ilbt D. H. HtU iCibrani Nnrth (Carolina ^tatf ^tiinprHttg Special Collections S511 B88 v.l % THIS BOOK MUST NOT BE TAKEN FROM THE LIBRARY BUILDING. 20M/1 1-75 \m A TREATISE ON AGRICULTURE AND RURAL AFFAIRS. BY ROBERT BROWN, FARMER AT MARKLE, COUNTY OF HADDINGTON". Alultum adhuc restat operis, multumque restahit ; nee ulli nato post inille seBcula prcBcluditur occasio aliquid adjiciendi. — Pliny. The poor husbandman who lives honestly, and cultivates his land indus- triously, is better than a' proud philosopher, who neglects himself, and stU' dies the motions of the heavenly bodies. — Thomas a Kempis. VOLUME FIRST. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR OLIPHANT, WAUGHj AND INNES^ EDINBURGH; AND LONGMAN, HURST, REESj ORME, AND BROWN, LONDON. 1811. r" TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE SIR JOHN SINCLAIR OF Ulbster, Bart, PRESIDENT OP TH2 BOARD OF AGRICULTUREi SIR9 AHEfolbwing Treatise on Rural Affairs is ush- ered into the world imder the sanction of your name. That favour I was encouraged to solicit not only from a remembrance of many former ■ ones ; but also from a sense of the value of your patronage to every one who attempts to investi- gate the rural economy of the British Isles* Independent of these considerations, this publica- tion could not, with propriety, be committed to the protection of any otherperson than of mu who first turned the authors attention to the subject/^ which it embraces. as 134010 6 II is ?w:c more titan sixlccn years since I had the honour of being known to you, during xvhkh period, I have enjoyed numerous opportunities of ascertaining the ardency of your zeal to benefit the Public by promoting the inter)ial improve^ ment of the country. Often have I admired the uisdom of your measures^ and the steady perse rerance displayed in bringing them to a happy issue. Obstacles miaht retard their success for a time, but these obstacles could neither damp your ardour, nor cause you to lose sight, for a moment^ of the objects you had in contemplation. Perseverance is rarely bestowed upon great ge- niuses ; but, fortunately for the public, you are gifted Xiith a stock of this quality sujjicient to remove difficul'ies of the greatest magnitude. Here I to attempt a detail of the fm??ierous plans you have brought fonvard for advancing the prosperity of the British empire, this ad- dress irould be lengthened beyond reasonable bounds ; while, after all, such an attempt "icould not, in all probability, bring me one step nearer to the object I have in vine by thus publicly ad- dressing you. It is impossible, however, to re- frain altogether from noticing your etideavours to serve the public^ lesl it may be thought lam insemible of their merits. Let me only state that the British IFool Society xvas instituted under your patronage^ and that the High- land Society, since the day it was establish- ed, has constantly experienced your assiduous support. But the Statistical Account of Scot- land alone, even had no more been done by its author, xvas sufficient to immortalise the namz of him xvho conducted it- I well remember that, at the commencemeyit of that work^ many peo- ple considered it as an undertaking which xvould 7iever be finished ; hut you soon satisfied them of their mistake, and proved to the world that the difficulty of the task served only to increase the force of your exertions. When the Board of Agriculture was estab- lished, no such doubts were entertained. The public, in general, were by that time convinced, that no practicable undertaking could remain un- finished in your hands, therefore believed you would not rest satisfied till a complete survey of a4 the island was accomplished. This, to the sur- prise of the whole world, was brought about i?i little more than twelve months from its coni- jnencement, whereby a mass of rural infonnatuni was givui to the public^ which may he said to exceed the accumulated stores of any other na- tion. Though this great work was executed under the authority of a Board composed of the most illustrious characters in the king- dojn, yet it is consistent with my personal know- ledge, that the labouring oar was almost solely under your guidance and direction. You in- structed the surveyors, you managed the whole correspondence y and you used the most appropri- ate means for bringing the whole business to a speedy and successful conclusion. JPliether the benefits sanguinely expected by tnajiy agriculturists front the institution of the Board have been fully realized shall not, at this time, be enquired Into ; but, if the measui^es 0/ that establishment have not always been success- fuly no person ever thought of blaming you on that account. On the cuttrary, your active a?id disinterested conduct yneritedy and always- received the greatest praise. In fact, you brought the study of agriculture into fashion, and introduced a change of system, which pro- mises, at no distant day, to convert into a science what has hitherto been considered only as an art imperfectly understood, and conducted upon no Jixed principles. Such being my sentiments concerning the me- rits of your public life, I must feel much grat'ifi' cation in being pertJiitted to usher these volumes into the world under the sanction of your autho- rity ; and trust, when it is known that the principles upon which they are executed are in unison xvith those held by you on the chief bran' ches of rural economy, a degree of success will be procured not to have been expected had that sanction been withheld. I have the hofiour to be. Your Faithful Servant, Robert Brown. MaRKLE) 7 i9th March 1811. > PREFACE. i HE following Treatise on Agriculture and Rural Affairs is presented to the Public with considerable diffidence, the author being well aware how difficult it was to bring forward any thing new, or worthy of attention, upon subjects al- ready investigated and discussed by so many writ- ers. The substance of the Treatise having, how- ever, been originally published in that popular work, the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, where it met with a favourable reception, the Author was indu- ced, by the Publishers of that Work, to revise what was there given under the head of Agricul- ture, and to enlarge -several of the Chapters Xii PREFACE. and Sections, so as the whole might appear somewhat in a regular shape. Of the many er- rors fallen into when executing that task no per- son can be more sensible than the Author him- self ; though he humbly hopes that few of these errors are of such a nature as to mar the sense materially, or prevent the meaning of what is stated from being sufficiently understood. If he is mistaken in these points ; if he is arraigned at the bar of the public tribunal, and condemned by those who sit in judgment upon literary under-* takings for having executed the Work imperfect- ly, he must of course submit to such censure as may be bestowed. But^ should the opinion of practical agriculturists be in his favour ; should the principles upon which the Work is written meet with their approbation ; and, above all, should the practical details be countenanced and supported by those m.ost capable of determining upon their merits, the ^Author will pay little PREFACE. xiii attention either- to the scoffs or calumnies pf persons of a different description. The reader is desired to attend, that where the word acre is used without any explanation, the Scotch acre, which is above one-fifth larger than the English acre, is always meant. Like- wise, that 16 lbs. avoirdupois is to be understood as the contents of a stone weight, except when the term applies to the produce of land in Scot- land, as more particularly described in the sec- tion upon weights and measures. With regard to measures of capacity, it is enough to say, that the Linlithgow boll of wheat and peas is a trifle larger than four Winchester bushels 5 and that the Linlithgow boll of oats and barley contains nearly six and one-fourth bushels of Winchester measure. C ONTE NTS OF VOLUME FIRST. Page Jntuoduction, - - J History of Agriculture, - - - g CHAP. I, On the Theory of Agriculture, - - 67 CHAP. II. Sect. 1. On Soils, • - »- "17 SECT. 11. ©n the Uses to which each Soil may be most advantageously applied, - - _ pg CHAP. III. Of the System of Farming practised in Great Britain, 123 SECT. 1. On the Ancient State of Farming in Great BritUin, ib. SECT. n. Causes of the Superiority of British Farmiii:i, i2S Xn CONTENTS* Page. SECT. 111. On the Size of Famis, ... 141 SECT. IV. On Hiring or Renting a Farm, - - 145 SECT. V. On the Occupation of the Soil, - - 15^ CHAP. IV. On the System of Connexion betwixt Proprietor* and Tenants in Great Britain,. - - 157 SECT. 1. On Leases, - - - 15S SECT. II. On Covenants in Leases which restrict, and interfere with, the Tenants Operations, - - 176 SECT. III. On the Rent of I^nd, or the Considerations given by the Occupier for the Land in his Possession, 182 CHAP. V. On Tillage, - - . • 186 SECT, I. Obstructions to Tillage, - • 188 SECT. II. Ou the Utility of Summer Jallow, - 19© CONTENTS^ 9CVU Page. CHAP. VI. On the Ijnplements of Husbandry, - 221 SECT. I. Of the Plough, " - - 224 Dimensions of the Rotherham Plough, - 258 SECT. II, On harrows, - - -2/4 SECT. Ill On Rollers, - - - '277 SECT, IV. On Wheel Carriages used in Husbandry, - 28 ! SECT. V. On Drilling Machines, ~ - £S^ SECT. VI. Of a Machine for Reaping Corn, - - 307 A Description and Calculation of a Thrashing Machine erected at Chillingham, ~ - ^ 343 SECT. VII. Of Thrashing Machines, - - 314 Vofc. I. * , xvni COMTEJ^TS. SECT. nil. Of Fanners, - SECT. IS. Horse Rake, - CHAP. VU. On Manures, - SECT. I. On the Management of Dung, SECT. II. Of Compost Middens, - SECT. Ill, Of timr. - SECT. IV. On Marl, - SECT. y. On Sea-Weed, or Alga Marina, Page. 356 359 365 407 417 44S 44$ SECT. vr. On Purinv nnd Burning the Surface, and using the Asbes 1 . r^Ki-uie, - ■■ 45S CONTENTS. IDM CHAP. Via On the Management of Arable Land, and the Husban- dry best adapted to the difliereni Soils, A59 4Sl 463 454 465 466 467 46s 4^ 474 475 476 SECT. I. Ofi the Rotation of Crops, Rotation, No.1. - Ditto, No. 2. - Ditto, No. 3. - Ditto, No 4. - Ditto, No. 5. - Ditto, No. 5. M ' Ditto, No. 7. - Ditto, No. 8. - Ditto, No 9 - Ditto, No. 10. i:(X TREATISE ON RURAL AFFAIRS, INTRODUCTION. Agriculture claims a pre-eminence above manufactures and commerce, from its seniority and superior usefulness ; and, to use an expres- sion of the celebrated Sully, may be regarded as one of the breasts from which the state derives its support and nourishment. Manufactures and commerce originally owed their existence to agriculture ; and the people employed in carrying them on are constantly fed by those engaged in the parent art. Agriculture, therefore, may be considered as of the first importance to man- kind ; because their temporal welfare and pro- sperity depend upon receiving a regular and suffi- Vol. I. A 2 INTRODUCTION. cient supply of the various articles cultivated by the agriculturist. ' In an age like the present, when the utility of agriculture is so fully recognised, it is unneces- sary to insist at any length upon the advantages enjoyed by every nation, in which that art is suf- ficiently understood, and skilfully practised* The tenitory, possessed by any people, is the original property, or capital stock, from which they are supplied, not only with the necessaries, but also with the comforts of life ; and in direct propor- tion as their territory is improved, their prospe- rity will be advanced. It is from the surface of the earth, that timber, cordage, and sails are pro- cured for our navy j and that flax and wool, hydes and tallow, madder and other dye-stuffsy are obtained for home and foreign consumption. If we penetrate into the interior parts of the earth, we find either Hmestone, marl, or other substances for invigorating the surface, and ren- dering it constantly prolific. It is Hkewise from the bowels of the earth, that copper, lead, tin, iron, and coals, are procured, and employment given to another part of the community. But the remark, which of all others deserves attention^ INTRODUCTION. S Is; that it is only by cultivating the soil, and raising as large a store of provisions as possible, that labourers, manufacturers, and artisans, can live comfortably, or proceed with spirit in their several occupationsi The utility of agriculture will appear front the following considerations :— -In the first place, where agriculture is neglected, population must be scanty, because the necessaries of life are want- ing ; and the great body of the people must be miserable, because regular employment cannot be furnished to them. Perhaps at no period has husbandry been more perfectly cultivated in Great Britain, than at the present; hence the lower ranks are better paid, better fed, better clothed, and in every respect more comfort^ly situate^ than in former times. To ten-itorial improve- ment may also be attributed the increased and increasing strength of the British empire, and the capabihty of sustaining burdens, which, not twenty years ago, would have ruined every de- scription of its inhabitants. But, by the exten- sion of agricultural improvement, by the melio- tations made on the capital stock of the country, the numbers of the people have increased, manvi^ As 4 INTRODUCTION. factures have prospered, and both inland and foreign commerce have been carried on with vi- gour and success. In the second place, were not agriculture car- ried on as a separate trade, and a quantity of provisions thereby raised, which exceeded the wants of agriculturists, not only would every other art be at a stand, but every science, and every kind of mental improvement, would be neglected. In the first stages of civilization, the labour of each individual is barely sufficient to procure a scanty and precarious subsistence for himself; and circumstances so adverse, not only form a bar to the introduction of other arts, but also chill and render torpid every faculty of the human mind. When these faculties are blunted by the cravings of nature, or wasted by the exer- cise of corporeal employment, man discovers few of those rational powers, by which he is distin- guished in the more advanced stages of society. It is only in situations, where the means of sub- sistence are ample, where the labour of a certain part of the community is sufficient to provide the necessaries of life for the whole, and where a considerable proportion of the remaining popula- tion are placed beyond the necessity of manual la- INTRODUCTION. 5 bour to procure these necessaries, that the powers of the mind develope themselves, and shew what man is really capable of performing. Hence, since the art of agriculture came to be so well under- stood, and subsistence, of course, to be secured to mankind, without the necessity of bodily la- bour from all, the mind of man has expanded, other arts and sciences have been successfully cultivated, and man, from being not much above the irrational animals, now fills a dignified place in the scale of created beings. We think it unnecessary to offer any apology for the plan adopted in this Treatise, and for hav- ing deviated from the path generally followed by those who have preceded us in similar under- takings. It has been our object, as much as pos- sible, to treat the different subjects before us ra- ther in a practical than a theoretical manner, and to avoid all discussion that did not tend to pro- mote some useful purpose. Perhaps we have insisted at greater length upon the moral excite- ments to improvement, than by some may be thought necessary ; but a firm conviction of the importance of such excitements induced us to illustrate them as fully as possible. A3 HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE. Though Agriculture may be considered as of great antiquity, and in some respects as coeval with the first formation 6f society, yet materials are wanting, from which a progressive history of the art can be composed. It is proba- ble, however, that mankind, in the early ages, derived their subsistence from hunting In the forests, and fishing in the rivers, and from the milk and flesh of such domestic animals as they possessed ; but how long they continued in this situation, it is impossible to conjecture. From the sacred writings, however, we learn that hus? D. H. HILL UBRARY North Carolina State College AGRICULTURE. bandry was understood by Noah, who of course taught it to his sons, by whom it is Hkely the art was spread over the world. The history of the ancient Egyptians informs us, that they were well acquainted with agriculture ; and pei-haps the people of Italy, under the. Roman government, understood all the branches of husbandly much better, and practised them more successfully, than the present inhabitants of that country. There is sufficient authority for maintaining, that an enlightened system of rural economy was pre- valent during the Augustan age, and perhaps long before ; indeed the Georgics of Virgil, and other productions of the Roman authors, shew, that husbandry was not only well understood by the Romans, but correctly and successfully prac- tised. In Britain, at the period of the Roman invasion, there is reason to presume, that husbandry was hardly known, except in the southern districts ; and that, even in these, it was very imperfectly executed. But whatever might be the situation of Britain when invaded by the Romans, it is certain, that the husbandry of the island, from the Lands- End to the Firth of Forth, was greatly improved A4 HISTORY OF by the Roman soldiers ; and that all the grains, now cultivated, were then raised to a considerable extent. In support of this assertion, could the smallest doubt be entertained of its truth, we might refer to the immense quantities of grain exported from Britain when in possession of the Romans, and the obvious marks of improvement left by that celebrated people when they quitted the island. The Roman conquests, instead of desolating the earth, as has often been the case in similar instances, insured the improvement of every country that was subdued ; and the soldiers of that nation, being drawn from the plough, spread a knowledge of husbandry through every country which came under their dominion. To benefit mankind, and increase their comfort and happiness, seemed to be the invariable wishes of the Roman commanders. They seldom or never burned or laid \vaste the country which they con- quered, but rather strained every nerve to civilise the inhabitants, and to introduce the arts neces- sary for promoting their comfort and happiness. To facilitate communication from one district and town to another, seems to have been a primary object with the Romans ; and many works of this kind, accomplished by them, are still dis- AGRICULTURE. 9 cernible in numerous places. By thus employ- ing their troops, when not engaged in more active service, the Ron^au commanders had greatly the advantage over our modern generals. Instead of suffering their soldiers to loiter in camps, or riot in towns, thus enervating their strength and relax*, ing their morals, the Roman commanders kept them regularly at work, and, what was still bet- ter, at work on objects highly beneficial to the interests of those whom they subjugated. When the Romans finally withdrew from Bn< tain, the country southward of the Firth of Forth- had attained a considerable degree of cultivation and improvement ; but it does not appear, that the inhabitants had acquired much of the martial spirit of their former masters and instructors. The further progress of improvement, however, was soon obstructed, particularly in the districts between the two walls, by the ravages of the nor- thern tribes, known, at that time, under the names of the Maastas and the Caledonians. These fierce plunderers prevailed so far over the un- happy Britons, as to induce that enervated people to invite the Saxons to their assistance, who, in their turn, became masters of the greatest part 10 HISTORY OF of the island. Excepting Wales, and the west- ern part of Scotland, then known under the name of Strath Cliiyid, the whole island, south of the Firth of Forth, continued in the possession of the Saxons for several centuries. But the state of South Britain was not com- pletely settled till the Norman invasion, when customs and habits were introduced, which, to this day, remain too firmly established, to be re- moved without the special interposition of the legislature. To his Norman barons, William the Gonquerer assigned great estates almost in every county, as a reward of their services ; and these grants were afterwards enlarged, when for- feitures occurred from the rebellion of the old Saxon possessors. The estates so bestowed were, by the great barons, or officers, in some measure divided among their retainers, or dependents, un- der the burden of military service ; and in this way feudal tenure was introduced, and formed into a regular system. The Saxon governme^it was favourable to in- ternal improvement, or rather it continued the system introduced by the Romans j but the Nor- AGRICULTURE* 1% man conquest, by introducing the feudal system, checked the progress of cultivation, and contri- buted to the decline of husbandry. From the Conquest to the days of Henry VIII. the practice of agriculture received little improvement ; and as for theoretical, or scientific knowledge, there is not the slightest vestige of any being acquired, or even sought after, during the long period of five centuries. To the haughty feudal baron, who Teigned in a castle, and was provided with an abundant supply of the necessaries of life from fais extensive domains, the improvement of the country was a trifling object ; and as his depen- dents held by military tenure, they considered husbandry as unworthy of their notice. Hence agriculture was. carried on only by the lowest of the people, and, in such hands, the art necessa- rily declined. The unhappy wars between the houses of York and Lancaster gave husbandry also a severe shock, one half of the country be- ing desolated and laid waste by the contending factions. Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, one of the judges in !the court of common pleas, is the first person en record who attempted to enlighten Englisl^ 12 HISTORY OF husbandmen, by writing on the art of agriculture* In 1534, he published a treatise called The Book of Husbandry y and another in 1539, entitled. The Book of Sunej/ing and Improvement, The Book of Husbandry contains minute directions for ploughing, managing, and cropping land, to- gether with a full account of the diseases which affect horses and other animals, and the method of curing them. The Book of Surveying relates to castles, woods, parks, mills, and other branches of property ; and also contains numerous advices concerning the best way of improving arable land. Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, laying it down as a primary principle, that the majority of husband- men live by the plough, describes the several im- plements generally used in his time for tilling the ground. He then points out the other articles that belong to a team of horses; and, when speaking of carts and waggons, very properly re- commends that the wheels on which they are mounted should be shoed or bound about with iron ; whence it may be inferred, that wheels al- together composed of wood were at that time commonly used. It would appear, that husband*- AGRICULTURE. 13 men, in Fitzherbert*s days, combined a know- ledge of every profession ; for among the ap- pendages of a plough, we find an axe, hatchet, hedge-bill, auger, flail, spade, and shovel, parti- cularly enumerated. It is also recommended, that young husbandmen should learn to make their yokes, oxbows, stools, and all manner of plough geare, lest the purchase of these articles should be too costly for them. Fitzherbert seems to have preferred oxen above horses in executing rural labour, though he frankly admits that horses will go faster than oxen on even and light ground, and that they are quicker for all sorts of carriage work. An hundred years, however, elapsed, after the publication of Sir Anthony Fitzherbert's bock, before any thing further appeared really deserv- ing the attention of husbandmen. During the commonwealth, a period favourable to genius and enterprise, and when numbers of persons appeared upon the stage, whose names would never have been heard of had not a change of government occurred, Walter Blythe, Gabriel Plattes, and other enlightened men, illustrated the art of husbandry in the most satisfactory 14 HISTORY or manner. Blythe's writings, in particular, contain a great deal of sound sense, and not badly ex- pressed, on almost every branch of husbandry. The first part of his Improver Iniprcrced, publish- ed 16'52, contains what he calls six pieces of im- provement : ] . On floating and watering land ; 2. On draining fen and boggy land, and regain-* ing land from the sea ; 3. On such inclosures as prevent depopulation, and advance all interests } 4. On tillage of land kept too long in grass ; and pasturing others destroyed with ploughing ; 3, Discovery of all soils and composts, with their nature and use ;. 6. On doubling the growth of wood by new plantations.— The second part con- tains six newer pieces of improvement : 1 . On the husbandry of clover and St Foyn ; 2. On lessening the charge and burthen of the plough,- with divers figures thereof ; 3. On planting wild woad and madder ; 4. On planting hops, saf- fron, and liquorice ; 5. On planting of rape^ coleseed, hemp, and flax, and the profit thereof; 6. On the great advance of land by divers orch- ard and garden fruits. Bating the dedication tc my Lord Protector, and other public bodies, the whole of the Improver Improved (now become a scarce book) might be reprinted with manife«r AGRICULTURE. ^ 15 advantage. Blythe*s principles, which are very- correct, may be ascertained by perusing the first chapter of his Fourth Piece of Improvement, wherein he directs how to plough and crop old pasture land. In this chapter, Mr Blythe shews, in forcible terms, the immense benefit which would accrue to the country from breaking up old pasture lands, and proves, in a satisfactory manner, that constant pasturage is highly detrimental to the interest of proprietors and occupiers. His senti- ments are correct, and very applicable to the ru- ral system of many English counties at the pre- sent day. They apply, in fact, to the husbandry of all the midland counties, and, generally speak- ing, to the whole of England, the counties of Northumberland, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Kent excepted. In the last mentioned counties, old pastures, except in situations opposite to the houses of gentlemen, are not numerous, though alternate husbandry, or changing from grass to corn, and vice versa, is not regularly followed. Blythe seems to have entertained just views of the benefits accompanying alternate husbandry. 16 HISTORY OF as he demonstrates, in strong language, the nu- merous advantages of such a system. In fact, all sour, rushy, or clay soils, should be frequently broken up by the plough, and exposed to atmo- spherical influence. Grasses upon such soils thrive best at first, and gradually fall off in after seasons. To keep soils of these descriptions constantly in grass, is therefore detrimental to the public interest, because produce of every kind is thereby greatly lessened. Were such fields re- novated by tillage, and, after being cropped five or six years, sown down with grass seeds, along with the crop of grain succeeding a summer fal- low, incalculable damages would follow both to the public and individuals. On the other hand, Mr Blythe appears to have possessed an accurate notion of the evils flowing from over ploughing, or, in other words, from keeping land constantly under tillage, a system too prevalent, even now, in many English coun- ties. In his time, as well as at present, a very large portion of English soil was regularly sub- jected to the plough, and of course worn out and exhausted by constant tillage. A system of this nature has prevailed upon the open and common AGRICULTURE. 17 lands of England since the days of William the Conqueror, and must remain in force till some strong measure is adopted by the legislature of the country capable of putting an end to it. In short, the losses sustained from constant pastu- rage, of a great part of the soil, and constant til- lage of the remainder, are as correctly ascertain- ed and described by Blythe as by any of our mo- dern, and, apparently, more enlightened writers. After the Restoration, various improvements were brought to England by the refugees, who had resided on the continent during the govern- ment of the commonwealth. It has been gene- rally understood, that Sir Richard Weston, one of these refugees, introduced clover ; but it is certain that this valuable variety of grass was sown in England before that period ; for Blythe treats both of it and St Foyn in a systematic manner. It is more likely that turnips were then first cultivated ; because Blythe does not say a single word concerning this valuable esculent, the introduction of which occasioned almost a total change in the English agricultural system in so far as related to the management of light soils. Vol. I. B 18 HISTORY OF Before clover and turnips were cultivated on a great scale, the husbandry of Britain was neces- sarily imperfect. The scourging crops much ex- ceeded the meliorating ones ; of course the pro- duce of the ground was considerably inferior in quantity to what it is now, whilst a great loss was sustained by the public from not receiving through the whole year a regular supply of butcher meat, with which they are now fortu- nately provided. Another disadvantage, accom- panying the old system, was, that Hght soils could rarely be cleaned without suffering them to remain unproductive for a year, when under summer fallow ; whereas, since turnips were introduced, these soils are much more effectu- ally cleaned than formerly, whilst a valuable crop is obtained in the same year. Summer fallow has long been extensively practised in England, and at this day perhaps more so than necessary, espe- cially upon common field land, as will be more particularly noticed in another place. With all fields held in severalty, the introduction of clover and turnips proved of singular advantage, not only "in a private, but also in a public point of view. A judicious rotation of cropping can thereby be exercised, and one culmiferous crop AGRICULTURE. 19 heed not follow another, which could not for- merly be avoided ; whilst the culture of legu- minous crops enriches the soil, increases the stock of manure for rendering it productive, and furnishes the means of supplying *he markets with fat cattle and sheep through every month of the year. The improvement of the English rural system was in some degree promoted by the exertions of Jethro Tull, an inventive genius, who possessed more imagination than solid sense to direct it. By him the drilHng or row system of husbandry was brought into practice ; and so eager was he in its support, as to neglect the impracticability of executing it in numberless situations. But the strongest proof, that the imagination of Tull was more brilliant than his judgement was profound, may be gathered from his hostility to manures, and from his substituting additional tillage in their place. The doctrines of Tull, however, like those of every plausible theorist, were adopted by several people ; and, to a certain extent, are even fashionable at this day. The utility, nay, the necessity of manures, is now acknowledged by all persons; but his plan of drilling every B 2 20 HISTORY OF kind of grain continues to be supported, though it is demonstrable that this mode of sowing is chiefly applicable to leguminous crops ; and only in a few soils and situations practicable with cul- miferous ones. The plan of cultivating the fields in the regu- lar manner followed in garden husbandry, is no doubt very desirable, did circumstances suffer it to be executed ; but we are apprehensive that physical impediments are in the way of such a plan, not easily to be removed. These shall be noticed in the section where Drill-Husbandry is treated of. Little further alteration in the rural economy of England occurred, except in the superior at- tention bestowed on live-stock, by Mr BakewelL and others, till the establishment of the national Board of Agriculture, under the auspices of Sir John Sinclair, Baronet, when a general desire seized all ranks to promote internal improve- ments. Hartlib, a century and a half before, and Lord Karnes, in his Gentleman Farmer, had pointed out the utility of such an establishment ; but it was left to Sir John Sinclair to carry it into AGRICULTURE. gl execution. To the unwearied endeavours of Sir John are the public indebted for this admirable institution, which has certainly done much good, and may still do a great deal more. Two advan- tages, among many, may be mentioned : 1st, A great number of new men were brought forward by the Board, whose names the public would pro- bably otherwise never have heard of ; and these being chiefly practical people, professionally con- cerned in farm -management, agriculture, by their endeavours, was rescued from the hands of theo- rists, and a revolution of no small extent accom- plished in rural affairs : 2dly, Before the Board was instituted, the bond of connection betwixt agriculturists was slender, and served few use- ful purposes. Each trusted to his own infor- mation, and knew little more about the practi- ces of conterminous districts, than of those of China or the most distant countries. The estab- lishment of the Board removed at once all these evils and difficulties. A common fortress, erected for the benefit of all agriculturists, and to which each might resort for advice and protection, was immediately recognised. Farmers, who resided in the most distant quarters of the kingdom were made acquainted with one another j and, by the B 3 22 HISTORY OP publications of the Board, a rapid dissemination of knowledge took place nmongst the whole pro- fession. The art of agriculture was brought into fashion ; old practices were amended ; new ones introduced ; and a degree of exertion manifested, which had never before been exemplified in this island. The numerous agricultural silrveys. executed under the authority of the Board, were also of singular advanrage, as they brought to light the practice of every county ; and, while they pointed oul the obstacles which lay in the way of improve- ment, the most effectual methods of removing them were likewise explained and elucidated. The very coUision of argument occasioned by such discussions, incited agriculturists to investi- gate the principles of the art which they pro- fessed, and induced them to search after new channels of improvement. That the first measure adopted by the Board, viz a general survey ol the whole island, was a use- ful one, has been acknouk g;d by every person; but doubts hc.AC been entertained by many, con- Ct:rjng ihr. a:!h;y ox sevtjal subsequent n.casures, wnich UtsciVes scmt consideration, it has been AGRICULTURE. 23 urged, and with some degree of truth, that the endeavours of a public Board should be limited to objects which exceed the powers of an indi- vidual to accomplish ; and that a Board, com- posed of materials like the present one, ought never to interfere with the minutiae or prac- tice of farming, but leave these matters entirely to the management or direction of those by whom the art is exercised. Under these impres- sions, it has been stated, that the Board were discharging their duty, when they recommended to Parliament a division of common field and waste land j aJid, in like manner, that their ef- forts would constantly be of advantage, when di- rected to a removal of every obstruction to im- provement which required legislative interference. A recommendation from a public board carries a weight with it, insuring a degree of success not to be obtained by the petition or complaint of one or two individuals. Hence the propriety of originat- ing, atthe Board of Agriculture, all laws and regu- lations influencing or operating upon rural eco- nomy seems apparent, because the members of such a Board may reasonably be supposed to possess a degree of knowledge in rural science, rendering 4 B 24 HISTORY OF them sufficiently qualified to judge of, and to dc* termine upon, the measures to be adopted. But, on the other hand, it has been urged, that the practice of husbandry ought not to be in- cluded in their deliberations ; and that every thing of that kind may safely be left to profession- al people, who are morally and physically better quahfied to investigate and ascertain what is fit and proper to be executed. It has been further urged, that when a Board of Trade acted in this country, its measures were confined to the great and leading objects of commerce, without de- scending to minutiae, or interfering with the bu- siness of individuals. In short, it has been sup- posed almost as preposterous for the Board of Agriculture to meddle with ploughing, sowing, planting potatoes, building cottages, &c. &c. as it would have been for the Board of Trade to issue directions to apprentices concerning the best way of folding and tying parcels. Though inclin- ed to think there is some weight in the argu- ments urged, we adhere to the opinion already given, that much good has been done by the Board, and that a great deal more may still be accomplished. The scantiness of their funds, however, is a reproach to the nation, and call? AGRICULTURE. 25 loudly for additional aid to such a meritorious establishment. If the generous spirit which ani- mated the Persian kings had pervaded our rulers when the Board was established, or even had the latter estimated agriculture of the same value as it was appreciated by the former, a complaint of this kind would have been superfluous. At the annual festival in April each year, in honour of a- griculture, the Persian king was in use to address the farmers to the following efl:ect : " I am one of you. My subsistence, and that of my people, rests on the labour of your hands ; the succession of the race of man depends on the plough, and without you we cannot exist. But your depend- ence upon me is reciprocal. We ought therefore to be brothers, and live in perpetual harmony.** We now come to this northern part of the island, where husbandry was long unknown, and still longer imperfectly exercised. There is suf- ficient evidence, that husbandry was introduced into Britain at the south-east corner, and travel- led, by slow and gradual steps, to other quar- ters J but it is difHcult to trace the progress of the art, or to discover how far it had advanced D. H. HILL LIBRARY North Carolina St;^t<^ ^^oll^^aa 2.6 HISTORY OF when this island was evacuated by the Romans. When Severus invaded Scotland, A. D. 207, we are told that the Maaeatae and Caledonians, who possessed all the island beyond Hadrian's Wall, inhabited barren uncultivated mountains, or desart marshy plains ; that they had neither towns nor cultivated lands, but lived on the milk and flesh of their flocks and herds, on what they got by plunder, or catched by hunting, and on the fruit of trees. These barbarous nations, however, being obliged by Severus to yield up a part of their country to the Romans, that indus- trious people, in the course of the third century, built several towns and stations, constructed high- ways, cut down woods, drained marshes, and in- troduced agriculture into the districts south of the Firth of Forth, which are generally well cal- culated for tillage. Though the Romans never formed any lasting station north of the Forth, yet many of them and of the provincial Britons retir- ed into Caledonia at different times, particularly about the end of the third century, to escape from the Dioclesian persecution. It is probable these refugees instructed the natives ; and as the eastern coast of Caledonia was also well adapted for cultivation, there is little doubt but that the AGRICULTURE. 27 Fictish nation, who inhabited it, were early initio ated into the art of agriculture. Till the reign of Malcolm CanmorCj in the ele^ venth century, the progress of husbandry was very slow ; but during his reign, a greater de- gree of attention seems to have been paid to the cultivation of the country. This increased atten- tion arose from the number of Anglo-Saxons who migrated at that time into Scotland, by whose endeavours the face of the country was shortly changed. During the twelfth and thir-^ teenth centuries, the lowlands of Scotland were improved considerably, and their inhabitants were prosperous and happy. As a proof of their in- ternal prosperity, it was in these centuries that all the religious houses were erected; and it is plain, that before any nation can be munificently pious, it must be flourishing and rich, iii these periods the greatest part of our modern towns and villa- ges were also built ; and it was then that the peo- ple began to be civiliised, and society to assume something of its present shape. Circumstances, however, soo o. curred, which blasted, and in a, manner destroy d, all these fair prospects j and Scotland, mstead of advancing in prosperity, wag 28 HISTORY OF SO completely wasted by civil broils and foreign wars, that the efforts of the people, during four succeeding centuries, were scarcely sufficient to restore matters to their former footing. These civil broils originated in a contested succession to the crown, wherein the parties in the first instance were nearly matched ; but after- wards, by the interference of Edward of Eng- land, the scale was turned, and, as generally hap- pens in such cases, the country was brought un- der the dominion of a foreign invader. The death of Alexander III. in 128(), was the source of these evils. This event occasioned a contest con- cerning the succession between John Baliol and Robert Bruce, which, in the first instance, al- most ruined Scotland, and ultimately brought de- struction upon the followers of Baliol, and those who adhered to Edward of England, who claim- ed the sovereignty as lord paramount of the coun- try. This contest, which lasted for many years, stopped the growing prosperity of the country, occasioned the towns and villages to be destroy- ed, turned the people's attention from internal improvement to resisting external attacks, and rendered them as barbarous and uncivilized as AGRICULTURE. ^9 they were before the days of Malcolm Canmore. The baneful consequences which flowed from a disputed succession, were hardly overcome, when England and Scotland were united under the go- vernment of one sovereign ; nor did they altoge- ther disappear till the middle of the 1 8th century. Before that time the internal improvement of the country was neglected and overlooked, whilst the great bulk of the inhabitants continued in an ab- ject and miserable state, imperfectly fed, destitute of other comforts, without the means of improve- ment, and altogether in a situation which can hardly be described at the present moment, when all these circumstances are completely reversed. Without Insisting upon these matters. It may be added, that the large armies brought into the field by the partizans of Baliol and Bruce, chiefly drawn from the low-country districts, furnish in- contestible proof that the population of the coun- try was at that time numerous. Now, as popu- lation and food must always go hand in hand, or, speaking more correctly, food must always precede population ; a sure evidence of agricul- tural prosperity at the end of the 1 3th century is thence furnished. Indeed, Independent of abstract 30 HISTORY OF reasoning, we have conclusive proof of the flour- ishing state of agriculture in Scotland at this period from other sources. According to Hemingford, a writer of no mean authority, it appears that the English army, when besieging the castle of Dirle- ton, in East Lothian, A. D. 1 'J9<), subsisted upon the peas and beans growing in the adjoining fields. Every agriculturist knows well, that these grains cannot be successfully cultivated, till husbandry has reached a pretty advance dstate; and therefore it is presumed, that the agriculture of the district alluded to was at that period very much improv- ed. But another circumstance, concerning the prosperity of Scottish agriculture, still more deci- sive, may be gleaned from the wardrobe account of Edward 1. ; wherein it appears, that when that monarch invaded Galloway in i 500, he purcha- sed and exported from Kirkcudbright to White- haven, and other parts of Cumberland, greater quantities of wheat than perhaps the modern agriculture of that province could supply at the present day. But the most precise and correct account of Scottish agriculture, during the Scoto-Saxon go- vernment, or from the reign of Edgar, who AGRICULTURE. 31 mounted the throne in 1 097, to the decease of Alexander III. 12S6, may be found in Mr Chal- mers's Caledonia, recently published, wherein the most diligent research is displayed, and every statement supported by respectable authorities. The authorities cited by Mr Chalmers are nume- rous and decisive. Without trusting to former writers, who rarely took the trouble to ascertain 'the truth of what they asserted, this gentleman sedulously consulted the ancient records, both of public bodies and private individuals, and has thereby thrown a light upon the ancient history of this country, sufficiently bright to illuminate the dark periods which he treated of, and inform the people of the present day concerning the former state of their native country, and the progress of agriculture and other useful arts. According to Mr Chalmers, agriculture, du- ring the period of the Scoto-Saxon dynasty, was the universal object of pursuit, from the prince to the peasant. The king possessed manors in every shire, and managed and cultivated them by his thanes, or bailiffs. The nobles followed the king's example, and had many manors in their proper demesne. The bishops and abbots emu- 32 HISTORY OF lated the nobles, in the extent of their posses- sions, and the greatness of their husbandry estar blishments ; and next to the kings, they may be considered as the greatest farmers of these times. Wool and skins were then the only ar- ticles of foreign traffic, the export commodities of Scotland, as happens with every country in a state of commercial infancy, being confined within a very limited sphere. At the period under consideration, the great body of cultivators were bondmen and vikyns, rather than freemen and farmers, not having any property of their own. But many free tenants were settled in the agricultural villages, who paid services to their lords ; as also many cottars, who, besides helping to cultivate the ground, fol- lowed some domestic trade, and yielded much assistance to their superiors. When the kings and barons, the bishops and abbots, began to emancipate their jnen, leases were first granted, not only of the land itself, but also of the stock employed in its cultivation. The stock, which thus accommodated both parties was called Steelbow ; in other words, it was a stock which was to be restored to the proprietor at a future AGRICULTURE. . 33 period, in ths same value and condition as when it was leased. It is understood, that William the Lion, and Alexander II. made various regulations for promoting agriculture, and securing the rights of those employed in carrying it on ; but of thise matters it is difficult to speak with precision. It has been asserted, with more confidence than knowledge, that Scotland was formerly wholly naked^ and destitute of woods ; whereas there is every sort of proof, that nearly the whole of the country, in ancient times, was covered with timber trees. That the numerous mosses of Scotland were originally so many woods, is evi- dent from the number of trees dug up in them, and from other circumstances handed down both by traditionary and written authority. The black and barren moors, which now disfigure the face of the country, were formerly clothed w.h woods, and furnished useful timber, and excel- lent pasturage. Oak appears, in those times, to have been the wood of most general use. The bridges, the castles, the churches, and the towns, were built with this sort of timber. The waste made in the course of different wars, add..d to the quantity used for domestic purposes, lessened the extent of wood-land ; and, as no steps were- Vol. I. C 34> HISTORY or taken to supply the vacancies which daily occur- red, the whole, or nearly the whole, was, in the course of time, consumed and exhausted. There are, in the old maps of Scotland, many names of places derived from woods, of which the slightest trace or information cannot now be gained. In the chartularies, numerous notices of forests are given in counties where a single tree is hardly now to be seen. Th> lawless habits, which too generally pre- vailed during the Scoto-Saxon dynasty, made it necessary for the people to live in collected bodies ; in villages and hamlets, rather than in farms, so that their mutual comfort and security might be preserved. To each of these villages was annexed a district of land, which was culti- vated by husbandmen and their cottagers, in dif- ferent proportions. The pasture-lands, and the wood-lands, were enjoyed in common ; each of the villagers having a right of pasturage for a cer- tain number of domestic animals, according to the extent of arable land possessed within the terri- tory. These villages were of different sizes, ac- cording to the size of the estate upon which they were situated, and the fertility of the adjoining AGRICULTURE. 35 lands. Some of them had a church, others a mill, all of them had malt-kilns, and brew-houses, as may be distinctly observed from a perusal of the ancient chartularies. Whatever disadvantages, attended the prac- tice of agriculture in those days, husbandmen en- joyed many benefits, which farmers at this time cannot expect to possess. The vast wood-lands, which skirted the arable ground on all sides, gave a shelter to the corn crops, that greatly promoted their growth, and augmented their produce. While the wood-lands served to shelter the coun- try, they also furnished pasturage for numerous herds of cattle, and of course rendered the con- dition of husbandmen comfortable and advan- tageous. In fact, the wood -land not only contri- buted to increase the produce of arable ground, but also to rear and maintain a larger number of ?wine, cattle, and houses, than will easily be be- lieved under the prejudices of modern times. Scotland at that time produced all the kinds of grain cultivated in the present day, though, perhaps, in different proportions than those which are supplied by modern husbandry. Oats were C2 :)6 HISTORY OT cultivated in a much greater, and barley in a much smaller proportion than at present. Oats were chiefly used by the lower orders, furnishing both meat and drink to them. Much of this grain was malted and afterwards brewed, as was also part of the barley. The consumption of ale was immense, as may be seen from the number of malting and brewing houses in every part of the country. Wheat was also cultivated to a great extent in all the south and east counties , even in Galloway, as already noticed, this grain- appears to have been raised in considerable quan- tities. Pease and beans were only raised in par- ticular situations. Besides com, Httle else was produced in the fields. Lint, however, was cer- tainly cultivated at the time we are treating of, because it is known to have paid tythe in the twelfth century. Though artificial grasses were not then introduced, yet the natural meadows and forests supplied much grass for making hay> as we learn from the chartularies. In the early ages of Scottish history, cheese was an article manufactured in great abundance y and, as the people lived much on animal food, the herds of black cattle were consumed at home. , ACklCULTURE. 37 while their hides formed a considerable article of c.:port to foreign countries. Sheep were then numerous in every district, and wool and skins were great objects of agriculture revenue. Goats were also kept in many places, and swine were reared in great numbers by every husbandman, from the highest to the lowest. Poultry also was an object of attention.— Under Malcolm IV. the monks of Scone received from every plough-land which belonged to them, no fewer than ten hens at the feast of All Saints, — a burden which at this time would be considered by every husband- man as intolerably oppressive. In these early ages, the dwellings of the Scot- tish people were both mean and inconvenient. The kings, nobles, and bishops, dwelt in castles, built with a view to the protection of those who resided in them ; while the lesser barons lived in square towers, constructed more for defence than comfort. The hovels of the lower ranks were generally slight erections of twigs or turf, and may be considered merely as temporary accom- modations, seeing that they were so frequently laid waste and destroyed by foreign war and in. testine divisions. Even houses in towns were C3 58 HISTORY OF chiefly built with wood -, hence followed thi; dreadful devastations in those periods. The cathedrals and abbeys, however, were structures of great labour and expence, as may be perceiv- ed on contemplating their ruins. The strong- holds built in Scotland by the Anfglo-Normans and Flemings, were so firmly cemented with lime, as to appear in miny instances like solid rocks. Indeed it is often easier to dig stones in a quarry, than to procure the^i from these ancient build- ings ; hence niany of them have been suffered to remain monuments of past greatness, which would have been demolished and taken down, had not the expence of the task exceeded the value of the materials which would have been acquired from their destruction. The towns gradually increased in their po- pulation and trade during the Scoto-Saxon pe- riod. A comparison betwixt their state and con- dition in the twelfth century on the one hand, and in the fifteenth on the other, will evince their gradual progress. In the tweh'th century, the revenue drawn from the towns was inconsi- derable ; but during the fourteenth and fifiecnth centuries, many annuities and pensions were AGRICULTURE. 39 granted by the Scottish kings to their children and favourites, out of the mails of the burghs, and customs of their ports, both of which had greatly increased during these ages, notwithstand- ing that adversity and happiness alternately pre- vailed. The towns, however, even in the fifteenth century, were but hamlets compared with those of the present times, when industry has invigo- rated and enriched the inhabitants, and stimulat- ed all ranks to provide more comfortable accom- modation. It may be remarked, that though the people, generally speaking, were but indifferently lodged, they were upon the whole well fed, except in those years of dearth and famine, which so often recurred in ancient times. In the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, the lov/er classes enjoyed a larger proportion of animal food than they do at present ; whilst their chief bever- age was beer and ale, brewed from the malt of oats. In these times, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry, were raised in abundance, and mostly consumed at home ; whereas in our day, from the increase of population, these articles are chiefly consumed in towns, modern prices exceeding the C 4 40 HISTORY OF means of purchase in the hands of the country labourer. The quantity of malt ground at the mills, and the number of breweries in every part of the country, attest the great quantities of ale made and consumed. None of the malt was ma- nufactured into ardent spirits ; but alehouses in the different villages were so early as the reign of David I. under the regulation of assize, which is an evidence, that their numbers were great, and that the consumption of ale was extensive in these primitive periods. During the Scoto-Saxon period, the kings were the greatest improvers of land, and afford- ed every degree of encouragement to those who forwarded the rural improvement of the country. This is attested by the chartularies. The barons partially followed their example, but the monks were the most skilful and diligent improvers. Being mostly brought from England, and other countries, they possessed more knowledge of rural matters than the native inhabitants, and having greater capital, and enjoying more quiet, they were naturally better fitted and disposed for agricultural exertions. They brought waste lands into an arable state, subdued wood-lands, made AGRICULTURE. 41 inclosures, and practised drainage, — improve- ments much wanted in the then state of the country. Possessing the teind, or tenth sheaf of the crop in many cases, the quantity of manure made on their lands was necessarily increased, and this increase of itself, independent of the knowledge and capital which they undoubtedly possessed, was sufficient to bring about a material change in the value of all lands, held by the re- gular and secular clergy of Scotland, at the pe- riod under consideration. From what is stated, it may be inferred, that the rural economy of Scotland, at the end of the ] 3th century, was in a rapid state of improve- ment, especially in the low country districts to the south of the river Forth. It must, however, be remark^, that little of that improvement was owing to the Celtic natives, nearly the whole of it being attributable to those foreigners, introduced by the Scoto-Saxon kings. From the reign of Ed- gar to the conclusion of the Saxon dynasty, nume- rous bodies of Anglo-Saxons, Anglo-Normans, and Flemings, settled in Scotland, and, from the generosity of the several monarchs, acquired vast possessions in many districts. Edgar, the first of 42 HISTORY OF the Saxon dvrasty, forced his way to the throne by the decisive aid of an English ar iiy, and after- wards gradually brought in a new people, whose polity was widely different from that of the abori- ginal inhabitants. Alexander I. who married an English princess, likewise encouraged settlers of that nation ; but the reign of David I. was most propitious to adventurers frpm foreign countries. That prince, having married an English countess, who had numerous vassals, was attended to the throne, in 1 J 24, by a thousand Anglo-Normans, to whc-m he distributed extensive landed posses- sions, and otherwise afforded them protection and encouragement. Numerous colonies of Flemings also settled in Scotland ; and from this stock several of the first families of the country have sprung. The Geltie people had their hamlets, to which they gave descriptive names in their own language ; but when the Anglo-Normans were introduced, their first object was to build a strong hold or castle, around which the followers of the chief settled, and thus formed a village, and in some cases a town ; in which practice they were much encouraged by the several sovereigns, who wish- AGRICULTURE. 43 ed to bridle and restrain the ferocity of the na- tives. The policy of the Scottish kings, during the Saxon d)'Tiasty, promoted the building, of castles in every place where a convenient site oc- curred ; and it ^yas under the protection of these gtrong holds, that towns arose, and industry be- gan her career Such a system of policy, how- ever, was viewed by the Aborigines with indignar tion. Insurrections were often raised, and at- tempts made to burn and destroy thd towns that were erected, and to lay waste the lands which belonged to the inhabitants. After the capture of King William, in 1174, when anarchy pre- vailed for some time, the new settlers fled to the king's castles for shelter ; and such had beeisi the progress of colonization, that the towns and boroughs of Scotland were, at that period, chiefly inhabited by foreigners. A POLICY of a different kind, but equally be- neficial, contributed much to the improvement of the country. The erection of such a number of religious houses, in the twelfth century, was at- tended with salutary effects ; because the monks were drawn from England and foreign countries ; and of course brought along with them the arts 44 HISTORY OF exercised in these countries, to the great benefit of the kingdom in which they now settled. These ecclesiastics had their dependants, to ^vhom they granted parcels of land on the condi- tions of service ; and it must be confessed, that the church lands were the first that were im- proved, and in such a substantial way, that many of them to this day continue to yield more pro- ductive crops than the lands then in the hands of the barons, though at first sight there may ap- pear no difference in their natural value. The monks brought along with them many crafts- men or artisans from foreign countries ; and in this way the settling of every religious house may be considered as the plantation of a new colony of the Teutonic race amidst the Celtic in- habitants of North Britain. The Succession War gave a shock to the pro-* sperity of Scotland, from which it had not alto- gether recovered, at the time when the whole island was incorporated under one government. "Were there the smallest doubt respecting the consequence of the wars, which, with short in- termissions, prevailed from the end of the thir- teenth to the middle of the fourteenth century, AGRICULTURE. 45 it might be removed by a reference to the two valuations, called the Old and New Extent, in which full evidence is disclosed concerning the deterioration or waste which had taken place in North Britain. The old extent, taken in the reign of William the Lion, is nearly double the sum returned under the new extent made up in 1369, after the capture of David Bruce. But this difference of value will excite no sui-prise, when it is considered that the business of the in- habitants had been chiefly restricted to fighting jtfid destroying one another, and to burning and plundering, instead of meliorating and enriching the country. The same conduct repeated in our day would lead to similar consequences ; inter- nal improvement being at all times incompatible with a state of warfare. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, rural economy continued to languish, especially upon the estates of the barons, where the profes- sion of a soldier was regarded as of greater import- ance than that of a cultivator of the ground ; but the ecclesiastical lands were considerably improv- ed, and the tenants of them were generally much more comfortable and happy than those upon the 40 HISTORY OF estates of laymen. The reformation of religion, beneficial as it was in other respects, rather check- ed than promoted agricultural improvement ; be- cause the change of property, which then occur- red, occasioned a similar change of tenantry, and almost took husbandry out of the hands of the only class of people by whom it was practised upon correct principles. The dissolution of the monastries and other religious houses, was also attended by injurious consequences in the first in- stance ; though latterly the greatest benefit has been derived from tythes and church lands hav- ing come into the hands of laymen. It is pro- bable, had not these circumstances occurredj that the tythe system would have still remained in force, and Scottish husbandry have continued under a burthen, which sinks and Oppresses th6 cultivator of the sister country. But tythes hav- ing got into the hands of lay titulai-s, or impro- priators, were in general collected or farmed with such severity as to occasion the most grievous complaints, not only from the tenantry, but also from the numerous class of proprietors, who had not been so fortunate as to procure a share of the general spoil. This, added to the desire shewn by the crown, to resume the grants made AGRICULTURE. 47 • when Its power was comparatively feeble, occa- sioned the celebrated submission to Charles I, which ended in a settlement, that in modern times has proved highly beneficial, not only to the interest of proprietors, but likewise to the im- provement of the nation. Tythes in fact are a burthen, which to all intents and purposes ope- rate as a tax upon industry, though it was a long time before the beneficial consequences of with- drawing them were fully understood, or even discerned in this country. TnouGii agriculture has unquestionably been benefited by the regulation of teinds or tythes, yet doubts may be entertained whether landed proprietors have reaped the full advantages which were intended by that regulation. They had, in the first place, to purchase the teind of their re- spective estates at nine years purchase of its then proven value, and, in the second place, are now subjected in every parish to a second payment, according to the present value, of all the teind that remains unexhausted or unappropriated. In this way proprietors have been, or may be, made to pay twice for their teinds, first, in the reign of Charles I. when they were purchased 48 HISTORY OF from the Titulars, and again when annual pay* ments are allocated to the clergyman or clergy- men of the parish or parishes, where their pro- perty is situated. It is plain that this double payment could neither be the intention of his Majesty, when he pronounced the decreet arbitral on the subject, nor of Parliament when they passed it into a law ; and that the system, now adopted for appropriating unexhausted teinds, has arisen entirely from none of the commissions, appointed by parliament, having finally conclud- ed and determined upon the whole matters com- mitted to them. It may be objected that the price, nine years purchase of the then proven valuC) was fixed by Charles I. with a view of en- abling proprietors to meet augmentations at an after period ; but this objection will appear of no force, when it is considered that land at the time sold generally for ten, never above twelve years purchase ; and that the interest of money was then eight per cent. Besides, Charles I. always declared that the teinds were fully paid for ; and there is reason to presume that, had it not been for the disturbances which shortly followed, the business would have been completely settled ac- cording to the principles of his decreet arbitral. AGRICULTURE. 49 Had the original: valuations remained in exist- ence, proprietors, in general, would not have had great reason to complain of the recent decisions, seeing that the value of land has advanced so much; but when it is reflected that many of these valuations were either lost or destroyed when Cromwell removed the records of Scot- land in 1()52, or at the burning of the" Teind Office in J 701, the subject becomes of more im- portance. No doubt every proprietor whose rights were thus destroyed, had he known how the law was to be afterwards interpreted, would instantly have forced a second valuation ; but be- ing in possession, and knowing that it was not the practice to insist for second augmentations under the same commission, probably the great body of land-holders thought themselves per- fectly secure notwithstanding the want of their original valuations. The want of them is now, however, a serious loss to proprietors in possession. In fact, without a valuation, the fifth part of their property may be wrested from them ; and as every man has a right to put what meaning he pleases upon the words ' expedient stipend,' tL.re is no saying to what length the Court may go when making future aug-mentations. Were YoL. I. D 50 HISTORY OF Parliament to establish a madwiu???^ people would know what they were about, and stipend, being paid in grain, the quantity which constituted an expedient stipend at one period, could not with justice be considered as inexpedient at another. Our wish is to see the clergy handsomely paid for their labours ; but we do not wish to see them wrangling in law Courts about their temporal provision, lest that their usefulness may be after- wards lessened. It also deserves attention, that the salaries of schoolmasters, the building and repairing of churches, manses, and school-houses, and the support of the poor fall entirely upon the landed proprietors as possessors of teinds j of course those things ought to be held in view when teinds are appropriated for the benefit of those who occupy the Clerical Office. The accession of James to the crown of Eng- land is understood to have been unfavourable to the agricultural interest of Scotland ; inasmuch as the nobles and gentry being by that event led into great expenses, raised the rents of the ten- antry considerably, whilst the veiy circumstance which occasioned the rise, contributed to lessen the means of the tenant for fulfilling his engage- AGRICULTURE. 51 ments. Scotland, however, w is much benefited by the sold'ers of Cromwell, who were chiefly > English yeomen, not only well acquainted with husbandry, but, like the Romans at a former pe- riod, studious also to improve and enlighten the nation which they had subdued. 1 he soldiers of Cromwell's army were regularly paid at the rate of 8d. per day^ a sum equal at least to the money value of two shillings of our currency ; and as this army lay in Scotland for many years, there was a great circulation of money through the country. Perhaps the low country districts were at that time in a higher state of improve- ment than at any period since the demise of Alexander III. The improvement then introdu- ced, does not altogether rest upon conjecture!, but is supported by many facts. In the counties of Lanark, Renfrew, Ayr, and Kirkcudbright, the rentals of various estates were greater in l660 than they were seventy years afterwards ; and the causes which brought about a declension in va- lue are ascertained without difficulty. The large fines exacted from country gentlemen and ten- ants in these counties, during the reigns of Charles II. and his brother James, were almost sufficient to impoverish both proprietors and cul- D2 52 HISTORY OF tivators, had they even been as wealthy as they are at the present day. In addition to those fines, the dreadful imprisonments, and other op- pressive measures pursued by those in power, equally contrary to sound policy and to justice and humanity, desolated large tracts, drove the oppressed gentry, and many of their wealthy te- nants, into foreign countries, and extinguished the spirit of industry and improvement in the breasts of those who were left behind. A suc- cession of bad seasons soon after the Revolution, heightened these calamities* It is well known, that innumerable farms at that period remained unoccupied ; proprietors having to search after tenants, who were able to stock and cultivate the ground with almost the same assiduity that must now be displayed by tenants who are out of pos- sessions. It would be unpardonable to omit noticing the active efforts of a Society, formed in 1723 for the improvement of agriculture, consisting of the prin- cipal noblemen and gentlemen of Scotland, who continued their labours for more than twenty years, greatly to their own credit and to the public benefit. Of this we have sufficient evidence from AGRICULTURE. 5$ a volume of their Transactions published in 1743, by Mr Maxwell of Arkland, under the auspices of the celebrated Mr Hope of Rankeillor, one of the most intelligent gentlemen of that period. The dedication to that volume shews something of the state of Scotland at that period, and proves that the endeavours of the numerous members of the Society were of immense benefit to the improvement of the country. In fact, the seed was at that time sown j and though the soil, in which it was deposited, was of a sterile nature, yet an abundant crop was in due time reaped. The most active and indefatigable member of that Society was Mr Hope of Rankeillor. This patriotic and well informed gentleman had, at an early period, studied agriculture, not only in Eng- land, but also in several foreign countries ; and being enthusiastically fond of this primitive art, he lost no opportunity of communicating his knowledge, not only to his brethren of the So- ciety, but also to every other person who took the trouble of soliciting information. It is well known that the meadow walks of Edinburgh were designed and laid out by this distinguished personage. The Meadows, originally a morass, P 3 54 HISTORY OP and called Straiton's Loch, were held by him upon a lease from the city of Edinburgh ; and upon them he executed improvements which ex- cited the wonder and admiration of his contem- poraries. At that period the situation of Edin- burgh was very different from what it is at pre- sent. Bounded by the North Loch, then a sheet of water, and obstructed from all communication with the north, except by Leith Wynd and the West Church, the citizens could not take a walk.. or breathe the fresh air, without being put to considerable inconvenience. Moved by these circumstances, Mr Hope projected the walks upon the south side of the city, and actually superin- tended their execution. These walks, at that time crowded by multitudes, are now in a man- ner deserted in favour of oiher places of public resort ; but this circumstance does not lessen the merits of Mr Hope's benevolent and patriotic en- deavours to serve the pubhc. In short, Mr Hope was one of those public spirited men who rarely appear. He Was gifted by nature with a well in- formed mind, and constantly exerted himself to promote rural improvement, justly considering it ^s the true source oi national prosperity. AGRICULTURE, 55 The endeavours of Mr Hope were warmly se- conded by the Dukes of Hamilton and Athole, Lords Stair, Hopeton, Islay, and other members of the Edinburgh Society. Indeed the condition of Scotland at that time called for the utmost ex- ertion of all its proprietors. Agriculture was in the most languid and feeble state. Occupiers of the ground were generally destitute of capital stock for cafrying on improvements, and few of them were qualified for introducing these with success, even had the means been within their reach. Trades and manufactures were then in their infancy ; and money was such a scarce ar- ticle, that the circulating medium of the two Edinburgh banks, whose capital was below L.200,000, was quite sufficient for every useful purpose. Under these circumstances, the situa- tion of Scottish agriculture, when this patriotic Society commenced their proceedings, may be easily ascertained. In short, rents were low, and the people were poor, imperfectly fed, badly clothed, and often without employment. If the picture is brought forward, and made to include the state of the country at the period we are now writing, it will at once be discerned, that a com- plete alteration has taken place in all these gir* D 4 ' 56 HISTORY or cumstanccs ; and though it would be going too far to place the whole alteration to the credit of the Edinburgh Society, yet a doubt cannot be en- tertained concerning the utility of their measures, or the effects which followed them. But the merits of another individual, who was a member of the Edinburgh Society, must not be passed over on this occasion. That individual was John Cockburn, Esq. heritable proprietor of the lands of Ormiston, in the county of Hadding- ton, who descended from a family known long as firm friends to the liberty of the subject, and always disposed to promote every measure which had for its object the improvement of the country. John Cockburn, Esq. of Ormiston, was bom in the year I680, and was the eldest son of Adam Cockburn of Ormiston, justice Clerk of Scot- land during the reigns of King William and C^een Amie. Mr Cockburn, with the estate of Ormiston, inherited a large portion of genuine patriotism, and warmly supported the Hanove- rian succession, considering that family as well disposed to promote constitutional freedom. Du- AGRICULTURE. 57 ring his father's lifetime, he sat as a member of the last Scottish parliament, in which England and Scotland were united under one government, and took an active part in all the proceedings which happily terminated in connecting North and South Britain in the closest bond of union. Afterwards he was successively elected from 1 707 to 1741 to represent the county of Haddington in the British Parliament ; and for many years occupied the office of a Lord of the Admiralty, which, of course, occasioned him to reside much in England, and to become intimately acquaint- ed with the rural practices of our southern neigh- bours. Though the low country districts of Scotland are at this day equally well improved and cultivated as any of the English counties, yet their state was very different at the period under consideration. Lord Karnes, that excel- lent judge of mankind, and sound agriculturist, declares, in strong terms, that the tenantry of Scotland, at the end of the seventeenth and be- gining of the eighteenth century, were so benum- ed with oppression or poverty, that the most able instructor in husbandry would have made no- thing of them, Flttcher of Salion, a contempor rary of Mr Cockburn, describes their situation as JiS HISTORY OF truly deplorable. In fact, many farms remained unoccupied ; even tenants rarely accepted of leases, at least they were shy, and unwilling to ac- cept them for any considerable number of years ; hence improvement of every kind was totally ne- glected, and the general poverty of the tenantry necessarily occasioned landed property to be of little value ; because, while rents were trifling, they were also ill paid, which of course placed many proprietors in something like a state of mendicity. At the begining of last century, the tenantry of Scotland^ those of a few fertile spots excepted, were nearly ruined by the calamitous seasons which had previously occurred. Capital stock was thereby wrested from them, and proprie-r tors, generally speaking, were still too proud, and perhaps too ignorant, to interest themselves about the amelioration of their own domains. The I qualities supposed to compose the character of a feudal chieftain are badly calculated for pro- moting internal improvement ; and it may be re- marked, that feudalism has been gradually un- dermmed, in proportion as improvements have AGRICULTURE. S^ been introduced. Such sentiments seem to have influenced Mr Cockburn ; for all his words, all his actions, were dictated by a spirit which wish- ed to increase the prosperity of the middling and lower ranks. In f.\ct, the middling ranks are the strength and support of every nation. In former times, what we now call the middle classes of Society were not known, or at least little known, in this country ; hence the feudal system reign- ed longer in Scotland than in England. After trade was introduced, and agriculture improved, the feudal system was necessarily overturned, and proprietors, like other men, were estimated ac- cording to their respective merits, without receiv- ing support from the adventitious circumstances under which they were placed. When Mr Cockburn succeeded to the estate of Orn^iston in 1 7 1 i, the art of agriculture was so imperfectly understood, and the condition of the tenantry so reduced, that improvements could not be expected from them unless the strongest encouragement was previously held out. This was done by Mr ockburn, even in his father's lifetime. As Robert Wight, one of the Ormiston tenants, had eany shewn an uncommon spint to 60 HISTOHY OF enter into Mr Cockbum*s views, being probably the first farmer in Scotland who inclosed by ditch and hedge, and planted hedge row trees on his proper charge, he was singled out for favour j and in 1718 received a lease of the Murrays, or Muirhouse farm, of an uncommon long endur- ance. The lease was for 38 years, and the rent L. 750, Scottish money j but upon paying a fine or grassum of L. 1 200 Scots, at the expiration of that term, a renewal of the lease was to be granted for ] Q years more, and so on from 1 Q to 19 years in all time coming. The two subscrib- ing witnesses to this deed were Sir John Inglis of Cramond, Bart, and John Hepburn, Esq. of Humbie, gentlemen invited on the occasion by Mr Cockburn, in order that his example might animate them with the like liberal and patriotic desire to improve the agriculture of their respec- tive properties. Alexander Wight, eldest son of Robert above named, possessed the House of Muir farm by tacit relocation till 17'2i, at which period, agreeable to the plan adopted for encouraging substantial improvements, a lease was granted to him for 38 years, and three lives therein named. AGRICULTURE. fifl This tenant, like his father, having entered warm- ly into Mr Cockburn's measures, got that lease cancelled in 1 7.34, when a new one was granted for 19 years, renewable for every 19 years in all time coming, upon payment of a fine equal to one year*s rent of the premises. These were" leading examples to Scottish landlords, and held out to other tenants of the estate a noble encour- agement to undertake improvements, seeing that their benevolent landlord was so ready to reward them. In this way the foundation of Scottish im- provement was laid, by granting long leases. Many people at this time may think, that such a length of lease was unnecessary, and that the dis- tinguished personage of whom we are speaking, might have accomplished his object, by granting leases of a more limited endurance. We would request such persons to reflect upon the state of the country, and the actual condition of the ten- antry at the period under consideration. We ought not to judge of the propriety of measures then employed, to introduce and encourage im- provement according to the rules of the present day, -when tenants possess knowledge and capital 62 HISTORY OP sufficient for carrying through the most difficult and ardous undertakings. Let it also be remem- bered, that both knowledge and capital were the undoubted result of the ameliorated system then introduced. Mr Cockburn laid the first stone of the system ; his brethren in different quarters assisted in rearing the fabric, though perhaps their aid was not in any instance so munificent. The success which accompanied it, served how- ever, to convince almost the whole landholders of Scotland, that the surest way of extending im- provements was to give the tenantry an interest in their accomplishment. Hence the bond of connection betwixt proprietors and tenants in Scotland is formed upon more liberal principles than prevail in any other country with which we are acquainted. No man in Scotland, at least very few men, will enter to the possession of land unless the security of a lease is previously grant- ed J and proprietors in general are so sensible of the benefit of that tenure, that few of them re- fuse to grant it for such a number of years as both parties may consider best adapted to the system of management meant to be exercised. AGRICULIURE. 6S Notwithstanding that few improvements t\'ere introduced during the seventeenth century, several legislative enactments were then made, which latterly have produced much benefit to agriculture. Independent of the regulation of tythes, a measure of primary importance to hus- bandmen, the laws relative to the inclosing of land, and the division of mixed possessions, may be ranked as peculiarly calculated to excite im- provement, in so far as the trouble of accom- plishing these objects was greatly lessened, whilst precise rules were laid down, by which these im- provements might be carried into effect. In these branches of rural legislation, Scottish practice holds out a judicious pattern for the imitation of our southern neighbours, who are confessedly behind in every one of them, and, in fact, can- not take a single step without the aid of the legis- lature. Want of capital stock was the greatest impediment to Scottish agriculture ; but this was partly removed by the rebellion of 1 745, when vast sums of money were poured into the country; and, since. that period, the hus- bandry of Scotland has progressively improved, in such a manner as to bear comparison, local circumstances considered, with that of any coun- 64) HISTOKY OF try in Europe. Even the legal abrogation of the feudal system, by passing the Jurisdiction Act, was of material adN-antage, in so far as the securi- ty of cultivators was thus increased, and their situation rendered infinitely more indep)endent than in fonner times. Since the conclusion of the American war in 17-^3, improvement has proceeded with singular rapidity in evei'y district ; and while the rental rolls of proprietors have been doubled, tripled, and quadrupled, the condition of the tenantr)', and of the lower ranks, has been ameliorated almost in a proportional degree. These circumstances are sure tokens of agricul- tural prosperity, and demonstrate, in the most forcible terms, that husbandry is a main pillar of the state ; and that the happiness and welfare of the community depends greatly upon the manner in which the art is executed. No nation, whose husbandry is feeble and imperfect, can be regard- ed as really prosperous, however considerable may be the advances made in other arts ; because, when the art of raising food is neglected, all others must ultimately be forsaken. In short, to promote and encourage husbandry, to remove every obstacle that stands in the way of exercis- ing it, and to secure those concerned in carrying / AGRICULTURE. 65 on the art, are duties obligatory upon the govern- ment of every country ; and according as these duties are discharged, so will the wisdom of such a government be estimated by every man who feels for the prosperity of the state, or is atten- tive to the sources from which that prosperity proceeds. Having thus given a concise history of agri- culture, from such materials as were within our reach, we shall proceed to investigate the theory and practice of the art. Strictly speaking, the art 'of agriculture is confined to the cultivation of the earth, and does not include several other branches of work, which appertain to the gene- ral situation of husbandmen ; but it may be pro- per to consider agriculture, in a more exten- sive sense, as embracing every subject connected with rural economy, or which serves to promote or impede agricultural improvement. To culti- vate the soil, in a sufficient manner, is certainly a primary object with the agriculturist ; but other objects equally claim his attention, as by neglect- ing them the primary object may be imperfectly obtained. Vor. L E CHAP. I. ON THE THEORY OF AGRICULTUR£. • Though agriculture Is an art which has been carried on from the earliest ages, by a greater number of people than are concerned in any other, yet, even at this advanced period, the agriculturist may, in some measure, be viewed as remaining without any fixed principles, for governing his mind and regulating his conduct. Instead of re- sorting to practice, and thence forming a satis- factory theory, writers on agriculture have, in numberless instances, amused themselves with- out instructing their readers, by presenting opi- nions purely speculative upon this important subject ; not reflecting, that every kind of theory, which is not built upon extensive practice and E 2 6s ON THE THEORY observation, is preposterous and absurd. Ac- cording to the mode adopted by these gentle- men, hcj who argues most ingeniously, must ne- cessarily be received as coming nearest to the truth, and his doctrine be considered as the stand- ard, till some competitor appears, whose elo- quence is more persuasive, and whose opinions are more plausible. This has been the fate of all speculative opinions, since the earliest ages ; and will continue to be so upon every subject, where no certain data can be found to direct the research of enquirers. For instance, how nu- merous and diversified are the sentiments of the- orists concerning the food of plants ; a subject not to be comprehended by the human mind in its present state, and upon which the wisest of men have done little more than display their pre- sumption and their ignorance. It is a certain fact, that the most acute philosopher can no more ac- count for the germination of a single grain of corn than he can explain the mysterious manner in which he enjoys rational existence. Without, therefore, stopping to enquire, whether fire, or air, or water, or earth, constitute the food of plants, or noticing the numberless hypotheses that have been presented on that abstruse topic, if OF AGRICULTURE. 6'i> may be remarked, that the dullest farmer knows sufficiently, that if he cleans, and drains, and manures his land in a proper manner, it will yield him as good a crop as the soil is constitu- tionally capable of producing, provided physical circumstances, such as heavy rains, excessive droughts, furious winds, and similar evils, do not intervene and prevent nature from performing her usual functions. Allowing, however, for a moment, that we were able to ascertain, which of the above elements constitute the food of plants, the question Cut bono ? still remains to be answered. As we have neither the command of fire, air, or water, nor can order the sun to display his beams, nor the air to blow genial gales, nor the clouds to drop refreshing showers, little benefit would accrue were even the curtain of nature withdrawn, and our eyes allowed to roam at large over a field, which may justly be considered as forbidden to man. Under these impressions, we are disposed to consider disquisi- tions, respecting the food of plants, and even concerning the principles of vegetation, as quite foreign to a treatise on agriculture. The opera- tive farmer could not thereby be benefited in the smallest degree, nor would any part of his prac- E3 . 70 OS THE THEOl;V tice be Illustrated or improved. Perhaps, on the contrary, he might be led out of the right path into the vortex of delusion, and induced to for- sake that system of practice which is sanctioned by experience, and which ought to be his only guide in such disquisitions. NuiM-niisTAXDixG that such. are our senti- ments on what has been erroneously called the theory of agriculture, yet we are inclined to be- heve a degree of certainty is already attained, concerning the real and efficient theory of the art, sufficient either to guide or to determine the con- duct of those engaged in carrying it on. If the earth is enriched by generous manures, or stimu- lated by powerful cordials, as circumstances may require ; if it is laid dry, or drained of superflu- ous water ; if the soil is sufficiently cultivated, and its aboriginal inhabitants, namely (jwcktNs, and other weeds, removed ; and if, in naked and exposed situations, shelter is afforded, by making inclosures, then every thing that man is capable of doing to forward the productive powers of the earth, is completely executed. Here the true tjieory of agriculture is to be found j and a due kuowlcdge of these principles, carried properly OF AGRICULTURE. 71 into execution, distinguishes the good farmer from the bad. In short, the man who is go- verned by these principles, may be considered as possessing more knowledge of the art, than the most scientific agriculturist. The one acts upon principles which never can fail, and which uni- formly lead to the same issue ; the other is guid- ed by no certain principle whatever, but is led by an i^nis Jatuas, whose delusions may draw him into bogs and quagmires, where he may flounder for a while, and at last be ruined and made mi- serable, both in fortune and reputation. The theory of agriculture, which we lay down, is therefore built upon the following fundamen- tal principles ; and with one or other of them every part of rural practice is more or less connected : — First, That the soil ought to be kept dry; or, in other words, free from all super- fluous moisture. Sccondij/, That it ought to be kept clean ; or, in other words, free from noxious weeds. Thirdly, That it ought to be kept rich 5 or, in other words, that every particle of manure, which can be collected, ought to be applied, sd that the soil may be kept in a state capable of yielding good crops. Every person, possessed of a sufficient capital stock, may act according to E 4 72 ON THE THEORY the first and second principles; but it is only where local circumstances are favourable, that the last can be carried completely into effect. No more, however being required of the farmer, than that he shall make the most of his situation, the prin- ciple applies equally to all ; and, in like manner, is equally correct and beneficial in all situations and circumstances. Holding these principles in view, and assum- ing them as the basis of what is meant to be in- culcated, we proceed to illustrate them in a more particular manner. In the first place, the utility, nay, the necessity of keeping land dry, and preserving it from be- ing inundated or flooded with water, is so ob- vious, that few arguments will be required in support of this primary principle. When land is allowed to remain in a state of wetness, which may either be occasioned by spouts, or springs, in the under soil, or by rain-water stagnating on the surface, the earth gets into a sour state, which is afterwards detrimental to the growth of plants j and often, in the first instance, prevents either ploughing or harrowing from being successfully OF AGRICULTURE. 73 effected. Under such circumstances, the young plants, either of corn or grass, get yellow and sickly, and never assume that vigorous thriving aspect, which they maintain upon fields differently circumstanced. Besides, manure has not the same effect when the soil is drowned, or even injured with wetness, as when it is kept dry and free from superfluous moisture. Under- draining is the only method of correcting the evils arising from spouts, or springs, as will af- terwards be more distinctly stated, and digging out the head-iand, and what are provincially call- ed gau-Jurrozr.9, the only preventive against sur- face-water, w^hen heavy falls of rain or snow- storms ensue. In fact, without attention to these important operations, arable land can neither be perfectly managed, nor full crops reaped. Per- haps, the goodness or badness of farm-manage- ment may be as correctly estimated by the atten- tion shewn to drainage, as by any other mark whatever. Where drainage is neglected, a sure proof is furnished that many other branches of the art are imperfectly executed. Unless, there- fore, this branch of rural economy is assiduously attended to, the advantages arising from plough- ing and manuring are only partially obtained. 74 ON' IHE THEORY In the second place, the benefit arising from keeping the land clean is sufficiently discernible. Weeds, whether annual or perennial, may be re- garded as preferable creditors of the soil, who will reap the first advantage of manure, if allowed to remain in possession; their removal, therefore, forms an important object of the husbandman*s attention. "Without detailing, in this place, the most suitable means of removing them, it may be stated, that, according to the degree of suc- cess that follows the means employed, so will the goodness or badness of the husbandman's crop be regulated. If the strength or nutritive powers of the soil be exhausted or drawn forth by weeds, or such plants as the soil naturally produces, it is impossible that artificial plants can prosper. It rarely happens, to be sure, that the aborigines are altogether extirpated ; but upon the smallness of their number depends the return which the soil can make to man, for the labour bestowed upon its cultivation. In the third place, the necessity of restoring to the soil, in the shape of manure, the powers drawn from it by artificial crops, is acknowledged almost by ever)^ person. No doubt, some here- OF AGRICULTURE. 75 tical opinions have, at different times, been broached, concerning the utility of feeding land by generous manures ; but these never had many votaries, and are now become so obsolete, that it would only be a waste of time to notice them. Manure, in fact, is the most powerful agent in the hands of the farmer ; and the attention be- stowed upon collecting, preparing, and applying it, constitutes an important branch of the art which he practises. Perhaps agriculturists are more behind, in the points connected with this third general principle than in the others ; and here the utility of chemical knowledge may, in some respects, be estimated and recognised. These three fundamental principles stand or fall together. Without laying land dry, neither the advantages of good ploughing, nor the bene- fits arising from manure, can be fully obtained. When any of the other principles are neglected, similar defects will necessarily ensue. But when they are all acted upon ; when the land is kept dry, clean, and in good heart, the husbandman may expect a suitable reward for the trouble and expence bestowed on its cultivation. An agri- cultural code of this kind is not only a true one, 76 ON THii THtOliY, kc but has the particular merit of being simple and distinct ; nay, it has an advantage which few creeds possess ; it may be understood by the dull- est capacity. Were it carried into execution, were the operations of farmers regulated by its tenets, were their endeavours constantly directed to keep the lands in their possession dry and clean, and as rich as possible, then the . country would be progressively improved. In a word, these are the fundamental principles of agri- culture, though several other things, such as rotations of crops and the like, may be regarded as minor or inferior objects. All of them, how- ever, are dependent upon the principles already noticed ; because, were the fundamental princi- ples neglected, the minor or dependent ones could never be successfully carried into execu- tion. CHAP. II. ON SOILS. SECT. 1. Soil, strictly speaking, is the ground or earth wherein crops of every kind are produced ; and we notice it in this way, merely to distinguish the surface from the under stratum or subsoil on which the surface is incumbent. The value or worth of that part of the earth, which is the ob- ject of cultivation, depends materially upon the nature of the under stratum ; because, when the latter is close or extremely retentive of moisture, the expence and hazard of cultivating the surface is considerably increased, whilst the growth of plants cultivated upon it is much abridged and impeded, particularly in adverse seasons. The nomenclature of agriculturists, with re- gard to soils, being variable and indistinct, it is a 78 ON SOILS. difficult tasTv to describe them, or to mark witii any degree of accuracy the shades which distin- guish one from another, $o nearly are many of them connected. Generally speaking, the com- ponent parts of soil, whatever may be the colour, are argill, sand, water, and air ; for into these original principles may all earths be -reduced, however blended with apparently foreign sub- stances. Argill is the soft and unctuous part of clay. The primitive earths, argill and sand, con- tain each, perhaps in nearly equal degrees, the food of plants ; but in their union the pui-poses of vegetation are most completely answered. The precise quantities of each necessary to make this union perfect, and whether they ought to be e- qual, it is not very easy nor very material to as- certain, since that point is best determined in practice, when the soil proves to be neither too stiff or adhesive, from the superabundance of clay, nor of too loose and weak a texture, from an over quantity of sand in its composition. The medium is undoubtedly best ; but an excess to- wards adhesion is obviously most safe. A stiff or strong soil holds the water which falls upon it for a long time, and being capable of much ploughing, is naturally well qualified for carrying ON SOILS. 79 the most valuable arable crops. A light soil, or one of a texture feeble and easily broken, is, on the contrary, soon exhausted by aration, and re- quires renovation by grass ; otherwise it cannot be cultivated to advantage. Da W. Dickson, in his excellent treatise on agriculture, says, with much truth, that the soils of this country have .been described under nu- merous heads, and particularised by an useless variety of .vague local terms. According to him, however, they may be considered and character- ised, as far at least as is necessary for practical purposes, under the distinctions of Clayey, Loamy, Chalky, Sandy, Gravelly, and Peaty, or Mossy. Each of these diversities, of course, comprehends several varieties, according to the nature and preponderance of the different sorts of materials of which they are composed. Other writers speak of a soil which they call gardm mould ; but this, being entirely of artifi- cial creation, ought not to be ranked amongst the natural or original soils. 80 ON SOILS. In a work of this kind, it may be proper to aiTange British soils into four different classes, namely clay, sand, gravel, and peat earth ; as to one or other of these classes each of the nume- rous varieties in the British isles is allied, though in many cases the degree of affinity is not easily ascertained. Loam has generally been consider- ed as an original earth, though we are disposed to view it as an artificial soil, produced by calca- reous matters, and animal and vegetable manures. The strongest clay may, in process of time, be converted into a loam, by repeated applications of these substances ; and the richness or freeness of that loam will depend entirely upon the quan- tity of manure with which it has been supplied. Sandy soils may also be converted into light loams, by the application of lime, chalk, marl, and especially clay. Even peat may be convert- ed into a black soft loam, and in various ways rendered fertile and productive. From these cir- cumstances, a degree of confusion prevails respect- ing the nature and properties of soils, which ren- ders the subject more difficult than at first sight might be expected. Even the admixture of sur- face and subsoil, by deep ploughing, creates a change of considerable magnitude. ON SOILS. 81 A CLAY soil, though distinguished by the co- lour which it bears, namely black, white, yellow, and red, differs from all other soils, being tough, wet, ind cold, and consequently requiring a good deal of labour from the husbandman before it can be sufficiently pulverised, or placed in a fit state for bearing artificial crops of corn or grass. Clay land is known by these qualities or proper- ties. It holds water like a cup, and once wetted does not soon dry. In like manner, when tho- roughly dry, it is not soon wetted ; if we except the varieties which have a thin surface, and are the worst of all to manage. In a dry summer, clay cracks, and sTiews a surface full of small chinks, or openings. If ploughed in a wet state, it sticks to the plough like mortar ; and, in a dry summer, the plough turns it up in great clods, scarcely to be broken or separated by the heavi- est roller. Sandy soils next come under consideration. Soils of this description are managed with infi- nitely less trouble, and at an expence greatly in- ferior to what clays require ; but, at the same time, the crops produced from them are general- ly of smaller value. There are many V3(rieties of Vol. J. F 82 ON SOlLb. sand, however, as well as of clay ; and in some parts of the island, the surface is little better than a bare barren sand, wherein artificial plants will not take root, unless a dose of clay or good earth is previously administered. This is not the soil meant by the farmer when he speaks of sands. To speak practically, the soil meant is one where sand is predominant, although there be several other earths in the mixture. From containing a great quantity of sand, these soils are all loose and crumbling, and never get into a clod, even in the driest weather. This is the great article of distinction betwixt sands and sandy loams. A sandy loam, owing to the clay that is in it, does not crumble down, or become loose like a real sand, but retains a degree of adhesion after wet- ness or drought, notwithstanding of the quantity of sand that is mixed with it. Perhaps a true sandy loam, incumbent upon a sound subsoil, is the most valuable of all soils. Upon such, every kind of grain may be raised with advantage, and no soil is better calculated for turnips and grass. The real sands are not favourable to the growth of wheat, unless when preceded by clo- ver, which binds the surface, and confers a tern- ON SOILS. 83 porary strength for susiaining that grain. Much of the county of Norfolk is of this description j and it is well known that few districts of the kingdom yield a greater quantity of produce. Till Norfolk, however, was invigorated by clay and marl, nearly one half of it was little better than waste ; but, by the success which accompa- nied the use of these auxiliaries, a new soil was in a manner created ; which, by a continuation of judicious management, has given a degree of fame to the husbandry of that county, far sur- passing that of other districts naturally more fer- tile* We have now to speak of gravelly soils. The open porous nature of these soils disposes them to imbibe moisture, and to part with it with great facility ; from the latter of which circumstances they are subject to burn, as it is termed, in dry seasons. The main difference between gravel and sand is this, that the former is chiefly com- posed of small soft stones ; though, in some in- stances, the stones are of the silicious or flinty nature, and in others of the calcareous and chal- ky. From these constitutional circumstances arises the propriety of deepening gravelly soils by F 2 84 ON SOILS. coats of marl or earth, and of keeping them fresh by frequent returns of grass, and repeated appli- cations of manure. Gravelly soils, from the lightness of their texture, are not expensive or difficult in the means of cultivation. All the ne- cessaiy business required for gravels may be car- ried forward with ease and expedition ; and such soils are, in general, soon brought into a propei' state for the reception of crops. Fkom what is said respecting gravels, it will appear, that naturally they are barren, unless when mixed with other earths ; and that the sur- face of most of them would exhibit the same ap- pearance as the subsoil, or what is beyond the reach of the plough, were it not changed and me- liorated by vegetable matters. The constitutional qualities of gravels also point out the propriety of ploughing them deep, so that the surface soil may be augmented, and greater room given to the growth of the plants cultivated on them. A shallow-ploughed gravel can stand no excess of weather, however enriched by manure. It is burnt up by a day or two of drought, and it is al- most equally injured by an excessive fall of rain, unless the pan or firm bottom, which such soils ON SOILS. ' 85 easily gain, be frequently broken through by deep ploughing. According to an old adage, the top of clay, and bottom of gravel, are best ; but though we cannot subscribe to the first part of the adage, being satisfied that deep ploughing is highly beneficial, except where the subsoil is of a poisonous nature, we are certain that the lat- ter is well founded, and ought never to be over- looked. Peat earth, or moss, is the next kind of soil which we have to treat of ; though we are uncer- tain whether, like loam and garden mould, it ought not to be viewed as an artificial soil, made and produced by certain substances deposited on the surface of the earth, and not one originally created, or to be found in the early ages. On these points philosophers are much at variance ; and the discordant opinions entertained by them, induce us to think, that veiy little real knowledge of the nature and properties of moss has hitherto been acquired. By one we are told that peat is a primitive earth, of antediluvian origin ; by an- other, that it is a vegetable, which grows and in- creases, and may continue to increase, till it swal- lows up and destroys all other soils ; by another, F 3 86 ON SOILS. that it consists of ligneous and aquatic plants, brought into action by the destruction of exten- sive forests, which abounded in Europe in former times ; these forests having been either destroy- ed by the Romans, or by tempests, or having fal- len into decay from natural causes. We are much inclined to adopt this last hypothesis, as it seems supported by the appearance which peat moss presents ; by facts which may be gathered from the history of Britain ; and, in particular, by the state and condition of the very places where peat moss is now the predominant soil. It is truly wonderful that so little is known on a subject of so much importance, not only to the prosperity of Britain, but even to that of the world ; and, on these accounts, our observations shall be extended to a greater length than at first sight may seem to be necessary. The natural history of peat moss is one of the most interesting and important branches of sci- ence. Whether we consider the vast extent of surface covered with that substance, or the eco- nomical purposes to which it has been, or may be, converted, the subject must rise high in the estimation of every enlightened mind. ON soiils. 87 It seems strange to us that geologists and na tural historians have paid so little attention to the origin and qualities of that substance. Among all the variety of opinions and theories that have been suggested, it is truly surprising that, in an age of science and enlightened enquiry, there should be such a discordance ; and it is still more surprising, that in no age nor language have we heard of or seen a scientific or satisfactory ac- count of the subject. To state the vast variety of hypothesis that have been formed, or to elu- cidate the subject ourselves, is not our province. We are happy, however, to learn that some gen- tlemen have of late turned their attention to it ; and we flatter ourselves that the attention of the public, and especially of scientific men, will there- by be arrested, and their talents called forth and turned to this subject, hitherto much neglected and little known. If those authors succeed thus far, they must do an essential service to their country. Even though they should fail in fully elucidating all the branches of such an extended enquir)^, the very attempt to do so claims the gra- titude of the public. F4 88 ON SOILS. The Rev. Dr Rennie, Kilsyth, one of our friends, and for whose sentiments we entertain great respect, has already thrown some Hght on the subject; and we are happy to learn that he is still engaged in these researches. We have seen the outlines of the whole work which he propo- ses to publish. We have likewise perused his two first essays ; and as we are persuaded that he gives a most ample detail of facts in illustration of the hypothesis he has adopted, wecamiot but recom- mend these essays to the attention of the public^ Without adopting that hypothesis ourselves, or pledging ourselves for the correctness of it, we cannot refrain from giving a short glance at the outlines he has filled up with such labour and so much research. The general jet of his theory is, that ligneous and aquatic plants have furnish- ed the materials of all*the mosses in the world. His first essay is entirely devoted to the for- mer, and the second to the latter. The amount of the first essay is, that forests abounded in the north of Europe iiOOO years ago ; that these fo- rests have fallen into decay at different periods, and by different means -, that the detritus or ruins ON SOILS. 89 of these forests, namely, the leaves, seeds, twigs, bark, rind, roots, and trunks, of the im- mense trees which abounded in them, have laid the foundation of, and furnished materials for, the formation of most mosses in Europe ; and that according to his calculations, these materials are sufficient. To establish this point, he proi eeeds to obviate the various objections that have been made to this hypothesis. In doing so, he displays considerable acquaintance with geology in general, and still more with the natural histo- ry of peat moss in particular. To give a detailed account of the facts he brings forward, or to follow him through all his variety of argument would be utterly inconsistent with our general plan. To appreciate these the reader must consult the essays for himself. The second essay appears to us still more sa- tisfactory ; and seems to be altogether an origi- nal work ; at least, we have perused no author who has exhibited the subject in this point of view. The following statement may serve as a short glance of the general plan of this part of the work. He begins, by shewing that moss is of- 50 ON SOILS. ten renovated when dug; and, in certain circum- stances, with great rapidity ;— points out what is requisite for this purpose ; — the period of time required ; — and the plants that^ tend to promote this process. From the facts which he adduces in corroboration of these points, he concludes, and attempts to prove that the same plants have contributed to the original formation and subse- quent increase of peat moss ; — that by these ma- ny lakes have been filled up and converted into mosses ; and, as a proof of this, that these plants may be traced in a distinct organised form at all depths. And he very properly introduces a sec- tion, in which he points out the distinguishing qualities of these aquatic plants. Upon a general survey of the subject, he draws the following conclusion, — that all moss is of ve- ge«^able origin, and that it consists of a congeries of ligneous or aquatic plants, or of both; that the surface on which moss now lies has undergone a variety of changes during the lapse of time ;-- that moss rapidly increases in some situations ; and that the deepest mosses in the world may not l^e of very ancient origin. ON SOILS. 91 Taking it for granted that peat moss is a con- geries of vegetable matter, it will, on this suppo- sition, be reasonable to conclude, that this vege- table matter has undergone certain chemical changes, and that it must differ essentially from the recent vegetables of which it is composed. What these precise changes are we pretend not to say. This is the province of the chemist and natural historian ; — and we trust and hope that the essays of Dr Rennie will elucidate the sub- ject. It appears to us, however, that moisture or stagnant water is absolutely necessary to accom- plish these changes. It appears, likewise, requi- site that the water should be of a low tempera- ture, and possessed of certain chemical qualities, distinct from rain or river water. For, if a mass of vegetable matter were kept dry, or even ex- posed to a current of water, it would not be con- verted into moss but vegetable mould j or, if this water were of a high temperature, or exposed to any great alternations of heat and cold, in this case also no moss could be formed. In short, we are of opinion that the same circumstances are requisite to the formation of moss as Dr 92 ON SOILS. Rennie, in his second essay, states to be neces- sary for the renovation of that substance. Upon the whole, it appears to us certain, that moss is composed of the same original materials with the richest vegetable mould ; and that the difference which subsists between these two substances, de- pends entirely upon the medium in which these materials have been immersed. The same vege- tables which are converted into mould, in the medium of the atmosphere, would hav^ under- gone different changes when immersed in water of the above qualities ; in other words, they would have been converted into moss. To point out the chemical agents which ope- rate in each of these media, and the changes thereby produced, and to describe the precise process of nature by which moss is formed, might be a curious, useful, and important task; and pro- bably till this is accomplished, we will still grope in the dark as to the natural history of that most singular substance. On this subject, however, we do not enter. It may be of more importance to ascertain and describe the peculiar qualities of peat moss, ON SOILS. 93 which distinguish it from vegetable mould, sup- posing them to be formed of similar materials. This subject is much less intricate ; and to most of our readers may appear to be of ihore general importance. It is obvious, at first sight, that inflammability forms one of these distinguishing qualities. That a piece of moss, of the same dimensions and in the same state of dryness is much more inflam- matory than a similar piece of mould cannot be doubted. That some mosses are highly inflam- mable cannot be denied ; and it is asserted by some writers that others are so very inflammable as to catch fire by lightning, or even of their own accord, and burn with irresistible fury. This quality, and especially the very high de- gree of it, is deemed by some unaccountable and inconsistent with the hypothesis, that all moss is of vegetable origin. To suppose that a branch of a tree, or any other vegetable, should possess a greater degree of inflammability than in their recent state, and that too by being immersed in water for ages, appears to some an hypothesis so 94 ON SOILS. supereminently extravagant, that it needs only to be pointed out to be reprobated. It is the province of the natural historian to obviate this objection and account for this seem- ing inconsistency. It belongs to us only to men- tion the fact, that of all vegetable matter moss is the most inflammable. The antisceptic quality of that substance de- serves likewise to be noticed. That vegetable and animal matter is preserved in moss in an en- tire organised state for ages, without undergoing the putrid fermentation, is so well attested that we cannot possibly doubt of the fact. We have heard of innumerable instances of the bones and even fleshy parts of animals being found in this state, and cannot but consider this as a singular quality in peat moss ; for the same substances immersed at an equal depth in vegetable mould, for a much shorter period, uniformly undergo putrefaction, and become so blended with the soil that, excepting the bones and harder parts, they can scarcely be distinguished from the sur- rounding mass in which they lie. eN SOILS. Qj It might be a curious, and even useful, sub- ject of investigation to ascertain the causes of this distinguishing quahty. As far as we know, this has never hitherto been attempted. Perhaps it might throw much light both on the natural his- tory of that substance, and on the mode of con- verting it into a soil or manure, or other econo- mical purposes. It would, however, require a distinct chemical treatise on the subject to eluci- date this point. This we do not profess to offer, though we cannot dismiss the subject without re- commending it to the particular attention of those who profess to treat of moss. As to the colour of peat moss, It is somewhat peculiar ; but whether it can be considered as a distinguishing quality, we do not pretend to say. Suffice it only to observe, that the colour of all moss water is not only nearly the samt, but it differs from vegetable mould considerably, and more especially in this one respect, that it com- municates its own colour to vegetable matter im- mersed in it much more readily than vegetable mould; To ascertain the causes of this, and of the varied tinge of different mosses, in all their gra- dations from a fairer colour to that of a jet black. 96 ON SOILS. is not our object It might, however, be of es- sential consequence to the public, more especi- ally as it is well known that, in certain cases, moss waters have been used with great economy for dyeing differe?it colours, on all varieties of matter, such as linen, woollen, wood, and ivory. If this be well attested, and if the causes could be ascertained on clear chemical principles, means might be devised for converting that sub- stance to an important commercial purpose. The tenacity of peat moss is another distin- guishing quality which claims our attention. When peat is newly dug it is a soft plastic inasSf and partly soluble in water ; but, when dried, it becomes a hard elastic substance, almost utterly insoluble in water, which is not the case with ve- getable mould. It may be difficult to account for this ; but it is of essential importance, whe- ther moss be considered as a soil or a manure. Its sterility or fertility, in either case, ^may prob- ably depend much on this very circumstance. At all events, its insolubility in water, when thus dried, ought to be accounted for, and the causes of it clearly explained ; for we hesitate not to say ON SOILS. P7 that, while it continues in this state, it cannot o- perate either as a soil or a manure. Acidity is another quality of all peat. It can- not indeed be said to be a disting\iishing one ; for many stiff clays, which are vulgarly, though very properly, called sour lands, are possessed of the same. It is not the case, however, with all clay lands j whereas every moss, and of every species, discovers this, either on distillation,, or by the application of chemical tests. How to account for this we do not pretend to say ; but, in as far as moss may be considered as capable of being converted either into a soil or manure, it is certainly of the last importance to ascertain this fact, and the causes of it. There is another quality which distinguishes moss and moss water from other soils or substan- ces that seem to be homogeneous in their origin. While insects of all kinds and worms, &c. exist or abound in vegetable mould near the surface ; and while all kinds of fishes abound in running or stagnant water in every other case, neither the one nor the other can be traced in moss, or stagnant moss water, unless there is a copious Vol. I. G 98 ON SOILS. supply of fresh running or spring water. This U one of the most curious and interesting qualities of that substance. It would require the talents of an accurate chemist or natural historian to detect the causes of this distinguishing quality. In all likelihood this might throw much light on the last, and by far the most important quality of peat moss, which distinguishes it }}io.st essai- tiallij from vegetable mould ; we mean, Its sterility ik its natural state. While vege- table mould forms the richest oF all soils, and furnishes even a manure for other soils, moss, in its natural state, may be said to be the most barren of all. If it were possible to ascertain with certainty the causes of this distinction, it would be one of the most important discoveries that science itself has made ; and the man who does so would deserve well of his country ; for if once the disease was ascertained, and the causes of it clearly pointed out, the remedy might be found and applied with absolute certainty of suc- cess. Hitherto the attempt has scarcely been made; and we have but faint hopes of success in the arduous and important undertaking. With- out such a discovery, however, all attempts to ON SOILS. 99 x:onvert moss into a soil or manure must at best be hazardous and uncertain. We may stumble by accident on the proper remedy ; but acciden- tal discoveries, without knowing the principles on which they proceed, must be unsatisfactory at best. It appears to us demonstrable that dif- ferent mosses require different treatment, and that no one general mode of improving them Can apply to all. SECT. II. On the Uses to which each Soil may be most ad- vantageously applied. Clay soils, when sufficiently enriched with manure, are naturally well qualified for carrying^ crops of wheat, oats, beans, and clover ; but are not fitted for barley, turnips, potatoes, &c. or even for being kept under grass longer than one year. Perhaps such soils ought to be regularly summer-fallowed once in six, or at the most once in eight years, even when they are comparatively in a clean state, as they contract a sourness and adhesion from wet ploughing, only to be re* Q £ ' 100 ox SOILS. moved by exposure to the sun and wind during the months of summer. Soils of this kind receive little benefit from winter ploughing, unless so far as their surface is thereby presented to the frost, which mellows and reduces them in a manner infinitely superior to what could be accomplished by all the operations of man. Still they are not cleaned or made free of weeds by winter plough- ing ; therefore this operation can only be consi- dered as a good mean for procuring a seed-bed, in which the seeds of the future crop may be safely deposited. Hence the necessity of clean- ing clay soils during the summer months, and of having always a part of every clay farm under summer fallow. All clay soils require great in- dustry and care, as well as a considerable portion of knowledge and experience in the mode of ma- naging and dressing them, so as they may be kept in good condition ; yet when their natural toughness is got the better of, they always yield the heaviest and most abundant crops. One thing requisite for a clay soil, is to keep it rich and full of ma- nure ; a poor clay being the most ungrateful .of all soils, and hardly capable of repaying the ex- pence of labour, when worn out and exhausted. A. clay soil also receives, comparatively, small be- ON SOILS. 101 nefit from grass ; and, when allowed to get into a sterile condition, the most active endeavours of the husbandman will be required to restore it to fertility. Upon light soils the case is very different. These flourish under the grass husbandry ; and bare summer fallow is rarely required, because they may be cleaned and cropped in the same year, with that valuable esculent, turnip. Upon light soils, however, wheat can seldom be exten- sively cultivated ; nor can a crop be obtained of equal value, either in respect of quantity or qua- lity, as on clay and loams. The best method of procuring wheats on light lands, is to sow upon a clover stubble, when the soil has got an artifi- cial solidity of body, and is thereby rendered capable of sustaining this grain till it arrives at maturity. The same observation applies to soils of a gravelly nature ; and upon both, barley is generally found of as great benefit as wheat. The facility with which every variety of light soil may be cultivated, furnishes great encouragement to keep such under the plough, though it rarely happens, that when more than one-half of them G 3 102 ON SOILS. is kept under aration, the possessors are greatly benefited. Thin clays, and peat earths, are more friendly to the growth of oats than of other grains, though in favourable seasons a heavy crop of wheat may be obtained from a thin clay soil, when it has been completely summer-fallowed, and enriched with dung. A first application of calcareous manure is generally accompanied with great advantage upon these soils ; but when once the effect of this application is over, it can hardly be repeated a second time with advantage, unless the land has been very cautiously managed after the first dressing. Neither of these soils arc friendly to grass, yet there is a necessity of exer- cising this husbandry with them, because with- out it they are incapable of standing the plough more than a year or two in the course of a rota- tion. When we come to that branch of our work which treats of cropping, we shall notice these matters at greater length ; but in this place ii may be sufficient to say, that wheat ought to be the predominant crop upon all the rich clays and strong loams, and that light soils of every kind are best qualified for turnips, barley, &c. ON SOILS. 103 Upon thin and moorish soils, oats must necessa- rily preserve a prominent rank ; and grass seeds may be cultivated upon every one of them, though with different degrees of advantage, ac- cording to the natural and artificial richness of each soil, or to the qualities which it possesses for encouraging the growth of clover, in the first in- stance, and preserving the roots of the plant after- wards. Though many mosses are of small value, yet some of them, particularly those incumbent upon clay and alluvial subsoils, when the surface is removed, may be cultivated with the greatest ad- vantage. The Kincardine moss, between the riv- ers Forth and Teeth, in Perthshire, mostly be- longing to Mr Home DauMMONDof Blair Drum- mond, is the most striking instance within our knowlege of the great improvement that may be made by a removal of moss l^nd, which in this instance was fully seven feet deep upon an aver- age. It is presumed that this immense field of moss was produced by cutting down the trees which occupied the ground in former times ; and as these trees had not been carried off, it is not difficult to account for the several processes G 4 104 ON SOILS. which afterwards took place before the moss was completely formed. The moss is composed of different vegetables arranged in three distinct strata. Of these the first is three feet thick. It is black and heavy, preferable to the others for the purpose of fuel, and consists of bent grass (agroa/isjy which seems to have grown up luxuriantly among the trees after they were felled. The second stratum is also three feet thick. It is compulsed of various kinds of mosses, but principally of bog moss (sphagniun). It is of a sallow or iron colour, and remarkably elastic. It is commonly called white peat, and for fuel is considered as much inferior to that above mentioned. The third stra- tum is composed of heath and a little bent grass, but chiefly of the deciduous parts of the former. It is about a foot thick, and black. Three strata of different vegetables lying a- bove each other, the limits of each distinctly marked, and each distinguished by a different co- lour, is certainly a curious natural phenomenon. ON SOILS. 105 An inquiry will here occur, what has occa- sioned this succession in the vegetables of which the moss is composed ? Every vegetable has a particular soil, more or less moist, pecuHarly adapted to its nature. Let a piece of ground be in a moist state, rushes will introduce themselves ; drain the ground suf- ficiently, the rushes will disappear, and finer ve- getables will succeed. It seems reasonable to ac- count for the succession of the different plants that compose the moss on similar principles. Let us imagine an extensive plain covered with trees lying in all directions, full of branch- es, and possibly loaded with leaves. This, it is evident, would produce a great stagnation of wa- ter, which, as the crops of bent grass accumulated would still increase : and the probability is, that at length it had so increased, as to be the cause why the bent grass and other congenial plants of the first stratum ceased to grow. But it is evi- dent that a plant was to be found that could live in such a situation. Accordingly we see that bog moss had established itself j a plant that loves even to swim in water. 106 ON SOIL9. When' the accuniulation of bent grass and the mosses had, in process of time, arisen to the height of six feet above the surrounding carse ground, the water that fell upon the surface had by that means an opportunity to discharge itseU. It has accordingly formed many channels which are often three feet deep ; and the immediate surface being wholly turned into little hillocs, has become dry and firm. By this means it be- came unfit for mosses, and heath succeeded. Such seems to have been the process of what is now called a moss. In the year 17^6, Lord Kaajes entered into possession of the estate of Blair Drummond. Long before that period he was well acquainted with the moss, and often lamented that no at- tempt had ever been made to turn it to advan- tage. Many different plans were now proposed ; at length it was resolved to attempt, by means of water, as the most powerful agent, entirely to sweep off the whole body of moss. That moss might be floated in water was a- -bundantly obvious j but to find water in suffi- ON SOILS. 107 cient quantity was difficult, the only stream at hand being employed to turn a corn mill. Con- vinced of the superior importance of dedicating this stream to the purpose of floating off the moss, Lord Kames having made an agreement with the tenant who farmed the mill, and the tenants thirled consenting to pay the rent, he immedi- ately threw down the mill, and applied the water to the above purpose. In order to determine the best manner of con- ducting the operation, workmen were now em- ployed for a considerable time upon the low moss, both by the day and by the piece, to as- certain the expence for which a given quantity of moss could be removed. It was then agreed to operate at a certain rate per acre ; and in this manner several acres were removed. Bu T this was found to be a very expensive pro- cess. The ground gained might, indeed, be after- wards let to the tenants; but every acre would re- quire an expenditure from L. 1^ to L. 1.3 before it could be ready for sowing ; so that the acquisi- laon of the whole, computing it at a medium to 108 ON SOILS. be 1350 acres, would sink a capital of nearly L.20,000 Sterling. One other method still remained, namely, to attempt letting portions of the moss as it lay for a term of years sufficient to indemnify tenants for the expences incurred in removing it. For some time both these plans were adopted ; but several reasons made the latter preferable. 1. The quantity of water to be had was small ; and being also uncertain, it was very inconvenient for an undertaker ; neither were there any houses near the spot, which occasioned a great loss of time in going and coming : but when a man should live upon the spot, then he could be ready to seize every opportunity. i>. The moss was an useless waste. To let it to tenants would in- crease the population of the estate, and afford to a number of industrious people the means of making to themselves a comfortable livelihood. In the mean time, it was determined, till as many tenants should be got as could occupy the whole water, to carry on the work by means of undertakers. ON SOILS. 109 But, before proceeding farther, it will be ne- cessary to describe the manner of applying water to the purpose of floating the moss. A STREAM of water sufficient to turn a com- mon corn mill will carry off as much moss as 20 men can throw into it, provided they be station- ed at the distance of lOO yards from each other. The first step is to make in the clay, along side , of the moss, a drain to convey the water : and for this operation the carse clay below the moss is peculiarly favourable, being perfectly free from stones, and all other extraneous substances, and, at the same time, when moist, slippery as soap : so that not only is it easily dug, but its lubricity greatly facilitates the progress of the water when loaded with moss. The dimensions proper for the grain are found to be two feet for the breadth, and the same for the depth. If smaller, it could not conveniently receive the spadefuls of moss ; if larger, the water would escape, leaving the moss behiiul. The drain has an inclination of one foot in 100 yards. The more regularly this inclination is observed throughout, the less will the moss be liable to obstructions in its pro- gress with the water. The drain being formed. ilO ON SOILS. the operator marks off, to a convenient extent a- long side of it, a section of moss 1 < ) feet broad j the greatest distance from which he can heave his spadeful into the drain. This he repeatedly does till the entire mass be removed down to the clay. He then digs a new drain at the foot of the moss-bank, turns the water into it, and pro- ceeds as before, leaving the moss to pursue its course into the river Forth, a receptacle equally convenient and capacious ; upon the fortunate situation of which, happily forming for several miles the southern boundary of the estate, with- out the interposition of any neighbouring propri- etor, depended the very existence of the whole operations. When the moss is entirely removed, the clay is found to be incumbered with the roots of dif- ferent kinds of trees standing in it as they grew, often very large. Their trunks are also frequently found lying beside them. All these are removed by the tenants, often v^ith great la- bour. In the course of their oj>erations they purposely leave upon the clay a stratum of moss six inches thick. This, in spring, when the sea- son offers, they reduce to ashes, which in a great ON SOILS. . ill measure ensures the first crop. The ground thus cleared is turned over, where the dryness admits, with a plough, and, where too soft, with a spade. A month's exposure to the sun, wind, and frost, reduces the clay to powder, fitting it for the seed in March and April. A crop of oats is the first, which seldom fails of .being plentiful, yielding from eight to ten bolls after one. In the year \767, an agreement was made with one tenant for a portion of the low moss. This, as being the first step towards the intended plan, was then viewed as a considerable acqui- sition. The same terms agreed upon with this tenant have ever since been observed with all the rest. They are as follow ; The tenant holds eight acres of moss by a tack of 38 years ; he is allowed a proper quantity of timber, and two bolls of oat meal to support him while employed in rearing a house ; the first se- ven years he pays no rent ; the eighth year he pays one merk Scots ; the ninth year two merks ; and so on, with the addition of one merk yearly till the end of the first nineteen years ; during 112 ON SOILS. the last five years of which he also pays a hen yearly. Upon the commencement of the second nineteen years he begins to pay a yearly rent of ] ..s. for each acre of land cleared from moss, and 2s. 6d. for each acre not cleared, also two hens yearly ; a low rent indeed for so fine a soil ; but no more than a proper reward for his laborious exertions in acquiring it. In the year ]7Sr7, Mr Drummond entered into possession of the estate of Blair Drummond, and went fully into the plan adopted by his predeces- sor for subduing the moss. At this time there still remained undisposed of about 1 000 acres of high" moss. As water was the greatest desidera- tum, it was determined that, to obtain that ne- cessary article, neither pains nor expence should be wanting. Steps were accordingly taken to ascertain in what manner it might be procured to most advantage. As the introduction of an additional stream to the moss was to be a work both of nicety and ex- pence, it was necessary to proceed with caution. For this reason sev.,ral engineers were employed to make surveys and plans of the different modes ON SOILS. 113 by which it might be procured. In one point they all agreed, that the proper source for fur- nishing that supply was the river Teith ; a large and copious stream that passes within a mile of the moss ; but various modes were proposed for effecting that purpose. To carry a stream from the river by a cut or canal into the moss was found to be impracti- cable ; and Mr Whitworth gave in a plan of a pumping machine, which he was of opinion would answer the purpose extremely well. Soon- after this, Mr George Meikle then at Alloa, a very skilful and ingenious mill-wright, gave in a model of a wheel for raising water en- tirely of a new construction, of his own and his father's invention jointly.' This machine is so ex- ceeding simple, and acts in a manner so easy, na- tural, and uniform, that a common observer is apt to undervalue the invention : But persons skilled in mechanics view machinery with a very different eye ; for to them simplicity is the first recommendation a machine can possess. Accord- ingly, upon seeing the model set to work, Mr Whitworth, with that candour and liberality of Vol. I. H ] J4 * ON SOIL^. niind that generally accompany genius and know- ledge, not only gave it the greatest praise, but declared that, for the purpose required, it \\'as superior to the machine recommended by him- self, and advised it to be adapted without hesita- tion. In consequence of Mr Whitworth's advice, a contract was entered into with Mr Meikle in Spring 1787 ; and by the end of October in that year, the wheel, pipes, and aqueduct were all completely finished: and what, in so complex and extensive an undertaking, is by no means common, the different branches of the work were so completely executed, and so happily ad- justed to each other, that upon trial the effect answered the most sanguine expectations. The total exceeded L. 1000 Sterling. It was a remark often made, even by persons of some observation, that by collecting together such a number of people, Kincardine would be over-stocked ; and the consequence would be their becoming a, burden on the parish; for as the bulk of them were labourers not bred to any trade, and possessed of Uttle stock, it was foreseen ON SOILS. 115 that, for some time, they could not afford to confine themselves solely to the moss, from which the return must be slow ; but behoved, for immediate subsistence, to work for daily hire. Happily these predictions have proved entirely groundless ; for such is the growing demand for hands in this country, that not only do the whole of these people find empjoyment whenever they choose to look for it, but their wages have been yearly increasing from the time of their first esta- blishment. In short, they have proved to the corner where they are set down a most useful nursery of labourers ; and those very farmers who, at first, so strongly opposed their settlement, now fly to them as a sure resource for every pur- pose of agriculture. Still they consider the moss operations as their principal business ; none pay them so well j and when they do leave it to earn a little money, they return with cheerfulness to their proper employment. Many of them already raise from ten to sixty bolls of grain, and have- no occasion to go off to other work, which will soon be the case with the whole. Their origi- nal stock, indeed, did not often exceed L. S5. and some had not even L. 10; but v/hat was wanting in stock is compensated by industry. II 2 116 ON SOILS. Though moss work be laborious, it is at the same time amusing. The operator moves the moss five feet only at a medium ; and the water, like carts in other cases carrying it oflF as fast as it is thro^vn in, excites him to activity. Still he must submit to be wet from morning to night. But habit reconciles him to this inconvenience ; while his house and arable land fill his eye and cheer his mind. Nor is it found that the health of the inhabitants is in the smallest degree in- jured either by the nature of the work or the vi^ cinity of the moss. The quantity of moss that one man can move in a day is surprising ; when he meets with no . interruption, seldom less than 48 cubic yards, each weighing 90 stones. The weight, then, of moss moved per day is no less than. 4320 stones. A cubic yard is moved into the water, and of course carried into the river Forth for one far- thing. It follows that the cxpence of moving 48 cubic yards is one shilling. But the same quantity moved to the same distance by carts would cost 24 shillings. Hence the advantage derived from the possibility of floating moss in o>r SOILS. ] 17 U*ater, arid the great importance of having water for that purpose. The moss, when contrasted with the rich lands surrounding, appeared, especially before the im- • provements, a very dreary spot ; one wide un- varied wild, totally Unproductive, unfit even to furnish sustenance to any animal, except here and there a few wretched straggling sheep. Be- sides, it entirely cut off all connection betwixt tlie farms or either side, amongst which no in- tercourse was practicable but by a circuit of se- veral miles. An- excellent gravelled road re, it merits and would obtain thanks from the great council of the nation were internal improvements not erk- tirely disregarded and foreign services alone con- sidered worthy of public notice. On the whole the liberal and judicious con- duct of Mr Home Drummond upon all occasions entitles him to the greatest praise. Last year he expended upwards of two hundred pounds in making roads and other useful works in the moss, and we understand will this year expend a still greater sum on such purposes. This outlay is perfectly gratuitous on his part, as he has al- ready performed every condition incumbent on him by the leases, and looks for no other retribu- tion except what arises from the pleasure of wit- nessing the increasing prosperity of the colony. The first settlers had leases for 19 years only. o:j soils. 121 during which (except a small number settled on a thin part of the moss) they paid little or no rent. Afterwards a second term of 19 years was added, during which they pay 12s. per acre for every acre cleared. But as the great object was to insure the annihilation of the moss, a few years ago, as a further incitement, a third 19 years was added, during which the settlers^ are bound to pay one guinea per acre for every acre in their possession ; and there is not a doubt but that the whole will be cleared before the commencement of that period. It is well known that if the clear- ed land was out of lease, it would let with ease at three guineas per acre j therefore the liberal system adopted by Mr Drummond stands in no need of demonstration. Some other agriculturists have attempted to improve the surface of moss land, and to con- vert it into fruitful soil by diverse ingenious plans, though we are humbly of opinipn that no method can be so effectual and profitable, especially where the moss is incumbent upon rich clay or alluvial soil, as the one adopted by Lord Kames and perserved in by his son Mr 'Drummond. We understand that the late Mr Erskine of Car- 122 ox so Ls. dross, proprietor of near three thousand acres of the great moss called Moss Flandtrs, which is all incumbent upon a bed of carse clay, attempt- ed for some years to improve the surface of a part of it, and with success, good crops of oats and beans being thereupon produced. Notwith- standing of this, we are informed that his son, the present proprietor, after a further trial, is com- pletely tired of that mode of improvement ; and has in contemplation to adopt a plan similar to the one successfully practised on Kincardine moss w^hich we have already elucidated. Indeed, though a field of thin moss may be satisfactorily improved by surface operations, it strikes us that thick fields can only be successfully brought into cultivation by the radical process of remoAing the surface, or at least the greatest part thereof, and that the removal cannot be accomplished in a cheaper and more effectual way than we have already recommended. CHAP. III. ox THE SYSTE3I OF FARMING PRACTISED IN GREAT BRITAIX. SECT. I, On the /Indent State of Farming in Great Britain. In fonner times, when agriculture was little understood, and still worse executed, the ground was chiefly cultivated on account of the proprie- tors, by persons retained in their service, who enjoyed or received a certain part of the produce, as a reward for their labour, and for supporting the stock employed in its cultivation. A system of this kind, it is believed, prevailed less or more over all Europe for many centuries, but was 124 SYSTEM OF FARMIXG gradually abandoned, as cultivators gathered stock of their own, and were enabled to rent land from the actual proprietors. This rent, in. the first instance, consisted chiefly of sen'ices, something similar to what prevails in many parts of the highlands and isles of Scotland at this day ; it was afterwards changed into the payment of a certain quantity of grain, or articles of produce, as agreed upon between the parties ; and finall}-', as improvements were introduced, and the circu- lating medium became more plentiful, rent was changed into a money payment ; a mode of set- tling that matter, now generally practised, and certainly more convenient and agreeable than any other, both for proprietor and tenant. From this statement it must be obvious, that the size ofTarms, in the first instance, would be small and confined, while the condition of the tenant would be abject and poof. A tenant just emancipated from a state of bondage and villein* age, could not easily throw off the chains which formerly shackled his mind, and prevented his natural independence from coming into action ; hence many generations passed away before ten- ants were capable of asserting their just and law- IN GREAT BRITAIN. 125 ful 'rio-hts, or even before they found out that a single right appertained to them independent of the will of their landlords. This is so well known to have been the ancient state of British tenants, that there is no need of enlarging upon it. They were obliged to follow their chief into the field when called upon, or they were remov- ed from his estate. In fact, before 1449? no tenant in Scotland was secure of possession, as, upon the entrance of a new proprietor, he could be effectually removed without the formality of law ; security being obtainable only by the most slavish and implicit obedience. The general si- tuation of the tenantry, under these circum- stances, may be easily conceived ; and it is~ won- derful that the country attained such a degree of improvement, when the condition of those by whom it was to be carried on, was so abject and miserable. Exceptions, however, must be made ; and these were numerous amongst the tenants of church lands, who were treated much more kindly and affectionately than their brethren, who occupied the lands of the barons. It de- serves also to be noticed, that the general state of Scotland under the Scoro-Saxon kings, as already mentioned, was comparatively peaceable. 126 SYSTEM OF FARMING and that the people were allowed to remain at home, employed in their domestic occupations ; and were rarely called out to meet a foreign inr vader, or to repel the attacks of a domestic ene- my. These circumstances, however, were chang- ed after the decease of Alexander III. the last of the Scoto-Saxon kings. During a period not shorter than seventy years, the country, with little cessation, was engaged in the most cruel wars, which put a stop to every kind of internal improvement, and disposed the people to the practice of rapine and plunder, instead of an honest and industrious life. Nor did the termi- nation of the succession wars, and the establish- ment of the Stuart family on the throne, restore domestic tranquillity. The different chiefs, act- ing somewhat like rival monarchs, destroyed and wasted the domains of each other with fire and sword; and their tenantry, obliged to assist them in these ravages, were exposed in their turn to similar treatment from their antagonists. In Such circumstances, husbandry could not flourish ; nor could those engaged in it be either prosper- ous or happy. In fact, internal peace was not restored, even in the low country districts, till near the end of the iGth century, when James IN GREAT BRITAIX. 127 VI, was firmly seated on the throne, and when law assumed its just controul over the inhabi- tants. In England, the situation of affairs was scarcely- more flourishing. Till the end of the 15th cen- tury, or the reign of Henry Vll. our sister king- dom had continued in a state either of domestic or foreign warfare ; during which the tenantry were called into the field at the pleasure of their respective chiefs, and exposed to death and de- struction, without having any real interest in the quarrels in which they engaged. The tenantry of England, however, were better off than those in Scotland, because civil disturbances did not prevail so.often, nor was their country invaded and ravaged, as Scotland repeatedly was, during the reigns of the three first Edwards. It was only the northern counties of England that were exposed to the partial inroads of the Scotch, and these were the most barren and uncultivated of the whole ; whereas the best parts of Scotland, lying nearest to the enemy, always suffered most, whilst the northern and uncultivated districts genereUly escaped. JW 128 SYSTEM OF FARMING Under these adverse circumstances, husban- dry, which of all arts is the one most exposed to the destroying hand of an enemy, could not prosper, nor could those who practised it advance far either in political or moral improvement. Farms con- tinued to be of small size, and perhaps were pre- served in that state, so as the number of follow- ers might be increased as much as possible. The introduction of summer fallow into Scotland, at so late a period as the end of the 17th century, furnishes a strong proof that agriculture long re- mained in a neglected state in that countr}'. SECT. II. Causes of the Superior it y of British Faniwig^ British farming, though far from being per- fect, may be considered as much superior to that of the continent. This superiority arises from the more general security of property j from the IN GREAT BRITAIN. 129 beneficial natute of the tenures under which land is occupied ; from the greater diffusion of wealth among agriculturists ; from the partial use of ma- chinery, and the general attention paid to the con- struction of implements for agricultural opera- tions ; from the education bestowed upon agri- culturists ; from the intimate union betwixt grass and corn husbandry, by which both are greatly benefited ; and from the goodness and steadiness of markets, where the several articles of pro- duce are converted into money. Each of these causes has assisted in promoting British farming, though in different degrees, according as they have been brought into action, or in proportion to the force with which they operated. The first, fourth, and last, are general causes, whose effects are alike beneficial in every situation ; but the others are affected by local circumstances, and vary considerably in different districts, especially in South and North Britain. We shall enlarge a little upon these causes of superiority, and illus- trate their effects in promoting the husbandry of Great Britain. In the Jit'st place, the security given to pro- perty through the whole of the British empire, Vol. r. I J30 SySTtM OF FARMING ensures to every man the complete possession of what his industry acquires, with the exception of that proportion of it which is necessarily taken for the protection and defence of the empire. When mankind are subject to arbitrary exactions, and their property is wrested from them at the 'pleasure of another, industry never can flourish. Under such circumstances, labour may be exert- ed to a degree sufficient to procure the necessa- ries of Hfe, but it rarely goes farther. In Britain, however, every man may be said to possess the full fruits of his industry and exertion, and may use and appropriate these fruits in any manner he thinks fit, provided it is not injurious to his neigh- bour, or the welfare of the community of which he is a member. In the .second place, the tenures under which land is occupied, are favourable to improvement. Here we are well aware, thdt a general extension of the leasehold system would contribute much to the prosperity of agriculture ; because, where leases are withheld, a strong encouragement is manifestly wanting. On this point, however, we shall not now insist ; though it deserves attention, that to the tenure of holding by lease, may be IN GREAT BRITAIN. 131 attributed the striking and manifold improve- ments accomplished by British tenantry. Their exertions are stimulated by the conviction that they are improving for themselves, and that none can step between them and the proposed benefit, so long as they act agreeably to the obligations of the tenure, in virtue of which they have pos- session for a limited term. Leases have long been more prevalent in Scotland than in Eng- land ; and to this prevalence may be imputed the superiority of improvements discernible in the former country. One hundred years ago, Eng- land was in every respect the better cultivated country, though in modem times the husbandry of Scotland has advanced with such rapidity, as now to equal that of England, local circumstan- ces considered. The leasehold tenure has of late been discouraged in England, and the tenan- try forced to trust to the generosity of the pro- prietors. According to our principles, a mani. fest obstruction to improvement is thereby cre- ated ; because the most implicit confidence does not furnish security equal to that conferred by a lease. Allowing that confidence may be safely reposed in the honour of the existing proprietor, what is to become of the tenant in the event of I 2 131 SYSTEM OF TARMIXG his decease, when the estate goes into other hands ? Here honour does not interfere, and the occupier may be turned from his farm, without any violation of that sacred principle. In the t/uni place, the general diffusion of wealth in Great Britain is of vast importance to the art of husbandry. It is an old saying, though not the less true on that account, that the poor farmer is always a bad one. Though w ealth does not necessarily cause the farmer to excel in pro- ' fessional practice, yet without it the most scien- tific knowledge must be in a great measure use- less and unavailing. The British farmer being therefore in general cases better supplied with capital stock than farmers on the continent, he is enabled to exceed their exertions both in the execution of old practices, and in searching after new ones. In the fourth place, the partial use of machi- nery, and the general attention paid to the con- struction of implements for executing agricultu- ral work, are circumstances of infinite advantage to British farming. Machines for thrashing grain from the straw, whereby the separation is more IN GREAT BRlTAiy. 133 Completely performed than by hand-labour, or any other method, are now become very com- mon ; whilst fanners, for dressing the grain, are in the possession of almost every farmer. Ma- chinery for breaking or grinding grain for horse food is likewise erected on the majority of great farms. But the general attention shewn to the construction of the other implements used in car- rying on the operations of husbandry, such as ploughs, harrows, drills, rollers, carts, waggons, and the like, is of incalculable benefit to British farming ; and enables those who carry it on to execute every branch of work in the most perfect and profitable manner. With respect to these ne- cessary implements, perhaps no country in the world furnishes tradesmen, or artificers capable of constructing them, with greater dexterity, and at so small an expence as those of Britain. With respect to thrashing machines, the remark is par- ticularly appropriate ; those erected on the con. tinent being in every respect defective in strength, and incapable of executing, at the same expence, and with the same effect, the important work of separating corn from the straw ; one which hus- bandmen in all ages have considered as the most arduous one connected with their profession, 13 134 SVhlE.M OP FARMING Even the general conveniency of farm build- ings, and the comfortable accommodation pro- vided almost in every situation, not only for the husbandman, but also for his servants and live- stock, furnish great encouragement to British, farming. When we see a country naked and bare, from want of inclosures ; when we notice farm-bouses small, badly constructed, and imper- fectly finished ; when we observe the other build- ings mean, irregular, and unfit for the reception of live-stock ; very little consideration is requir- ed to ascertain the existing state of husbandry in a district or country to which such a descrip- tion is applicable. Generally speaking, under such circumstances, agriculture will always be found defective, while the condition of the hus- bandman, and those dependant on him, will like- wise be found poor and uncomfortable. The British farmer, however, is rarely unprovided with suitable accommodation for himself, his ser- vants, and his live-stock, and thus enjoying suf- ficient encouragement to execute the duties of his profession. Exceptions there are to this rule, and these exceptions will, in the nature of things, remain in some degree j but they do not invali- date the truth of what wc are inculcating, name- IN GREAT BRITAIN. 135 ly, that British farming is greatly supported by the comfortable and substantial buildings gene- rally erected for the accommodation of those en- gaged in that profession. In the /if tk place, the great body of cultivators in Great Britain, whose farms are of any consi- derable extent, have generally received a suitable education, by which their minds are enlarged ; animated with a desire to improve their condi- tion in the world, and rendered equally quick to perceive, and ready to adopt, such improvements as may occasionally be proposed. In former times it was objected, that farmers were an obsti- nate and bigotted class of men, averse to every kind of innovation upon estabhshed practice, and persisting in ancient systems, even after their de- ficiency and inutihty had been ascertained in the most decisive manner. Whatever truth there might formerly be in the objection, its force is now completely removed j there being no set of men whatever more open to conviction, or more wiUing to adopt new practices, than British far- mers of the present day. This change of dispo- sition has been accomplished by a general circu- lation of agricultural knowledge, since the na- I4 13() SYSILM OF FARMING tional Board of Agriculture was established ; by numerous periodical publications upon rural eco- nomy ; and by that increase of wealth which flowed from the exertions of the farmer, and which naturally stimulated a search after new improvements. According to the measure of at- tention bestowed upon the education of farmers, it may be expected that improvement will here- after advance. A man of uncultivated mind may hold a plough, or drive a harrow, in a suf- ficient manner ; but he will seldom introduce an improvement, or be the means of effecting any change in the established system of rural econo- my. In the sirth place, the intimate connection betwixt grass and corn husbandry has been of high advantage to British farming. This union is closer in Britain than in any country in Europe, Flanders excepted, and might still be more firmly cemented, were alternate husbandry brought into general practice. This cannot happen, however, in many districts of England, till all land be held in severalty, and the range of old pastures and meadows be subjected to the plough. There is little appearance at present of these beneficial IN GREAT BRITAIN. 13/ alterations being soon adopted, though few argu- ments are required to prove, that numerous ad- vantages would follow, were alternate husbandry generally introduced. The kinds of land on which alternate husban- dry cannot be exercised under present circum- stances, were the occupiers ever so willing to adopt it, are, 1^^, what is called Common Field, where property is mixed ; and, 2r/, what is called Waste Common, where the subsoil belongs to the lord of the manor, and the surface to a class of people having servitude upon it. According to the common field tenure, no new practice can be introduced, unless with the approbation of every one concerned ; and it would be saying too much for the good sense of mankind, to reckon upon such a degree of unanimity in a single instance. As for the waste land, it is condemned to steri- lity, by the laws of the country supporting a mode of tenure inconsistent with national prospe- rity. Various attempts have been made by the Board of Agriculture, to procure a law for regu- lating a general division of common and waste land, though, from the clashing of various in- terests, unfortunately without success. The ad- 138 SVSTEM OF JFAKMINt; vantages which would follow a law of this kind are so numerous, that a wise legislature would rather cut a knot that cannot be loosened, than suffer the nation to remain without such advan- tages. When a question of this nature is under dis- cussion, the proper way of arguing it is to en- quire, whether the holding of land in commonty, or severalty, is most conducive to the public good ? or, in other words, whether the ground is most productive under the one tenure or the other ? It is the improvement of the country which we ought to have in view, aild not the augmentation of individual property ; and, even supposing that private rights may be partially in- jured, yet if a general division of these common fields and wastes will increase the quantity of com or live stock, the interest of the country is thereby promoted. Now, as no land can be im- proved when lying in commonty, it follows, that putting it in that state which allows the proprie- tor tx> cultivate and manure it as he pleases, must be a necessary measure, and that the object justly deserves the most serious attention of the legisla- ture. IN GREAT BRITAIN. 139 In the last place, the goodness and steadiness of markets in Britain, for disposing of the articles of" produce raised by the British farmer, may be mentioned as a principal mean of securing the superiority of our husbandry over that of other nations. We need hardly employ a single minute in illustrating this position, because its truth is abundantly manifest. No trade can prosper when its articles are not in demand ; or, more properly speaking, when the market demand for the article to be vended is inferior to the quantity offered for sale. With respect to the articlcx^ produced by the British farmer, the demand ge- nerally equals, and often exceeds the quantity which he rears ; he has every encouragement to increase the quantity of his produce, as it may be instantly disposed of at market for money, without lying upon his hands, or giving him un- necessary trouble. Hence a degree of encourage- ment is given to British farmers, far exceeding what is enjoyed by those of the continent, where prices are not only more unsteady, but where a regular demand is also wanting for the produc- tions ©f the agriculturist. 140 SYSTEM OF FARMING Fro3I these considerations it will in some measure appear, that the British farmer is placed in a preferable situation to that of his brethren on the continent. Foreigners, who visit this country, are often puzzled to assign reasons for the superiority of British farming, when compar- ed with that of other countries. They one and all acknowledge, that greater energy is displayed by the British farmer ; that the land is better ploughed ; that it is more regularly and syste- matically cultivated ; that the crops raised are heavier, and apparently more productive ; and in short, that the agriculturist appears in a more elevated situation than with them ; but of the causes which occasion the difference betwixt Bri* tish and foreign agriculture, they at the same time candidly acknowledge themselves totally ignorant. We have stated these causes, there* fore, in a cursory manner; and are confident that the difference might still be rendered wider, were the obstacles to the improvement of British husbandry, hitherto slightly noticed, completely done away, or gradually diminished. SIZE OF FARMS. 141 SECT. in. On the Size of Farms. Where farming is carried on as a separate profession, and those engaged in it are provided with an ample capital stock, it is plain that a farm ought to be of such a size as to furnish re- gular employment, not only to the master farm- er, but also to servants of every description kept on the premises, so that the greatest possible re- turn iTiay be made to their labour, and at the least possible expence. The immense advantages of a regular division of labour, in the process of manufactures, ha§ been long well understood ; but it is only of late that it was thought practi- cable to extend these advantages to the business of agriculture. Formerly, the man who held the; plough wrought with the sickle in harvest, and wielded the flail through the winter season. At one time he cut grass with the scythe, and at another digged ditches with the spade ; putting his hand to every branch of labour, while his horses cooled their heels in the stable, or ranged 142 SIZE OF FARMS. , the scanty pastures in search of food. This is u just representation of the ploughman's avocations in former times ; and it is only of late that his labour has been more correctly arranged. He is now limited to his proper department ; and in all well regulated farms, servants are • provided for executing other branches of work, by which means the charge of labour is not only lessened, but the several processes are executed with greater perfection than was practicable under the ancient system. From these preliminary remarks, it will be discovered, that a farm must necessarily be of considerable extent before the benefits arising from a division of labour can be fully obtained. Upon a farm comparatively small, these advan- tages, under the best arrangement, can only be partially gained, because regular employment cannot be furnished to any servant except the ploughman; labour, therefore, cannot be suit- ably divided, or even executed, at the same ex- pence as if the concern were of a more extensive nature. In this point of view, the public interest seems benefited by large farms, though theorists have long contended that such should be ex- SIZE OF FARMS. 143 pressly prohibited by legislative enactments. The opinion which we have formed on this question differs from that entertained by these gentlemen ; and being founded on practical principles, may be of use, when this important question comes under consideration. We are not advocates for monopoly ; though convinced, that an extensive farm, provided the capital stock, and abilities of the occupier, are adequate, operates not only as a spur to activity and diligence, but may be ma-» naged at less expence, and in a more perfect way, than is practicable, were the same quantity of ground divided into a number of small farms. The justness of these opinions may appear from the following considerations. An improved system of husbandry requires, that the farm upon which it is to be carried on should be of some extent, otherwise room is not aiforded for the different crops necessary to complete a perfect rotation of management. The farmer,, who practises husbandry upon proper principles, should not only have his fields under all sorts of grain, but likewise a sufficient quantity of grass and winter crops, for maintaining his stock of cattle and sheep through all the different seasons 144 hIZE OF FAH.MS. of the year. By laying out land in this style, the economy of a farm is so regulated, that while improvements progressively go forward, too much work does not occur at one time, nor oc- casion for idleness at another. When the ex- pences of farm culture are so extravagant as at present, this deserves particular attention ; but cannot, in the nature of things, be justly and ac- curately arranged, where the farm is of small size. It has surprised us lo observe many persons taking it for granted, that, by increasing the size of a farm you necessarily decrease the number of the people ; without considering that, if the ma- nagement is equal in evei'y respect, the popula- tion must be exactly the same, with the excep- tion of one or two farmer's families. They tell you that cottages are pulled down ; whereas the large farmer has occasion for more cottages than the small farmer, as he cannot keep so many house servants, and is often under the necessity of building new houses, in order that the num- ber of servants he keeps may be accommodated. An attentive observer \^dll smile at the doleful pictures often exhibited by such alarmists, which. RENTING OF FARMS. 145 to do them justice, are not original ones, as they have been borrowed from former times. In a word, wherever work, is carried on, it must be done by employing hands ; and wherever work is executed in the most perfect manner, the great- est number of hands must be employed. If the system carried on upon the premises is improved, the population must of course be increased ; the one is the cause, the other is the effect, and prac- tice and daily experience justify these conclu- sions. SECT. IV. On Hiring or Renting a Farm. Thf: farmer, who wishes to hire or rent a farm, should, upon such an occasion, call forth all his abiHties. He should equally attend to the disad- vantages, and to the advantages of the farm, that he may be able to draw a balance, and com- pare that balance with the rent demanded. Let Vol. I. K 146 RENTING OF FARMS. him remember, that he must equally discard a too solicitous prudence, which doubts every be- nefit, and a too daring courage, which overlooks or lessens every evil. It must be obvious to almost every person^ that common farmers often lose themselves in de- liberating concerning a farm. They have sa many mistaken rules of judging, that they often reject farms that soon after make the fortunes of those who rent them. In particular, they arc very apt to take one false guide, — the success of the last tenant. If a man makes a good deal of money upon a farm, or leaves it for a much larger one, numbers will immediately apply, al- most without viewing it ; but, if a tenant fails, most of the neighbours take it for granted, with- out further consideration, that the farm is a bad one. They attribute all to the land, and avoid It, under an idea that, without a reduction of rent, the farm cannot be a profitable concern. These notions are absurd in the extreme ; for the management of vaiious farmers is so essentially different, that success often depends very httle on rent. A farmer, with a proper sum of money in his pocket, hires a farm, and thrives upon it j RENTING OF FARMS. 147 Another, with a hundred pounds less, hires it, and starves. Suppose two farmers of the Same substance, and living upon similar fai'ms : one manages his land with judgment and spirit ; makes all the manure he can ; sells no hay or straw ; does not injudiciously crop his land ; drains his fields, and keeps his fences in good or- der. This man grows rich. The other, a sloven iu these particulars, dwindles into poverty. These are the circumstances that make the one man rich, and the other poor ; and surely it must be apparent, that those who judge of the value of land by the success of others, take as false a cri- terion as they can possibly fix upon. Let the farmer who is debating whether he should hire a farm that is offered him, examine the soil well, that he may be enabled to deter- mine its nature, with respect to stiffness, mois- ture, exposure, levelness, slope, stoniness, &c. Let him estimate the expence of draining, ma- nuring, and fencing, that will be required : let him take into consideration the roads, distance of markets, prices of commodities, labour, &c. The compactness of the farm, and the situation of the homtstead, should also be well considered. One K 2 148 RENTIXG OF FARMS. general rule, in hiring a farm, should never be forgotten : The farmer should, if possible, fix upon good land, and he can scarcely pay too much for it ; but, for poor land, the least rent is often too high. By good land, however, we are not to understand that which has the command of lasting manures, as marl, &c. ; neither are we to consider lands as unprofitable which pass un- der the denomination of uaste, for such, though uncultivated, are often of the richest quality. These are considerations of great importance. It may also be added, that the mellow, rich, crumbling clays, or rather clayey loams, are of all soils the most profitable. Regard such as best which will admit of being ploughed soon af- ter rain, and do not cake on hot gleams of sun coming soon after : lands of that quality are of the greatest value, and will be preferred by every judicious husbandman. Another consideration of great importance is, not to take a farm that may require more mo- ney to stock it well than the farmer is in posses- sion of. Farmers are usually very eager after quantity j the certain consequence of which is. RENTING OF FARMS. 149 a slovenly system of management. Let any one consider the difference between good and bad husbandry in all its branches. The one is a cer- tain loss ; the other a certain gain. A profitable and proper use of natural manures, as lime, &c. can only be made by those farmers who have money at command. In the neighbourhood of great cities and towns, a variety of manures are to be had, and in some places at a reasonable price ; but, without the command of money, how are these to be obtained ? As in land, so in manures, quality is to be considered above quantity ; but this is a distinc- tion that many farmers are unable to make, and yet it is a thing of the utmost importance. Ani- mals require food of a good quality, and reject that which is bad ; but vegetables, being of a passive nature, can only show their dishke by a feeble and unhealthy appearance when growing. Let the farmer ever hold in remembrance, that manure is the life and soul of husbandry ; therefore those who know best how to prepare it, and afterwards how to apply it, can scarcely K 3 150 OCCUPATION OF THE SOIL. fail of being successful in any situation, unless th^ land is over-rented. SECT. V. On the Occupation of the Soil. The portion of land in Britain kept in the hands of proprietors is comparatively very small, ninety-nine parts out of a hundred at least being demised by lease or agreement to tenants for a greater or lesser number of years, under certain conditions or prestations, which govern their ma- nagement, and ascertain the terms under which possession is to be held during the years agreed upon. This is a wise system for proprietors to act upon, because, without the aid of the tenant- ry, it is morally and physically impracticable to procure a suitable return from their estates, or even to have them cuhivated or improved to an extent in any measure adequate to their natural OCCUPATION OF THE SOIL. 151 value. There are exceptions, however, to this ' rule, but they are not numerous. We have seen some proprietors improve lands in their possession as well as could have been done by the most correct farmer, though perhaps at a greater expence. This must necessarily happen from the latter being always at the head of af- fairs, whereas the other must depute the ma- nagement to a bailiff or steward, whose interest is not materially concerned in the issue. Agriculture in Britain is therefore carried on by farmers, who rent the land on such terms as can be agreed upon, and, in most cases, upon a lease of longer or shorter duration, as is cus- tomary upon the estate, or agreeable to the wishes of the proprietor. Generally speaking, the length of a lease is from ] Q to 21 years, at least in North Britain. In some cases it is not so long ; but it is evident that, when land is in an unim- proved condition, a greater number of years is necessary to excite the tenant to make improve- ments, because he cannot otherwise have time to reap the fruits of his labours. The value of land, for the last twenty years, has increased so rapidly, that most proprietors are averse to grant a long K4 ' 152 OCCUPATION OF THE SOIL. lease, though it is demonstrable that, by shortenr ing the period, the permanent interest of the proj>erty will not be advanced. A greater or less number of restrictive covenants are usually in- serted in leases, many of them undoubtedly de- trimental to the tenant, without being of the slightest benefit to the proprietor. When leases are from year to year, or the tenant is remove- able upon six months warning, a practice very frequent in England, strict covenants may be ne- cessary ; because the tenant, having no more than an annual interest in the premises, might be led to sacrifice every principle of good husband- ry, and to ruin the ground committed to his ma- nagement ; but where the lease is for 1 9 or 21 years, covenants pf any kind, except the one re- lative to annual rent, seem altogether useless, un- less in so far as relates to the four last years, when the interest of the parties may clash or in- terfere. Even then, nothing more is necessary than covenants respecting grass and fallow, houses and fences ; for, in the other years, the interest of the tenant is a stronger motive to the performance of duty than the most express writ- ten obligations. OCCUPATION OF THE SOIL. 153 The growing of corn may be considered as the chief object of British farmers ; though, in many of the inland districts, the grazing system is more extensively followed, and little grain cul- tivated, except what is required for the consump- tion of the neighbouring inhabitants. Perhaps the most perfect system of husbandry is that which conjoins the corn and grazing trade, usu- ally called the alternate husbandry, where two culmiferous crops do not follow in rotation, but grass, or one or other of the leguminous varie- ties, succeed each corn crop. If this system be diligently exercised, it is not a matter of much importance what varieties either of culmiferous or leguminous articles are cultivated, because the soil may be equally benefited ; though local cir- cumstances may render it for the interest of the tenant to cultivate one kind in preference to an- other. The alternate husbandry prevails more in Britain than in any part of Europe, Flanders excepted, and is rapidly spreading in every dis- trict. In fact, a system of that nature is emi- nently beneficial to every soil, and most advanta- geous for the tenant, though the crops to be cul- tivated depend entirely upon soil and climate. These vary so much in Britain, as to preclude 154 OCCUPATION OF THE SOIL. didactic rules concerning the crops which may be most profitably cultivated ; but, where the soil and climate are favourable, and manure is at the command of the tenant, wheat always forms a prominent article of British culture. So much of the soil, however, is of inferior quality, and the climate in many districts so unfavourable to the growth of that grain, as to render the culture of oats in many cases more beneficial. Wheat is indeed now cultivated in Britain to an extent al- most equal to the consumption of the inhabitants, notwithstanding the general predilection for bread made from that grain, which furnishes a good reason for bringing waste ground scattered, up and down the island into immediate cultivation. Without adopting a measure of this nature, the country cannot be furnished with a regular sup» ply of grain without the aid of foreign nations ; and this aid, under existing circumstances, must be viewed, not only as precarious and uncertain, but as placing the country in a state of depend- ence, which every considerate person must cer- tainly deprecate. Notwithstanding all the advantages which are enjoyed, perfect husbandry is not to be looked OCCUPATION OF THE SOU.. ^55 for in Great Britain, unless leases are more ge* nerally granted, and a-greater degree of' liberty allowed to the tenant, than hitherto enjoyed un- der the customary covenants. Perhaps the lease- hold tenure is more frequent in Britain, and dis- cretionary management more prevalent than in other countries. To these things, and the secu- rity afforded to property by a vi^ise system of laws, may the superiority of British husbandry be chiefly attributed. Several other advantages have been noticed in a former section, and the whole connected together are eminently beneficial to the prosperity of the state. A wise economist would, however, study to increase these advanta- ges. To do away every obstacle in the road of improvement, would by him be considered as an important service to the community. The art of agriculture has been viewed as the parent whence jill others spring ; therefore the more the parent art is improved, so much more encouragement will be afforded to the increase of th-i inferior ones. This island has already derived numerous advantages from the increased attention shewn to the improvement of its agriculture ; and it is to be hoped this attention will continue to in- crease, thereby furnishing a constant aid to na- 156 OCCUPATION OF THB SOIL. tional prosperity. The decline of agriculture would be the surest symptom of national ruin. Britain hitherto has matched any part of the world in a knowlege of the arts, and in the prac- tice of trade and nKinufactures. The origin of that knowledge, and the source of these practi- ces, may, in some measure, be traced to the im- provement of its agriculture. This art forms the basis or foundation on which all others are rear- ed ; and as it is more perfect in Britain than in other countries, commerce and manufactures have risen to proportional excellence. CHAP. IV. ON THE SYSTEM OF CONNECTION BETWIXT PROPRIETORS AND TENANTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. The bond of connection between proprietors and tenants, or the nature of the system which connects these two classes together, is of much more importance to the cause of agriculture than many of our writers on rural economy seem to imagine. In fact, the moral excitement, or de- gree of encouragement given to the tenant for improving the ground which he occupies, is re- gulated entirely by the terms or conditions of the J58 ON LEASES, lease under which he holds possession. If the conditions be liberal and judicious, and accom- modated to the soil and situation of the land thereby demised to the tenant, all that is obliga- tory upon the proprietor is faithfully discharged. But, when matters are otherwise, when the ten- ant possesses under a short lease ; when the cove- nants or obligations are severe in the first in- stance, and ultimately of little avail towards for- warding improvement, it may reasonably be in- ferred, that the connection is improperly consti- tuted, and that little benefit will thence follow either to the public, or to the parties concerned* SECT. I. Oji Leases. Holding land under lease is a very ancient tenure in Britain, though the obligations of that instrument have varied and altered materially ON LEASES. l^g since the tenure was first established. We have ah'eady, in a cursory manner, pointed out the uti- lity of leases, and described the ancient state of the agriculturists of this country. We consider- ed the original cultivators as persons who ma- naged the ground in behalf of the proprietors, and to whom a certain proportion of the produce was allotted for the maintenance of themselves and those under them. They possessed no stock, of their own, but acted merely as servants of the proprietors, who furnished the means by which cultivation was carried on, and they were liable for the value of stock put into their hands, and the remainder of their produce after their own allow- ance and the expence of management were de- frayed. This view of the husbandman's situa- tion in ancient times, accords with the accounts given of it by the late Lord Kames, an authority of no small consideration, and indeed is analog- ous with the state of property and society at the time, and quite consistent with the records trans- mitted to us. His Lordship says, that " land* were originally occupied by bondmen, who were the property of the landlord, and consequently not capable to hold any property of their own } but, such persons, who had no interest to be ia- 160 ON LEASES. dustrious, and who were under no compulsion when not under the eye of their master, were generally lazy, and always careless. Ihis made it eligible to have a free man to manage the farm, who, probably, at first got some acres set apart to him for his maintenance and wages. But this not being a sufficient spur to industry, it was found a salutary measure to assume this man as a partner, by communicating to him a proportion of the product, in place of wages, by which he came to manage for his own interest as well as that of his master. The next step had still a better effect, entitling the master to a yearly quantity certain, ^id the overplus to remain with the ser- vant. By this contract, the benefit of the ser- vant's industry accrued wholly to himself, and his indolence or ignorance hurt himself alone. One further step was necessary to bring the con- tract to its due perfection, which was to give the servant a lease for years, without which he could not be secure that his industry would turn to his own profit. By a contract in these terms, he ac- quired the name of tenant, because he was en- titled to hold the possession for years certain." ON LEASES. 1^1 Landed property in this country was held on very slight security till the reigns of the Scoto- Saxon monarchs of Scotland ; since which pro- perty has been possessed nearly under the same tenures, thougli not under the same burdens, as at this day. But though the possession of pro- perty may be considered as uniformly held under the crown, vet the situation of those who bore the heat and burden of the day, those who la- boured the ground and made it productive, was vastly dissimilar. Originally there was no de- scription of property in the country, except the soil and the animals reared upon it ; therefore, when the soil was portioned out and allocated amongst those to whom the sovereign was pleas- ed to grant it, the remainder of the people, left unprovided, were to all intents and purposes en- tirely dependent upon those on whom land had been bestowed ; because, from the situation of the country at the time, no other resource or mej^ns of support was to be found. The pro- prietors who obtained grants of land from the crown, conveyed part of it to their principal de- pendents, as feudatories or vassals ; and from the circumstances of charter and seisin being taken upon these conveyances, it has been supposed Vol. I. L 162 ON LEASES. that leasehold was a tenure of very ancient date* There is reason, however, to assert, that leases were unknown, at least in Seotland, till the clergy obtained landed possessions ; and that the like tenure was afterwards extended to the tenants of the lay proprietors, as the country increased in wealth, and as the circumstances and condition of the actual cultivators were improved and me- liorated. Not sooner than 1449, however, was any tenant secure of possession, though the clauses of his lease were ever so strong ; nor was he secured against the claims of the proprie- tor's creditors till twenty years afterwards, viz.. \4i69, in the reign of James IIL (a monarch who received a character from many historians which he did not deserve), when an act passed freeing the tenant from all claims exceeding the actual rents due by him. In England, the tenant seems to have remained longer in an insecure and pre- carious state than even in Scotland ;, for till the act 20th Henry VUI. was passed, any tenant might be ejected by the form of process, called a common recovery. From these circumstances, the degraded condition of cultivators or farmers in ancient times will easily be ascertained ; and from what will afterwards appear, their condi- ON LEASES. ^ 163 tioil does not seem to be so much improved as imperiously called for upon principles calculated to promote the public interest. The prosperity of the state is at all times intimately connected with the successful cultivation of the soil, and the increase of agricultural produce ; every cir- cumstance, therefore, prejudicial to the one, is necessarily prejudicial to the other. ViEVi^iNG farmers as standing in the condition of proprietors, and exposed to the same difficul- ties that would occur to the latter, were the cul- tivation of the ground to be canied on at their risk and expence, we muist consider every unne- cessary hardship imposed upon them, and every obstruction thrown in the way of spirited culti- vation, as tending for the time to lessen the real value of the property, and as injurious to the in- terest of the statCi If a certain number of years must elapse before the best concerted plan can be carried fully into execution ; and if another number of years must expire before the fruits of that plan can be reaped or obtained, then it would appear that the proprietor, who either ob- stinately refuses to let his land upon lease, or to grant to the tenant such a lease as shall ensure L 2 164 ON LEASES. him a reasonable term of possession for reaping the fmits of improvement, must be considered not only as highly culpable, but guilty of a kind of high treason against the prosperity of the state. On the other hand, proprietors who grant leases, and include in them covenants or obligations that obstruct the operations of the farmer, or, which is the same thing, prevent him from raising the greatest possible quantity of produce for the use of the community, must also be regarded as ene- mies c^ the public welfare. If agriculture is a main pillar of the state, every measure tending to injure or reduce its strength, must be considered as hostile to the community, and deserving of the severest censure and reprobation. Before a farm can be put in proper order, a considerable time must elapse, and much money must be expended. The fruits of improvements cannot be gained all at once, and a number of years are required to accomplish the best digest- ed plan. Suppose, for instance, a person enter- ing to a farm worn out and exhausted by long and successive tillage, and that he wishes to re- fresh the land by laying it down in grass j it will be six years at least before he can go over it all ON LEASES. 16.5 with fallow ;. and unless he sow it down clean, he is neither doing the land nor himself justice. If he continues it in grass five or six years more, which is little enough time for ground so ex- hausted, it will be found that near twenty years must elapse before he can receive the reward of his improved cultivatiofi ; and to receive this re- ward, he has a claim both from his superior ma- nagement, and as an incitement to his future in- dustry : but what security has he for this reward, or what incentive has he to industry, if he sits upon the premises by virtue of an annual agree- ment ? In the midst of his career, he may be in- terrupted by a sir months learning, and the toil of his hands, and the fruits of his improvements, be transferred to another. These are not ima- ginary apprehensions, but are founded upon real and solid principles j and will operate less or more upon every farmer, according to his situa- tion ^nd circumstances. Many cases of a similar nature might be put j but from the above we hope it will appear, that, bisfore any substantial improvements can be ex- pected from the farmer, he must have the securi- ty of a lease, for affording him time to reap the L3 166 ON LEASES, fruits of these improvements. There is, in the course of farming, as much often laid out in one year, as many succeeding crops can repay • ; in this case, where the farmer has a lease, he looks to a future period for being reimbursed : if he has none, can it ever be expected that ^ny man • Wo may give one instance to corroborate what is here said. A farmer of our acquaintance had an acre of rich mossy raeaduw ground, which was totally untit for plough- ing, and scarcely capable of carrying a beast in tht- driest sunnner months. In order to make it cro[» with the rest of the field, he drained it completely; and as, from the strength of the roots of the bcfbage, it would not plough to advan- tage, he digged the whole of it with th^; spade. After taking a crop of corn he summer fallowed and linicd the ground. The cxpenccs were. Casting drains, - - - L. 4 15 0 Gathering stones, driving them, and filling up the drains, - - - 3 IS 0 Digging the ground, which, from the strength of the roots, was a severe operation, 4 10 U Lime and carriage, - - — 0' 0 0 Total ex pence, L. 21 3 0 Query, Would the farmer have improved this meadow with out a lease ? ON LEASES. 167 of common sense will throw away his money by improving another person's estate, and cast him- self upon the mercy and discretion of his land- lord for time and opportunity to gain it back again ? The farmer who would do this, is not guided by those principles which influence the rest of mankind. Without insisting further in favour of leases, it may only be added, that this salutary tenure prevails almost through the whole of Scotland, and perhaps in one half of England. If it is true, as stated by Mr Arthur Young, " That the im- p?vvemenls, which have taken place in Englajul^ have been almost always oicing to the custojn of granting leases, and that, in those counties, where it is unusual to grant the?n, agriculture continues fuuch inferior to what it is to he found where they are usual^' the question concerning their utility is at end ; and the culpability of every proprietor who refuses to invest his tenant with such a security, is completely ascertained. The proprietor who acts in such a way not only lessens the value of his estate, in the first instance, but ultimately injures the interests of the communi- ty, in so far as the improvement of agriculture is L4 16'8 ox LEASES. thereby retarded. The subject is of such im. portance as to deserve the attention of the legisla- ture. Assuredly no object is more worthy of notice from the guardians of the state, than one which effects its vital interests ; and though a commendable delicacy prevails against any inter- ference with the management of private property, yet there are certain bounds within which that delicacy ought to be confined, and beyond which the conduct of proprietors should be investigated and restricted. Those who persist in a refusal of leases, or, which is the same thing, impede the progress of improvements, deserve to be view^ ed as persons unfriendly to' the national welfare, The benefit of leases has been strikingly ex^ emplified in the low-countiy districts of Scot* land. There the tenantry, one or two estates excepted, are secured in possession either for 19 or 2 1 years, and scmelimes for a longer period. Hence a rapid improvement of the countr}' has taken place, and great and substantial undertak- ings have been executed, which no man in his senses would have planned, far less executed, had the security of a lease been withheld. Ex- cellent farm-houses and offices have in conse* ON LEASES. 169 quence been" erected, open fields have beep, inclosed, wet lands have been drained, and unproductive wastes brought into a high state of cultivation. From these circifmstances, the rentals of proprietors have increased at an ama- zing rate, without their being subjected to any expence inprocuring the increase. Since 179<^^ the rent of land in Scotland has increased in a •twofold degree above that of England, solely because the system of connection between the proprietor and the occupier is formed upon more liberal terms in the one country than in the other. Were the. liberal system in Scotland to be imitated in England,' there is no doubt but that the con- sequent advantages would be greater ; because soil, climate, markets, and other local circum- stances, are much more favourable to agricul- ture in the latter than in the former country. To grant leases is one step towards procuring these advantages, but more is still required ; namely, that a kind of discretionary management be entrusted to the tenant. If this be not done, his mind will continue fettered as formerly, [and his operations be confined to the beaten path of ancient usasre. 17U ON LEASFS. After all, though long leases can alone lead to improvements of permanent duration ; yet, ne- vertheless, towards the close of ever)- lease, there- must be an unimproving period, during which melioration on the part of the tenant will cease, and where the compulsion of regulation must be substituted to enforce improvement. A com- pulsion of this kind, however, generally proves a weak and inefficient substitute for the more pow- erful motive of private interest, and seldom ac- complishes the benefit intended to be produced, To remedy this defect. Lord Karnes, who probably was the first man in Britain who con- sidered farming in the view of its proper moral excitements, suggested the indefinite or perpetual lease. His Lordship proposed that the lease should extend to an indefinite number of years, consisting of |ixed periods, at the end of which a rise of rent should take place, with permission for the tenant, at the period of each of these rises of rent, to give up his farm if he shall see proper, and granting a similar power to the landlord, upon proper terms, to resume his land if he shall think fit. The particulars of this contract, and the grounds on which they rest, are as follows. ON LEA51.9. 171 His Lordship assumes it as a principle, that a landlord and a tenant are capable of forming a tolerably just estimate of the value of the land in question, for a short period of years, such as it is customary to grant leases for in Scotland, say 2 1 years ; and having agreed upon these terms, which, for the present, we shall call L. 100 rentj the tenant expresses a wish to have his lease ex- tended to a longer period. To this the proprie- tor objects, on the principle that it is not possible to form a precise estimate of what value theground may be at the end of that period. He has already -seen that ground for the last '2 1 years has in- creased much more in value than any person at the beginning of that period could easily . have conceived it would have done, therefore cannot think of, extending the lease for a longer period, as a similar rise of value may be expected to take place in future. This reasoning appears to be well founded ; and, therefore, to give the landlord a reasonable gratification, he proposes that it should be stipulated, that if the tenant should agree to give a certain rise of rent at the end of that period, suppose L;20, the landlord should consent that the lease should run on for another 172 ON LEASES. period of 2 1 years, unless in the cases to be here- after mentioned. But as it may happen that this L.£0, now sti- pulated to be paid at so distant a period, may be more than the farmer will find he is able to pay, it shall in this case be in his power to resign his lease, on giving the landlord legal notice, one year at least, before the expiry thereof ; but if that notice be omitted, it shall be understood that the tenant is bound to hold the lease for the second 2 1 years, at the rent specified in the con- tract ; and if ihc landlord does n,ot give the ten- ant warning within one month after that period, it shall be understood that he too is bound to accept of the stipulated additional rent for the 2 1 years that are to succeed. It may, - however, also happen, that the sum specified in the lease may be a rent considerably below the then present value of the farpi ; or the proprietor may have reasons for wishing to re- sume the possession of that land, or to obtain an adequate rent for it ; a power, therefore, should be given to him, in either case, to resume the lands if he should so incline. But, as a great ON LEASES. 173 part of that present value may be owing to the exertions of the farmer, who has laid out money upon the farm, in the hopes of enjoying it for a second period of 2 1 years, it would be unjust to deprive him of his benefit without giving him a valuable compensation for that improved value. On this account, it should be stipulated that, in case the proprietor, at this time, resumes the farm, he shall become bound to pay to the ten- ant TEN years purchase of the additional rent he had agreed to pay ; which, in the example above stated, would be L.COO. But the land may be worth still more than the L.200 rise mentioned in the lease, and the tenant may be content to pay more, say L. 10, rather thar^ remove ; and he makes offer accord- ingly to do so. In that case, the landlord should be bound, either to accept that additional offer, or to pay ten years purchase of that also ; and so on for every other offer the tenant shall make before he agrees to remove from the farm. In this way, the landlord is always certain that he can never be precluded from obtaining the FULL value for his land, whatever circumstances 174 ON LEASES. may arise. Arid, if the tenant shall prove disa- greeable, so that he would wish rather to put another in his place upon the same terms, it ne- ver can be any hardship upon the landlord to pay the stipulated sum ; because it would be the same thing to him as if he bought a new estate at TEN years purchase free of taxes ; a thing not to be expected. It is indeed true, that it would be more advantageous for him to allow the present tenant to continue ; therefore this alternative will be always accepted of, unless in very extraordi- nary cases, as it ever ought to be ; and thus the tenant*s mind is impressed with a conviction that he wiil continue in his possession ; a conviction that ought ever to prevail, because it stimulates to industry in the highest degree. And as the tenant is thus certain that, at the very worst, his family must be entitled to draw a reasonable remuneration for the exertions of his industry, he can never find the smallest tend- ency to relax in his endeavours. Bv stipulating in the original lease in the same manner, that, at the end of the second ^ 1 years, the lease shall be continued for 2 1 years more ; 0^7 LEASES. 175 and so on at the end of the third, and fourth, and any farther number of periods of 2 1 years, on agreeing to pay a specified rise of rent ; re- serving to each party the same privileges as above described, the lease might be continued to perpe- tuity, without any hazard of the one party ob- taining an undue advantage over the other. The tenant being always certain of having a prefer- ence given him over every other person, will of course go on with unceasing exertions to better his land, which of necessity must tend to aug- ment the income of the proprietor much more than could have happened under any other sys- tem of management. SuGH are the outlines of that plan of a leas« which his Lordship has proposed. By this plan the tenant's hands are not tied up by restrictive clauses, dictated by ignorance, under the pretext of securing the interest of the landlord. The in- terest of the landlord is effectually secured, while the tenant is left ac full liberty to avail himself of his knowledge, his skill, and his industry. In- stead of ceasing to begin any arduous undertak- ing, as he must ever do where he has no lease, or of improving for a few years only at the com- \76 0\ LEAS' 8. mencement of his lease, but stopping in a short while in the midst of his career, and then run- ning the land down to the same exhausted state as it was at its commencement, he continues . to push forward without ever stopping ; and advan- ces even with an accelerating progress for an endless period of years. No person but an ex- perienced farmer can conceive the difference that would exist between the productiveness of the same land under this management, at the end of a hundred years, from whaf it would have been if let even for detached periods of twenty-one years each. In unimproved waste lands, the difference would approach almost to infinity. In lands ori- ginally very rich, the difference would be less considerable ; but, in all places where improve- ment by cultivation could take place, the differ- ence would be very great. SECT. II. On Covomnts if? Leases, which restncf, and w- terfcre with, the Tenant''s Operations, In Scotland, where the custom of granting leases is general, the restrictive clauses are few. COVENANtS IX LEASES. I77 being chiefly confined to the latter period of the lease, and seldom, even then, injurious to agri- culture. The restrictions on management which then take place, relate to the mode of cropping, to the quantity of land that is to be kept in grass, and, finally, to the dung on the farm, and to the land to be left in fallow in the waygoing year. These may be said to be the only restrictions on the management of the tenantry ; and, taking human nature as it is, they are obviously neces- sary. This is not the case, however, v/ith the restrictive covenants in the majority of English leases. These operate from the outset, and in- terfere, almost in every case, with the tenant^s management. There are numerous exceptions, no doubt ; but, in most cases, the slightest dis- cretionary management is not permitted. In fact, the tenant, in many instances, cannot be viewed as a free agent, but as one under the government of a second person, who prescribes his operations, and punishes any neglect or disobedience of which he may be guilty. It is easy to perceive that such a system must be totally adverse to improvement. In fact, the. mind, under its influence, sinks into apathy' and Vol. I. I^j 178 COVENANTS IX LEASES. remains contented with the portion of knowlegc already gained, without endeavouring to search after additional information. The common and ordinary operations of a farm may be sufficiently executed by those so circumstanced ; but im- provement must be at an end when there is no room for the exertion of ingenuity. The very interference of stewards with a tenant's manage- ment is sufficient to deaden his exertions. At all events, their interference crushes his independ- ence, renders him obsequious to those above him, and careless about future improvement. Here it may be observed, that the primary error of this system consists in not giving the tenant a security of possession for a reasonable time ; and the second, and no less important er- ror, arises from the restrictions imposed during the time he 'occupies his farm, which prevents him from changing his management, or adapting his crops to the nature of the soil which he pos- sesses. Agriculture is a living science, which is progressively improving ; consequently, what is esteemed good cropping at one time, may, from experience and obser\^ation, be afterwards found defective and erroneous. COVENANTS IN LEASES. 17S We readily admit, that general rules of ma- nagement are very proper in leases, such as, to keep land in good order, to consume all the straw- raised upon it, and to sell no dung. These re- strictions we approve of ; and so will every good farmer, whether he is bound to do so or not. Nay, we go farther, and allow that, when leases of a proper duration are granted, it is highly reasonable the property of the landlord should be protected by restricting clauses, for the five years previous to their expiration. But, after all, it will be found that no clause can be inserted, besides the general ones already mentioned, that will serve to enhance the value of the land, ex- cept obliging the farmer to leave a proportional quantity of grass land at the expiration of the lease, and specifying the manner in which it is to be sown down. Other clauses serve only to dis- tress the farmer, but will never promote the in- terest of the landlord. I\ a word, as the landed proprietor can rarely farm his own lands to advantage, it is necessary, when he puts them under the management of others, to invest these persons (generally called tenants) with discretionary powers, or, in other M 2 180 COVENANTS IN LEASES, words, with powers to do every thing respecting their cuhivation which he himself could have done without injuring the property, othei'wise he cannot expect to receive, under the name of rent, the full natural value of his land. It must be remarked, however, that proprietors, in general cases, consent with reluctance to, part with the command and management of their land when conveyed for a temporary period, reserving as much controul over it as possible ; though it is plain that every reservation made lessens the ten- ant's power to pay them a high rental. This is not the case with the monied man ; he neither understands, nor pretends to understand, the se- crets of the trade or manufacture in which hisf money is invested, and therefore places his con- fidence in the man, and not in his measures. Why should the landlord act differently ? or why should he affect to direct the whole farming ope- rations of his tenant during the course of a lease ? A resident proprietor, who has paid attention to farming, may attempt such direction without any great degree of absurdity, though never without lessening the sum of rent covenanted to be paid j but it is ridiculous to see such direction claimed by law-agents, to whom the management of large COVENANTS IN LEASES- 181 estates is chiefly entrusted, and who know little more about farming than the monied man does about the manufacture of muslin or linens. The utility of some restrictions at the conclusion of a lease we have already admitted, chiefly be- cause without them a farm might be thrown out of shape, and the management of the suc- ceeding tenant embarrassed for several years. As for the injury alleged to be committed, by what is called cross cropping, we are rather scep- tical on that point ; and confess it to be our opi- nion, that the real value of the soil cannot be lessened by any mode of cropping, though undoubtedly its artificial value, namely, that which it gains from being grazed and manured, may in that way be dissipated. Taking a broad view of the matter, we are inclined to consider restrictive covenants as totally superfluous, unless so far as they tend to maintain a regular course of cropping at the conclusion of the lease, and to preserve the farm in a husbandman-like condi- tion, at the entry of the succeeding tenant. M 3 182 RENT OF LAND. SECT. III. On the Bent of Land, or the Considerations given by the Occupier for the Lafid in his Possession, In ancient times, the rent of land consisted in a certain part of the articles which it produced, and in services often unfixed and undetermined. Money in these periods was scarce, markets for the sale of produce irregular, and in many places not to be found ; therefore the scarcity of circu- lating medium, and the general want of markets, rendered a payment of rent in kind a necessary measure. In proportion, however, as the coun- try increased in prosperity, the necessity of pay- ing rent in this manner was gradually obviatedj till at last it was almost quite done away, and a RENT OF LAND. 183 fixed payment In money substituted In Its place. Latterly, an inclination to return to the ancient practice has been manifested by several proprie- tors ; but whether such a return would be of ad- vantage to agriculture, scarcely requires to be discussed. In fact, a rent, either partially or wholly paid In corn, must necessarily be disad- vantageous to the tenant ; because the money va- lue of the payment Is always greatest when the means of paying it are lessened or curtailed. The price of .grain in Britain Is rarely high, unless when adverse seasons Intervene, and cause a scar- city of farm produce. When the tenant pays In money, the augmented price compensates to him the deficiency of quantity ; but when In corn, the whole disposeable produce may be insufficient for discharging the contracted obligation ; conse- quently the tenant may thus be brought under great difficulties. Besides what is properly called rent, several public burdens are borne by the tenant, in vir- tue of his lease, or by act of the legislature. In Scotland these are not of much importance, being only one half of the schoolmasters sa- lary, one half of poor's-rates, and the com- M4 18rt KENT OF LAND. muted value of work statuted to be performed on the public roads ; the amoum of these is trif* ling, rarely exceeding two per cent, of the rental. But in England the case is different. There the whole public burdens, to which landed property- is subject, are defrayed by the tenant, with the exception of the new property tax, from the land- lord's share of which he is expressly relieved. These burdens are, 1. The land tax ; C. Poor- rates ; :>, Tythes, where not purchased or com- muted; 4. Road work; 5. Church and consta- ble dues. &c. and often amount to a greater sum than the nominal rent stipulated betwixt the parties, though they are to all intents and pur-^ poses a part of the real rent IMost of these bur- dens being unfixed, and some of them regulated by the mode of management (such as tythes) render the situation of the tenant vexatious and unpleasant. Were all land tythe free ; were the public burdens tovi^hich it is liable uniformly de- frayed by the proprietor ; were rent to be affixed and determinate sum during the years of posses- sion, and the tenant relieved from all arbitrary claims ; then the art of agriculture would be ex- ercised with pleasure and satisfaction. It is ow- ing to the greater freedom enjoyed by the culti- RENT OF LAXD. 185 vators of Scotland, and to the superiority of the system which connects them with proprietors, that the art has progressively advanced with greater rapidity towards perfection in the one country than in the other. The same principles which have proved so beneficial to Scottish agri- culture, must necessarily produce equal advan- tages, were they acted upon in other places. Physical circumstances are more favourable to agriculture in England than in her sister country, though it is to be lamented that the benefit of these circumstances is more than counteracted by an accumulated quantity of moral evils, which might be removed, were the legislature to be- stow on these matters a portion of that attention, which it often bestows upon the melioration or improvement of foreign possessions. CHAP. V. ON TILLAGE. Tillage may, in general terms, be described as an operation whereby the soil is either cleared from noxious weeds, or prepared for receiving the seeds of plants cultivated by the husband- man. When this operation is neglected, or even partially executed, the soil becomes foul, barren, and unproductive ; hence, upon arable farms, tillage forms the prominent branch of work ; and, according to the degree of perfection or imper- fection with which it is executed, the crops of ON TILLAGE. 187 the husbandman, whether of corn or grass, are in a great measure regulated. Tillage, In the early ages, was performed by hand labour ; but in modern times, the plough has been the universal instrument used for exe- cuting this necessary and important branch of rural work. In no other way can large fields be turned over, because the expence of digging with the spade, the only other method of turning over the ground, would much exceed any profit that could be reaped. Spade-work, however, is al- most universally used in garden culture, where the plants raised are of greater value than those cultivated in the fields ; though the nearer that field culture can be brought to what is exercised in a garden, so much more may the practice of the one art be considered as approximating in perfection to that of the other, !88 OBSTRUCTIONS SECT. I. Obstructions to TUlas:e. In a work of this kind, it is unnecessary to enlarge upon the way by which tillage may be successfully executed. It is proper to state, how- ever, that stones lying above or below the sur- face are the most formidable obstruction to per- fect tillage. On stony ground, tillage is not only imperfectly executed, but in many cases the im- plement used is broken to pieces, and a consider- able portion of time lost before it is repaired, and put in order. The removal of stones, therefore, especially of such as are below the surface, ought to be a primary object with every agriculturist ; because a neglect of this kind may afterwards occasion him considerable loss and inconvenience. In our practice we have ascertained, that rocky fields are ploughed at an expence nearly double of what is required upon others under different circumstances ; because the ploughman, from necessity, is obliged to go slowly and with cau- TO TILLAGLE. 189 fion. In such situations the evil hardly admits of correction, because the substratum is almost of the same nature ; and the rocks which appear may be comsidered in the light of excrescences from the substratum; but where single fixed stones appear in an arable field, they ought to be removed immediately, although the closeness of their texture may render the assistance of gun- powder necessary. It deserves attention, that very fine soil is always in contact with rocks of this description ; and that by gaining the use of it, much benefit is derived, independent of the facility which is thus afforded to the ploughman's operations. To drain the ground, in other words, to lay it dry, also facilitates tillage exceedingly ; for ploughing cannot be performed with advantage, where either the surface or the subsoil is v/et. In fact, every branch of good husbandry is intimate- ly connected with another ; and the practice of one branch is necessarily much affected by the way in which others are executed. To drain land well, therefore, materially promotes good tillage ; and by good tillage the beneficial effects of manures are considerably increased. To dis- 190 UTILITY OF charge one of these fundamental duties of the husbandman, while the others are neglected, can only be regarded as performing a duty which will yield small benefit to those concerned ; but to fulfil the whole duties incumbent on the hus- bandman, nam.ely, to keep his land dry, clean, and rich, must be estimated as the acme of per- fection in the rural art. SECT. II. On the Utility of Summer Fallow. To return to our first definition of tillage, wherein it is characterised as the operation by which the soil is cleaned or rendered free of weeds, we must observe, that the only sure and certain way of accomplishing this object is by ploughing in the summer months, when the ground is dry, and when, by the influence of sun and air, the weeds may be destroyed with facility. Seldom at any other period is the soil SUMMER FALLOW. 191 much benefited by ploughing, unless so far as a seed-bed is thus procured for the succeeding crop ; and though the situation or state of the ground, when these intermediate ploughings are bestowed, is of importance in judging of their utility, yet the radical process of summer fallow cannot, by any means, be altogether dispensed with. Indeed, if the winter and spring plough- ings are executed under favourable circumstances, and plenty of manure is at hand, it may be de- layed for a greater number of years than is other- wise practicable, if good husbandry is to be main- tained, Ix judging of these things, an extensive prac- tice, in almost every kind of soil, has been our guide ; and, though free from prejudice, we are compelled to declare, that without summer fal- low, or, which is the same thing, without work- ing the ground in the summer months, perfect husbandry is unattainable on all heavy or cold soils, and upon every variety incumbent on a close or retentive bottom. No doubt a bare or naked fallow is not necessary upon light free soils ; because such may be worked in the months of May and June, and afterwards cultivated with IQQ UTILITY OF turnips. This exception we have uniformly al- lowed, but farther we cannot go. Even the pota- toe husbandry on such soils is, to a certain de- gree, imperfect, as may easily be ascertained by examining land so cultivated, after the crop is taken up. To keep his land clean will always be a prin- cipal object with every good farmer ; for, if this is neglected, in place of carrying rich crops of com or grass, the ground will be exhausted by crops of weeds. Where land is foul, every ope- ration of husbandry must be proportionally non- effective ; and even the manures applied will, in a great measure, be lost. If the season of the year, and the state of the weather, wht n the ground is ploughed, prepara- tory to receiving the seed, be duly considered, it will be found, that at that time it can neither be properly divided by the action of the plough, nor can root weeds, or annual weeds, be then extirpated. Hence arises the necessity of work- ing it in summer, when the weather is favourable for the purposes of ploughing, and when root weeds may be dragged to the surface. It is, only SUMMER FALLOW. Jog at that time the full advantages of ploughing are attainable ; for summer fallow may with proprie^ ty be styled ploughing in perfection. The necessity of summer fallow depends great- ly upon the nature and quality of the soil; as, upon some soils, a repetition of this practice is less frequently required than upon others. Where- ever the soil is incumbent upon clay or till, it is more disposed to get foul, than when incumbent upon a dry gravelly bottom; besides, wet soils, from being ploughed in winter, contract a stiff! ness which lessens the pasture of artificial plants, and prevents them from receiving sufficient nou-' rishment. When land of a dry gravelly quality gets foul, it may easily be cleaned without a plain summer fallow; since crops, such as turnips, &c. may be substituted in its place, which, when drilled atiproper intervals, admit of being plough- ed as often as necessary ; whereas wet soils, which are naturally unfit for carrying such crops, must be cleaned and brought into good order,' by frequent ploughing? and harrowings during' the summer months. Vol. J. 2s^ 194 UTILITY OF It is from neglecting to make these distinc- tions, that many people have pronounced errone- ous opinions concerning summer fallow. Th^ substance of the arguments generally used against fallow may be comprised under four heads : 1st, Nature does not require any pause or rest, and the earth was evidently designed to yield a regular uninterrupted produce. 2dly, As the productive quality of the earth never ceases, if com is not sown, weeds will be produced ; therefore it is our business to expel the unproductive plant, and to introduce others that are beneficial. 3dly, That the idea of leaving land to rest is ridiculous ; for, by keeping it clean, and by a judicious intermixture of crops, it may be ma- naged like a garden, and sown from one genera- tion to another. 4thly, That the fellows in England exhibit nothing but a conflict betwixt the farmer and his SUMMER FALLOW. 19^ t>?ecds, in which the latter generally prevail ; fqt at the best they are only half stifled, and never effectually killed. The nlost of these arguments may be gVanted, and yet the utility, nay, the necessity of summer fallow be consistently maintained. It is already acknowledged, that it is only upon wet soils, or, in other words, upon land unfit for the turnip husbandry, that a plain sum- mer fallow is necessary ; and this we suppose in- cludes three-fourths of the island. The utility of summer fallow upon such soils is not contended for, because Nature requires a pause to invigo- rate her to carry fresh crops, but solely because it is impossible to keep them clean without this auxiliary process. To speak of following Na- ture in farming is ridiculous ; for if we were to imitate Nature, we would not cultivate land at all. Nature is often improved by art, and fal- lowing is the means employed for removing a host of enemies, w. ich prevent her from being fertile and productive. N2 19^ UTILITY OF As a field filled with root weeds must be in a state of greater exhaustion, than if it carried a heavy crop of com, so the productive quality of the earth must necessarily decrease in proportion to the quantity of weeds which it brings forth. But because com is not sown, it does not follow that weeds of any kind should be suffered to grow. The object of allowing the ground to re- main a year under fallow, is to afford time and opportunity for expelling the unproductive plants, and to prepare it for the reception of others which are beneficial. TfiE most judicious intermixture of crops upon clay soils will not preclude the necessity of summer fallow, although it will go a great way to prevent a frequent repetitioi: of it. An eighth course shift, such as fallow, wheat, beans drilled and horse-hoed, barley, grass -seeds, oats, beans, and wheat, is as much as can be recommended j and it is only upon rich clay, or deep loam, where such an extensive rotation is admissible. A shift of this kind, when dung is applied twicer in the course of it, will pay the farmer more handsomely than the most judicious intermixture: of crops, where fallowing is neglected. SUMMER FALLOW. 157 Again, no rules drawn from garden practice tan apply to operations carried on in the field j the soils are generally very different, and any comparison that can be made, must be with those rich sandy loams, upon which we have allowed fallowing to be unnecessary. The crops in the garden are reaped at so may difterent times, and often so early in the season, that opportunity is always gained for working the ground in the completest manner j while the immense differ- ence between working with the plough and the spade renders every comparison ridiculous. A fallow field, which exhibits a conflict be- twixt the farmer and his weeds, does not deserve that appellation ; for the intention of the fallow is to extirpate these weeds. We are inclined to think, that the miserable situation of many Eng- lish fallows may be attributed to the feeding, and folding them with sheep. The farmer, from being obliged, by the conditions of his lease, or the rules of common field management, to fal- low every third or fourth year, is tempted to draw something from them when in this unpro- ductive state ; and, to gratify his avarice in the first instance, sacrifices the good husbandry which N3 198 UTII.ITY OF it is his ultimate interest to practise. A well ma^ naged fallow should be wrought as early in the season as possible, and continually turned over so long as the least particle of quickens ap* pears. It is no argument against the utility of fallows, that they are often managed in a dif- ferent way ; this militates only' against the impro- priety of the management, but not against the practice itself. Upo V the whole, the necessity of summer fair low turns upon this single point:— Can wet lands be advantageously employed in raising tur- nips or cabbages ? a question which the practi- cal farmer, ,who is sufficiently acquainted with the nature of such soils, and the immense labour required to bring them into proper tilth, will have no difficulty to answer in the negative. It is not disputed that turnips and cabbages will grow upon these soils ; but the question is, whe- ther the extraordinary labour they require, and the damage sustained by the ground, during the consumption or carrying off the crops, will not exceed the value of the produce? Surely few persons will recommend the turnip husbandry under such circumstances. If they do, the recom- SUMMER FALLOW. Ip5 mendation furnishes a presumption, that they are unacquainted with the cultivation of wet lands. If they do not, how is the ground to be kept clean, and enabled to yield a regular uninter- rupted produce ? Nothing that is said in defence of fallow is meant in vindication of the absurd system of ta- king only two crops to one fallow, as practised upon many English common fields. It is only meant to show, that clay soils, and every soil incumbent upon a wet bottom, cannot be kept clean without the assistance of this radical and ancient practice. How often it should be used, must in a great measure be left to the discretion of the farmer, who will repeat it when necessary, if he knows his own interest. As many different opinions prevail relative to the manner in which a fallow should be con- ducted, our sentiments upon that head may be acceptable. Upon all clay soils (and upon such only, we understand a complete summer fallow to be ne- cessary), the first ploughing ought to be given N 4 200 UTILITY OF during the winter months, or as early in the spring as possible ; which promotes the rotting of the sward and stubble. This should be done by gathering up the ridge, which both lays the ground dry, and rips up the furrows. As soon as seed-time is over, the ridge should be cloven down, preparatory to cross ploughing ; and, af- ter being cross ploughed, should be harrowed and rolled repeatedly, and have every particle of quickens brought above by the harrows carefully picked off vith the hand. It is then proper to ridge or gather the field up immediately, which both lays the land in proper condition for meet- ing bad weather, and opens up any fast land that may have been missed in the furrows when the cross ploughing was given. After this, harrow, roll, and gather the root weeds again ; and con- tinue so doing till the field is perfectly clean. Some agriculturists recommend a method of fallowing very different from the above. In their opinion, ploughing is only necessary ; and tak- ing out live roots by the harrow, and carrying them off, IS considered by them as an evident impropriety. SUMiMER FALLOW. 201 Here it may be remarked, that frequent turn- ing over the ground, although absolutely necessa- ry while the process of fallowing is going on, can never eradicate quickens, couch-grass, or other root weeds. In all clay soils, the ground turns up m lumps, which the severest drought will not pene- trate, or at least not so far as to kill the plant con- tained in the heart of them. When the land is ploughed again, these lumps or clods are simply turned over, and no more; the action of the plough serving in no shape to reduce them, or at least in a very imperceptible manner. We remember a season, considered as one of the best ever known for executing the fallow process by ploughing only, when the truth of these observations was fully ascertained. During that summer there was hardly a drop of rain ; the drought was ex- cessive, and attended with an almost continued sunshine ; yet, notwithstanding all these advan- tages, the fallows, which were not properly re- duced in the beginning of the season, took on a growth as soon as moisture came, about the be- ginning of harvest. Even when they were com-^ pletely harrowed and rolled, it was found diffi- cult to extirpate couch, as the dryness of the 202 UIILITY OF ground did not allow it to part so well from the clod as in seasons more moist. ~ If this be the case in a dry season, what would the consequences be if the fallows were at all times to be wrought with the plough, without attempting to drag the roots to the surface by the operation of harrowing ? In wet weather, the land might appear black above for a few days ; but the enemy being still in the house, would soon make his appearance. By carefully gather- ing all the root weeds, after the land is reduced by harrowing, which on many soils is only prac- ticable after the roller is used, an enemy is con- verted into a friend ; for if the stuff, thus gather- ed, is accumulated into a heap, frequently turned over till it rots, and mixed with lime, a most ex- cellent compost is produced. There is little danger that clay land will be too much reduced by the different harrowings and rollings proposed to be given ; as the last furrow, if taken sufficiently deep, will raise a mould rough enough for covering the seed, and protecting the wheat during the winter months. Upon such soils, nothing but frost will reduce SUMMER FALLOW. 203 and mellow the land perfectly ; and we have seen the necessity of leaving fields of this description to be wrought in the spring, from the absolute impossibility of eradicating or killing the couch completely, till reinforced by this powerful au3ci- liary. We may mention another argument in favour of gathering root weeds : — That in no other way can the purpose for which fallow is intended be 60 cheaply attained. Every furrow that is given will at least stand the farmer 12s. per acre ; and if hand gathering will save one single ploughing, its expence is amply repaid ; while, at the same time, we contend that more root weeds are taken off by one gathering, than can be destroyed by a couple of ploughings, allowing the season to be ever so favourable. Some writers on husbandry condemn clean summer fallow altogether, as an unnecessary waste of rent and labour ; which, in their opi- nion, might be saved, and the ground kept in perfect good order by a proper rotation of crops. We apprehend upon all clay soils this is impos- sible J as every farmer who possesses such soil^ 204 UTiLiiY or knows, by experience, the difficulty of keeping^ them clean, even with the assistance of summer fallows. They arc so often ploughed wet, from necessity, that a sourness and adhesion are con- tracted, which cannot be corrected without ex- posing the ground to the hot summer sun, and reducing it by frequent ploughings and harrow- ings. No crop can be substituted in place of fallow, for turnips are destruction itself. Drilled beans, as is already said, will do well as an as- sistant to fallow ; but however much this crop may tend to keep land clean that is already in good order, we apprehend, from the necessity of sowing them early, that they will never answer as a substitute for one of the most radical of all improvements, — a clean summer fallow. A general introduction of the row or drill husbandry has been proposed as a substitute for summer fallow ; and many ingenious reasons have been urged to prove the inutility of the practice, and the folly of those who adhere to it. The author of the New Farmers Calendar even goes so far as to maintain, that fallowists can bring forward no arguments but hypothetical ones, hi defence of the system which they sup- SUMMER FALLOW. $05 port. These matters being of great importance to the cause of agriculture, we cannot refraia from noticing them in a cursory manner. In the first place, let any person reflect on the condition of all land incumbent on a retentive sub- soil, in an average of years, when spring seeds are sown. Land of this description, which has been ploughed in winter, will, in the spring season, when plouglied a second time, turn up raw and wet, even when the surface is tolerably dry, and in a workable state. The new turned up furrow is tough and waxy in the first instance, but af- terwards, especially if a hot sun prevails, the sur- face becomes hard hke a brick, even before the bottom or subsoil is free of the superabundant moisture there accumulated. Under these cir- rumstanes the processes of drilling cannot be ex- ecuted upon clay soils with the slightest prospect of advantage. It is even difEcult to form drills for beans in many seasons, though this grain is generally drilled at wide intervals. To drill wheat, barley, or oats, upon clay soils, in the spring months, may be regarded a^ a measure physically impossible. Such grains must neces* sarily be drilled with narrow intervals, say nin«9i <20G UTIIITV OF or twelve inches ; and though this is practicable on light soils during dry weather, it cannot, with the slightest prospect of success, be executed upon those of a different description. The cor- rectness or justice of these arguments will not be questioned by any person versant in the culture of heavy lands, or by those who have paid atten- tion to the difficulties of performing seed-work upon them in the majority of seasons. In the second place, were we to allow, for ar- gument's sake, that the drilling of grain was a practicable measure upon wet lands, still it re- mains to be inquired, how such soils can be cleaned in a satisfactory manner, when the inter- vals betwixt the drills must necessarily be nar- row and confined, admitting little more than a narrow hand hoe, which never can extirpate root weeds, or free the ground of its aboriginal inhabi- tants. Were a horse hoe to be used, the surface would break up in lumps, or massy pieces, to the destruction of the grain plants, whilst, after all, a hoeing of a deepness sufficient to destroy the weeds could not be given. If the intervals were wide enough to allow a horse hoe room for work, the produce of the crop would be propprtionally curtailed, while the quality of the grain would be SUMMER FALLOW. 207 materially Injured from a continuance of tillering, till a very late period. With beans this does not happen ; for, the pods being placed upon the un- der and middle parts of the stalk, the introduction of air is absolutely necessary to increase their num- ber, and to bring the grain to maturity. Wheat, barley, and oats, are differently circumstanced. With them the grain Is placed upon the top of the stalk, consequently the introduction of air is less necessary. At all events, we are confident that, with equal management, a greater produce may be gained from culmiferous crops upon claj/ soils, according to the old husbandry, than can possibly be gained by the introduction of row culture. That the southern districts of England, and many kindly soils in other districts, may be drilled with safety and advantage, we do not mean to dispute ; but betwixt these and the ge- nerality of soils which prevail in the island of Britain, a distinction must be drawn, the hus- bandry eligible for the one being inadmissible for the other. In the third place, what Is summer fallowing but merely tilling the ground at a proper season, and freeing it from weeds, at a time when the 208 UTILITY OF operations of ploughing and han'owing can only be successfully executed ? If we had no wet weather, and no winter months, then constant cropping would certainly be practicable, and an extra stock of men and horses would be all that was required ; but in the present state of British climate (and we know not how it is to be amend- ed) little or no work can be done from autumn to the first of April, which can materially tend to clear the ground of root weeds. The sole ob- ject of ploughing in winter is to rot the stub- ble, and prepare a bed for spring seeds. Even with every degree of attention, ploughing is of- ten, from necessity, performed in the winter* season under such unfavourable circumstances, as to hasten a return of summer fallow sooner than could be wished. The anti-fallowists al- lege, " that the earth is destined by nature to an everlasting round of vegetation ;" but there is not much sense in the position when applied to prac- tical husbandry. Will the earth ever produce crops unless the seed is sown ? or ought com to be sown unless the earth is properly prepared for its reception ? The spontaneous productions of the earth being assuredly very different from ^bat man wishes, his constant object is to des- SUMMER FALLOW. 209 stl-oy theixij and substitute artificial ones in their place. In a word, to free the earth from the articles which it naturally produces, ought to be, and is the steady object of every good husband- man ; and the sole subject of dispute is, how and in what way that freedom can be most substan- tially and effectually gained. Upon all clay soils, and, generally speaking, upon soils of every de- scription, incumbent upon a wet bottom, the best time of cleaning them is in the summer months ; and in this opinion we are decidedly supported by the respectable author of the Staffordshire Sur- vey. That gentleman, in his report to the Board of Agriculture, says, " Fallowing for wheat on cold, wet, or strong lands, and on all such as are unfit for turnips, is absolutely necessary ; and he who attempts to manage such land without fallowing, will have occasion to repent his mistake. Mixed soils, which are too moist for turnips, have a particular propensity to the production of root grasses. ' ummer fallow, therefore, becomes ab- solutely necessary ; and every attempt to crop without it, for any length of time, on such land, has terminated to the injury of the land, and the loss of the occupier." Vol. I. O 210 UTILITY OF Before we leave the subject of summer fal- low, it may be remarked, that the ancients seem to have been very sensible of its utility ; for, in- stead of recommending to fallow at periods, three, four, six, or eight years from each other, as is commonly done by modern writers, they mention it as a necessary preparation for a crop in ordinary soils. In Switzerland, and some parts of France, they crop and fallow alternate- ly ; and this seems to have been the common practice among the Romans, from whom, no doubt, other nations received it. If the Romans, who enjoyed, from the early season of hai-vest, great advantages over us, fallowed so frequently ; if they seldom had a crop of any kind immedi- ately after a crop of wheat and barley ; if they even seldom sowed these grains upon lands that had carried a crop in the preceding year, except- ing when such was cut green for cattle, certainly the late season of harvest in Britain, and the dif- ficulty of preparing land after it for winter grain, should engage us to fallow much more frequently than we do. Although agriculture, and other arts, may have now arrived at greater perfection than un- SUMMER FAtLOW. 211 der the Roman government, we believe much benefit may still be gained from a studious exa- mination of the Roman agricultural system. Good ploughing seems to have been an object of their particular attention ; and with respect to in- dustry in collecting and preparing manure, the most assiduous British husbandman falls far short of the ancient cultivators. If the ancients were Inferior in theoretical knowledge to our modern improvers, yet, in attention to circumstances, and exactness of execution, they seem to have been greatly superior. Nor will this superiority excite surprise, when it is recollected that the greatest and wisest men among the Romans applied themselves to the study and practice of agricul- ture. In the hands of such persons, agriculture was brought to the greatest perfection, and all its operations were performed with the greatest economy and exactness. Pliny assigns this as the reason that, in ancient times, there was such plenty of corn in Ronie.— " What,** says he, " was the -cause of this fruitfulness ? Was it be- cause, in those times, the lands were cultivated by the hands even of generals ; the earth, as it in natural to suppose, delighting to be ploughed with a share adorned with laurels, and by a plough- O 3 2 IS UTILITY OF nian who had been honoured with a triumph ? or was it because these men ploughed their fields with the same diligence that they pitched their camps, and secured their com with the same care that they formed their armies for battle ?" Though we entertain a favourable opinion of the rural economy of the Romans, and believe, that much may be learned from it, we are far from recommending it as a pattern to be imitated by British husbandmen. We view it, however, as a ground-work, on which a good fabric may be reared ; because the fundamental principles of agriculture were carried into practice by that people^ with a degree of diligence and method well worthy of general imitation. Agriculture is a living science, and susceptible of improve- ment in every age. In our times, when the im- plements of husbandry are more perfectly form- ed, and when more suitable modes of cropping, than those used by the ancients, are adopted, it is altogether unnecessary to crop and fallow al- ternately ; because it is completely ascertained, that, by diligent cultivation given to intermediate crops, summer fallow may be delayed for four, six, or eight years, according to soil, seasons, SUMMER FALLOW. 213 and other circumstances. But, though from these considerations it appears abundantly evident, that a repetition of fallow so often, as recommended by the Roman writers, is unnecessary under our improved mode of cropping ; yet it does not hence follow, that the practice of working land in the summer months, in other words, of fal- lowing it, should be given up, merely because the necessity of repeating it so frequently, which formerly existed, is now superseded by superior management. Every argument in support of fal- lowing, where the land is foul, remains in full force, or on its original footing, although there may not be the same necessity for repeating it so frequently, as was customary in former ^mes. The Rev. Mr Dickson, late of Wittingham, the best practical writer on husbandry since the days of Walter Blythe, seems to hold similar sentiments with those we are now maintaining. In his Husbandry of the Ancients, a work which displays great genius and acquaintance vidth the present and former state of rural affairs, after stating the predilection of the Romans for sum- mer fidlow, and describing the various ways in which it was executed, he says ; " I am sensible, 03 214 UTILITY OF that the practice here insisted upon and recom- mended, in imitation of the ancients, is not a- greeable to the most fashionable modes of hus- bandry'. Our latest improvers, or rather our latest writers on agriculture, declare, that he is a slothful or ignorant farmer, who does not raise upon his fields at least one crop every year. When land is vei-y rich, and the farmer remarkably skilful and attentive, and has it in his power, by a command of hands, to introduce the garden culture into his com fields, it is possible that the schemes proposed by these gentlemen may be prosecuted with success. But, taking our farm- ers and land as they are in fact, and considering how much weeds still prevail in our fields, and how difficult it is, even for the most attentive farmers, to prevent their crops being hurt by them, frequent fallowing, as the most proper method of destroying these enemies, cannot as yet be too much recommended. When we have arrived at greater perfection in the several opera- tions of agriculture, and brought our lands to a higher degree of fertility than at present, then, and indeed, in my opinion, not till then, should we think of introducing schemes of perpetual cropping." Much, however, as Britain is im- SUMMER FALLOW. QlS proved, still improvement is not so forward as to sanction any scheme of perpetual cropping ; and, were it more advanced, we question whether, in such a variable climate as that of the British isles, perpetual cropping can ever be successfully- exercised. A mode of executing summer fallow, and pro- curing a crop of turnips in the same year, comes now to be noticed. In this way, the land may be completely cleaned, perhaps more so than by bare fallow ; but it is only on light dry soils that such a mode of cleaning is eligible, or can be ex.- ecuted with advantage. The culture of turnips will be noticed in a more particular manner when we treat of leguminous crops. The second object of tillage is to prepare the ground for receiving the seeds of plants cultivated by the husbandman ; and here, in general, it may be remarked, that the object is most com- pletely accomplished when the ground is plough- ed deep and equal, while the bottom of the fur- row immediately above the subsoil is perfectly loosened, and turned equally over with the part which constitutes the surface. In many places O 4 2ltf UTILITY OF these properties are altogether neglected, the ground being ploughed in a shallow way while the bottom of the ploughed land remains some- thing like the teeth of a saw, having the under part of the furrow untouched, and consequently not removed by the action of the plough. Where such things are suflfered, the object of tillage is only partially gained. The fooJ of plants (what- ever it may be,) can only be imperfectly procur-'J ed by such management j and the ground is drenched and injured by wetness, the bridges, or pieces of land, which are not cut, preventing a descent of the moisture from above to the open furrows left for carrying it off. Again, where the seed-bed is prepared by one ploughing, the greatest care ought to be used in having it closely and equally performed. When two are given, they should be in opposite directions, so that any firm land left in the first may be cut up in the second ploughing. It is not profitable to plough twice one way, if it can be safely avoided. Another important point towards procuring good tillage, is never to plough the land when in a wet state ; because encouragement is thus giv- en to the growth of weeds, while a sourness and SUMMER FALLOW. S17 adhesion is communicated to the ground, rarely got the better of till summer fallow is repeat- ed. The Roman writers are very particular a- gainst ploughing land when wet. It is repro- bated, in fact, by every one of them. Columella justly represents wet ploughing as most dan- gerous to the ground : *•■ When we plough," says he, ** we must not touch wet land ; for the fields which are ploughed wet cannot be touched for the whole year, and are fit neither for being sown, harrowed , nor planted." Palkdius gives a similar caution, and takes notice of the same bad consequences : " It ought to be observed," says he, " that land ought not to be ploughed when wet ; for land, which receives the first ploughing when wet, cannot be touched for a whole season.- ' From this passage, it appears that it was reckoned particularly dangerous to give the fallow the first ploughing when in a wet state ; and that, when this was done, it was impossible, •by any operations afterwards, to bring it to a right tilth that seed-time. Pliny does no more than mention the received maxim : " Do not," says |ie, *' touch wet land." 218 UTILITY OF Before we finish this chapter, it is proper to remark, that all soils ought not to be wrought or ploughed in one manner. Each kind has its par- ticular and appropriate qualities ; and, therefore, each requires a particular and appropriate mode of tillage. Ploughing, which is the capital ope- ration of husbandry, ought, on these accounts, to be administered according to the nature of the soil which is to be operated upon, and not exe- cuted agreeably to one fixed and determined principle. On strong clays and loams, and on rich gravels and deep sands, the plough ought to go as deep as the cattle are able to work it ; whereas, on thin clays and barren sands, the be- nefit of deep ploughing is very questionable, espe- cially when incumbent on a till-bottom, or where the subsoil is of a yellow ochrey nature ; such, when turned up, being little better than poison to the surface, unless highly impregnated with alluvial compost, the effect of which expels the poisonous substance contained in this kind of subsoil, and gives a fertility to the whole mass, more decisive and permanent than would follow a heavy application of the best rotten dung. SUMMER FALLOW. 219 On clay soils, where the ridges must be con- siderably acclivated, so that the ground may be preserved in something like a dry condition, the plough used for tillage ought to have a mould- board considerably wider set than is required for light soils, in order that the furrow may be close cut below, and duly turned over. This method of constructing the plough necessarily makes a heavier draught than would be the case were the mould-board placed differently ; though, if good and sufficient work be wanted, the neces- sity of constructing the implement in the way mentioned is absolute and indispensable. The plough to be used on light soils, or on all soils that adn^it what is technically called crown and furrow ploughing, may be made much straiter below, and yet be capable of executing the work in a perfect manner. Perhaps on every farm consisting of mixed soils, two sets of ploughs ought to be kept, otherwise proper work cannot be performed. All land ought to be ploughed with a shoulder, a phrase well understood by ploughmen, though not easily explained ; and the advantages of ploughing in this way are, that, if ploughed before winter, the surface is enabled to resist the winter rains, and afterwards to present 220 UTILITY OF, &C. a fiace, on which the harrows can make a proper impression when the seed process is to be execute ed. This deserves particular attention when old grass fields are broken up ; as, by neglecting it, the harrows often are unable to cover the seed. It is perfectly practicable to plough land with a tole- rably broad furrow, say ten, eleven, or twelve inches, and yet to plough it clean, provided the implement used is properly constructed ; but, then, care must be taken that the furrow be of proportional deepness, otherwise it will be laid pn its back, instead of being deposited at an angle proper for undergoing the harrowing pro- cess. CHAP. VL dN THE IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. No country in the world is better provided with implements for executing rural labour than Great Britain ; and to this superiority may, in some measure, be attributed the increased and increasing perfection of its agriculture. We have ploughs of all the different kinds that ever were constructed ; and, as for wheel carriages, the va- riety is immense ; whilst harrows, and other com- mon implements, of various constructions and dimensions, are equally numerous. But it is in the articles more properly allied to machinery that the superiority of British rural implements is most conspicuous. Drills, for sowing grain and 222 IMPLI-MENTS OF HUSBANDRY. small seeds with regularity, have been construct- ed upon scientific principles; and machines, for separating grain from straw, have been invented, and brought to a degree of perfection expected by few people when these machines were first in- troduced. Imperfect labour is a necessaly consequence of defective implements ; but, where attention is bestowed in constructing implements, the differ- ent processes of labour, in which they are em- ployed, may, with justice, be considered as per- fectly executed, or at least as executed in a bet- t«r manner, than in those places where attention to their construction is neglected and overlooked. In former times, the construction of rural imple» ments was left almost entirely to rude and ignorant artizans, whose operations were guided by no fixed principle, and with whom improvement was left out of sight, the beaten path being only follow- ed. To those who remember the ploughs that were used in Scotland, at a period not more dis- tant than thirty years from the present date, or who have viewed many of the implements still used in England for tilling the ground, the justice of the above re«iark will appear unquestionable. At this IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY. £>23 time, however, the remark does not generally ap- ply ; for the true principles, on which ploughs and other implements should be constructed, have recently been ascertained with mathemati* cal precision, whilst common artizans have been enabled to imitate what they had not abilities to invent. The assistance thus furnished to the husbandman has been considerable j whilst great benefit has flowed to the public, and in particular to the proprietors of land in Great Britain. The husbandman, in the first place, is enabled to ex- ecute every branch of work in a more perfect manner, thereby causing the sod to produce great- er crops ; and, in the second place, proprietors and the public receive equal benefit ; the propri- etor by an immense increase of his rent-roll, and the public by an increased supply of the neces- saries of life, without which neither manufactures nor commerce could continue to be carried on so extensively as they have been for many years past. 224 OF THE PLOUGH. SECT. I. 0/ the Plough. The plough is of such importance in agricul- ture, that, in all ages, it has held the first place among the implements of that art ; nor is there any nation mentioned in history that has at- tempted to cultivate the ground without it, ex- cepting some barbarians destitute of every art and science. Even these have used something equivalent; some turning up the ground with the horns of oxen, and some with other things equally unfit for the purpose. These rude and barbarous attempts only show the great useful- ness of the instrument proposed to be treated of. # In modem times, many kinds of ploughs have been used for performing the operation of tilling the ground, the construction of each being in some respects analogous to the kind of husban- dry practised, and to the extent of mechanical knowledge possessed by the artizan. It appears or THE PLOUGH. 225 that, in ancient times, the plough was considered In this country a& a rude instrument, requiring little art in the construction, and unworthy of* philosophical attention. It was judged that any thing would do for executing such a clumsy ope- ration as turning over the ground, and that little nicety was required to form an implement which which was to be guided and directed by ignorant peasants. Under these Impressions, this useful utensil was, for many centuries, made at random, and without the slightest attention to principles, as is evident from the difference of impelling power called for when different ploughs were employed. The kind of work performed was equally diversified. In many cases, the furrow was imperfectly turned over, or laid up ; and in others the under part of the slice was balked, or raftered, in such a manner as to deprive the seeds that were sown of their necessary nourishment. The expence of working defective implements was also an evil of magnitude ; it being now suf- ficiently ascertained, that the improved ploughs may be wrought at one half of the cost which attended the barbarous and cumbrous imple- ments of former times. Voi. I. P 225 OP THE PLOUGH. The Roman people were excellent farmers,: and, of course, attentive to the construction of ploughs ; but after the northern nations overran and subjugated Europe, we do not find that any improvement was attempted upon husbandry im- plements till the seventeenth century, when Blythe and others took the subject under consideration. In one of Blythe*s pieces of improvement, he discovers much knowledge of the several ploughs then used in England j and demonstrates, in a forcible manner, the best way of making a plough, so that the implement may be easily draWHi while the ground is sufBciently worked. By that accurate agriculturist, a correct and mi- nute account of the double plough then used is also given. Many of our readers will remember, that Lord Somerville, some years ago, attempted to bring the double plough into fashion ; but few of them perhaps know, that such an imple- ment was well known 150 years before his lord- ship recommended it. We mention these cir- cumstances, not with the view of recommending double ploughs, but entirely to shew the know, ledge which Blythe possessed of the subject. A double plough can hardly, in any respect, be equal to two swing ploughs of the improved OP THE J i.OUGU. 227 kind, and In many situations must be vastly infe- rior, especially upon clay soils, where the ground is wet, and the ridges acclivated. Upon soft diy lands, a double plough may be employed with- out loss, though without any benefit to tliose who use it, if the comparison is made with well constructed swing ploughs. A great variety of ploughs are used in England, many of them con- fessedly of the same construction with those em- ployed for centuries past, and generally worked to the immense loss and disadvantage of those who persist in the use of such implements. The Ro- therham plough was the first deviation from the practice of ancient times, being a neat, handy im- plement, easily worked, and well calculated for tilling almost every kind of soil ; though still ca- pable of being much improved, as will afterwards be noticed. This plough is used in most of the English northern counties j and from being gene- rally called the Dutch plough, we are led to be- lieve must originally have been imported from Hol- land. It was first constructed in Yorkshire, by Mr Joseph Foljambe of Eastwood, in the West Riding, who, in 1 720, obtained a patent for the invention, which he afterwards sold to Mr Stani- forth of Firbeck. This gentleman for some years ^<28 OF THE PLOUGH. gave liberty to farmers to construct ploughs, up- oa paying him 2s. 6d. for each ; but afterwards attempting to raise the premium to 7s. or 7s. 6d. the validity of the patent was combated, and set aside, on the ground of its not being for a new invention, but only for a plough improved. The dimensions and construction of this- plough will appear sufficiently evident from the following description, and from Fig. 1. Dimtnslons of' the Rotherham Plough, Ft. Inch. 1 From the end of beam Aa^ to ditto of r ^ ditto G - - - - 3 0 I «l Length of the beam A A - -60-'" From the end of stilt B^, to point of the share G - - --74g* OF THE PLOUGH. 229 Ft. Inch. cr o C/l C w* o Width of the head in the widest *part D 14 Ditto of ditto at E - - -09 Ditto of share behind the wing at/ 0 3^ j^' Length of surface on which the plough touches the ground EG - 2 104- Height from ground to top of beam where coulter goes through - 1 8 Width between stilts at the end BB 2 6 Height of ditto from the ground 111 Weight of wood and iron work, about 1^ cwt. From this description, it will appear, that the Rotherham plough differs greatly from the old common ploughs ; being more slightly and neatly constructed, and having the coulter and share formed and placed so as to raise, and then gradually turn over, the new cut furrow much cleaner, and with less resistance than the others. It is not only capable of being worked with two horses abreast, as is common in most counties where it is used, but does the work in a much superior way than when three or more horses are yoked in a line, a custom too prevalent still in England. The faults of this plough are ow- ing more to the manner in which it is wrought, P3 230 OF THE PLOUGH than to the principles on which It is constructed ^ for, where the horses are yoked in a line, it is necessary to turn the beam considerably to the furrow, in order to give the plough what is tech- nically called land. O^xing to this erroneous way of placing the beam, the .horses draw in a contrary direction to the share and coulter, which makes the plough go unsteady ; and from the difference betwixt the direction of the draught, and the head on which the share is fixed, the force of fhe ' resistance must necessarily be in- creased, and the work, imperfectly performed. NoTwiTHSTAN-Di>fG the liecesslty of turning the beam towards the furrow is solely owing to the custom of yoking horses in a line (a custom very pre\'alent in England), it may be observed, that, when horses are yoked abreast, the ploughs have all more or less of the same direction. The sock or share of the jRotherham plough is in- deed much broader in the point than is neces- sary, which makes these ploughs difficult to work on gravelly soils, and even in clay, V'hen the ground is dry. Thf practice of yoking horses in a line, is truly absurd. Horses never * Work so easy, * or OOF" THE PLOUGH. 231 50 equal, as when yoked abreast, or In pairs, nor will the work be clone well in any other manner j if the ground is in such a situation as not to bear a horse on the unploughed part, it is unfit for labouring, and ought not to be touched. But this cannot be sustained as a reason for such a practice, it being customary in many parts of Eng- land to employ three horses in a Ikie, sometimes even four or five, to plough tender clover leys. The plea of custom and prejudice is well known, and can alone be assigned for such an absurd -and unprofitable practice. We are clearly of opinion, that every part of piough-work may be executed by two good horses, if they are properly maintained. There is no question but where land is hard and strong, so much work cannot be done in a given time as upon soft and light soils. But this argument has the same weight whatever number of horses are yoked : All we cont^id for is, that two good horses yoked abreast, in a plough properly con- structed, are able to plough any ground when it is in a proper situation for being wrought. P4 252 OF THE PLOUGH. The Rotherham plough was introduced into Scotland so early as 1730, by a Mr Lomax, or Lummis, who was patronized by the Society of Scotch Improvers, and was afterwards construct- ed by a Mr Dalziel, near New Liston, in West Lothian ; this person being sent, by the great John Earl of Stair, to England, where he was taught, at his lordship*s expcnce, the best and most im- proved method of constructing ploughs, and other husbandry implements. From a plate and explanation annexed to Maxwell's Collections, it appears, in the clearest manner, that the plough introduced by Mr Lummis was exactly similar to the one used in Yorkshire at this time, usu- ally called the Rotherham plough, a description of which is already given. Wi; have been somewhat particular in our ac-r count of the Rotherham plough, because its con- struction was the first attempt to depart from the ancient system of working the soil, at a heavy expence, with large and cumbrous implements. But though the Rotherham plough was brought to Scotland only ten years posterior to the date of Mr Foljambe's patent in England, yet the use of it was adopted by very few people, till 176'4, OF THE Pt^OUGH. ^33 when it underwent several alterations, and gra- dually came into general practice. The first al- terations were not of much importance ; in fact, the chief one consisted in using a chain, which at the best answered no purpose but to strength- en the beam at a place where it seldom was damaged. The head, and every part of the im- plement, except the chain, muzzle, sock, and coulter, were of wood, with the addition of a covering of thin plated iron upon the mould- board, to prevent it from wearing. The mould- board, from being straight, gradually assumed a curved figure, till finally that important member of the implement was made of cast metal, pre- pared at foundries upon principles which, from practice, may be pronounced correctly adjusted. The head, which w^s formerly constructed of wood, and constantly needing repair, is now also made of iron ; hence the share, or sock, is kept steadily fixed when at work, which was not the case when wooden heads were used. These improvements were chiefly devised, and, in the first instance, executed by Mr Jamfs Small, a person to whom the agricultural interest of the country is under great obligations j he be- i:34 OF THE PLOUGH. ingj with the exceptions of Messrs Lummis arid Dalziel, the first artizan who attempted to im- prove ploughs in Scotland upon mathematical principles. The sock, or share, is made with a fin, or feather, whereby the firm earth at the bottom of the furrow is cut more completely than practicable by the sock of the old ploughs, which acted more in the way of mining and for- cing, than cutting and removing the earth tyith facility or ease j and the mould-board being of cast metal, may be set wider or closer according to the nature of the soil on which the plough is to be used, or the height of the ridges that are to be ploughed. Thi$ implement isj therefore, the best constructed swing plough in the island j and with it a man and -two horses will, with all ease, plough an Engli?h s^cre per day, except in pI^•ticular seasons, when t^e soil from drought has become hard and obstinate. We have often seen a Scotch acre (one foyrth larger than English measure) ploughed in two journies, or nine hours work j but this was either when the land was seed furrowed, or with a soil of a loose and friable nature. OF THE PLOUGH. 235 The late Lord Kames, in his Gentleman Far- mer, says, *' I boldly recommend a plough in- troduced into Scotland about twelve years ago, Jby James Small, which is now in great request. This plough may be considered as a capital im- provement." Had his lordship lived a few years longer, and noticed the improvement since mad€ on this valuable and useful implement, he would, with greater justice, have been warranted to re- commend Mr Small's plough in the warmest manner. In short, no kind of plough will cut the furrow so clean, or turn it so nicely over for receiving benefit from the atmosphere, and effect from the harrowing process ; and, what is of greater importance, none is more easily drawn, taking into account the quality of work that is performed, than the one of which we are now speaking. A great deal of its utility is determin- ed by the strength of the animals employed in the draught ; by the dexterity of the man to whom the management is committed ; and by the or- der and condition in which the coulter and share are preserved : For the best constructed imple- ment will make bad work, when strength and dexterity are wanting in the operators. But, un- ^der a parity of circumstances, it may be affirmed^, £■36 OF THE PLOUGH. that the swmg plough, brought into practice, and afterwarJs improved by Mr Small, is fitted for executing work to belter purpose than any other of the numerous varieties of that implement em- ployed in the several districts in Great Britain. Fig. Q. represents this implement as used with a chain ; though this appendage is now generally laid aside. The mould-board, as well as the sheath, or head, is now generally made of cast-iron, on the inside of which is an inscription, bearing Mr Small's name, the name of the founders, (Cooper and Barker), and, what is principally intended, — the approbation of the Dalkeith Farming Socie- ty. It is now universally used over Scotland, and, perhaps, were it better known in England, the complicated ploughs, with wheels and other trum- pery, with which agriculture there is at present encumbered, would at once be displaced. This plough is not apt to be put out of order, being simple in the construction, and effective in opera- tion,is therefore adapted to almost every situation. The chain, connected with the muzzle, by which it is drawn, fixed as far back as the coulter, is not essential to its formation, serving merely to OF THE PLOUGH. 237 strengthen the beam, which may be made strong- er of itself at less expence, while the tillage is as accurately performed with ploughs that have none. The price is from 60s. to 70s. The ingenious Mr Bailey of Chillingham in Northumberland, who has written an essay on the construction of the plough, deduced from mathematical principles and experiments, has furnished a good deal of sound information con- cerning this valuable implement. "When Mr Bai- ley first endeavoured to ascertain the best form of a mould board, he began with trying to find the form of an inclined plane which would raise any sod from a horizontal position at C to a perpendi- cular one at D (Vide Fig. 3.) ; but it soon appeared that, though this might be done for a small slice, yet it would not do for the whole sod, which being bound together at the surface by fibrous roots of different tex:tures, created an elasticity that affected the whole from C to E j and that, if a sod of this description was turned over and left by the plough in a horizontal position as at C, and at an angle of 45 as at E, the inner edge would form a cun'e, which the mould-board 23$ 6r fllE PLOUGH. ought to fit, so as to be pressed equally alike from one end to the other. It being generally allowed that, in plowingi the greater quantity of surface exposed to the in- fluence of the atmosphere the better ; to obtain this, it is required to find at what angle the fur- row sods should be laid. Suppose AEF and BCG (Fig. 4.) to be twO'" furrow sods of equal dimensions, Then, because AC + CE = CE + EG By deducting CE, we have AC = EG and . CB = EF Hence AC + CB = EG + EF the surface exposed, which is required to be a maximum. Produce BC, and make CD = CA, and draw AD, then BC + AC = BD, and the angle DCA being a right angle, and DC = AC, the angles ADC and DAC will be each equal to 45 degrees. Then the sine of ADC : AB : : sine of DAB "..DB. But the angle at D and AB being both constant, DB will be a maximum, — when the OF THE PLOUGH. i255 sine of the angle DAB is a maximum, which it is well known to be, when a right angle, or 9,0 degrees. But as the angle DAC is 45 degrees, there- fore CAB will be 45 degrees likewise. In order to obtain this, Mr Bailey had several sods cut, of different textures, Q inches broad by 6 deep, and put into the position shewn by Fig. 5. and measuring at equidistant places the perpen- dicular heights raised, and horizontal distances removed, from the original position, the result w;is as in the following table. C40 OF THE PLOUGH. TABLE I. From A to C Perpendiculars. Horizontals. Ltchts. Jnclu's, Inches, 0 0,00 ,00 3 0,10 ,00 6 0,30 ,00 9 0,60 ,00 12 1,30 ,10 15 2,10 0,27 18 3.20 0 58 21 4,35 1,10 24 5 65 2,00 27 6S5 3,25 SO 8,10 5,00 33 8,77 6,Q0 36 9,50 .9,00 39 10,20 11,00 42 10,60 12,80 45 10,80 14.40 48 10,80 15,80 51 10,50 17,00 54 10,30 18,00 Fkom the above data a mould-board was con- structed in the following manner : Draw a right line AC (Fig. 6.), upon which set off, from C to A, the number of equidistant parts of 3 inches each in column first of the above table, and mark them 3, 6, 9> 12, 15, 18, &c. OF THE PLOUGH. 241 Th«ouqh each of these equidistant points draw lines at right angles to AC. tJpoN these perpendiculars, on the upper side of AC, set the distances in column 2d of the above table, viz. at 3 inches 0,1 6 ^. — 0,3 9 0,6 12 1,3, &c. And through the different points draw the line CDE, which will be the form of the curve that the sod describes in its perpendicular ascent, or the form of the perpendicular inclined planes that assist in raising the sod from a horizontal to a perpendicular position. Upon the perpendiculars, on the under side of the line AC, set the distances in column 3d, viz. at 12 inches 0,lO 15 0,27 18 0;58 21 1,10 24 2,0, &c. Vol. I. (^ 242 OF THE PLOUGH, And through the various points draw tRe line CFG, which will be the form of the curve that the sod describes in a horizontal position, or the form of the horizontal inclined planes that assist in turning the side over. The sod being perpendicular at B, and also the mould board, the point D will be at the same distance from the land side of the plough, as the width of the sole BF. Therefore a line drax^Ti from F through c^ to meet the line AC in d, will, with BF and B^, represent a section of the plough through cd^ parallel to the horizon at 8,77 inches high And a line from F through , r, /, Sic. to intersect AC in b, k, in, o, q, s, u, &c. will form triangles representing sections of the body of the plough, through gb, ik, //;;, no, pq, Ts, tUf 'V'w, rtspcctively. OF THE PLOUGH. 243 Then make cd = Bd tf^Bf ik = By& Im == B;« no =Bo n =% rs = Bj /i^ = B« i;w = Biy And through the points C, w, w, j, 5^, 46 OF THE PLOUGH. were in one right line ; also that the middle of the beam should be in the same plane as the land -side of the plough. Vid. Fig. ?• Plate III. If a bended lever CBD moving on the fulcrum C, be acted upon by a power at the end D, in di- rection of DP ; to find the direction of DP, so that the point D may remain in equilibrio. By the resolution of forces, DP will be resol- ved into PQjind DQj PQ^being that part of the absolute force which tends to raise the end D ; — and DC^is that part which tends to turn the lever round C, and lower the end D ; which, by the properties of the lever, is as CA. Thehefore the force to raise the end D^ being PQ^, and the force to lower the end D, being CA, it can only be in equilibrio when these two forces are equal. To find this : Produce PD to E ; then the tri- angles DPQ^ and DAE being similar, DE wilJ represent the absolute power, and AE represent PQ , or that part which tends to raise the end D 5 OF tHE PLOUGH. 547 but that AE may be equal to AC^ the point E ,mus.t descend and coincide with C, in which case the position of EDP is changed to that of fCDP, and the point of draught P, the point of yoking D, and point of r^i^tancCj will be in one right line. These principles being established, the rules for detervwiing the position and dimensions of the most essential parts of a plough j are not difficult to be comprehended. THAt the operation of ploughing may be per- formed with the least loss of power, it is neces- sary to know the height and inclination of the iiorses shoulder. While a horse is in the act of pulling, the in- clination of his shoulder varies from 69 to 75 degrees, according to circumstances; the medium is 72 degrees ; and the medium height of the point of draught on the shoulder of a horse, 1 5^ hands high, is 48 inches. These data being got from experiment, and; the depth to be ploughed (suppose 6 inches) given, 0^4 248 OF THE PLOUGH. Draw a right line AB, Fig. 8. and at any point A, erect a perpendicular AP, equal to 48 inches. Make the angle APB = 72 degrees, and produce the line bounding this angle to meet AB. Set the length of the traces and swinging trees from P to H J this is commonly 102 niches. From H, upon AB, let fall a perpendicular HI, which, measured on the scale that AP was taken from, will give the height of the beam. Then at the distance of half the def)th the land is intended to be ploughed, draw a line pa- rallel to AB, and from C, where it intersects PB, let fall a perpendicular upon AB to S, which will give the point of the sock ; and a line drawn through C, making an angle of 45 degrees with BA, will be the position of the fore-edge of the coulter. The heel of the plough will be got by setting the length of the sole 36 inches from S to L, OF THE PLOUGH. 249 The length of the beam may be determined by erecting a perpendicular at L, which will give the length of the beam MH. The form of the breast or sheath SG, will be ©btained from Table II. As many people entertain an idea, that the position in which the furrow sods are laid de- pends on the form of the mould-board, the fol- lowing propositions may shew that this is not the case, but that the position depends on the pro- portion between the breadth and depth ot the furrow. I. Having given the breadth of the furrow (nine inches and depth seven) to find the angle of po- sition, at which the sod will be laid. Describe, as in Fig. 9, a semicircle on the breadth AB, and with the depth BC intersect the semicircle in C, through C draw AD, and mea- sure the angle DAB, gives the angle of positioa 6 1 degrees nearly. 25o OF THE PLOUGH. By calculation, as AB : Radius : : CB : the sine of the angle CAB, or 51° 3. iL Having given the angle of position (30«) and breadth of the furrow (nine inches) to find the depthj Describe Fig. lo. a semicircle on AB the breadth, make the angle DAB equal the angle of position (30''), and from C, where it cuts the semicircle, draw CB for the depth, which, mea- sured on the same scale, is 4|- inches. By calculation, as Rad. : AB : : sine of the angle CAB (30°) : CB (4I). III. Suppose the depth to be plowed is six inches, and that the angle of position the* sods are wish- ed to be laid in be 40 degrees, required the breadth of the furrow necessary to place them in this position. 6? THE PLOUGir* 251 IDraw, Fig; 1 1 . an indefinitlve line DB, and at B make the angle DBC equal to the complement (50**) of the angle of position, set the depth from B to C, and at C erect a perpendicular to BC, tvhere it cuts DB at A, will give AB, the breadth required 9,3 inches. By calculation, as sine CAB (40") : CB : ? Rad. : AB (9,3> From what Is stated, we hope that artisans In every part of the country may be enabled to make ploughs that shall perform their operations with the least loss of power, especially if they at-^ tend to the height of the horses shoulder, and the depth intended to be ploughed* A PARING plough of a new construction was invented by the late Mr Cotesworth of Wynyard, in the county of Durham, which performs its work very well : See Fig. 1 2. The beam AB, 78 inches long, Is fixed to a frame CDEF, 63 inches long by 37 broad, in this frame, a little before the point of the share, .are fixed two wheels GG of 1 8 inches diameter. £52 OF THE PLOUGH. HH are the stilts, I the mould-board of wood, K the share, a flat triangular piece of iron, 20 inches by 14 (with a steel edge), fixed to the bottom of the blough by two screws, one in the sole, and one in the mould-board ; on the land- side of this share a small piece, L, is turned up perpendicular to the share, to cut the sod instead of a coulter. The wheels GG are raised or lowered, and fixed by wedges to regulate the depth to be pair- ed J that on the right hand runs upon the pared surface, and that on the left, upon the grass or unpared surface. With this plough an acre a day can be pared, from one to one inch and an half thick. As many of our readers may be unacquainted with the old Scots plough, the following descrip- tion of that ancient and unwieldy implement may not be unacceptable. Its several parts consisted of a head, a beam, a sheath, a wrest, a mould- board, two handles or stilts, which w ere connec- ted by two sticks or pieces of wood, called rungs ; all these were of wood, but the sock and coulter. OF THE PLOUGH. 253 With two shoes on the sole and side of the wrest, were of iron. The purposes of these different parts were as follows. The head and sock open- ed the land below, the coulter cut the surface, the wrest and mould-board raised the earth, and turned it over, the beam fixed the draught, and kept the several parts together, and by the handles the plough was managed and directed. The sock, or share, was of a spiked form, and acted as a miner, not cutting the furrows square in the bottom, as must be the case with the ploughs now in use, when properly constructed. From this description, the defects of the old Scots plough may be easily ascertained. Owing to the way in which the sock or share operated, a great deal of the ground was left to be turned over by the wrest ; and this part acted as a for- cer, without having influence to accomphsh the operation unless when impelled by considerable strength. The necessity of having a strong im- pelling power to execute the work sufficiently, influenced the ploughman, in most cases, to keep the wrest upwards, by which means he lessened the quantity of power that was required to carry forward the draught, though, by acting in this 254 <5F THE PLOUGH. way, he rendered the work executed proportion- ably defective ; as in such instances it was baulk- ed below, and imperfectly shouldered upon the surface. These defects were sufficiently ascer- tained, when attempts were made to lessen the size of the old Scotch plough, and to work the implement with two horses instead of three or four, the number usually employed in former times. Even the improved Rotherham plough was in some respects similarly deficient, till the mpuld-board received a greater curve, and was placed lower down, and more upon a level with the heel, than was usually the case at its first in- troduction. Bad and lazy ploughmen are at all times disposed to keep the furrow side up, thereby baulking the ground less or more, merely that the draught may sit easier upon the horses, without reflecting upon the serious injury occa- sioned to the soil, and consequently to the crops. The old Scots plough was, however, favour- able for working strong land, and for all lands recently brought under cultivation. At the time it was used, therefore, no other could be worked perhaps with equal advantage. From this con- sideration, it may be retained with propriety in OP THE PLOUGH. ^55 certain parts of the country, where improvements are only in their infancy ; though in every other, where any thing like perfect cultivation has been introduced, the improved Rotherham plough may be used with infinitely greater advantage. It will be attended with a saving to the farmer, and - to the country of no small importance. Two horses in the latter will nearly plough as much ground as four in the former, and in our opinion to much better purpose when the implement is properly constructed. Now, the expence of keep- ing two horses is not less than sixty pounds per aymuni, besides the wages and board of a driver, which at least will amount to twenty pounds more. It i? more owing to causes of this nature, than to any increase in the price of produce, that the rent of land has increased so prodigiously. The plough and thrashing machine are the two capital implements of husbandry ; and to the improve-* ment upon the one, and the introduction of the other, the proprietors of land are in a great mea- sure indebted for the increased value of their property. How much is it to be lamented, that the merits of the two men who improved and in- troduced these implements have not been duly considered and rewarded ! Had this been done,, S>56 OF THE PLOUGH." a debt, not recoverable in a law court, would have been discharged, and encouragement held out to other ingenious mechanics or artizans to e^^ert their endeavours in making improvements upon every implement already in use, and in de- vising new ones of greater powers and capacities for executing the different branches of rural la- bour. Wheel ploughs are much in vogue in several English counties, though not used in Scotland, except in some parts of Kincardine and Aberdeen- shires, where they were introduced by the late Mr Barclay of Urie. That ploughs of this de- scription may do very well upon flat sandy soils, we entertain no doubt ; nay, that they may be guided by ploughmen less skilful than those in- trusted with the management of swing or sledge ploughs, we mean not to question. Still it has always appeared to us, that so much additional resistance must be created by the action of the wheelsj especially when the surface is soft, as is sufficient to counteract, and even to exceed any benefit gained from the steadiness of draught, or the equality of breadth and depth of the fur- row takeut With respect to wheel ploughs, our OF THE PLdUGH. 2d7 Opinian is hot very different from the one giveii by Lord Karnes. That respectable agriculturist viewed them as trifles, describing the pivots of the wheels as constantly going wrong, and, on account of their being frequently chocked with earth, as increasing the friction instead of dimi- nishing it. Besides the improved Rotherham plough, now in general use, and worked by two horses, an- other implement, constructed upon the same prin- ciples, but of smaller dimensions, and consider- ably lighter, is used for cleaning beans, potatoes, and turnips. This plough is wrought by one horse, and does the business completely. It is of advantage to put ^ piece of plate iron betwixt the coulter and sheath or head, that the loose earth may not fall through upon the young plants. A horse hoej called a scraper, is also used to clean drilled crops on light soils, and is very efficacious ; when annual weeds are to be de- stroyed, but \vhen quicken or other root weeds are in the ground, a deeper furrow is required, and in that case the light Rotherham plough becomes necessary. Vol. I. ^ R 258 OF THE PLOUGH. To any one who has been in the habit of see- ing every kind of soil ploughed, in the complet- est manner, by an improved swing plough, drawn by two horses, it must appear highly absurd, that the lightest soils of Middlesex, Surry, and many other English counties, should be worked by five or six strong horses, yoked to a ponderous un- wieldy implement ; yet with an impelling power of such magnitude, the furrow is generally of less depth than the one taken by the improved plough drawn only by two horses. The differ- ence of expence in these two cases, must at least amount to thirty shillings per acre in favour of farmers who use the improved swing plough j and this may be given as one of many reasons why the rent of arable land is so much lower in England than in Scotland. There are some ob- stacles to the improvement of agriculture which farmers cannot remove ; but to purchase proper implements, and to work them in a suitable man- ner, is certainly within the power of every one. of them. It must, therefore, appear surprising, that a great proportion of English farmers are so* obstinately wedded to ancient customs and pre- judices, as to persist in using implements highly pernicious to the interests of agriculture and the OF THE PLOUGH* 259 prosperity of the state, without being of the slight- est benefit to themselves. A spirit of inquiry, however, has now gone abroad ; and it is to be hoped that the consequences thoreof will serve to correct the above and other errors. So many English farmers have of late visited Scotland, and made sedulous inquiries respecting the husban-, dry of that country, as inclines us to believe that ifhprovements in one part of the island will soon be diffused over the whole. But a stronger rea- son fbr inducing us to think that the number of horses used in a plough will shortly be lessened, may be gathered from the desire manifested by many English proprietors to obtain rents of a si- milar extent to those received by their Scottish brethern. It is obvious that this cannot happen, so long as the produce of land is wasted and con- sumed by a parcel of idle or superfluous horses j therefore, we would not feel surprise, were long teams interdicted by Ehglish proprietors, or that they refused to accept of a tenant, who did not previously bind and oblige himself to use the im- proved swing plough drawn by two horses; ^vhich implement, with the exception of the thrashing machine, may justly be reckoned the R 2 260 OF THE PtOUGH." greatest boon hitherto bestowed on British agri- culture. Mr Jeff£ksok, late Prd^iderit of the United States of America, who has cuhivated the study of agriculture with considerable success, has given the following description of a plough-ear or mould- board, which shall be given in his own words. The body of a plough ought not only to be the continuation of the wing of the sock, begin- ning at its posterior edge, but it must also be in the same plane. Its first function is to receive horizontally the earth from the sock, to raise it to the height proper for being turned over j to present in its passage the kast possible resist aiice, and consequently to require only the mimwum of moving power. Were its functions confined to this, the wedge would present, no doubt, the properest form for practice * ; but the object is * If the object were merely to raise the sod of earth to a given height by a determinate length of ear, with- out turning it over, the form which would give the least resistance would not be exactly that of a wedge OF THE PLOUGH. 26l ajiso to turn over the sod of earth. One of the judges of the ear ought then to have no elevation, to avoid an useless \vasting of force ; the other edge ought, oi> the contrary, to go on ascending until it has passed the perpendicular, m order that the sod may be inverted by its own weight ; and to obtain this effect with the least possible resistance, the inclination of the ear must increase gradually from the moment that it has received the sod. In this second function the ear acts then like ^ wedge situated in an oblique direction or as- cending, the point of which rests horizontally on the earth, while the other end continues to rise till it passes the perpendicular. Or, to con- with two plane faces j but the upper face ought to be curvilinear, according to the laws of the solid of least resistance described by mathematicians. But in this case the difference between the effect of the wedge with a curved face, and that of a wedge with a plane face, is so small, and it would be so difficult for workmen to construct the former, that the wedge with a plane face ought to be preferred in practice, as the first element of our method of construction. R3 2(52 OF THE PLOUGH. sider it under another point of view, let us place on the ground a wedge, the breadth of which is equal to that of the socH of the plough, and which in length is equal to the sock from the wing to ^he posterior extremity, and the height of the heel is equal to the thickness of the sock : draw a diagonal -on the upper surface from the left angle of the point to the angle on the right of the upper part of the heel ; slope the face by making it bevel from the diagonal to the right edge, which touches the earth : this half will evidently be the properest form for discharging the required functions, namely, to remove and turn over gradually the sod, and with the least force possible. If the left of the diagonal be sloped in the same manner, that is to say, if we suppose a straight line, the length of which is equal at least to that of the wedge, applied on the face already sloped, and moving backwards on that face, parallel to itself, and to the two ends of the wedge, at the same time that its low- er ends keeps itself always along the lower end of the right face, the result will be a curved sur- face, the essential character of which is, that it will be a combination of the principle of the wedge, considered according to two directions. OF THE PLOUGH. 263 which cross each other, and will give what we require, a plough-ear presenting the least possi- ble resistance. This ear, besides, is attended with this va- luable advantage, that it can be made by any common workman by a process so exact, that its form will not vary the thickness of a hiir. One of the great faults of this essential part of the plough is the want of precision, because work- men, having no other guide than the eye, scarcely two of them are similar. It is easier, indeed, to construct with preci- sion the plough-ear in question, when one has seen the method which furnishes the means once put in practice, than to describe the method by the aid of language, or to represent it by figures. I shall, however, try to give a description of it. Let the proposed breadth and depth of the furrow, as well as the length of the head of the plough, from its junction with the wing to its posterior end, be given, for these data will deter- mine the dimensions of the block from which the ear of the plough must be cut. Let us sup- R4 264 OF THE PLOUGH. pose the breadth of the furrow to be nine inches, the depth six, and the length of the head two feet; the block then (Fig. 22.) must be nine inches in breadth at its base b c, and 1 3^ inches at its summit ad ; for, if it had the top only the breadth a e equal to that of the base, the sod,raised in a perpendicular direction, would, by its own elasticity, fall back into the furrow. The experience which I have acquired in my own land h^is proved to me, that in a height of 12 inches the elevation of the ear ought to go beyond the perpendicular four inches and an half, which gives an angle of about 20^-^, in order that the weight of the sod may in all cases over- come its elasticity. The block must be 12 inches in height ; because if the height of the ear were not equal to twice the depth of the furrow, when jriable and sandy earth is tilled, it would pass the ear, rising pp like waves. It must be in length three feet, one of which will serve to form the tail that fixes the ear to the stilt of the plough. The first operation consists in forming this tail by sawing the block (Fig. 23.) across from a to li on its left side, and at the distance of 1 2 OF THE PLOUGH. 265 inches from the endfg; then continue the notch perpendicularly along b c till within an inch and a half of its right side ; then taking d i and e h, each equal an inch and a half, make a mark with ^he saw along the line d e, parallel to the right side. The piece abed efg will fall off itself, and leave the tail c d e h i k, an inch and a half in thickness. It is of the interior part abcklmn of the block that the ear must be formed. By means of a square, trace out pn all the faces of the block lines at an inch distance froni each other, of which there will necessarily be 23 : then draw the diagonals k m (Fig. 24.) on the upper face, and k o on that which is situated on the right j make the saw enter at the point w, directing it towards k, and making it descend along the line m I until it mark out a straight line between k and / (Fig. 25.) ; then make the saw enter at the point miunii SECT. VII. Of Thrash'nig Jllachines. We now come to treat of the Thrashing Ma- chine, the most valuable implement in the farm- er's possession, adding more to the general pro- duce of the country than any invention hitherto devised. The saving of manual labour, thereby obtained, is almost incalculable ; while the work is performed in a much more perfect manner than was formerly practicable, even when the utmost care and exertion were bestowed. In fact, had not the thrashing machine been invented, it is hardly possible to conceive what would have been the rate or expence of thrashing, or even whether a sufficient number of hands could, at dF THRASHING MACHINES. 315 any fate of expence, have been obtained for thrashing the grain of the country. Thrashing was always an unpopular branch of work, and seldom undertaken where other jobs could be procured. If this was the case in former times, when hands were more plentiful than work, what would have been the case now, when the labour of the country exceeds the means by which it is to be executed ? Either corn would have remained unthrashed, or the charge of doing it would have greatly diminished the pro- fits of the farmer, and consequently the value of land would have been considerably affected. Nothing Caused so much loss and vexation to the farmer in former times as the process of separating corn from the straw ; and various me- thods, in different ages, were adopted for ac- complishing this operation. The ancient inhabi- tants of Asia and Egypt, where agriculture is supposed to have had its origin, knew no other method than that of mclosing a spot in the open air, and smoothing it with clay rolled hard ; this was the thrashing floor. The corn being next spread in sheaves, oxen were turned in, and kept in motion till the business was done. " Thou fjlG OF THRASHING MACHINES. shalt not muzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn.'* Deut. xxv. 4. * If iElIan may be believed, the Greeks were neither so merciful nor cleanly in thi$ circum- stance. They besmeared the mouths of the poor animals with dung, to keep them from tasting the corn under their feet. Hist. u4iumaL lib. iv. cap. 23. Machines were next invented, in different countries, made of planks or beams, stuck over with flints or hard pegs, to rub the ears between them ; others to bruise out the grain by sledges, or trail-carts. Diccndum et quae sint dtiris agrcstihus arma Ti-ibuluy trabaeqiiCi et iniquo pondei'e rastri. The translators of Virgil, from Father Ogilvie downwards, have included the flail in this de- scription : The sled, the tumbril, hurdles, and the flail. Dryden. OF THRASHINa MACHINES. 31!^ Tribulum, however, was certainly the ma- chine first described for the single purpose of se- parating the grain from the husk, or chaff. At what period of time the flail took place of the former awkward machine is not known with cer- tainty. President Goguet says, th^t the Turks, and many of the Italians, have not yet adopted it. The barbarous Celts, accoustomed to fire and sword J made short work. They burned the straw, and instantly devoured the grain ; and, it is said, this custom continues amongst their de- scendants in some parts of the Highlands of y Scotland to this day. In Britain, till 1/87, the flail was the only instru- ment employed for separating corn from the straw. liut, previous to that period, several attempts were made to construct machines for performing that laborious work. The first attempt was made by an ingenious gentleman of the county of East Lothian, Mr Michael Menzies, who ii)vented a machhie upon the principle of driving a number of flails by a water-wheel ; but, from the force with which they wrought, the flails were soon broken to pieces, and consequently the invention did not succeed. 318 OF THRASHING MACHINES. Another thrashing machine was invented about 1738, by Mr Michael Stirling, a farmer in the parish of Dumblain, Perthshire. This ma- chine was nearly the same as the common mill for dressing flax, being a vertical shaft with four cross-arms, inclosed in a cylindrical case, three feet and a half high, and eight feet diameter. With- in this case, the shaft with its arms were turned with considerable velocity by a water-wheel, and the com being let gradually down through an opening on the top of the box, the grain was beat off by the arms, and passed with the straw through an opening in the floor, from which it was separated by riddles shaken by the mill, and then cleared by fanners, also turned by it. But the machines which first attracted public notice were those erected in 1772 and 1773, in Northumberland, by Mr Ilderton at Alnwick, and Mr Oseley at Flodden. Mr Ilderton's acted upon the principle of pressing or rubbing out the com by a large drum. Mr Oseley's attempt had the appearance of being more successful ; there- fore the nature of his machine shall be described with some minuteness. This we are partly in- duced to do, because some people have alleged OF THRASHING MACHINES. 319 that the machine, now in general use, was copied from it. This however is hot true ; for we are confident that Mr Meikle never saw or heard any- thing of it till a long time after it was taken down. Indeed, a moment's consideration may satisfy any one acquainted with mechanics, that these ma- chines were constructed upon different principles, and that in practice the operations of each were as different as the principles. The machine erected by Mr Oxley, for Sir John Delaval, Baronet, had two fluted rollers, and, in place of a drum, had a double set of arms which were connected at the ends by cross bars. The scutchers were framed of two pieces of wood about three inches broad, one and a half inch thick at one end, by three quarters of an inch at the other, and were connected with the cross bars by leather straps. A circular breast was fixed beneath the centre about three inches from the scutchers, so as to allow the corn to pass betwixt them ; and the unthrashed corn was laid upon a board at the level of the centre of the scutchers, and drawn in by two fluted rol- jers. The operations of the machine were very defective ; and as little corn could be passed at 320 ON THRASHING MACHINES, a time, the expence of thrashing was greater than when executed by the flail. The principles upon which the machine was constructed were evidently erroneous. The form of the scutchers, and the way in which they were fixed, were such, that their reverbera- tions necessarily weakened the force of the stroke so much as to require an exertion of greater power. To give extra power however was impracticable, for if one half of the velocity required by the machine now in use had been given, the scutchers would instantly have been broke to pieces, and occasioned the destruction of the machine, be- sides endangering the lives of the people em- ployed in working it. From these circumstances it may be deduced that velocity formed no part of^the principles of this machine, and that it could not have been successfully used without being materially amend- ed. But this is not alk The relative situation of the feeding rollers and scutcher was such, that the utility of the former was in a great mea- sure defeated. The purpose of the rollers is to draw the corn gradually forward j and to hold it O.V THRASHING MACHINES. 3^1 Htm when the shake of the scutcher is given j but the distance betwixt them and the scutchers prevented the latter from being accomplished. Another important defect was the want of a drum, a part of the implement absolutely neces- sary to prevent the corn from flying about the house, and the straw and chaff from clogging the machinery, to which the scutchers were suspend- ed. The abandonment of the machine, after it was tried, however, proves its inutility in a strong. er manner than the most satisfactory human testi- mony* Mr Oseley's machine was never made public^ therefore it is proper we should explain how the above particulars were obtained. They were communicated to us by a mill-wright at New- castle, who assisted in taking the machine down after its inefiicacy was ascertained ; and, being corroborated by the information of others, may be fully relied upon. Having thus detailed some of the laudable, though unsuccessful, attempts to construct m«u chines for thrashing com, we come to narrate the circumstances which led to the constructiou Vol. I. X 322 OV TIIUASHING MACHINES. of the machine now in general use. Every for- mer attempt having failed, unquestionably the merit of the invention belongs to the gentleman shortly to be mentioned. The late worthy Sir Francis Kinloch of Gil- merton, Baronet, who it is well known possessed a large stock of mechanical knowledge, in one of his tours, happened to see the machine erected by Mr Uderton upon his farm near Alnwick, and ordered a model thereof to be made for his use, which we believe was executed by the late Mr Rastrick at Morpeth. Sir Francis made many improvements upon Mr llderton's design ;. and several models executed by him, or at least under his inspection, are still preserved ; one of them tolerably perfect, we have seen in the ware- room or depot of the Board of Agriculture in London. As Sir Francis had no opportunity of trying a large model which he caused to be made, it was sent by him to Mr Andrew Meikle civil engineer at Houston mill, in the county of Had- dington, that its effects might be ascertained by the water-wheel of Mr Meikle's barley mill. The trial was accordingly made ; but in a few minutes the model was torn to pieces j and the ON THRASHING .A1ACH1XE.<. 323 like fate befel a machine of full size, which Sir FraiKis erected for one of his tenant's a few years afterwards. In short Sir Francis' machine, like that of Mr Oseley, was incapable of sustaining the velocity required in thrashing, therefore was not imitated by a single person. A great deal of praise however is due on account of the at- tempts which he made to construct a machine capable of separating com from the straw. The way to success was certainly opened and paved by Sir Francis and other people ; and while jus- tice is done to their attempts, the merit of the man who first constructed a machine of sufficient strength and powers for performing the work of thrashing in the completes! and most satisfactory manner, is not thereby lessened. Mil Meiklf, after trying Sir Francis Kin- loch's model, was induced to turn his attention to the subject of thrashing by machinery ; and a principle occurred to him, entirely a new one, be- cause it had not been previously acted upon by any other person. It is evident that the power re- quired to thrash corn in a perfect manner, or even in any quantity, must be considerable, as it is now completely ascertained, that to do the work X 2 324 ON THRASHING MACIII.VE5. right, a machine must move with a velocity of two thousand feet of the circumference of the drum in a minute. Reflecting upon this circum- stance, Mr Meikle thought that the surest way of executing the work was to beat out the corn from the ear bif means of a stj^ong drum or cy* Under, upon zchich fixed beaters shoed with iron should be placed. Experience sanctions the jus- tice of this principle ; for almost every machine now in use has been copied from those he first erected ; though, no doubt, many variations upon the size of the drum, and other parts of the im- plement, totally distinct and unconnected with the original principles, have been adopted by him and others. It may be added, that the machine is capable of being safely wrought with greater velocity than what we have mentioned ; and it is already said, without considerable velocity coriv cannot be thrashed in a satisfactory manner. The first machine erected by Mr Meikle, was on account of Mr Stein at Kilbeggie, in Clack- mannanshire. A sure proof that such a ma- chine was then altogether unknown may be ga- thered from the agreement about this erection ; it being therein stipulated that Mr Stein was to ON THRASHING MACHlJilES. 2Q5 fiimish the materials ; and that if the machine did not answer the intended purpose, Mr Meikle was not to receive any payment for the work per- formed. This machine being successful, another was erected for Mr Seley at Middleton in Nor- thumberland, which was immediately copied and imitated by several mill wrights of that county j one of whom had the singular modesty to claim the invention, because he had previously made a model of Mr Ilderton's machine,— a machine of a quite different nature, though intended to per- form the like operation. The utility of the machine being satisfactorily ascertained, a patent for the invention was ob- tained by Mr Meikle. It is a singular circum- stance, that though this patent was obtained at considerable expence, it was not acted upon in the first instance, though, at that time, it would have been an easy business to have carried it into execution. At a future period viz. when len years of the patent were expired, some of Mr Meikle's friends stood forward, and endeavoured to put it in force ; but the interlopers were then so numerous, that the design could not be exe- cuted without risking an excessive expence, nor ^3 326 ON THRASIIfXG MACHINES. he be compensated by any profits that could be gained during unexpired years. Thus the wor- thy inventor has hitherto derived small benefit from an invention which has profited the public more than any other implement yet devised ; though, it is recorded with pleasure, that a sub- scription among proprietors and occupiers of land is now going on for rewarding him, which from present appearances promises to be am- ple and sufficient. Since the invention of the machine, various im- provements have been introduced by Mr Meikle and others, all tending to simplify the labour, and to augment the quantity of the work per- formed. When first erected, though the com was equally well separated from the straw, yet as the whole of the sti-aw, chafi", and corn, were in- discriminately thrown into a confused heap, the work could only, with propriety', be considered as half executed. By the addition of rakes, or shakers, and two pair of fanners, all driven by the same machiner)', the diflferent processes of thrashing, shaking, and winnowing, are now all performed at once, and the corn immediately pre- pared for the public market. When it is added. ON THRASHING MACHINES. 327 that the quantity of corn gained from the supe- rior powers of the ma. hine is fully equal to a twentieth part of the crop, and that, in some cases, the expence of thrashing and cleaning the corn is considerably less than what was formerly paid for cleaning it alone, the immense savings arising from the invention may at once be ascer- tained. Where farms are of a small size, it would be improper to recommend the erection of large ma- chines, as the interest of the original outlay would be a heavy drawback from the advantages ; but, under contrary circumstances, we are decidedly of opinion, that a machine of great powers, pro- vided with two rakes, or shakers, and two pair of fanners, is the most profitable one for the pos- sessor. By such a machine, when wrought by horses, the grain is completely thrashed and cleaned at little more expence than is paid for cleaning it alone, when thrashed by the flail, in- dependent of the additional quantity of corn pro- duced ; and, when wind and water is substituted instead of horses, the saving is considerably in- creased. X4 3^28 ON THRA<;ilINC; MACHINES. A horse machine of the greatest powers, with the appendages of rakes and fanners, may be erected for L. 150, and, when wrought by wind, for L.300, independent of the buildings and fix- tures which are required. It would be unfair, however, to charge these articles of expenditure to the account of the thrashing machine, as, even on a middle-sized farm, a much greater ex- tent of building is required for barn-work, when the corn is separated, from the straw by the flail, than when the operation is performed by the thrashing machine. Fro.m the most minute attention bestowed oiji this subject, we are confident that an extra quan- tity of com, equal, in ordinary years, to 5 per cent, will be given by the thrashing machine, a- bove what is obtained by the flail ; besides innu- merable other advantages which accompany that machine. Indeed, the best of farmers were obli- ged to subpiit to losses by the flail, because they could not be remedied j but, with the thrashing machine, no corn need be lost, as every particle of grain is scutched oflF, when the machine is constructed upon right principles. ■ON THRASHING MAClilNES. 329 The expence of horse-labour, from the in- creased value of the animal, and the charge of his keeping, being an object of great importance, it is recommended that, upon all sizeable farms, that is to say, where two hundred acres or up^ wards of corn are sown, the machine should be wrought by wind, unless where local circumstanr ces afford the conveniency of water. Wind machines were, till lately, exposed to dangerous accidents, as the sails could not be shifted when a brisk gale suddenly arose, which is often the case in the variable climate of North Britain. These disagreeable circumstances are now effectually prevented, by the inventive ge- nius of Mr Meikle ; and the machine may be ma- naged by any person of the smallest discernment or attention. The whole sails can be taken in, or let out, in half a minute, as the wind requires, by a person pulling a rope within the house, so that an uni- form motion is preserved to the machine, and the danger from sudden squalls prevented. Another person has even improved upon this invention ; ^nd these machines are now constructed in 3uch 330 ON THRASHING MACHINES. a way as that they can be reefed and unreefed by the operation of machinery. Those recently erected are also guided or pointed to the wind by a small wheel or helm, and, in short, have reached to a degree of perfection that could hardly have been expected to take place with such implements. Where coals are plenty and cheap, steam may be advantageously used for working the ma- chine. A respectable farmer in the county of £ast Lothian, works his machine in this way ; and, being situated in the neighbourhood of a colliery, he is enabled to thrash his grain at a trifling expence. The quantity of grain thrashed in a given time must depend upon its quality, on the length of the straw, and upon the number of horses, or strength of the wind, by which the machine is wrought ; but, under favourable circumstances, from seventy to eighty bushels of oats, and from thirty to fifty bushels of wheat, may be thrashed and cleaned in one hour. But it is from clean dry grain only that so much will be done in that period. ON THRASHING MACHINES. 331 As a farmer's capital ought never to be laid out in expensive building, or works of an extrar ordinary kind, we are of opinion, that the sums necessary for erecting machines should, in the first instance, be expended by the landlord, and the tenant bound to leave them in a xiorkubk comUtion at his departure. Many farmers have capitals sufficient for undertakings of this kind ; but the great body of that profession would be injured by such an expence, as they would thus be deprived of the means of improving their farms in other respects. Besides, as every im- provement, at the long run, centers in the pocket of the proprietor, it is but fair and reasonable he should contribute his moiety of the expence laid out in procuring it ; and, in many cases, he would be benefited, in the first instance, by the erection of thrashing niachines, particularly where new farm-steadings are to be built, as fewer buildings would, of course, be necessary. We have said that the thrashing machine is the most valuable rural implement hitherto in- vented, and shall now offer some calculations in support of what we have maintained. It is un- derstood that the extent of ground devoted an- 33'2 ox THRASHING MACU1KE9. nually in Britain to the culture of com amounts to eight millions of acres ; therefore, taking the average return at three quarters per acre, as be- low that increase com cannot be cultivated with profit, the total amount of com produced annu- ally within this island would be twenty-four mil- lions of quarters ; a quantity not exceeding what 15 required for supplying the consumption of the inhabitants and other purposes. Now, as it is well known that the thrashing machine, from its su- perior powers, will give one-twentieth more grain than when the operation of thrashing is perform- ed by the flail, this furnishes an increased quan- tity of one jnillion two hundred thousand quar- ters, which, estimated at the low average price of forty shillings per quarter, amounts in value to two millions four hundred thousand pounds Sterling. Add to this the difference of expence betwixt thrashing by the machine and the flail, which, in general cases, may be stated at one shilling per quarter, it will appear that, if the whole com raised in Britain was thrashed by ma- chines, the saving to the public would not be less than three millions six hundred thousand pounds Sterling annually. Suppose one-half, or even one-third, of British gram only thrashed in that dN THRASH IVG MAC:iiNES« 333 manner, still the saving thereby is an immense one. Those who may doubt the accuracy of these calculations are requested to try them by facts ; and vve are much mistaken if the result will differ very materially from what is here stat- ed. In the foregoing account we have given the merit of inventing the thrashing machine solely to Mr Meikle, and, upon looking over what is stated, we see no cause to retract one word of what is maintained. We are perfectly aware that many people besides Mr Meikle attempt- ed to construct such machines, but contend that every one of these attempts wa$ abortive, and that all the machines erected upon principles different from those fixed on by Mr Meikle have, with the exception ot Mr Stirling*s, been renoun- ced and forsaken. Those who dispute this state- ment are bound to condescend upon the machine or machines that were erected prior to the one which Mr Meikle put up for Mr Stein^ Kilbeg- gie ; and, if they cannot make such a condescen- dence, must acknowledge that the honour of the invention belongs to Mr Meikle. That other people attempted to construct thrashing machines 354 ON THRASHING MACHINES/ before Mr Meikle made a perfect one we have already acknowledged ; and we may add, that those who engaged in such attempts were and are entitled to much praise on that account : Still the merit of the actual invention is not thereby lessened j on the contrary, it is rather in- creased, seeing that he proved successful in a cause where many others had previously failed. Let us put a case, and it is one exactly parallel. Some years ago, Mr Gladstones at Castle Doug- las laudably endeavoured to construct a reaping machine, but was unsuccessful ; others did the same, and with no better success. Now, Mr Scot at Ormiston has lately obtained a premium from the Dalkeith Farming Society for the best model of a reaping machine, and is now con- structing a full-sized implement according to the principles of that model. Should Mr Scott be successful, must not he be considered as the in- ventor of the reaping machine, notwithstanding that Mr Gladstones, and many others, were pre- viously working at such implements ? Of this there can be no doubt. Let the case be reversed. Sir Francis Kinloch, or any other person, being substituted for Mr Gladstones, and Mr Meikle ON THRASHING MACHINES. 335 for Mr Scott, and let any one say why a similar judgment should not be pronounced. Ix a word, the invention of this implement may be considered as the greatest improvement that has been introduced into Britain during the present age. The toil of human labour is by this means lessened, the stock of agricultural produce is greatly increased, and the facility of managing large concerns wonderfully promoted. The duty of rewarding the inventor is a debt incumbent upon the whole landed interest of the island, and, by discharging it, they will stimulate ingenious mechanics of all descriptions to exert their talents in making useful discoveries. Small machines are used for thrashing in many places ; but we have doubts respecting the advantages of such implements. Allowing that the work is equally well performed with a small machine as with a large one, still it is unques- tionably true, that the expence of thrashing must be greater when the former is employed ; be- cause the time of one person must be occupied in feeding the machine, v/hether one boll or ten bolls of grain be thrashed within the hour. This 336 ON THRASHING MACHIXLS. is an objection to small machines, which cartnot be gotten over, even were it allowed that the grain is equally well thrashed ; a circumstance canceming which we have considerable doubts. It is one of the defects, however, which attend small farms ; for it is almost impossible upon them to make a suitable division of labour in any case. The best machine is that which is impelled by a six-horse power ; because such a machine is well qualified to thrash every kind of grain per- fectly, while, at the same time, full employment is given to the feeder. On small farms, we have always considered the flail to be the most profit- able implement for thrashing grain ; because the expenditure incurred in erecting a suitable ma- chine would exceed the probable benefit. Per- haps thrashing machines can rarely be worked with advantage upon a farm where less than one hundred acres are annually cultivated ; and it is evident, without demonstration, that the benefit of using them is in direct proportion to the quan- tity of corn that is cultivated. If we shall sup- pose, that the interest upon outlay and the tear and wear of a thrashing machine is fifteen pounds per (ijunnn, and that SOO bolls of grain are raised where 100 acres are cultivated, the charge, on OF THilASHING MACHINES. 337 accounts is precisely fourpence-halfpenny per boll. If the farm is of such a size as to admit the raising of sixteen hundred bolls, the charge is reduced to twopence-farthing per bdil ; but, should the return amount to two thousand four hundred bolls, the charge will be no more than three halfpence per boll. This is a true view of the business, when interest on outlay, tear and wear are to be considered ; and proves, what has seldom been questioned by those who have stu- died the science of rural economy, that a large farm may be managed comparatively at much Jess expence than a small one. Tut scarcity of labourers in many districts, t>wing to the increase of trade, and the immense number of hands employed in the army and na- vy, ful-nishes another agument for the general in- troduction of thrashing machines. It is a cir- cumstance which cannot fail to excite surpriscj that those machines are scarcely known in many of the best cultivated Enghsh counties, notwith- standing that their utility is universally acknow- ledged wherever they have been erected. Some objections have been offered by English farmers, as if the saving in one way would be compensated Vol. L Y 338 ON THRASHING MACHINES. by the increased expence in another ; in other words, that if thrashing machines were brought into general use, a great many labourers would be thrown out of employment, which, of course, would serve to raise the poor rates. Experience, however, is, in every case, the surest guide. The very same argument was used in Scotland when machines were introduced ; and yet it has been found that the savings made by the farmer in this way enabled him to employ more labourers than before. A similar objection was urged against two-horse ploughs at their introduction, as if these implements would prevent young men from being trained to husbandry, and cause the num- ber of ploughmen to fall below the actual de- mand. Time has, however, shewn the weakness of these objections. Ploughmen are as plentiful as formerly ; and, what is of greater importance, they are better qualified for executing their work. Every invention that lessens the expence of farm labour enables the farmer to employ additional hands in carrying on other works ; and, in all improved farms, these works are so numerousy that employment can never be wanting for la- bourers, as long as the means of paying them re- main with the employer. ON THRASHING MACHINES. ii39 The mode of harvesting corn in England, however, is much against the use of thrashing machines ; and indeed it is against the process of thrashing in whatever way it is performed. In many counties, all the grain, with the exception of wheat, is cut by the scythe, and of course is not bound up into sheaves in that regular way as when it is cut by the sickle. Oats, in particular, cannot be thrashed clean with a machine, unless the heads or ears are fairly and equally exposed to the beaters or scutchers. If either this grain or wheat passes irregularly or unequally through the feeding rollers, the beaters have little power, and are unfit for accomplishing the process of separation. Barley and beans are grains more easily thrashed, the latter especially, than wheat and oats ; though, after all, the more regular that unthrashed grain is presented to the ma- chine, so much the more completely will the grain be separated from the straw. In the above account, Mr Menzie's attempt to thrash grain by the use of a machine is slightly^ noticed. Though the attempt was unsuccessful at the time, there is no doubt that it afterwards y 2 240 OF TIIRASIiING MACHINES. proved of public benefit ; because the attention of ingenious artizans was thereby turned lo the same subject, till at last a perfect machine was constructed. The like result, we hope, may foU low the attempts of artizans to construct reaping machines ; and though these attempts have hither* to been unsuccessful, yet, when it is considered that the long period of forty years intervened betwixt the comniencement and completion of the thrashing machine, or, at least, before a per- fect one was constructed, there is no cause for dispairing of a proper reaping machine being in time obtained, notwithstanding the failures that have already occurred. NoiwiTiisTANDFXG that Mr Menzies's ma- chine did not answer the intended purpose, we think it right to give the following description of it as contained in a report made to the Edinburgh Society of improvers by two of its learned mem- bers. Much praise, in our opinion, was due to Mr Menzies. ** Mr Michael Menzies, advocate, having in- vented a machine for thrashing of grain, and ob- tained a patent for the sole disposal of it, upon OF THRASHING MACHINES. 341 a representation made to the Society, that it was to be seen going in several places, and that the said machine saved labour, and thrashed the grain cleaner than the ordinary way, they appoint- ed Mr Alexander Boswel and :\/r Charles Mait- land, advocates, to visit it, make their observa- tions and remarks thereupon, and to report. " TffEiR Report.-^vi obedience to the ap- pointment, we went to Rosebum, near Edin- burgh, where one of the machines is set up, and is moved by water. We were there a consider- able time, and examined, with all the exactness we could, the structure thereof. Thereafter we saw It thrash for some time ; and that the power and exactness of it might the better appear, straw, that seemed to be well thrashed before, and to be as clean of grain as straw thrashed in the common way generally is, was put into this ma- chine J and out of twelve bottles of this straw there was thrashed very near the fourth part of a peck ; and the grain, thus thrashed out, was good, and no ways bruised or hurt. After we had seen the large machine, which is moved by a great water-wheel and triddles, we went and Y3 S42 ON THRASHIXG ilACHINES. saw another, which is moved by a little wheel of three feet diameter, acted upon by a small quan- tity of water ; which last would be useful, where there is not conveniently to be had a sufficient quantity of water for moving a large wheel, and might serve almost at every place in the winter time, being supplied from the small currents oc- casioned by the land-floods. And it is our hum- ble opinion, that the machine would be of great use to farmers, both in thrashing the grain clean- er from the straw, and in saving a great deal of labour ; for one man would be suf^cient to ma- nage a machine, which would dp the work of six ; and that therefore the Society should re- commend the use of the same, and give all the encouragement they can to so beneficial an in- vention, which, being simple and plain, in the machinery, may be of universal advantage. " The Society approved of the report, and re- commended the said machine to all gentlemen and farmers." The ingenious ^Ir Bailey gives an excellent description of the thrashing machine, in the Northumberlarid Sun'ci/, which, with the great- OIV THRASHING MACHINES. S43 «st liberality, he allows us to use on the present <5ccasion. A Descnption ami Calculation of a Thrashing Machine erected at Chill'mgham. " In Fig. 44p BB is a horizontal board, or table, five feet long by three feet four inches broad, on which the corn CC is evenly spread, and presented tq the cast-metal fluted rollers RR (four inches diameter), which take it regu- larly in, and by their weight and sharp edges hold fast the straw, while it is struck, switched, or thrashed, by the switchers^ or pieces of wood SSSS, fixed in the cylinder DD, and projecting three inches from its surface * ; these, when they * This cylinder is made with strong arms, on which are fixed the switchers, aud cased round with narrow inch deals, the whole secured from flying off by strong iron hoops, surrounding them at each end. The switchers are covered with plate iron, to prevent their wearing Y4 344 OF THRASHING MACHINES. Strike the corn, move in an upward direction RE^ with great velocity, and throw the corn as it is thrashed, and the straw as it leaves the fluted rollers, againsp the circular rake KK, and upon the wire skreen G, from whence the straw is taken by the rake, and delivered upon the slop- ing board L, down which it slides to the floor N, while the corn passes through the skreen G into the hopper H, and from thence to the in- clined board 1 ; but, in falling from H to I, a strong current of air, raised by the fanners FFF, blows the chaff over the sloping board O, and the light corn against it, which falls into the space P, and the chaff into AI, while the good grain slides down the inclined board I I to the floor at O. from whence it i? taken and put into a second winnowing machine, in which are placed proper ridJles to suit different kinds of grain. This second machine is moved by a rope going pver a pulley fixed in the axle T, and is set a- going, or stopped, at pleasure, by a stretching pulley, as occasion requires. Whfre the situation will admit of the board 1 1 being placed about four feet from the floor, the second winnowing . machine may be placed OF THIlASmNG MACHINES. 34o directly under it, and save the trouble of lifting the corn. To find the velocity of tlic particular purts^ we must divide the product of the number of cogs in the driving zcheels^ by the product of the num- ber of cogs in the driven xvheclsy and the quo- tient will be the number of revolutions made by the last moved part, for one of the first moving part. The whole is put in motion by an overshot water wheel fourteen feet diameter, which makes from five to six revolutions per minute, accord* ing to the supply of wat^r. On the axle of this water wheel is fixed a large spur wheel a a of ]60 cogs {]5Q,\ inches diameter), which drives a cast-metal pinion ^ of 16 cogs (;o.i8 inches diameter), on the axis of which is placed another spur wheel c of 63 cogs 60. 1 inches diameter), that drives the cast-metal pinion d of 1 6 leaves (15.28 inches diameter), on the axis of which is fixed the cylinder DD (^four feet diameter, and five feet long), with the four projecting pieces of wood, or switchers, SSSS, that switch or thrash the corn, as described above. 545 ON' THRASHING MACHINES. Then 44" x ly = 3p.i;75, the revolutions of the cy Under for one of the watei wheel, 5.5, the medium re- volutions of the water wheel per — minute. which multiplied by gives this multiplied by gives 2 1 6.562, the revolutions of the cylinder per minute ; 4, the number of switchers, 866.25, the number of strokes per mi- nute. And, as the diameter of the cylinder is four feet, the circumference will tie 12,56; therefore C 1 ^,5625, the revolutions of the cylinder per minute, multiplied by 12.56 feet, the circum- ference of the cy- ■ Jinder, gives 2720 feet, the velocity of the switchers per minute. ox TiiRkhHlKO't/dilTtvi^is. 347 Thk large spur wheel a alsd drives the light cog wheel e of 63 cogs (60. 1 inches diameter), fixed on the axis k I of the rake for taking away the straw. Then Jf° = 0.54, the number of revolutions which the rake makes for one of the water wheel, multiplied by 5,5^ the revolutions of the wa. : ter wheel per minute, gives J 3.97, nearly 14, the revolutions of the rake per minute j which, having four arms, will clear the skreen of " straw 56 times per mi- nute. The rollers are moved by the pinion Z> of 16 leaves, working into the slight cast-metal wheel /, fixed on the iron axis / / of the lower roller, on which axis is also fixed a small pinion g of eight leaves, working into another h of equal number, fixed on the axis * of the upper roller. * This axis is fixed into the upper roller, either by ^n universal joint, or with a square tapering end, tq. 348 O? THHASHING MACHINES. which gives the two rollers an equable motion for taking in the com. Then Vl* X -^ =» 4.444, the revolutions of the rollers for one of the water wheel, multiplied by 5.5, gives 194.44, the revolutions of the rollers per mi- nute, Anp the diameter of the rollers being four inches, the circumference will be 12.506" inches ; therefore 1 2.566 inches^ the circum- fisrence of the roU lers, multiplied by 24.44, the revolutions of the rollers per mi^ nute, gives 3071 inches of straw, pas- allow the upper roller to rise and fall, according as the corn is fed in thicker or thinner, and the concave board RE is hung on a holt, to allow it to rise and fall with the roller. OF THRASH IXG MACHINES. 349 sing through the rollers per minute j which 307 inches receive S66 strokes of the switchers in that time, or nearly three strokes to an inch. WHEy the rollers are required to move swifter ©r slower, they may be driven very conveniently from the end of the axle of the rake, by fixing a czst-mQtdX J aced wheel on it, with three rows of cogs, (S, 10, and 13, working into a shifting pinion of eight leaves, fixed on an iron axle ; at the other end of which is put a small bevel wheel of 112 teeth, working into another of eight teeth, at the end of the axle of the lower roller. The fanners are moved by a crossed rope^ pas- sing over a pulley T, 1 0 inches diameter, fixed on the axis of the cylinder, and another V of eight inches diameter, on the axis of the fanners. Then, as the axis of the cylinder makes 215.66 revolutions per minute, we have 216.56 X V^ = 270.7 rcvolutbns of the fanners per minute. From the above it appears, that when the water wheel makes 5~ revolutions in one mi- nute, 350 ox TIIRASIJISG .MACHINES. The cylinder will make 2 1 6^ ditto, The rollers 244- nearly. The rake 1 4 ditto, and clears the skreen of straw 5G times per minute, The fanners 270^ ditto, The switchers make 866 strokes per minute, and move with a ve- locity of 2720 feet per minute. The rollers take in nearly 300 inches of corn per minute. The medium length of good oats is about 20 inches ; and, supposing half a sheaf put in at a time, a whole sheaf will then be equal to 60 inches : Therefore i%° — 5 sheaves per mi- nute, which agrees with the usual rate of going of this machine, when supplied with a medium quantity of water. From some experiments lately made, 120 sheaves of oats were thrashed in 22 minutes, and yielded 1 2 bushels, which is at the rate of 33 bushels per hour, or 264 per day of eight hours. The expencc, for the attendance of the thrash- ing and dressing part of this machine, is only ON THRASHING MACIIIYES. 351 that of three women ; viz. one to feed-in, an- other to hand the sheaves to the feeder, and the third to take away and riddle the corn after it is winnowed : of course, the expence of thrashing and dressing i2()4 bushels is only Is. 6d. Th r expence of thrashing the same quantity by the flail would be one twenty-fifth part, or ten and a half bushels, which, at 2s. per bushel, is 2 1 s. to which must be added 2s. the expence of a man and two w'omen to assist in winnowing, making in all ^:>s. The expence of erecting a thrashing machine of this kind was from L. 70 to L. ^0 ; but since the advance of wood, iron, and wages, it will be now near L.IOO. Machines of small dimensions are erected for about L. 50, which, with two horses, will thrash and dress 1 20 bushels of oatsj or 60 of wheat, in eight hours. Rollers, or small millstones, are added to many of these machines, for crushing or grind- ing grain for horses, swine, &c. Knives for cut- 352 OF THRASHING MACHlNtS. ting straw, and many other useful appendage?., might be added. I.v Virginia, and other countries, wheat is trod- den out by horses, nearly in the same way as it was formerly done in Palestine by oxen. A short account of this practice cannot be unacceptable to our readers. The treading floors are generally from sixty to one hundred feet diameter ; but the larger their diameter is, so much easier is the work to the horses. The tract, or path, on which the shdaves are laid, and on which the horses walk, is from twelve to twenty-four feet wide, or more. The floors are commonly inclosed by fences ; and the horses are generally driven between them pro- miscuously and loose, each pressing to be fore«- most, so that fresh air may be obtained, — biting, jostling, and kicking each other with the greatest fury. The labour is this way in extremely severe. Upon some small floors, a centre stick is placed, to which hangs a rope, or a pole and swivel, and four or five horses being fastened together, travel tound upon the sheaves with the utmost regula- rity. Previous to laying down the wheat sheaves. ON THRASHING MACHINES. 35^ tlie State of the air, and the probability of its con- tinuing dry through the day, is fully considered. If they resolve to tread, the morning is suffered to pass away till the dew is removed. A row of sheaves is first laid upon the floors with the heads and butts in a line across the track of it, as a bolster for receiving other sheaves ; and these sheaves range with the path, or circle, the butts resting on the floor. Other sheaves are ranged in like manner, with the heads raised on the for- mer, tin the whole floor is filled, when it appears to be filled with nothing but ears of wheat, slop- ing a little upwards. Upon laying down each eheaf, the band thereof is cut with a knife. A west wind is always desirable while treading is going on, as when wind is from the eastward, dampness generally prevails. In some instances, twenty-four horses are formed at some distance from the floor into four ranks ; and when the floor is ready laid, the word is given to advance. For the sake of order and regular work, a boy mounted on one of the foremost horses advances in a walk with, the whole rank haltered or tied together, and en« Vol. I. Z 354 ON THRASHING JfACIIINES. ters upon the bed of wheat, walking the horses slowly over it ; another rank is ordered to follow as soon as the first is supposed to have obtained a distance equal to a fourth part of the circum- ference of the bed, and in the same manner the other ranks proceed. They are forbidden to go past a walk, till they have proceeded five or six rounds, when the word is given to move at a sober trot, and to keep their ranks at a full dis- tance from each other, regularity and deliberate movement being necessary for preventing confu- sion. The gentle trot is continued till it may be supposed the horses have travelled eight or nine miles, which is the extent of their first journey ; they are then led off to be foddered and watered, when the trodden light straw is taken off as deep as the place where the sheaves lie close, and are but partially bruised. As soon as this first straw is removed, one- third of the width of the bed is turned over on the other two-thirds from the inner side or circle of the bed, which narrows the circle of the next journey. The horses are again led on, and trot out their second journey, till the straw be clear of wheat. The outer part of the bed is then ON THRASHING MACHINES, 5355 turned upon the middle part, when the horses take another journey. The loose straw being then taken off, the whole remaining bed is turn- ed up from the floor, and shaken with forks and handles of rakes, after which the horses give another tread, which finishes the work. The grain is then shoved up from the floor with heads of rakes turned downwards, and put into heaps of a conical form, in which situation it often re- mains exposed to the weather for several days. The correct American agriculturists, however, have houses adjoining to the treading floor, where the grain is deposited till it is cleared from the chaff and oflal ; though as most of them conti- nue treading, if the weather be favourable, till the whole crop is separated from the straw, it is pretty obvious that the grain stands a consider-, able chance of being damaged before the several processes are concluded. Were we to make any comparison betwixt thrashing with a machine and treading by the feet of horses, the result would be entirely in fa- vour of the former. Laying aside the great damage which the grain must receive when tread- ing, by the dung, &c. of the horses during the Z2 ' 35$ Of FAXNERI. process, we ar^ almost sure that the expenc^ of treading must be as great as that of thrashing, independent of the consideration that grain by the latter process must be more completely sepa- rated the grain from the straw, than possibly can 1)6 accomplished by the other. SECT, VIII. Of fanners^ If thrashing machines are of much advantage to the public, by separating corn completely fronx the straw, the introduction of fanners, or the ma- chine by which com is cleaned from chaff and all sorts of offal, may with justice be considered as proportionally of equal benefit to the practical agriculturist. At this day, it can hardly be con- ceived yhat difficulties the farmers of ancient times were put to before the cleaning process was accomplished ; though it may be easily ascertain- bF K^XNERSi !3Sf ed, that much loss was sustained, in numerous instances, from corn remaining amongst the chaff, upon the floor of a damp barn, till a natU" ral wind rose sufficient for accomplishing the ne- cessary separation. Since the introduction of^r- tificial wind, these inconveniencies and losses are completely removed, to the great accommodation ^ the farmer, and preservation of his property. Td one of the same family, who afterwards in- Vented the thrashing machine, we are indebted for the introduction of fanners into this country, Sis can be proved by the most satisfactory written evidence. In the year 1/10, James Meikle, fa* ther of the inventor of the thrashing machine, was sent to Holland, at the expence of the cele- brated Andrew Fletcher, Esq; of Salton i^a cha- racter well known in the annals of that period) to learn the art of making pot-barley, and con- structing barley-mills ; both of which arts were then utterly unknown in this country. As a pre- liminary to these purposes, articles of agreement Svere entered into betwixt Mr Henry Fletcher, brother of the gentleman above mentioned, as taking part for his said brother, and James Meikle j which articles are still extant, together Z3 538 OF FANNERS, with a letter from Andrew Fletcher, Esq; to thtf said James Meikle, dated " Hague, ] 8th June 1710,'* giving him directions about making and purchasing several articles necessary to be used in the erection of the barley-mill. This mill, like every other barley-mill, had a pair of fanners an- nexed, and these farmers were the first ever em- ployed in Scotland. From being used at the bar- ley-mill, they were afterwards constructed up- on a larger scale, and employed for winnowing com many years before thrashing machines were introduced. The first barley-mill erected in Scot- land was at Salton, in the county of Haddington ; and it is not many years since the original pair of fanners, constructed and erected by James Meikle, were laid aside, being then worn out and exhausted by continual application. It is not more than fifty years since fanners came to be generally used in Scotland, before that time grain being separated from the chaft' by the action of wind operating between the two doors of a barn. In the windward doors a per- son stood dropping the grain from a sieve or rid- dle, and in quantities proportioned to the force of wind at the time j a process not imperfect, HDRSE RAKE» 35.9 vvhen a good steady wind bio wed, but not to be depended on in many instances, when the grain was wanted for seed^ horse-corn, or the purpose of marketing. In short, the inconveniencies of that process of winnowing are so evident, that they do not require to be enumerated. They were, however, completely removed, in conse- quence of the introduction of fanners, by which the husbandman might clean his corn when he pleased. Since the thrashing machines were in- troduced, fanners almost in every case are annex- ed to them ; and in some instances, where power- ful machines are used, fitted internally with suit- able riddles, it is perfectly practicable to measure and market the grain immediately as it comes from the machine. SECT. IX. Horse Rake. Mr Robert Colling of Barmpton, near Dar- lington, in the county of Durham, on having his Z 4 360 HORSE RAKF- Stubbles raked with the usual rakes draini by men, finding they complained of the hardness of the work, contrived one to be drawn by horses, which answered the purpose very well, and was also found useful in raking hay. This rake had two wheels of two feet diameter placed in the in- side of the frame ; but being of opinion that it would be an improvement to have the wheels at- tached to the shafts, and the frame with the rake to have no wheels, he altered it in that manner. Mr Bailey of Cbillingham had one made in this way, (Fig. 46), The bar AB, which con- tains the teeth, is ninety inches long, CD for- ty-six inches, EF eighty-four inches, GH thirty* two inches. The teeth were at first placed at three inches distance, but were found too close where the hay was thick, as they there frequent- ly got above the hay j but, on taking out every other tooth this defect was remedied, and it col- lected the hay into rows with great dispatch and facility, but did not rake sufficiently clean. This was accomplished by going over the ground a second time with another rake, having the teeth three inches distance, and of the form Fig. 4(5, oy MAXuRESi 36) CHAP. vir. ON MANURES, The practical farmer, without troubling him* self concerning the principles of vegetation, or inquiring about the food of plaii. s, is perfectly satisfied, that by collecting and applying what are called manures to the land which he occu* pies, the fertility of the same is augmented, and greater crops, either of corn or grass, returned in the subsequent years, or so long as the strength of the manure is not exhausted ; but he is equally satisfied, when the strength of the manure is ex- hausted, that a repetition becomes necessary, o- therwise the ground would become sterile and unproductive. It is our intention to treat of ma- nures in this plain and expressive way, and chiefly to limit our inquiries to what may be of 302 ox MANURES* practical advantage. Manure is of the first im- portance to the farmer ; and, according to the quantity which he collects, and the judgment which guides the appropriation, his success will assuredly be regulated. The term manure is applied indiscriminately t6 all substances which are known from experience, either to enrich the different soils, or contribute in any other way to render them more favour- able to vegetation* Though little doubt can be entertained of the utility and necessity of such substances, yet the progress hitherto made, in ascertaining the mode in which they ought to be applied, the quantity that should be made use of, and the soils for which they are respectively best adapted, has not yet reached that perfection or certainty that could be wished. The most superficial observation will serve to convince any intelligent person that, in an agri- cultural point of view, the subject of manures is of the first magnitude. To correct what is hurt- ful to vegetation in the different soils, and to re- ON MANURES* 363 Store what is lost by exhausting crops, are ope- rations in agriculture which may be compared to the curing of diseases in the animal body, or sup- plying the waste occasioned by labour, or the or- dinary evacuations of nature. The utility of manuring has, however, beeii questioned in some instances, particularly by Tull and his disciples, who assert that tilla^y alone, frequently and judiciously applied, will produce every effect that can be expected from that prac- tice. That tillage is essential to the success of agri- cultural operations, is a point in which all good husbandmen are agreed ; but that, by cillage a- lone, the earth should be made to produce a suc- cession of valuable crops of grain or vegetables, is a doctrine which, fortunately for the advance- ment of agriculture, has met with very few con- verts. By such management poor Ijnds would never become productive, and the richest soils would soon be exhausted. We need not extend our observations upon this subject farther j for a good farmer, who 3(54 ON M -WIRES* wi«!he$ to avail himself of every advantage which experience points out, will, to a certain degree^ adopt, St, The ullage recommended by Tull, for the purpose of pulverising the soil, and extirpat- ing the weeds with which it may be infested ; 2d, ^ regular rotation of crops, in order that the va- rious sorts of earth may, in their turn, according as they are calculated for different plants, become productive ; and, jd. Endeavour to gather a suf* jficient quantity of ma?iure, not only to prevent the soil from being exhausted, but, if possible, annu- ally to make some addition to its former sources of fertility. But It is unnecessary to insist on this subject, as all agriculturalists are now agreed with regard to the utility of manures. It is of more import, ance to give directions respecting their collection, preparation, and application, as in these matters husbandmen, in many districts, are evidently deficient. Manure has been, and not unaptly, characterised as the magic wand of the farmer j therefore every improvement in the processes con- nected with its collection and appropriation, must be regarded as eminently conducive to agricul- tural prosperity. MANAGEMENT OP »UNQ» 56$ SjECT. I. On the Manage7nent of Dung, Manure, taking the word in its broadest gense, being the first requisite of good husbandry, it shall be our business, in this section, to SLc^k in a particular manner of the best methods of collecting, preparing, and applying that portion ofit called farm yard dung, which, in most in- stances, may be considered as the chief manure used by the great body of British husbandmen. In discussing this subject, our observations shall be restricted to matters of practice, which ar^ within the reach of every farmer, in every situa-r tion, and under every circumstance. Such prac- tical details arq better calculated to convey useful information, than abstract disquisitions concern^ Ihg the food of plants, and the like. If manure is necessary for promoting the growth of plants, it is of small importance to the farmer how, and V[i what manner, tl)e benefit i? cQinmunicated* 366 MANAGEMENT OF DUNO< Manure Is beneficial, and that is sufficient. All that is farther required, is knowledge concerning the best and most approved way of increasing the quantity, and of using it in the most advan-* tageous manner. The most superficial observer in rural eco* nomics must have often noticed, that a consider- able number of practical agriculturists are inat- tentive, not only to the gathering of the raw ma- terials, but also defective in the several steps of preparatory process, before dung can be thriftily and suitably applied. With such, very little care is used in cutting the corn crops, which, properly speaking, is the only source whence raw ma- terials can be got. They are also too apt to dis- pose of any hay which may be raised upon their farms, even when prices are not " so high as to tempt a breach of good husbandry. They often keep more beasts on the premises than is consist- ent with the quantity of provender in hand, thus reducing the stock of manure in an extraordinary degree. Besides, seldom is any care bestowed in laying up the dung, in a regular and careful way, during the winter months, and still less upon its state during the exhausting spring IfANAGETUFNT OF DUNG. 367 winds, or the parching heat of the summer months. Instead of storing it up with regularity, and mixing the different kinds in a compact heap, it is suffered to remain as tossed from tlie stable and byre ; continues exposed, in its rough state, to the weather ; often inundated with wa- ter, and rarely touched till the cart arrives tp drive it to the field. As straw is the basis of manure, it might be (sxpected that every good husbandman would bestow the most sedulous attention upon the cut- ting of his crop, so that the greatest possible quantity of the raw material may be procured. Very different, however, is the conduct of farm- ers in general ; as, over one-half of Britain, it may be safely estimated, that at least one-fourth of the straw is left in the field, where its strength is wasted and dissipated by the rains and storms that commonly prevail at the conclusion of au- tumn. In some districts a stricter attention is paid to this important operation, and it is to be hoped that such an improvement will gradually extend. Independent of the additional grain which is gained, the increase of manure wiU S68 MAKACEMENT OF DUNC« more than compensate the increased expence of reaping the crops in an accurate manner. While it is recommended, that the crop should be cut low, in order that materials for making manure may be increased, we may by no means intend for that degree of accuracy which requires that not one stalk of the stubble shall be of greater height than its neighbour ; a degree of perfection accomplished, perhaps, at a greater ex- pence than can be repaid by the benefit derived, especially when the value of labour is so enor- mously advanced. This kind of cutting can only be obtained, from putting a very small quantity into the hook at once, and rarely makes a per- ceptible increase upon the bulk ; whereas, by running the sickle upon the ground, drawing a level stroke, and gathering no more into the hand than can be fairly cut, all the advantages of low shearing are obtained at a very trifling increase of expence. By a steady perseverance in this practice, from one to two tons of manure (per acre) may be annually gained, more than was procured in former times, especially where the crops are good. Thisannudl increase must ope- rate powerfully upon the improvement of the jiANAG£MJtNT Ui-" DLNG. 3Gi) cbuntry, effects being precisely similar to those of compound interest ; and, of course, furnishes the means of gradually rendering every acre of land in the kingdom fertile and productive. TiiE usual modes of converting straw intd dung hardly require to be mentioned. A good deal is consumed in the house by draught-horses and milch-cows ; much is applied to the litter- ing of turnip-cattle ; and the remainder is used by lean cattle kept in the fdld-yard. Though these are the general methods of consumption, it "Will be necessary to divide the subject into tvi'o parts, viz. The management of dung upon light lands and heavy lands ; because manure on each is prepared in different ways, used In different sea- sons, and applied to different crops. For light soils manure requires to be much more highly prepared than is necessary for clay soils ; and every step of the previous preparation, In order to be perfect, ought to be executed in a quite different manner. Foit soils of the first description j where tur- nips are taken as a first crop, dung can hardly be too well prepared ; because the nature of t!'e Vol. I. A a 370 MAVAOEMENT OF DUNG. crop to which it applied, renders a complete in- corporat'on with the ground absolutely necessa- ry ; without which the young plants might be starved at their very entrance into life. In the best farmed English counties which have come under our observation, dung is often kept more than a year, in order that it may be perfectly rotted ; and the late Mr Bakewell was in the habit of not applying it till reduced to a state something like black snuff. Management of this kind, however, cannot be approved of ; for, if the preparatory steps are conducted with judg- ment there is rarely any necessity for keeping dung over the year upon turnip farms ; besides such a delay causes a waste of the article, and serves to di-sipate its strength ; at all events, a year's interest of the value of the increased pro- duce must be lost. In general cases there is not much difficulty in preparing dung upon turnip farms ; because, in the driest season, from the nature of the food used, such a quantity of liquid passes from the animals, as to prevent burning, provincially fit^-fai^ging^ the greatest obstacle to the rotting of the dung that can be experienced. If turnip dung is regularly removed, if it is pro- perly mixed with the horse litter, and other ex- MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. 3/1 crementitious matter accumulated upon the farirtj it will be found an easy task to prepare all that is tnade by the middle of April ; at which time the fold-yard should be cleared. What is produced after that time should be stored up separately ; re- ceive waterings if the weather is dry ; and be re- served for clover-stubbles, or other fields that are to be dunged in autumn. The middle of April is mentioned as a good time for clearing the fold-yard ; but this does not prevent the work from going partially forward through the winter, when suitable opportunities occur. When driven out of the fold -yard, the dung should be laid up in a regular heap or pile, not exceeding six quarters, or four feet and a half in height ; and care should be taken not to put either horse or cart upon it, which is easily avoided, by backing the cart to the pile, and laying the dung compactly together with a grape or fork. It is also useful to face up the extremities with earth, which keeps in the mois- ture, and prevents the sun and wind from doing injury. Perhaps a small quantity of earth strewed Upon the top might also prove useful. Dung, when managed in this manner, generally fer- ments very rapidly j but, if it is discovered to be A a 2 372 M VNAGEMf^NT OF DUNG. in a backward state, a complete turn over, about the first of May, when the weather becomes warm, will quicken the process ; and the better it is shaken asunder, the sooner will the object in view be accomplished. A SFCiupED spot of ground, not much ex- posed to wind, and secure from being floated with water, ought always to be chosen for the scite of such piles or heaps. If the field to which it is to be applied is at hand, a little after-trouble may be saved, by depositing it there in the first in- stance : But it is found most convenient to re- ser\'e a piece of ground adjacent to the home- stead for this purpose. There it is always under the farmer's eye, and a greater quantity can be moved in a shorter sime than when the situation is more distant. Besides, in wet weather, and this is generally the time chosen for such an ope- ration, the roads are not only cut up, by driv- ing to a distance, but the field on which the heap is made may be poached and injured con- siderably. The above is the most approved method of preparing dung upon turnip or light land farms ; MANAGEMEKT OF DUNG. 373 and a few words shall now be said respecting the management necessaiy upon those of a different description. Upon clay soils, where wheat forms a princi- pal part of the crop ; where great quantities of beans are cultivated, and few turnips sown, un- less for the use of milch cows, the rotting of dung is not only a troublesome but an expensive affair. Independent of what is consumed by the ordinary farm-stock, the overplus of the straw must somehow or other be rotted, by lean cattle kept in the fold-yard, who either receive the straw in racks, or have it thrown across the yard, to be eaten and trodden down by them. According to this mode of consumption, it is evi- dent that a still greater necessity arises for a fre- quent removal of this unmade dung, otherwise, from the trampling of beasts, and the usual want of moisturt, it would compress so much as altogether to prevent putrefaction. To prepare dung sufficiently upon farms of this description, is at all times an arduous task, but scarcely prac- ticable in dry seasons ; for if it once gets burnt (jire-fanged)^ it is almost physically impossible to bring it into a suitable state of preparation af- Aa3 374 MANAGEMEXT OF DUXC. terwards ; and, at all events, its virtues are there- by considerably diminished. The year 1 80.3 fur- nished strong proofs in support of what is here maintained ; for, owing to the goodness of the weather during the winter and spring months, less dung was driven out than usual ; and the consequence was, that on few clay farms was the dung half rotted, even where the most anxious pfforts were bestowed upon watering and turning it when the season advanced. The continued dryness of the weather was no doubt an excep- tion to that of common seasons, and increased the difficulties which, at all times, are undergone in such situations ; but, had it been equally wet as it was dry, the propriety of frequent removals would not have been less urgent. Straw flung out in considerable portions to the fold-yard, af- ter being compressed by the trampling of cattle, becomes rather like a well packed stack than a mass of dung in a preparatory state. The small quantity of urine and dung made by the animals is barely sufficient to cause a slight fermentation; and this slight fermentation, when the heat gets into a compressed state, is sure to bring on fire-fanging, as already said j after which its original powers can rarely be restored. To prevent such an in- MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. 375 jury, no measure can be so successfully used, as a frequent removal of this unmade dung, especi- ally if the weather is wet at the time. If people can stand out to work, there cannot be too much wetness when executing this operation for there is always such a quantity of the straw that has not passed through the entrails of the cattle, as renders it almost impossible to do injury, in the first instance, by an excess of moisture. It is therefore recommended, upon clay-land farms, especially those of considerable size, that the fold-yard be frequently cleared ; and that the greatest care be taken to mix the stable or horse dung in a regular way with what is ga- thered in the fold-yard, or made by other ani- mals, in order that a gradual heat or fermenta- tion may be speedily produced. Where the ma- terials are of the sorts now described that is, a small quantity of dung, or excrementitious mat- ter, and a large store of unrotten straw, only par- tially moistened), no damage can ensue from put- ting horses and carts upon the heap ; nay, a posi- tive benefit will be gained from this slight com- pression. At the same time, we are aware, that Aa 4 370 MANAGIMINT OF DUNC. the sentiments of many able and judicious fat- mer's are dift'erent on this point ; it being their opinion, that the natural pressure of the materials U quite sufficient, and that any additional pres- sure is accompanied with injurious consequences. We are, however, satisfied, that such ide^s are unfounded ; having tried both methods upon an extensive scale, and, from the results, feel our- selves justified in lecommending the above mode of management. Perhaps this difference of senti- ment may arise from not attending to the very different qualities of dung on different farms ; for the propriety of abstaining from putting horses and carts upon such heaps or piles, containing materials which can be called dung, even though it may be in p.n unripe §tate, is already allowed. It is contended, however, that no injury is sus- tained from slightly compressing a mass of rough materials ; nay, that such is attended with bene- ficial effects ; for, if the materials were laid up with a fork, or a grape, as recommended in the case of turnip or half rotten dung, the small por- tion of moisture therein contained would speedily be wasted or evaporated ; a circumstance whicl^ qften occurs, especially when dry weather sets in soon after the heap is made up. Besides, driv- MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. 377 iiig a one-horse cart over a surface of materials only one stage removed from the condition of dry stravv^, will never prevent fermentation. If left in the fold-yard, the constant treading of the cattle therein confined, and the daily increased weight of the heap, may undoubtedly produce that evil ; but this is effectually prevented by frequent removals, especially if rainy weather prevails at the time. Few objects deserve to be more sedulously attended to by every farmer who studies his own interest. The heap or pile, as already recommended, in the case of turnip dung, should be formed in a secluded spot, if such can be got at hand ; be- cause the less it is exposed to the influence of the sun and wind, so much faster will fermenta- tion proceed. The heap should be constructed on a broad basis, and several separate ones are necessary, so that too much may not be deposit- ed at a time, which, to a certain extent, would bring on the very evil we have all along been en- deavouring to avert. By shifting the scene fre- quently, and allowing each covering or coat to settle and ferment, before laying on any more, tlje most happy effects will follow, and these 378 MANAGEMENT OF DUNG, heaps fat least all such as are complete^ before the first of May) may reasonably be expected to be in a fit condition for applying to the sum- mer fallow fields, in the end of July, or first of August. If the external parts gel dry at any time during the process, it will be proper to wa- ter them thoroughly, and in many cases to turn over the heap completely. It may be added, that much benefit has been experienced from laying a thick coating of snow upon such heaps, as, by the gradual melting thereof, the whole moisture is absorbed, and a strong fermentation immediately foUov^s. The same method of management may be continued during the summer months, so far as circumstances permit, though it rarely happens that dung collected at this advanced period is fit for use in the same season, unless it be such as is made by keeping horses and cattle in the house upon green food. Perhaps, as a general prin- ciple, it is proper to thrash out all grain before summer arrives (a small quantity for litter and other necessary purposes excepted in order that the full value of the raw materials, when con- verted into manure, may be gained. Straw thrash- MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. 379 ed in the summer months always wants a good deal of its original strength ; it is broken and hashed by the mills j therefore a large portion must at once be thrown to the fold-yard, where its strength is still more exhausted and dissipat- ed. ' Even when stacked carefully, it will be found next winter to produce much less bulk of dung, than if it had been used at the proper time ; and interest of the amount for one year is lost ; — ^all which things, added together, will be found equal to one half of the original worth. Upon Ig^rge farms, where the management of manure is sufficiently understood and practisedj^ it is an important matter to have dunghills of all ages, and ready for use whenever the situation of a field calls for a restorative. No method of application to clay soils, however, is so benefi- pial as during the year of summer fallow, though, in such situations, a greater stock of manure is often gathered than is required for the fields un- der this process. After all, it must be acknowledged, that, under every exertion, it seldom happens that 4ung on clay farms, where turnips are not grown. 380 MANAGEMENT OF T>Uy:G. can be so well prepared as upon those employed in the culture of that beneficial root. This has induced many farmers to cross nature, and at- tempt the cultivation of turnips upon soils physi- cally unfit for producing them with advantage ; and perhaps much money has been lost in carry- ing such schemes into execution. Perhaps a clay-land farmer had better submit to all the dis- advantages accompanying the preparation of ma- nure in his particular situation, than try to get free of them by the culture of turnips. It is a consolatory circumstance, however, that clay soils have a good digestion ; they are not so nice in their food as gravels and sands, requiring only a good belly-full, and frequent meals. It likewise deserves attention, that dung applied to a clay fallow, at the end of summer, has full time to in- corporate with the ground before the crop, sown thereupon, stands much in want of its invi- gorating support ; consequently, though of appa- rent inferior quality at the time of application^ may, in reality, be possessed of equal powers for fructifying the ground, as if it had reached a higher state of preparation. MANAGEMLNT OF DUNG. 3&I We may now notice some instances of slovenly management in our sister kingdom, respecting the management of manure, particularly in the midland counties, where grass husbandry is ex- tensively practised. In these districts, it is very common to use a considerable proportion of their hay in the fields, during the winter months, instead of consuming it in the house or fold-yardy where the manure produced could readily be collected, and properly managed. Sloth and waste are the parents of this custom ; a custom which ought to be interdicted by every proprietor who is disposed to regard either his own mterest or that of the country, much of the article being absolutely rendered useless by the feet of the beasts so maintained, while the ground is most unequally and partially dunged ; that is to say, the richest and driest parts are sure to receive the greatest store. Some thoughts relative to the application of dung, a subject of as much importance as the collecting and preparing of it, shall now be offer- ed. According to the plan suggested, the sub- ject may be considered in two points of view, viz. 5S2 MAl^AOEMENT OF DUNG. as connected with light and clay soils : or, more particularly, as relative to soils on which turnips constitute the first or leading crop ; and those where naked summer fallow is the preparatory step of the subsequent rotation. Somf; previous remarks, connected with the right management of dung in all soils, and in every situation, are however necessary, so as re- petition may be afterwards avoided : these are* that no greater quantity ought to be given at one time than is sufficient to fertilize the ground ; in other words, to render it capable of producing good crops, before the time arrives when a fresh doze can be administered. In a rotation of four, one dunging is supposed to be necessary, it being understood that two culmiferous crops are only taken ; but in rotations of sixes and eights, the common ones followed by good farmers on heavy or wet soils, two dungings are necessary ; other- wise the crops raised will prove proportionally defective, before the expiration of the courses. It is evident that, under the common resources of arable land, such repetitions are impracticable, unless the utmost frugality is studied in the dis- MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. 388 tribution ; but, where this is neglected, a regular system can seldom be adhered to. The errors of former times consisted in giving too great a quantity at once, thereby depriving the ground of its regular nourishment ; in other vi^ords, the soil rioted in the midst of plenty for two or three years, and fasted and starved for several succeed- ing seasons. Hence the generality of fields were either too rich or too poor ; either saturated with manure, or completely barren from the want of it ; whereas, had supplies been furnished in an economical manner ; had the quantity of manure on hand been distributed with judgment, a more iiniform produce would have been the conse- quence. The new system of applying manure corrects all these errors, in so far as local cir- cumstances will permit. Accordingly, a small quantity is now bestowed at once, and the dose frequently repeated. The ground is regularly fed ; but never surfeited with a profusion of vic- tuals. Hence the crops constituting a regular rotation are more uniformly good, and a greater proportion of the valuable grains are raised, thaa could be accomplished in former times. 884 MANAGEMENT OF DUNO. Though land can rarely be rendered too rich for carrying green crops, yet it is well known that the same observation will not hold good when applied to wheat, barley, and oats ; but that such may be, and often have been, materi- ally injured in consequence of heavy manuring. Look at the scite of a dunghill, and it will rarely be found that a crop of good grain is produced upon it. There is a great flush of straw, often of bad quahty, and a small quantity of inferior grain, little better than if the labours of nature had ended in an abortion. The like consequen- ces, though certainly in a less degree, generally took place with the first crops of former timesy after summer fallow and dung, especially if the weather proved wet when the grain was filling j and to avoid such evils, many farmers, at this day, in the neighbourhood of great towns, de- cline laying manure upon their fallows, knowing that the vegetable food contained in these lands, if reinforced with an additional supply, would, in nine cases out of ten, prove destructive to the en- suing wheat crop. It is also often observed that, where a heavy coat of dung has been given to a well-wrought fallow, such a degree of fermenta- tion takes place in the succeeding spring, as alto- MANACEMENT OF DUNG, 385 gether to free the roots of young wheat from their natural hold ; thus occasioning them to starve for want of nourishment, though surround- ed with abundance of food. But, passing over these evils, and even upon the supposition that they never existed, still the practice of administering manure in an economi- cal manner may be supported by arguments of a different nature, If a quantity is bestowed suffi- cient to impregnate the ground, all above that quantity deserves to be considered as profusely thrown away ; at least the benefit of it is in a great measure sacrificed. Manure, upon many soils, is soon deprived of its enriching powers ; upon all, its strength is dissipated and carried off by heat, wind, and rain ; therefore, the oftener it is repeated, the greater will be the benefit derived from the application. Let us not be mistaken here. We are not arguing on the supposition, that the farmer has it in his power to dung land at his pleasure, as may be the case in the vicinity of great towns. Our arguments merely relate to the situation of the ordinary farmer, who must Vol. I. B b 5S6 MAXACF.MENT OF DUNO, act upon his own supplies ; who possesses but a hmited portion of manure, and whose care should be directed to manage that portion in such a way as to derive from it the greatest possible advan- tage. To make our meaning clear : — If one hun- dred carts of dung, each containing one ton or thereby, are laid upon four acres of land, and the same quantity, and of similar quality, is laid upon eight acres, we maintain that a very con* siderable advantage will be derived in the latter way more than in the former ; independent ol the stress that might be laid upon the circum- stance of keeping a great part of every farm in a penurious, consequently in an unproductive state, when a profuse system is adopted. Another general remark occurs ; that is, concerning the utility of spreading dung with ac- curacy ; in other words, dividing it into the mi- nutest particles, thereby giving every part of the ground an equal supply of food. This practice was miserably neglected in former times, and is still less attended to than its importance deserves. In fact, few operations call more loudly for the attention of the farmer ; and none in which a more general improvement has taken place. The MANAGEMENT OF DUKG. 387 superficial and slovenly way in which dung was form' rly spread must be fresh in the memories of most people. In many instances the big heap was only broken down, as it were, into a num- ber of small ones ; and, as for tearing or shak- ing the dung asunder, such an idea then rarely entered into the head of any man ; though it is obvious that, without making a complete separa- tion, the article could neither be sufficiently co- vered in, nor its virtues be conveyed to the soil. Perhaps the increased attention now bestowed in all the cultivated districts to the spreading of dung, originated from the measure of limiting the quantity applied. When forty, fifty, nay even sixty double loads, were applied to an acre, it was not very difficult to cover its surface, even with an imperfect separation, though it certainly was impracticable to bury the big lumps with a. furrow of ordinary size ; but when the quantity was brought down to eighteen and twenty loads, and more so, when twelve or fourteen loads were thought sufficient, a different conduct be- came absolutely necessary. Another improve- ment also followed, viz. spreading dung when. raw or green, that is, immediately after the carts ; in which way, at least during summer, it will be Bb2 SS8 MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. separated at one-halfof theexpence, and to much better purpose, than when it is suffered to lie in the heap for a day or two. In short, it is a sure mark of a slovenly farmer, to see dung remain unspread upon the field, unless it be in the win- ter months, when it may happen that hands can- not be got for carrying on such operations with the usual regularity. At that time the injury sus- tained by losing a few days is not great, though, as a general rule, it will be found that the ex-, pence is always smallest when the carts are regu- larly followed up. Having made these remarks, we proceed to say a few words on the application of dung. When turnip husbandry forms the chief branch of fallow process, dung is naturally of a superior quality, and requires little artificial ma- nagement for bringing it to a proper state of preparation. In the greatest part of Scotland, and even in England, where the drill and horse- hoeing system is practised, the common, and un- doubtedly the most approved way of applying dung to turnips, is by laying it in the intervals pf the drills or small ridges, which are previously Maxagemen't of dung. 389 made up by a bout, or two furrows of the plough. These drills or ridges are formed at a distance of from twenty.four to thirty inches from the centre of each ; and by driving the horses and cart along the middle one of the spaces intended to be ma- nured, the dung is drawn out, either by the cart- er, or by another man especially appointed for that purpose, in such proportions as the poverty of the soil, or the disposition of the occupier, may reckon necessary. If the breadth of three drills are only taken at a time, the dung stands a better chance of being regularly administered ; for It often happens that, when a greater number are included in one space, the two outside drills receive a less quantity than the intervening ones. Those, therefore, who limit themselves to three drills, generally divide the spreaders ; as it re- quires six hands, women or boys, to follow up what is usually called, a head of carts, the num- ber of carts to a head being regulated by the dis- tance of the dunghill, or the kind of road over which it is to be carried. Others again, thinking that, by manuring only three drills at a time, the travel of the horses is greatly increased, and time M'asted when it is particularly precious, take five drills into one space, and, by putting the strong- Bb3 SQO MANAGEMENT OF DUNC* est hands to the two outside drills, making these go in front, thereby getting the first of each heap, and placing an able confidential servant to assist and superintend the whole, consider that the work is equally well performed, while a greater quantity is put through their hands in a given time. Both plans have their votaries, though the difference between them is not of much conse- quence. The main objects are, to provide a pro- per bed for the dung, which is easily done by holding a deep furrow when the drills are first made up ; and to shake it well asunder, or divide it into the smallest parts, so that an instant and complete separation may' take place. To ac- complish this in the most perfect manner, hand- work in some places is resorted to ; but the com- mon custom is to do it with small light grapes, or forks ; and it is v/ondcrful how adroitly the spreading is performed by small boys and girls, after they are a little time accustomed to the task. The quantity of dung usually given for tur- nips is from twelve to fifteen double cart loads, of one and a half cubic yards to a Scots acre. In some cases only ten loads are given j but the land ought to be in high condition where such a small MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. ^ 39 1 IANAOEMENT OF DUNG* 397 is poached, and in some measure deprived of all benefit from the previous fallow. These circum- stances will be reflected upon by the attentive farmer ; they will stimulate him not to lose a moment when the weather is favourable, and pre- vent him from forcing on the work, when injury rather than benefit may be expected. After all, seasons are sometimes so perverse, as to render e:\'ery rule nugatory. These must, however, be taken as they come ; avoiding at such times to break the land down, acclivating the ridges suffi- ciently, and keeping the water-furrows completely clear. By attending to these matters, opportu- nity may be laid hold of, by the active famier, several days sooner than by his slovenly neigh- bour ; or at least the M'ork will be executed in a much more perfect way than if they had been neglected. The quantity of dung usually applied to fal- lows in ordinary condition is from fourteen to twenty double loads per Scottish acre ; though often good crops are reaped when twelve loads only have been given. So much, however, de- pends upon the condition of the land, upon the quality of the dung, and the way in which the 398 MANAGFMENT OF DUNC, carts are loaded, that no precise meaning can be communicated by such expressions. A decent load may contain one cubic yard and three- fourths, and weigh a ton, or th-reby. It also deserves nofcce, that less dung will serve some lands than others, especially if they have lately been ploughed from grass ; but, at all events, sixteen such loads as are mentioned will answer for any sort of soil, unless it has been previously •quite wrought out. Even if it were in this for- lorn state, it is better management to dung upon the stubble of the first crop, than to give an over- dose when under summer fallow. All dung laid upon summer fallow ought to be spread the moment it is pulled out of the cart. It can at no other time be done so well, or so ch' ap ; though, on many farms, small ones espe- cially, where a full supply of hands are wanting, this beneficial practice is much neglected. Four ^readers, boys or girls, with an attentive overs- man to follow up, and supply any omissions, are sufficient for one head of carts ; the number included in a head being regulated by the dis- tance of the field from the dunghill Some far- mers employ a person, on whom they can de- MANAGIMENT OF DUNU- 599 pend, to draw the dung from the cart, who has judgment to proportion it according to circum- stances, and is responsible for any failure in the execution ; but the carter is the person usually employed, though, unless a boy is given him to drive, a regular distribution can hardly be ex- pected. To insure accuracy in laying down dung, fields are sometimes thrown into a chequered figure ; and, a heap being drawn out into each square, the quantity required for the whole may be easily ascertained. The great object, after a regular and economical distribution, is to shake and part the whole completely ; as, by minute attention to this circumstance, a much greater effect is necessarily produced. After the fallows are dunged, the remainder in hand is reserved for what may be called Inter- mediate dunging, generally either upon clover jrtubbles, upon wheat stubbles previous to taking beans, or upon bean stubbles before the seed fur- row is given for wheat. It is obvious, that the farmer must be regulated, in this intermediate dunging, by the weather at the time, though it rarely happens but that dung may be got out upon clover stubbles at one time of the winter or 400 MANAGEMENT OF DUNG» Other. When ap lici to beans, a beneficial practice, the dung, as we said above, is by some people laid upon the wheat stubble, and plough- ed down before winter ; hence it is in full action in the spring, when the seed furrow is given. Others make up drills at ^eed time, depositing the dung in the intervals, as for turnips or pota- toes ; but it seldom occurs that weather can then be got, at least on real bean soils, for executing this management. It remains only to be stated, that many arable farms, under the strictest economy, are unable to furnish supplies for an intermediate dunging, at least to its full extent ; but persons so circum- stanced have it always in their power to over- come this defect, and preserve a regular rotation, by keeping certain fields longer in grass ; which of course will yield weightier crops when broken up, and stand less in need of manure during the after rotation. As, for instance, in a rotation of six, and it is here that the greatest short-coming is felt, grass seeds to a certain extent, say a half, may be thrown in with the crop of wheat taken after fallow, which is the second year of the ro- tation f this part may be pastured for three years. MANAGEMENT OF DUNO. 40J and broken up in the sixth for oats, which con- cludes the course. Again, in a rotation of eight, grass seeds, in like manner, may be sown with a part of the fallow wheat, which part can be pas* tured for three years, then broken up for oats, succeeded by beans and wheat. By such arrange* ments, made according to circumstances, it is an easy matter to preserve a regular rotation, and to proportion the corn crops to the quantity of ma- nurc collected upon the premises. We may add, that the practice of soiling or feeding horses and cattle in the house or farm* yard, is eminently calculated to increase the quan- tity of manure upon every farm, and to improve its quality. The soiling of horses, in the summer months, on green clover and rye-grass, is a practice which prevails in every corn district where farm labour is regularly executed. The utility of the practice does not need the support of argument ; for it is not only economical to the farmer, but saves much fatigue to the poor animal : besides, the quantity of dung thereby gathered is consider^ able. Vol. L C c 4M MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. Rfflf.ctivg upon the advantages of this practice, it has often occurred to us, that cattle, J. e. oxen and cows of all sorts, might be sup- ported and fed in like manner during the whole of the grass season. It is well known that milch, cows have, in several instances, been so kept, but it has rarely happened, that other descrip- tions of cattle have been fed for the butcher ac- cording to this mode, though it is perfectly prac- ticable. No doubt a considerable degree of trouble necessarily attends the measure, but this is an objection that may be urged against every scheme for improvement. It was urged against summer-fallow at its introduction, and is still urged in several districts against the drilling of turnips. If the advantages, however, which would attend a general soiling, exceed the trouble which it occasions, we apprehend the measure is not to be combated on this ground. Let any person, for a moment, xiew a field of grass depastured with cattle, especially if the wea- ther is wet, and he will soon be convinced of the great loss sustained from the feet of the animals and of the waste which is made in consequence of their roaming at large. Perhaps it may be MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. 405 estimated, that In general cases, near one half of the grass is, by this means, rendered ustless ; at least we are certain, from feeding milch cows in the house, that one half of the extent of land will suffice for house-feeding, that is required when depasturing is practised. Probably another advantage would follow. The land, from being covered with grass, would not only produce an increased quantity, but also be greatly benefited by the exclusion of air before the grass was cut or removed. When depastured, it is obvious, that none of these things can happen. If the grass was eaten any thmg bare in the beginning of th tseason, its future growth must be stopped by the drought which usually prevails in the early part of summer ; and when the ground is not fully covered with plants, the benefit of the grazing system, towards the improvement of land, is only partially experienced. But the cliief benefit of soiling may be consi- dered as arising from the immense quantity of fine dung thereby produced, which can be re- turned to the ground in the succeeding seasons, after being properly fermented and prepared. In Cc2 404 MANAGE. MINT OF DUNO. all com farms, at least those of clay soils, it is a work of great difficulty ta rot straw ; and much of it is misapplied, in consequence of imperfect preparation. A sense of these things has induced many farmers to attempt turnips in situations not qualified for raising them with profit ; but even these at:empt8, though in some respect useful, by converting a part of tne straw into dung, do not fully answer the intended purpose. The superfluity which remains after the turnip season is over (and this upon corn farms often exceeds a third of the crop), is seldom used in a benefi- cial way. If stacked in the yard, it is bleached and dried by the sun and wind ; and when used in the next season, is found to be unfit for the support of animals, being divested of the powers which it originally possessed. Were cattle there* fore soiled either in the house, or in separate di- visions of the fold-yard, all the straw thrashed in the summer months might be immediately con- verted into dung, the quality of which would be equal, if not superior, to what is made from tur- nip feeding. To carry on this mode of feeding in a regular way, it would be necessary to have a consider- MANAGEMENT OF DUNG. 405 able quantity of tares sown at diiTerent times, so as the interval betwixt the first and second crops of clover might be filled up. Perhaps early sown turnips might prove an useful assistant. A stack of hay would also be necessary, in the event of bad weather setting in, or circumstances occurring to prevent a regular supply of green food* From considering the time taken to cut and bring home grass for farm horses, we are led to think, that one man and a boy, with a single horse cart, would be able to supply thirty head of ordinary sized cattle with cut grass, if the crop was middling good, say one that would yield two hundred stones of hay per acre, and the dis- tance of the field from the home-stead not ex- ceeding half a mile. If the beasts were tied to a stake, it would* require an additional hand to litter and clean them ; but in small fold-yards, well supplied with water, and provided with a shade to which the animals might retire in a hot sunny day, this mode of feeding would be most eligibly executed. Perhaps the number put into each yard should not exceed six or eight, and these should be equally matched if practicable. C c 3 406 managf.ment of dung. In this way, the farmer of clay soils may be equally benefited by grass crops, as those of a light and gravelly nature are by turnips. The ony difference would be, that they would feed at different seasons, or at the time best suited to the circumstances in which they were placed. Dung, as has been already said, is the mother of good crops ; and it appears that no plan can be devis- ed by which a large quantity can be so easily and cheaply gathered, or by which straw can be so effectually rotted, and rendered beneficial to the occupier of a clay land farm, as the soiling of cattle in the summer season. In a word, the dung of animals fed upon green clover, may justly be reckoned the richest of all dung. It may, from the circumstances of the season, be rapidly prepared, and applied to the ground at an earlier period than any other sort of dung. The subject will again be noticedi when the ma- nagement of grass land is under consideration, when the advantages arising from it will be more particularly described. COMPOST MIDDENS* 407 SECT. It. Oj Compost JllUldefis. The use of mcinure in the shape of compost, or ingredients of various quaUties, mixed toge- ther in certain proportions, has long been a fa- vourite practice with many farmers ; though it is only in particular situations that the practice can be extensively or profitably executed. The ingredients used in these composts are chiefly earth and lime; sometimes dung, where the earth is poor ; but lime may be regarded as the main agent of the process, acting as a stimulus for bringing the powers of the heap into action. Lime, in this view, may be considered as a kind^ of yeast, operating upon a heap of earth as yeast does upon flour or meal. It is obvious, there- fore, that unless a sufficient quantity is given, the heap may remain unfermented ; in which case little benefit will be derived from it as a manure- C c 4 408 COMPOST MIDDENS. The best kind of earth for compost Is that of the alluvial sort, which is always of a rich greasy substance, often mixed with marl, and in every respect well calculated to enrich and invigorate barren soils, especially if they are of a light and open texture. Old yards, deep head -lands, and scourings of ditches, offer themselves also as the basis of compost middens ; but it is proper to summer-fallow them before hand, so that they may be entirely free of weeds. When the lime is mixed with the soil of these middens, repeated turnings are necessary, that the whole may be suitably fermented ; and some care is required to apply the fermented mass at a proper time to the field on which it is to be used. The formation and conveyance of compost being expensive, it becomes an important object to save labour in the previous steps of prepara- tion, and in the concluding one of applying it to the soil. The first part of the object is gained by using horse instead of manual labour, when the lime is yicorporattd with the earth, and whea the after turnings arc bestowed j and the other is lessened considerably when the compost is COMPOST MIDDENS. 4O9 laid on a field adjoining the one where it is pre- pared. A FEW words may be necessary with respect to the quantity of lime required to produce a suitable fermentation, though here we can at best but speak at random, because the proper quanti- ty falls to be regulated by the nature of the earth which is meant to be used at the basis of the fu- ture compost. As the quantity of the compost to be afterwards applied to the soil must, how- ever, be ascertained by its quality, and as sixty cubic yards of alluvial compost may be viewed as containing the same portion of nutritive sub- stance as one hundred yards of headlands and ditch scourings, we shall assume eighty yards as a medium dose for a Scotch acre of ground, and from this datum endeavour to fix the quantity of lime that is required. From trials that we hav6 frequently made, it appears, that two bushels of lime shells, Winchester measure, will sufficiently ferment a cubic yard of earth of a niedmm qua- lity; therefore, that forty bolls of lime-shells, wheat measure, or twenty-six and two-thirds bar- ley measure, are required to ferment compost for an acre of ground, where the basis consists 410 COMPOST MIDDENSi : of ordinary materials. Tliis goes upon the sup* position that an admixture is regularly conduct* ed, and that eighty cubic yards of the compost is sufficient to impregnate or enrich the field on which it is to be applied. The benefit of such a compost in nourishing soils is even greater than what is gained by dress« ing them with dung ; though it is to be regretted, that it rarely happens, where such soils are pre- dominant, that materials such as we have recom- mended can be procured in any quantity. Ano- ther sort of compost, of which moss is the basis, has therefore been recently tried, and with toler- able success. Should a repetition prove equally successful, and the first trials be confirmed by the exp rience of others, agriculture will be be- ntfitt d iH a qi 'uter where hitherto small improve- inenL could be introduced. On this subject. Lord Mcadowbank, one of our supreme judges, has lately favoured the public with a small pai-vni^t, containing directions for making composi unghills of peat-moss. We thereiore use the. iieedom of borrowing his lord* COMPOST MIDDENS. . 411 ship's directions, trusting that the public good may thereby be in some measure promoted. Lft the peat-moss, of which compost is to be formed, be thrown out of the pit for some weeks or months, in order to lose its redundant moisture. By this means, it is rendered the lighter to carry, and less compact and weighty, when made up with fresh dung for fermentation ; and, accordingly, less dung is required for the purpose, than if the preparation is made with peat taken recently from the pit. The peat taken from near the surface, or at a considerable depth, answers equally well. Take the peat-moss to a dry spot, convenient for constructing a dunghill to serve the field to be manured. Lay the cart-loads, of it in two rows, and of the dung, in a row betwixt them. The dung thus lies nearly on the area of the fu- ture compost dunghill, and the rows of peat should be near enough each other, that work- men, in rnaking up the compost, may be able to throw them together by the spade. In making up, let the workmen begin at one end ; and at the extremity of the row of dung (^which Stiould 41S COMPOST MIDDENS. not extend quite so far at that end as the rows of peats on each side of it do), let them lay a bot- tom of peat, six inches deep and fifteen feet wide, if the grounds admit of it ; then throw forward, and lay on, about ten inches of dung above the bottom of peat ; then add from the side-rows a- bout six inches of peat ; then four or five of dung, and then six more of peat ; then another thin layer of dung j and then cover it over with peat at the end where it was begun, at the two sides and above. The compost should not be raised above four feet, or four feet and a half high ; otherwise, it is apt to press too heavily on the under parts, and check the fermentation. "When a beginning is thus made, the workmen will proceed working backwards, and adding to the column of compost, as they are furnished with the three rows of materials directed to be laid down for them. They must take care not to tread on the compost, or render it too compact ; and, of consequence, in proportion as the peat is wet, it should be made up in lumps, and not much broken. In mild weather, seven cart-loads of common farm-dung, tolerably fresh made, is sufficient for COMPOST MIDDENS. 413 twenty-one cart-loads of peat-moss ; but in cold weather, a larger propoition of dung is desirable. To every twenty-eight carts of the compost, when made up, it is of use to throw on, above it, a cart-load of ashes, either made from coal, peat, or wood ; or, if these cannot be had, half the ENS. or, if these are wanting, by adding the peat piece- meal ; that is, first making it up in the usual proportion of three to one of dung ; and then, after a time, adding jin equal quantity, more or less, of moss. The dung of this character, of greatest quantity, is shamble dung, with which, under the above precautions, six times the quan- tity of peat, or more, may be prepared. The simie holds as to pigeon -dung, and other fowl dung ; and, to a certain extent also, as to that which is collected from towns, and made by ani- mals that feed on grains, refuse of distilleries, &c. The compost, after it is made up, gets into a general heat, sooner or latter, according to the weather, and the condition of the dung : In sum- mer, in ten days or sooner ; in winter, not per- haps for many weeks, if the cold is severe. It always, however, has been found to come on at last ; and, in summer, it sometimes rises so high as to be mischievous, by consuming the materi- als (fire-fangingX in that season, a stick should be kept in it in different parts, to pull out and feel now and then j for, if ft approaches to blood-heat, it should either be watered, or turned COMPOST MIDDENS. 4l"5^ over ; and, on such an occasion, advantage may be taken to mix it with a little fresh moss. The heat subsides, after a time, and with great varie- ty, according to the weather, the dung, and the perfection of making up of the compost ; which then should be allowed to rem.ain untouched, till within three weeks of using, when it should be turned over upside down, and outside in, and all lumps broken : then it comes into a second heat, but soon cools, and should be taken out for use. In this state, the whole, except bits of the old decayed wood, appears a black free mass, and spreads Uke garden mould. Use it, weight for weight, as farm-yard dung ; and it will be found, in a course of cropping, fully to stand the com-* parison. Let it be observed,' that the object in making up the compost is to form as large a hot-bed as the quantity of dung employed admits of, and then to surround it on all sides, so as to have the whole benefit of the heat and effluvia. Peat, nearly as dry as garden-mould in seed-time, may be mixed with the dung, so as to double the vo- lume and more of it. Workmen must begin with using layers ; but, when accustomed to the 4l5 COMPOST MX OPENS. just proportions, if they are furnished with peat moderately dry, and dung not lost in the Utter, they throw it up together as a mixed mass ; and they improve in the art, so as to make a less pro- portion of dung serve for the preparation. The addition recommended of ashes or lime to the compost is thought to favour the general perfection of the preparation, and to hasten the second heat. The lime laid on the above dung- hill, as directed, is rendered mild by the vapours that escape during the first heat. Compost, made up before January, has hi- therto been in good order for the spring crops ; but this may not happen in a long frost. Tq summer, it is ready in eight or ten weeks ; and if there is an anxiety to have it soon prepared, the addition of ashes, or of a little lime rubbish of old buildings, or of lime slaked with foul wa- ter, applied to the dung used in making up, will quicken the process considerably. Lime has been previously mixed with the peat ; but the compost prepared with the miX'. turc, or with the simple peat, seemed to produce dFllME* 417 eqiially good crops^ All the lahd^ however, that it has been tried on, has be^n limed more or less within these tuenty-five years. The rich coarse earth j which is frequently found on the surface of peat, is too heavy to be admitted into tliis compost ; but it makes an ex- cellent top-dressings if previously mixed and turned over with lime. Peat, prepared with lime alone, has not been found to answer as a good manure. In one in- stance, viz. on a bit of fallow sown with wheat, it was manifestly pernicious. SECT. HI. Of Lime, LiMF IS regarded by some people as a manure, by others as a stimulus, which can only be profita- bly applied where the soil possesses some dormant Vol. r. D d 418 OT LIME. principle of fertility that must be roused into ac- tion. In iact, the modus operandi of lime is im- perfectly understood, thongh the greater part of agriculturists are pretty well acquainted with its effects. It is sufficiently understood, that land which has been long in grass contains much ve- getable matter, and that the trouble and expence of liming it will be amply repaid to the cultiva- tor ; but the propriety of applying lime on old arable lands has been questioned, and with much justice, by the most part of practical agricultu. ralists, and their doubts on that head are con- firmed by the fullest experience. Were lime a manure, it would be a noble substance for en- riching, and restoring fertility to, lands worn out by a succession of corn crops ; but as worn-out land is not restored to fertility by the application of lime, we are warranted to consider it in a dif- ferent light, or, in other words, as an article cal- culated to bring certain principles into action, previously possessed by the soil. This conclu- sion is sanctioned by experience ; and experience is a far better guide than the most plausible the- ory. Taouori lime has been used with veiy great succiess in every part of Great Britain, it is evi- dent that the grossest errors have been commit- ted in the management of land to which it was applied ; and, what is worse, that the extent of these errors was in direct proportion to the effect produced upon the soil by the application. This remark applies more to the former state of huS" bandry than to the present practice, because the former rule was to Crop the grolmd so long as it would make a good return, without consi- dering that ground, treated in that manner, would soon be wasted and exhausted. Indeed, when lime duly operates, the whole powers of the soil are put in a state of requisition, and may be for- ced to act till the very soiil of vegetation is eit' traded, ft is scarcely practicable to restore fer* tility to land, eveii of the best natural quality, which has been thus abused ; at least a consider- able period must elapse before it can be restored to its original fertility ; but thin moorish soils, after being exhausted by lime, are not to be re- stored. To lime them a second time, is not only a useless expenditure of labour and money, but also productive of serious mischief. Soils of this description, after a second liming^, are apt t© Dd2 420 OF LIMC« singe and burn the grain that is sown upon tlienly and, even when dunged, not to make such a re- turn as would have been rendered under differ- ent circumstances^ It is a difficult matter to say at what period the use of lime was first introduced into Britain ; but, as it was well known to the Romans, there is good reason to believe that, by this ingenious people, the use of it was first brought into prac- tice in this island. Be that as it may, this mine- ral, after undergoing the process of calcination, has long been applied by Britisyh husbandmen as a stimulus to the soil, and, in consequence of such an application, luxuriant crops have been produced, even upon soils a, parently of inferior quality, and which would have yielded crops of trifling value, had this auxiliary been withheld* In fact, the majority of soils cannot be cultivated with advantage till they are dressed with lime ; and whether considered as an alterative, or as a stimulant, or as a manure, it will be found to be the basis of good husbandi7, and of more use than all other manures put together. Wher- ever lime has been properly applied, it has con- stantly been found to prove as much superior to OF LIMC» 421 dung, as dung is to the rakings of roads, or the produce of a p^t mire. From a pretty long experience, and consider- able attention to the operation of lime, we are in- clined to think that it acts both as an alterative and as a stimulant, operating in the one case as a medicine, that changes the nature of the soil, and in the other, as rousing, or bringing into ac- tion, the vegetable powers contained in the soil, which, without such an application, would have remained dormant and inactive. These opinions, we know, are different from those maintained by several ingenious men ; but they are supported by the result of numerous trials, undertaken to ascertain how, and in what manner, lime operat- ed upon the soil, and whether it could be used in a /jot or effete state with the most advantage. On these points, theoretical writers are apt to fall into mistakes; therefore every theory, not formed from facts, ought to be viewed as a romance, which may amuse, but cannot instruct agricul- turalists. For more than thirty years we have been in the regular habit of applying considerable quan- Dd3 422 OF tlME. titles of lime ; indeed few of the profession have used more of this useful article. In the majority of cases the application has been highly benefi- cial, changing in a manner the very nature of the soil, and causing it to produce the most abundant crops J whereas, in others, it has been altogether useless, and, in some instances, followed by mis. chief instead of benefit. As most of these trials were executed upon a large scale, and upon soils of almost every different quality, more benefit may perhaps be gathered from a succinct account of them than from a long chain of argument^ The trials are fairly stated ; and the results may perhaps throw some light upon this abstruse subr ject. It is proper to premise, that a good deal of uncertainty prevails with agriculturalists respect- ing the application of this article ; and that dis- putes have often occurred among those who have applied it only to one Kind of soil, and have not used it under different circumstances. Some hav^ contended, that lime ought to be applied when it is in a hot powdered state ; alleging, when it it becomes effete, that the effects are compara- tively trifling and unavailing. Others maintain, OF LIME. 423 that grass land is the best bed for the reception of lime, while many of our most enlightened farmers strenuously affirm, that it is most judi- ciously used when the land gets a complete sum- mer-fallow. It would not be difHcult to prove, that each class of disputants, in the view taken by them of the subject, are equally right; and that they only condemn the system of others be- cause their own has turned out successful. Our opinion is, that in every case where the land is constitutionally disposed to receive benefit from a calcareous dressing, that is, when it is refreshed by grass, or enriched by dung, it is of little im- portance, in respect of operation, whether lime is applied hot or eff'ete, upon grass land or upon fallow ; and that convenience ought chiefly to be studied when the proper time for applying the article is to be ascertained. In point of economy, there can be no doubt but that lime is most eco- nomically used when laid upon land hot from the kiln : this mode also lessens the expence of la- bour considerably ; consequently, the practice of using it when effete is more expensive, It is ob- vious, hovvever, that a choice of season is not al- ways in the farmer's power, and that imposing- pecessity often obliges him to lay on lime when Dd4 424 OF UME. completely effete. Repeated trials, however, have convinced us, that its operations are equally be-» neficial in the one state as in the other j though the cxpence, in the last case, as already said, is greater than in tjie former. With regard to the other branch of dispute, whether land in grass, or land in fallow, is the most proper bed for the reception of lime, w^ are of opinion that the dif- ference is immaterial. If grass land is clean, an4 if lime can be got forward at the time, the appli- cation will be as efficacious upon it as upon the richest and best wrought summer-fallow. That these things are not matter of opinion, we mean to show, by detailing the results of trials made to ascertain the facts. To render these de-: tails more perfect, we shall mention the nature of the surface and subsoil upon which the several trials were made, and explain the state of the ground at the time ; and, when necessary, the management practised for a series of years after- wards. Fi ELD, No. I. was soil chiefly composed of thin clay, some of it approaching to a moorish qua- OP LI Mm 425 lity, r. e. mixed with peat earth ; the whole ia^) cumbent upon a subsoil retentive of moisture, '» ' This field had been in grass for several years, but yielded very poor returns. It was fallowed without taking any com crop ; and the lime, which was brought forward during the summer months, was applied in the following spring pre- vious to the seedrfunow being given. At that time it was completely effete^ and would hardly go from the shovels. About 45 Linlithgow bar- ley bolls, or ^70 Winchester bushels, as origin* ally laid down, were applied to each Scottish statute acre. '^^^ First Tear — ^The crop was oats, but littlt benefit was discovered from the lime. " '^' Second Tear — The ground began to ferment, which showed that the lime was in action. The husbandry of flax being then in vogue, it was tried upon this field -, and the crop was excellent, both in respect of flax and seed. Third Tear — It was sown with gray peas after two furrows, which returned a great bulk 425 OF LIM£. of Straw, but not much grain. The clay part of the field was now quite loose and free, while the moorish soil seemed more compact and firm. Fourth Teax— Red wheat was sown, which turned out a bulky crop, though the season was adverse. The straw was hard, bright, reedy, and of great length. Perhaps the greatest quantity of dung applied at once would not have produ- ced such a crop. Fifth Tear — The field was summer- fallowed, but no dung was applied. Here it may, with justice, be urged, that a great error was committed in withholding dung at this stage ; and it is acknowledged that a dose of manure, had circumstances permitted, could not have been more beneficially bestowed. In vindication of our management, we can only state that, at the period in question, dung was a scarce article upon the farm, and that many fields would not crop at all if it was withheld. The one under consideration appeared quite cap- able of carrying several more crops without as- sistance J consequently, viewing the economy of OF.L*Mf:..fo 4gy the farm as a >whole, it was thought preferable to act in the manner described Many things are eligible in general management which cannot be executed ; and, as in public affairs, a partial evil must often be committed to promote the general good. Sixth Tear — ^The field was sown with oats, and produced a heavy crop, both of straw and corn. Grass seeds were sown with the oats. Sefenth Tear — The field was depastured with cattle. The grass was but indifferent, which is a common circumstance upon new limed land ; at least where a heavy dose is given. This in- duced us to plough it again in the succeeding spring. Eighth Tear-^-OzI^ were sown, which yield« ed a decent crop. Ninth Tear — ^The field was thoroughly sum- mer-fallowed and dunged, at the rate of sixteen double loads^tp the, Scottish acre. Wheat was §pwn. .: . .:f . 48§ OF LIME. Tekth TEAR^Tht crop of wheat wat excel* lent, being not only bulky, but of fine quality. EiErEf/rff TV^^— -Oats and grass seeds were sown, and the ground surrendered to pasture. Since that time it has been a few years under corn ; and, though the produce of these crops cannot, by any exertion, be made equal to those which are enumerated, yet the soil is evidently much improved in every respect, when compared with its original state, previous to the lime being applied* yiELD, No. ?. was a real moorish soil, m* cumbent upon a close bottom, which had been over-cropped aft^ lime by a former tenant. We began with a summer-fallow, and applied 1 part of the same kind of lime which answered so well upon Field No. 1 . The lime was laid on during a hard black frost, at the rate of 35 bolls, or 210 bushels per acre, and was then effete, Oats were sown ; but the crop was a poor one, and the after attempts were not more successful. The stalk of the plant generally singed and dc- OF LIME. 4S9 cayed after the strength of the seed-pickle was gone ; whic}i is a sure proof of ground being worn out with lime. This will always happen, though in different degrees, upon all such land, unless a considerable quantity of dung is bestow- ed J which unfortunately, in this instance, was not the case. Field, No. 3. — The soil was of a moorish quality, but superior to that of No. 2. Wt fallowed the field out of grass, and ap.. plied lime hot from the kiln ; but the consequent ces were much the same as mentioned in the pre- ceding instance. The oat-crop looked brisk at first, but decayed daily, as the strength of the pickle was exhausted. Tried dung with a second fallow, when the lime appeared to operate in a trifling degree, but not to that extent as to repay the ex- pence incurred. Fie LP, No. 4.- The soil was partly thin clay, the remainder of a soft sandy nature, but all up- on a wet bottom, i 450 OF LIME. "'This field had lain, for a great many years, in grass, and displayed no signs of having been previously limed. We applied the lime upon the grass surface, when it was effete^ and ploughed for oats : the crop good. The lime did not come into full action till the third year, when pease were sown ; and, for a number of years after- wards, the different crops taken were not inferior to those of the best infield. Field, No. 5. — The soil was chiefly a soft loam upon a wet bottom ; which, at any rate, had not been limed since the ridges were levelled and streightened. This field was summer- fallowed after a crop of wheat, and dunged substantially, as it appear- ed to be in an exhausted state. Lime hot from the kiln was then applied, at the rate of 40 bolls, or *240 bushels per acre, which operated imme- diately. It is now sixteen years since the appli- cation ; during which time, the field has been only three years in grass, and yet its effects have not ceased. OF IIME. 431 Field, No. ^. — The soil, a strong loam in- cumbent upon clay, which had carried five crops of grain after being ploughed from old grass. We summer-fallowed and dunged this field; applied lime also, which was laid on hot from the kiln, in the month of August, after six ploughings were given. The quantity applied was forty barley bolls per acre ; which, in less than a month, occasioned a fermentation of the soil, something similar to what is produced by yeast upon unbaken bread. In one respect, the improvement made upon this field by lime was conspicuous. Barley could, with difficulty, be raised before lime was used ; whereas, afterwards, fine crops of this grain were procured with faci- lity. The ground was likewi e much easier ploughed and harrowed than formerly, which is always a sure token of an improvement being ac- complished. ^^FiEx!?; Nb;^i--The soSfgetierally a thin sharp loam, a great part of it incumbent upon a close bottom. It had been three years in grass, and was sown down in good order ; therefore a proper subject for receiving lime upon the sward. 432 or LIME* There was reason to believe that lime had beelt applied by a former tenant, but this was not cer- tain. After harvest. We laid on from thirty-five to forty bolls p>er acre, not thinking the soil requir- ed a heavy dose* It was partly hot, and partly ejji'tty as generally happens at that season of the year. FiusT year, oats Were taken ; the crop good^ Second year, drilled beans, with intervals of twenty-seven inches; the ground being twice ploughed before sowing, and four times horse* hoed J crop middling. Third year, wheat after one ploughing, which yielded a full average crop. Fourth year, it was under summer-fallow j to which J 2 double loads of dung per acre were given. Fifth year, in wheat ; crop excellent* Sixth year, in drilled beans, which were manag- ed as ibove. Seventh year, wheat j crop above mediocrity. Eighth year, barley, with grass seeds, after three ploughings ; which, though the season was adverse (rp.v), turned out a decent crop. Ninth year, under grass, which was pas- tured witli cattle, and not inferior to any in. the country. OF LIME. 433 It may be objected, that the above is hard cropping. This may be the case ; but we are far from acknowledging that hard cropping, in certain cases, is inconsistent with good farming. The expence of lime in general is so great, that a necessity for hard cropping may be said to be thereby created. Besides, this necessity is in- creased by the general shortness of leases, which impedes every permanent improvement j and, in the usage of lime, calls for the utmost exertion of the tenant, that he may be reimbursed his ex- traordinaiy outlay and trouble. 'Field, No. S. —The soil was chiefly loam, though of different varieties, and mostly incum- bent upon a close bottom. This field, which consisted of fifty acres, had been cropped for time immemorial ; and, when we entered into the farm, was so tired with car- rying wheat, that it was scarcely worth the plough- ing. It was therefore laid down to grass with all convenient speed. In this state, it remained five years, when it was broken up again ; thirty acres having been limed upon the sv.ard, ot the Vol. I. E e 434 OF LIME. rate of forty barley bolls per acre. Some of the lime was laid on three years before ploughing, some of it two years, and the remainder a few days before the ploughs entered. Part of it was hot, part of it tffctt ; but the effects over the whole field, tven in the first year, were nearly the same ; if there was any difference, the ridges last limed fermented most, but the crop was equally bulky wherever the lime had been ap- plied ; though, upon the twenty acres unlimed, the inferiority was evident. From this it appears, that it was not necessary to apply lime to grass land one or two years before it was broken up, as inculcated by several writers upon husbandry ; a practice, at any rate, not reconcileablc with economy, as much of the lime is washed off the surface, and carried away by rain before the ground is ploughed. Field, No. 9 — ^he soil was chiefly thin clay, incumbent upon a bottom of till ; conse- quently, subject to receive injury from wetness. This field had been severely scourged by the preceding tenant ; had bt en injudiciously streight- ened, which is a fatal measure to such «^oils; had been limed previous to the sireigiitcmng j OF LIME. 435 but, at our entry, was wholly under crop, and in an exhausted state. A FT HI being summer-fallowed, in as perfect a way as circumstances permitted, this field was laid down in grass, and depastured with cattle for several years. Lime (the greatest part of which was in an effete state) was applied upon the sward during the winter months ; and, in February following, the field was ploughed for oats. The crop was middling good j but, in the six subsequent years, it did not appear that much benefit was gained from the application. In the eighth year, however, the lime acted vigor- ously ; a small part of the field which remained unlimed being at least o() per cent, inferior in crop, though the management, in every other respect, v/as all along similar. It is difficult to account fqr this cessation of action during so long a period, though it is be- lieved that instances of the like nature are not un frequent upon secondary soils. Whether a deeper ploughing had been given in the preced- ing season, which might bring the lime to the E e2 436 OF LIME. surface ; or whether the original poverty of the soil precluded the lime from operating, till it was assisted by a copious application of dung, are circumstances not easily ascertained. In our opinion, the hme was brought into action by the dung bestowed ; though it would be rash to state, as a matter of fact, what, at best, is only a pro- bable conjecture. Field, No. 10. — ^The soil was of various qua* lities. Part of it a thin loam ; part of a sandy nature ; and the remainder approaching to a thin clay ; but all upon a bottom retentive of mois- ture. After pasturing the field for one year, we applied lime upon the sward, at the rate of 40 Linlithgow barley bolls, or ^4u bushels per Scots acre. The lime was partly hot ; but the great- est part of it was ejfctc^ which must necessarily be the case when lime is hutted, unless the huts are completely covered. No difference, however, was discovered in the operation, from the state in which the article was applied. First year — The crop was oats. The season being excessively dry, little benefit was got from the lime. OF LIME. 457 Second ^rf^r— Fallowed the field completely, and dressed it with dung, at the rate of lotuteen double loads per Scots acre. 2V/^D 3fmr— Sowed barley and grass seeds. The crop of barley was very good. Fourth ijear — The field was depastured with cattle. firm year—It was ploughed for oats» Crop excellent. Sixth year— ^T&^di pea&e and beans, after two ploughings, which were managed as already described; the crop was of great bulk, and pro- duced fully nine bolls per acre. SLVEHrH year — Wheat was sown, and the crop was excellent. Field, No. 11. —Was of an inferior kind of loam, upon a close bottom. The year when this £eld was last under summer-fallow, we applied lime to a part of ti^ by way of trial. Dung was E e 3 438 OF LIME. given likewise. We sowed barley and grass seeds ; and afterwards took a crop of hay, when the land was ploughed for oats. Every one of these crops was strikingly superior, where lime had been given ; indeed, the superiority was re- cognisable at a considerable distance. Field, No. IC. — The soil was chiefly a heavy deep loam ; some of it a strong, tenacious, red clay, but almost wholly incumbent upon a close bottom, Wf. ploughed this field from old grass, and sow ed it with oats. It was summer-fallowed in the second year, and dressed with lime, which was mostly applied hot from the kiln; being drawn from the cart in regular sized heaps of five p^cks each, or thereby, and spread the mo- ment it was slacked by rain, or atmospherical moist-ure. About two-thirds of the field receiv- ed 50 barley bolls, or .SOO bushels per acre ; the remainder from 60 to 70 bolls per acre ; and the operation appeared to be in direct propor- tion to the quantity applied ; nor was there any distinction discernible betwixt what was applied hot and what was completely effete; some of it, indeed, the season being remarkably wet, was . OF LIME* 43.9 nearly in a mortar state : the whole answered well, and operated immediately. It was noticed, in this field, that a few ridges, on which the hme was spread in a windy day, carried crops rather inferior to those of the Ci n- tiguous ones : we apprehend ihat the most va- luable particles of the lime had been carried off; and would recommend that spreading should be discontinued when a high wind arises. Mi CH difference of opinion having prevailed relative to the quality of the several limestone quarries in the neighbourhood, a trial was made of Hme from each of them, upon six adjoining riages of the above field. Though a difference to the eye was visible in almost every one of those samples, yet the effect upon the ground was, from all of them, precisely similar j nor could the most accurate judge say which was best. Ihe quantity applied in each case was the same ; and the operations of laying on the hme, spreadirg it, and ploighirig the ground, were all carried on in an uniform n.anner. Ee4 440 OF LIME. Field, No. 13. — Consisted of loam of differ^ ent varieties, upon a bottom inclined to wetness, and the ridges lying in a broad ^nd serpentine state. We ploughed for oats, and then took drilled beans, which were succeeded by wheat. The first and last crops suffered much from the grub. This fallowed field in the fourth year, cleaving in different breadths, and cross-ploughing the ridges alternately, till the surface was complete- ly levelled ; then formed the ground into eigh- teen feet ridges, applied twelve double cart loads of dung, about one ton each, and fifty barley bolls of lime, to the Scots acre. I'he lime was laid on hot from the kiln, and spread as fast as it was pulverized. This quantity was found ra- ther too much for the softest part of the field, which, after all, is a circumstance that rarely happens j but on the remainder the fermentation was not greater than necessary ; and from this part of the field, the best crops have been pro- cured, though the ridges were both higher and broader, and required more levellings than the other. OF LIME. 441 Wf may now draw a few plain and practical inferences from what is stated. 1st, That lime operates equally well, whether applied in a hot or effete state, provided the con- dition of the ground upon which it is used is such ,as to render a calcareous application bene- ficial. 2dly, That, in respect of operation, it is Im- material whether lime be used upon grass land or summer- fallow, and that objects of convenien- cy ought chiefly to weigh with the farmer in as- certaining the most proper time for applyiyjg this article. Upon old grass land, it is perhaps best to plough first, and to sumn;er-faIiow in the second year, when lime can be apphed. ( )n new and clean grass land, hesitation is superflu- ous J it may be limed at the outset, that is, be- fore the plough is admitted. Sdly, That to hme moorish soils is a hazard- ous business, unless dung is likewise bestowed ; but to repeat the application upon such soils, especially if they have been severely cropped, is almost a certain loss, and that a compost of lime 442 OF LIME. and rich earth is, in such cases, the only substi- tute. 4thly, That strong loams and clays require a full dose to bring them into action ; such soils being capable of absorbing a great quantity of calcareous matter. Lighter soils, however, re- quire less lime to stimulate them, and may be injured by administering a quantity that would prove moderately beneficial to those of a heavy nature. 5thly, That upon fresh land, or land in a proper state for a calcareous application, lime is much superior to dung. Its effects continue for a longer period ; while the crops produced are of a superior kind, and less susceptible of injury from the excesses of drought and moisture. Finally, the ground, particularly if of a strong nature, is much easier wrought ; and, in many instances, the saving of labour would almost tempt a judi- cious farmer to lime his land, were no greater benefit derived from the application than the opportunity thereby gained oi working it in a perfect manner. OF LIME. 443 It may be added, that though strong soils re- quire to be animated with a good dose of lime, those of a light texture will do equally well with little more than half the quantity requisite on the others, especially if they are fresh, or have not already received an apphcation of calcareous matter. In every case it is the farmer only who can judge of the quantity to be given ; but, as a general principle, it is safer to exceed the pro- per quantity than to be below it. In the latter case the application may prove useless, and the whole exptnce be lost ; whereas it rarely hap- pens that injury is sustained from an excess, especially if more or less dung is soon after ad- jninistered. SECT. IV. On Marl Mahl, like lime, tray be viewed as a stimu- lant, forcing the soil to produce crops of corn 444 ON MARL* and grass, which otherwise would not have been obtained. Marl has been long known to the husbandmen of Great Britain ; and, if we give credit to Pliny, this article was used prior to the Ro.nan invasion. Several kinds are enumerated by the ancient Latin writers, and all of them de- clare that the soil was greatly enriched by the application of marl. Is many parts of this island the value of land has been much augmented by the application of marl. Treatiifg of this article in a practical way^ it may be divided into shell-marl and earth- marl. Shell-marl is composed of animal-shells dissolved ; earth-marl is a fossil. The colour c^ the latter is various ; white, black, blue, red, and jlS hardness is as various as its colour ; being sometimc:s soft and ductile like clay, sometimes hard and solid, like stone, and sometimes extend- ed into thin beds, like slate. Shell-marl is easily distinguished by the shells which always appear in it ; but the similarity betwixt earth-marl and many other fossil substances renders it difficult to distinguish them. ON MARL. 445 Shell-marl is very different in its nature from clayey and stone-marls, and, from its ef- fects upon the soil, is commonly classed among the animal manures. The Rev. Mr Dickson states, " That it does not dissolve with water as the other marls do. It sucks it up, and swells like a sponge. It is a much stronger attractor of acids than they." Dr Home says, that it takes six times more of acids to saturate it than any of the other marls which he had met with. But the greatest difference betwixt the shell-marl and the other marls consists in this, the shell-marl contains oils. It is uncertain if the other marls contain any oils J but this kind, it is said, contams them in great plenty. This marl, it would seem, from the qualities which it possesses, promotes vegetation in all the different ways. It increases the food of plants ; it communicates to the soil a power of attracting this food from the air ; it enlarges the pasture of plants ; and it prepares the vegetable food for entering their roots. The shelly sand, often found deposited in beds in the crevices and level parts of the sea-coasts. 446 ON MART.. is another substance capable of being employed both as a manure and stimulant ; not only on account of its containing calcareous matter in greater or less proportions, but also from the ti fix- ture of animal and vegetable substances that are found in it. The portion of calcareous matter which it contains must vary according to cir- cumstances ; but, when the quantity is any way large, and in a reduced or attenuated state, the quality is so much the more valuable. On that account, the quantity which ought to be appUed to the soil must be regulated entirely by the ex- tent of calcareous matter supposed, or found, up- on trial, to be contained in the article, which, as already said, is very variable. The clayey and stone marls are distinguished by their colours ; viz. white, black, blue, and red. The white, being of a soft crumbly nature, is considered to be the best for pasture land ; and the blue, which is more compact and firm, for corn land. In the districts where marl is much used, these distinctions of management are at- tended to, though either of the kinds may be employed with advantage if the following rules are adhered to. «s ON MARL. 447 If marl is of the blue kind, or of any kind that is compact and firm, lay it upon the land early in the season, so as the weather may mello-v? it down before the last plough ; and, if on pasture land, let it also be early laid on, and spread veiy thin, breaking any lumps afterwards which are not completely separated by the first spreading. If marl is of the white, or any of the loose or crumbling sorts, it need not be laid on so early, because these varieties break and dissolve almost as soon as exposed to the weather. TiiEUE are many kinds of impure and mixed marls, such as sandy, clayey, loamy, and stony marls, according as these varieties of soil are in- corporated or mixed with the principal substance. These sorts, of course, are inferior to the pure marls ; but the stony kind is considered to be the best, because its efficacy is more lasf'ng, though the fat and crumbling kinds enrich or o- perate more speedily. The hard marls, however, in every case, operate for the greatest length of time, and are often followed with bad conse- quences to the soil, unless good management, with regard to cropping, is exercised during the period of their operation. After being long ex- 448 jiAi^L* cessively fruitful and productive, the soil \vill gradually become so sterile and barren as scarcely to be worth cultivating ; in which case, the great- est exertion can hardly procure a return of ferti- lity. In this respect, the effect of over-cropping land that has been marled, is precisely the same as takes place with lime. An uncommon exertion is made, occasioning a proportionable debility ; though, were good husbandry studiously practis- ed, the exertion would neither be so excessive, in the first instance, nor the after-consequences so mischievous. In numerous instances, land has been reduced so much as to be thought lit- tle better than useless, by the effects of lime and marl. Both, however, are excellent agents in forwarding agriculture though often their a- gency has been misapphed, and used for mis- chievous purposes. Under a correct rotation of cropping, and with a suitable supply of dung, neither lime nor marl is uiiurious. Reverse these circumstances, and the contrary effect must ne- cessaiiiy be produced. ON SEA-WEED, &C, 449 SECT. V. On Sea-Weed^ or Alga Marina, Sea-weed, a plant that grows upon rocks within the sea, is driven a-shore after storms, and is found to be an excellent article for manuring light and dry soils, though of little advantage to those of a clayey description. This article may be elpplied on the proper soil with advantage to any crop, and its effects are immediate, though rarely of lorig continuance. As the coast-side lands (if the islands are, in every case, of superior fertility to those that are inland, we may attri- bute this superior fertility to the great quantity o manure found upon their shores after every storm or high tide, whereby the resources of the ocean are brought forward for the enrichment of the lands locally situated for participating in such be-- Vol. I. F f 450 ON SEA.WEED, nefits. The utmost attention has long been paid to the gathering and laying on of this valuable manure ; and, from the extensive line of British shores, both of the main sea and of the numerous estuaries which indent, and as it were divide the main-land, an immense quantity of sea- weed must annually be collected from them. Sea-wked is applied at all seasons to the sur- face, and sometimes, though not so profitably, it is mixed with unrotten dung, that the process of putrefaction may be hastened. Generally speak- ing, it is at once applied to the soil, which saves labour, and prevents that degree of waste which otherwise would necessarily happen. Sea-weed, in one respect, is preferable to the richest dung, because it does not produce tuch a quantity of weeds. This may be inferred from the general state of coast'side lands where sea-weed is used. These lands are almost constantly kept in tillage, and yet are cleaner and freer from weeds than those in inland situations, where corn crops are not so often taken. Clay-so !Ls dre not so much benefited by sea- weed as those of a lighter nature j but whether OR ALGA MARINA. 451 this is owing to the properties of clay being un- friendly to the admission of the salts contained in sea-weed, or to soils of that description being generally in a state, when this substance is thrown ashore, which physically unfits them for partici- pating of benefit from the application, is not completely ascertained. The fact, however, is certain, that clay-soils are little benefited by sea- weed, though perhaps the poaching of carts and horses upon them, in wet stormy weather, may in some measure be assigned as the true cause why the same benefit is hot gained. When dung is carted out oil clay soils in a wet state, we know that the advantage fronl it is not so great as when the surface is in condition to bear the pres- sure of the carriages j though, from that result, tio person would be justified in maintaining that these soils were constitutionally disqualified to re- ceive benefit from dtingj When a coast-side farm contains mixed soils, the best management is exercised by applying sea-Weed to dry^ and dung to clay-land. In this way, the full advan- tage of rrianure may be obtained j and a farm so circumstanced is of infinitely greater value, with respect to manuring and labouring, than ©ns; which contains tio such variety. F f 2 4^9, ON SKA WEKD, &C. I r has lately been suggested by Sir John Sin* clair, Bart, and other eminent agriculturalists, that sea-weed possesses a virtue not formerly as- signed to it ; namely, that it serves to preserve wheat from being mildewed ; which, were the fact sufficiently ascertained, would be an addition to our stock of agricultural knowledge of great importance. Where the sea-weed is applied, there can be no doubt that the soil is thereby greatly strengthened, becoming firmer, and, of course, better adapted for preserving the roots of the plant from injury, and for furnishing a re- gular supply of food. This length we can safely go, such an opinion being in unison with the ge- neral sentiments of agriculturalists. Thinking, however, that mildew proceeds entirely from a diseased atmosphere, we are at a loss to find out how sea-weed, at the root of the plant, can act as a preventative against that disease in any other way than what is already mentioned ; that is, by consolidating the surface, and giving greater strength to the plants, in consequence of which they are enabled to resist the unhealthiness of the atmosphere. Comparing the operation of sea- weed with that of dung, it will be found that the effect of the latter is to loosen the soil, and to ON PARING AND BURNING, &C. 453 make it more friable ; consequently, as always hccppens, fields which have received the greatest quint ty of dung are always most susceptible of mildew. SECT. VI. On Paring and Burning the Surface and using the Ashes as a Manure. The practice of burning the surface, and ap- plying the ashes as manure to the soil that remains, ha bc'-n long prevalent in Britain ; .and though it has been condemned, nay reprobated by many chemicil writers, and prohibited in numerous in- sta^-.c-s by proprietors, yet, by professional peo- ple, who judged of the utility of the practice from the nature and consequences of its effects, it has, almost in every case, been supported, and considered as the most advantageous way of bringing in and improving all soils, wher^ the surface carries a coarse sward, and is composed Ff 3 4i4 ON' rAuiXG and burning, &c. of peat-earth, or other inactive substances. The burning of the surface has been viewed as the best way of bringing such soils into action ; the ashes furnished by the burning serving as a stimu- lant to their dormant powers, and thereby ren- dering them fertile and productive in a superior degree than coul4 otherwise be accomplished. These have been the sentiments of husbandr men for many generations, and are not to be overturned by thp force of abstract reasoning, however plausibly and forcibly urged. Were ^ field to be burned, and the ashes produced to be removed to another, the objections of chemists would be well founded ; but so long as these ashes are spread upon the surface, and an effect produced upon the remainder of the soil and subsoil, equal, if not superior, to that which is occasioned by calcareous manure, no evil can be dreaded. The foil, in place of being thinned by the burning, is in fact thickened ; because a por- tion of the subsoil is impregnated and brought into action, whereby the staple is deepened, and its productive powers increased. It must be re- marked, however, that, as the effects of burnt ashes, though instantaneoms, are not of long ON PMllNG AND BURXIN'Gj&C. 465 duration, a dressing of dung, in the third year, becomes highly necessary, after which, land so treated, should be restored to grass. The great object to be attended to, when stimulants are em- ployed, is to use gentle and lenient cropping af- terwards ; otherwise, what with justice might have been considered as a meritorious improve- ment, may turn out to deserve a contrary charac- ter. What we have said relates to what is gene- rally called paring and burning ; that is, paring the surface to the deepness of one, two, or three inches, gathering it into heaps and burning it. We shall now speak of ashes burnt and used in a different manner ; that is, when peat-earth is digged and burnt in quantities, and afterwards ap- plied to a field of a different sort of soil or qua- lity. The effects of ashes, used in this way, are precisely the same with those of lime, though their operation is more violent, and therefore sooner over. The first crop is commonly very luxuriant ; but, unless dung is afterwards admi- nistered, the soil will rather be exhausted than enriched by the application of the ashes. Ff 4 4ib" ON PARING ANP ^LRNING, 6(C. I\ the agricultural memorandums of Robert .Ainslic, land-steward to the celebrated John Earl of Stair on his estate of Culhorn in Wigtonshire, seme account of the operation of ashes, and the method of making them from peat-earth is de- scribed. Ac 0111)1 NG to Mr Ainslie, it appears that Lord Stair, in 17^38, sent several barrels of earthy ashes from London, of a kind much used by farmers in the south of England as a top-dressing for their grass and tillage lands. These ashes, agreeable to his Lordship's directions, were sown upon two different pieces of ground ; viz. on a piece intended for hay, and on a piece sown with barley, while a proportion of them was reserved till their qualities were analysed and ascertained. Both the grass and barley were greatly improved by the dressing of ashes bestowed ; and, upon a- nalysing the part reserved, it was found that, with a great proportion of earthy substances, the ashes contained many particles of lime or shelly matter. Hence, Mr Ainslie concluded, that these ashes were either made by carefully burning moss that was strongly incorporated with shell-marl, or that lime had been mixed with them j by means of ON PARING ANP BURNING, &G. 437 which, and the salts, natural to all ashes, it was supposed that their great fertilising quality was produced. Mr AiNSLiE received certain directions for burning moss, along with the ashes, which are of considerable importance. He was directed to be- gin the fire with dry faggots, furze, or straw, then to put on dried moss finely minced and well beaten with a clapper ; and, when that was nearly burnt down, to put on moss less dry, but well minced and clapped, making holes with a prong to carry on the fire, and so adding more moss, till a hill of ashes, something of the size of a waggon load, was accumulated, which, when cold, he was directed to carry to the bins, or store heaps, before the ashes got wet. Agreeable to these directions, a good deal of moss was burnt by Mr Ainslie at a very small expence, the people employed soon becoming very expert in the several operations of cutting and burning the moss, and of managing, in the most advantageous jnanner, the kilns in which it was prepared. The generality of agricultural writers, when treating of manures, give innumerable directions 4i8 ON PARING AND BURNING, &C. for the management of the several varieties, as if the farmer had a store-house or repository into which each could be collected. We have spoken of them in such a way as may serve every useful purpose ; and, without troubling the reader with instructions which cannot be carried into execu- tion, have restricted our details to matters that arc practicable by every farmer. We have directed his attention to the management and application of dung, because this article may be considered as the magic wand which influences every rural operation. Instead of troubling him with specula- tive opinions on the principles of vegetation, and the pasture of plants, subjects of an abstruse na- ture, and on which the best informed can only form crude and uncertain notions, we have point- ed out the manner in which the greatest quantity of dung may be collected, and described the most suitable and profitable ways of applying it to the land. We have treated of lime, and other stimu- lants, in the same manner ; every kind of theory being avoided, unless sanctioned by experience, — the only schoolmaster deserving attention when rural economy is to be illustrated. P.V THE MANAGEMENT, ^C, 45^ CHAP. VIII. ON THE NANAGEMENT OF ARABLE LANP, AND THE HUSBANDRY BEST ADAPTED TO DiFFERElfT SOILS. If the landed property possessed by any nation is to be considered as tl^e capital stock of that nation, then it becomes an important question, hpw and in what manner shall the capital stock \ie managed to the best advantage, so as the na- tion may derive the grej^test possible benefit ? This is a branch of political economy seldoni much attended to, though obviously deserving ^he most minute and serious investigation. In fact, it is only of late years that agriculture has been reckoned worthy of public notice. Indivi- duals might, and many of them did, consider it as a parent art ; but the great body of the com- munity were disposed to estimate manufactures and commerce as of greater importance : Hence 460 ON THE MANAGEMENT, Scc the British nation have always been more desi- rous of gaining new territories, than improving those already possessed : hence millions were ex- pended in defending and improving distant colo- nies, when a small part of the money thus ex- pended would have rendered every quarter of our own island like a garden. There are numerous and extensive tracts, in every part of the country, which stand in need of improvement ; and. not- withstanding the high cultivation of many dis- tricts, perhaps in every one of them the national capital might be considerably increased, were suitable means devised, and proper encourage- ment bestowed, lo investigate these matters, however, would lead us into a wide field. On that account we refrain from such inquiries, and proceed to illustrate the management of arable land, and the husbandry best adapted to different soils. kOTATJONj &c* 461 SECT. I. On Rotation of drops. Refi RRiNG to Chap. I. wherein the great and fundamental principles of agriculture are de- scribed, we enter upon the consideration of a minor principle, viz. the most suitable Rotation of Crops. Though we are perfectly satisfied that, in the va- riable state of British soil and climate, no fixed rotation can be prescribed, and even that the real value of every rotation depends, in a great mea- sure, upon the fidelity shewn in executing the se- veral processes of labour which belong to it j yet, abstractly speaidng, some rotations must be viewed as of more value than others, because the crops therein included may be most suitable for the particular soil or soils on which they are to be cultivated, or better adapted to the market 462 noTATioy demand of the country, which uhimately must regulate the kind of produce most deserving of cuhivation. Holding these things in view, alter- nate husbandry, or the system of having legumi- nous and culmiferous crops to follow each other, must be reckoned most judicious, and deserving of recommendation. This system, with some modifications, is practicable on every soil. Ac- cording to its rules, the land would rarely get into a foul and exhausted state ; at least, if foul and exhausted under alternate husbandr}', mat- ters would be much worse Were any other system followed. The rotation may be' long or shorty as is consistent with the richness of the soil on which it is executed, and other local circumstan- ces. The crops cultivated may be any of the va* rieties which compose the two tribes, accord- ing to the nature of soil and climate of the dis- trict where the rotation is exercised ; and where circumstances render ploughing not so advanta- geous as pasturing, the land may remain in grass till these circumstances are obviated ; care being always taken, when it is broke up, to follow al- ternate husbandry during the time it is under til- lage. OF CROPS. 4<>3 In this way, it is perfectly practicable to follow the alternate system in every situation ; nor do we consider the land being in graSs for two, thice, or four years, as a departure frotn that system, if called for by a scarcity of manure, po- verty of soil, want of markets for corn, or other local circumstances. The basis of every rotation we hold to be cither a bare summer fallow, or a fallow on which drilled turnips are cultivated, and its conclusion to be with the crop taken in the year preceding a return of fallow or drilled turnips, when, of course, a new rotation com- mences. Rotation^ No. 1 . According to this rotation, wheat and drilled beans are the crops to be cultivated, though clo- ver and rye-grass may be taken for one year in place of beans, should such a variety be viewed- as more eligible. The rotation begins with sum- mer fallow, because it is only on strong deep lands that it can be profitably practised ; and it may go on for any length of time, or so long as the land can be kept clean, though it ought to stop the moment that the land gets into a con- 464 ROTATION trary condition. A considerable quantity of riia- nure is required to go on successfully ; perhaps dung should be given to each bean crop ; and if* this crop is drilled, and attentively horse-hoed, the rotation may turn out to be one of the most profitable that can be exercised. Rotation, No. II. Upon loams and clays, where it may not bef advisable to carry the first rotation into execu- tion, a different one can be practised ; according to which labour willbe more divided, and the usual grains more generally cultivated j as, for instance, 1 . Fallow, with dung. 2. Wheat. 3. Beans, drilled and horse-hoed. 4. Barley. 5. Clover and Rye-grass. 6. Oats or Wheat. 7. Beans, drilled and horse-hoed. 8. Wheat. This rotation is excellently calculated to in- sure an abundant return through the whole of it, Of crops. 465 jprovlded dung is administered upon the clover stubble. Without this supply, the rotation would be crippled, and inferior crops of course produ- ced in the concluding years. Rofalion, No. IIL This rotation is calculated for clays and loam:-^ bf an inferior description to those already treated of. 1. Fallow, with dungi 2. Wheat. S. Clover and Rye-grass. 4. OatSi 5. Beans, drilled and horse-hoed. 6. Wheat, Accord I XG to this rotation, the rules of good husbandry are studiously practised, while the se- quence is obviously calculated to keep the land in good order, and in such a condition as to en- sure crops of the greatest value. If manure is bestowed, either ,upon the clover stubble, or before the beans are sown, the rotation is one 01 Vol. L G g 466' ROT AT 10. V the best that can be devifed for the soils men- tioned. Rotation, No. IVi On thih cbys geritte husbandry Is indispen- sably necessary, otherwise the soil may be ex- hati;3ted, and the produce unequal to the expence of cultivation. Soils df thife description will not imjjfovc liiuch while Under grass ; but, unless an additional fetock of mahure can be procu- red, there is a ncce'^iity of relreshing them in that way, evert though the produce should, in the mean time, be comparatively of small value. The following rotation is hot an iriiprdper ont» }; Fallow, with ddng. 2» Wheat. 3. Grass, pastured^ but not tdo early eH^ten.' 4. Grass, 5. Grass. 6. OatSi This rotation may be shortened or lengthened according to circumstances, but should never ex- tend further, in point of ploughing, thai: -h n bF CRb^Si 467 (dung can be given to the fallow break. This Is the key-stone of the whole ; and, if it is neglect- tdj the rotation is rendered useless. dotation. No. V. pEAT-EAB^TH soils are not friendly to wheat, unless aided by a Quantity of calcareous matter; Taking them in a general point of View, it is not advisable to cultivate wheat ; biit a croj) of oats may alnlost be depeJided lipon, provided the pre- Vious rtiaiiagement has been judiciously executed. If the subsoil of peat-earth lands be retentive of hioisture, the process oiight to commente with a bare summer fallow j but, if such are incumbent bn free and open bottoms, a crop of turnips may Be substituted for fallow 5 according to which method, the surface will get a bod;y which natu- rally it did not possess. Grass, on such soils, must always bccupy a great space of every rota- tion, because physical circumstances render regu- lar cropping uttei-ly impracticable! 1. Fallow, or Turnips with dung; 2; Oats, of an early variety. 46'S ROIAIIOJ^ 3. Clover, and a considerable quantity of perennial Kye-grass. 4. Pasture for several years, till circumstan- ces permit the land to be broken up, when oats are to be repeated. Rotation, No. Vl. Light soils are easily managed, though, to procure a full return of the prof.t which they are capable of yielding, requires generally as much attention as is necessary in the management of those of a stronger description. Upon light soils, a bare summer fallow is seldom called for, as cleanliness may be preserved by growing turnips, and other leguminous articles. Grass also is of eminent advantage upon such soils, often yield- ing a greater profit than what is afforded by cul- raiferous crops. ]. Turnips. 'J. Spring Wheat, or 'Barley. :>. Clover, and Rye- grass. 4. OatSj or Wheats OF CROPS. 469 Tiiis^s a fasjiionable rotation ; but it may be doubted whether a continuance of it for any con- siderable period is advisable, because both turnips and clover are found to fall off when repeated so often as once in four years. Perhaps the rota- tion would be greatly improved were it extended to eight years, whilst the ground, by such an ex- tension, would be kept fresh, and constantly in good condition. As, for instance, were seeds for pasture sown in the second year, the ground kept three years under grass, broke up for oats in the sixth year, drilled with beans and peas in the seventh, and sown with wheat in the eighth, the rotation would be complete ; because it included ev-ery branch of husbandry, and admitted a va- riety in management generally agreeable to the soil, and always favourable to the interest of cul- tivators. The rotation may also consist of six crops, were the land, kept only one year in grass, though few situations admit of so much cropping, Vinless additional, manure is within reach. Rotation^ No. VII. Sandy soils, when properly manured, are well, adapted to turnips, though it rarely happens that Gg .i 47b R0TATi6jr wheat can be cultivated on them with advantage, unless they are dressed with alluvial compost, marl, clay, or some such substances as will giv^ a body or strengtl^ to them which they do not naturally possess. Barley, oats, anc^ rye, the kit- ter especially, are, however, sure craps on sands j and, ill favourable seasons, will return greater profit than can be obtained from wheat. 1. Turnips, consumed on the ground. 2. Barley. 3* Grass. 4. Rye or Oats. By keeping the land three years in grass, the rotation would be extended to six years, a mea- sure highly advisable. From what is stated in this Section, every pe;;- son may at once perceive the facility of arrang- ing husbandry upon correct principles, and of cropping the ground in such a way as to make it produce abundant returns to the occupier, whilst; at the same time it is preserved in good condi- tion, and never impoverished or exhausted. All these things are perfectly practicable under the pF cupps. 471 alternate system, though it is dpvibtful whether they can be gained under ^ny o^he?^. Cross cropping, in some cases, jpay perhaps be jystifl- able in practice ; as for instance, we j^^ve hear4 of another rotation, to which tl^^t char^c^fjr may in some fespects b,e applied, though, as the test of experience is yet wanting, a 4ecisivf opi^ nion cannpt be pronp^npe^ upon its merits. This rotation begins >yith ^ |:^jire fa!|oW| ai^d isf carried on with wheat, gr^s^ for one or nior^ years, oats, aftd wheat, ^here it ends, I^s sup- porters maintain, that ^ean? ^re au imcertain crop, ^nd cultivated at great ejcpemre ; ^4 tha^ in no other way w^l fom in equaj quantity, and of equal value, be cultivated at $o ^ittle ex- pence, as according to the plan mentioned. That the expence of cultivation is much lessened, we acknowledge, because no more than seven ploughing^^ are given thrpygh the whole rotation ; but whether the crops will be of equal value, and whether the ground will be preserved in equally good condition, are points which remain to be ascertained by experience. It may be added, that v/inter-sown crops, or crops sown on the winter furrow, are most elt > Gg4 472 ROTATION gible on all clay soils. Spring ploughing on such soils is a hazardous business, and not to be prac- tised where it fan possibly be avoided. Except in the case of drilled beans, there is not the sfightest 'necessity for ploughing ^ clays in the spring months ; but as land intended to carry beans ought to be early ploughed, so that the benefit of frost may be obtained ; and as the seed jurrotv is an ebb one, rarely exceeding four inches in deepness, the hazard of spring plough- ing for 'this iarticlc is not of much consequence. Ploughing, with a view to clean soils of the de- scriptioh^''un3i&f ""Gonsideration, has little effect, unless given m the summer months. This ren- ders summer fallow indispensably necessan,- ; and without this radical process, none of the heavy • and wet soils can be suitably managed, or pre- served in a ^'ood condition. To adopt a judicious rotation of crops for every soil, requires a degree of judgment in the farmer, which can only be gathered from obser- vation and experience. In fact, it cannot be learned in any other school, though, when at- tained, it may be exercised by every one with little difficulty. The old rotations were calcu- OF CROPS, 473 lated to wear out the soil, and to render it un- productive. To take wheat, barley, and oats in succession, a practice very- common thirty years ago, was sufficient to impoverish the best of land, while it put little in the pockets of the farmer ; but the m^devu rotations^ such as those which we have described? ■ arc founded on prin- ciples which ensure a full return from the soil, without lessening its value, or impoverishing its condition. Much depends, hqwever, upon the manner in which the different processes are exe- cuted J for the b>est. arranged rotation may be of no avail, if the proceses sbelonging to it are im-. perfectly and unseasonably executed. The above rotations (No. 5. excepted) are meant chiefly for the general run of lowland soils where arable husbandry may generally be exer- cised. In upland districts where local circum- stances cause the plough to be used in a more confined manner, son^e other rotations may be more eligibly executed. The following one seems not amiss for the dry soils of an upland district where the climate is not too high for the cultiva- tion of wheat. 474 ^OTATIOii Ratatiotiy No. VUl, 1. Turnips drilled and duAged* 2. Barley with red plover a^d rye grass, 3. Grass to he vised i|\ soiling or for hay. 4. Wheat. The ground 19 be ploughed by the end of September if possible, and to receive ^ slight dressing of d^mg if it can be procured. 5. Hasting peas, for which crop^ two, (v^rrows, one before winter and the ^er at seed time, m?^' be given. 6. Barley with seeds, 7. Pasture. 8. Pasture. 9. Pasture. 10, Oats. In this way there is exactly three courses da- ting a lease of thirty yeai-s, the period which ^eems to be most suitable for the present state of husbandry in the upland districts. As many parts of the upland districts are 'to® wet foi^ turnips, the following rotation may be OF CROPS. 47S successfully practise^ in situations meligibje fa^^ turnip husbandry. ^otatjon. No. 1X» 1 . Plain fallow with dung. 2. Wheat early sown and accompanied with clover, and rye grass. 3. Grass to be used in soiling or manufactur- ed into hay. 4. Oats. .5. Tar«s or any of the varieties, of gray peas 'wnth a slight dressing of dung, or a moye con» <$ider^ble one of compost manuree 6. parley viph seed?. 7. Pasture. 8. Pasture, g. Pasture* 10. Oats, All these rotations are calculated for land already under the plough, and in some shape decently cultivated. But where the land is in a waste state, it is self evident that aone of them. 47^ ROTATION can m the first instaqce be successfully practised. The following measures are therefore recom- mended. Rotation, No. X. u a* JOT I. Breai^ up the waste ground witn a strong furrow In winter, or early In the spring months, harrowing it sufficiently in the first year so as the surface grasses and their roots may be rotted and destroyed. "S; Give a complete summer fallow ; sparing neither harrow nor roller ; and upon this fallow apply at least 50 barely bolls of good lime shells, taking care to plough them in as hot as possible. 3. Oats. 4. Fallow repeated. Dung to be given if it can possibly be procured. 5. Barley with seeds. 6. Pasture, 7. Pasture. 8. Oats. At this stage the same syst^sm may be follow- ed as already recommended for the old cultivat- OF CROPSi 47/ v?d lands, holding in view whether the land in question is suited or not for the growth of tur- nips. In short, the most eligible rotation for every kind of soil may easily be ascertained by a reference to the local circumstances of the dis- trict in which it is situated, and the rotation may eitther be long or short in a direct proportion with the richness of the soil on which it is to be executed. According to the above rotations land would never get into a foul or deteriorated state while the crops cultivated might in every case be adopted to the soil and climate, z--^^^"^- stances which a sound practice-' agriculturist will seldom neglect, and w-fiich in fact regulate and influence hushaxiUry in every department. END OF VOLUME FIRST- D. H. HILL LIBRARY North Carolina State Colleq^ 1^* u^^^