punica granata (Linu.), has not only been fre-
quently found entombed, but also represented on monumental structures.
The ancient fruits are smaller than the modern ones, and differ from them

D8

é
in haying from four to six ceils instead of six to eight. One of the fruits
preserved in the Berlin Museum has been bitten into, as the marks of
both rows of teeth of a human being are plainly to be seen.

The castor oil tree, Ricinus communis, Linn., seems to have been
cultivated as extensively in Ancient Egypt as it is at present in Modern
Egypt, for the sake of the oil. The seeds of this tree are frequently
found entombed, and have preserved a very fresh appearance, and several
have been sown, but without results.

The culture of the vne in Ancient Egypt must have been also very
extensive. On all, even the oldest, monumental structures, the vine is
represented, as also branches of the same and the gathering of the grapes,
The ancient authors give also an account of its culture and the con-
sumption of the wine, while the results of the latter are represented on
monuments. The berries of the vine have been frequently found in the
tombs; and the Berlin Museum contains a large series of them. They
are as large as fairly-sized raisins, of an oblong shape, and. probably of a
dark blue colour. Several berries which have been examined contained
not one, but three stones. For the purpose of examination they were
immersed in water for four days, and afterwards hot water was poured
on them, but they did not soften, nor present the fleshy and clammy
nature of softened raisins, and on being pressed crumbled like mouldy
wood, though the water in which they were soaked acquired a dark
chesnut-brown colour. The French chemist, Fontinelle, did not succeed
in finding sugar in the berries.

No plant was more venerated than both the renowned species of
lotus (Nymphaea lotus, Linn.,and N. cerulea, Savig.) These were the
favourite flowers of the country. They are represented on almost all
monumental structures, and in the hieroglyphs they indicated the upper
country, or Southern Kgypt. And it is well known what an important
part the water-lilies played in the religious ceremonies of the ancient
Egyptians. From the earliest time the root and seed served for food to
the inhabitants of North Africa, but in Modern Egypt they are not used
for this purpose. The ancient Egyptians called the lotus seschnin, and
with a slight alteration d¢schnin is the Arabic name of the plant. Many
fragments of the lotus have been found entombed, and two well-pre-
served buds are in the British Museum.

Another aquatic plant related to the lotus is Meluwmbium speciosum,
Willd., which must have also been extensively cultivated in Ancient
Egypt, as it is mentioned by ancient authors, and is represented on the

54

earliest monuments ; but it has now quite disappeared from the country,
and was in all probability originally introduced from Asia, of which it is
a native.

One of the most important plants of the Ancient Egyptians was the
papyrus, which, like the lotus, is seen on the oldest monuments. Frag-
ments of the papyrus are found in nearly all the tombs. It was used for
many purpose3, both ornamental and useful, but principally for paper,
which was of the greatest reputation inantiquity. It is worthy of note
that this plant, whose culture was anciently so extensive, has now
entirely disappeared from Egypt, while in Sicily and Syria, where the
plant has undoubtedly been introduced from Egypt, it is perfectly
naturalised. Only on the Blue and White Upper Nile is the papyrus
found growing wild.

Amongst the Egyptian plant-relics in the Berlin Museum are the
tuberous roots of another Cyperus,C. esculentus, Linn. ‘This plant is
still cultivated in modern Egypt; as its fleshy roots contain oil and sugar,
and form a well-tasting dish.

In the Museums of Berlin, Vienna, and Florence are fruits which
have been found entombed, and which have been recognised
as those of Cordia Myza, Linn. Jt is a wmiddle-sized tree
and is a native of Abyssinia, but is still here and there culti-
vated in the gardens of Modern Egypt. Also the fruits and leaves of
another Abyssinian tree, Mimusops Kummel, Hochst., are represented in
the Berlin collection. The fruits are of the form and colour of the hips
of the dog-rose ; they and the leaves have been found in some abundance
in tombs. The Ancient Egyptians would seem to have used the leaves
for making funeral wreaths, as such a one is in the Museum of Leyden,
and the leaves of it are folded and strung on very thin strips of palm
leaves. This use of the leaves renders it probable that the tree was
cultivated, as it is unlikely that they reached Heypt by commercial inter-.
course. It is not now found in Egypt, having together with the
Papyrus plant and the Nelumbium disappeared in the course of the
last conturies, no doubt from the discontinuance of their culture.

Numerous seeds in the possession of the Berlin Museum haye been —
identified as those of a watermelon, Citrwllus vulgaris, Schrad. This
discovery is of the greatest importance, as it is now settled that the
watermelon is a native of Africa. Not only onthe Upper Nile, but also
in other parts of West and South Africa has this species been.found
growing wild. The fruits are much smaller and less juicy than the

55

cultivated ones ; but it is said that after a short culture the wild ones
attain to the same perfection. It is, therefore, no longer doubted that
the watermelon was first cultivated in Egypt, and spread from thence
to Asia Minor, and later to South Russia and Hungary. The water-
melon is mentioned in the complaint of the Children of Israel—‘ We
remember the fish which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers,
and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick.” _(Num-
bers xi., 5.)

The predilection of the Ancient Egyptians for the onion tribe is not
alone established from the above Scripture passage, but also from the ~
numerous representations of it on the ancient monuments. We also
learn from Herodotus that the labourers employed building the Pyramid
of Cheops ate onions, leeks, and garlick to the value of 1,600 silver
talents (about £649,600). The Modern Egyptians follow the example
of their ancestors, as onions are extensively cultivated by them,
even in the oasis of the Lybian Desert, and garlic not less so in the
Valley of the Nile.

There is another fruit found in the tombs, of which the Berlin
Museum possesses a number of seeds. It has been determined to be
Balanites Zigyptiaca, a small tree found in North-tropieal Africa, ex-
tending from Senegal to Abyssinia. Single specimen trees are found in
the gardens of Modern Egypt, but in ancient times it must have been
largely cultivated, as the seeds are commonly found entombed.

Other fruits in the Museum of Berlin have been identified as
Sapindus emarginatus, Vahl. The tree is a native of East India, where
its fruits are used as soap, both for cleaning the person and for washing
fine linen. In Sanskrit they are called phenilla, which means froth. It
is not improbable that the Ancient Egyptians, whose commercial inter-
course with East India is not doubted, received the fruits from thence
just as their descendants do to this day for the same purposes from the
East.

The discovery of branches of the poisonous shrub, Calotropts proce,
R. Br., a native of Persia, is the more interesting as it has been ascer-
tained that the branches still contain the intense bitter natural to the
plant, and has proved that the bitter principle in plants is more lasting
than that of sugar.

56

ON THE DECREASE OF MANY SPECIES OF INSECTS AND
INCREASE OF SOME IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By Otto Tupper, Corr. MempBer.

(Read February 5, 1878.)

Long-continued observations of the life and habits of insects in
general have produced the impressiou on me that, at least in the localities
I visited frequently in the course of my rambles, the number and variety
of many insect tribes were rapidly decreasing from year to year, while
some of them apparently maintained their position, and a few materially
increased in number. Many species of Coleoptera, as Longicornia, Bu-
prestidee, Lytta, &c., some butterflies, &c., have become scarce, while
some even seem to have died out altogether in some localities ; notably
those seem to be first and most frequently affected whose conditions of
life depend upon certain assemblages of trees and shrubs. This appears
not to be altogether due to the actual want of such trees and shrubs,
for I have seen and examined carefully patches of blooming mallee and
myrtle, many acres in extent, several times a week for months, but only
met with a few of the commonest beetles, flies, or wasps, though at other
places not far distant, and almost exactly similar, a great many of the
desired Coleoptera, &c., were taken upon these their fayourite flowers.
Far less direct influences seem to furnish the main cause of this compara-
tive barrenuess, the chief of which, I am disposed to consider, is the
browsing of cattle, sheep, &c. The woodcutter’s axe and the farmer's
plough coming next in order. All these change the aspect of nature
greatly, amd alter very much the relations of vegetable and animal life.

For illustration I will select Monarto on account of various reasons.
It is situated about seven miles east of Callington, and was, at the time
of my stay, a newly-formed farming settlement on the eastern slope of a

57

range of hills facing towards the Murray and the Murray scrub. The
hills mentioned, formed of metamorphic rocks and granite, were tim-
bered by various species of Eucalypts—whitegum, mallee (#. dumosa),
peppermint, casuarina, myrtacew, and proteaces' in a number of species,
besides other trees and shrubs of minor importance, of which the so-
called box-tree and melaleuca were the principal.

Towards the river, and within a mile and a half from my cottage, a
black sea of mallee met the view, interspersed with groves of pines
(Frenela) and patches of porcupine grass ; here and there varied again by
hakeas, banksias, &c., in smaller patches. A low granite range divided
this region (about 12 or 15 miles from east to west) into two unequal
parts, which I frequently scoured in all directions during the most
fayourable part of the year, viz., from September to April, for the pur-
pose of collecting insects. Ina period of some eighteen months, com-
prising a season and a-half, I obtained between 400 and 500 species of
coleoptera, distinct from some 500 species I had previously collected.

Some parts of this locality were densely wooded, some open; large
clearings had been made in others for farming and other purposes—hill-
sides alternating with plains, sand patches with rock ; thus presenting a
very favourable field for insect development. Yet one could pass for
miles through these sceneries and hardly meet any but solitary insects
belonging to the commonest species, and examine dozens of mallee,
myrtle, or melaleuca bushes, steeped in a cloud of bloom, with the same
result. Suddenly, one would come acrossa patch, limited in extent, teeming
with life in great numbers of individuals and species. Yet not one quality
could be specified not possessed by others, almost deficient of life, toaccount
for the difference and the predilections of the insects. Another circum-
stance worthy of remark is this, that these favoured spots are not per-
manent, but seem to be subject to change in an arbitrary manner, which
I often heard mentioned by other collectors.

What is the cause of all this?

My observations, limited as they are, point to this answer, viz.,
that the desertion of one place and the acceptation of another is mainly
due to the disturbances the insects suffer while depositing their ova,
amounting often to total prevention. These disturbances are caused by
the browsing of cattle and sheep, not to mention, for the present, the
radical agencies of axe and plough. Even if the ova be successfully
hatched, an invasion of the feeding-ground of the young larve by the
same intruders prevents many of them from attaining to maturity, either by

58

being crushed or shaken off the plants, and falling a prey to ants, &c.
The consequence is that insect life can only develope freely at such spots
which accidentally escape invasion. Another well-known fact greatly
assists in localizing species, namely, that most females of many species
do not quit their own birthplace voluntarily, for as soon as impregnation has
taken place they deposit their ova at the next suitable plant or other
place and die. No great wonder, therefore, localities of exuberant insect
life should remain isolated. Now, the chances are greatly against the
escape of such localities from invasion for any length of time wherever
cattle are depastured ; thus, instead of extending, which is a slow pro-
cess at most times, they gradually contract, and at last become extinct,
perhaps in one season, and their inhabitants exterminated.

New centres may be formed, and are, as frequently observed,
through individuals, carried accidentally by instinct, gusts of wind, &c.,
to other favourable spots of bush; but, again, the chances are much against
the preservation of the same ratio of species, especially where overstocking
is such a prevailing evil as here, and the tendencies in settled districts
are always towards extermination.

This result would be rather beneficial to man than otherwise if
nature acted discriminatingly, which is not the case, extermination be-
falling the innocuous and the useful almost always in the first instance,
the others apparently receiving an impetus in the opposite direction,
completing the work of destruction, initiated by man unwittingly, in an
increasing ratio.

Insects, as well as animals, being either herbaceous or predatory,
the former draw their sustenance from vegetation direct, while the
existence of the latter depends upon the first, limiting their increase
within narrow bounds, fluctuating little in a normal state of nature. The
great majority of predatory insects (ants, spiders, parasites, and pseudo-
parasites excepted) produce a much smaller number of ova than the
vegetable feeders, and are therefore more exposed to reduction in number
and final extermination by inimical causes than their prey the vege-
table feeders. These, in their turn, are, in general, gifted with a
prodigious fecundity.

Now, if one or more species of the predatory insects be extinguished,
or only greatly reduced in number, the check upon the herbaceous in-
sects, or upon some of them, is removed, and they at once avail theme
selves of the opportunity, and appear in augmented numbers, sometimes
inconceivably large, ending, after total destruction of their food-plant, by

59

starvation, or through unfavourable physical causes. As examples, I beg
leave to mention Locustide, the Colorado beetle, some Melolonthide (to
one species of which is owing the destruction of thousands of Eucalypti
in Monarto), several species of moths, &c. The undue increase of
their number could, I firmly believe, be proved to be due to the removal
of the check upon it, be it in the form of some predaceous beetle, as most
likely ; of some birds, of climate, or condition of soil. In any of these
man may, nay, often zs, the foremost motor. ‘

Insect species in general are best off in localities with alternations of
wooded and open tracts; there the soil preserves its humidity for the
longest time, because, on the one hand, the water descending as rain is
greatly retained, and can percolate freely in the ground at the
same time that the decay of dead vegetation is promoted; on
the other hand, the ground being shaded remains always toler-
ably cool, conditions favourable to predatory insects — Cara-
bidee, &c. The combined effect is to promote from year to year a more
luxurious growth of vegetation, well able to withstand the attacks of
destructive insects, and sheltering their enemies—predatory insects,
birds, &c. In localities where some plant-eating insect increased in-
ordinately, mostly a great deficiency of predatory insects and birds may
be noticed. Where there are many woody tracts at small distances sur-
face springs abound, reacting favourably upon the former, thus improving
and conserving the favourable aspect of the place.

Now man enters upon the scene.

The arable portions are carefully grubbed, cleared, and ploughed,
and on the rest he depastures his cattle and sheep. The summer’s heat
parches the soil ; scores of insects, lizards, birds, &c., perish; those birds
feeding upon the former, their eggs or larvee, which have not been
wantonly shot, withdraw themselvesto otherregions offering more privacy,
or die unable to bring up their young to maturity. Useless weeds and
destructive insects, gifted with great fecundity and adaptability, augment
apace for a while. The winter's rain descends unchecked, and carries the
loose unprotected surface-soil annually in millions of tons to the sea. The
shrubs and grasses continually browsed off, and unable to seed properly,
wither and die. The trees thinned by the wood-cutter, in whose shade for-
merly scores of humbier or younger members flourished, and in return in-
suring for their big brother plenty of moisture and coolness, sicken, are
attacked defencelessly by some insect, and succumb. Surface springs dry up
gradually, elsewhere retentive strata get disturbed, the rain water per-

‘60

colates, and is carried far away ere it reappears, leading unthinking
people to fancy that grain cultivation will augment the number of
springs.

Protection of trees and shrubs and speedy replanting, where extinct,
are the only preventative remedies. Hvery rocky hillock, every sand-
patch, every roadside, ought to be studded with groves and avenues of
trees and shrubs, and the cattle carefully excluded from them, for the
nipping off of the young shoots means dwarfing, sickening, and often
death for many of them. When this is brought about, there will again
greet our ear the joyous hum of the beetles, the stealthy hush of the
lacertilia, and the merry twitter and song of the birds, but in well-
balanced number, their mutual checks being carefully supplied by nature.
Only in deserts and deserted places locusts hatch in overwhelming num-
bers, and deserts are places without sufficient vegetation.

The chief beetles which have, according to my observations, shown
a decrease in numbers, are the following :—

Most Buprestidze, especially Stegmodera, many Hlaterini, Rhyncho-
phora (weevils), Cetonia, Lamprima, Passalide, Lytte, some species of
Clerus (C. notosus, trichodes), Amarygmus, Helops, and other Tene-
brionide ; and most species of Caralini, and Staphylin.

As stationary or increasing in individuals I have noted—Among
Buprestids a blue and yellow banded Stigmodera, resembling S. Yarellet,
which is very variable in size and colouring; also some of the genus
Cesseis ; two or three species of Hlater, many weevils, notably the beauti-
ful diamond weevil; the common black Cetonia; most Melalon-
thide, Rutelide, and almost all the Copride: many Chrysome-
lide and Chryptocephalide; of Carabini, Calosoma, Bembidium, and
Phylophiaus appear little affected, and the red-headed Staphilinus seem-
ingly increases.

61

ON THE HABITS AND DESCRIPTION OF A DESTRUCTIVE
BEETLE.—(MELOLONTHA DESTRUCTOR).

———

By Otto TEerprr, Corr. MEMBER.

: (Read June 18, 1878).

Some years ago I resided for about eighteen months in the district of
Monarto, about eight miles east of Callington and the River Bremer,
arriving there shortly after Christmas, 1871. The peculiar appearance
of nearly all the larger Hucalypts struck me at once as something re-
markable, not having observed anything like it before. The branches of
these Hucalypts—(E. Viminalis(?) and E. Odorata)—did not carry their
leafy crown at the extremity as usual, but axillary, a great number of
their twigs having sprouted along three sides of the limbs, exhibited the
only green upon the ereater number. They presented an appearance as
if artificially surrounded with wreaths, when viewed from a distance.
A few of the younger and more vigorous individuals still preserved the
normal habitus entire, while some had a few branches affected as de-
scribed above. .

This state of unhealthiness, for such it was evidently, did not extend
to such parts where the undergrowth had been left comparatively undis-
turbed, but only to the cleared portions and the borders thereof. At
that time the farmers had occupied the place for about four years, and
everything still looked rather primitive. Making inquiries, I was told
that a beetle committed these depredations. This information I re-
garded rather dubiously for some time, finding so very few live speci-
mens, and still less remains of dead ones. On some previous occasions I
had seen Eucalypti stripped of their leaves, but had found the /arve of
divers moths and Chrysomelidz to be the perpetrators. Great as was
the damage done by the latter, yet it was in no proportion to what I had
now before me. What immense numbers of this beetle must there be at

62

work to consume such quantities of leaves! What became of them
since? Where do they pass their caterpillar existence ?

To answer such questions as these I could do nothing at the
time but wait for their reappearance.

In the succeeding month of September a few began to show them-
selves, coming out of the ground after sunset. Some time previously I
had noticed in the looser parts of the soil a great number of caterpillars,
of the characteristic Melolontha habitus, and of all sizes, little distin-
guished either in form, colour, &c., from others of its genus, their skin
being a little tougher in texture, and of amore yellowish colour than
that of most others. The size of the full-grown larve is about 14 in. in
length and 7 in. in diameter. After several unsuccessful attempts, I
found at last some chrysalids in the ground at a depth of from 9 to 12
in., in different stages of development, and also one or two beetles, which
had been too weak to pierce the soil, and died after their transformation,
thus proving identity.

The chrysalis lies in an oval hollow at the depth mentioned above,
the lining of which is formed by the skin of the larva.

In the succeeding months of October and November ample opportu-
nities offered to study the voracious habits of the species, for which I
propose the appellation ‘‘ Melolontha destructor.”

During the day few could be seen, and none at all active, but soon
after sunset countless myriads made their appearance. Like swarms of
bees they encircled the treetops in such numbers that the hum of their
wings was distinctly audible at a distance of a hundred yards in the calm
of an evening, and the working of their mandibles clearly discernible at
the base of trees up to 40 feet high, whose leaves they were engaged in
stripping off. This will give an idea as to their number.

At about 10 or 11 p.m. the crowds began to diminish, and I cannot
remember having noticed them after midnight in cool weather, but
during warm and sultry nights a few continued in action till shortly
before sunrise. In early dawn, or in the moonlight, the trees attacked by
them seemed to be surrounded by a light cloud of vapour like a veil,
when seen from a distance, arising from the numerous Melolontha flying
around them. The trees were not attacked simultaneously, but in succes-
sion; those already sickly from previous attacks, or other causes, obtain-
ing the preference before the more vigorous, the healthiest escaping
sometimes altogether, sometimes with only a branch or two stripped
bare. A few night’s feasting left the victims bare of leaves, and the

63

ravagers remoyed to others. Yet (considering the number of coleoptera,
an astonishing fact) here and there one or other remained almost intact
in the midst of destruction.

In the daytime, the beetles, after dispersing, bury themselves in the
loose soil, as deep as its nature will permit, and I often succeeded in ex-
huming them from depths varying from three to twelve inches, even at
a much later part of the season. During rainy weather I have not
noticed them at all in action; the moisture probably making their wings
unfit for flight. They do not fly very fast; in straight lines or large
curves and for considerable distances. Those that fall to the ground in
an exhausted state are eagerly attacked and devoured by the ants, those
that survive finally die, as far as I could ascertain, in their self-made
grave. The females lay their eggs in the soil adjoining the roots of trees
and under logs, from whence the larve disperse, living on decaying vege-
table mould apparently.

How far the ravages of this beetle extended laterally, I was not able
to ascertain, but observed them personally over a considerable area, con-
taining many square miles.

The principal causes for their inordinate increase since the settlement
was formed appear to be : (1) the loosening of the soil, and (2) the in-
judicious persecution and destruction of predatory animals.

The former is of great advantage for their preservation, inas-
much as it allows them to bury themselves easier and quicker, thus
increasing their immunity from attack by almost any enemy. Before
broken up the nature of the soil was not favourable, as, being deficient in
lime, it dried hard in summer, presenting great obstacles to the larva
as well as the perfect insect, to ensure safety by rapid burrowing.

The destruction of predatory insects (large Carabide, etc., strong
enough to cope with them successfully) aids their increase, but reptiles
and birds, lizards, owls, hawks, etc., may have a still more direct
influence by diminishing their enemies. The lizards and hawks are in
most parts relentlessly extirpated by the settlers, because the former
are universally considered as venomous, and the latter are killed, either
for occasionally appropriating a chicken or two; from superstition; or
from ignorant love of killing. The small loss in the poultry-yard is instantly
observed ; but the great benefit rendered by them as destroyers of
insect pests is little known and less acknowledged.

In the localities where the destructive Melolontha buzzed about in
clouds at night few of the larger predatory beetles existed, and few birds

64

of prey except in the less disturbed parts of the forest where the latter
were more plentiful, and few signs of the former perceptible.
MeEtLotontHa pEStructoR (New Species.)—General form and
habitus appertaining to genus; female slightly larger than male ; length,
three-quarters of an inch ; diameter, one quarter of an inch; prevailing
colour of upper part, bright chestnut brown; head of the female and
labrum of male much darker, almost dull black; neutral parts of both
sexes a uniform dark brown ; “eyes small, black; labrum distinct, much
developed, edge turned up, well adapted for burrowing; maxille
slender ; mandibles short, strong, toothed; antennze in both sexes with
seven points and three lamellie, latter narrow, straw colour with female,
brown with male ; prothorax well arched ; flanges toothed and upturned ;
scutellum medium-sized; elytra translucent, arched, reaching well down
the flanks, but leaving the last abdominal segment nearly uncovered (a
little shorter with the male), marked by five longitudinal seams, edges
strong (inner one black), the whole dotted over with paintlike minute
depressions, arranged diagonally ;\ wings large; flight sustained and
accompanied by a loud humming noise: first and third pair of legs
strong, thorny appendages, well adapted for grasping and burrowing;
abdomen large, soft; the third from last segment the largest; last seg-
ment small, triangular, under surface of thorax covered with long tawny
hairs; shorter ones lining the upper interior edge of prothorax, outer
edge of elytra, and first joints of antenne ; feeding from point of leaves
towards stalk, moving backwards and eating mostly in regular curves.

iy

INFANTILE MORTALITY IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By Henry Heytyn Hayter, Cor. Member, F.S.8., &., &c.,

Government Statist of Victoria.

[Read March 19, 1878.]

As I fear it may be thought presumptuous for one who not only has
never resided in South Australia, but has not even set foot within her
limits, to address the Adelaide Philosophical Society on a subject affect-
ing the colony, it is not without considerable diffidence that I venture to
do so. Considering, however, that my official position affords me pecu-
liar facilities for obtaining information respecting each colony, and for
collating and comparing it afterwards, I trust I shall be excused for
bringing forward a matter which is undoubtedly one of the most vital
importance.

South Australia, although less populous than Victoria, New South
Wales, or New Zealand, is in many respects in advance of those colonies
or of any other colony of the Australasian group. A greater equality
exists between the numbers of males and females; a larger, and, per head,a
much larger, extent of land is under cultivation; a larger quantity of wheat
israised; the taxation is lighter*; the exports per head are greater than inany
other Australasian colony ; and when it is added that whilst the marriage
and birth rates in several of the colonies are notably decreasing, those in
South Australia have for years past been steadily increasing, and in 1876
were, the former in excess of the rate in any other colony of the group,
and the latter in excess of that in any other colony except New Zealand.
Tt will, I believe, be readily admitted that South Australia is in pos-

* This statement is true over a series of years, but in 1876, for the first
time, the taxation per head was slightly lower in New South Wales than in
South Australia.—AUTHOR.

x

66
session of certain material advantages the contemplation of which may
well afford thankfulness and satisfaction to the minds of her colonists.
But there is one point in respect to which South Australia suffers

in comparison with every other Australasian colony. J refer to the
excessive mortality of her infants.

This point came prominently under my observation whilst com-
piling the “ Victorian Year-Book, 1876-7.” A table showing the infan-
tile mortality of each colony over a series of years, based upon the prin-
ciple of comparing the deaths of children under one year of age with the
births, was given at page 68 of that work. For my present purpose, and
in order to make the calculations more readily understood, I have slightly
altered this table so as to show the proportion of deaths of infants to
every 1,000 births instead of every 100, and thus have been able to
obviate the necessity of using decimals.

A reference to the first of the appended tables (A.) will show that
during the ten years ended with 1875, 157. children in every 1,000 born
South Australia died before completing their first year, whereas the
proportion was 126 in Victoria, 125 in Queensland, 104 in New South
Wales, 102 in New Zealand, and only 101 in Tasmania. The infantile
mortality of South Australia was thus 25 per cent. above that of Vic-
toria, 26 per cent. above that of Queensland, 51 per cent. above that of
New South Wales, 54 per cent. above that of New Zealand, and 55 per
cent. above that of Tasmania.

Also in each of the respective years of the decenniad it will be
noticed that the proportion was always higher in South Australia than
in any other colony, and even at periods when circumstances caused the
infantile mortality to be exceptionally high in one or more of the other
colonies, it so happened that it was always higher in South Australia.
Thus in 1866, when infants died in Queensland in the proportion of 167,
and in Victoria in that of 153 per 1,000 births, they died in South Aus-
tralia in the proportion of 174 per 1,000 births. In 1867, when they
died in New South Wales in the ratio of 124 per 1,000 births, they died
in South Australia in the ratio of 178 per 1,000 births. In 1875, when
they died in Tasmania in the ratio of 131, and in New Zealand in that

of 126 per 1,009 births, they died in South Australia in the ratio of 181
per 1,000 births.

The ayerage annual infantile death rate of South Australia (157
per 1,000 births) was never reached in any of the other colonies except

67

Queensland, even during the very worst years of the decenniad, and in
Queensland it was only reached in one year, namely, 1866.

The year in which the rate of infantile mortality was lowest in
South Australia was 1869, and even in this 131 infants out of every
1,000 born died within the year. This proportion was never approached
in New South Wales or New Zealand, even in the very worst years; it
was reached only once in Tasmania, twice in Queensland, and three times
in Victoria.

In all the years of the decenniad the infantile death rate was higher
in South Australia than in New South Wales or New Zealand during
their worst years; in nine of the years it was higher thanin Tasmania during
its worst year, in five of the years it was higher than in Victoria during
its worst year, and in four of the years it was higher than in Queensland
during its worst year.

Turning to older countries, it will be found that the death rate of
infants in England and Wales during ten years was 154 per 1,000 births,
which, although higher than that in every other Australasian colony,
was 2 per 1,000 below that of South Australia. Also, that in Scotland
the mean death rate of infants over a series of years was 126 per 1,000
births, which, being exactly equal to that of Victoria, was very much
below that of South Australia ; and further, that the mean death rate
of infants in London, namely, 161 per 1,000 births, with the exception
of once in Queensland, was never approached in any colony of the group
except South Australia, in which it was exceeded in four and equalled in
one of the years of the decenniad to which the table relates.

The registration of deaths, as it must in all cases precede burial, is
probably effected with equal and almost perfect accuracy in all the
countries and colonies named, but it is possible that an appearance of
excessive infantile mortality might arise from the registration of births
being more defective in one country than another. According to the
returns there is no reason to suppose this to be the case in South Aus-
tralia, as the mean birth rate there, based upon the registrations, is found
to be higher than that of England, Scotland, Victoria, or Tasmania, to
approximate closely to that of New South Wales, and, over a series of
years to haye been only exceeded to any extent by that of Queensland
and New Zealand; whilst during the past year (1876), as has been
already stated, the birth rate ef South Australia was exceeded by that
of the colony of New Zealand only. (See Table B.)

There is thus no ground for believing that the high death rate of

68

infants shown by the registration returns of South Australia does not
really exist or is at all exaggerated. To trace the various agencies by
which such a calamitous result is brought about would be to any one a
difficult task, and would manifestly be impossible to one unacquainted
with, and who has no means of gaining an intimate knowledge of, the
ramifications of social life in South Australia.

Whether it be due to defective sanitary arrangements, or to
neglect resulting from the debility, indolence, or intemperance of mothers,
or from the fact that custom, inclination, or the necessity of their posi-
tion, causes many of them to engage in some trade or business ; or to the
ignorance of mothers as to the best mode of rearing children, resulting,
perhaps, from early marriages, or to the administration of aperients to
new-born infants—butter, sugar, and such other abominations; or to the
administration of spirits, cordials, soothing powders, or other narcotic
drugs; or to weaning at too early an age; or to administering innutri-
tious food, or food of too substantial-a consistency, or too farinaceous a
character, either before or after weaning; or to the attendance on the
mother of midwives; or to baby farming; or to the poverty of the
parents ; or whether, on the other hand, it be mainly due to congenital
weakness or to the effects of the climate, which, although probably not
so hot as that of New South Wales, is hotter than that of Victoria, and,
according to the observations of Sir G. S. Kingston, is drier than that of
either Victoria or New South Wales, these are matters on which I am
unable to pronounce an opinion, but which, I submit, demand the
fullest and most careful investigation.

To aid in such an enquiry I have prepared Table C, which shows the
causes of death of infants during the three years ended with 1875,
arranged in the order of their fatality. Iregret that I have been unable
to obtain the material for compiling the information over the whole
period of ten years to which Table A relates. Although I cannot learn
that it has ever been published for the first seven years of the decenniad,
it probably exists in the office of the Registrar-General of Births and
Deaths in South Australia, and if so, could doubtless be procured with-
out any difficulty.

It is also desirable that the ages at which the infants die should, if
possible, be ascertained, so that it might be known in what proportion of
instances the death takes place, soon after birth, or after the expiry of
one, three, or six months, &c, This information is not now to be found
in the published returns.

69

According to Table C not more than half the deaths are set down to
specific diseases, and no less than 1,708 out of 3,641 are returned as
haying resulted from atrophy, debility, convulsions, premature birth,
and teething. These terms are in the highest degree indefinite, being
either names of symptoms of diseases, not of diseases themselves, or cir-
cumstances entered as supplying convenient expressions for assigning a
cause of death when the nature of the actual complaint is not known;
588 more of the deaths are set down to diarrhcea and dysentery, an enor-
mous proportion. Did not a large number of these deaths result from
improper food and treatment, and could not many of them have been
ayertea by proper expedients ?

The occurrence of whooping-cough, measles, and scarlatina, in epi-
demic form, will be readily observed by the increased mortality from
those complaints respectively in the first, second, and third year referred
to in the table. The increased number of deaths from diarrhea, always
found to be concurrent with a measles epidemic, will also be noticed in
the middle year.

There is happily no ground for supposing that infanticide exists to
any appreciable extent in South Australia, not one of the deaths during
the three years under notice having been set down to that cause; 10
deaths were set down to suffocation, most probably by overlying, which
is not an excessive proportion, and certainly not large enough to raise a
suspicion that the deaths were caused intentionally. Accidents, exclu-
sive of suffocation, resulted in 19 deaths, or about 1 in 192 from all
causes ; and privation and want of breast milk, in 78 deaths, or 1 in 47 ;
neither of which are high proportions.

My duty is, I believe, accomplished in bringing this matter to the
notice of the members of the principal scientific Society in South Austra-
lia. It is for them to consider whether any action can be suggested
which may result in wiping out altogether, or, at any rate, in reducing
to the utmost degree of faintness the one dark shadow which at present
partially obscures the brightness which should spread over the whole of
the fair surface of their promising and interesting colony.

70

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72

TABLE B.—Mean Bratue Rate in AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES AND
Great Britain (Proportion of Births per 10,000 persons living)

Number of Births per 10,000 Persons living.
Name of Country.
Over a Series of Years. During 1876.

South Australia ............00 392 3771
Wile DOIG eacvaounecdesttsecenesars cts 373 322'3
New South Wales ............... 397 3769
QNCOUSIANA co. .s.ccsescevecseees oes 422 3748
PERISMAMIA ev ertissinsceosuetenneericcs 299 3011
New Zealand .........ccceseseeee 409 417°3
England and Wales ............ 349 —

Ste@ullonars de anéocaboopaooba con soo 346 —

TABLE C. — CAUSES OF DEATH OF INFANTS IN SOUTH
AUSTRALIA, 1873 to 1875.
(ARRANGED IN ORDER OF FATALITY.)

Number of Deaths of Infants

Under 1 year of age.
Order Nery SY a
of Causes of Death. ade ae tee na
Fatali otal in
ty ayears,| 1973 | 1874 | 1875
il Atrophy and Debility Ss 877 256 302 319
2 Convulsions ae ABA 125 148 181
3 Diarrhoea ere 423 103 165 ile)
4 Bronchitis a 220 64 67 89
5 Premature Birth ee 190 53 58 79
6 Teething RSs 187 54. 61 72,
7 Dysentery 165 53 60 52
8 Diseases of Nervous System,
exclusive of Convulsions ... 132 23 60 49
9 Measles 128 1 100 27
10 Privation, want of Breastmilk 78 17 25 36
11 Gastritis and Enteritis se 73 20 30 23
12 Diseases of Digestive Organs, i
exclusive of Gastritis and ;
Enteritis sa 72 21 28 23
13 Tabes Mesenterica Rea 70 16 33 21
14 Scarlatina Re: 69 2 9 58
15 Pneumonia ae 60 21 13 26
16 Hydrocephalus 53 17 25 11
17 Diseases of Respiratory Organs
exclusive of Bronchitis and
Pneumonia a 52 22 y= OR
18 Thrush ap 43 14 16 13
19 Croup Be 38 10 15 13

73
TABLE C—(ContTINvED).

Number of Deaths of Infants
Gidas under one year of age.
_ Aca Causes of Death. are
‘ata. otal in p
y eee 18738 1874 1875
20 Whooping Cough Soe 3 28 5 if
21 Malformations Sas 32 10 ial 11
22 Diphtheria : Me 3 4A, 16 10
Accidents, Negligence, exclu-
93 sive of Suffocation 19 9 7 3
Diathetic Diseases, exclusive
of Thrush re 19 6 Z 6
24, Heart Disease au 17 3 6 8
25 Remittent Fever 14 4, 5 5
Diseases of Intecumentary
26 } System oy 13 8 1 4
Erysipelas my 13 3 4, 6
27 Typhoid Fever £0 il 4 4 3
28 Suifocation : Ae 10 4A 4A 2
29 Influenza Ate 9 2 1 6
30 Cholera 8 1 4A 3
Phthisis 8 3 A 1
31 Serofula 6 2 2 2
32 Venereal Diseases Bh) 5 3 1 1
33 { Diseases of Urinary Organs ... 3 2 == 1
Quinsy 3 = 3 _—
84 Miasmatic Diseases not classed 2 1 — il
35 Joint Disease, &c. 1 — 1 —
Deaths from specified causes 3,641 989 | 1,310 | 1,342
Deaths from unspecified causes 11 1 §) 1
Deaths from all causes Een lreacGou 990 1,319 | 1,843
ADDENDUM.

Since writing my paper on “ Infantile Mortality” the statistics of
two later years—namely, 1876 and 1877—have come to hand from the
different Australasian colonies, and a table embodying the results is
appended hereto.

By comparing the figures in this table with those in Table A it will
be observed that the infantile death-rate of South Australia during the
two years ended with 1877, although not so low as in some of the years
of the previous decenniad—namely, the three years ended with 1871 and
the year 1873—was lower than an average extending over the whole
decennial period.

It will further be remarked that in 1877, for the first time during
the twelve years over which the observations extend, another Austral-
asian colony had a higher infantile death-rate than South Australia.
This colony was Queensland, in which, during that year, 148 infants died
per 1,000 births as against 140 per 1,000 births in South Australia.

74
INFANTILE MORTALITY IN AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES.

(TaBLE SUPPLEMENTARY To TABLE A.)

BrrtHS AND DEATHS AT UNDER 1 YEAR OF AGE, WITH PROPORTION
OF THE LATTER TO THE FORMER, 1876 anpD 1877.

|
\Deaths at under1 Year Deaths at under 1 Year

of age. of age.
Year. Births. ——___——_——|| Births, _——_________
Total |No. to 1000 Total |No. to 1000
_____| Number. | Births. |) | Number. | Births. _
South Australia. Victoria.
1876 8,224 1,228 | 149 26,769 2,980 111
1877 8,640 1,212 140 26,010 3,299 127

Sums and Means | 16,864 2,440 145 52,779 6,279 119

New South Wales. Queensland.
1876 23,298 | 2,629 113 6,903 994. 144
1877 23,851 2,785 117 7,169 1,058 148

Sums and Means | 47,149 | 5,414 | 115 || 14,072 | 2,052 | 146

Tasmania. New Zealand.
1876 3,149 286 | 91 16,168 1,673 103
1877 3,211 365 114. 16,856 1,527 91

Sums and Means | 6,360 651 | 102 33,024 | 3,200 97

75

ON THE ORIGIN OF MINERAL VEINS, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE BAROSSA DISTRICT, SOUTH
AUSTRALIA.

By Gavin Scounar, CORRESPONDING MEMBER.

[Read March 19, 1878. ]

ABSTRACT.

The author commenced by enquiring into the primary condition of
our planet, citing the opinions of the ancients and Laplace’s nebulous
theory of the earth’s origin. He then sought to prove that the sources
of our present accessible metallic deposits have never at any period of
the earth’s history been deep-seated. Treating of the metalliferous
rocks of the Barossa District, he writes—“In the absence of fossil
remains or a much stricter investigation of lithological identity than has
heretofore been prosecuted, it would be mere waste of words were I to
attempt to state unreservedly to what particular formation the rocks
constituting the Barossa Range belong. The slender evidence upon
which the Rev. J. EK. Tenison Woods identifies them with the Silurian
is not sufficiently conclusive. And though twelve years have past since
the publication of the “Geol. Observ. in S. Australia,” the rocks in
question are still “ unresolved.” Mr. Selwyn, in his geological sketch of
his tour in South Australia, states that “it is impossible in the absence
of fossil remains to determine to what series the rocks belong ; they may
be of Silurian or Devonian age.” Regarding their physical and litho-
logical features the author writes, “They have undergone in many parts
a considerable amount of metamorphism, and now repose at high angles
of inclination. The rocksfora considerable distance both to the east
and west of the junction of Victoria Creek and the South Para River
haye nearly all an easterly dip ranging from 50° to 60°, and in some

76

instances to 90°. Accordingly every 30,000 feet of strata in thickness
now represents a ground surface of about one statute mile.” The author
failed to observe any unconformity in the superposition of the strata for
a distance of from two to three miles in the channel of the South Para
in the locality named, but describes the phenomenon of inversion as ex-
hibited by a band of highly metamorphosed sandstone about one mile to
the east from the junction of the Para and the Tenefete Creek. ‘‘ To the
east of the axis of inversion as you ascend the bed of the river, you will
pass over bands of comparatively unaltered clay slate, micaceous and
eneissic schists, intercalated with quartz reefs and bands of quartzites for
several miles in succession, over the existing surface, and still the
easterly dip of about 60° and conformity of bedding prevail. The reason
for this general precision of easterly dip throughout the western slope of
the Barossa Hills is stated to be, because that range is merely the eastern
buttress and spring of a once stupendous arch of strata, which in times
long since past extended far to the west in a grand anticlinal curve.”

The author next discusses the effect of pressure and nuclear heat in
the production of fissures; and combats the opinion that they are caused
by earthquakes ; and proceeds to describe the various methods by which
it is conceived that fissures once existing in the rocks, as empty chasms,
have been subsequently filled in with quartz and other vein stuffs ; and
endeavours to show that the vein deposits are due to hydrothermal action.
In connection with the latter branch of the subject, he seeks to confirm
Mr. Selwyn’s opinion that alluvial nuggets of gold were products of com-
paratively recent infiltrations through the detrital accumulations in
which they are found. He writes :—“ Ihave in my possession a nugget
taken from the alluvial workings in Hamlin’s Gully, Barossa, which
shows strong indications of its formation having taken place in the mould
from which it was taken. It weight is about 69 grains, it measures
about one inch in length, by about five-sixteenths at the broader end, in
shape it is not unlike the spearhead of a warrior of the Middle Ages
denuded of its point. The thoroughly defined impressions which it
retains of the die, and the sharpness of its edges preclude the idea of its
having been transported.”

v7

AUSTRALIAN TRIGONIAS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.

By W. T. BrepnaLi.—(Communicated by Prof. Tate).

(Read June 18th, 1878).

It has occurred to me that a few remarks introducing to the notice
of this Society a form of life peculiar in recent times to the Australian
seas might prove interesting, especially as it 1s connected with a branch
of Natural History, which although affording an extensive field for observa-
tion and research in this colony, is seldom taken up by members of this
body, with perhaps the exception of Professor Tate, namely, Conchology.

I have the more particularly chosen the theme from the fact that it
has been my very good fortune to be the first to discover the most western
limit, at least so far as at present known, of the genus both on the coast
of North Australia and on the southern shores of the continent.

The genus 7rigonia was founded by Bruguiere,a French naturalist
of the last century, to represent a group of bivalve shells of a triangular
or three-cornered shape (as the name implies), peculiar to the secondary
rocks of Kurope, and at that time known only as fossils. They first made
their appearance in the Lias, whence they extended through the Lower
and Upper Oolite to the Cretaceous series, where they disappeared; the
Tertiary formations in no part of the world but this, having produced any
individuals whatever. The genus numbers but few living species, but is
particularly rich in fossil representatives. Upwards of 100 species were
known from the oolitic and cretaceous rocks of Europe, the United
States, Chili, the Cape, and Southern India, more than twenty years ago,
and now the number must be nearly double that. Australia is, however,
the home of these remarkable shells in a living state, and thus adds
another instance in which this great southern island-continent is the
habitat of forms of life which in other parts of the globe are only found,
to use Dr. Mantell’s appropriate term, as “ Medals of Creation.”

78
Trigonta—(Bruguiere, 1789).

The shell is bivalve, equivalve, inequilateral, and subtrigonal; ex-
teriorly it is strongly ribbed from the apex to the base (I am referring to
the recent species only), the furrows being well defined ; and interiorly it
is lined with nacre or mother-of-pearl of the most beautiful and brilliant
hues. But the extraordinarily intricate hinge is perhaps its most notice-
able feature. It is composed of two lamelliform teeth in the right valve,
which are transversely grooved on both sides, and four in the left valve,
grooved on the one side only. These hinge teeth are constructed with
such delicate nicety, and they fit together with such wonderful precise-
ness that when the shell is closed it is difficult to open it without incur-
ring the danger of breaking the parts. The genus was divided by the late
Professor Louis Agassiz into eight sections, to the last of which—the
Pectinées—all the recent species belong. The first recent specimens
introduced to scieutific notice were collected by Péron during the expedi-
tion sent out by the First Napoleon, in the ships “ Geographe” and
“‘ Naturaliste,” in the year 1800. Lamarck named the new and valuable
addition to the already magnificent collection of the Museum Royal,
Paris, 2’. pectinata, but for some reason, of which I am unaware, it has
since received the synonymous name of 7. Lamarcki from the late Dr.
Gray. Since then other species have been obtained, five being enumerated
by the Messrs. Adams in their “ Genera of Recent Mollusca.” One more
has since been added to the list by the discovery in a living state, on the
south-eastern coats of Australia (not the province of South Australia), of
T. acuticostata, originally described by Professor McCoy from fossil
examples. I will now proceed to a description of the several species.

1.—TRIGONIA PECTINATA, LK.

This very beautiful shell is a native of New South Wales, and is
most abundant in Sydney Harbour, where it is by no means difficult to
obtain at certain spots with the dredge. The interiors of some specimens
are beautifully lined with nacre of a rich silver or golden hue, while
uthers again are, if possible, still more lovely, the tint being of the richest
and most delicate pink. The shell receives its specific name from the
fact that the numerous longtitudinal ribs with which it is adorned on its
external surface are pectinated or combed (say like a cog-wheel). Strong
transverse striations traverse the intercostal spaces from the base upwards,
gradually becoming fainter as they reach the apex of the shell. I exhibit
a very large variety of this species (?) dredged at Cape St. George, a

79

rocky headland about seventy miles south of Port Jackson, near
Jervis Bay.

2.—TRIGONIA MARGARITACEA, LK.

This species was in all probability also obtained by Péron during
the same voyage, the more so asit, too, has received its specific name
from Lamarck. The shell, although at first sight a very similar one to
the preceding, when examined carefully has many essential differences.
It is a much coarser shell, more decidedly trigonal in shape, the ribs are
not nearly so closely set with the comb-like projections, and the spaces
between the ribs are more finely but less regularly striated, the striations
not apparently extending so high up the face of the shell. The epider-
mis of 7’. margaritacea is also always of a much darker colour and of a
coarser nature than that of 7’. pectinata, while the pearly interior ispersis-
tently of adeep purple hue. To this last characteristic it no doubt owes its
name. Thisis one of the species to which Ireferred as having been found by
myself at its known most western limits on the south coast of Australia.
Hitherto it had only been taken in Bass’s Straits, off the coast of Tas-
mania. It seems to have been unknown to Mr. G. F. Angas as a South
Australian shell when he published his list of South Australian Bivalves
in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of November, 1865, and it
must have been about that time when I obtained it on the eastern shores
of St. Vincent’s Gulf, on the long stretch of sandy beach between Glenelg
and the Semaphore. Since then it has been found by other collectors at
the same place, and further south at Aldinga, but always in a more or
less worn condition. Its particular habitats in our waters have not yet
been discovered, no live specimens having yet been dredged. Of the four
worn valves shown by me only one is in a sufficiently good state of pre-
servation to exhibit the colour of the nacreous interior, but the general
contour of the shell and the bifurcated appearance of the process which
partially emarginates the anterior muscular impression in the left valve
are distinctive characters enough to show that itis a true 7. margari-
tacea, and not a new species. JT. margaritacea is catalogued by me in
my list of South Australian Shells published (for private circulation only)
in 1875.

3.—TRIGONIA NOBILIS—A. Adams.
This species is unknown to me, and I would hazard an opinion,

although somewhat presumptuous on my part, that may only bea very fine
example of either of the two foregoing species.

80
4.—TRIGONIA STRANGEI—A. AD.

This species is one of great rarity, and was named by Arthur Adams
after Mr. Fred. Strange, an enthusiastic naturalist and collector, who
dredged the first specimen in deep water near the entrance to Port Jack-
son Heads. I have not seen an example, but I gather from Mr. Angas’s
List of New South Wales shells that it is distinguished from the other
species by the ribs being covered with wart-like nodules. In this respect
I should think it somewhat resembles 7’. wniophora, only that in that
species the tubercles or nodules occur on a portion only, and not on the
whole of the ribs. Mr. Angas says that afew odd valves, much worn,
have been washed ashore at Long Bay and Wollongong on the coast of
New South Wales.

5.—TRIGONIA UNIOPHORA—Gray.

The species described by Gray under the above name was obtained
at Cape York, the most northern extremity of the Australian continent,
by Mr. John Beete Jukes, naturalist of H.M.S. Fly, during the scientific
voyage of that vessel between the years 1842 and 1846. It is defined by
Dr. Gray as a shell of a reddish-brown colour, with twenty-two or
twenty-three high, rather compressed, and somewhat close diverging
ribs. The upper part of the central, and the whole of the posterior ribs
are covered with close, regular, transverse plates, the lower part of the
central ribs with large, rounded, or oblong solid tubercles, and the hinder
slope with five or six nodulose ribs. ‘To this species must be referred the
specimen found by me at the furthest known limit of Trigonia to the
westward, on the northern coast of the continent. During avery plea-
sant excursion from Port Darwin to Bynoe Harbour, Indian Island, and
the coral reefs in that locality, I found amongst a lot of rocky debris
and broken shells a left valve of the species under remark. It is in a
much worn state, but quite good enough for the purposes of identi-
fication.

6.—TRIGONIA ACUTICOSTATA.— McCoy.

Habitat.—South-eastern coast of Australia. I will refer to this
species presently.

Up to the present time no representative of the genus has been
received from the western, north-western, or south-western shores of
Australia, but there can be little doubt that it will be taken eventually
when collecting and dredging are more systematically carried on in these

81

waters. The time, however, may be distant, as the coast is little settled
upon, except in the neighbourhood of Swan River. There is the more
probability of its being found seeing that the genus is thoroughly Aus-
tralian as a recent form, and also from the fact that the mollusc itself is
migratory in its habits. Like many other bivalve molluscs, Trigonta is
able to make considerable leaps by means of its powerful wedge-shaped
foot; and Woodward in his “ Manual” mentions an instance in which
a specimen, placed by Mr. Stutchbury on the gunwale of his boat, leaped
overboard, clearing a ledge four inches in height. Neither is there any
record of the existence of T7igonia in the seas of New Zealand; but
perchance time may add it to the already extensive fauna of the shores
of that country also. The recent ZT’. pectinata of the adjacent coast of
New South Wales is found as a fossil in the upper miocene rocks of
New Zealand.

I will now briefly refer to Trigonia as a fossil in Australia, and for
numerous references and notes, and very complete information, mostly
obtained by his own personal observation, I am indebted to Professor
Tate. |

Seven fossil species are known—two from Jurassic, one from cre-
taceous, and four from tertiary strata. In point of age, the first to be
mentioned are the two Jurassic species, as in them we have contem-
poraneous representatives of the genus Trtgonia when it first made its
appearance in the ever-developing scheme of Creation.

1. T. Mooxt, Lycett., Western Australia, allied to T. costata of

the European Oolite ; and

2. T. uinEaTA, Moore, Wollumbilla, Queensland. Both these spe-
cies are described in the Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxvi., 1870.

Next in geological sequence comes the cretaceous form,

3. T. nasuva, Etheridge, from Maryborough, Queensland. It is
allied to T. aleformis, and belongs to a type not known in
the Jurassic rocks.

We now come to the Tertiary species, the forms, as a consequence,
having the closest aflinity to the recent species referred to in the earlier
part of the paper.

4. T. semrunpuLata, McCoy. Prodromus of the Palzeontology of

Victoria Decade, 11. t. 19, f. 1—2, pl. 21.

Professor McCoy says this shell is “easily distinguished from any

known recent or tertiary species by the rippled appearance produced by

the undulated concentric ridging of the anterior two-thirds of the valves.
F

82

The transverse edging, though common in the Mesozoic Trigoniz, is not
found in the recent species.” The sculpture of this shell leads to the as-
sumption that in it we have a continuation of the style of ornamentation
peculiar to forms of the genus belonging to the secondary rocks into the
succeeding strata of the Tertiary system. It will be seen, too, that 7.
semiundulata has a wider range geographically than any other, being
recorded from South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand,
and also that it has not been found ina later division of the Cainozoic
period than the Upper Miocene. It has been found in the

Miocene—Bird Rock Bluff, Victoria (McCoy), Muddy Creek, Ha-
milton, Victoria (Tate), Gawler, South Australia (Tate), Table Cape,
Tasmania (R. M. Johnston, Pro. Ryl. Soc., Tas., 1876).

Upper Miocene—Arramoa, New Zealand (Hutton, Cat. Ter. Mol.,
N.Z,, 1873).

5. T. Howirt1 (McCoy), 1. cit., Decade IIL, t. 27, f. 3, pl. 31,

1876.

Loc. Sandy marl, Jemmy’s Point, near the entrance to the Gipps-
land Lakes.

6. T. acuticostata— (McCoy) —1. cit. Decade II., t. 19, f. 1-2,
pl. 21.

“ T. acuticostata,” remarks the author, “is easily distinguished from
the recent species by the remarkable compression of the ribs into acute
angular ridges, and from the same cause the spinous tubercles do not form
the broad blunt transverse tubercles which they do in the recent species.”
Since the above remarks were written some years ago, for 7. acuticostata
appears to have been the earliest Tertiary species discovered, it has been
found living on the south-eastern coast of Australia. The localities from
which it is recorded are :—

Miocene—Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Victoria (McCoy). Cliffs,
River Murray, North-West Bend (Tate). Casts, probably of 7. acuti-
costata, occur in beds of the same age at Tickera, Yorke’s Peninsula, and
at Aldinga, South Australia (Tate).

Pliocene.—Mordialloc, Hobson’s Bay, Victoria.

7. T. pectinaTa, Lé.

Upper Miocene.—Hampden, New Zealand (Hutton, Cat. Ter. Mol.
N.Z., 1873.)

From the above-mentioned observations we obtain the following
table of the geographical and geological range of the Trigonia in
Australia :—

83

Lias. Oolite. Cretaceous. Tertiary. Living.
All other Countries
except Australia Say 200 Sp. = —
Australia 2 3 6
New Zealand — = D) og

It willbe noted from this table that the genus was excessively rich
in representatives from its advent at the beginning to the close of the
Secondary Age in Europe, when it died out altogether ; whereas in Aus-
tralia it has survived throughout the whole period of secondary and
tertiary periods until the present day, though it must be admitted in a

very limited degree in regard to number.

known Australian Trigonias :—

I will now add a list of all

1. T. Moorei © (Jurassic Western Australia.
fs}

2. T. lineata 3 Do. Queensland.
[>]

3. T. nasuta = Cretaceous Queensland.

4. T. semiundulata 6 [ Miocene Victoria ; South Australia ;
S | Tasmania.
g Up. Miocene New Zealand.

5. T. Howittii 3 — Victoria.

6. T. acuticostata 6 { Miocene Victoria ; South Australia.
© | Pliocene Victoria.
Q | Living South-Hastern Australia.
eS
(Ss)
3
a
EI

7. T. pectinata *E | Up. Miocene New Zealand
4 Uliving _ New South Wales.

8. T. margaritacea [ Do. Tasmania; South Aus-
sh tralia.

9. T. nobilis | — —-

19. T. Strangei ) Living New South Wales.

11. T. uniophora H | Do. Tropical N. and N.H,

Australia.

In conclusion, I would remark that independently of the scientific

interest attaching to the shells I have been speaking of, the casual observer
when he sees them must be involuntarily impressed with their beauties
and peculiarities. When first discovered at the bexinning of the present
century in the seas of New Holland they were considered such a rarity
by collectors that large prices were given even for old and worn single

valves, no better than some of those shown by me. At the present day

84

the perfect shell is much prized by collectors, and finds a deservedly
honourable place in their cabinets. The jewellers, too, have not lost
sight of its pearly brilliance, and have successfully turned it to account
in the manufacture of elegant trinkets, such as brooches, eardrops, and
the like. Whether the attention is most attracted by the brilliant iride-
scent hues of the nacreous interior, or the wonderful complication of the
remarkable hinge with which the valves are closed, the shell of Trigonia
must always prove an object of interest to all lovers of the beauties of
Nature in her ever-varying never-ending kingdom of wonders.

THE RECENT MARGINELLIDA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

By Prof. R. Tarr, Assoc. Lin. Soc.; F.G.S., London, &c.; Cor.
Mem. Acad. Sc., Phil.;. Roy. Soc., Tasmania, &c.

[Read June 18, 1878.}

The occurrence of the family Marginellide in the South Australian
seas has hitherto been unrecorded.

Species of Marginella have been known to inhabit the eastern shores
of this continent, whilst the sub-genus Hyalina was first recorded in
1871, and Hrato in 1877, as Australian. Examplar species of each of
these have been found by me in our waters. They are eight in number :
five of Marginella, two of Hyalina, and one of Erato. Two of the
Marginellas are identified with known species, but the others I believe
to be undescribed.

FAM. MARGINELLIDA.—GENUS MARGINELLA.
1.—MarGINELLA VOLUTIFORMIS (Reeve),

Conchologica Iconica. Monograph of Marginella, tab. 24, f. 131,
1865.

An ovate, ivory-white shell, body whorl swollen above, lip vari-
cosely reflected, columella quadriplicate. Length, ‘3; breadth, -18
inch.

Washed on shore.—Cape Northumberland (many examples) and
Middleton (Tate), South-East Coast (Bednall, one ex.) It is somewhat

common in Tasmania (Woods), and I have received specimens from
Portland, Victoria.

86
2.—MARGINELLA TURBINATA (Sowerby).

Thes. Conch., t. 75, £. 70, p. 385; Reeve, loc. cit., t. 22, f. 122.

A solid, whitish, shining shell, with a short spire, and faintly crenu-
lated round the upper part of the whorls. Length, 45; breath, :3 inch.

Washed up.—Cape Northumberland (Z'ate), Guichen Bay (Smea-
ton), mazy examples.

It occurs at Portland, Victoria ; is rare in South Tasmania ( Woods),
and has been dredged in Port Jackson (Angas.) The South Australian
examples are very much larger than those from New South Wales, the
dimensions of the latter being, length ‘35, and breadth ‘2 inch.

3.—MARGINELLA SUBBULBOSA (new species).

Shell shining white, rather solid, having much the shape
of M. turbinata, but more regularly convex from apex to front; apex
obtuse; faintly striated transversely. External lip thickened slightly
inflected, minutely denticulated within ; columeila quadriplicate ; plaits
equi-distant, the anterior two the larger. Length, ‘15; breadth, nearly
‘1 inch.

Tt has some resemblance to MZ. Bensoni (Reeve), which has a tripli-
cate columella; and to M. bulbosa (Reeve), agreeing with it in its quadri-
plicate columella and denticulated lip, but differing in its more pro-
minent spire.

Washed Up. — Wauraltie, west side of Spencer’s Gulf, two
examples (Tate).

4,—_MARGINELLA CYMBALUM (new species).

Shell shining white, rather solid, ovately - globose, spire
immersed; columella plicate throughout, plicee about 12, the
anterior six stout, the rest not so conspicuous; outer lip thick and
smooth. Length, ‘2; breadth, -14 inch.

. This species belong tothe Section Cryptospira, wherein the last
whorl is produced over the spire as in the genus Ovulum, its nearest ally
is M. pisum (Reeve), from which it differs in its a little less globose shape,
and in having many plaits on the inner lip, there are only four in that
species. WV. piswm is recorded by Reeve as simply from Australia, but it
has recently been catalogued by Mr. Brazier from the north-east coast of
the continent. Another Australian Cryptospira is M. ovulum (Sowerby),
but its elongately oval form is a distinguishing character; the Tasmanian
species M. minutissima (T. Woods), has a triplicate columella.

87
Washed up.—Aldinga Bay, St. Vincent’s Gulf, ten examples (Tate).
5.—MARGINELLA DENTICULATA (new species).

Shell shining white, pear-shaped, contracted in front, spire
immersed ; columella quadriplicate, outer lip thickened and minutely
denticulated. Length, ‘08; breadth, ‘06 inch.

Its pyriform shape separates it from M. piswm and M. cymbalum,
but it has more agreement in this particular with the Bornean M. dens
(Reeve); its denticulated outer lip and strong columella .plaits separate it
from all.

Washed up. — Wauraltie, west coast of Spencer’s Gulf, three
examples (Tate).

6.—MARGINELLA TRIDENTATA (new species).

Shell elongately conical, yellowish white, shining; spire some-
what exserted; last whorl rather swollen round the upper part,
attenuated in front; lip broadly thickened, opaque, moderately inflected
in the middle region, flexuous, minutely denticulated on the inner edge ,
columella with three strong plaits. Length 25, breadth ‘15 inch.

Washed up.—Aldinga Bay, St. Vincent’s Gulf, one example
(Tate).

I do not hesitate to found a new species upon the unique specimen
before me, because it presents a combination of characters—a triplicate
columella, denticulated lip, with a narrow conical shape, not presented by
any known form. Its nearest ally is M. sordida (Reeve), from which it
differs in being proportionately a little broader, and in having a denti-
culated outer lip. M. Tasmanica is the only other Australian species
with a triplicate columella, but its shape is widely different from the
present species.

7.—MARGINELLA ALBIDA (new species).

Shell semi-transparent, whitish, oblong-cylindrical, surface marked
with regular strize of growth; spire very short, apex obtuse; base
rounded, slightly attenuated ; aperture narrow, widening to the front ;
columella a little arcuate anteriorly with five plaits, the anterior two of
which are thick; outer lip thickened, flatly variced behind, and finely
dentate on the inner edge with about twenty teeth. Length 2, breadth
‘1 inch.

This species may be characterised as a diminutive, white, Hyalina
pallida, Linne, with a five-plaited columella, Only two other forms of

88

the genus are known in the Australian seas—H. mustellina (Angas) Proc.
Zool. Soc., London, 1871 t.1., £.5., which is banded with grey and brown
and has a quadriplicate columella; and H. fusiformis (Hinds) with a
conical spire and quadriplicate columella.

Among shell sand from the Marino Beach, Holdfast Bay; and
Aldinga, St. Vincent’s Gulf. (Tate) ; two examples.

GENUS ERATO.
8,—ERATO BIMACULATA (new species).

Shell minute, ovately pyriform, pale primrose-yellow to yellowish
white, with rufous-red around the extremity of the anterior canal and on
the callous border to the hinder part of the aperture; body whorl
swollen, constricted at the base; outer lip stoutly swollen, extending to
the apex of the spire, with about twenty-five strong, transverse plicz ;
aperture very narrow, curved, emarginate posteriorly; columella with
eight crowded transverse plaits. Length ‘17, breadth ‘12 inch.

E. bimaculata closely resembles E. angulifera (Reeve) from Borneo,
but it has a less angular and inflated body whorl, and the colouration is
peculiar. Three other species are known to inhabit the Australian seas,
but they have little affinity with our shell.

Washed Up.—St. Vincent’s Gulf at Aldinga and Marino, six ex-
amples (ate) ; at the Semaphore, one example (Bednall), on the Hast
Coast ; and at Surveyor’s Point on the West Coast, two exs. (Tate).
Spencer’s Gulf at Wauraltie, one ex. (Tate).

Reeve’s ‘ Monograph of Marginella” was concluded in January,
1865 ; it includes descriptions and figures of 15 species, which were then
or are now known to be Australian, in a little more than a decade the
number has been doubled. At the present time 185 species at the
least are living chiefly in tropical seas, but extending into warm tempe-
rate regions in the Mediterranean, California, S. Africa, and Australasia.
Of the 32 species recorded for Australia five only belong to the tropical
part, and the large number of 27 extra-tropical forms makes this area
the chief centre of habitation of the genus in so far as regards the tempe-
rate portions of the ocean; and in tertiary times it would appear to have
been the focus of distribution of the genus.

The geographical distribution of the Australian species of the family
Marginellidze is shown by the accompanying table ; from which we learn

89

that a majority of the species is confined to the south-east vf Australia,
and that two only are at all somewhat widely distributed.

TABLE SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE AUSTRALIAN

MARGINELLID.
NAMES OF SPECIES. |AUTHORS N&NE wrest STH. | VIC- | WAs- | N- 8.
: ‘)AUST. |AUST. |AUST. |TORIA|MANIA. | WLS.
Marginella australis ...| Hinds cae

(H) fusiformis ... _..| Hinds * |
guttula Es ...| Reeve * |
levigata ... ...| Brazier *

(C) pisum zie ...| Reeve *
liturata a; ...| Menke *

De Burghie ...| Reeve * /

(H) albida a ...| Tate *

(C) cymbalum ... ...| Tate *%

(C) denticulata ... ...| Tate *
subbulb sa... ...| Tate *

(H) tridentata ... ...| Tate *
turbinata... ...| Sowerby * * * *
Volutiformis ...| Reeve * * *
Allporti.... ...| Woods %
formicula ... ...| Lamarek * *
muscaria... ...| Lamarek * *
Stanislas... ...| Woods *
Tasmanica. ... ...| Woods %

(C) minutissima ...| Woods *
Angasi ee ...| Crosse *
attenuata ... ...| Reeve *
Metcali... ...| Angas *

(H) mustellina ... ...| Angas *
ochracea ... ...| Angas *
olivella pe ...| Reeve *

(C) ovulum ae ...| Sowerby *

‘(C) pulchella... ...| Kiener *
rufula ae ...| Reeve *
simplex as ...| Reeve *
Strangei... ...| Angas *
translucida... ...| Sowerby *

Erato angyostoma ...| Sowerby * *
gallinacea ... ...| Hinds *
bimaculata ...| Tate : *
corrugata ... ...| Hinds *

Total ae a 36 a 2 8 3 8 16

THE FOSSIL MARGINELLIDA OF AUSTRALASIA.

By Prof. R. Tarts, Assoc. Lin. Soc.; F.G.S., London, &c.; Cor.
Mem. Acad. Sc., Phil.; Roy. Soc., Tasmania, &c.

[Read June 14, 1878. ]

The family is not known in rocks of older date than the Eocene.
The number of fossil species given for each genus in Woodward’s Mol-
lusca, 1866, is: Marginella and Hyalina, 30; Volvaria, 5; Erato, 2.
Doubtlessly some additions have been made since that date, and the list
is now increased by the 18 species from the Australasian Tertiaries
which are enumerated in this paper. The large proportion that these
bear to the known fossil forms justifies the assertion made in the last
paper that the Australian area was the chief centre of habitation of the
family in the Tertiary period.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES—GENUS MARGINELLA.
I. Outer lip smooth.
(1) Columella quadriplicate.
1.—MaRrGINELLA ALDING (new species).

Shell very small. somewhat fusiformly ovate, shining; spire,
short, obtuse; whorls 4%, nuclear whorls rounded smooth, the
anterior two angulated, ornamented with nodulose plications at the angle
and strong strie; there are about twelve plications on the last whorl,
which are evanescent towards the front and the suture; aperture narrow,
sigmoid ; outer lip much thickened and reflected, and deeply channelled
above, without denticulations ; columella quadriplicate. Dimensions—
Length, 0°125 ; breadth, 0:1.

Very different from any living form, but recalls the West African
harpeform Marginellee, all of which are more fusiformly ovate.

9t

Loeality and Horizon.—Eocene marls, Blanche Point, Aldinga, South
Australia, (Tate) many examples.

2,.—MARGINELLA CASSIDIFORMIS (new species).

Shell small, rather solid, cream-coloured, shining; ventricose-
shaped like a typical Cassis, ornamented with plications on the
shoulder of the whorl, fourteen on the last whorl. Aperture narrow
oblong; outer lip straight, thick, and channelled above; columella quadri-
plicate, the anterior two oblique, the other two transverse. Dimensions :
—Length, ‘18; breadth, -14.

Differs markedly from M. Aldinge in shape and form of aperture,
Gh Locality and Horizon.—Miocene, Muddy Creek, near Hamilton,
Victoria (Tate, 4 exs).

3.—MARGINELLA MUSCARIOIDES (new species).

Shell small, volutiform, shining cream-coloured, and obscurely
marked with several narrow longtitudinal bands of dark colour.
Spire conspicuously exserted; whorls regularly convex, last whorl
gibbous slightly angled over the suture, transversely striated, and in
some examples obscurely plicated at the angle. Aperture wide, curved
posteriorly, and dilated anteriorly; outer lip moderately thickened,
ivory white, smooth, and strongly channelled aboye, not extending on to
the penultimate whorl. Columella with four strong plaits. Dimensions:
—Length 0:275, breadth 0°15

This species is a diminutive M. muscaria, Lamk., from which it
differs in certain minute but constant details.

In M. muscaria the callous lip is proportionately thicker, and iil-
defined above, but a more particular difference is its extension on to the
penultimate whorl, thence spreading over the base of the shell and giving
rise to a flattened appearance varicosely margined on the left side. The
under side of M. muscarioides is regularly convex, and the posterior
angle of the aperture is squarish.

Locality and Horizon.—Miocene, Muddy Creek, Victoria, (Tate)
many exampies.

4.—MARGINELLA HORDEACEA (new species).

Shell small, broadly ovate; spire short obtuse; last whorl
regularly convex above, slightly depressed on the under side. Outer lip
very thick and strongly channelled above, inner edge smooth; columella

92

with four strong distant plaits. Dimensions.—Length 0.225, breadth
0.175 inch.

M. infans (Reeve) makes some approach to M. hordeacea, but there
is no recent species so broadly ovate as it. The flatted underside and
the thick lip give it a striking character.

Locality and Horizon. —Miocene limestones, upper part of Blanche
Point Cliff, Aldinga, South Australia. Very abundant (Tate).

5.—MarcinFLya puBia (Hutton),
Cat. Tertiary Moll. of New Zealand, 1875, No. 52, p. 8.

“ Ovato-cylindrical, spire short, smooth ; outer lip slightly thickened ;
axis, ‘6 ; breadth, °3.

“ Upper Hocene.—Broken River, Chatham Islands, N.Z.” (Hutton )

6.—MARGINELLA ALBESCENS (Hutton),
Cat. Marine Moll. of N.Z., 1873, p. 19, No. 65.

“Shell small, oval, translucent ; spire short; aperture narrow ;
columella with four plaits, white. Length, -2; breadth, :1.

“Upper Miocene. — Awamoa; and Recent, New Zealand ”
(Hutton).
II. Outer lip dentate.

(1) Columella quadriplicate.

7.—Mar@inELLA WeEntwortut (Lenison Woods),
Proc. Roy. Soc., Tasmania, p. 109, 1877.

“Shell small, ovately oblong, tumid, smooth, shining ; spire exsert
obtuse ; whorls five, roundly angulate ; aperture narrow, oblong ; outer
lip much thickened, deeply channelled above, enamelled on the edges,
with numerous small tubercular teeth within the margin; columella
with four plaits; anterior aperture widely channelled.”

Locality and Horizon. — Miocene, Table Cape, Tasmania.—
(Johnston).

Miocene.—Muddy Creek, Victoria (Tate), and R. Murray Cliffs
( Tate).

Eocene Marls.—Blanche Point, Aldinga, South Australia (Tate.)
Common in all localities.

M. Wentworthi has some resemblance to M. muscaria, differing
from it not only as M. muscarioides does, but in its denticulate lip and
more lancevlate form. But for its shorter spire it might be mistaken for

93

M. eburnea of the Paris basin, which has however a smooth lip. The

shell varies much in its size; the dimensions of extreme forms from
Muddy Creek are

Length 034 Breadth 0.16 inch

% 0-19 re: 0:12 The Aldinga specimens
are stouter 6 0:29 0°18

8.—MarGInELia StromBiFormis (7. Woods),
loc. cit., p. 109.

“Shell small, solid, smooth, shining, ovate, narrowed anteriorly,
spire short obtuse, whorls four, rounded; body whorl obscurely longi-
tudinally plicate below the suture; columella anteriorly obliquely some-
what coarsely quadriplicate; aperture narrow, curved, posteriorly
emarginate, outer lip conspicuously thickened and produced posteriorly,
finely tuberculately dentate within. Length, -275; breadth, -12 inch.

Not unlike a minute Strombus viewed from above owing to the pro-
duced lip; it is nearest inform to the W. Indian M. marguertia, Kiener,
but that is a somewhat larger and more angular shell.’—(Tenison
Woods). ¢
Locality and Horizon.—Miocene, Table Cape (Johnston.)

9.—MARGINELLA MICULA (new species).

Shell minute, milk-white smooth, shining, conically ovate; spire
very small obtuse ; body whorl gibbous over the suture and constrictedly
attenuated anteriorly ; outer lip produced posteriorly slightly thickene ;
and minutely denticulated ; aperture wide, curved, posteriorly emarginated
columella four-plaited, plaits distant. Length ‘11, breadth :086 inch.

Locality and Horizon.—Miocene—Muddy Creek, Victoria. (Tate) ;
many examples.

M. micula is near in form to the W. African MM. vitrea (Hinds) but
has a smaller spire and is more attenuated ; it, moreover, belongs to a
different section of the genus. So much as M. vitrea differs in form from
M. marguerita, so does UM. micula differ from M. strombiformis.

10.—MaRGINELLA INERMIS (new species).

Shell ovate to somewhat pear-shaped, attenuated anteriorly, smooth
and shining, spire very short; aperture oblong, strongly arched posteriorly ;
outer lip slightly variced, edge thin and inconspicuously denticulated ;
columella quadriplicate. Length, 4; breadth, }-inch.

94.

Locality and Horizon.—Miocene—Muddy Creek, Victoria. (Tate)
seven examples.

11.—MARGINELLA VENTRICOSA (Hutton).

Cat. Tertiary Moll., No. 53, p. 8.
Ovato-ventricose: spire very short, smooth, outer lip thickened,
strongly dentate; columella plaited. Axis, ‘65; breadth, °5.
Kocene—Broken River (Hutton).

(II.) Outer lip dentate.
2 Columella quinqueplicate.

12,.—MARGINELLA WINTERI (new species).

Shell narrowly oblong, smooth and shining; spire exserted subacute,
aperture triangular, moderately wide in front; outer lip white, rather
flexuous, thinly but broadly thickened and somewhat inflected, with about
30 small obtuse denticles. Columella 5-plaited; the posterior one is
small and absent in young shells. Length, 4; breadth, ‘85 inch.

The shape is much that of M. bibalteata (Rv.), and is narrower and
more acute than M. serrata (Reeve), both of which have quadriplicated
eolumellas.

Locality and Horizon.—Miocene—Muddy Creek, Victoria (Tate)
many examples.)

} associate with this species the name of S. P. Winter, Esq., of
Murndal, on the Wannon, ‘asa slight recognition of the aid he has ren-
dered to myself and other investigators of the paleontology of the
Muddy Creek beds. |

15.—MARGINELLA PROPINQUA (new species).

Shell oblong-cylindrical, solid, light horn coloured, transversely
streaked with white, enamelled; aperture triangular, with a broad
milk-white varix strongly denticulated on the bevelled edge ; columella
five-plicate. Length, 45; breadth, :22 inch.

It differs from the foregoing in its short spire and more tumid body
whorl. In form it agrees with M. Philippinarum (Redfield), which is
quadriplicate. .

Locality and Horizon—Miocene—Muddy Creek, Victoria, many
examples ; upper beds of the River Murray Cliffs ( Tate).

14.—_MarGINELLA Woopst (new species).
Shell solid, enamelled, cream-coloured, ovately oblong; spire
short, obtuse; whorls rotundly angulate ; aperture narrowly oblong,

95

rounded posteriorly; outer lip white, broadly thickened, chan-
nelled above, subsigmoid and denticulated within; columella with five
plaits, the posterior one small. Length, 3; breadth, 175 to ‘2 inch.

Has affinity with M. Wentworthi and M. muscarioides, being some-
what intermediate in form, but larger than both, and is distinguished
by its short spire, and 5-plicate columella; it is more oblong than YM.
Wentworthi, and more attenuated anteriorly than M. musearioides, and
is moreover dentate.

Locality and Horizon.—Miocene—Muddy Creek, Victoria. (Tate)
many examples.

This species is dedicated to the Rey. J. EH. Tenison Woods, F.G.S.,
whose name is most intimately associated with the coral fauna of the
Muddy Creek beds.

II. Outer lip dentate.
3. Columeila septemplicate.

15.—MARGINELLA SEPTEMPLICATA (new species. ).

Shell stoutly ovate, gibbosely convex, light horn colour, shining ;
spire immersed, outer lip broadly but thinly callous, the callosity ex-
tending all round the aperture, denticulated within ; columella with
seven broad plaits. Length, 375 ; breadth, -23 inch.

Locality and Horizon.—Miocene—Muddy Creek, Victoria. (Tate)
4 exs. 7

No living species has the form, size, and columella plications of M.
septemplicata ; it belongs to the section Persicula of Schumacher.

GENUS VOLVARIA.

15.—VoLVARIA FISOIDES (Hutton).
Cat. Foss. Moll. of New Zealand, p. 8.

Ovato-pyriform; smooth; whorls four; spire not exserted, aperture
narrow, outer lip inflected ; columella quadriplicate. Axis, 1:1; breadth,
"85.

Upper Eocene.—Oamaru, New Zealand ( Hutton.)

GENUS ERATO.

16. Erato? octopiicata ( Woods).

Ref. Marginella octoplicata, Proc. Roy. Soc., Tasmania, 1877, p. 109.

“Shell solid, smooth, shining, pyriform; spire scarcely visible,

96

of three very small depressed whorls; body whorl distinctly striated
with lines of growth; mouth narrow, subsigmoid; columella with eight
plaits, the anterior valid scarcely oblique, the posterior four faintly
traceable, outer lip much thickened, and very regularly dentate with 12
raised linear teeth; at the base of the columella there is a distinct varix,
which proceeding round the posterior end of the shell unites with the
reflected lip, making that broadly marginal. It bridges over the gap
between Marginella and Erato and Cypraea. Marginella 5-plicata,
Lam., M. elegans (Gmel.) and M. turbinata (Sow.) show an approach to
this form, but they are larver shells.”

Unacquainted with the species I cannot pronounce upon its generic
affinities, but from its diagnosis it would appear to be rather an Hrato
than a Marginella.

Horizon and Locality. ---Miocene ; Table Cape, Tasmania (JoAnston.)

17.—Erato AUSTRALIS (new species).

Shell minute, shining, horn-colour; tringularly pear-shaped ;
spire rather exserted somewhat acutely conical; whorl 4¢,
body whorl marked with lines of growth, rotundately angled over the
suture, and constrictedly attenuated in front; outer lip mederately
thickened and inflected, inner margin denticulated ; aperture moderately
wide, enlarged behind and narrowing to the front ; columella with four
slender oblique plaits succeeded by denticles. Length, 0.25 ; breadth.
0.15 inch.

E. Australis is seemingly related to the above, but separakle by its
exserted spire, in which character it agrees with H. gallinacea, Ry. from
the Philippines, and EH. callosa, (Adams and Ry.) from the Chinese Seas,
differing from them in its narrower shape, and less inflated body
whorl.

Locality and Horizon.—Hocene marls at Blanche Point, Aldinga
South Australia (Tate), fifteen examples.

18.—ERATO MINOR (new species).

Shell minute, somewhat elongately pyriform, orange yellow,
spire short obtuse; outer lip shining white, with a broad. callous
expansion posteriorly, extending over the penultimate whorl and
enveloping the base of the shell ; columella with five conspicuous plaits
and denticles. Resembles the living EH. “'anduricensis, (Pease,) but the
aperture is not so prolonged posteriorly, and the spire is much shorter
Dimensions.—Length 0°15, breadth 0.1 inch.

97

Locality and Horizon.—Miocene, Muddy Creek, near Hamilton,
Victoria (Tate), 4 exs.

Divisions of the genus Muarginella have been proposed by several
concholovists ; these are founded chiefly upon the character presented by
the spire, whether e:evated or hidden, whilst the outline of the shell has
served for further subdivision Were 1 to adopt the divisions proposed
by the MM. Adams, I should be necessitated to suggest others for the
reception of certain of the fossil forms; not deeming this desirable, I
select more stable characters those of the plication of the columella, and
the abssnce or presence of denticles on the lip, as bases for the arrange»
ment of the species into artificial groups to facilitate reference, such as is
set forth in the following conspectus.

CONSPECTUS OF THE SPECIES OF FOSSIL MARGINELL.

I. Outer lip smooth; columella quadriplicate.
1. Fusiformly ovate, MW. Aldinge, Tate.
2. Ovate ventricose, M. Cassidiformis, Tate.
3. Volutiform, M. muscartoides, Tate.
4, Broadly ovate, M. hordeacea, Tate.
5. Ovato-cylindrical, M. dubia, Hutton.
6. Oval, M. albescens, Hutton.

II. Outer lip dentate.
A.—Columella quadriplicate.
7. Ovate-oblong, M. Wentworthi, T. Woods.
8. Ovate, WM. strombiformis, T. Woods.
9. Conically-ovate, AZ. micula, Tate.
10. Pyriform, M. inermis, Tate.
11. Ovate-ventricose, M. ventricosa, Hutton.

B.—Columella quinque-plicate.
12. Fusiformiy oblong, M. Winteri, Tate.
13. Oblong-cylindrical, M. propingua, Tate.
14. Ovate-oblong, M. Woodsi, Tate.
C.—Columella multiplicate (Section Persicula.)
15. Columella 7-plicate, M. septemplicata, Tate.

Remarks on the Affinities of the Species.—Of the fifteen species
enumerated in the foregoing table, only one is known as a living shell,
itis M. albescens, which inhabited the same region in Miocene times as

it does now. Three have allied species among recent forms :—
G

98

M. hordeacea resembles A. infwns, of Singapore.

M. muscarioides ,, M. muscaria, of 8S. E. Australia.

M. strombiformis ,, M. marguerita, of the West Indies.
Then there are five species which are only distantly allied to, though
resembling certain living forms, because their essential points of diffe-
rence are less trivial than variation of shape; these and their living
analogues are as follows :—

Fossi. SPECIES. REcENT SPECIES.
Outer lip of shell dentate. Outer lip smooth.
~ M. Wentworthi is the analogue to M. muscaria, S.E. Australia.
M. micula rf 9 M. vitrea, W. Indies.
CoLUMELLA 5-PLICATE. CoOLUMELLA 4-PLICATE.
M. Winteri is the analogue to M. bibalteata, W. Indies.
M. propingua ,, + M. Philippinarum, E. Indies.
M. Woodsi ___se,, 45 M. volutiformis,S.E. Australia.

Analogous forms to certain other of our Tertiary fossils have been
indicated by McCoy and Duncan in the genera Voluta and Cyprea, and
among some of the corals and echinoderms.

Our tertiary fauna, so far as it has been critically studied, shows an
affinity rather with the recent fauna of the Hast Indian and Chinese
Seas than with that of temperate Australia. However, this phenomenon
is not exhibited by the Marginellidze, at least only in a very slight degree,
and their alliance is as strong with the West Indian and Australian
faune. In respect to the West Indian fauna, it may be stated that it
possesses many points of affinity with that of the Miocene of Europe.

99

WHIRLWINDS.

By Otro Tepper, Cornesponpinc MEMsBer.

[Read July 16, 1878.]

By whirlwinds are understood local disturbances in the atmosphere,
of limited diameter, and moving in a spirally-ascending gireruow at the
same time shifting laterally.

They are during the summer months of such frequent occurrence in
Australia and elsewhere that many people do not deign to take much
notice of them unless their attention is enforced by some specially de-
structive whirlwind. Yet the causes of these phenomena appear s0
much enveloped in mystery that the careful observation and study of
them may well repay for the pains taken, as perhaps through these
phenomena the origin of the far grander waterspout and cyclone may be
elucidated.

A.v. Humboldt considers them as effects of opposing currents ;
but how currents moving in straight lines with moderate velocity can
produce spiral ones endowed with great swiftness it is hard to compre-
hend, even leaving out of question the fact that whirlwinds only take
place during almost absolute calms.—(Belt, ‘‘the Naturalist in Nicaragua.”)

Maury, again, ascribing them also to the meeting of currents, in-
vokes the aid of electricity, citing an experiment with a metallic ball, by
means of which, when highly charged with electricity, a small water-
spout was raised (“Geogr. of the Sea”). The objection to lateral currents
being the cause having been stated, electricity as such is equally doubt-
ful, it being hardly conceivable, in the absence of such powerful concen-
trating agent as a metallic ball how thousands of tons of water could be
raised for hundreds of feet by any Anown natural agent. Besides this, it
seems that whirlwinds occur as frequently as not in nearly dry atmos-
phere, with little indication of electric tension and before any thunder®

100

clouds form. They appear rather to act as producers of the concentra-
tion of electricity in the clouds than otherwise, but when taking place
under an overcharged cloud no doubt act as channels of exchange and
discharge, and in this way—two forces acting conjointly—their effective-
ness would be increased immensely.

To get a fair understanding of the phenomena, the following points
must be considered, viz. :—

1. The time of day they take place.

2. The accompanying circumstances.

3. The actual facts observable—a, at the start; 6, during progress ;
¢, at the end.

4, The mechanical agencies, by means of which the observed facts
can be explained.

In no instance can I remember ever to have witnessed a real whirl-
wind either much before 10 a.m. or after 4 p.m. ; the period of maximum
frequency being between noon and 3 p.m., thus limiting their occur-
rence to the hours of maximum daily temperature. By this observa-
tion it is not implied that they cannot occur at some other time
(for I have noticed often small momentary whirling gusts at other
times, when obstructions of peculiar form offered themselves to the
winds), but that their normal occurrence falls within the periods
named.

The weather at the time is distinguished by calm, intercepted by
short, fitful blasts of wind from every point of the compass irregularly,
and considerable warmth. If a hot wind is prevalent at the time,
whirlwinds invariably occur in a temporary lull. In respect of size
they range from a few inches in height and diameter, over an ash-
heap or in large fireplaces, to lateral dimensions of several hundreds
of feet, and vertically to several thousands of feet in elevation.

The producing causes may be found inthe sudden temporary escape
of overheated air, when in unstable equilibrium, through a resisting
medium, viz., a stratum of denser, colder, rapidly-moving current above.
By this escape a partial vacuum being formed, the gravitation of the sur-
rounding still air will assist in forcing the lower strata directly under the
vent, powerfully up and towards the same, by which means the increased
force of the whirling current can be easily accounted for.

The effect of the upper polar current upon the ascending heated air par-
ticles is very great, because there is a mechanical law, according to which
a fluid or gas in rapid motion acts to some extent like a solid in pre-

101

venting other fluids at rest or only moving slowly from entering or
mixing with each other. As far as fluids are concerned this is illus-
trated in a grand scale by the oceanic currents, and by the ease a sharp
stream of gas or vapour can be ejected to some distance through some
other without mixing. Claiming the same property for the upper
aerial currents (which must acquire a considerable momentum, being en-
tirely unimpeded in their course, and therefore offer a great resistance
by their inertia to any intrusion), they will act as a barrier to the as-
cending particles of heated air, infringing upon the swift cool current at
right angles or nearly so, and thus are arrested in their course and
detained, as illustrated in Plate 3, fig. 1. Air being a bad conductor of
heat the warm particles will be very slow in parting with it, especially
to others in rapid motion, and therefore long retain their buoyancy. A
certain tension, a pressure exerted by them upon the barriers would
therefore result and increase continually, though in a slow ratio
Gradually the atmosphere would grow hotter, the upward pressure
stronger, the area of the calm extended, and the upper current forced
upward in the places of maximum pressure, as shown in fig. 2, plate 3.

In the meantime the air becomes more and more oppressive, and to
some extent charged with moisture. The heat becomes visible, the whole
lower strata of the atmosphere seem quivering, undulating, strangely dis-
torting distant objects. The combat of the forces is approach-
ing its climax; but pressure being very unequal over any extent
of area on account of the difference of the heat-radiating capacities of the
soil, at the points of maximum pressure a small volume of hot air forces
itself into the swift current, and instantly is swept along. This event is
noted—above, probably by the formation of a thin streamer of cloud by
the condensation of aqueous vapour; below, by a slight puff of wind in
the direction of the seat of the momentary disturbance, and therefore
in different directions at different localities.

When the sun has reached an altitude of 45°-—50° the time has ar-
rived for decisive measures—the rupture and overpowering of the upper
current and the escape of the imprisoned air. The equilibrium is at last
attained ; the overheated air suddenly forces its way at some point

through the rapid upper current by means of a sufficiently large vent,
but keeps its exit open for a short time only; then it is closed again by
the onward pressure. From all sides the confined air. streams up into
the gap or towards it, but being formed in a moving medium, it is car-
ried along with it bodily, according to the same law that prevented its
entrance, viz., its viscosity when in motion. (See fig. 3).

102

By this forward motion the direction of the air particles, at first per-
pendicularly upwards towards the point of rupture, attains obliquity
before gaining entrance de facto, while those that started at the rear
become still more slanting in their course, having to hurry forward at an
increased rate, but impinging upon those coming from the sides and the
opposite direction, are forced out of it, their motion thus becoming side-
ways, forward, and upward—.e., spiral. These in front are forced aside
by their adhesion and the forward pressure of the up-rushing current, and
the inertia of the comparatively unaffected volume of the adjacent air.
In this manner the spiral mo ion is obtained.

The upward force of the ascending current is further augmented
(and, derivatively, the lateral motion) by the downward pressure of the
superincumbent strata of the air, by forcing the lower into the (funnel-
like) vortex, which latter assumes the functions of a partial vacuum.
The commotion produced in the vortex gradually affecting the adjacent
mass of air, the spirally-ascending currant assumes naturally in progres-
sion the form of a descending inverted cone—observed at times in the
case of waterspouts, ete.—which finally reaches the surface of the earth,
there exerting the maximum of force bezause here the weight (gravitation)
of the atmosphere, etc., is greatest, and reaches the earth at a point from
which the action rapidly extends on all sides. The spiral motion is
strongest near the circumference, while at the centre of the current—the
whirlwind—it is directly upwards, but in a more or less oblique direction,
on account of the forward motion of the whole and the friction with the
surrounding air.

Generally the gyrations of the whirlwind cease as suddenly as they
begin—first in the centre, then at the circumference. A dust column,
seen at a distance, appears invariably to break off at some distance above
the ground, the objects comprising the lower part rapidly descending,
while those in the upper portion seem slowly to float upwards, con-
spicuous articles of small weight being often carried to considerable dis-
tances ; the light dust preserves its columnar form sometimes for a
quarter of an hour or more without apparently changing its place.

In conclusion, the following is a short resume of what is intended
to be shown in the foregoin

g, viz :—

J. Whirlwinds are upward currents of heated air, endowed with
a spiral motion at the circumference, progressive motion and small
diameter in proportion to their height.

103

2. They only occur during the warmest part of the year and
day, and in calm weather.

3. They are due to the unstable equilibrium of the air, the hot
lower portion acquiring a high state of tension by being unable to
Tise according to the laws of heat, being prevented by some rapidly
moving current of cold air.

4. They are produced by the hot air obtaining exit through a
narrow vent forced through the upper current.

5. Their locomotion is’ produced by the vent and its cross air
current being carried along with the cold current.

6. Their spiral motion is produced by the shifting of the centre of
attraction (the vortex) of the hot air particles and their infringement
upon each other, and the unaffected volume of the adjacent air, assisted
by friction. In fact they are produced by the same causes, only inversely,
as the rotating motions of fluids escaping through a narrow vent below
them.

7. They are terminated by the closing of the vent by the onward
pressure of the cold current.

8. The retention of light articles in the upper regions (even,
perhaps, their ascension) may be greatly facilitated by electricity.

9. Stable equilibrium is produced by the escape of the over-
heated air, and its replacement by cold air derived from the upper |
current or the S.W. surface wind.

104

ON SOME FOSSIL CORALS FROM ALDINGA.

By the Rey. J. E. Trenison-Woops, F.LS., F.G.S., &c., Hon.
Memb. Adelaide Phil. Society.

[Read September 17, 1878,]

Some corals collected by Professor Tate have been sent to me for
examination, and though labouring under considerable disadvantages for
the task of their description I have accepted it with much pleasure ; not
only because these organisms possess more than an ordina:y interest for
me, but also because they form very good tests, perhaps better than any
others of the age and relations of the beds. From the beginning, the
corals of our Australian Tertiary formations have received more atten-
tion than any other fossils from the same beds. There are few indeed
from Victoria or Tasmania that have not been described. There is,
therefore, a well-established ground to go upon. I have also recently
published in the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South
Wales for 1877 (vol. 2, p. 292) a list of the extra-tropical corals of Aus-
tralia. This enables us to compare any new tertiary corals, or the corals
ofany new beds with the known fauna, so as at once to make very
reliable deductions ; and thus the relations are, in a manner, of either
fossils or formations immediately made known to us. The corals from
the Aldinga beds possess a more than usualimportance. Very little has
been made known of the fossils, and that little excites our interest in a
high degree. Professor Tate has made known the existence in its strata
of fossil Belemnites and Salenia and the other organisms are sufficiertly
different from those of such well-known formatiuns as Mount Gambier,
the Murray, and the Muddy Creek to make us wish for more infor-
mation. The examination of the corals now to be described
has not disappointed my anticipations. The forms are for the
most part new, and also for the most part so connected with what

105

has been been already described, that they are seen to belong to
one great group. I shall reserve for the end of the paper such remarks
on the species as may throw light upon their affinities. I will merely
observe now that the most of the specimens were either broken or in
such a hard matrix that a full and satisfactory examination is what I
could not obtain in every case. The matrix and the preservation shows
a remarkable difference from the corals of the various strata of Victoria
or Tasmania. There the corals were well preserved, but in a very brittle
and soft matrix, so that unless they were very carefully handled they
were irrevocably destroyed. A peculiar glazed appearance, which is
very common in the fossils of Victoriaand Tasmania, is not seen in
these; nor do they seem to be stained with ferruginous oxides to the
same extent. I mention this because in Victoria and Tasmania the
peculiar characters referred to seem to be due in part to the intercala-
tion of volcanic rocks with the formation. It would be worth while to
enquire whether such influences had begun when these, perhaps the
oldest members of the series, were deposited.

Before I begin the description of the species it may be as well to
take a glance at what has been hitherto done in our ‘|! ertiary fossil corals,
so that the references may help those who wish to follow up the
subject.

In 1864 Professor Duncan described some fossil corals sent by me to
him. The descriptions and figures appeared in the Annals of Natural
History for September of the same year.

In 1865, the same experienced author described in the Annals for
September, p. 182, some other corals.

In 1870, he also described in the Journal of the Geological Society,
p- 285, a number of new species sent home from the Victorian Geological
Survey, and at the same time gave a complete review of all our tertiary
species, stating their relations and the evidence they afforded of our
climate.

In 1875, he further described in the same Journal, vol. 31, p. 673,
some Tasmanian fossil corals, and again in 1876 other species from the
same tertiary beds in vol. 32, p. 341.

In 1876 I described two species of fossil corals from Table Cape,
Tasmania, in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Tasmania, p. 115.

In 1877, in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of N.S. Wales, p.
185, I figured and described some new species of corals, and also ex-
tended the observations of Prof. Duncan on hisand my Caryophyllia viola

106

and Sphenotrochus eacisus, which I removed into the genus Deltocyathus,
In this paper I also gave a list of all the Australian Tertiary species,
but from which list was inadvertently omitted Sphenotrochus emarciatus,
Antillia lens, Duncan, and Placotrochus elegans, nobis.

MADEPORARIA APOROSA.
Famity TurBINOLIDA.—Grovup TROCHOCYATHACER.
Gxrnvus Detrocratuus, M. Edw. and Haime (1848).

Deltocyathus, M. Edw. and Haime, 1848. Corallwm simple conical
free, no trace of adherence ; calice nearly circular and sballow ; columella,
ending in a rounded multipartite surface; sept straight, large exsert and
granular, and the higher orders generally well developed; pali, highly
developed, unequal, penultimate largest and turned towards ante-
penultimate so as to form chevrons or deltas; costae, highly developed
distinct to the base, with many granulations.

Deltocyathus italicus (Edw. & Haime), was formerly the only
species of this coral known. Messrs. Edw. and H. separated it from
Stephanophyllia in which genus it had heen placed by Michelin
(Iconographie zoophytclogique, Decrip. of polyp. fossil of France, &c.,
1841-1847, p. 32, pl. 8, fig. 3,a young specimen). But Stephanop/yllia has
porous walls, and therefore is very far removed from the family in which the
species has to be included. It must, however, be remarked that there
are certain pits in the intercostal spaces, which look very much like pores.
M. Edwards and Haime describe it thus :— Corallum, a short cone;
cost unequal, formed of a series of very regular globules ; columella come
posed of three bundles of stems disposed in series; four complete cycles ;
septa very little exsert, thick on the outside; pali very unequal, thick.
Professor Duncan is of opinion that the specimens found by Mr. de Pour-
tales in the Caribbean Sea did not differ much from the Miocene
fossils of Hurope, or these again from those found at Cape Otway. At
least he says that the differences are not greater than are to be found
between external divergencies in the fossil forms. The specimens from
Aldinga differ very much, first of all in the size. hey are longer than
any of the dimensions given. ‘They differ again in the shape. Some are
perfectly hemispherical, some are truncated cones, and some bell-shaped.
But I cannot doubt that I am dealing with a very closely allied species.
In one important point it seems to me to differ, and that is that there is
no columella. The septa all unite in the centre by numerous processes,

107

and what seem to be lobes of the columella are in reality the pali of the
primaries, which meet in the centre. The same thing occurs in what I
call Deltocyathus viola, and I must reserve my remarks on the subject
for another occasion. I shall therefore name the species and describe it
ae follows :—

DELTocyaTHUS ALDINGENSIS, n. sp., pl. 1, fig. 1.

Corallum, hemispherical, or in the form of a truncated cone, or bell-
shaped, that is to say, hemispherical, with a very thick cylindrical base
like a pedicel, no trace of attachment. Costae very distinct and pro-
minent, with numerous small rounded granules, in four cycles corréspond-
ing to the septa and continuous with them; primaries and secondaries
equal and distinct to the base, where they suddenly thicken; tertiaries
thinning out towards the base, and joining the third and fourth orders at
about three-fourths from margin, and then making one continuous rib;
all very closely covered with numerous small rounded granules. Inter-
costal spaces about equal in width to cost and having numerous rounded
pits or pores in equi-distant series. Calice, circular, either flat or a little
convex, from a cauliflower-like mass in the centre arising from the pali.
Septa in six systems of four cycles, which are not exsert, of equal thick-
ness, very granular, with finely zivzag margins, and continuous with the
costae ; primaries straight, free to the centre, where they join rounded
cauliflower-like pali; secondaries also straight and free until about two-
thirds from the centre, where they are joined by the tertiaries and become
much thicker, and here a kind of paliform excrescence projects. The
higher orders unite with the tertiaries about a third from the margin,
Dimensions—Alt. of the largest specimens 7, diam. 84 millimetres.

The sides of the septa in a section are seen to be very regularly,
closely, and prominently granular. A section at the centre shows that
all the septa are united by small processes. When the calicular surface
is ground flat, the primaries and secondaries are seen to unite in the
centre, and the pali (?) are then seen to be represented by a very slight
thickening, nothing in proportion to the foliated appearance of the sur-
face. The junction is not apparent on the natural surface, but the ter-
tiaries seem to send out a transverse thickened process to meet the fourth
and fifth orders on each side. It is by a process of this kind that all
the septa are joined for they do not in reality curve towards each
other.

DELTOCYATHUS TATEANUS, n. sp., pl. 2, fig. 5.

Corallum, very small discoid, flat, thick in proportion to diameter,

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base concave, and very slightly smaller than calice. Costae, very pro-
minent, continuous with septa, not quite so wide as intercostal spaces,
smooth, acute, persistent to the centre of base. Hpitheca, none. Calice,
circular. Hossa, very shallow, scarcely depressed in the centre. Systems,
six. Cycles,four. Septa, not exsert, or only slightly. Pali, apparently
before secondaries, achevron-like mass with the ends directed towards
tertiary septa. In the specimens the surface is worn, and the pali are
indistinguishable from the septa, and it thus appears as if the tertiaries
united with the secondaries about a third from centre. There are also
tubercles in the centre which seem like pali of primaries. JVa/l, thin,
bending outwards to meet costa. Dimensions—Alt, 14; diam. 3
millim.

Only two specimens, both worn, and one a little broken; the
latter the only one in which the pali could be fairly made out. Better
specimens may however show that some of my conclusions are subject to
modification. It is closely allied to the living D. rotaeformis, nobis, but
in that species the costae do not correspond with the septa. I have great
pleasure in dedicating this species to my friend Prof. Tate, whose zeal
and industry in the cause of geology need no encomium from me. It
should be noted that the concavity of the base is not seen except in the
longer specimen, the other being convex. In the young stages of
Deltocyathus italicus the base is often rounded, and in form like Trocho-
cyathus meridionalis, Duncan ; but in all other respects the species seem
to be different.

DELTOCYATHUS ALATUS, n. sp., pl. 2, fig. 4.

Tam doubtful whether to regard this fossil as only a variety of D.
exoisus, Dunean. It comes from the Murray cliffs where the latter is
not found. Its peculiarities are as follows. The septa are much more
spinous in their granules, and they are not so exsert but often deeply
lobed. That is to say the kind of lobate teeth and crest at the edge of
the primaries and secondaries are distinctly divided and stand out
separately. The pali are very solid and distinct. There is no columella,
but the septa and pali unite in the centre. The two prolongations of
costae at each side of the coral in D. incisus become flattened and spread
out into aliform appendages in this coral. Not, however, in all cases.
There are specimens which approximate closely to D. incisus, and there
are others where they are much more prominent, and more spread out on
the side of the corallum than in the figure given. The granules on the

109

costae are finer, more numerous, and closer thancan be easily expressed
on a small sized drawing. On the whole I should not be disposed to
regard the species as distinct; but the variation is very important,
varying in amount in different specimens. It will be seen that aliform
appendages are therefore not of such specific importance as they have
been thought to be.

With regard to the genus, I must observe that I do not think the
mere deltiform pali a.sufficient generic distinction from Trochocyathus.
But all those species which I have classified as Deltocyathus have really
no columella. The pali are united to the septa and meet in the middle
giving rise to a rather compact tissue in which the component septa are
generally distinguishable in this species, but not in D. viola. Most of
the species may be said to represent Trochocyathus in Australia. I think
if it be added to Deltocyathus that there is no columella, there will be
no necessity for creating anew genus. It must be acknowledged that
the divisions as they at present stand are not satisfactory. If it were
clearly stated that there is no columella because the visceral cavity is
empty as in Desmophyllum, or that the septa and pali meet in the centre,
as in Conocyathus, there would be no ambiguity. At present both are
described as having no columella.

The fossil at present ‘referred to is common in the Murray River
cliffs, fowr miles south of Morgan. Dimensions, about the same as D.
excisus.

It is remarkable that though D. excisus is very common at Muddy
Creek, I have never seen a specimen with any form of base except two
small basal prolongations, though this form is the exception at the Murray
beds. The deeply lobed septa are rarely seen in the Muddy Creek
specimens.

The next species is a Trochocyathus, cf which we have already two
fossils described and two doubtfully from New Zealand. In this genus
the fossils extend from the present day to the Lias.

TROCHOCYATHUS HETEROCOSTATUS, un. sp., pl. 2, fig. 1.

Corallum short, broadly wedge-shaped, with a very conspicuous
oval, slightly convex, radiately ribbed, basilar scar, which has a neat,
somewhat prominent, clearly defined margin; base proportioned to calice
as five to eight. Ca/ice, elliptical, shallow ends of major axis slightly lower
than those minor. Costue, distinct, granular, with fine granules, and dis-
posed in four cycles, but in a very singular and exceptional manner.

110

Those corresponding to the fourth and fifth orders of equal width, and
continuous from margin to base. First, second, and third orders broader
and moreexeert at the summit, but thinning out rapidly to a fine point,
and terminating at about a fourth from the base, except the primaries at the
ends of the major axis which are continuous to the base. Septa, exsert
proportionately to the orders in six systems of four cycles. Primaries
somewhat high, rounded, narrow, or not projecting much into the fossa.
Secondaries apparently only half their height, but all are broken in the
only specimen I have seen. Third order a little thinner, but apparently
as high. Fourth and fifth orders nearly as thick at the margin, but only
very slightly projecting into the fossa as a thin edge; all highly granular
and continuous with the costae. Granules disposed in ridges at the edge
of the primaries. Pali small, styliform processes before all the cycles
except the last. Columella uncertain, as it was partly covered with hard
matrix, which could not be removed without destroying the septa.
Dimensions—Alt. 4, major axis 44, 35.

Famity OcuLINnip&.

In the third principal group of the Madreporaria aporosa we have
the familv of the Oculinidw, that is to say, branched corals with lateral
buds with a great deal of very compact ivory like tissue. We have two
species of this family in the collection—one with alternate calices and a
peculiar structure which affords evidence of importance, as I shall notice
presently. It belongs to the genus

AMPHIHELIA—( Hdwards and Haime). ,

which is erected for dendroid corals with alternate buds. The ccenen-
chyma is highly developed, especially at the base. The costae are only
faintly marked. The columella is rudimentary, or absent, and there are
no pali. The septa are few, entire, and not exsert. There are two
species living—one in Australia and the other in the Mediterranean.
One has been found fossil in our tertiary rocks. This is A. zncrustans
(Duncan), a very abnormal form.

AMPHIHELIA STRIATA, n. sp., pl. 1, fig. 4.

Corallum of irregular, short, cylindrical branches ; calices circular,
scattered, the lower ones sunken, the terminal ones very much exsert, all
alternate, very deep and narrowing towards the base. No columella, but
filling up from below in an open kind of spongy tissue arising from the
coalescence of the septa. In the terminal calices the septa are exsert
and salient, in the lower ones they are quite inconspicuous, in six

111

systems of three cycles, which are unequal according to the orders, a
little thick but conspicuously swollen and rounded at the extra-mural
part. The costae are conspicuous on the edge of the young calices, but
the whole corallum is covered with a thick compact outer layer or
sheathing tissue, which is covered with fine anastomosing grooves. On
one branch these grooves form circles like tattooing ; underneath this
the costae seem to be very continuous, and each is covered with a linear
series of small granules. In most of the broken fragments the outer
sheath can be seen plainly.

This species comes very near A. venusta, EH. and H., but the peculiar
striations on the outer sheath, and the costae distinguishes it sufficiently.
Some of the calices fill up from below by a kind of spongy tissue which
results apparently from a union of the septa ; others are quite empty to
the base to which the calice narrows in a curved line, the point being
only separated by a very thin wall from the curved upper portion of the
alternate calice below. This is a variation in the structure which affects
Prof. Duncan’s reasons for transferring Amphihelia to the Turbinolids.
It is not confined to the young branches, but is seen in the oldest
portions of the corallum and in calices adjoining one another.

AMPHIHELIA ZICZAC, n.sp., pl. 2, fig. 2.

In the species which I am about to describe there are peculiarities
which I think should place it almost in a genus apart. There is an amis
into which the calices are sunk, and then outside this, but separated by
hollow spaces, there is an outer sheath of some thickness. These hollow
spaces seem to have no communication with the visceral cavities. It
seems like an outer covering of dermic tissue, which was secreted over
the basal structure while the lower cells were alive, leaving large
apertures for them. As far as can be seen also, the septa are represented
only by merely raised rounded lines on the upper part of the calice, and
though they are never conspicuous in the genus, yet here they can
scarcely be seen except at the bottom of the visceral chamber where they
are confluent. The following is the diagnosis :—

Corallum in zigzac branches of various thickness, the longer or pro-
bably basilar ones having an outer sheath with interstices, which do
‘not communicate with the visceral cavities. Calices at every angle, pro-
jecting, alternate, numerous, and at equal short distances. Septa only
salient at the bottom of the calices, and represented by rounded lines at
the upper part, and not visible at all at the margin, in three cycles;
the two first equal, and confluent at the base, but no calice was preserved

112

entire, and it could not be said whether the third order was present in
all the systems or not. Costae, none visible ; but the surface is covered with
fine grooves which divide it into small polygonal spaces on which there
are faint granulations, but the whole structure is so much worn that
this appearance is exceedingly difficult to make out. Dimensions :—
Length of the branches from °25 to ‘37; diameter, from °34 to °7;
distance between the calices on the same side 8 millimeters.

Famity AstraIp“#—GRoUP ROCHOSMILIACES.
Genus Conosmitia (Duncan), 1865.

In the descriptions of new corals from Australia, published by Prof.
Duncan in the “ Annals of Natural History for 1865,” (p. 182), a new
genus was erected for simple pedicellate corals with a twisted laminated
columella and scanty endotheca. This was Conosmilia. I have givena
synopsis of the genus in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society of N.
S. Wales” for last year. I think the general character of these fossils
may become the type of a family, as there are other anomalous genera
to be noticed presently. In the collection there is one species of what
I believe to be this genus ; but it is a deformed specimen, and therefore
any attempt to determine the details would be hazardous. I shall merely
give it a name and some of its leading features, and leave the rest until
better specimens are found.

CoNOSMILIA CONTORTA, n. sp., pl. 1, fig. 3.

Corallum, very much twisted and distorted, but normally a very
elongated one, cylindrical or slightly elliptical. Costae, broad, flat, or in
places acute, smooth or indistinctly vermiculate, ccrresponding with
septa. Hpitheca, thin, smooth, somewhat shining, in concentric folds
occasionally. Septa, not granular, not exsert, but projecting in rounded
edges more or less according to the orders. Systems, six. Cycles, four.
Fossa, rather deep. Columella? Endotheca, scanty. Long. 20 lat.
of calice,8. One specimen with doubtful fragments of two others.

In the new species I am about to describe we have Conosmilia with-
out a columella, but with pali. In every other respect it resembles the
above-named genus of fossils, which Professor Duncan was the first to
describe. The absence of a columella or the presence of palihas always
been regarded as of generic importance in the present classification. I
therefore propose a new genus for these corals, which I shall name Cya-
thosmilia. There is considerable analogy between this genus and Cono-

118

cyathus of the Trochosmiliacese. They may be regarded as Conosmilze
with pali and without a columella, or Conocyathez with endotheca and
without the peculiar cyclocostal arrangement which is so. thoroughly
Turbinolian in its character.

CYATHOSMILIA (new genus).
Simple pedicellate corals with endotheca and pali. No columella.

CYATHOSMILIA LATICOSTATA 0. gp., pl. 1, fig. 2.

Corallum small, curved, slightly compressed in the direction of the
curve, tapering towards the pedicel, which is very small and concave,
bearing a crest at the outer edge of the curve, which is composed of
irregular projections. Coste, simple, broad, raised, rounded, separated by
very narrow grooves (which correspond with the tertiary septa, while the
costze correspond with the primaries and secondaries), terminating in
regular angular points at the edge of the calice, giving it a coronate
appearance. Hpitheca, conspicuous in concentric folds of irregular width,
and undulating over the costa. Calice, broadly elliptical. Fossa, shallow,
in fact only the slightest depression is perceptible. Systems: six, with
three cycles. Septa, not exsert, granular, primaries and secondaries equal,
thick, wedge-shaped ; tertiaries thin, small, inconspicuous. Pali, before
primaries and secondaries only, thinner than septa, slightly exsert, prim-
aries only half the size of secondaries. Hndotheca filling up space between
pali, septa, and fossa, and rather numerous; stages very rare between
septa, except at the base. Wall, thin, dotted with deep pits, or pairs of
pores, on opposite sides of the septa. These are not visible except in
worn specimens where the epitheca is absent ; otherwise it covers them.
Dimensions—Alt. 6 to 11, major axis 24 to 5, minor 2 to 4.

Aldinga, about a dozen specimens, but very few complete. In all
the larger ones the broken ends of the septa are very distinctly seen to
be composed of two thick laminze pressed together. In these specimens
also the intercostal space is flat, wide, and shallow. The centre corres-
ponds to the tertiary septa, and has pores on each side which are distinct,
regular, and apparently deep. There were fragments of corals collected
which, if perfect, would have been twice the dimensions given.

CYATHOSMILIA ? TENUICOSTATA n. sp., pl. 2., fig. 3.

I give this name to a single specimen of a conical corallum with a
rather broad, blunt, cylindrical pedicel, which is granular, and does not

seem to haye been adherent. Coste corresponding with septa, granular
H

114

above, vermiculate below, equal in size and separated by rather broad,
flat intercostal spaces. Zpitheca pellicular, smooth, shining. Septa very
much thickened at calicular margin exsert, closely and thickly granular.
Systems six, cycles four, the fourth rudimentary, though its correspond-
ing septa do not differ from the others. Primaries very thick; second-
aries smaller ; tertiaries rather thick, but not reaching more than half
way to the centre. Pali high, broad, and granular; probably before all
except the last; yet this is uncertain, as the coralis broken. Colwmella?
Oalice broadly elliptical, not deep. Dimensions—alt. 5, maj. diam. 6,
min. 44. One broken specimen, in which the endotheca could not be
well made out; but its general habit and appearance induces me to refer
it to the Astreide rather than Zr ochocyathus, to which genus it would
belong if there were no transverse interseptal dissepiments.

The next fossil in the collection has remarkable affinities and rela-
tions. It is a Conosmilia without an epitheca and simple granular coste,
but with a very remarkable columella, which terminates in two con-
spicuous round tubercles. This distinction is of generic value, and I
propose a new genus for its reception. In reference to the peculiar
columella, I shall designate it by the name of ustylia.

BIsTYLIa (new genus).

Simple corals, without epitheca, and a bistyliform columella.

There are two divisions in the Trochosmiliaceze—(1) without any
epitheca; (2) with epitheca. This genus belongs to the first, and is
associated with Lophosmilia, Parasmilia, Celosmilia, having, like all
these, scanty endotheca. The first-named, however, has a lamellar
columella, the second a spongy one, and the third none. All three are
upper mesozoic fossils, with one living Celosmilia. Axosmilia is one of
the Trochosmiliaces, with a styliform columella, but it has a distinct
epitheca.

BIsTYLIA ADHERENS, n. sp., pl. 1, fig. 5.

Corallum small, more or less contorted, nearly always adhering by a
large portion of its side, cylindrical, suddenly contracting to a point.
Coste small, rounded, granular, continuous, corresponding with septa,
and alternating in size with them, broader than intercostal spaces, which
haye numerous concentric folds, probably the former margins of the
corallum. Cadice circular, generally a little contracted or bending in.
Systems, six. Cycles, three. Septa slightly exsert ; rather thick, granu-
lar, prim aries largest, secondaries a trifle smaller, tertiaries half the size,

115

edges rounded or rendered sinuous by the granules. Fossa, moderately
deep. Colwmella, two small rounded tubercles. | Dimensions—Alt.
from 4 to 8; diam., 24 to 3 millim. Six specimens, the most of which
had on one side a calcareous cast of the shell to which they adhered,
which was a small bivalve apparently.

Famity AstRaID#.—GROUP CLADOCORACER.

This division is distineuished by the budding which is lateral, and
which remains always with its individuals more or less free forming
tufts, but never giving rise toa massive corallum. The first genus is
Cladocora, containing slenderly branching ramose corals, and which
according to Professor Verrill is closely related in its polyps to the
Astrangiacee. The corallites in this genus are cylindrical, very long,
erect, and free laterally. They have an incomplete epitheca, which
often unites one individual to another. The calices are circular and
shallow. Columella papillary. There are six unequal systems all
exsert, rounded, and finely toothed at their edges. Pali before all the
septa except the last. Wall compact, moderately thick, and furnished
with simple costa, which are granular, hispid, and straight.

The fossil figured is an interesting specimen of the genus, one not far
removed from the well-known Cladocora cespitosa (Gualtieri), which is
common in the Mediterranean Sea. Unfortunately the specimen is worn
and broken so that the details cannot be made out satisfactorily. There
are no perfect calices, and the branches are a good deal waterworn. I
have very little doubt, however, that the species is new. It is thus
described :—

CLADOCORA CONTORTILIS, un. sp., pl. 1, fig. 6.

Corallum, a very compact tuft of corallites of different dimensions
turning around one another. Branches irregular, cylindrical, conical, or
of equal thickness throughout, occurring at short distances and twisting
round to coalesce with others and form a thick, matted, stony mass.
Epitheca not visible. Coste numerous, narrow, angular at the edges,
granular and straight. Septa not easily made out, but apparently three
thin cycles, some uniting or bending towards the others, and all
apparently meeting the pali in the centre. Wail rather thick. Endotheca
somewhat abundant, and, as well as I can judge, rather more abundant
than is usual in the genus. Dimensions—Alt. 35, diam. of largest
branches, 5; of the smaller ones, from 2, 24 and 3 mil. The fossil appears

to me tobe very distinct from all existing or fossil species. In the bent

and twisted form of the branches it may come nearest to C. stellaria
(Edw. & H).

116

Famity ASTRHIDEZ—GROUP ASTRMACER.

A very interesting, but very imperfect fossil form of Plestastrcea, is
amongst the collection. The genus belongs to the Astreacee or corals
which have a massive structure, the individuals being intimately united,
but multiplying by budding. The main distinguishing feature of
Plesiastrea is the possession of conspicuous pali, which, indeed, separates
the genus clearly from every other species in the group. There are at
most only eight species known, two of which are Australian, and one
fossil. Three belong to the Pacific. In the species under consideration
I am unable to speak very positively as to its character as the fragment
is small and very much worn, in fact there is not a single perfect calice
in the specimen. It has a very strong resemblance to Plesiastrwa
Urvillei in this that the calices are of equal size, and often oblong, in
which respects it differs from P. Peronii, the form common on our
coasts. Owing to the very complete details given by Messrs. Edwards
and Haime in their diagnosis of the internal structure of P. Urvillei,
which is living at King George’s Sound, I am able to say that the fossil
is new.

PLESIASTRHA ST. VINCENTI, 0. sp.

Corallum flat. Calices very slightly salient, very close, but with
distinct borders, circular or compressed. Coste, continuous with the
septa, and projecting so as to unite at times with the contiguous ones of
the next calice, prominent above the margin. Systems, six; Cycles,
four ; but the forth absent from some systems; primaries, secondaries,
and tertiaries nearly equal, aud extending to the pali, which are so worn
that it would be hazardous to attempt details, except that they seem
large. The edges of the septa seem to be dentate, much in the way that
is figured in the “‘ Annals des Sciences Nat.,” (vol. x., plate 9, fig 2a),
and the columella appears to be a few papille. In a vertical section the
exothecal traverses are seen to be abundant, horizontal, and at irregular
distances, but there are about 20 in 10 millimetres. The endothecal
traverses are extremely irregular, thinner, sloping upwards at every
angle, aud giving rise to a cellular tissue. In both these particulars it
differs remarkably from P. Urvillet. Diameter of calices, 3 rarely 4
millim.

Note.—This coral which was first brought to my notice by my pupil,
Mr. Stirling Smeaton, occurs in large hemispherical, or flattish rounded
masses; an imperfect lump measures seven inches in diameter, and from

two to three inches in thickness. Locality—Hallett’s Cove, St. Vin-
cent’s Gulf (R, Tate).

117

Summary.—The general facies of these interesting corals is that of
the Australian tertiary beds, as far as we are acquainted with them.
None of the species are however known. Some of the genera have
been found in other beds. These are—Deltocyathus, Trochocyathus,
Amphihelia, and, doubtfully, Conosmilia. Our Deltocyathus, as already
observed, isclosely allied to, if not identical with, D. dtalicus. That
species is common in the Cape Otway beds in Victoria, and is living in
the West Indian Seas. It will require a careful comparison to deter-
mine if our fossil is the same. It is very abundant apparently at
Aldinga. We have two species of Trochocyathus already described.
Both are very distinct from the Aldinga species, which is much
smaller, and has a well-marked basilar scar. We haye one of the
species living in the Port Jackson. Professor Duncan thinks that the
genus can hardly be separated from Deltocyathus ; but if my remarks on
the absence of a true columella are found to hold good for all the
species, the distinction is a justifiable one. D. Tateanus comes near to an
existing form. The flattened character may, however, vary, aS we see
that in the case of D. Aldingensis these are features which vary much
at different ages and for different individuals. In Amphihelia striata
and A. ziczac we have two forms of Oculindce, which are of great inte-
rest. They are both closely related to our existing Australian A. venusta,
but are very different from our tertiary fossil form, A. incrustans, which
I venture to suggest would perhaps have been better placed in a genus
by itself. Both the Aldinga fossils in their structure throw a re-
markable light upon the mode of growth of these corals. We see not
only that the calices fill up from below in some instances, but not at all
in others, a circumstance clearly dependent upon the exigencies of the
animal, or perhaps upon its size. This gives us a glimpse of the very
artificial manner in which our great divisions of the Madreporaria are
classified, and makes us fear that as the habits and economy of the
animals and their stony dwellings are studied the whole arrangement
will have to be remodelled. Amphiheia did not, as far as we know,
make its appearance until the tertiary period. The Oculinide generally
are entirely a recent family, extending to the Mesozoic rocks, but only
four genera are found in them, and only two below the chalk. The only
fossil species of Amphihelia known are those from Australia.

T have already observed the position that the new genera of Tocho-
smiliacece take in the classification. They are a series of simple corals
with scanty endotheca, in which respect they are related to Upper Meso-

118

zoic forms rather than to any other. But our Australian corals are a
group in themselves, with really no very strong affinities with any
hitherto described. None of those have pali; some have an epitheca,
and others are destitute of it, but the fossils amongst our Australian
group which have any of these features are sure to differ in every other
respect in a remarkable degree from them. It is, as I have already re-
marked, this natural extension that we might expect to which our
systems of classification will have to submit, as our knowledge of the
variation of the plan of nature becomes wider. It is on this account that
we cannot form any conclusions, or at least any safe conclusions, as to the
age of our beds from paleontological censiderations alone. The resem-
blances to the fossils of tertiary ages in the northern hemisphere are few
and of a trifling kind, while the differences are very numerous and wide.
We are baflled by the difficulty of comparing things which have little or
nothing incommon. But while this is true, we may institute comparisons
upon paleontological grounds alone between our various Australian deposits.
Thus, this group of Trochosmiliacee shows us that the Aldinga formation
has fossils which intimately connect it with the Australian group of ter-
tiary rocks. No species can be identified with those already described,
though one, Conosmilia contorta, may be only a variety. Cyathosmilia isa
lindred genus with pali. Bistyla is a little more divergent, for it has
distinct costa like Parasmilia, but with a bistyliform columella.

Plesiastrea is entirely a recent form, and we may say Australian as
well, for the species described which are not Australian are either from
the Pacific or Indian ocean. There is one fossil species known in the
Belgian miocene. The fossil species here described is very close to our
living form, now common on the same parts of the coast.

Though no existing species has been yet found, and though the
genera even are, as far as we know, for the most part extinct, yet I
think we are justified in calling the coral fauna an Australian Tertiary
one —the forms of life approximate to a Mesozoic character, in my
opinion, though I form it upon slight grounds, and I should say that we
have one of our oldest tertiary fauna represented. The corals are par-
tially such as would grow in a deep sea at the present time, but Cladocora
Plesiastrea are merely litoral species, and probably also Amphihelia.
There are no reef-building forms amongst them, for though the three
last named are branched corals, yet they never grow to any size beyond
insignificant tufts. They do not evidence a climate different from the
present climate of South Australia, that is if the animals were subject

! Fig. 1. Deltocyathus aldingensis

« a.Coral. b.Calice.

| | Fig,2. Cyathosmilia laticostata

« a.Coral. b.Calice c. Section

ig 3.Conosmmilia contorta .

Plate |.

S.T Leigh & Clith: Pitt 5* Sydney.

hig. 4, Amphihelia striata
Ag. 5. Bistylia adherens.
» »a.Coral b. Calice .
ig 6. Cladocora contortilis .

if
Ht
i
i
I
t
§
fj

zoic for;
group i
hithertc
and otk
group v

‘respect

marked
systems
variatio
we cant
age of «
blances
and of ¢
We are
nothing
uponpal
Thus, t!
has foss
tiary rc
though
kindred
distinct
nee’
well, fo
the Pac
Belgian
living f
Th
genera
think y
one —t
opinion.
have on
tially si
Plesias
There a
last nar
insignif.
present

Eg. 1. Teochocyathus heterocostatus
b. end View.

ig, }. Cyathosmilia tenuicostata
a. Coral. b.Section:

Fig 2 Amphihelia ziczgac branch & Section

Plat 5 De

5.1, Leugh &C? nth Pitt St Sydney

Fig. 4 Deltocyathus slatus.

"

a.Calice. b. Coral .'

Fig 4“Deltocyathus alatus, (end View).
Fig. 5. Deltocysthus tateana .

4

a Calice. b base

119

to such conditions of life as kindred animals would be now 3 but I think
we should be cautious in forming any positive conclusions on this subject,
as the most of the animals are so different from any we know. Besides,
each species is subject to its own condition of life. Thus, I have found
lately that a Millepora coral exists extensively on the extreme South of
New Zealand. This is the only species known to me outside the tropics.
If the species were found fossil, we should certainly say that it gave
evidence in favour of a warm climate. Cumulative evidence from the
whole forms of life are the only safe grounds on which climatical con-
clusions can be formed.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PEATE T:

Fig. 1. Deltocyathus Aldingensis, a. coral, b. calice, both much
enlarged.

Fig. 2. Cyathosmiha laticostata, a. coral, b. calice, much enlarged, c.
section slightly enlarged to show the double septa.

Fig. 3. Conosmilia contorta, nat. size.

Fig. 4. Amphihelia striata, nat. size.

Fig. 5. Bistylia adherens, a. coral, b. calice, both enlarged.

Fig. 6. Cladocora contortilis, nat. size.

Prate II.

Fig. 1. Trochocyathus heterocostatus, a. coral, b., end view of calice
showing primary costz ; both much enlarged.

Fig. 2. Amphthelia ziczac, a. branch, b., another partly ground
down to show secondary layer of dermic tissue.

Fig. 3. Cyathosmilia tenuicostata, a. coral, b. section.

Fig.4. Deltocyathus alatus, a. calice, b. coral.

Fig. 5. Deltocyathus Tateanus, a. calice, b. base, both much
enlarged.

120

NOTES ON THE CORRELATION OF THE CORAL-BEARING
STRATA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA, WITH A LIST OF
FOSSIL CORALS OCCURRING IN THE COLONY.

By Prof. Raupu Tare, Assoc. Linn. Soc., F.G.S., &e.

[Read September 17, 1878. |

The Tertiary Corals of Australia have been perseveringly and
critically studied by Dr. Duncan and the Rey. J. E. Tenison Woods,
and to them alone are we indebted for our knowledge of the no less than
42 species which are recorded by the latter author (“On Some Austra-
lian Tertiary Corals ;” Trans. Royal Society of New South Wales, 1878)
as constituting the coral fauna of Australian ‘Tertiary times.

All the species hitherto Imown are derived from the Miocene (or
Eocene) rocks of Western and Southern Victoria and Tasmania ; not one
being known from the equivalent strata in South Australia. In Dr.
Duncan’s paper some species are stated to have come from Mount
Gambier; but Mr. Woods, who collected and forwarded the specimens,
states that this was not the case, but that they were from the Tertiary
beds of Muddy Creek, in Western Victoria. Dr. Duncan regards,
moreover, South Australia as comprising the whole of that geographical
division of the Continent of which Victoria forms a part; and conse-
quently many of the Victorian corals have had incorrectly given to them
a South Australian habitat.

In the foregoing paper twelve species new to science are established,
all of which are from this province. These additions to the Tertiary
coral fauna of Australia bring up the total to fifty-four. As other species ©
occur with us, I thought this an opportune occasion to lay before you the
results of my determinations in the form of a catalogue, and also to
submit a summary of my observations on the geological strata from
which the corals have been obtained.

Our tertiary strata, though very fossilferous ure not generally in
that state conducive to the preservation of their organic contents. Casts

121

of corals are not rare in the limestones and calciferous sandstongs of the
River Murray cliffs, at Mount Gambier, at Adelaide, and elsewhere.
But certain beds forming part of the sea cliffs of Aldinga Bay, St.
Vincent’s Gulf, and at a few very circumscribed spots on the River
Murray, contain corals as well as other forms of life in a good state of
preservation. From these I have gathered 21 species, 7 from the Murray
cliffs and 14 from the Aldinga series of beds.

The paleelontological differences between the highly fossilferous
portion of the Murray beds and that of the Aldinga rocks, so strongly
marked in the case of the corals, has for some time past been regarded
by me as indicative of a difference of age, the older series being the
latter; and not due to difference of habitat. I do not intend on this
occasion to substantiate this statement, but will content myself by
pointing out the relative positions of our coral bearing strata.

A generalized section of the strata of the River Murray cliffs is as

follows :—
1.—Lacustrine (?) sand and marls. No fossils, exceeding 60 feet

in thickness.

2. Upper Marine Series ; shelly limestones (false bedded) and oyster.
beds, with occasional argillaceous and sandy bands. Rich in
gasteropods and corals. About 50 feet thick.

3. Middle Marine Series ; usually a yellow calciferous sandstone ;
40-45 feet thick. Rich in echinoderms, brachiopods, pectens, and
-polyzoa.

4, Lower Marine Series.—Ferruginous sandstones and polyzoan
limestones. Rich in echinoderms and brachiopods, but for
the most part of different species to those in the upper beds.

The Upper Marine Series is the direct equivalent tothe Muddy Creek
beds, which are variously referred by the Victorian geologists to the
Upper Eocene, Oligocene, and Lower Miocene, and which Mr. Selwyn
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xvi. p. 147, 1859) considers to be the
oldest tertiary deposits in Victoria.

The Aldinga section admits of division into—

1. Lacustrine (?) clays. No fossils ; 48 feet.

2. Upper Series.—Calciferous sandstones and impure limestones,

with oyster banks ; 22 feet.

3. Lower Series, consisting of beds of a most diversified character—
clays, limestones, and sands rapidly replacing one another in
horizontal and vertical extension; not less than 80 feet.
Corals occur in the clays and limestones.

122

Sections after this character appear in a length of coast-line of about
20 miles, extending from Hallett’s Cove on the north to the south side
of Aldinga Bay. The upper Aldinga series I place on the same horizon
as the upper series of the Murray cliffs; and the lower Aldinga beds I
regard as equivalent in part to the middle and lower Murray series,
but on the whole inferior to them. The coral bed at Hallett’s Cove is
probably coterminous with the upper series of the Aldinga section.

The following list includes all known South Australian corals, cor-
rected in accordance with the Rey. J. E. Tenison Woods’s Paper “On
Some Australian Tertiary Corals” (Trans. Roy. Soc., N.S.W., 1878) :—

Lower ALDINGA SERIES.

1. Trochocyathus heterocostatus(Z'. Woods), Clays at Blanche Point.

2. Deltocyathus Tateanus (7. Woods) és “ &
3. 1 Aldingensis (7. Woods) &“ &é é
4, Cyathosmilia latitcostata (1. Woods) 6 “ “
5. a5 tenuicostata (7. Woods) é ‘6 éé
6. Bistylia adherens (7. Woods) “ “ “
7. Conosmilia contorta (7. Woods) “ és 7;
8. Flabellum distinctum (#d. and Haime) 6 a 6

also inlimestone at Port Vincent, Yorke’s Peninsula. It is
fossil at Cape Otway, Victoria, and is living in the Red and
and Japan Seas, and off the north-east coast of Australia.

9. Amphihelia striata (7. Woods). Limestone bands in clays at
Blanche Point, Aldinga Bay.

10. fe zic-zac (T. Woods). Glauconitic limestones, north
of Blanche Point.

11, Cladocora contortilis (2. Woods). Calciferous sandstones, in
which the fossils are silicified, south side of the mouth of
the River Onkaparinga.

Upper ALDINGA SERIES.

12. Plesiastraea St. Vincenti (7. Woods). Ina conglomerate bed,
Hallett’s Cove, St. Vincent’s Gulf, 12 miles south from
Adelaide.

13. Plesiastreea sp., Hallett’s Cove.

14, Conotrochus typus (Sequenza ?), Hallett’s Cove.

~ 8.

16

vie

18.

19

20

21.

123

Upper MurRAVIAN SERIES.

Sphenotrochus Australis (Duncan). River Murray Cliffs; and

Muddy Creek.

. Flabellum Victorie (Duncan). River Murray Cliffs, and well-
sinking, 21 mile camp north from North-West Bend; also,
at Muddy Creek.

Placotrochus deltoideus (Duncan). Very common. River

Murray cliffs, and ‘21 mile camp.’ Occurs at Muddy Creek,
Hamilton, Victoria, and Table Cape, Tasmania.

Creek.

Antillia lens (Duncan). River Murray Cliffs, and Muddy

. Balanophyllia Australiensis (Duncan), River Murray Cliffs, and
‘21 miie camp ;’ also Muddy Creek.

. Deltocyathus viola (Duncan). River Murray Cliffs, five miles
south from Nor’-West Bend ; also Muddy Creek.

66

alatus (7. Woods). R Murray Cliffs.

124

SUBTERRANEAN DRAINAGE IN THE INTERIOR.

By T. E. Rawutinson, C.E.

Communicated by C. Topp, C.M.G. [Read September 17, 1878. ]

[ Abridged. |

The author states the object of his Paper to be to enquire into the
cause of the disappearance of the vast bodies of river water which collect
on the inner watershed of the bordering coast ranges of Australia, and
considers this can only be accounted for by their absorption into porous
beds of sand, gravel, &c., under the tertiaries occupying the interior
basin of the Continent.

To facilitate such enquiry, the author suggests that the Philosophical
Society shouid collect geological data supplied by the sinking of wells
and dams in various parts of the country. He then notes the following
facts :—

The Murray River, before receiving the Ovens, flows with a volume
of 2,6602 cubic feet per minute. The Ovens River contributes 5964
cubic feet per minute, but with this addition the volume of the water of
the River Murray, below the junction with the Ovens, is only 2,975
cubic feet, instead of 3,2604 cubic feet, which #s the amount of the
Murray with the volume of the Ovens River added, but, further down
the River Murray is diminished to 2,411 cubic feet, just before it
receives the River Goulburn. Now here is a distinct loss of 850 cubic
feet of water per minute in a course of a few miles.

The rivers of the north watershed of Victoria, such as the Loddon,
Campaspe, Avon, Avoca, Richardson, and Wimmera, which yield vast
quantities of water in the wet season, and near their sources are peren-
nial streams, fail to have a volume at all in the iower part of their
course as they approach their outlet in the River Murray during the
summer season.

125

The northern watershed of Victoria, during the year, from only a
portion ofits area (about two-thirds), yields between two to two and
a half millions of cubic yards of water, of which one million is available
for conservation and use if suitable works are undertaken for that pur-
pose ; but at present the large proportion of these waters are wasted in
flooding adjacent lands in temporary floodings of the River Murray, and
a large proportion is unaccounted for.

Tn addition to the watershed of Victoria above referred to, we have
the vast area of New South Wales, Queensland, and South Australia,
from or into which flow the Murrumbidgee, the Lachlan, and the Dar-
ling as feeders of the River Murray ; the Barcoo, Cooper’s Creek, and
other large streams which empty themselves at nowhere in particular in
the interior, and yet in some seasons convey vast volumes of water down
their channels.

It has been hitherto a most convenient explanation of the pheno-
menon of the disappearance of these large volumes of water that they
are evaporated, and in the case of the River Murray and its tributaries
that they pass away to the sea; but neither of these causes is suffi-
cient to produce the results alleged. It is true that on the level
plains of the interior evaporation may be a very large element of dis-
sipation of the rainfall; but it does not apply in the same manner to
the mountain ranges, where the great bulk of the water falls,
and evenon the plains evaporation can ouly take place when there is
moisture to be acted upon, consequently during long droughts radiation
of heat from the ground may he excessive ; but it abstracts no moisture
from that which has already been dessicated, and when heavy rains do
fall the ground is rapidly cooled, radiation and its consequent influence
in evaporation is checked, and much of the water passes into the ground
or away to the natural drainage channels, and on the ceasing of the rain
and the return of clear cloudless sky, there is a reduced area over which
evaporation can take place. Ihave more particulary noted these mat-
ters owing to the persistence with which the disappearance of our
interior river waters have been attributed to evaporation. This last is a
large and important item for consideration in all questions of Hydro-
graphy in Australia; but it is only one, and does not account fully for
all the observed phenomena.

The example I have given of the River Murray is a good illustration
of the position which I have assumed, namely, that evaporation and sea
outlets are but element, but do not embrace the whole. Here we have a

126

river haying a volume of 2,663? cub. ft. receiving another river
having a volume of 65963 cub. ft., and yet about 50 miles
lower down in its course its volume is only 2,411 cub. ft., being
850 cubic feet less than it was above. It needs no very profound
reasoning to arrive at the conclusion that such a sensible loss (rather
more than one-fourth of the gross volume) cannot be accounted for by
the ordinary process of soakage or evaporation; and the inference to be
drawn is exceedingly strong that there exists natural features, which
favour the theory that the waters seek an underground absorbent or
outlet for the missing volume. It is no strange thing in Australia that
in certain places, where beds of limestone exist, there are caverns and
subterraneous watercourses, but, singular as these appear, and real in
fact, they do not satisfy the question of what becomes of the rain which
annually falls on the inland slopes of this Continent, the large portion of
which does not reach the ocean by ordinary river channels.

The knowledge that so large a part of the interior of Australia is
tertiary, resting at its edges on older strata, except in one instance where
it touches the Southern Ocean, gives some clue to the formation of a
theory which may account for the disappearance of the waters, and, I
believe, will ultimately be proved to be the storage reservoir where is
conserved the rain and river waters which other theories fail to account
for. There is one thing certain, which, if it be granted, that vast
volumes of water disappear from our river systems they cannot pass to
the sea by way of Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, the Northern
Territory. or Western Australia, owing to the land being edged round
with primative impervious rocks, and the possibility of escape at the
only visible outlet-—namely, the south-east part of South Australia is
very improbable owing to the want of all evidence of such outflow in the
Southern Ocean, which skirts our shores.

Consequent on the deductions made from the above line of reasoning
and known facts, I feel confident that in and below our central tertiaries
there exists abundant supplies of water if sought for with a reasonable
degree of care and skill.

It is quite possible that there may be one or two mistakes or failures
at the outset, but that should not deter us from following up the question
te a successful issue. And once establish the existence of these water
supplies in unlimited quantities at reasonable cost the future of this
country is assured as one that must take the lead in wealth and pros-
perity, and possibly the central state of a federated Australia.

LIST OF MEMBERS, SEPTEMBER 30tTH, 1878.

Those marked (F) were present at the first meeting when the Society
was founded. Those marked (1) are Life Members. Those marked

with an asterisk have contributed papers.

Honorary MEMBERS.

Date of
Election.
Barkely, Sir Henry G.C.M.G.,

K.C.B. ot 1857

Ellery, R. L. J., F.R.S. .. Observatory, Melbourne 1876
*(r) Feignagle, C. G. .. Melbourne 1853
*Garran, A. LL.D. .. Sydney 1858
*Hull, H. M. .. Hobart Town 1855

Jervois, H. E. Sir W. F. D.,

G.C.M.G., C.B. ... Government House 1878
Little, E. at 1855
Macleay, W., F.i.8. .. Sydney 1878
Russell, H. C., B.A., F.R.A.S. Observatory, Sydney 1876
Warburton, Col. P. Egerton .. Beaumont 1858

*Wilson, C. A. ... Supreme Court 1855
*Woods, Rev. J. E. T., F.L..5.,

¥.G.S., &c. .. Sydney 1877
(F) Young, J. L. ... Parkside 1858

CoRRESPONDING MEMBERS.
*Hayter, H. H., F.S.S. ... Government Statist, Melbourne 1878
*Scoular, Gavin .. Blair, Smithfield 1878
*Tepper, Otto .. Ardrossan, Yorke’s Peninsula 1878
Orpinary MEMBERS.

Adamson, Adam, jun. ... Angas-street 1878
*Adamson, D. B. ... Angas-street 1867

Angas, J. H. ... Collingrove, Angaston 1874

Baker, Richmond ... Page-street, off Gouger-street 1868

Bagot, U. N. ... Melbourne-street, N. Adelaide 1877

Biggs, Col. ... Victoria-square 1878
*Bonney, Chas., 8.M. ... Glenelg 1855

Brookes, Joseph ... Absent from Colony 1877

Brunskill, George ... Messrs. Stilling & Co.. Grenfell-

_ street 1878

Bundey, W. H. ... Pirie-street 1876

Burgan, T. 2
*Campbell, Hon. Allan, M.D.
M.L.C.
*Chalwin, Thos.
Chapple, F., B.A., B. Se.
*Clark, A. S.
(z) Cooke, E., M.P.
Crawford, F.S.
*Davenport, S.

Davidson, Rev. Professor,
University of Adelaide

Dobbie, A. W.

Duffield, W.

Dumas, V. E. R.

Elder, Sir Thomas

Farr, Kev. G. H., M. A.
*Finniss, Hon. B. T,
*Fletcher, Rev. W. R., M. Ae
Gall, D.

*(®) ’Gosse, William, M.D.
F.R.C.S. =f

Gosse, Chas., M.D. ug

Goyder, G. W., Surveyor-
General

*Gunson, J. M., M.D.
*Hamilton, George,
sioner of Police
Harrold, Arthur
Harry, Thos:

Commis-

Hay, Hon. Alexander, M. LC.

Hickson, R., M.I.C. 12}, Engi-
neer of Einepones and
Jetties

*Hill, W.

*Hosking, de

Hull, W. B., C.E., Assistant
Hydraulic Engineer

*Ingleby, R., Q. C.

Johnson, J. A.

*(F) Kay, R., Secretary South

Australian Institute

Knevett, 5.

*Lamb, Prof. Horace, M. IN
University of Adelaide

*Laughton, E.

Lee, S. E. H., Cavemen
St urveyor
Light, G. T., Government

Architect
*Lloyd, J. 8.
*Macgeorge, Jas.

Magarey, T.
Magarey, A. T.

.. Government Architect’s
. Lefevre-terrace, N. Adelaide
.. Green’s Exchange
.. Enfield
. Barton-terrace, N. Adelaide

128

Gilles-street

North-terrace

... St. John-street, South-terrace
. Prince Alfred College

Grenfell-street

. South-terrace
. Surveyor-General’s Office
. Beaumont

. Jeffcott-street, N. Adelaide
.. Gawler-place
... Gawler
. King William-street
. Grenfell-street
. St. Peter’s College

. Stanley-street, N. Adelaide
. North-terrace, Kent Town
Tynte-street, N. Adelaide

. North-terrace
. North-terrace

... Government Offices
. Kent-terrace, Norwood

.. Adelaide Club
. Hindley-street

Penn Chambers
Beaumont

. Unley
. Kensington-road

Brown-street

. Hydraulic Engineer’s Office
.. Carrington-street
. Alfred Chambers, Currie-street

. College Town

Carrington-street

. Medindie

59, Kine William-street

. Survey Office, Adelaide

Office

1858

1867
1877
1876
1853
1876
1865
1856

1876
1876
1859
1877
1871
1876
1875
1876

_ 1865

1855
1877

1862
1877

1868
1876
1878
1861

1876
1874
1855

1874
1861
1875

1853
1878

1876
1874

1873
1856
1855
1861
1873

129

*Magarey, S. J.. M.B. -» North-terrace 1874
Mayo, G., M. D. -» Morphett-street 1853
Mayo, G. iG, C.E. .. West-terrace 1874

*Murray, A. .. Coromandel Valley 1858

(ut) Murray, David -» Hutt-street 1859
Nesbit, E. P., jun. -» Gilles-street 1875

*Ponton, T. G, F.ZS. .. Belgrave-Terrace, Victoria-square 1877
Rees, Rowland, ‘C.K. . Waymouth-street 1874
Riddoch, J. » Yallum Park, Penola 1866
Ringwood, A., Assistant Ob-

server . Adelaide Observatory 1878

*Rutt, Walter, C.E. Engineer-in-Chief’s Office 1869
Salom, M. .. Lefevre-terrace, N. Adelaide 1866
Sawtell, Dr. T. H. . North Adelaide 1878

*Schomburgk, Re, Dr-Ph,,

&c., Director ".. Botanic Gardens 1865

*Smeaton, T. D. ..- Bank of South Australia 1857
Smith, R. Barr ... Torrens Park, Mitcham 1871
Sparks, Hy. ... Glenelg 1878
Stuckey, J. J.. M.A. ... Victoria Chambers, King Wil-

liam-street 1878

*Tate, Prof. Ralph, F.GS.

(University of Adelaide) ... Buxton-street, N. Adelaide 1876
Thomas, J. Davies, M.D. ... North-terrace, Glenelg 1877
Thomas, R. G., Sec. Board

of Health ... Unley 1877
Thow, W. ... Locomotive Department, S. A.

Railways 1878

*Todd, Chas., C.M.G.,F.R.A.S.,

M.S. T. E., Postmaster-
General, Observer, and
Superintendent of Tele-

graphs .-- Observatory 1856
Tomkinson, 8. ... Bank of Australasia 1876
Townsend, W., M.P. ... King William-street 1878
Verco, Joseph C., M.D. _... Wellington-square, N. Adelaide 1878
Vickery, G. ..- Meadows 1868
Ware, W. L. ... Wictoria Chambers, King

William-street 1878
* Waterhouse, F. G., C.M.ZS.,

&c., Curator of Museum ... S. A. Institute 1859
Way, His Honor 8. J., C.J. North Adelaide 1859
Way, Dr. E. ,.. North-terrace 1878
Wragge, —, F.R.GS. ... Care of R. Ingleby, King

William-street 1877

Wyatt, Wm., M.D. ... Burnside 1859
ASSOCIATE.

Smeaton, Stirling ..- Medindie 1878

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ERT Th ees.

ADOPTED MAY 21, 1878.

Wauereas “‘ The Adelaide Philosophical Society” is incorporated with
the South Ausiralian Institution, under the provisions of the South Aus-
tralian Institute Act, 1863, and itis desirable to consolidate and alter the
Rules and Regulations at present existing, it is therefore agreed that the
Society shall be governed by the following Rules and Regulations, to
the exclusion of all previous rules and regulations :—

1. The title of the Society is “THz ADELAIDE PHILOSOPHICAL
Society.”

2. The objects of the Society are the diffusion and advancement of
the arts.and sciences by the meeting together of the members for the
reading and discussion of papers connected with the above subjects, and
by other approved means.

3. The Society shall consist of the present members, and of such
persons as shall be hereafter elected members.

4, The members shall be classed as follows:—Ordinary Members,
Corresponding Members, Honorary Members, and Associates, all of
whom shall be elected by ballot.

5. His Excellency the Governor of South Australia for the time
being shall be requested to be the Patron of the Society.

FEEs.

6. Ordinary members shall subscribe £1 1s. per annum, payable in
advance on the Ist day of November to the Honorary Secretary.

7. A member may at any time compound for future annual contri-
butions, that of the current year exclusive, by the payment of the sum
of £10 10s.

8. Ordinary members elected during the first half of the financial
year shall, within one month after election, pay the full annual sub-
scription of one guinea; but if elected during the second shalf of the
year, they shall pay the sum of half a guinea only as subscription for
the remainder of the financial year.

9. Any person who has not paid the year’s contribution on or,before
the 1st day of January shall cease ipse facto to be a member of the
Society ; provided always, that written application for the same shall
first have been made by or on behalf of the Treasurer ; and provided
also, that the Council shall have power to restore the defaulter’s name
at his request, and after payment of arrears.

ELECTION OF ORDINARY MEMBERS.

10. Every election of a member into the Society shall take place
at an Ordinary Meeting only.

182

11. Every candidate for admission into the Society must be recom-
mended by two members. The certificate setting forth the names,
address, and occupation of the candidate, with the names of his
proposer and seconder, shall be sent to the Secretary, and shall be
read at a Meeting of Council, and also at the following meeting of the
Society, and the ballot shall take place at the next following Ordinary
Meeting of the Society.

12. The election of members shall be by ballot, one negative in
six excluding ; and no candidate having been excluded shall be again
proposed for admission during the current year.

13. Persons elected shall have immediate notice thereof trans-
mitted to them by the Secretary, accompanied with a copy of the
Rules.

14. Members have a right to vote at all meetings t» propose candi-
dates for admission into the Society and int» the Council of the
Society, subject to the Rules touching the election and constitution of
the Society. They are eligible to be members of the Council, and
shall have access to the library, and shall be furnished with a copy of
any transactions, proceedings, or journal which may be published by the
Society.

HonoRARY AND CORRESPONDING MEMBERs.

15. The Honorary Members shall be persons distinguished for their
attainments in science, literature, or art.

16. The Corresponding Members shall be persons residing beyond
ten miles from Adelaide, who, by furnishing papers or otherwise, may
have promoted the objects of the Society.

17. Every person proposed as an Honorary or Corresponding Member
shall be recommended by the Council, and be balloted for as in the
case of ordinary members.

18. Honorary or Corresponding Members shall be exempted from
payment of fees; they may exercise the privileges or perform the duties
of an Ordinary Member, except that they shall not vote or otherwise
interfere in the business of the Society, or hold office or seat on the
Council.

ASSOCIATES.

19. Associates shall consist of young men of not morethan 21 years
of age, and of ladies.

20. Associates shall subscribe 5s. per annum, payable in advance on
the lst day of November, to the Honorary Secretary.

21. The election of Associates shall be after the same manner as in
the case of ordinary members.

22. Any Associate failing to pay his or her subscriptions within one
month of notice of election, or who shall be three months in arrear with
his or her subscription, shall cease to be an associate.

23. Associates shall enjoy all the privileges of members excepting
those of taking part in the management of the affairs of the Society, of
yoting, and of introducing visitors. é

24. Any Associate shall be entitled to become an ordinary member of
the Society at the first ordinary meeting following the receipt of his
application for membership.

133

MEETINGS.

25. Meetings of the Society shall be convened by circular to the
members resident in the colony, The circular shall state the subjects to
be brought before the meeting, the names of the candidates for member-
ship, and any notice of motion.

26. Meetings of the Society shall be held on days to be fixed by the
Council; and as far as practicable one meeting shall be held in each
month. Each meeting to commence at half-past 7 o’clock p.m.

27. The President, or in his absence one of the Vice-Presidents,
shall take the chair; and in the event of the absence of all the above, the
members present shall elect a Chairman.

28. The business at the Society’s meetings shall be transacted in the
following order, unless it be specially decided otherwise :—

1. The reading and confirming the minutes of the last meeting.

mu. The nomination of candidates for membership and associate-
ship ; and the election of members and associates.

1m. Vacancies among officers, if any, to be filled up.

Iv. The transaction of the ordinary business.

v. Motions to be considered, and notices of motion for next meet-
ing to be read.

vi. The consideration of any special matters which members
may desire to bring forward subject to the approval of the
Chairman obtained before the commencement of the meeting.

vu. At 8 o’clock the paper or subject notified in the circular shall
be read.

29. Any member shall be allowed to introduce two visitors upon
entering their names in the Visitors’ Book. But no visitor shall speak
at a meeting of the Society unless specially invited to do so by the
Chairman.

30. No paper shall be read at any meeting which hag not been pre-
yiously notified to the Council.

31. Every paper read before the Society shall be the property
thereof, and immediately after it has been read shall be delivered to
the Secretary and shall remain in his custody.

32. An annual general meeting of members duly convened by
circular shall be held in the month of October at half-past 7 o’clock in
the evening, on such day as the Council may appoint. In the event of
less than ten members being present, it shall not be lawful for the
meeting to proceed to business except for the purpose of adjournment,
and the meeting shall stand adjourned to a day and time then resolved
upon.

33. At the adjourned meeting the members then present may pro-
ceed to business although ten members may not be present.

34, The Council shall call a special meeting of the Society, on
receiving a requisition in writing, signed by ten members of the
Society, specifying the purpose for which the meeting is required, or
upon a resolution of its own. No other business shall be entertained
at such meeting. Notice of such meeting, and the purpose for which
it is summoned, shall be sent to every member, at least seven days before
the meeting. Ten members to form a quorum.

35. One member of the Society, not being a member of the Council,
shall be chosen at the meeting of the Society next before the month of
October in each year as auditor of accounts and balance-sheet of the

184.

Society, and shall examine and certify the same prior to the meeting in

October.
Tuer Covuncit.

36. The officers of the Society shall bea President, two Vice-Presi-
dents, a Treasurer, and a Secretary, who, with four other members, shall
constitute the Council.

37. The Council, on its first meeting, shall appoint one of its mem-
bers to represent the Society at the Board of Governors of the South
Australian Institute.

38. The Council shall have the management of the affairs of the
Society.

39. The Council shall meet once in every month for the transaction
of business at such time and place as may be appointed. Special meet-
ings of the Council may be convened at any other time on the authority
of the President, or of three members of the Council. Due notice of all
Council meetings to be sent to each member.

40. No business shall be transacted at any meeting of the Council
unless at least four members of the Council are present; in case of
equality of votes the Chairman shall have an additional or casting vote.

41. It shall be the duty of the Council to decide on the papers to
be read at the monthly meetings, whether by members or non-members;
to determine as to the publication, in whole or in part of any paper so
read ; to prepare a report of the proceedings of the Society for the pre-
ceding year, and a balance-sheet of the Society’s funds, for presentation
at the meeting of the Society held in the month of October; and gene-
rally to transact the ordinary affairs of the Society.

42. Any member of Council personally interested in a question
before the Council, shall withdraw during its consideration.

43. Every vacancy in the Council shall be immediately filled up at
the next meeting of the Society, and by election by ballot. The member,
so elected, shall occupy the place of the retiring member.

44, Any member of Council absenting himself from three consecu-
tive ordinary meetings of Council, without satisfactory explanation,
shall be considered to have vacated office, and the election of a mem-
ber, to fill his place, shall be proceeded with in accordance with
Rule 43.

ELECTION oF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS oF CoUNCIL.

45, All Office-bearers and Members of Council shall retire from
office annually at the general meeting in October.

46. The officers and members of Council, so retiring, shall be
eligible for the same or any other office.

47. The President, the two Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Secre-
tary shall be separately elected by ballot (should such be demanded) in
the above-named order, and the four vacancies in the Council shall be
filled up together by ballot at the general meeting in October.

SECRETARY.

48. It shall be the duty of the Honorary Secretary to attend and

take minutes of the proceedings of the Society and Council respec-

tively, to make the necessary arrangements for meetings, to issue the
required notices, to collect the annual subscriptions and to pay them to

135

the Treasurer, to take charge of all the property under the control of
the Society ; and generally to transact the erdinary reutine business of
the Society.

TREASURER.

49. It shall be the duty of the Treasurer to receive all funds be-
longing to the Seciety, to pay all accounts approved by the Council,
and to render annually an account of all moneys received and expended
during his year of office.

ALTERATION OF RULES.

50. The Rules and Regulations of the Society shall not be altered
unless a written notice of motion, signed by not less than five members,
be given at a meeting of the Society; and thereupon such motion may
be brought forward at the next meeting.

51. Any resolution passed as above altering or repealing the Rules
and Regulations of the Society shall be in force until the meeting held
in the month of October following; and, if not then confirmed, shall
thereafter be held void and of no effect.

BYE-LAWS RELATING TO COMMUNICATIONS TO THE
SOCIETY.

1. Every paper which it is proposed to communicate to the Society
shall be forwarded to the Hon. Secretary for the approval of the Council
at least fourteen days before the date of the meeting at which it is desired
to be read.

2. The Council may permit a paper written by a non-member to be
read if communicated through a member.

3. In the absence of the authors papers shall be read by the Hon.
Secretary.

4, No paper or other communication read befere the Society shall
be published without the consent of the Council.

5. The Council shall decide, not later than at its meeting next
following the reading of a paper, whether it shall be printed in the
Be eeone, and if not, such paper shall be returned, if desired, to the
author.

6. All communications intended for publication by the Society shall
be clearly and legibly written on one side of the paper only, with proper

references, and in all respects in fit condition for being at once placed in
the printer’s hands.

7. In order to ensure a correct report the Council request that the
paper shall be accompanied by a short abstract for newspaper publication.

8. The author of any paper which the Council has decided to
publish will be presented with twenty copies, and he shall be permitted
to have not more than one hundred copies printed on making application,
as per annexed form, to the Hon. Secretary, and on paying the cost of
such extra copies.

9. A proof corrected by the MS. shall be submitted to the author,
who shall be allowed to make any reasonable amendments therein upon
paying the cost of the alterations.

Printed at the “ Advertiser ’’ General Printing Office, Adelaide.

“manera

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