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LYMPHATIC VESSELS OF THE THORAX X ABDOMAN,

A TREATISE

ON

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HEALTH,

DESIGNED FOR

STUDENTS, SCHOOLS, AND POPULAR USE,

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS PLATES.

BY W. BEACH, M. D.

PROFESSOR OP CLINICAL PRACTICE IN THE ECLECTIC MEDICAL COLLEGE, CINCINNATI, OHIO.
AUTHOR OP THE AMERICAN PRACTICE, MIDWIFERY, &C.

• I am fearfully and wonderfully made."

NEW YORK:

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR,

AT THE ANATOMICAL MUSEUM,

CORNER OF BOWERY AND DIVISION STREET.
1847.

n,
v

'

-

[Entered according to Act of Congress.]

8. W. BENEDICT,
Ster. and Print., 16 Spruce Street, N. Y.

-

. /^jfC'
•

TO

THE PROFESSORS

OF

Cincinnati (Eclectic JtUMcal College,

THIS TREATISE IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
BY THEIR OBEDIENT SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR.

I

INTRODUCTION.

I NOW present to the public my Treatise on ANATOMY, PHY-
SIOLOGY, and HEALTH, designed both for the student of medicine
as well as the general reader. I at first intended to issue a large
work and plates, to correspond with my midwifery ; but upon more
mature reflection, I deemed it best to publish it in the present form
and size, with the accompanying figures. The price of a work as
large and costly as I at first contemplated, would have restricted the
sale considerably, in placing it beyond the reach of those in limited
circumstances. These objections, together with the great labor and
cost of the text and engravings, have induced me thus to issue it ;
and I think it preferable, taking everything into consideration. I
have labored to be brief, perspicuous, and comprehensive, and, at
the same time, to give clear and full illustrations, both by the text
and numerous plates ; without which every work of the kind is very
imperfect and poorly calculated to impart instruction.

The reader will perceive that I have adapted this treatise to the
capacity of the popular reader, as well as the student of medicine.
We must depend for patronage for a work of this kind upon all
classes of the community ; and indeed the success of our reformatory
course in medicine, I apprehend, depends much upon disseminating
among them correct views in Physiology, which shows obviously
the utility and importance of such a work. All classes are daily
suffering from want of more information on those laws which govern

Yl INTRODUCTION.

their organization, and which are constantly violated through igno-
rance. This fact ought to convince every one that there is a necessity
of studying those laws, both to prevent and cure disease. The
physiological inferences which I have drawn at the close of different
chapters will be found, I believe, instructive and useful.

I lay no claim to any new discovery on the subject of Anatomy and
Physiology. Both of these branches of medicine have been investi-
gated and improved. But in consequence of a vast amount of
useful matter scattered in various authors, mixed up with much that
is very indifferent, I have consulted them analytically and eclecti-
cally. Hence, I have drawn my materials, as I have in my other
works, from every available source. This has rendered it very
difficult to condense the great amount of voluminous matter into
the compass of the present volume. I have endeavored, however,
to omit nothing really valuable, and at the same time have endea-
vored to present the subjects treated of in such a manner as to make
•-J the study of Physiology pleasing as well as instructive. How far
I have succeeded I must leave to the candid and enlightened reader.
As for the ignorant and prejudiced, I expect neither their good
opinion or patronage.

If our Reform Schools of Medicine do not regard this treatise as
a text-book on Anatomy and Physiology, I humbly trust that they
will at least receive and recommend it as an elementary or pre-
paratory treatise.

I will close these remarks in the language of Lawrence, in his
introduction to his Lectures on Man : " I shall be satisfied, how-
ever, gentlemen, if you will accord to me the humbler merits — of
industry, in collecting materials ; patience in arranging, combining,
and reflecting on them ; fidelity and independence in exhibiting to
you, precisely as they appeared to my mind, the inferences and
deductions that resulted from the whole."

W. BEACH.

Anatomical Museum, New York, Sept., 1847.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION, - - . ^-upigvo /*:n - - /.•*-? 3 7

CHAPTER I.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS, - ... 9

CHAPTER II.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM, - - - - 11

CHAPTER III.

THE BONES, - . ... - . - . • . 26

CHAPTER IV.
THE JOINTS, - 50

CHAPTER V.

THE MUSCLES, - - -,-----55

CHAPTER VI.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM, - ----- 85

CHAPTER VII.

RESPIRATION — STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS — THE THORAX AND
ITS CONTENTS, - --.,„. 112

CHAPTER VIII.
CIRCULATION, - V. 133

\

Till CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IX.

DIGESTION, ... . ^ . _ 153

CHAPTER X.

SECRETION AND EXCRETION, . . - . . . 179

CHAPTER XL
EXHALATION AND ABSORPTION, ..... 184

CHAPTER XII.
CUTANEOUS SYSTEM, OR SKIN, - .... 139

CHAPTER XIII.

THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM, - - -^ - . . 196

CHAPTER XIV.

THE SENSES, . - ^ ^\,:^£ x.^;!.. . .fr^f . ./ 197

CHAPTER XV.

THE TEMPERAMENTS, - - . . . -211

APPENDIX.

PHRENOLOGY, - - - - - - ;V<*T^ , ;*, 213

MESMERISM, . - 217

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

ANATOMY. The word anatomy is from the Greek, and signifies
to cut, carve, or dissect. In an enlarged or extended sense it
applies to men, plants, and animals. The latter is termed com-
parative anatomy.

Human anatomy may be comprised under two divisions,
namely ) ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY. First, a description of the
organs, termed anatomical, giving an account only of their struc-
ture or organization. Secondly, of their uses, termed physiology.

The human system is composed of firm and soft parts, com
monly called solids and fluids ; of the solids, some are hard, others
soft and flexible, they are the principal subjects of anatomy, pro-
perly so called. The solid parts are bone, cartilage, ligament,
fibre, membrane, vessel, artery, vein, nerve, muscle, gland, fat,
viscus, organ, &c. Bone is the hardest, most solid, and most in-
flexible part. Cartilage is a whitish or pearl colored substance,
softer than a bone, smooth, polished, pliable, and elastic.

A ligament is a white, fibrous, compact substance, more pliable
than a cartilage ; difficult to be broken or torn ; and yielding but
very little when drawn out with force.

&J fibre, is meant small filaments, which are the most simple
parts of the body, and which compose all other parts ; they differ
in substance, direction, and size, according to the parts they com-
pose.

By membrane we mean a pliable texture of fibres interwoven
together ; these are termed laminae. Small portions of membranes,
when very thin, are called pellicula ; and this, when united to
thicker membranes, is termed the cellular or spongy substance.

JOHN LOW), M. D.

Jamestown, N. Y.

OFFICE NO. & WAIN STM

Residence 50 Alien 8t

10 PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

The adipose membrane is the same as the cellular, but the former
is rendered impervious by the distension its contents occasion.

Vessels are tubes, composed of different membranes, the strata
of which are termed tunica, or coats : they are named according to
the fluids they contain, as blood-vessels, vasa lactea, lymphatics,
&c. The smallest extremities of all vessels are generally termed
capillaries. The blood-vessels are of two kinds ; arteries, which
carry the blood from the heart to every part of the system ; and
veins, which bring it back again to the heart. The arteries are thicker
and deeper seated than the veins ; the veins have valves which
open towards the heart at different distances to prevent the blood
from returning, but are not irritable like arteries, except the large
ones near the heart.

By nerves are meant the white ropy parts or cords, which pro-
ceed from the brain and spinal marrow, and are spread over all the
parts of the body, by small ramifications. They are the seat and
origin of all our faculties, of sensation and motion.

The muscle is what we commonly call flesh, which is composed
of various distinct portions : its white ends are termed tendon.

Glands are clustered bodies distinguished from other parts by
their form, consistence, texture, connexion.

The kidneys, and the pancreas or sweetbread, are properly de-
nominated glands.

Fat and marrow is that oily substance composed partly of cel-
lular, partly of membraneous, and partly of an unctuous matter ;
it is entirely deprived of sensibility, like all liquors secerned from
the blood. Marrow differs only by its fineness, and from its being
situated within the bones.

By viscera, is meant all the internal parts contained in the cavity
of the body. Every part capable of any function is termed an
organ.

In this work all the leading divisions will be the subject of a
particular chapter.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 11

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM.

IT may not be improper in the commencement of this treatise to
give some observations on the human system in general, prepara-
tory to an examination more in detail of the various organs.

THE BONES.

Say what the various bones so wisely wrought,
How was their frame to such perfection brought ?
What did their figures for their uses fit,
Their number fix, and joints adapted knit ;
And made them all in that just order stand,
Which motion, strength, and ornament demand 7
What for the sinews spun so strong a thread,
The curious loom, to weave the muscles spread 7

The Atheist, if to search for truth inclin'd,
May in himself his full conviction find,
And from his body teach his erring mind;

The use of the bones is to give shape and firmness to the body,
levers for the muscles to act upon, and to defend those parts that
are of the greatest consequence to be preserved, as the brain,
heart, &c.

Bones are cast into a variety of moulds and sizes, strong to bear
up the body, yet light, not to depress by their weight : bored, to
contain the moistening marrow ; and perforated with exceeding
fine ducts, to admit the nourishing vessels ; insensible themselves,
they are covered with the periosteum, a membrane that warns of
approaching injury, and preserves the muscles from being irritated
by their action. Their figures are most precisely fitted to their
uses ; they are generally larger at the extremities than in the mid-
dle, that they may be joined more firmly, and not so easily dis-
located ; and the manner of their articulation is particularly curious.

The feet compose the firmest and neatest pedestal, far beyond
all that statuary or architecture can accomplish ; capable of alter-
ing its form, or extending its size, as circumstances require. They
contain a set of the nicest springs, which assist to place the body

12 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

in a variety of graceful attitudes, and qualify it for a multiplicity of
advantageous motions. The heel has under it a tendinous sub-
stance, so tough as not to wear, and at the same time, to prevent
the weight of the body from pressing too much on the finer vessels.

The legs and thighs are substantial columns, articulated in such
a manner as to administer most commodiously to the act of walk-
ing : they swell out at the top, and are taper towards the bottom,
which lessens their bulk at the same time that it increases their
L_ beauty.

The ribs form a regular arch, gently movable, for the act of
respiration; they form a secure lodgment for the lungs, heart, &c.

The spine or back-bone is intended not only to strengthen the
body, but also to bring down the spinal marrow from the brain. It
guards, in a well-closed case, this vital silver. This fluid is thus
communicated to each part of the body ; had it been large, straight,
and hollow, it might have done this ; but then the loins would have
been inflexible, and we should have been, as it were, impaled alive :
to prevent this it consists of short bones knit together by inter-
vening cartilages. This prevents dislocation, and gives .this main
pillar of our frame the pliancy of the willow, while it possesses
the firmness of an oak. It is a kind of continued joint, capable of
various inflexions, without injuring the medullary contents, and
without intercepting the nervous fluid, which is to be detached from
this grand reservoir, or diminishing the strength necessary to sup-
port the whole. A structure so singular in any other of the solids,
would have been attended with great inconveniences, but is here a
masterpiece of creating skill.

The arms pendent on each side are the guards that defend the
whole body, and are fitted for the most diversified operations ; firm
with bone, yet not weighty with flesh, capable of performing with
expedition and ease all useful motions ; they move inwards, out-
ward, upward, and recline downward ; they wheel round, and can
be placed in every situation we please. To these are annexed the
hands, and both are terminated by the fingers, which are not, like
the arms, of equal length and size, but in both respects different ;
which adds to their graceful appearance and utility. Were they
all flesh, they would be impotent ; were they all one bone, they
would not be movable ; but consisting as they do of various small
bones and muscles, they answer every possible use, and being
placed at the end of the arm, their sphere of action is considerably
enlarged. The extremities of the fingers are an assemblage of fine

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 13

tendinous fibres most acutely sensible ; and notwithstanding this
delicacy, are in constant employ ; but to protect them they are
overlaid with nails, a horny expansion which hinders the flesh from
being ungracefully flattened, and, like a sheath, preserves the ten-
der parts from injury. The varied and delicate movements of these
agents produce all the charms of instrumental music.

Above all is the head ; a majestic dome, designed for the resi-
dence of the brain ; it is framed in exact conformity to this im-
portant purpose ; ample to receive it — strong to uphold it — and
firm to defend it. It is screened from heat and defended from cold
by a copious growth of hair ; which also adds to its beauty, which
nature. is always attentive to, in subordination to usefulness.

LIGAMENTS.

The bones are tied together, those that have motion, by liga-
m^ts j a tough and strong arrangement of fibres, which also bind
down some of the tendons, and give origin to the muscles ; and
render what would otherwise be an unwieldy mass, a well com-
pacted and manageable system. The fleshy parts are often sepa-
rated or connected by membranes, which are sets of fibres ex-
panded, to cover or line other parts ; such as the Mesentery and
Mediastinum are membranes ; the first connects the intestines ;
the last divides the thorax.

ARTERIES.

The ancients called the human body the microcosm or little
world : and the arteries may be called its rivers ; the blood is con-
veyed by the arteries to the head and every part of the system.
When the left ventricle of the heart contracts, the blood is forced
into the arteries, which then swell, and form what is termed the
pulse ; the heart and arteries dilate eighty times in a minute, which
act occasions the beating we feel. The arteries carry their stream
of vital fluid from the heart ; the veins run all in a stream towards
it ; and because a wound or any impediment to the circulation in
the arteries would be fatal, they are placed deep in the flesh, and
can seldom be seen ; so that the bending of the limbs does not stop
their course.

VEINS.

In bleeding, the bandage is tied above the elbow, to prevent the
blood passing towards the heart; and the median vein is cut;

14 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

whereas, if it were an artery, the band must be tied below the
wound, for the tide would be going downwards, from the heart.
The humeral artery lies under this vein, which it is dangerous to
wound. Where the arteries end, the veins begin ; small at first,
but gradually enlarging, they are void of pulsation, and as the
force of the blood is not so strong in them, so their substance is
thinner. When the blood is forced upwards, valves are provided
to prevent its return ; and these open only one way, like valves in
pumps. The blood in the veins moves seven hundred times slower
than in the arteries.

GLANDS.

The glands have the office of straining from the blood various
fluids, as the bile, saliva, urine, &c.

MUSCLES. ^

The muscles are those fleshy parts which perform the motions of
the body ; and these are acted upon by nerves, which are sur-
prisingly minute vessels, which pervade every part, and are the
immediate objects of sensation. The white part of a muscle is
called a tendon, which is composed of fibres, more compact and
in less space.

SKIN.

The body is covered with a skin of the most delicate net-work,
through the pores of which is discharged an insensible fluid con-
tinually ; the pores of the skin are so minute that a grain of sand
would cover 125,000 of these little funnels, which are incessantly
employed in carrying off a superfluous vapor from the blood. The
discharge from the skin is upwards of three pounds daily of ex-
crementitious fluid, and in quantity the evacuation by its pores
exceeds that of the urine. Hence the importance of keeping this
organ in a healthy state.

Nature does not forget beauty in her operations, and what can
beautify our form more than the veins lying parallel to the skin, in
those parts most conspicuous to public view — the pliant wrist, the
taper arm, they variegate with an inlay of living sapphire. They
spread vermillion over the lips, and plant roses in the cheeks —
while the eye, tinged with glossy jet, or sparkling with cellular
blue, rolls in polished crystal.

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 15

NUTRITION.

All these parts are in incessant action, which exhausts the fluids,
and wastes the solids ; to obviate this, the frame is endued with
the powers of nutrition. The teeth prepare our food for this pur-
pose ; those in front, sharp and thin, to receive and cut the food ;
those behind, broad and strong, indented like the surface of a mill-
stone, with small cavities, the better to fit them for grinding it. As
milk is our food for some time after we are born, and as teeth would
hurt the tender nipple, nature has wisely postponed the appearance
of teeth until they become necessary. All our other bones are
covered with a very fine skin, but this covering is omitted on the
teeth, as chewing would then have been attended with exquisite
pain. Had they been uncovered, they would have been subject to
injuries from the air, and to the penetration of liquors that would
destroy them, to guard against which they are curiously covered
with a fine white enamel, harder than the bone itself.

Growing as they do in rows, numerous, and none rising higher
than the other, they form a regular and beautiful addition to the
mouth. To their aid, they also call in the tongue and lips, the
latter keep the food in the mouth, while the tongue returns it to
the renewed attrition of the grinders ; the motion of the cheeks at
the same time, with the stimulus of food in the mouth, presses out
from a variety of reservoirs a moistening liquor necessary to pre-
pare the food for digestion, as well as to soften and facilitate its
passage into the stomach — when the mouth is inactive, these
fountains are mostly at rest, but when we eat or speak their
assistance is always ready.

As the food passes the wind-pipe, before it enters the cesophagus
or gullet, there is a valve provided, which shuts on the approach
of any substance, but the moment it has passed, it opens again ; we
all know what uneasiness is created by the smallest morsel going
the wrong way ; which if not thus guarded would expose us to
instant death, by admitting any substance on the lungs.

The muscles of the gullet are contrived to pass our food quickly,
but the stomach is constituted to retain its contents, which are
lodged in the centre and made soft by the most kindly combination
of heat and humidity. From whence, after being reduced to the
most nicely mixed pulp, they are dislodged by a gently acting
force and pass into the intestines ; where, meeting the bile and
pancreatic juices, it is passed by the vermicular, or peristaltic

16 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

motion of the intestines, through its various windings, and the
nourishing parts of it all absorbed by the lacteals, and by them
conveyed into the blood. These vessels are arranged in countless
multitudes along the sides of the winding passage — they are so
framed as to admit the nutrimental parts, and reject the gross and
useless parts. The bowels are about twenty-five feet long, lined
with a soft mucus, and having valves to prevent the aliment from
returning back to the stomach ; the substance of the bowels, though
thin to a delicacy, is very strong; the skin of an ox-gut is said to
bear ihe blows of a gold-beater's hammer for years.

BLOOD.

The chyle, drawn off by all the secretory orifices, is carried along
millions of the finest ducts, and lodged in several commodious
glands from whence it is conveyed to a common receptacle, and
mounts through a perpendicular tube, called the thoracic duct. As
this is the principal nourishment of the whole system, its convey-
ance is guarded with peculiar caution. The tube not having
sufficient force of its own is laid contiguous to the great artery,
whose strong pulsation drives on the creeping fluid, enables it to
overcome the steep ascent, and unload its precious treasure at the
very door of the heart. Here it enters a large vein called the left
subclavian, most conveniently -opened for its reception in an
oblique manner, by which the refluent blood, assisted by a valve,
expedites instead of obstructing its passage. This milk, this
manna of nature, must be very acceptable to the blood, which has
now been supplying every gland in the system, and further im-
poverished by supplying myriads of vessels with matter for insen-
sible perspiration, yet, though, thus kindly recruited, it is not
refined. In its present state it is unqualified to perform the vital
tour; therefore, by a grand apparatus of muscular fibres, it is
wafted into the lungs, and pouring a thousand rills into either lobe
in the -spongy cells of their amazing laboratory, it imbibes the in-
fluences of the external air, giving out some useless parts, and
imbibing some more necessary, and thus its heterogeneous parts are
thoroughly incorporated. Here its red color commences, from the
change it undergoes from the action of the air ; and its whole sub-
stance is rendered cool, smooth, and florid. Thus improved it is
transmitted to the left ventricle of the heart, a strong, active,
unceasing muscle, placed in the centre of the system.3^ Impelled

* This wonderful machine will go night and day for eighty years together, at the

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 17

by that beating engine, part shoots upwards, and sweeps with a
bounding impetus into the head, where it impregnates the prolific
fields of the brain, and forms those subtle spirituous dews, the
animal spirits, which impart sense to every nerve, and communicate
motion to every limb. Part flows downward, and rolls the reeking
current through all the lower quarters ; and disperses the nutri-
mental stores even to the meanest member, and the minutest part.
Thus the human river, with its incomparable rich fluid, laves the
several regions of the body, transfusing vigor and propagating
health through the whole. When this vital fluid, has pervaded
every part, and given each his proper fluid, it is met by the ends
of veins, and by them re-conducted back to the fountain. There
it commences ftie same round ; and the same force that darts the
crimson wave from the heart, drives it also back again to it.
Where opposite currents would be in danger of clashing, as in the
ascending and descending great trunks of the veins, a fibrous ex-
crescence intervenes, which, like a projecting pier, breaks the
stroke of each, and diverts both streams into their proper re-
ceptacle. Thus modelled by the most judicious rules, and guarded
by the wisest precautions, the living flood never discontinues its
interchangeable tide, but night and day, whether we sleep or wake,
still perseveres to sally briskly through the arteries, and to return
softly through the veins. These are a few, and but a very few
instances of that contrivance, regularity, and beauty, which are ob-
servable in the human frame. Attentive inquirers discover deep
footsteps of design, and more refined strokes of skill, — discover
them not only in the grand and most distinguished parts, but in
every limb and organ ; in every fibre that is extended, in every new
discovered system of vessels, and in every globule that flows !

SENSES.

Having thus developed an organized body, endued with a prin-
ciple of motion, and furnished with the power of nutrition, the
sensitive faculties are now to be displayed. The functions of the
mind are the effect of stimuli, as well as those of the body ; and
the more the mind is excited to action, the more is the vitality
exhausted. The mind has a very great influence upon the body,
and impressions made upon the one, instantly affect the other; the

rate of one hundred thousand strokes every twenty-four hours, having at every stroke
a great resistance to overcome ; and continue this action for that length of time without
disorder and without weariness, whether asleep or awake. A perpetual motion.
2

18 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

principle that gives all our sensation, when much affected by the
operations of the mind, becomes weakened, if the intellectual
faculties are acted upon by reflection, or impressions of any kind
to excess. It is not surprising, therefore, that debility of the
system is induced from too much thought and intense study.

The creation abounds with objects fitted to yield the most refined
entertainment — The sun impurples the robe of morning ; and stars
bespangle the curtains of night. Flowers of silver whiteness, and
golden lustre, enamel the ground. Fruits of every radiant hue, and
every delicious taste, hang dangling on the boughs, but all in vain
to us, if kind providence had not endowed us with the powers of
sense ; without which the breath of fields must lose its reviving
fragrance, the whispering grove must degenerate into sullen
silence, and nature's book of knowledge, all fair and instructive,
would be no better than a vast unmeaning blank ; but providence,
profusely gracious, has presented us with senses., the inlets of vari-
ous delights, innumerable pleasures, and the most valuable advan-
tages.

What though we trace each herb and flower

That drinks the morning dew ;
Did we not own Jehovah's power

How vain were all we knew.

HANDEL.

In an elevated situation, like a sentinel on a watch-tower, high in
the head is placed the eye, bright and conspicuous as a star in the
brow of evening, commanding the most enlarged prospects. Con-
sisting only of simple fluids, inclosed in their tunics, it conveys to
our apprehension all the graces of blooming nature, and all the glories
of the visible heavens. An image of the hugest mountain, and a
transcript of the most diversified landscape, enters the small circuit
of the pupil. Its tender nature is guarded with most solicitous care
— it is intrenched deep in the head, and barricadoed on every side
with a strong fortification of bones. To guard its polished surface
from the smallest fly, it is defended by two substantial curtains
hung on a most slender cartilaginous rod : these are closed in
sleep, and, on the approach of any danger, fly together quicker
than thought. They are lined with fine moist sponges, as it were,
which lubricate the eye-balls, and keep them fit for unwearied
activity. The eye-lashes keep off the smallest mote, and moderate
the too potent rays of the sun. The brows also break the force of
the light, and prevent the perspiration from offending them. The

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 19

arches are so finely colored, and so elegantly turned, that they set
off the whiteness of the forehead, and bestow additional grace on
the whole countenance.

The ear consists of the porch, or semicircular lodge, which
stands prominent from the head, and is not soft and sinking as
flesh, lest it should absorb the sound, rather than promote the reper-
cussion ; not hard and stubborn as bone, lest it should be painful
when we repose, but is cartilaginous, with a tight expansion of
skin, and wrought into irregular bends and hollows, which collect
the sound and transmit it to the finely stretched membrane, the
tympanum^ so called because it resembles a drum in figure and
use ; being a fine skin expanded upon a circle of bones, and over a
polished reverberating cavity. It is affected by the vibrations of
the external air, as the covering of the drum is by the sticks. It
is also furnished with braces, which strain or relax at pleasure, and
accommodate its tension either to loud or languid sounds.

The avenue of the ear is secured by a viscous and bitter matter
from the approach of insects. The winding labyrinths and the
sounding galleries, etc., are all instrumental to the power of hear-
ing, and are beyond description curious. The auditory tube softens
and qualifies rushing sound, lest if the incursion were direct, it
might by its impetuosity injure the delicate expanse of the tym-
panum ; while, however, this is designed to moderate, the inner
parts are prepared to heighten and invigorate the sounds, by means
of an echo. Amazingly nice and exact must be the tension of the
auditory nerves, since they correspond with the smallest tremors
of the atmosphere, and easily distinguish their most subtle varia-
tions. They 'give existence to the charms of music, and reciprocate
the rational entertainments of discourse. The eye perceives only
the objects before it, but the ear warns us of transactions on every
side. The eye is useless amid the gloom of night, but the ear
admits her intelligence through the darkest medium. The eye is
always on duty in our waking hours, but the ear is always ready
to communicate any pleasure or danger.

Smelling conveys, by an expansion of the olfactory nerves, an
idea to us of the quality of the particles wafted in the air. The
nostrils are wide at the bottom, that a large quantity of effluvia
may enter, narrow at the top that they may there act in a more
vigorous manner. Fine beyond all imagination are the steams which
exhale from fetid or fragrant bodies. The microscope that can disco-
ver millions of animalculae in a drop of putrefied water, cannot

20 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

one among all those evanescent legions to our sight. Yet so judi-
ciously are the olfactory nets spread, that they catch the roaming
perfumes which emanate from the opening flower, and absorb the
stationed sweets which envelope the expanded rose. They imbibe
all the balmy fragrance of spring, all the aromatic exhalations of
autumn, and enable us to banquet on the invisible dainties of
nature.

By taste, the food that supports our body, feasts our palate ; first
treats us with a regale, then distributes its beneficial recruits. The
saliva flowing upon the tongue, and moistening its nerves, quickens
them into the liveliest acts of sensation. Temperance sets the
finest edge on its faculties, and adds the most poignant relish to its
enjoyments. These senses are not only so many sources of delight,
but a joint security for our health. They are vigilant and active
inspectors.

To render the whole complete is added feeling : while other
senses have a particular place of residence, this is diffused through
the whole body, and is peculiarly fine at the extremities. Our
feeling is finely tempered between the extremes ; neither so acute
as in the eye,' nor so obtuse as in the heel ; for the one would pro-
duce continual pain, and the other would quite benumb the body,
and almost annihilate the touch. Indeed all our senses are most
precisely fitted to our exigencies ; were any strained higher, they
would be the avenues of anguish ; were they relaxed into greater
insensibility, they would be useless incumbrances.

The taste, touch, and smell, are straitened in their operations,
and perceive nothing but what is brought to their very doors. The
ear, indeed, has a larger circle of objects ; but the sight most amply
supplies whatever is wanting in the others, spreading itself into an
infinite number of bodies, and bringing to our notice some of the
remotest parts of the universe.

The eye extends its observations as far as the orbit of the Geor-
gium Sidus ; nay, glances at an instant of time to the inconceivable
distance of the stars —

" O'er all surrounding things that curious rove ;
.That loves the sky, uplifts its look sublime,
The stars peruses, and can clearly read,
In nature's various volume round it spread
In radiant letters writ, the Name Divine."

FAWCET.

But the crowning gift, which improves the satisfaction, and
augments the beneficial effects accruing from all the senses, is

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 21

speech j this makes us gainers from the eyes and ears of others,
from the ideas they conceive and the observations they make.
The tongue has neither bone nor joint, yet fashions itself with the
utmost volubility, into every shape and posture, which can express
sentiment, or constitute harmony. :>,J

By this little collection of muscular fibres, we communicate the
secrets of the breast, and make our thoughts audible. By this we
should instruct the ignorant, comfort the distressed, glorify God,
which is its noblest employ, and benefit each other.

As the tongue requires a full scope and easy play, it is lodged in
an ample cavity, and surrounded with reservoirs of spittle (saliva),
always ready to distil the lubricating fluid. It moves under a con-
cave roof which serves as a sounding board to the voice, giving it
much the same additional vigor and grace as the shell of a violin
adds to the strings. The notes of the human voice,* so far as they
can reach are the most agreeable of all musical sounds.

THE MIND.

However we admire this multiplicity of animated organs, their
finished form, and their faultless order ; yet admiration must rise
higher when we recollect the mysterious power and sway the soul
has over them. Ten thousand reins are put into her hands ; she
is not acquainted with their offices, their use, or their name, yet she
manages all without perplexity ; the manner in which the will acts
upon the system, or how, or by what means, so many functions
are managed independent of the will, or that a variety of exertions
should be made without inconvenience to us, we know notf — all we
can do is to exercise our wronder and gratitude for so many circum-
stances, which all administer to our comfort.

SOCIAL AFFECTIONS.

A celebrated poet remarks, that the proper study of mankind
is man : and this study originates from the smallest beginnings,

* Lavater considers the human voice as an indication of character. See Vol. I., p.
49 ; Vol. II., p. 54, 8vo. edition. Robinson's, 1789.

t " The principle of muscular motion, viz. upon what cause the swelling of
the belly of the muscle, and consequent contraction of its tendons, either by an act of
the will, or by involuntary irritation, depends, is wholly unknown to us. The substance
employed, whether it be fluid, gaseous, elastic, electrical, or none of these, or nothing
resembling these, is also unknown to us. We see nothing similar to this contraction
in any machine which we can make, or any process which we can execute." Cuvier's
Lectures, Translated by Mr. Ross, 2 vols., 8vo., Longman, 1802 — a work displaying an
infinite variety of facts relative to Comparative Anatomy.

22 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

enlarges as the faculties of the mind unfold themselves, and com-
prehends in its progress all the powers and principles which actuate
human nature, through the successive stages of existence. In
infancy, the appetites and senses are developed, exercised, and
strengthened ; they give information of surrounding objects, excite
attention, complacency, surprise, and admiration ; and the notices
they bring are treasured in the store-house of the memory. By the
frequent repetition of agreeable impressions, certain objects become
pleasing and familiar to the young spectator. He distinguishes his
parents, brothers, and sisters ; is uneasy when they are absent, and
delighted to see them again. These emotions soon constitute a
moral attachment, which reciprocal endearments heighten, grati-
tude confirms, and habit renders indissoluble. The amusements of
childhood, and the active pursuits of youth, add, every day, some
new link to the great chain of social love.* Connexions are mul-
tiplied, common interests established, mutual dependencies created,
and the principles of sympathy, friendship, generosity, and benevo-
lence acquire vigor by exertion, and energy by being uncontrolled.
The powers of the understanding and imagination now expand
themselves; curiosity is awakened, and directed to other objects
besides those of sense ; emulation rouses ; the thirst of knowledge
stimulates, and the taste for beauty, in all her varied forms, allures
the mind to study and contemplation. The scenes of nature at
this period of life are viewed with peculiar admiration and delight ;
and the signs of order, wisdom, and goodness, which are every-
where discerned, should elevate the ideas to the great parent of the
universe. Devotion glows in the heart, reverence fills the thoughts,
and piety exalts the soul to an intercourse with God.

Cherish, generous youth, the sacred flame, thus kindled in thy
breast — it will be a light to thy feet, and a lamp to thy path ; will
illuminate thy faculties ; cultivate thy virtues ; add lustre to thy
prosperity ; and dispel, with cheering beams, the gloom of sorrow
and adversity. .

In manhood, the pursuit of wealth or of honor, the diversified
offices of each particular rank and station, call forth into exertion
other passions, or vary the force and direction of those already
experienced.

OLD AGE.

Old age at length creeps slowly on :f the generous affections

* Pereival.

t According to a calculation founded on the burial registers, only one man out of

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 23

<

abate in their vigor and warmth, and anxiety, suspicion, fearful-
ness, and the love of money, by insensible degrees, too often take
possession of the mind. Life often increases in value the nearer
the conclusion of it approaches ; and the means of enjoyment be-
come most prized, when the end, for which they are designed,
ceases to be attainable. Such are generally the weaknesses of
declining nature ; which, though wisdom condemns, she forbids us
not to pity.

" The seven first -years of life, man's break of day,
Gleams of short sense, a dawn of thought display :
"When fourteen springs have bloom'd his downy cheek,
His soft and bashful meanings learn to speak :
From twenty-one proud manhood takes its date,
Yet is not strength complete till twenty-eight ;
Thence 'to hisfive-and-thirtieth, life's gay fire
Sparkles and burns bright in fierce desire :
At forty-two his eyes grave wisdom wear,
And the dark future dims him o'er with care :
With forty-nine behold his toils increase, --_,,-* - :
And busy hopes and fears disturb his peace ;• 3|j|f|£
At fifty-six, cool reason reigns entire,
Then life burns steady and with temp'rate fire ;
But sixty-three unbends the body's strength
Ere th' unwearied mind has run her length ;
And when from seventy age surveys her last,
Tir'd she stops short, and wishes all were past."

Thus we see the life of man in its different stages ; it begins from
the cradle ; pleasing childhood succeeds, then active hot-blooded
youth — afterwards manhood, firm, severe, deliberative, and intent
upon self-preservation ; lastly, debilitating old age steals on with
silent steps, and renders us a foetus of eternity !

Happy is he who, having studied the complicated history of man,
knows the subordination, and holds the balance of his several
moral and intellectual faculties ; who can gratify and yet regulate
his appetites; indulge, but moderate his passions; and setting
bounds to all, maintain inviolate the supremacy of reason.

To conclude— What a multiplicity of the operations of the sys-
tem ! Some fluids move slowly, others faster, others with the
celerity of electricity or lightning : as the blood running into
ten thousand rivulets, pouring into every part of the body
with great power; hundreds of muscles ready to obey the will
with instantaneous speed ; and then, above all, the powers of the

3,125 lives to a hundred years of age.— Chronolog. Tablets, Vernor and Hood, 1801.
It is calculated that on the globe 500,000 human beings die every day !

24 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

mind — all proclaiming the power and omnipresence of Deity, who
carries this globe and its furniture eighty-six thousand miles per
hour.

On reviewing the mechanism of the heart, for instance, every
reflective mind must be struck with the admirable adaptation and
suitableness of its several parts, and also the harmony of its opera-
tions. How important is the least part of its complex machinery !
If but a thread connected with the valves be broken, or one of its
slightest members burst ; if a single valve omitted to fall down
before the retrograde current of blood, or become inverted, the
vital functions could no longer be carried on ; the vast machine of
the whole animal frame would be immediately deratfged, and death
necessarily ensue. Who would suppose that an apparatus so com-
plex, so easily disarranged, and which is thrown into action con-
siderably more than 100,000 times a day, should continue un-
impaired, by day and night, sleep or awake, for eighty or one
hundred years, constituting, as it were, a perpetual motion !

There is a variety and elegance in the texture of the human
frame, in the formation and arrangement of the bones and muscles,
the arteries and veins, far beyond any comparison, all acting
together in such a mysterious way as to render us a wonder to
ourselves.

God of perfection ! how benevolently hast thou displayed thyself
in man ! Behold the human body 1 that fair investiture of all that
is most beauteous. Unity in variety ! variety in unity ! What
elegance, what propriety, what symmetry through all the forms, all
the members ! How imperceptible, how infinite are the gradations
that constitute this beauteous whole !

How sublimely does Shakspeare express himself — " What a
piece of work is man! how noble in reason ! how infinite in faculty!
in form and moving how express and admirable ! in action how
like an angel ! in apprehension how like a god ! — the beauty of the
world, the paragon of animals !"

Says Feltham — However elevated and curious the study of any
part of the visible creation may be, and though every branch of
natural philosophy alike displays the benevolence and perfection
of the Deity, yet of all the parts of science, our present researches
are justly entitled to a pre-eminence.

Consider the parts and structure of the body! Is not the body
of man the noblest piece of animal mechanism possible in nature ?
does it not really transcend the power and thought of man to

GENERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN SYSTEM. 2

imagine any form or structure more perfect, more elegant, more
grand and commodious 7 What do you judge of man's erect pos-
ture ? his beauteous shape ^ his proper stature 1 the structure and
accuracy of its parts 7 the fitness of every part to its office and
end 1 What sparkling brightness in the eyes ! what sweet melody
in the voice ! how quick the ears to receive all manner of sounds !
how nicely adjusted are the palate and taste to all sorts of food !
What a noble instrument is the tongue ! hence speech and elo-
quence, oratory and persuasion. What wonders appear in the hand
of man ! its formation and astonishing variety^ of uses ! what
majesty in thence / how immensely different are the countenances
of men ! what endless differences in their voices and hand- writing I
What a striking proof of God in the soul of man !

The powers of man's mind show him to be almost a divine exist-
ence. Se thinks ; he is conscious of internal acts ; he forms ideas
of all things ; he reasons on his thoughts ; he perceives an infinite
variety of objects ; he reflects on these images of things in his
mind ; he re-collects his thoughts, and surveys their agreement with
objects and their difference from each other ; he brings all past
ages, and time present, to his mind, and views the transactions of
men and revolutions of empires for thousands of years \ he can
recollect a thousand, ten thousand, a million facts at once ; he
makes them pass in quick succession before the eyes of his mind ;
he marks the different natures and tendency of men's actions;
sees how one kind have a direct influence upon his peace and hap-
piness, while others issue in ruin, devastation, and death. He
commands the future time to the present view of his vast and
mighty mind ; foretells the consequences of actions ; penetrates the
dark, veil of future ages, calculates or predicts the wonders of an
eclipse for hundreds of years past or to come,* and dives into the
condition of men for ten thousand years to come. He pursues a
mental tour round the earth, and ranges his thoughts all over the
skies : he roves from planet to planet, from sun to sun, from world
to world, almost to infinity ! How great is the resemblance of the
human soul to God ! His existence and omnipresent agency is
clearly seen in it. The invisibility of the soul demonstrates the
invisible God.

26 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER III.

THE BONES.

OF all the parts of the body, the bones require to be first con-
sidered, because they form the frame-work whereon all the soft parts
are fixed, and determine the shape and size of the whole. They
are 'the hardest and most durable part of the body, and are found
existing ages after all the rest has long mouldered into dust. This
hardness and durability depend on the large proportion of inor-
ganic matter which enters into the composition of bony tissue, the
great quantity of lime which is mingled in it. The animal and
earthy parts of bone can be easily separated and demonstrated in a
separate state. If a piece of bone be immersed for a day or two in
diluted muriatic acid, the earthy part will be completely dissolved
out, and the animal part will be left, yet the bone will still have the
same size and the same shape, so intimately are the two different
materials blended together, and may be tied in a knot as represented
in the following figure. If it be now dried and weighed it will

be found to have lost nearly two-thirds of its original weight, the
loss consisting of the earthy particles. The substance now ob-
tained is the cartilage of bone, which is very nearly the same in
composition as the cartilages which we find ready formed by nature
in the body. It is much softer than bone, but harder than any of
the other soft parts ; it is highly elastic, and if compressed or bent,
speedily regains its original shape. When dried, it assumes a
darker color, and becomes hard and tough, translucent, and very
like horn. When boiled, this substance is nearly all dissolved,

FIG. 1 A FRONT VIEW OF THE MALE SKELETON.

HEAD AND RECK.

a, The frontal bone
A, The parietal bone.
e, The temporal bone.

d, A portion of the sphenoid

bone.

e, The nasal bone.

/, The malar, or cheek-bones
g, The superior maxillary,

or upper jaw.
A, The lower jaw.
», The bones of the neck.

TKOHK.

a, The twelve bones of the

back.

A, The five bones of the loins
e, d, The breast-bone.
e,f, The seven true ribs.
g, g. The five false ribs.
k, The rump-bone or sacrum.
i The hip-bones.

VFFER EXTREMITY.

0, The collar-bone.

A, The shoulder-blade.

c, The upper arm-bone.

d, The radius.

e, The ulna.

f, The carpus, or wrist,
f, The bones of the hand.
A, 1st row of finger-bones.

1, 2d row of finger-bones,
fc, 3d row of finger-bones.
/, The bones of the thumb.

LOWER EXTREMITY.

«. The thigh-bone.
A, The knee-pan.

e, The tibia, or large bone

of the leg.
d, The fibula, or small bone

of the leg.
r, The heel-bone.

f, The bones of the instep
£, The bones of the foot

/», 1st row of toe-hones.
»', 2d row of toe-bones.
*, 3d row of toe-bones

FIG. 2. A BACK VIEW OF THE MALE SKELETON.

a, The parietal bone.

b, The occipital bone.

c, The temporal bone.

d, The cheek-bone

e, The lower jaw-bone.

NECK AND TRUBi*.

a, The bones of the neck
fc, The bones of the back

c, The bones of the loin«

d, The hip-bone

e, The sacrum.

UPPER EXTREMITY.

a, The collar-bone

J, The blade-bone.

c, The upper bone of the arm

t, The radius.

«, The ulna.

/, The bones ofthe wrist.

g , The bones ofthe hand.

fc, 1st row of finger-bones.

t, 2d row of finger-bones.

fr, 3d row of finger-bones.

/, The bones ofthe thumb.

LOWER EXTREMITT.

a, The thigh-bone.

6, The large bone of the leg

e, The small bone ofthe le£

d, The heel-bone.

e, The bones ofthe instep.
/, The bones ofthe toes

THE BONES. 27

yielding a firm transparent jelly ; and it was a knowledge of this
property which suggested to Papin the invention of his digester, in
which, by boiling bruised bones under strong pressure, the jelly is
obtained, and a large quantity of strong soup is made from what
would otherwise be entirely worthless. The earthy part of the
bone is demonstrated in a different manner. If a bone is put into
a clear fire, and heated to redness, the animal part is entirely con-
sumed, and a w^hite friable earth is left behind. This earth consists
almost wholly of lime, in combination with phosphoric and carbonic
acids. It is on this account that phosphorus is obtained from cal-
cined bones. There are minute portions of other salts in the earthy
part of bones, but these it does not seem necessary to mention in
detail. When a bone has been thus treated, and is weighed, it will
be found about one-third lighter than at first, the loss consisting of
the gelatinous part. And as was remarked of the gelatinous part
when obtained by itself, so also the earthy part has exactly the
original shape of the bone, and the most minute bony threads are
still seen existing.

In consequence of the entry of these two very different substances
into the formation of bone, it is both hard and elastic ; the earthy
part bestowing the density, the animal part the elasticity. The
hardness is indeed its most remarkable property, in consequence of
which it has that firmness and resistance by which it is so admirably
adapted for the offices it has to perform in the animal machine.
The hardness varies a little in different parts of the body, and
usually increases with age. Bones are somewhat flexible and
elastic, this elasticity varying however in different situations. We
find that the ribs may be much bent, and afterwards recover their
form perfectly. Hence boys have used a horse's rib for a bow.
This elasticity frequently saves them from fractures, and lessens the
shock which would otherwise be communicated to the delicate
structures which they defend. It was remarked above, that in old
age the hardness increases, and at the same time the elasticity
diminishes, and hence the reason why elderly people are much,
more liable to have their bones broken than young ones. A child
may often get a twist which will bend one of the long bones, but
instead of breaking, it recovers its proper form, if not immediately,
at least shortly after ; while in an old person, any such twist is
almost invariably followed by a fracture. The color of bone in the
living person, is a pale rose color, inclining in early life to red, and
in old age to a yellowish white. When bones are long macerated

28 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

in water, so as to remove entirely the blood and oil which pervade
them, they become of a beautiful white.

As bones are living parts, they of necessity are provided with
blood-vessels and nerves. On the surface of every bone may be
remarked an infinity of minute pores, into which small blood-vessels
run. If the surface of a bone be exposed in the living body by an
injury, it will be seen to bleed, and it can be colored artificially.
This coloration, however, is practicable only in young subjects,
where a great afflux of blood takes place to the bones, for their
growth ; in adult years, when they have reached their full size, and
have become hard and compact, much less blood in proportion cir-
culates through them. There is another very curious way in which
the vascularity of young bones can be demonstrated, by making the
blood itself the vehicle of the coloring matter with which they are
to be injected. If a young growing animal be fed for a fortnight or
so, on food in which a proportion of chopped madder is mixed, the
coloring principle of the madder will pass into its blood, arrive in
its bones, and there chemically combine with the lime, tinging the
bones of a beautiful rose color, which is permanent, even after the
bones have been cleaned and well washed in pure water. The
nerves which are distributed to bones are very trifling, so that in
the healthy state they may be said to be almost insensible ; but
when they become inflamed, their sensibility is so much exalted,
that the slightest touch causes excruciating agony.

The bones are covered with a dense membrane called the peri-
osteum, which adheres strongly to them, serves to convey the blood
vessels to them, and sends prolongations into all the little holes
which exist in such numbers on their surfaces. It also serves as
the medium for the attachment of tendons and ligaments to them,
having these parts in a manner interwoven and confounded with its
outer surface. The periosteum has also a considerable share in
the growth of young bones, and in the growth or reparation of old
ones, when fractures or other injuries may have rendered that ne-
cessary.

Bones assume every variety of shape, as may be expected from
the various places and offices which they are destined to fill.
These varieties have been reduced by anatomists to four classes :
1st, the long or cylindrical ; 2d, the broad or flat ; 3d, the short or
round ; and 4th, the mixed or irregular. The long bones are dis-
tinguished by their length, which greatly exceeds their other
dimensions. They are found only in the extremities, and are

THE BONES. 29

adapted for locomotion, and for sustaining the weight of the body.
They are never exactly cylindrical, being smallest about the
middle, and enlarged at each end. The broad or flat bones are
generally somewhat arched, and fitted to protect delicate organs ;
we find the best specimens of them in the cranium. The short
bones are of irregular figures, but all somewhat roundish ; they are
found in the wrist and the instep of the foot. The mixed or irre-
gular bones are usually classed with the short, but it is better to
separate them ; the bones of the spine are the best examples of
these. The ribs and bones of the pelvis may also be ranged with
them, combining the characters of the two preceding classes.

If we prepare bones by careful maceration and drying, so as to
remove all the grease from them, and then saw them up, we
observe the density of the osseous tissue to differ very much in
different parts. The outer part is much harder and denser than the
internal part, and is called the compact substance. The internal
part is of a looser texture, and is called the cancellated or spongy
substance. These tissues are arranged differently. in the different
orders of bones.

Appearance of a bone sawed longitudinally.

In the flat bones, the compact substance is arranged into two
layers, separated by a thin stratum of cancellated structure, in
which the blood-vessels of the bone run. Where the bone is very
thin, the two outer layers are in contact, or appear compressed into
one, and the intermediate layer has disappeared. In the round
bones, there is a very thin layer of compact tissue on the outside,
while the internal part is composed of spongy tissue. In conse-
quence of this predominance of spongy tissue, and consequently of
blood-vessels, the round bones are much more liable to inflamma-
tion than any of the others. The long bones consist of three parts,
a shaft, and two extremities ; the shaft consists of very dense
compact tissue externally, becoming looser internally, and having
a canal running through them, nearly from end to end ; while the
extremities are of the same structure as the short bones. The canal
which runs through the long bones is lined with a delicate mem-

30 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

brane, in which is contained the medulla or marrow. The medulla
is in young persons of a bloody nature, in old persons it is oily.
The canal serves to make the bone much stronger than if it were
solid with the same quantity of material ; on a principle which is
well understood by machine makers, who often make use of hollow
pillars and shafts, to gain additional strength without additional
expense. The marrow is put into the canals, not to oil the bones,
as many people erroneously suppose, but because there is no empty
space permitted in the body, and fatty matter is the lightest that
could be used for filling them. • Besides, the marrow serves the
same purpose as the fat in other parts of the body ; it is a store of
nourishment whence the body can be supported when unable to
take any nourishment from without. In fevers, for instance, where
the patient scarcely tastes food for perhaps three weeks, he is main-
tained on the superfluous parts of his own body, and hence the
sunken cheeks and shrunk shanks of such a sufferer when begin-
ning to recover. That this marrow is not of any use to the bone
itself is sufficiently proved by the fact, that in birds there is none,
but the bones are very thin and their canals large in order to be
light, and instead of marrow, they are filled with air. There is a
common notion that the marrow is exceedingly sensible, and per-
sons remark how painful the application of a saw must be in an
amputation, from its tearing through the marrow. Now the fact is,
that the marrow is very little if at all sensible, and all the pain felt
in sawing the bone is a sort of jarring communicated to the soft parts
which have been already divided.

The irregular bones, resembling in shape two or more of the
preceding orders, have some of their parts resembling the round
bones, and others resembling the long and flat.

Where the bones touch one another, they are particularly smooth,
and their surfaces are adapted to one another. Besides, to obviate
friction, they are covered at these places with cartilage or gristle.
Cartilage is intermediate in hardness to bone and what are properly
called the soft parts, it is firm and resisting, and yet it has a great
degree of elasticity. In some parts of the body we have cartilages
serving for continuations to bones, such as those which continue
the ribs, and connect them to the breast-bone, and they are exactly
similar to bones from which the earthy part has been dissolved out
by an acid. But the cartilaginous crusts which cover the articular
ends of bones are of a very beautiful and peculiar structure. When
a portion of bone with its cartilage has been macerated in water for

THE BONES.

31

some weeks, the cartilage is found to have lost its cohesion and its
smooth surface, and appears exactly as if the bone had been covered
with white velvet. It is seen to consist of an infinity of fibres
set perpendicularly on the surface of the bone, so that when pres-
sure is made on their ends, they yield by bending a little sideways,
but are prevented from yielding much, by the closeness with which
they are set together. In effect, the result is just what is seen on a
larger scale, if the finger is pressed against the surface of a common
flat cloth brush, the bristles bending a little sideways, and so pre-
senting an indentation on the surface.

The account which has now been given of the nature of bones, as
a tissue, is applicable not only to those of man, but of all the other
mammalia, and of birds. In the arrangement of. the bones, how-
ever, every species differs from the rest, according to the purposes
which its body and limbs are to serve. The bones united in their
places constitute the skeleton.

The SKELETON consists of the head, trunk, and extremities. The
trunk is composed of the spine, the ribs, the sternum or breast-bone,
and the pelvis, supporting the head upon its upper end, and resting
its lower end on the heads of the thigh-bones. The extremities are
four, two superior, commonly called in man the arms, two inferior,
commonly called the legs ; but in strict anatomical language, the
word leg is applied only to the part below the knee, the part above
being always spoken of as the thigh ; and the part above the elbow
only is called the arm, the part below the elbow being the forearm.
We will now examine these parts in succession more minutely.

The spine is the central column, resting on the pelvis and thigh
bones, and supporting the chest, the head, and the superior ex-
tremities. It is about one third of the length of the whole body,
so that in a man who stands six feet high, the spine will be found,
about two feet long. It consists of twenty-four pieces or vertebra?,
named from the Latin word vertere, to turn, on account of their
mobility. The largest is placed below, and they diminish gra-
dually to near the top. Each vertebra is a mixed bone in its
structure, and has a body and processes; the word process in
anatomy signifying a projection or prominence. The body of each
vertebra is of the nature of a short bone, spongy in its texture, and
very light. It is semicircular, or nearly so, flat above and below,
where it supports and rests upon its neighbors. In the accompany-
ing cut, B represents the body of the vertebra with its flat surface

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

turned towards the reader. From the back of the body, the arch,
A, of the vertebra springs, enclosing a space which is occupied by
the spinal marrow. Then to serve as levers, for the purpose of
bending and turning the spine, we have two transverse processes,
passing out one on each side, and the spinous process passing
backward, forming the chain of projections felt under the skin,
which give the name to the whole column. These four-and-twenty
pieces are joined together, so as to allow of a little motion, and but
little, at any one joint, that the spinal marrow which passes down
through the canal formed by the apposition of the different rings,
may not be injured by too sudden a twist, but that the curves which
it forms in the various motions of the body may be gradual.

Even when at rest, the spine is not straight, but curved in three
different places. First, it curves forward where it rests on the
pelvis, that it may not be exposed to too rough a shock when we
begin to move, from being in a state of rest. Secondly, it curves
backward in the region of the back, to increase the capacity of the
chest, in which the heart and lungs are to be lodged. Thirdly,
it curves forward again in the neck in order to bring the weight of
the head which rests on it, over the point of support between the
feet. Three regions are distinguished in the spine, first the cervical,
or that of the neck, consisting of seven vertebrae ; second, the
dorsal, or that of the back, consisting of twelve ; and third, the
lumbar, or that of the loins, consisting of five. The vertebrae of
the loins are the most movable ; it is here that the turning and
bending of the trunk chiefly take place, and consequently it is to
this region that injuries are the most apt to occur.

To the twelve vertebra of the back the ribs are attached, twelve
on each side, in order to form the chest. It has often been asked
whether it were true that men had a rib fewer than women, in
consequence of the rib having been taken from Adam's side of
which his wife was to be formed. Of this it may be said, that

THE BONES. 33

whatever the deficiency was in Adam's own person, it has not de-
scended to his male children.

The ribs become gradually longer from the first to the seventh,
and from that shorter again to the twelfth. The ten upper ribs are
connected to the sternum or breast-bone in front, by means of their
cartilages, which it has already been remarked, give elasticity to
the walls of the chest. The lowest two, which are not attached in
front, are called the floating ribs. The heads of the ribs behind
are connected to the vertebra by a kind of hinge joint, which
allows the ribs to move up and down in the action of breathing.
Each rib passes from its attachment downwards, outwards, and
forwards ; so that when lifted up by the muscles of inspiration it
at the same time is carried outwards, and so enlarges the capacity
of the chest.

The sternum or breast-bone is about seven inches long, about two
broad above, and one below, and ends in a movable point formed
of cartilage. It is smooth and convex in front, gives the pro-
minence to the front of the chest, and projects conspicuously in
some individuals, who are thence commonly called pigeon-breasted.
It has the cartilages of the ribs inserted into its edges ; it has a
hollow in its upper part to make room for the trachea or windpipe
to pass down behind it, and to its two upper corners the two collar-
bones are attached.

The chest viewed as a whole, is conical, the apex of the cone
being above, and the base below ; the aperture above is small,
about four inches across, and twa from before backward, allowing
the windpipe and oesophagus, or gullet, and the great veins of the
arms and head to pass down, and their arteries to pass up. The
inferior opening of the chest is large, and is filled by a muscle
named the diaphragm, a Greek word which literally means the par-
tition, because it separates the belly from the chest ; forming a roof
for the one, and a floor for the other. The chest is considerably
deeper behind than in front, and the edges of the cartilages of the
ribs can be felt, and in a thin person seen, passing upwards from
the flanks, and meeting at an angle at the breast-bone, leaving a
hollow between them, which is known as the pit of the stomach.

The next division of the trunk is called the pelvis or basin, which
consists of a circle of large ffrm bones, situated between the lower
portion of the trunk and the inferior extremities. They are the
sacrum, the coccyx, the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. The
ilium forms the upper, the ischium the lower, while the pubis is
3

34 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

situated at the fore part of the pelvis ; and each one of these bones
contributes to form the large and deep socket, for the head of the
thigh bone. The pelvis not only affords lodgment for the organs
contained within its cavity, but it also sustains the entire weight of
the body, and furnishes sockets for the heads of the thigh bones to
roll in, and a broad surface for numerous muscles to spring from.

a d. Ilium. E. Os Coccyx. G. Femur. H. Pubes. u u. Foramen ovalc.

The pelvis is so named, because it is somewhat like a basin, only
it has a wide aperture in the bottom, through which the canals from
the bowels, the bladder, and in the female from the womb, make
their exit. It consists of three pieces, two haunch-bones and the
rump-bone, in vulgar language.

The head is placed upon the end of the spinal column, in order
that the brain which is contained in it may be connected with
the spinal marrow ; and upon its upper end, that the eyes which
are set in it may enjoy the widest possible range. It consists of
two parts, the cranium and the face ; the former for containing the
brain, the latter for the organs of sight, smell, and taste. The
cranium is very nearly of the shape of an egg, the large end being
backward, and the small one forward,^>resenting thus the characters
and having the strength of a double dome. The upper dome is
stronger, however, than the lower one, and hence we find that
when a man falls from a height on his head, the fracture is most

THE BONES. 35

frequently not at the part struck, but at the base, where it is com-
pletely out of the reach of the surgeon. The face cannot be com-
pared to any known regular form ; it is excavated by several cavi-
ties, one large one for the mouth, another of considerable size for
the nose, and two smaller pyramidal ones for the eyes, called the
orbit. The number of bones in the head is twenty-two.

F. the Frontal Bone. P. Parietal Bone. T. Temporal Bone. O. Occipital. S.
Sphenoid. C. Cheek-bone. J. Upper Jaw Bone. L. J. Lower Jaw Bone. N. Nasal
Bone. L. Lacrymal Bone. E. Hole leading into the Ear.

The cranium or brain case is composed of eight bones, which are
mostly of a flattened form, convex externally, and concave internally
The frontal bone forms the forehead, and the roofs of the orbits ;
the occipital bone forms the back and under part of the head, and in
this bone is the large hole through which the spinal marrow passes
down from the brain. The two parietal bones meet in the middle
above, and form the upper and lateral parts of the head ; in the
centre of each is a protuberance giving the greatest breadth to the
head, rather further back than its middle. The temporal bones are
named from the Latin word tempus, signifying time, because on the
hair covering them, the traces of time are first manifested. They
are placed one on each side, occupying the inferior lateral parts of
the cranium, and extending into its base. In each is seen the
funnel-shaped opening which admits the waves of the air to the
drum of the ear, called the external auditory canal, to the edges of
which the external ear is appended. The hard part of each, ex-
tending into the base of the cranium, contains the proper or^r^x of

36 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

hearing. The two remaining bones are placed at the base of the
cranium, and belong equally to it and to the face. The ethmoid
or sieve-like bone is so named on account of its upper plate being
perforated with forty or fifty holes, through which the twigs of the
olfactory nerves pass into the nose. The sphenoid, or wedge-like
bone, is named, not from any similarity to a wedge in shape, but
from its being wedged in among so many other bones ; for ft is
united to the other seven bones of the cranium, and to five of the
face.

The vault of the cranium is smooth and regular where it forms
a roof for the protection of the brain ; the floor of it is divided into
six pits or deep hollows, for containing the different lobes of the
brain. Numerous holes exist in the base of the cranium, for the
entrance of the nourishing arteries of the brain, for the exit of its
veins, and for the exit of the numerous nerves which are to con-
nect the brain with the organs of the senses, and with the other
parts of the body. The following figure represents the sutures of
the cranium separated, after Beuchene, of Paris. I have a beauti-
ful preparation of this kind in my Anatomical Museum.

Side view of the Cranium. 1. Frontal Bone. 2. Parietal. 3. Occipital. 4. Tem-
poral. 5. Nasal. 6. Malar. 7. Superior Maxillary. .8. CJnguis. 9. Inferior
Maxillary.

The shane ot the head, as well as its size, varies greatly in dif-

THE BONES. 37

ferent individuals. There are also national peculiarities in the form
of the head, constituting a well-marked- national feature. Thus the
Caucasian race, to whom we belong, is distinguished by the beau-
tiful oval form of the head. To this race the most civilized nations
belong, and those which have ruled over the others. The Mongo-
lian race, which inhabits China and Japan, is known by its promi-
nent cheek-bones, flat face, narrow and oblique eyes, straight and
black hair, thin beard, and olive complexion.

The negro race has a compressed skull and a flattened nose, a
prominent mouth, and thick lips ; thus bearing some resemblance
in features to the monkey tribe. The North American Indian has a
very singular shaped head ; it being high from the ear upward, and
short from the front to the back. The forehead is not as largely de-
veloped as in the Caucasian. The head of the Hindoo is much
smaller than that of the European, while that of the New-Hol-
lander is but little superior to that of the ourang outang, who roams
the same forests with himself. The New Zealanders have heads
nearly as large as the European ; but the forehead is low, and the
great preponderance of size is in the back part of the head.

The heads of the ancient Egyptians, as appears from an exa-
mination of mummies, closely resembled in shape and size those of
modern Europeans. Some of our North American Indians are in
the habit of flattening their heads by binding a piece of board on
the fore as well as back part of the head, in infancy. From this
custom, one tribe among the Rocky Mountains has received the
name of Flat Head Indians. The Choctawtribe were formerly in
the habit of flattening their heads in the same way ; but for some
years past they have discontinued the practice. The heads of the
different European nations differ somewhat from each other ; but a
common type characterizes them all.

Not only the size, but the texture of skulls among different na-
tions varies. The grain of the New Holland skulls is extremely
rough and coarse ; that of the Hindoos, fine, smooth, and compact,
more closely resembling ivory. The Swiss skulls are open and soft
in the grain, while the Greek are closer and finer. It has been sug-
gested that there may possibly be a corresponding quality of brain
in the individuals, which may influence the mental, and conse-
quently the national character. This difference is generally attri-
buted to the effects of temperament. In my Anatomical Museum
I have the models of twenty-five different heads of races, each hav-

38 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

ing a different peculiar national distinction and character. A strong;
inference in favor of phrenology may be drawn from this fact.

The bones of the cranium increase in extent, thickness, and
weight, from the commencement trll the termination of their de-
velopment in adult age ; but after this time, and till old age, they
always diminish in these three relations. In advanced life we often
find them reduced to a mere shell, and perhaps perforated in some
places. They thus become much lighter than in middle life.
Meckel found the skull of a female, seventy years of age, weigh
but fourteen ounces, while that of a girl, twenty years of age,
weighed twenty-four ounces. In the early periods of life, the
whole form of the head is much rounder than at an advanced age ;
owing, perhaps, to the small development of the face, while the
skull developes in every direction.

The size of the cavity formed by the bones of the skull is always
proportional to the size of the organs it lodges and protects. The
shape and size of the cranium depend on the brain, and not of the
brain on the cranium. The soft parts model and adapt to them-
selves the hard, and not the hard the soft. The brain is formed
before the case which contains it, and it is not till after several
years that the bones of the cranium become perfectly consolidated.
In a child of ten years of age, afflicted with dropsy in the head
from infancy, and which was exhibited a year or two since in this
city as a great curiosity, although the head measured thirty-two
inches in circumference above the caps, yet nearly the whole surface
was protected by a bony covering.*

The face consists of fourteen bones, six pair and two single ones.
The two upper jaw-bones form the principal part of the face.
They meet in the middle line, forming the arch in which the upper
row of teeth are set, and extend backwards, forming the principal
part of the roof of. the mouth. A process runs up from each,
separating the cavity of the nose from that of the orbit. In order
that the face may be light, the body of the maxillary bone is not
solid, but excavated, the cavity communicating with the nose, as
will be seen in the description of that organ. The roof of the mouth
is completed by the two palate bones. The firm part of the nose,
from its, roof to its bridge, is formed of two small pieces, meeting in
the middle, called the nasal bones. These are liable to be broken
or knocked in by a blow, an injury which occasions great disfigure-
ment. The opening of the nose in front is seen in the skull to be

* Lee.

THE BONES. 39

of an oval figure, bounded by the two nasal and the two upper jaw-
bones, called upper and lower maxillary bones. Bounding the lower
and outer parts of the orbits are the two malar or cheek-bones,
making the prominences at the sides of the face, which are so
marked in the races of Celtic origin. At the inner sides of the
orbits are two little bones of the size and shape of the finger nail,
called the lachrymal bones, because they form the chief part of the
canal through which the tears find their way into the nose. Form-
ing the partition of the nose, is a bone resembling the ploughshare
in shape, whence its Latin name of vomer ; and in each side of the
nose is a spongy bone, for the purpose of extending the olfactory
surface. Finally, the lower jaw is a single bone, its dental arch
equalling in size that formed by the two upper jaw-bones, and
containing as many teeth. The fore part of the bone is the chin,
extending back from which, and gradually separating from each
other, are the sides, which terminate at the angles ; and from the
angles the branches rise nearly perpendicularly upwards to be
jointed to the sockets in the temporal bones, called condyles.

Though composed of so many pieces, the whole head moves as
one mass on the top of the spine ; and the only motion that takes
place between its parts, is that of opening and closing the mouth.
This is done by the lower jaw dropping and being again lifted,
while the upper jaw remains unmoved. This holds good in all
beasts and birds ; it is only when we descend to the reptiles and
fishes that we find both jaws moving, as in the crocodile and the
shark.

The orbits are two cavities placed in the face for containing the
eyes. Each orbit is of a conical figure, the apex being behind,
where the optic nerve enters it, and the base being in front ; and it
is much larger tha*ri is necessary for the size of the eye alone, this
delicate organ being cushioned on a quantity of soft fat, in order
that it may move with the greatest ease in every direction. The
inner walls of the orbits are parallel, while their outer walls diverge
widely from one another, to give the eyes the advantage of as wide
a range as possible.

The lower extremities consist each of thirty bones. The femur
or thigh contains a single bone, the largest in the whole body. It
has a long shaft, from which a neck goes off above, at an oblique
angle, surmounted by a smooth globular head, covered with carti-
lage, which is received into the socket that has been described as
existing on the pelvis. Where the neck of the bone joins the shaft,

40 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

are two prominences which serve as levers for the attachment of
strong muscles. The lower ends of the thigh-bones are large, and
rest on the heads of the tibia and fibula shin-bones. Their lower
ends are much nearer one another than their upper ends, thus
bringing the points of support underneath the weight of the body.
The bones of the leg are two. The tibia, or shin, is the inner and
the larger, placed perpendicularly under the body ; it has a broad
end above to articulate with the thigh-bone, and a smaller one
below to unite with the foot in the ankle-joint. One of its ridges
is felt under the skin the whole way down, and is the part usually
known as the shin. The outer bone, called the fibula, passes from
the upper end of the shin-bone to the lower ; it is connected with
the ankle-joint, but forms no part of the knee-joint ; it has no con-
nexion with the thigh-bone, and therefore supports no part of the
weight of the body. It serves to increase the breadth of the
leg, without adding much to the weight, and is connected in
its whole length to the shin-bone by a strong membrane or inter-
osseous ligament, which serves to give attachment to muscles as
well as if it had been bone, with the advantage of being much
lighter. The lower ends of these two bones make the projections
which are called the inner and outer ankles, or malleolus.

Intermediate to the thigh and leg is the kneepan, patella, a
bone which corresponds to the elbow in the upper extremity. It
glides on the smooth anterior part of the thigh-bone, is attached to
the shin-bone by a strong ligament, and has the powerful extensor
muscles of the leg inserted in it. It increases the power of these
muscles, by throwing their attachment forward, and therefore further
from the centre of motion of the leg, thus conferring on them the
advantage of a lever power.

The foot consists of twenty-six bones. Seven of these form the
tarsus, or solid part of the foot, to which no English word corres-
ponds ; five compose the instep, or metatarsus, and the remaining
fourteen are the joints of the toes. One of the bones of the tarsus
is shaped above like a pulley, and is received between the projec-
tions of the two bones of the leg forming the two ankles, so that
by its motion the foot is bent up at right angles to the leg, or
pointed with the toes downward. The bone of the heel projects
nearly an inch and a half backwards, giving a strong lever for the
insertion of the powerful muscles which form the calf of the leg.
The next bone is in front of the pulley-like bone, and in some
persons is very movable, admitting of much lateral motion across

THE BONES. 41

the middle of the foot. Three wedge-shaped and one cuboid botfe
in front of these complete the tarsus, and support the bones of the
instep. The five bones of the metatarsus are each about two inches
and a half long ; they are attached posteriorly to the solid part of
the foot, and anteriorly they support the toes. Their anterior ends
rest upon the ground in standing ; so that the foot presents an arch,
the end of the heel bone behind, and the ends of the metatarsal
bones in front, being the abutments, while the pulley-like bone is
the keystone on which the weight of the body rests. This arch is
not, however, firm or rigid, but yields a little when leant on ; and to
prevent its yielding too much, is strengthened below with strong
ligaments, passing like a bowstring from behind forwards. The
degree of hollowness is very different in different persons ; and
those in whom it is most developed are always most active, and
the best pedestrians. The foot is also arched from side to side ;
and in the hollow thus gained, the blood-vessels, nerves, and ten-
dons going to the toes, lie secure from injury by pressure. The
metatarsal bone of the great toe is much stronger than that of any
of the rest. To this toe there are only two movable pieces, much
larger than those of the other toes. Each of the smaller toes has
three pieces, similar to the pieces of the fingers, but much smaller,
as they are not intended for laying hold with. The last piece is
enlarged at the point, for supporting the nail on its upper, and the
pulpy extremity of the toe on its lower surface.

The upper extremities have a strong general resemblance to the
lower, the shoulder corresponding to the pelvis, the arm to the
thigh, the forearm to the leg, and the hand to the foot ; but the
differences between them are also very striking. The lower limbs
are formed for progression, and for supporting the weight of the
rest of the body ; the upper are formed for prehension, much less
strong, but much more movable. The shoulder is not fixed im-
movably to the trunk ; the shoulder-blade, formed by the clavicle
and scapula, glides on the back of the ribs, and is joined firmly to
the outer end of the collar-bone ; and the inner end of this is con-
nected to a socket on the upper corner of the breast-bone, which
permits great freedom of motion, but forms a centre, round which
the shoulder plays, being capable of being raised or depressed,
carried forwards or backwards. The collar-bone is slender, curved
like a long italic f ; and as all shocks produced by falls on any
part of the upper extremity are transmitted through it, it is one of
the bones the most frequently broken. The scapula or shoulder-

42 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

blade is triangular, with one angle directed downward, one upward,
and one outward, and it covers the ribs from the second to the
seventh. It is not, however, attached to the ribs, but is separated
from them by a cushion of muscle on which it glides. At its ex-
ternal angle there is a' socket for the bone of the arm so shallow
that this bone is not laid into it, but merely against it, which is one
reason of the frequency of dislocations of the shoulder-joint.
The bone of the arm {humerus) is single, attached above to the
shoulder-blade, and below to the bones of the forearm, radius and
ulna, and forms at the elbow a perfect hinge-joint. It has a large
round head, which is united by a ball and socket-joint with the
shoulder, capable of motion in every direction, and by a hinge-
joint with the forearm, capable of flexion and extension. It has
two projections externally and internally just above the elbow,
which give the breadth to this part of the limb, and to which the
muscles of the forearm are attached. The bones of the forearm
are two, the radius and ulna, the former being on the outer side,
and the latter on the inner. The ulna is connected chiefly with
the elbow-joint, and the radius chiefly with the wrist ; so that when
a fall is received on the hand, the force is transmitted through the
radius much more than through the ulna, and hence the radius is
broken much more frequently than any other bone in the body.
The ulna is articulated very firmly to the humerus or arm bone, and
moves on it in flexion and extension ; it can be bent up very close
to it, and can be extended very nearly in a straight line with it.
The radius is very slightly connected with the arm bone, and has
a round head received into a cavity in the outside of the ulna,
while at its lower end it has a cavity in its inner side, which rolls
round the small lower end of the ulna. The effect of this arrange-
ment is, that the ulna has always the same face directed forward,
while the radius can roll round the ulna, so that its edge, or even its
back, can be turned forward, earring the hand along with it. This
motion is commonly said to take place in the wrist, but in reality
the wrist has nothing to do with it. It is called pronation and
supination ; the hand is said to be prone when its back, and supine
when its palm is turned forward. It is in this motion that the
greatest difference is observed between the forearm and the leg ;
had any such motion been permitted in the leg, it would have pro-
duced instability. The two bones are connected in their whole
length by a strong membrane, which gives origin to muscles, while
it does not interfere with the rolling motion. The two extremities

THE BONES. 43

of the ulna are readily felt, both the upper and the lower, and
afforded a very ready standard of measurement, called the cubit,
from the old Latin name of the bone, cubitus.

The hand consists of twenty-seven bones, and is divided into
three parts, analogous to those of the foot. The solid part enter-
ing into the wrist joint is properly called the wrist ; then five long
bones make the palm, and fourteen movable pieces superadded,
complete the fingers and thumb. It differs from the foot, in its
being intended not for support, but for prehension, and all its parts
are adapted to this end. Eight small bones are pretty firmly united
to form the wrist, presenting a ball superiorly to enter the cavity in
the lower end of the radius ; fitted inferiorly to support the bones
of the palm ; arched behind to give it strength, and concave in
front to permit the blood-vessels, nerves, and sinews, to run to the
fingers, without being subjected to undue pressure. In the palm
we see the great difference between the hand and the foot. In the
latter all the bones of the instep are in one line, immovable, and
serving only to rest on. In the former, four of the bones of the
palm are placed side by side, to form the hollow of the hand, and
support the fingers ; while another, supporting the thumb, is very
movable, being capable of being brought opposite the others, so as
to grasp firmly anything between them and it. The pieces of the
fingers are considerably larger than those of the toes, but are
formed on a similar model. The fingers have each three pieces,
the thumb only two. The last piece of each is expanded at the
end, to support the nail on the back, and on the front the delicate
pulp where the nerves ramify, in which the nicest sense of touch
exists.

The size of the skeleton varies very much, varying from thirty-
five inches to upwards of eight feet. The gigantic skeleton pre-
served in the Museum of the College of Surgeons in London
measures eight feet two inches. What is called the middle size in
man, is about five feet four, in woman about five feet.

The formation and growth of bones is an exceedingly interesting
subject, but one that can well be studied in the museum, where
there are preserved abundant specimens of young children at every
different period of foetal life. In the fcetus cartilage serves as a
substitute for bone at first : and about the sixth week after concep-
tion, earthy matter begins to be deposited in it. In the flat bones,
it is first deposited in the centre, and extends in lines radiating to
the circumference, forming a delicate net- work like a bit of lace,

44 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

and layer is superadded upon layer, until the necessary degree of
thickness is obtained. In the round bones, ossification proceeds
from the centre to the circumference. In the long bones, ossifica-
tion commences at the middle of the shaft, and extends outward
gradually till near the ends, where it stops. At a period soon after
birth, the ends of the long bones begin to ossify separately, at their
centre, in the same way that the short bones do, and they continue
separated from the shafts of the bones by a layer of cartilage, till
the 15th, 16th, or even 18th year. Hence children should on no
account be rudely pulled about, or twisted about the limbs, as the
ends of the bones are apt to be twisted off, producing incurable
lameness.

The most common affection for which we have to treat bones, is
their fracture. Most of the bones when broken unite in three
weeks, if properly kept at rest, but the thigh-bone is never fit for
walking upon in less than six.

The following list exhibits the number of bones in the several
regions of the body.

The Spine contains . . . .24

Pelvis, ..... 5

Breast-bone, .... 1

Ribs, . ' .'^ . .-/. :.;r 24

Arms, ... . - . 64

Legs, ... V . 60

Head, . . . . V 22

Total, .£'- --.. ' . 200*

RECAPITULATION.
BONES OF THE HEAD.

Frontal Bone. Situated in the anterior part of the skull, forming
the forehead and upper part of the orbits.

Parietal Bones. Situated one on each side of the superior part
of the cranium.

Occipital Bone. Situated in the posterior part of the cranium.

Sphenoid Bone. Situated in the middle of the basis of the
cranium, extending underneath from one temple across" to the
other.

Temporal Bones. Situated at the sides and inferior part of the
cranium.

* Douglas.

THE BONES. 45

Ethmoid Bone. Situated in the anterior part of the basis of the
cranium, above the root of the nose and between the orbits.

BONES OF THE FACE

The bones of the face are fourteen in number, and are divided
into those of the upper and under jaw. The upper jaw is formed
of thirteen bones, viz. two superior maxillary, two nasal, two pala-
tine, two jugular or malar, two inferior spongy, two lachrymal, and
the vomer, which are united to the cranium, and with one another,
by harmony. The under jaw consists of one bone.

Superior Maxillary Bones. Situated in the anterior and middle
part of the face.

Jugular or Malar Bones. Situated at the sides of the face.

Ossa Nasi, or Bones of the Nose. Situated in the superior and
middle part of the nose.

Lachrymal Bones. Situated in the internal angle of the orbit.

Inferior Spongy Bones. Situated in the side and lower part of
the nostrils.

Palatine Bones. Situated in the posterior part of the nose, from
which they ascend laterally to the orbits.

Vomer. Situated in the middle of the cavity of the nostrils,
which it divides into two parts.

Lower Jaw Bone. Situated in the inferior and anterior part of
the face.

Os Hyoides. Situated in the fauces, between the basis of the
tongue and iarnyx.

BONES OF THE TRUNK.

The trunk of the skeleton is divided into the spine, chest, loins,
and pelvis.

Spine. A long column, or pillar, which extends in the posterior
part of the trunk from the occipital bone to the os sacrum. Com-
posed of 24 bones called vertebrae, viz. 7 of the neck, 12 of the
back, and 5 of the loins.

BONES OF THE CHEST, OR THORAX.

The thorax is composed of twelve dorsal vertebrae, twenty- four
ribs, and the sternum.

Sternum. Situated in the anterior part of the thorax, between
the true ribs.

46 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

BONES OF THE PELVIS.

Ossa Innominata. Situated at the sides of the pelvis. Figure,
irregular. Each bone is divided into three parts, viz. ilium the
uppermost, ischium the lowest, and pubis the anterior. Eminences
— The crista of the ilium, from which the oblique and transverse
muscles of the abdomen arise — at its posterior part are two spinous
processes, which give adhesion to ligaments — at its anterior part
are also two spinous processes, the superior gives adhesion to the
sartorius, tensor vaginae femoris, and the ligament of the thigh ;
the inferior anterior spinous process, about an inch from the former,
has arising from it the rectus femoris. The external surface of the
iliac portion is covered by the glutsei muscles ; the internal by the
internal iliac. Upon the internal surface there is a line even with
the pubis ; this is called linea innominata, or rim of the pelvis ; it
divides the cavity of the abdomen from the pelvis. Upon the
ischiatic portion or ischium are the tuberosity of the ischium, upon
which we sit; the spinous process of the ischium, which projects
backwards, and gives adhesion to the uppermost sacro-sciatic liga-
ment ; the ramus ischii, which joins the pubis. Upon the pubic
portion, or pubis, are the body, near the socket, the angles and
arches of the pubis. Cavities — A notch between the anterior spines
of the ilium ; an anterior and posterior ischiatic notch ; the aceta-
bulum, which receives the head ef the os femoris, and the foramen
thyroideum, or ovale. Each os innominatum is connected with its
fellow anteriorly by symphysis, with the sacrum posteriorly by
strong cartilages and ligaments, and with the head of the thigh-
bone by enarthrosis. Use — To form the pelvis ; to retain the gravid
uterus in its situation, and to constitute the acetabulum for the
thighs.

Os Sacrum. Situated at the posterior part of the pelvis.

Os Coccygis. Situated at the apex of the sacrum.

BONES OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES.

The bones of the upper extremities are, on each side, the cla-
vicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, bones of the carpus, metacar-
pus, and fingers.

Clavicle. Situated obliquely in fhe upper and lateral parts of
the thorax

Scapula. Situated in the upper and lateral parts of the back.

Os Humeri. Situated between the scapula and fore-arm.

Cubit, or Ulna. Situated in the inside of the fore-arm, towards
the little finger.

THE BONES. 47

Radius. Situated in the external side of the fore-arm, towards
the thumb.

Carpus or Wrist. Composed of eight bones, which lie close to
each other in a double row. Situated between the fore-arm and
metacarpus. Divided into two rows, superior and inferior. In the
superior row are (from the thumb to the little finger) os scaphoides,
or naviculare ; os lunare ; os cuneiforme ; and os orbiculare, or
sub-rotundum. In the lower, os trapezium ; os trapezoides ; os
magnum, and os unciforme.

Metacarpus. Situated between the carpus and fingers. Com-
posed of five longitudinal bones ; one of the thumb, and four
metacarpal bones of the fingers. Use — To form the middle part of
the hand.

Fingers. Situated at the inferior extremity of the metacarpus.
Composed of a thumb and four fingers. The thumb has two bones,
and each finger three, which are called phalanges. Use — To form
the fingers, which are the instruments of touch, defence, and labor.

BONES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES.

The bones of the inferior extremity are, the femur, patella, tibia,
fibula, the bones of the tarsus, metatarsus, and toes.

Femur. Situated between the pelvis and tibia.

Tibia. Situated in the inside of the leg, between the femur and
tarsus.

Fibula. Situated in the outer part of the leg, by the side of the
tibia.

Patella, or Knee-pan. Situated in the sinus between the con-
diles of the femur, and above the tibia.

Tarsus. Situated between the leg and metatarsus. Composed
of seven bones, placed in a double row.

Metatarsus. Situated between the tarsus and toes. Composed
of five longitudinal bones.

Toes. The great toe is composed of two small bones ; each of
the other toes, of three small bones, called phalanges.

PERIOSTEUM.

Definition. A membrane which invests the external and internal
surface of all the bones except the crowns of the teeth. Names. —
Pericranium on the cranium ; periorbita on the orbits ; perichon-
drium, when it covers cartilages ; and peridesmium, when it covers
ligaments. Substance fibrous, furnished with arteries^ veins, nerves,
and absorbent vessels. Use — To distribute the vessels on the exte**
nal and internal surface of bones.

48

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Bones are subject to disease, as the rickets, tumors, necrosis,
curvatures, etc. The following figures, I and 2, illustrate a de-
formity of the spine by lumbar abscess, A.

»

THE BONES. 49

Children at school, in consequence of sitting long in a bent
position, are very liable to a curvature or bending of the spine.
The remedy consists in avoiding the causes — sitting in an erect posi-
tion, exercising much in the open air, living on a light and princi-
pally vegetable diet, as bread and milk ; bathing daily with cold
water, keeping the bowels regular, and wearing a stimulating
plaster on the spine, and avoid the use of mercury.

The following figure represents a contrivance to lessen the pressure or weight of the
upper part of the body on the diseased spine.

f

Says Dr. Lee, in his treatise on physiology, " How preposterous,
unnatural, and ruinous is the practice of confining delicate females
for hours together every day to sedentary employment, the sure
consequence of which will be, weakness of the body generally,
and of the back in particular, especially if the seat be a bench
which has no back, or even a narrow chair with a perpendicular
back.

u The effect of such a practice is, that in consequence of the
fatigue induced by such a posture, the spine gives way in some
part and bends, and in a little time the curvature becomes per-
manent. And often when a bend has taken place in one direction,
there immediately follows an opposite bend above or below, to
keep the centre of gravity of the body always directly over the
base ; the curve accordingly thus becomes double, like an italic/,
and the distortion is rendered complete.

" The means employed to remedy this affection almost invariably
make it worse. In the first place, strong, stiff stays are put on, to
support the back, as it is said ; and so they do, perhaps, while they
are on ; but as they supersede the action of the muscles, placed
there by nature as the supports, they cause these to lose their
strength ; and when the stays are withdrawn, the muscles are found
too weak to support the body. Other mechanical expedients may
now be employed, the back may be forcibly stretched by pullev?
4

50

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

or the patient may be kept all day and night lying on an inclined
plane. The victim of fashion may next, perhaps, be placed under
the charge of a regular spine doctor, who, by means of pulleys,
screws, paddings, stays, and close confinement, destroys what little
chance there still remains of a cure. A decline now sets in, and
the sufferer sinks into an early grave."

The following figure represents a curvature of the 'spine.

CHAPTER IV.

THE JOINTS.

THE bones composing the skeleton are articulated to one another
in three different ways. 1st. They are found dovetailed into one
another, with the intervention of a very thin layer of cartilage, and
are quite immovable. 2dly. They are connected by means of one
or more layers of cartilage between them, and ligaments on their
outsides, tying them together, and admitting of more or less
motion. 3dly. They are united by means of cartilages, ligaments,
and synovial membranes, forming the most perfect joints, such as
are found in the extremities.

THE JOINTS. 51

The unions of the bones of the cranium are called sutures, from
the Latin word signifying to sew, because they seem as if stitched
together, the fibres of the one .bone forming prolongations which
pass into the notches, or spaces left by the similar prolongations of
the other, as is seen in the figure of the skull already given. Be-
tween these a thin layer of cartilage runs. These sutures run in
determinate lines over the head, as seen in the drawing of the
cranium, but in a work of this character it would be out of place
to give a more detailed description of them.

The bones of the spine are united by thick layers of a peculiar
cartilage mixed with ligaments, placed between them, admitting of
but little motion between any pair of bones, but allowing consider-
able curvatures to take place in the whole length of the spine.
Strong ligaments also pass down the spine in front and behind,
binding its different pieces together. The different parts of the
pelvis are united by means of cartilage, each bone having its arti-
culating surface covered with cartilage, and these laid together,
with or without the intervention of a third layer, and are bound
firmly by ligaments passing over them. Such are the joints between
the two haunch-bones, and between them and the ischium.

The joints of the extremities are of a more complicated nature.
The ends of the bones entering into the joints are covered with car-
tilage, then the bones are tied together by ligaments, and in addition
a membrane called synovial is spread over the ends of the bones
and lines the ligaments, forming a shut bag, whose inner surfaces
are everywhere in contact, and to obviate friction are moistened
with a bland mucilaginous fluid called synovia. This fluid, which
serves the purpose of oil to the joints, does not in reality contain
any, yet it has very much the feeling of oil when rubbed be-
tween the fingers. When it increases too much in quantity, it pro-
duces dropsy of the joints.

A Finger-joint is represented. B. B. are the two bones. L. L. the two ligaments ;
the cartilages are seen covering the ends of the bones, and inside of this the synovial
rAembrane is seen lining them and the ligaments. A space is represented between the
bones merely for the sake of making it plainer ; but in reality the surfaces are in con-
tact.

52 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

The articulation of the lower jaw with the temporal bone is
almost completely a hinge-joint. The upper end, or condyle of the
jaw-bone, is covered with cartilage, and so is the socket ; and the
two bones are tied together by side ligaments. Besides, there is a
movable cartilage in the joint, which accompanies the condyle of
the jaw in its motion. Notwithstanding all these appliances, the
jaw is sometimes dislocated, slipping forward off the eminence
upon which it gets when the mouth is opened. When this acci-
dent takes place, which generally happens from a violent yawn,
the patient is left with his mouth wide open, and has not the power
of closing it, presenting a very ludicrous figure, though his situa-
tion is to himself sufficiently uncomfortable. After this accident
has happened, it is exceedingly liable to be reproduced, in conse-
quence of the torn ligaments never properly uniting.

The shoulder-joint is of all others the most frequently dislocated.
This results partly from its form, and partly from its being more
exposed to violence, since every fall, whether upon the shoulder,
elbow, or hand, has a tendency to displace it. The cavity on the
shoulder-blade is so small and shallow, that the round head of the
arm-bone is not laid in it but on it ; its capsular ligament is strong
but loose, so that the bone depends for being retained in its place
upon the muscles which surround it ; and if these^afe overcome, or
taken by surprise, particularly when the arm is raised above the
head, the head of the bone is dislocated down into the armpit. It
is in general replaced without much difficulty, but is exceedingly
liable to be thrown out again. I recollect one man, says Douglas,
who fell into fits occasionally, wjiose shoulder-joint I saw dislocated
and assisted to reduce three times, on three successive days.

The elbow-joint is more complex than the shoulder-joint. It is
double in its motions, admitting of the flexion and extension of the
forearm on the arm, and the rolling of the head of the radius. For
the first motion it has two strong lateral ligaments, which render it
a hinge-joint, and the neck of the radius is confined to the srde of
the ulna by a collar in which it rolls. A synovial membrane covers
the ends of the bones, and lines the different ligaments. It may
be dislocated in many directions. Both bones of the forearm are
most commonly thrown backward ; then the arm is nearly straight,
and cannot be bent. Sometimes the forearm is thrown sideways,
either outward or inward, and sometimes the radius is dislocated
alone, either backwards or forwards. From its complexity, it is
also subject to disease.

THE JOINTS. 53

The wrist-joint is a hinge-joint, moving backwards and forwards,
and also allowing the hand to be moved a little edgewise out-
wards or inwards. The lower end of the radius forms a socket in
which the two uppermost bones of the wrist move, united so as to
form an oblong ball. Two lateral ligaments confine the hand to
the lower ends of the radius and ulna, and the whole joint is lined
by a synovial membrane. This joint is never dislocated, but it is
liable to sprains, and to disease, producing occasionally the loss of
the hand.

The bones in the hand are not subject to dislocations, except at
the joint between the first and second pieces of the thumb — a seem-
ingly trifling affair, but one which is extremely difficult to set to
rights ; so much so, that many of those who are the subjects of the
accident continue to go with the point of the thumb bent back, all
the rest of their days.

The only dislocation that takes place in the spine is that between
the first and second vertebrae of the neck, in consequence of de-
struction of a ligament which keeps them in their places. When
this happens, the weight of the head makes it fall forward, carrying
the first vertebra with it, and the spinal marrow is so nipt between
it and the second, that the sufferer dies as surely and as instantane-
ously as if his neck were severed by the axe of the executioner.

The hip-joint consists of a deep socket, formed by the ilium
above, ischium lower, and pubes before, into which the round head
of the femur or thigh-bone is set. The opposed surfaces are
covered with cartilage, and are tied together by an internal liga-
ment. A capsular ligament of great strength, attached round the
edge of the socket and to the neck of the bone, fixes it in its place.
The whole is lined by a synovial membrane. The joint is, not-
withstanding its strength, subject to dislocations, principally on
account of the long lever which the thigh-bone affords to any force
acting upon it, so as to tear the head from its socket.

The knee is the most complicated joint in the whole body. The
ends of the femur or thigh-bone and tibia are each covered with
cartilage, and in contact, but neither of them is hollowed ; so that
the joint does not depend for its strength on its form, but on the
number and strength of its ligaments. Two of these are placed
externally and internally, as in all hinge-joints, and seven others
are arranged in different positions within and without it. The
kneepan (patella) is placed in front of it, and the whole is lined
with a synovial membrane, which is the largest in the body : hence

54 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

the fever and constitutional disturbance that arise when this joint
becomes inflamed. It lies very superficial, being covered only by
the skin in the greatest part of its extent, and hence it is very
easily wounded by a cut or prick from any sharp instrument. It is
never dislocated, except by such a force as destroys it altogether.

The ankle is a hinge-joint, having one lateral ligament on its
inner, and three on its outer side. The upper surface of the astra-
galus^ as has been already said, is like the half of a broad pulley ;
it plays against the lower hollow end of the tibia, and is received
between the two ankles, formed by it and the fibula. This part of
the astragalus is narrower behind than in front, so that when the foot
is at right angles to the leg, as when we stand on it, the broad part
is between the ankles, and it is firmly fixed ; but when the foot is
extended, pointed downwards, the narrow part is brought between
them, so as to admit of the toes being directed to either side. The
ankle joint may be dislocated forwards or to either side. This
never happens without one <*f the ankles being broken off; the
ligaments being so strong that the bone will break rather than they
should give way. The dislocation of the ankle can scarcely take
place without a wound co-existing. I may here mention what is
meant by a compound, and wrhat by a simple dislocation. A simple
dislocation is one where the bones are displaced, but the skin is
unbroken ; a compound one is not more serious, in so far as the
bones are concerned, but is accompanied with a wound leading into
the joint. In the same way, a simple fracture is where a bone is
broken, without a wound ; a compound one is where there is a
wound communicating with the broken surfaces. The joints across
the foot are numerous. There is one joint across the middle of the
tarsus or solid part of the foot, which in some persons admits of
much lateral motion, and in such feet, is liable to be sprained.
Another joint runs across between the bones of the tarsus and those
of the instep. The joints of the toes require nothing particular to
be said of them, only that in persons who live very freely and
drink much wine, they are apt to become affected with gout ; and
in elderly people the joint at the ball of the great toe is liable to
be drawn so as to make a projection on the inner side of the
foot, become exposed to pressure from the shoe, and produce
corns.

The most common disease of joints is their inflammation. Some-
times this is acute, as after injuries or from rheumatism. The
synovial bag becomes inflamed, and forms an inordinate quantity of

FIG. 5. MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NECK,

FIG. 6. MUSCLES OF THE STOMACH.

2

Fibres are seen running in different directions to produce the " churning motion."

1 .heJf,soPhagus terminating in the stomach. 2. The cardiac orifice. 3. The pylo-
£U™ commencement of the duodenum. 5. The large curvature of the stomach,

6. The small curvature. 7. The large extremity. 8. The small extremity. 9. The lon-
gitudinal muscular fibres. 10. The circular muscular fibres.

THE MUSCLES. 55

fluid, which distends the joint enormously. It is accompanied with
intense redness and acute pain, and requires fomentation and other
treatment to reduce it. In scrofulous persons, the inflammation
does not assume this acute form, but is low and long-continued ;
the synovial membrane forms purulent matter, instead of merely an
increased quantity of its natural secretion ; the matter gradually
works its way to the surface, making one or two ulcerated open-
ings, leading directly into the joint, and by and by the cartilages
are destroyed, and if a probe be introduced, the ends of the bones
are felt to be bare and rough. In this state the patient's general
health suffers much ; he becomes affected with shivering, profuse
night sweats, and often purging, &c.

CHAPTER V.

THE MUSCLES.

Knowest thou the nature of the human frame,

That world of wonders, more than we can name ?

Say, has thy busy, curious eye survey 'd

The proofs of boundless wisdom there display'd,

How ranged each fibre with amazing skill

That every muscle may attend thy will ;

How every tendon acts upon its bone,

And how the nerves receive their nicer tone ;

Convey the keen vibration of the sense ;

And give the wakeful mind intelligence,

How some strong guard each vital part sustains,

How flows the purpk liquid through the veins !

IN order that the bones when connected by their joints may be
brought into motion, there must exist to each a moving power.
The moving power resides in the muscles. Muscles are the masses
of red flesh which are seen in cutting a piece of meat, arranged in
determinate forms, and separated from one another by cellular
membrane and fat. When examined chemically, they are found to
consist almost wholly of a principle derived from the blood, which is
called fibrin. They are of a red color, not from any inherent quality
of the fibrin, for they can be washed almost white, but from the
large quantity of blood which is constantly circulating through them.
Indeed, a muscle requires blood to go to' it to be able to act, and

56

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

when healthy blood is not sent to it, it loses its contractile power.
Each muscle is composed of small bundles of fibres, connected to-
gether by fine cellular membrane, running parallel to each other,
and enveloped in a common sheath. Every muscle has at least
two attachments ; the one which is most fixed is called its origin,
the one which is most ordinarily moved, is its insertion. The
action of a muscle consists in shortening itself so as to bring its
insertion nearer to its origin. In so doing, its fibres assume a zig-
zag form, and the whole muscle becomes thicker, as may be easily
proved by grasping the arm when straight with the other hand, and
then bending it, when the muscles on the inside of the arm will be
felt swelling as they shorten themselves. Or, let the fingers be laid
on the side of the cheek, and the jaws firmly closed, and then the
strong muscles whose action it is to close the jaws, will be felt be-
coming hard under the finger. A muscle may have its origin con-
verted into its insertion by having the latter fixed. For instance,
the strong muscles which bring down the arms in striking, may be
reversed in their action ; if you catch a beam above your head,
their insertion into the arms will now be fixed, and they will swing
up the body, so as to enable you to grasp the beam with the feet.

Most muscles have a tendon or sinew at one end, sometimes at
both, by which they are fixed to their points of attachment in the
movable parts of the skeleton. The forms of the muscles are very
various, but are principally the following: — 1. A single-bellied
muscle, small at each end, thick and round in the middle ; the
middle swelled part is called its belly. A tendon is represented at
one end. Of this kind are most of the muscles of the limbs. (Fig.

1.) 2. A double-bellied muscle, when there are two bellies meeting
and becoming inserted by one tendon. (Fig. 2.) 3. A strap-shaped

Fig. 2.

muscle when the fibres run parallel to one another, forming a thin
strap, with or without a tendon. (Fig. 3.) 4. A fan-shaped muscle

Fig. 3.

broad and thin at its origin, narrow and thick at its tendinous in-

THE MUSCLES.

57

Fig. 4.

sertion. (Fig. 4.) 5. A single penniform muscle, like a quill with the
feathers stripped off one side, the quill part representing the tendon,

Fig. 5.

and the feathery part the oblique short muscular fibres. (Fig. 5)
6. A double penniform muscle, like the quill with both its rows of
feathers.

Fig. 6.

The number of muscles in the body is upwards of four hundred,
varying slightly in different individuals. They are arranged in four

Fig. 7.

58 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

layers, of which the layer next the skin gives the form to the limbs,
ttye eminences and depressions which it delights the painter to
delineate. It would be an unprofitable task in a work like this to
minutely describe the muscles, but I will shortly go over the prin-
cipal of those which are seen in the accompanying plate (Fig. 7)
of the superficial layer of muscles on the front of the body.

On the side of the neck is seen a broad thin muscle which throws
the skin of the neck into wrinkles. Those which move the neck
are concealed by this one. Further back is seen one which ele-
vates the shoulder. On the top of the shoulder is seen the muscle
which gives the rounded form to that part, and raises the arm. On
the fore part of the chest is a broad triangular muscle which draws
the arm across the chest. On the front of the arm is a large muscle
which bends the elbow. Behind and internal to it is seen
part of the large extensor of the elbow. Immediately below
the elbow is seen a small muscle running obliquely across, which
produces pronation, and throws the hand into the position which
the right hand has in the drawing. Behind this are seen the ex-
tensors of the wrist and fingers, and on the fore part the flexors.

On the fore part of the belly are seen two strap-shaped muscles,
divided by several cross bands, whose use is to bend the body for-
ward. The two broad muscles covering the sides are of use to
compress the belly in the action of expiration.

Crossing the thigh obliquely is a long strap-shaped muscle which
bends both the hip and knee. Above it are seen portions of those
which adduct, or draw it towards its fellow. Below the oblique
muscle are seen three large ones which are inserted into the knee-
pan, and then by a strong tendon into the tibia, and which extend
the leg upon the thigh.

Down the front of the leg, the tibia or shin-bone is seen bare. On
its inner side are seen projecting the muscles of the calf, whose office
it is to extend the foot, raising the heel and consequently the weight
of the whole body from off the ground. On its outer side are seen
the muscles which bend the foot upon the leg, and extend the toes.
The skin is not removed from the hands and feet, because the ten-
dons and small muscles which lie upon them are too minute to be
shown on so small a scale.

Covering the upper region of the head, we have a thin tendon,
with two fleshy bellies before, and two behind, the front ones seen
in the figure. The hairy scalp is fixed to the outer surface of this
tendon, while it is very loosely connected with the bone. Hence

THE MUSCLES* 59

when the anterior bellied contract, the scalp is drawn forwards, and
when the posterior, it is carried back again. There are many
individuals who have no power of moving the scalp in this way.
This muscle is part of an apparatus which is very fully developed
in many of the lower animals, for wrinkling the skin suddenly, to
drive the flies off, as we see a horse do every now and then on a
warm day. In them, a thin layer of this kind exists all over the
body, but in man it is not needed, as the hands are at his disposal
to do the same office more perfectly. Underneath the anterior
bellies are two small muscles, not seen in the figure, running from
the root of the nose outward under the eyebrow, and fixed to the
skin there, which knit the eyebrows, drawing them together. On
the side of the head are seen two thin muscles attached to the ex-
ternal ear, for drawing it upward and backward. These, like the
muscles of the scalp, are rudimentary in the human species, being
of use only in those animals whose ears serve them for fly-traps,
and can be directed backward or forward to catch sounds coming
from either quarter. Those men, however, who have much power
over the scalp are generally able to shake the ears, although few
of them are aware of it. I have seen Prof. Oliver practise this.

Passing around the eyelids is an orbicular muscle, which closes
them. It will be observed in closing the eye that the upper
eyelid only comes to meet the other, while the lower one moves
horizontally towards the nose ; having the effect of carrying any
particles of dust which may have alighted on the eye towards the
nose, whence they are washed out by the tears, or pass down into
the nose. That part of the muscle which lies in the thickness of
the lids is thin and pale, and is all that acts in the involuntary
winking which takes place thousands of times during the day, in
order to wipe the surface of the eyes ; while the parts which lie on
the forehead, the temple, and the cheek, are brought into action
only when the eye is compressed strongly by an exertion of the
will. In doing so, it wrinkles up the skin of the face, as is seen
in a hearty laugh, when the eyes are half closed. The muscle
which raises the upper eyelid is not here seen, for it lies deep
within the orbit.

Another orbicular muscle closes the mouth, and is connected
above to the partition of the nose, which it has the power of draw-
ing down. It is the antagonist to all the other muscles which eon-
verge to the mouth, and according as they resist it in particular
directions, it produces all manner of distortions of the mouth.

60 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Lying on the side of the nose is a small triangular muscle which
dilates the nostril. Its action will be felt if the nose be caught
between the finger and thumb ; it then acts almost irresistibly, ex-
panding the nostril under the finger. A muscle is seen running
down the side of the nose, connected to its wing and to the upper
lip ; it raises the upper lip, showing the teeth, and dilating at the
same time the nostril. Lying deeper than this muscle, in the hol-
low above the eyetooth, is a small muscle running downward and
outward, which lifts the angle of the mouth. Further out, coming
from the prominence of the cheek-bone, are two long delicate
muscles, inserted into the angle of the mouth, which distort it
upwards and outwards, producing the depressed line which leads
from the side of the nose to the angle of the mouth. Below, in
the middle, is a muscle which depresses the under lip, and at the
angle is a triangular one, attached like the preceding to the lower
jaw, which draws down the angle of the mouth. All these are
called the muscles of expression, because they produce all the dif-
ferent modifications of the features which express the feelings, as
beautifully exhibited by Le Brun in his drawings illustrative of the
passions.

It may be remarked here, that the muscles which express lively
feeling and the gayer passions, such as the muscle of the scalp^ the
elevator of the eyelid, the elevators and dilators of the lips, do for
the most part either raise or draw the parts from the middle line of
the face ; while those which manifest the sadder feelings and the
darker passions, as the one which knits the brows, and the de-
pressors of the lower lip and of the angles, either depress the parts,
or draw them to the middle line. The constant and habitual exer-
cise of either of these sets of muscles leaves corresponding perma-
nent folds in the skin, which are indicative of the habitual feelings
and passions of the individual.

On the side of the face we see two muscles which are not con-
nected with the features, but with the action of mastication. One
of them is of an oblong square form, lying on the ascending plate
of the lower jaw ; it closes the jaw forcibly, and may be felt swell-
ing by the finger placed upon it when in action. Another is seen
coming forwards, and closing the side of the mouth; it is the muscle
which enables us to blow, as in playing on the flute, or in working
with the blowpipe.

On the side of the neck, the superficial thin muscle, seen in figure
7, having been removed, a very large strong muscle is seen passing

THE MUSCLES. 61

from the breast-bone to the knob behind the ear. Its effect is to bend
the face forward, turning it at the same time to the other side ; and
when the muscles of the two sides act together, they simply bend
the neck forward. Above and in front of this one, are seen three
narrow strap-shaped muscles, which pull down the windpipe, as in
singing the lower notes of the scale. Higher up, three small mus-
cles are seen attached also to the windpipe, and in front to the jaw,
which have the opposite effect of raising the wind-pipe, as in sing-
ing the higher notes, and in the act of swallowing.

There are some muscles connected with internal organs, which
will be noticed in describing them, and giving a history of their
functions. Let us now proceed to inquire into their physiology.

The property which muscles possess, and which distinguishes
them from every other tissue in the body, is their contractility.
This is quite different from elasticity ; it is the power of actively
shortening themselves. This power is constantly in action ; for
though we speak of the limbs being at rest, and the muscles relaxed,
they are never really so ; they are constantly in such a state of
tension as to balance their opponents, although not endeavoring to
overcome them. Were this not the case, time would be lost in
bringing the muscles into an active state when they are wanted to
perform any action ; but as they are constituted, they are always
tight, and ready to become strained the moment the stimulus of the
will reaches them. Their irritability is a quality somewhat different
from their contractility, expressing their capability of being excited
to exertion by certain stimulants. If in the living body, or one
newly dead, a muscle be pricked with a sharp instrument, it will
immediately contract, as has been already stated in the commence-
ment of this chapter. This tendency to show its contractility on
the application of a stimulus is its irritability. This power of
being excited becomes diminished by long exercise, and hence it
is that after fatigue we feel scarcely able to crawl, and that over-
driven cattle often fall down in the street ; and the capacity for
renewed contractions is only recovered after sufficient rest and a
supply of food has been taken

There is one cause of death after which rigidity does not occur,
namely, the shock of electricity. The bodies of persons killed by
lightning never become stiff, the blood in them does not coagulate,
and they run very rapidly into putrefaction. This is supposed to
be owing to the nervous power having been exhausted by the shock,

62 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

it and electricity having been long supposed to be modifications of
the same agent.

A very important remark with regard to the muscles is the sacri-
fice that we see of power to velocity and beauty of form. The
muscles are generally inserted disadvantageously for mechanical
power. For instance, the muscles which bend the elbow are
inserted into the forearm about one inch beyond the elbow-joint,
while the weight which is to be raised in the hand is nearly twelve
times further off. Hence twelve times the power is expended in
raising the weight from off the table, if the arm is laid flat along it,
than if the muscles had been inserted directly into the hand. But
what is lost in power is gained in velocity ; the hand moves twelve
times faster than the bone near the elbow, and hence the force with
which we can strike a sudden blow. A man can cut or break a bar
of iron with a stroke of an axe in his hand, while the whole weight
of his body, if merely let down upon it, could not even drive a
nail.

It has already been stated that the muscles are thrown into action
through the medium of the nerves. Those which are connected by
their nerves to the brain, are voluntary muscles ; but there are
many, such as the heart, and those for carrying on respiration and
for keeping the bowels in motion, which are not dependent on the
brain, and consequently not subject to the will ; because if they
had been so, and the individual were to forget to keep them going,
life would be at once extinguished. There is, therefore, a distinc-
tion of muscles into voluntary and involuntary, but the prosecution
of this subject belongs to the chapter upon the nerves.

The tendons of the muscles expand in many places into sheaths,
with which all the limbs are covered. These are shining webs of
a bluish color, which keep the muscles in their places, and prevent
them from starting out. When tendons pass over bones, or through
rings, they are generally surrounded by bags of the same nature as
the synovial membrane of the joints, which have the effect of en-
abling them to glide easily, and without friction. Sometimes these
bags enlarge, and form firm round swellings, particularly on the
back of the wrist, where they are popularly called "weeping sinews."
A popular cure is to wear a shilling or a piece of lead firmly tied
over it ; another plan is to have them punctured with a proper
needle, when a quantity of jelly is squeezed out, and the cure is
generally completed by pressure continued for a few days.

The muscles are the seat of that dull long-continued pain which

FIG. 4. A VIEW OF THE
EXTENSOR MUSCLES
OF THE FINGERS.

FIG. 3. A VIEW OF THE POSTERIOR

PART OF THE BoDY.

The figures refer to various muscles, which
the student may learn and write down.

1 The common extensor
sending 2222 tendons to
each figure. 3 The posterior
annular ligament.

THE MUSCLES. 63

is called chronic rheumatism. They are scarcely subject to any
diseases, but occasionally they tear themselves, or rupture their
tendons, by too violent and sudden exertion. The tendon which
is most apt to suffer is that called the tendon of Achilles,* pass-
ing from the strong muscle of the calf down to the end of the
heel bone ; instant lameness is the consequence, which continues
till the tendon becomes re-united. This is procured by keeping
the foot in a bandage, or a boot made for the purpose, by which the
heel is drawn up, so as to have the torn surfaces as near to one
another as possible.

When a bone is broken, it must be obvious that the muscle will
no longer produce the natural action which the bone served to direct,
but will draw the piece that is broken off into some place where it
ought not to be. When the thigh-bone is broken, for example, the
strong muscles which pass along it from the pelvis to the leg, pull
up the lower fragment, so that the limb becomes shortened. It is
also liable to be distorted by the loose piece being pushed to one
side or other. In treating fractures, we require, therefore, first to
reduce them, or bring the broken ends into their proper places, and
then we have to maintain them in apposition, by the application of
an apparatus which will keep them immovable, till union has been
obtained.

NAMES, ORIGIN, INSERTION, AND USES OF MUSCLES.

MUSCLES OF THE INTEGUMENTS OF THE CRANIUM.

Occipito-frontalis arises from the upper ridge of the occipital
bone ; its aponeurosis covers the upper part of the head. Inserted
into the skin of the eyebrows and root of the nose. Use — To pull
the skin of the head backwards, and to raise the eyebrows and skin
of the forehead.

Corrugator supercilii arises above the root of the nose. In-
serted into the inner part of the occipito-frontalis. Use — To wrinkle
the eyebrows.

MUSCLES OF THE EYELIDS.

Orbicularis palpebrarum arises from around the outer edge of

* So called from the mythological fable, that -when Thetis dipped her son Achilles in
the river Styx, to render him invulnerable, she held him with her finger and thumb by
this tendon. Hence this part escaped the contact of the stream, and it was here that
he received his death wound.

64 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

the orbit. Inserted into the inner corner of the eyes. Use — To
shut the eyes.

Levator palpebra superioris^ arises from the bottom of the orbit,
near the optic foramen. Inserted into the cartilage of the tarsus of
the upper eyelid. Use — To open the eye by raising the upper
eyelid.

MUSCLES OF THE EYEBALL.

Rectus superior — rectus inferior — rectus internus — rectus exter-
nuS) arises from around the optic foramen of the sphenoid bone, at
the bottom of the orbit. Inserted into the anterior part of the
tunica sclerotica, opposite to each other. The action of the rectus
superior is to raise the eye upwards — of the inferior, to pull it
downwards — of the internus, to turn it to the nose — of the externus,
to move it outwards.

Obliquus superior arises near the optic foramen and passes
through a trochlea in the internal canthus of the eye, and is re-
flected to be inserted into the posterior part of the bulb, between
the rectus and the entrance of the optic nerve. Use — To roll the
eye, and turn the pupil downwards and outwards.

Obliquus inferior arises from the ductus nasalis, and is inserted
opposite to the former. Use — To roll the eye.

MUSCLES OP THE NOSE AND MOUTH.

Levator labii superioris alaque nasi arises from the nasal process
of the superior maxillary bone. Inserted into the upper lip and
ala of the nose. Use — It raises the upper lip and dilates the
nostrils.

Levator labii superioris proprius arises from the upper jaw, under
the orbit. Inserted into the middle of the lip. Use — To pull the
Upper lip directly upwards.

Levator anguli oris arises from the orbitar foramen of the sup.
max. bone. Inserted into the orbicularis, at the angle of the
mouth. Use — To raise the corner of the mouth.

Zygomaticus major arises from the os jugale, near the zygomatic
future and runs downwards. Inserted into the angle of the mouth,
with the depressor of the lip. Use — To inflate the cheek and raise
the angle of the mouth.

Zygomaticus minor arises above the zygomaticus major. In-
serted into the angle of the mouth. Use — To raise the angle of the
mouth outwards.

Buccinator arises from the sockets of the last molares, and the

THE MUSCLES. 65

coronoid process of the lower jaw. Inserted into the angle of the
mouth, and is perforated by the duct of the parotid gland. Use —
To contract the mouth, and draw the angle of it outwards and
backwards.

Depressor anguli oris arises from the lower edge of the under
jaw, near the chin. Inserted into the angle of the mouth. Use —
To draw the corner of the mouth downwards.

Depressor labii inferioris arises from the inferior part of the
lower jaw, next the chin. Inserted into the middle of the under
lip. Use — To draw the under lip downwards and outwards.

Orbicularis oris ; this muscle surrounds the lips, and is in a great
measure formed by the buccinator, zygomatici, and others, which
move the lip. Use — To shut the mouth by contracting the lips.

Depressor libii superior is alcequa nisi arises from the sockets of
the upper incisor teeth. Inserted into the root of the ala nasi and
upper lip. Use — To pull the ala nasi and upper lip down.

Constrictor nasi, arises from the root of one wing of the nose,
and goes across the other. Use — To compress the wings of the
nose.

Levator menti vel labii inferioris arises from the lower jaw, at
the root of the incisors. Inserted into the skin in the centre of the
chin. Use — To raise the under lip and skin of the chin.

MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR.

Superior auris arises from the tendon of the occipito-frontalis,
above the ear. Inserted into the root of the cartilaginous tube of
the ear. Use — To draw the ear upwards, and make it tense.

Anterior auris arises near the back part of the zygoma. In-
serted into the eminence behind the helix. Use — To raise the
eminence forwards.

Posterior auris arises from the mastoid process by two, and
sometimes three, sasciculi. Inserted into the septum that divides
the scapha and concha. Use — To draw the ear back, and stretch
the concha.

Helicis major arises from the upper, anterior, and acute part of
the helix. Inserted into th*» cartilages of the helix, a little above
the tragus. Use — To depress the upper part of the helix.

Helicis minor arises from the inferior and anterior part of the
helix. Inserted into the cms of the helix. Use — To contract the
fissure.

Tragicus arises from the outer and middle part of the concha,

5

66 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

near the tragus. Inserted into the upper part of the tragus. Use —
to depress the concha, and pull the tragus a little putwards.

Antitragus arises from the root of the inner part of the helix.
Inserted into the upper part of the antitragus. Use — To dilate the
mouth of the concha.

Transversus auris arises from the upper part of the concha. In-
serted into the inner part of the helix. Use — To draw these parts
towards each other.

MUSCLES OF THE INTERNAL EAR.

Laxator tympani arises from the spinous process of the sphsenoid
bone. Inserted into the long process of the malleus. Use — To
draw the malleus obliquely forward towards its origin.

Tensor tympani arises from the cartilaginous extremity of the
Eustachian tube. Inserted into the handle of the malleus. Use —
To pull the malleus and membrane of the tympanum towards the
petrous portion.

Stapedius arises from a little cavern in the petrous portion, near
the cells of the mastoid process. Inserted into the posterior part
of the head of the stapes. Use — To draw the stapes obliquely
upwards towards the cavern.

MUSCLES OF THE LOWER JAW.

Temporalis arises from the lower part of the parietal bone and os
fronds, squammous part of the temporal bone, back part of the os
jugale, the temporal process of the sphsenoid bone, and the apone-
urosis which covers it. Inserted into the coronoid process of the
lower jaw, its fibres being bundled together and pressed into a
small compass, so as to pass under the jugum, or zygoma. Use —
To move the lower jaw upwards.

Masseter arises from the sup. max. bone, near the os jugale, and
from the anterior part of the zygoma. Inserted into the angle of the
lower jaw upwards to the basis of the coronoid process. Use — To
raise and move the jaw a little forwards and backwards.

Pterygoideus internus arises from the internal pterygoid process
of the sphsenoid bone. Inserted into the lower jaw, on its inner
side, and near its angle. Use — To raise the lower jaw and draw it
a little to one side.

Pterygoideus externus arises from the external pterygoid process.
Inserted into the condyloid process of the lower jaw and capsular
ligament. Use — To move the jaw, and to prevent the ligature of
the jaw from being pinched.

THE MUSCLES. 67

MUSCLES WHICH APPEAR ABOUT THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE

NECK.

Platysma moyoides arises from the cellular membrane covering
the pectoral and deltoid muscles. Inserted into the side of the
chin and integuments of the cheek. Use — To draw the cheeks
and skin of the face downwards.

Sterno-cleido-mastoideus arises from the upper part of the sternum,
and fore part of the clavicle. Inserted into the mastoid process
and as far back as the occipital suture. Use — To move the head to
one side, and bend it forwards.

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE LOWER JAW AND OS HYOIDES.

Digastricus arises from a fossa at the root of the mastoid process,
inserted into the lower and anterior part of the chin. ,Use — To
draw the lower jaw downwards.

Mylo-hyoideus rises from the inner surface of the jaw-bone. In-
serted into the basis of the os hyoides. Use — To move the os
hyoides upwards.

Genio-Hyoideus arises from the inside of the chin. Inserted into
the basis of the os hyoides. Use — To move the os hyoides up-
wards.

Genio-Glossus arises from the inside of the chin. Inserted into
the tongue, forming part of its substance. Use — To move the
tongue in various directions.

Hyo-glossus arises from the horn, basis, and cartilage of the os
hyoides. Inserted info the tongue laterally. Use — To draw the
tongue downwards and inwards.

Lingualis arises from the root of the tongue laterally. Inserted
into the extremity of the tongue. Use — To shorten and draw the
tongue backwards.

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE OS HYOIDES AND TRUNK.

Sterno-hyoideus arises from the sternum and clavicle. Inserted
into the basis of the os hyoides. Use — To draw the os hyoides
downwards.

Omo-hyoideus arises near the coracoid process of the scapula.
Inserted into the basis of the os hyoides. Use — To draw the os
hyoides downwards.

Sterno-thyroideus arises from the upper and inner part of the
sternum. Inserted into the thyroid cartilage. Use — To pull the
thyroid cartilage downwards.

68 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Thyreo-hyoideus arises from part of the basis and horn of the os
hyoides. Inserted into the side of the thyroid cartilage. Use — •
To raise the cartilage and depress the bone.

Crico-thyroideus arises from the side of the cricoid cartilage. In-
serted into the inferior horn of the thyroid cartilage. Use — To
pull the thyroid cartilage towards the cricoid.

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE LOWER JAW AND OS HYOIDES,

LATERALLY.

Stylo-glossus arises from the apex of the styloid process. In-
serted into the side of the root of the tongue. Use — To pull the
tongue backwards.

Stylo-hyoideus arises from the basis, and about the middle of the
styloid process. Inserted into the basis of the os hyoides. Use —
To draw the os hyoides upwards.

Stylo-pharyngeus arises from the root of the styloid process.
Inserted into the edge of the pharynx, and back of the thyroid car-
tilage. Use — To dilate the pharynx, and raise the cartilage.

Circumflexus arises near the Eustachian tube, and passes through
the hamulus of the pterygoid process, to be inserted into the velum
pendulum palati. Use — To draw the velum pendulum palati ob-
liquely downwards, and stretch it.

Levator palati mollis arises from the point of the os petrosum,
the Eustachian tube, and sphsenoid bone. Inserted into the velum
pendulum palati, being expanded upon it. Use — To pull the velum
pendulum backwards and upwards.

MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE ENTRY OF THE FAUCES.

Constrictor ist hm faucicum arises near the root of the tongue,
on each side, and goes round, to be inserted into the middle of the
velum pendulum palati, near the uvula. Use — To raise the tongue,
and draw the velum towards it.

Palato-pharyngeus arises from the middle of the soft palate, goes
round the entry of the fauces, the tendon of the circumflexus palati,
and velum pendulum palati, to be inserted into the upper and pos-
terior part of the thyroid cartilage. Use — To contract the arch of
the fauces.

Jlzygos uvulae arises from the commissure of the ossa palati.
Inserted into the extremity of the uvula. Use — To shorten and
raise the uvula.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE PHARYNX.

Constrictor pharyngis inferior arises from the cricoid and thy-

THE MUSCLES, 69

roid cartilages. Inserted into the middle of the pharynx. Use —
To compress part of the pharynx.

Constrictor pharyngis medius arises from the horns and appendix
of the os hyoides. Inserted into the ambit of the pharynx. Use
— To compress the pharynx, and draw the os hyoides upwards.

Constrictor pharyngis superior arises from the pterygoid process,
the lower jaw, and the cuneiform process of the os occipitis. In-
serted into the middle of the pharynx. Use — To move the pharynx
upwards and forwards, and to compress its upper part.

MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT THE GLOTTIS.

Crico-arytanoideus posticus arises from the cricoid cartilage pos-
teriorly. Inserted into the back of the arytsenoid cartilage. Use
— To open the glottis.

Crico-arytanoideus later alis arises from the side of the cricoid
cartilage. Inserted into the side of the arytsenoid cartilage. Use
— To open the glottis.

Thyreo-aryt&noideus arises from the back of the thyroid cartilage.
Inserted into the fore part of the arytsenoid cartilage. Use — To
draw the arytasnoid cartilage forward.

Aryt&noideus obliquus arises from the root of one arytaBnoid -car-
tilage. Inserted into the extremity of the other. Use — To draw
them towards each other.

Arytanoideus transversus arises from one of the arytsenoid car-
tilages. Inserted into the other arytsenoid cartilage. Use — To
shut the glottis.

Tyreo-epiglottideus arises from the thyroid cartilage. Inserted
into the side of the epiglottis. Use — To pull the epiglottis obliquely
downwards.

Aryt&no-epiglottideus arises from the upper part of the arytsenoid
cartilage laterally. Inserted into the side of the epiglottis. Use
— To move the epiglottis outwards.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE ABDOMEN.

Obliquus descendens externus arises from the lower edges of the
eight inferior ribs near the cartilages. Inserted into the linea alba,
ossa pubis, and spine of the ilium. Use — To compress the abdomen.

Obliquus ascendens internus arises from the spinous processes of
the three last lumbar vertebrae, back of the sacrum, and spine of the
ilium. Inserted into the cartilages of all the false ribs, linea alba,
pubis, and sternum, by a flat tendon. Use — To compress the ab-
domen.

70 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Transversalis dbdominis arises from the cartilages of the seven
lower ribs, and the transverse processes of the four lower lumbar
vertebra? and spine of the ilium. Inserted into the linea alba
throughout its whole length, and into the ensiform cartilage. Use
— To compress the abdominal viscera.

Rectus abdominis arises from the outside of the sternum and
xyphoid cartilage. Inserted into the side of the symphisis of the
pubis. Use — To compress the abdomen and bend the trunk.

Pyramidalis arises from the anterior upper part of the pubis.
Inserted into the linea alba, below the umbilicus. Use — To assist
the lower portion of the rectus.

MUSCLES OF THE ANUS.

Sphincter ani arises from the skin and fat surrounding the anus
on both sides. Inserted into the perineum, acceleratores urinaB, and
transversus perinsei. Use — To shut the passage through the anus
into the rectum.

Levator ani arises from the internal surface of the pubis, ilium,
and ischium, of both sides, in a radiated manner. Inserted into the
sphincter ani, acceleratores urinse, and os coccygis, and surrounds
the rectum, neck of the bladder, &c., like a funnel. Use — To draw
the rectum up after the dejection of the faeces, and to assist in shut-
ting it.

MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE PELVIS.

Obturator internus arises from the foramen ovale obturator liga-
ment, ilium, ischium, and pubis. Inserted into a large pit between
the trochanters of the femur. Use — To roll the femur obliquely
outwards.

Coccygeus arises from the spinous process of the ischium. In-
serted into the extremity of the sacrum and os coccygis. Use — To
move the coccyx forwards and inw^ards.

MUSCLES SITUATED WITHIN THE CAVITY OF THE ABDOMEN.

Quadratus lumborum arises from the posterior part of the spine
of the ilium. Inserted into the transverse apophyses of the loins
and last spurious rib. Use — To support the spine and draw it to
one side. m \ •>

Psoas parvus arises from the transverse process of the last dorsal
vertebrae. Inserted into' the brim of the pelvis, near the place of
the acetabulum. Use — To bend the loins forwards.

THE MUSCLES. 71

Psoas magnus arises from the bodies and processes of the last
dorsal and all the lumbar vertebrae. Inserted into the os femoris,
a little below the trochanter minor. Use — To bend the thigh for-
wards.

Iliacus inter nus arises from the internal surface of the spine of
the ilium. Inserted into the femur in common with the psoas mag-
nus. Use — To assist the psoas magnus.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE THORAX.

Pectoralis major arises from the clavicle, sternum, and seven true
ribs. Inserted into the upper and inner part of the humerus. Use
— To draw the arm forwards, or obliquely forwards.

Subclavius arises from the cartilage of the first rib. Inserted into
the under surface of the clavicle. Use — To move the clavicle down-
wards.

Pectoralis minor arises from the third, fourth, and fifth ribs. In-
serted into the coracoid process of the scapula. Use — To roll the
scapula.

Serratus major anticus arises from the eight superior ribs. In-
serted into the basis of the scapula. Use— To bring the scapula
forwards.

MUSCLES SITUATED BETWEEN THE RIBS AND WITHIN THE THORAX.

Inter cost ales externi arises from the lower edge of each upper rib.
Inserted into the superior edge of each lower rib. Use — To elevate
the ribs.

Intercostales interni, like the former, the fibres are directed from
behind forwards.

Triangularis arises from the middle and inferior part of the
sternum. Inserted into the cartilages of the five last true ribs.
Use — To depress the cartilages of the ribs.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE NECK, CLOSE
TO THE VERTEBRA.

Longus colli arises from the bodies of the three upper dorsal and
transverse processes of the four last cervical. Inserted into the
anterior tubercle of the dentatus. Use — To pull the neck to one
side.

Rectus internus capitis major arises from the transverse processes
of the five last cervical vertebrse. Inserted into the cuneiform pro-
cess of the os occipitis. Use — To bend the head forwards.

Rectus internus capitis minor arises from the fore part of the atlas.

72 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Inserted into the os occipitis, near the condyloid process. Use —
To assist the former.

Rectus capitis lateralis «arises from the transverse process of the
atlas. Inserted into the os occipitis, near the mastoid process.
Use — To move the head to one side.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE TRUNK.

Trapezius arises from the os occipitis and the spinous processes
of all the vertebra? of the neck and back. Inserted into the clavi-
cle, part of the acromion, and the spine of the scapula. Use— --To
move the scapula, bend the neck, and pull the head backwards.

Latissimus dorsi arises from the spine of the ilium, spinous pro-
cesses of the sacrum, lumbar, and inferior dorsal vertebrae, and ad-
heres to the scapula and inferior false ribs. Inserted into the os
humeri, between the two tuberosities in the edge of the groove for
the tendon of the biceps muscle. Use — To draw the os humeri
backwards, and to roll it upon its axis.

Serratus posticus inferior arises from the spinous processes of the
two last dorsal and three lumbar vertebrae. Inserted into the lower
edge of the three or four lowermost ribs, near their cartilages. Use
— To draw the ribs outwards, downwards, and backwards.

Rhomboideus arises from the spinous processes of the last three
cervical, and first four dorsal vertebrae. Inserted into the basis of
the scapula, at its upper and lower part. Use — To move the
scapula upwards and backwards.

Splenius arises from the spines of the four last cervical and four
superior dorsal vertebrae. Inserted into the two first cervical ver-
tebra, and the side of the os occipitis. Use — To move the head
backwards, and also to one side.

Serratus superior posticus arises from the spinous processes of
the three last cervical, and two superior dorsal vertebrae. Inserted
into the second, third, and fourth ribs, by three neat fleshy tongues.
Use — To expand the thorax by elevating the ribs.

Spinalis dorsi arises from two spinous processes of the loins, and
three lower of the back. Inserted into all the spinous processes of
the back, except the first. Use — To extend the vertebrae.

Levatores costarum arises from the transverse processes of the
last cervical and .the dorsal vertebrae. Inserted into the angles of
the ribs. Use — To lift the ribs upwards.

Sacro-lumbalis arises from the sacrum, spine of the ilium, and the
spinous and transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Inserted

THE MUSCLES. 73

into the lower edge of each rib by a flat tendon. Use— To draw
the ribs downwards, to move the body upon its axis, to assist the
long, dorsi, and to turn the neck back, or to one side.

Longissimus dorsi arises from the same parts as the former, and
by one common broad tendon. Inserted into the transverse pro-
cesses of all the dorsal and one cervical vertebrae. Use — To stretch
the vertebrae of the back, and keep the trunk erect.

Complexus arises from the transverse processes of the four in-
ferior cervical, and seven superior dorsal vertebrae. Inserted into
the middle of the os occipitis, at its tubercle. Use — To draw the
head backwards.

Trachelo-mastoideus . arises from the transvere processes of the
five lower cervical and three upper dorsal vertebrae. Inserted into
the os occipitis, behind the mastoid process of the temporal bone.
Use — To draw the head backwards.

Levator scapulae arises from the transverse processes of the four
superior cervical vertebrae. Inserted into the upper angle of the
scapula. Use — To move the scapula forwards and upwards.

Semi-spinalis dorsi arises from the transverse processes of the
7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th dorsal vertebrae. Inserted into the spinous
processes of the four superior dorsal and the last cervical vertebrae.
Use — To extend the spine obliquely backwards.

Multifidus spina arises from the sacrum, ilium, oblique and trans-
verse processes of the lumbar, the transverse of the dorsal, and four
cervical vertebrae. Inserted into the spinous processes of the lum-
bar, dorsal, and cervical vertebrae, except the atlas. Use — To
extend the back and draw it backwards or to one side, and prevent
the spine from being too much bent forwards.

Semi-spinalis colli arises from the transverse processes of the
six upper dorsal vertebrae. Inserted into the spinous processes of
the five middle cervical. Use — To stretch the neck obliquely
backwards.

Transversalis colli arises from the transverse processes of the five
upper dorsal vertebrae. Inserted into the transverse processes of
the cervical vertebras. Use — To turn the neck obliquely back-
wards, and to one side.

Rectus capitis posticus major arises from the transverse process
of the second cervical vertebra. Inserted into the lower ridge of
the os occipitis. Use — To extend the head and draw it backwards.

Rectus capitis posticus minor arises from the first vertebra of the

74 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

neck. Inserted into the os occipitis at its tubercle. Use — To
assist the rectus major.

Obliquus capitis superior arises from the transverse process of the
atlas. Inserted into the end of the lower occipital ridge. Use —
To draw the head backwards.

Obliquus capitis inferior arises from the spinous process of the
dentatus. Inserted into the transverse process of the atlas. Use —
To draw the face to one side.

Scalenus arises from the upper surface of the first and second ribs.
Inserted into the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae.
Use — To move the neck forward or to one side.

Interspinales arises between the spinous processes of the six in-
ferior cervical vertebrae. Inserted into the spinous processes of the
vertebrae above. Use — To draw the spinous processes towards
each other.

Inter-transversales arises between the transverse processes of the
vertebrae. Inserted into the transverse processes of the vertebrae
above. Use — To draw the transverse processes towards each
other.

MUSCLES OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES.

Supra-spinatus arises from the basis, spine, and upper edge of the
scapula. Inserted into a large tuberosity at the head of the os
humeri. Use — To raise the arm.

Infra-spinatus arises from the cavity below the spine of the sca-
pula. Inserted into the upper part of the same tuberosity. Use —
To roll the os humeri outwards.

Teres minor arises from the inferior edge of the scapula. In-
serted into the greater tuberosity of the humerus. Use — To assist
the former.

Teres major arises from the inferior angle and edge of the sca-
pula. Inserted into the side of the groove for the long tendon of
the biceps. Use — To assist in rotating the arm.

Deltoides arises from the clavicle, and the acromion and spine of
fhe scapula. Inserted into the anterior and middle part of the os
humeri. Use — To raise the arm.

Coraco-brachialis arises from the coracoid process of the scapula.
Inserted into the middle and inner side of the os humeri. Use —
To roll the arm forwards and upwards.

Subscapularis arises from the basis, superior and inferior edge of
the scapula. Inserted into the protuberance at the head of. the os
humeri. Use — To roll the arm inwards.

THE MUSCLES. 75

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE OS HUMERI.

Biceps flexor cubiti arises from two heads, one from the coracoid
process, the other, called the long head, from the edge of the
glenoid cavity of the scapula. Inserted into the tuberosity at the
upper ei\d of the radius, at its fore part and a little below its neck.
Use — To bend the fore^arm, which it does with with great strength,
and to assist the supinators.

Brachialis internus arises from the os humeri at each side of the
tendon of the deltoides. Inserted into the coronoid process of the
ulna. Use — To assist in bending the fore-arm.

Triceps extensor cubiti arises from the neck of the scapula, and
the neck and middle of the humerus. Inserted into the upper and
outer part of the olecranon. Use — To extend the fore-arm.

Anconeus arises from the external condyle of the humerus. In-
serted into the back part of the ridge of the ulna. Use — To assist
in extending the fore-arm.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE FORE-ARM.

Supinator radii longus arises from the external condyle of the
humerus. Inserted into the radius, near the styloid process. Use
— To assist in turning up the palm of the hand.

Extensor carpi radialis longior arises from the external condyle
of the humerus. Inserted into the metacarpal bone of the fore-
finger. Use — To extend the wrist.

Extensor carpi r.adialis brevior arises from the external condyle
of the humerus. Inserted into the metacarpal bone of the middle
finger. Use — To assist the former.

Extensor digitorum communis arises from the external condyle
of the os humeri. Inserted into the back of all the bones of the
fingers. Use — To extend the fingers.

Extensor minimi digiti arises from the outer condyle of the
humerus. Inserted into the second joint of the little finger. Use
— To assist in extending the fingers.

Extensor carpi ulnaris arises from the outer condyle of the os
humeri. Inserted into the metacarpal bone of the little finger.
Use — To assist in extending the wrist.

Flexor carpi ulnaris arises from the inner condyle of the humerus
and olecranon. Inserted into the os pisiforme, at its fore part.
Use — to assist in bending the hand.

Palmaris longus arises from the internal condyle of the os

76 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

humeri. Inserted into the annular ligament of the wrist, and there
forms the aponeurosis of the hand. Use — To bend the hand.

Flexor carpi radialis arises from the internal condyle of the os
humeri. Inserted into the metacarpal bone of the fore-finger. Use
— To bend the hand.

Pronator radii teres arises from the internal condyle of the
humerus and coronoid process of the ulna. Inserted into the outer
ridge of the radius, about the middle of its length. Use — To roll
the hand inwards.

Supinator radii brevis arises from the outer condyle of the
humerus, and edge of the ulna. Inserted into the anterior, inner,
and upper part of the radius. Use — To roll the radius outwards,
and assist the ancon«us.

Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis manus arises from the middle
of the ulna, interosseous ligament, and radius. Inserted into the
os trapezium, and first bone of the thumb. Use— To stretch the
first bone of the thumb outwards.

Extensor primi internodii arises near the middle of the ulna,
interosseous ligament, and radius. Inserted into the convex part
of the second bone of the thumb. Use — To extend the second
bone of the thumb outwards.

Extensor secundi internodii arises from the back of the ulna and
interosseous ligament. Inserted into the third and last bone of the
thumb. Use — To stretch the thumb obliquely backwards.

Indicator arises from the middle of the ulna. Inserted into the
metacarpal bone of the fore-finger. Use — To extend the fore-
finger.

Flexor digitorum sublimis arises from the inner condyle of the
os humeri,. coronoid process of the ulna, and upper part of the
radius. Inserted into the second bone of each finger, after being
perforated by the tendons of the profundus. Use — To bend the
second joint of the fingers upon the first, and the first upon the
metacarpal bones.

Flexor digitorum profundus vel perforans arises from the upper
part of the ulna, and interosseous ligament. Inserted into the fore
part of the last bone of each of the fingers. Use — To bend the
last joint of the fingers.

Flexor longus pollicis arises from the upper and fore part of the
radius. Inserted into the last joint of the thumb. Use — To bend
the last joint of the thumb.

Pronator radii puadratus arises from the inner and lower part of

THE MUSCLES. 77

the ulna. Inserted into the radius opposite to its origin. Use— -To
roll the radius inwards.

MUSCLES SITUATED CHIEFLY ON THE HAND.

JJmbricalesy arises from the tendons of the flexor profundus. In-
serted into the tendons of the extensor digitorum communis. Use
— To bend the first and extend the second phalanx.

Flexor brevis pollicis manus arises from the os trapezoides, liga-
ment of the wrist, and the os magnum. Inserted into the ossa
sesnmoidea and second bone of the thumb. Use — To bend the
second joint of the thumb.

Opponens pollicis arises from the os scaphoides and ligament of
the wrist. Inserted into the first bone of the thumb. Use — To
bend the thumb.

Mductor pollicis manus arises from the annular ligament, and os
trapezium. Inserted into the root of the first bone of the thumb.
Use — To draw the thumb from the fingers.

Mductor pollicis manus arises from the metacarpal bone of the
middle finger. Inserted into the root of the first bone of the thumb.
Use — To pull the thumb towards the fingers.

Mductor indicis manus arises from the first bone of the thumb,
and os trapezium. Inserted into the first bone of the fore-finger
posteriorly. Use — To move the fore-finger towards the thumb.

Palmaris brevis arises from the annular ligament, and palmar
aponeurosis. Inserted into the metacarpal bone and skin of the
little finger. Use — To contract the palm of the hand.

Abductor minimi digiti manus arises from the annular ligament
and os pisiforme. Inserted into the first bone of the little finger.
Use — To draw the little finger from the rest.

Abductor minimi digitis arises from the os cuneiforme and carpal
ligament. Inserted into the metacarpal of the little finger. Use-
To move that bone towards the rest.

Flexor parvus minimi digiti arises from the annular ligament and
os cuneiforme. Inserted into the first bone of the little finger.
Use — To draw the little finger from the rest.

Interossei interni and interossei externi arise between the meta-
carpal bones, to the sides of which they are attached. Use — To
extend the fingers, and move them towards the thumb.

MUSCLES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES.

Pectinalis arises from the anterior edge of the os pubis. Inserted

78 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

into the upper part of the linea aspera of the femur. Use — To
bend the thigh.

f Jidductor longus femoris arises from the upper and fore part
of the pubis. Inserted into the middle and back of the linea
aspera. Use — To bend the thigh.

Jidductor brevis femoris arises from the fore part and ramus
of the os pubis. Inserted into the inner and upper part of the
linea aspera. Use — To bend the thigh, and move it inwards.
Adductor magnus femoris arises from the lower and fore part
of the ramus of the pubis. Inserted into the whole length of
the linea aspera. Use — To move the thigh inwards, and assist
in bending it.

Obturator externus arises from the obturator ligament, and half
of the thyroid hole. Inserted into the femur near the root of the
great trochanter. Use — To pull forwards and rotate the thigh.

Gluteus maximus arises from the spine of the ilium, posterior
sacro-ischiatic ligaments, and os sacrum. Inserted into the upper
part of the linea aspera of the femur. Use — To extend the thigh,
and assist in its rotary motion.

Gluteus medius arises from the spine and superior surface of the
ilium. Inserted into the great trochanter of the os femoris. Use
— To assist the gluteus maximus.

Gluteus minimus arises from the outer surface of the ilium and
border of its great notch. Inserted into the root of the great tro-
chanter. Use — To assist the former.

Pyriformis arises from the anterior part of the os sacrum. In-
serted into a cavity at the root of the great trochanter. Use — To
roll the thigh outwards.

Gemini arises from the spine and tuberosity of the ischium. In-
serted into the same cavity as the pyriformis. Use — To roll the
thigh outwards.

Quadratus femoris arises from the tuberosity of the ischium. In-
serted into a ridge between the two trochanters. Use— To move
the thigh outwards.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE THIGH.

Facialis arises from the upper spinous process of the ilium. In-
serted into the inner side of the membranous fascia which covers
the thigh. Use — To stretch the fascia.

Sartorius arises from the upper s-pinous process of the ilium.

THE MUSCLES. 79

Inserted into the upper and inner part of the tibia. Use— To bend
the leg inwards.

Gracilis arises from the fore part of the ischium and pubis. In-
serted into the upper and inner part of the tibia. Use — To bend
the leg.

Reclus femoris arises from the lower spinous process of the ilium,
and edge of the acetabulum. Inserted into the upper and fore part
of the patella. Use — To extend the leg,

Vastus externus arises from the root of the great trochanter, and
linea aspera. Inserted into the upper and lateral part of the pa-
tella. Use—To extend the leg.

Vastus internus arises from the trochanter minor, and the linea
aspera. Inserted into the upper and inner part of the patella. Use
— To extend the leg.

Cruralis arises from the anterior part of the lesser trochanter.
Inserted into the upper part of the patella. Use — To extend the
leg.

Semi-tendinosus arises from the tuberosity of the ischium. In-
serted into the upper and inner part of the tibia. Use — To bend
and draw the leg inwards.

Semi-membranosus arising from the tuberosity of the ischium.
Inserted into the back part of the head of the tibia. Use — To bend
the leg.

Biceps flexor cruris arises from the tuberosity of the ischium.
Inserted into the upper and back part of the tibia, forming the outer
hamstring. Use — To bend the leg.

Popliteus arises from the external condyle of the thigh-bone.
Inserted into the upper and inner part of the tibia. Use — To assist
in bending the leg.

MUSCLES SITUATED ON THE LEG.

Gastrocnemius externus arises from the internal and external
condyle of the femur. Inserted into the os calcis, with the tendon
of the soleus. Use — To extend the foot.

Gastrocnemius internus arises from the head of the fibula, and
back part of the head of the tibia. Inserted into the os calcis by a
common tendon, which is called tendo-Achillis. Use — To ex-
tend the foot.

Plantaris arises from the outer condyle of the os femoris and
capsular ligament. Inserted into the os calcis, near the tendo-
Achillis. Use — To assist in extending the foot. »

80 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Tibialis anticus arises from the upper and fore part of the tibia.
Inserted into the os cuneiform internum. Use — To bend the foot.

Tibialis posticus arises from the back part of the tibia, interos-
seous ligament, and adjacent part of the fibula. Inserted into the
middle cuneiform bone, and upper part of the os nayiculare. Use
— To move the foot inwards.

Peroneus longus arises from the head of the tibia, and upper and
outer part of the fibula. Inserted into the metatarsal bone of the
great toe. Use — To move the foot outwards.

Peroneus brevis arises from the outer and fore part of the fibula.
Inserted into the metatarsal bone of the little toe. Use — To assist
the peroneus longus.

Extensor longus digitorum pedis arises from the upper part of the
tibia, interosseous ligament, and inner edge of the fibula. Inserted
into the first joint of the smaller toes by four tendons. Use — To
extend the toes, and separate them from one another.

Extensor proprius pollicis pedis arises from the upper and fore
part of the tibia. Inserted into the convex surface of the bones of
the great toe. Use — To extend the great toe.

Flexor longus perforans arises from the upper and inner part of
the tibia. Inserted into the last bones of all the toes, except the
great toe, by four tendons. Use — To bend the last joint of the
toes.

Flexor longus pollicis pedis arises from a little below the head of
the fibula. Inserted into the last bone of the great toe. Use — To
bend the great toe.

MUSCLES CHIEFLY SITUATED ON THE FOOT.

Extensor brevis digitorum pedis arises from the upper and anterior
part of the os calcis. Inserted into the first bone of the great and
other toes, except the little. Use— To extend the toes.

Flexor sublimis arises from the lower part of the os calcis. In-
serted into the second phalanx of each of the small toes, by four
tendons, which are perforated by those of the flex. long. dig. ped.
Use — To bend the second joint of the toes.

Lumbricales pedis arises from the tendons of the flexor longus
digitorum pedis. Inserted into the tendinous expansion at the
upper part of the toes. Use — To draw the toes inwards.

Flexor brevis pollicis pedis arises from the fore part of the os calcis,
and external cuneiform bone. Inserted into the first joint of the

THE MUSCLES,

81

great toe by two.tendons. Use — To bend the first joint of the great
toe.

Mductor pollicis pedis arises from the inner and lower part of the
os calcis. Inserted into the first joint of the great toe. Use — To
move the great toe from the rest.

Mductor pollicis pedis arises from the ligament extended from
the os calcis to the os cuboides. Inserted into the outer sesa-
moid bone, or first joint of the great toe. Use— To draw the great
toe nearer to the rest, and to bend it.

Abductor minimi digiti pedis arises from the tubes of the os calcis,
and metatarsal bone of the little toe. Inserted into the first joint
of the little toe externally'. Use — To draw the little toe outwards.

Flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis arises from the root of the meta-
tarsal bone of the little toe. Inserted into the root of the first bone
of the little toe. Use — To bend the little toe.

Transversalis pedis arises from the ligament connecting the bones
of the tarsus. Inserted into the tendon of the abductor pollicis.
Use — To contract the foot.

Inter ossei pedis inter ni and inter ossei pedis externi arise and are
inserted between the metatarsal bones. Use — To draw the smaller
towards the great toe, and assist in extending the toes.

PHYSIOLOGICAL INFERENCES.

» Having treated of the structure and use of muscles, I will now
draw a few practical inferences. And first, we see, in relation to
this part of the system, the same law as in other parts, which is the
necessity of exercising them, in order to secure their healthy tone
and use ; if this be omitted they become enfeebled and incapable
of exciting that force for which they are naturally designed.
For instance, let a person cease to labor for a period, and how soon
does his strength decline, and he is rendered incapable of lifting
much weight or performing much manual labor. His muscular
powers are impaired and he can exert but very little strength ;
nor can he continue that strength but a very short time. On the
other hand, if a person is feeble, yet begins to use one or more of
his muscles moderately and perseveringly, they become more and
more vigorous, till ultimately a prodigious power is acquired. To
illustrate this, I will mention but a single fact. A relative of mine,
quite feeble before he began to labor, took hold of a lever and
turned a screw with facility, which I could not' even move. I had
not exercised my muscular power for years, or scarcely at all, while

82 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

he was in the daily habit of it. The inference then is plain, that
moderate, but regular, periodical exercise of our muscles is requisite
to secure their health and use.

Mr. Fowler, in his work on Physiology, has some pertinent and
practical remarks on this subject. He says — " Those who will eat
more than labor, must suffer. This law cannot be broken with im-
punity. In fact, the broken constitutions of most of those who go
from the farm and the workshop to college, or some sedentary occu-
pation, are caused mainly by violating this law of proportion.
They continue to eat as before, yet do not work off that food, and
hence the head-aches, ennui, debility, nervousness, dyspepsia, and
kindred diseases of our literary and sedentary classes. Study does
not make them invalids, but is actually promotive of health and
longevity. They are enfeebled by overtaxing their stomachs while
they starve their muscles for want of action.

" Take that city belle, rendered delicate, nervous, sickly, miserable,
by excessive nervous and cerebral derangement consequent on novel
reading, parties, amusements, and all the excitement of fashionable
city life. Medicines can never cure her, but work cam Her malady
consists in a predominance of nerve over muscle, and her remedy
in restoring the balance between them. She is doomed either to
wear out a miserable existence, or else to EXERCISE HER MUSCLES ;
nor can salvation come from any other source. And one of the
great reasons why journeyings, visits to springs, voyages, and the
like, often effect such astonishing cures, is that they relieve the
nervous system, and at the same time increase muscular and vital
action. The same exercise taken at home will cure them quite as
speedily and effectually by the same means — a restoration of pro-
portion between their functions. Nine in every ten of the invalids
of our land are undoubtedly rendered feeble by this one cause, and
can be cured by labor. How many thousands, so weakly and sickly
that they begin to despair of life, finally give up their business and
move upon a farm, and soon find themselves well. Exercise has
often cured those who have been bedridden many years, as seen in
the following :

" A physician of some repute in Lowell, Mass., was called thirty
miles in great haste, to see a sick woman, whose case had thus far
baffled all medical treatment, and was regarded by all her friends as
hopeless. All they expected was merely to mitigate a disease of
long standing: recovery being considered out of the question.
The doctor came, saw that she was very nervous, and had been

THE MUSCLES. 83

dosed almost to death, and told her that if she would follow his
directions implicitly, he could cure her ; for he had one kind of
medicine of great power, but which was useful only in cases ex-
actly like hers, in which it was an infallible cure. After telling
her how often she must take it, he added, that she must get up and
WALK ACROSS THE ROOM the second day, and RIDE OUT the third.
" Oh, that she could never do, for she had not been off her bed in
many years, and was so very weak," etc., etc. " Oh, but," said
the doctor, " this medicine will give you much strength that you
will be able to do so, and it will prevent any injurious consequences
arising therefrom. And, besides," he added, " the medicine will
not operate, unless you stir about some. Do just as I tell you, and
you will be off your bed in ten days." She sent an express thirty
miles, the medicine being so rare that he did not take it with him,
after his bread pills, rolled in aloes, to make them taste like medi-
cine, and took them and the EXERCISE as prescribed, and the third
day she actually got into a carriage, and in ten days was able to
leave her bed, and soon after was able to work, and yet lives to be
a blessing to her family, and to pour upon the doctor a literal flood
of gratitude for performing so wonderful a cure — a cure which none
of the doctors had been able to effect, and which nothing but re-
storing the lost proportion between her nerves and muscles could
have effected. Nor do I hesitate to affirm, as my deliberate con-
viction, that nineteen-twentieths of the invalids, especially females,
of our land, are rendered so mainly by excessive nervous and de-
ficient muscular and vital action, and can be cured by banishing
care, and exercising in the open air.

"THE AMOUNT OF EXERCISE REQUIRED.

" From four to six hours of vigorous muscular exercise is the least
compatible with first-rate health. Excellent constitutions may en-
dure close confinement for years, yet must run down continually,
and finally break. A lower degree of health may be preserved on
less exercise, but as the order of nature is to spend from six to ten
hours daily in the open air, so the perfection of health requires a
great amount of muscular action, and the more, generally speaking,
the better, provided it is of the right kind. My own convictions
are, that about four hours brisk labor per day will suffice for exer-
cise, which amount, well expended by all — rich and poor — will
just about supply the human family with the comforts, if not also
the luxuries of life, artificial wants and extravagances of course

84 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

excepted. How admirable this adaptation of the amount of labor
requisite for health to that required to provide man with the neces-
ries of life.

u In the light of this required amount of exercise, what shall we
say of those merchants, clerks, lawyers, students, and the sedentary
classes generally, who confine themselves to their offices, desks,
and books, from morning till night, year in and year out, scarcely
going out of doors, except to and from their business, and then
TAKING AN OMNIBUS ! If these principles of exercise were put in
practice, very few city conveyances would be required or patronized.
One would think that our sedentaries, starved almost to death for
exercise, would embrace every opportunity to take it, walking at
least to and from their business, sawing their own wood, and the
like. Yet fashion requires that they hire horses to do the former,
and servants to do the latter. Such fashions I despise, practically
and theoretically."

While on the one hand very many persons suffer from want of
sufficient exercise, we believe that an equal number suffer from the
opposite cause, namely, excessive labor, as farmers and mechanics.
The country as well as the city give many melancholy instances of
persons who have broken down their systems from over exertion ;
lifting, straining, and long-continued exertion, arising either from
necessity or an inordinate desire to accumulate money. This prac-
tice is much worse than indolence. Look at poor girls in cities,
who toil incessantly for ten or fifteen hours during the day, in fac-
tories or other places, perhaps .in a sitting position, constantly at
work in a close atmosphere. Many children and youth also are
compelled to labor much more than their strength permits, which
often ' entails disease upon them. Hence a due medium must be
observed to ensure health. When any muscle of the system be-
comes weak from any cause in addition to proper exercise, friction
or rubbing the part will be found useful. Also a douche or stream
of cold water, followed by rubbing with a coarse towel.

There are hundreds of worthy but indigent girls who are com-
pelled to labor far beyond their strength to obtain a bare subsistence^
while there are thousands who triumph in the possession of their
riches, and live in luxury and pleasure. How can such men recon-
cile this with their consciences, if they have any, or if they are
not " seared " with a hot iron ? There is one miserable old miser
in this city, Astor, now about eighty years of age, worth at least
ten millions, who, if the iceberg could be taken from his heart,

FIG. 7.

1 1 Hemispheres of the Brain, Cerebrum. 2 2 Hemispheres of the Cerebellum or
little biain. 333 Spinal cord or marrow, continuous with the brain, and covered with
pia mater. The spinal nerves proceeding from it on each side.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 85

might render comfortable all the poor in the United States by pur-
chasing farms for their use. Strange it is, and it shows the per-
version of our best feelings, that almost everybody worships this
wretched old man, not for his good traits, but for his money ! !

Well might the Apostle say, " Go to, ye rich men, weep and howl
for the miseries that shall come upon you." This state of things
here, and more especially in Europe, fulfils the prediction of Pol-
lock in his Course of Time, where he says,

" Starving want in time of wealth."

CHAPTER VI.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

WE have now to enter on the consideration of those parts that
essentially distinguish an animal from a vegetable, and the organs
of the animal from those belonging to the organic life ; or, in other
words, we have to speak of the parts that give us the power of
voluntary motion, and which enable us to feel and to think.

In all but the most simple animals, it is quite certain that sensa-
tion and voluntary motion depend on the nervous system. The
nervous system of man consists of the brain, the spinal marrow,
and the nerves. As these are all composed of nearly the same kind
of substance, we may view the spinal marrow and brain as nervous
matter collected into masses, and the nerves as the same matter dif-
fused over every part of the body.- The brain, as has already been
mentioned, is contained in and protected by the cranium or skull.
It is also enclosed in three layers of fine membrane, the outermost
of which (dura mater) is strong and tough, and adheres to the skull
at different points ; the middle layer (arachnoid) is so fine as
scarcely to be visible ; and the innermost one (pia mater) not only
envelopes the brain, but also penetrates into certain parts in its
interior. The spinal marrow has similar coverings, and is con-
tained in the canal formed by the rings of the united vertebrae.
The nerves are cords, attached to the brain and spinal marrow,
which are composed of brainy matter enclosed in numerous minute

86

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-

sheaths, bound together by a strong covering (neurilema) as seen in
the following figure.

When we examine the outer surface of the brain,* we observe it
folded or convoluted, as seen in Fig. 32, a, a, a ; and when it is cut

* The functions of the different nerves, which will be immediately adverted to, may
be made plain by having a large drawing so colored as to distinguish each kind.
The following may be placed beneath the drawing : —

NERVES OF SENSATION (colored red). (Fig. 32.) No. 1, olfactory— No. 2, optic-
No. 5, 5' branches of the fifth nerve — 7' auditory nerve.

NERVES OF MOTION (colored blue). Nos. 3, 4, 6, goto the muscles of the eye— No •
7 (portio dura) goes to the sides of the head and face — 8", the spinal accessory nerve,
goes to the muscles of the shoulder— 9, goes to the muscles of the tongue.

NERVES BOTH OF SENSATON AND MOTION, OR MIXED NERVES (colored brown)
5", the lowest branch of the 5th nerve (the brown color to commence where the upper
branch of 7 crosses it — 10, 11, 12 and all below this.

DOUBTFUL NERVES colored (black). 8, the glossopharyngeal— 8', the par vagum.

FIG. 8. VIEW OF THE TOP AND CONVOLUTIONS OF THE BRAIN.
A A

B B

A A Front part of the Brain. A A B B Right and left Hemisphere.

Fro. 32. THE NERVES OF THE BRAIN.

a a, a Convolutions of the Brain, b Cerebellum, and arbor vilee, or tree of life, c Me-
dulla Oblongata. d Upper part of the spinal cord, e Eye. /Lateral ventricle, o Cor-
pus Callosum. n Pineal Gland. 5 Gtuadrigemmal bodies. 1 Olfactory nerve. 2 Optic-
nerve. 3, 4, 5, 6, Third, fourth, fifth and sixth nerves. 5', 5", Branches of the fifth
nerve. 7, Portio Dura of the seventh nerve. 7',' Auditory nerve. 8, Glosso-pharyngeal
nerve. 8', Par Vagum. 8", Spinal accessory nerve. 9, Hypoglossal nerve. 10, Rub-
Occipital nerve. 11, 12, First and second cervical nerves.

FIG. 17.

A perpendicular section of the brain, showing the grey and white substances. Fibres
of the brain, which originate in the medulla oblongata, and ultimately expand into the
convolutions of the brain.

FIG. 18.

Section of the Brain. The Student will study the references.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

*

87

into, we find it composed, 1st, of a grey pulpy substance, mostly
placed externally, and, 2dly, of a similar white substance, placed
internally. The same materials exist in the spinal marrow, but the
white matter is external, while the grey is internal. What is com-
monly called the brain, is divided into the cerebrum or proper brain
(Figs. 32, #, and 33, a), and the cerebellum or lesser brain (Figs.
32, 6, and 33 6), which presents in its interior the branched appear-
ance of a tree (arbor vitse), as may be observed in Fig. 32. Both
these parts are divided longitudinally into two halves or hemi-
spheres, and also transversely into lesser parts called lobes.

In the interior of the brain there are several cavities called ven-
tricles, two of which are of considerable size. Into these cavities

Fig. 33. Base of the Brain and Spinal Cord.*

* View of the base of the brain, anterior part of the spinal marrow, and attached
nerves, a, Cerebrum; b, cerebellum; e, spinal marrow; /, medulla oblongata. 1, Ol-
factory nerves ; 2, optic nerves ; 3, 4, 5, 6, 3d, 4th, Wi, and 6tk nerves ; 7 portio dura
of the 7fh and auditory nerves ; 8, glossopharyngeal nerves and pneumogastric nerves ;
9, spinal accessory and hypoglossal nerves ; 10, suboccipital nerves ; m, cervical plexus
of nerves ; g, plexus of the nerves going to the arms ; I, dorsal nerves ; n, lumbar
nerves ; k, plexus of nerves going to the lower extremities.

88 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

called ventricles, one of which is seen in Fig. 32, /, there is con-
tinually poured out a clear fluid, which in the healthy state, is im-
mediately absorbed; but in a diseased state, this sometimes
accumulates until it amounts to gallons, forming one variety of the
disease called hydrocephalus, or water in the head.

The spinal marrow is found to be composed of six columns, as
represented in the Fig. Two are anterior, two lateral, and two
posterior. These columns, again, when minutely examined, are
found to consist of bundles of fibres, that can be traced upwards
into, and are found to be continuous with, similar fibres composing
the brain and cerebellum. The upper portion of the spinal mar-
row (Figs. 32, c, 33,/), which receives the name of the medulla
oblongata, is composed, 1st, of two parts called the corpora pyra-
midalia, which appear to be chiefly continuous with the anterior
columns of the spinal cord and to run upwards to the cerebrum ;
2dly. of two similar* parts, called the corpora olivaria, chiefly con-
tinuous with the lateral columns of the spinal cord, and likewise
principally running up the cerebrum ; and, 3dly, of two other parts,
called corpora restiformia, behind the corpora olivaria, continuous
with the posterior spinal columns, and chiefly running to the cere-
bellum. The two lobes of the cerebellum are also connected with
each other by a part called the bridge of Varolius.

These descriptions are necessary to make intelligible the func-
tions of the different parts of the nervous system. We shall now
state a few of these. When the spinal marrow is divided in the
loins, sensation and all power of voluntary motion are immediately
lost in the lower extremities ; when the spinal cord is divided above
where the nerves (Fig. 33, g,) come off to the arms, the latter, and
all the parts below, suffer in the same manner, but the animal can
still breathe ; when the medulla oblongata (Fig. 33,/,) is divided
or injured, respiration immediately ceases, and death of course is
instantaneous. If, again, the division is made above the medulla
oblongata, and below the bridge of Varolius, respiration continues,
and the animal may live for a longer or shorter time. Chossat, a
French physiologist, who performed some experiments of the latter
kind on dogs, thinks they die from an inability to keep up their
natural temperature. Tortoises, however, in which the brain has
v been taken out, have lived for four or six months afterwards. The
brain of a young puppy was removed, and it not only continued to
breathe, but also sucked, when applied to the teat, or when the
finger, moistened with sugar, was put in its mouth. There have

FIG. 16.

B B Anterior portion of the brain. C C Ganglions of the cerebellum. E E Corpus
callosum. A, Third ventricle, a a Anterior quadrigeminal bodies, c c Posterior qua-
drigeminal bodies, t Connexion of posterior quadrigeminal bodies, c Connexion of
the great sympathetic, nerve, d d Division of the striated bodies into two parts, to show
the passage of the great bundles of fibres, b. s Pineal gland with its anterior cords, m
Interior of fourth ventricle, n n Great inferior ganglions, p p Great superior gan-
glions, x x White fibres in fourth ventricle, v Posterior commissure, r Middle or.
soft commissure, o Anterior commissure,

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 89

also been many cases of children born almost wholly without
nervous matter, above the medulla oblongata, which yet have lived
and grown for days, or even for several months.

The parts above the medulla oblongata, viz., the cerebrum and
Cerebellum, are generally considered as the especial seat of intellect
and moral feeling. Says Haller, " Concerning the seat of the soul,
we must inquire experimentally. In the first place, it must be in the
head, and not in the spinal marrow. For though the latter be
affected, the integrity of the mind remains the same. Again, it
appears, from the experiment of convulsions arising when the in-
most parts of the brain are irritated, that it lies not in the cortex,
but in the medulla ; and not improbably, in the crura of the
medulla, the corpora striata, thalami, pons, medulla oblongata, and
cerebellum. Finally, by another not absurd conjecture, it lies
at the origin of every nerve, so that the concurrence of the first
origins of all the nerves, make up the sensorium commune. Are
the sensations of the mind represented there, and do the voluntary
and necessary motions arise in that place 1 This seems very pro-
bable. For it does not seem possible, that the origin of motion can
lie below that of the nerve ; for that would be a gratuitous suppo-
sition of immobility or insensibility, In some part of the nerve,
though perfectly similar to the rest. Nor can the origin of motion
be placed higher in the arteries, for they neither have feeling, nor
are excited to voluntary motion. It therefore follows, that the seat
of the mind must be where the nerves first begin.

We come now to the explanation of the manner in which the
nerves are the organs of the sense or motion ; which, as it lies
hid in the ultimate elementary fabric of the medullary fibres, seems
to be placed above the reach both of our senses and reason ; but
we shall endeavor to make as great an approximation to the truth
as possible, by experiments. First, it is demonstrated, that sensa-
tion does not come through the membranes from the sentient
organ to the brain, and that motion is not transmitted through the
coverings from the brain into the muscle. For the brain itself,
deeper than these membranes, receives the impressions of sense,
and when injured throws the muscles into convulsions. Moreover,
it is certain, that the nerves arise from the medulla of the brain ;
the truth of which is manifest in all the nerves of the brain, more
especially in the olfactory, optic, fourth and seventh pair, which
continue their medullary fabric a long way before they receive the
covering of the pia mater."

90 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Upon the different functions supposed to be performed by dif-
ferent parts of these, is founded the modern science of phrenology.
They are thought to be no further necessary to sensation and
voluntary motion, than as receptacles to treasure up the one, and
an organ to direct the other. The brain itself is not possessed of
sensibility, for when the skull has been fractured, and the brain has
protruded, part of it has been repeatedly shaved off, without occa-
sioning the least pain, and, in some of the lower animals, the whole
of the upper nervous mass has been cut away, without the animal
manifesting any uneasiness, until the instrument came close to the
medulla oblongata. Cases of disease of the brain have been re-
corded which lead to the same conclusion. Dr. Abercromby men-
tions having seen a lady who died suddenly with scarcely a single
symptom, and who was so well the evening before death as to have
been at a dancing-party, one half of whose brain was ascertained,
after death, to have been completely destroyed.

From the organization of the brain we may infer that it is a gal-
vanic battery, and that all the phenomena of nervous influence is
produced by its action. The two hemispheres are only united
together at one point, the carpus callosum, and the nervous fluid or
influence crosses this in opposite directions, as is proved by post
mortem examinations. An injury on one side of the head has
caused a paralysis of the extremities below, on the opposite side.
Dr. VERE, of this city, witnessed this fact, and so have others ;
which proves that one hemisphere controls the opposite parts of the
body and vice versa. Haller thus remarks, page 182, " The
nervous fluid, which is the instrument of sense and motion, must be
exceedingly movable, so as to carry the impressions of sense, or
commands of the will, to the places of their destination, without
any imaginable loss of time, and cannot receive the cause of its
motions only from the heart. Moreover, it is very thin and invi-
sible, and destitute of all taste and smell ; yet reparable from the
aliments. It is not on any account to be confounded with that
visible, viscid liquor exhaling into the intervals of the nervous
chords."

Electric matter is the most powerful and best calculated to excite
motion and even a ligature on a nerve, although it takes away
sense and motion, never stops an electrical current. The effect of
pressure on the brain is surprising and demonstrates its functions.
A person in Paris had received an injury of the brain from which
he had recovered, but left a portion of it bare. For a trifle he

c- H

Sections of the Brain. The Student will study the references.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 91

would permit any person to press upon the exterior of this organ,
when he would suddenly fall down, as in a fit ; as soon as the pres-
sure was removed, recovery immediately followed. Whether sen-
sation as well as motion was thus suspended is not stated.

M. Majendie has made some curious discoveries connected with
the effects of lesion of the parts situated above the medulla ob-
longata. When parts situated in the ventricles (corpora striata) are
cut, the animal immediately darts forward and runs with rapidity.
This phenomenon, he says, is particularly remarkable in young
rabbits, the animal appearing to be impelled forward by a power
within, which it cannot resist. It is a curious fact connected with
this observation, that horses are subject to a disease that produces
similar effects. The diseased animal easily goes forward, and will
even trot or gallop quickly, but seems incapable of going back-
wards, and appears to have difficulty in arresting its progressive
motion. On the other hand, when the cerebellum or medulla ob-
longata was injured in a certain manner, the tendency always was
to move backwards. Some pigeons which had been thus injured
constantly moved backwards in walking for more than a month,
and even flew backwards when thrown into the air. Another sin-
gular movement took place when the parts leading from the spinal
cord up to the cerebellum (crura cerebelli) were cut. When the
one on the right is cut, a whirling motion takes place on that side,
and sometimes with such rapidity that sixty turns are made in a
minute. M. Majendie says he has seen this continue for eight
days, without stopping, to speak properly, for a single instant.
When the opposite crus cerebelli is cut, rotation takes place on the
opposite side ; and when both are cut, motion in both directions
ceases. Probably some disease of these parts existed in an insane
person who was some years ago confined in one of the Edinburgh
asylums, and who incessantly occupied himself in turning round in
one direction. He might be stopped, or forced to turn in an oppo-
site direction, but when left to himself, immediately turned as
before.

We are indebted to Sir Charles Bell, however, for perhaps the
most brilliant discovery ever made connected with the functions of
the nervous system. We refer to his discovery of the different
parts upon which motion and sensation depend. This distinguished
physiologist was led to his investigations partly from considering
the distribution of certain nerves, and partly from cases in which a
person wholly loses the power to move a part of the body, and yet

92 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

retains perfect sensation in it, or where the reverse of this happens
— that is, where the power of motion remains while sensation is
gone. Of such cases, the following may be taken as an example : —
Francisco Caasario, living at Rio Janeiro, fell from a scaffold twenty
feet high. On recovering from the shock, it was found that his left
side, from the shoulder downwards, was deprived of all power of
motion, but that sensation remained in it ; whereas, on the right
side, his powers of motion were perfect, but sensation was then and
afterwards so completely gone, that a lancet might be thrust deep
into the flesh without giving him the slightest pain. From the mid-
dle of the neck upwards, motion and sensation on both sides were
uninjured, and the line of demarcation was so exactly drawn, that
it might be defined by a thread surrounding; the neck.

o J O

Now, of such cases as the above, Sir Charles Bell's experiments
afford a most satisfactory explanation ; for though a limb is de-
prived both* of the power of motion and sensation by dividing the
spinal nerves that go to it, Sir Charles Bell showed, that by tracing
these nerves to their origin, they are each found to be composed of
two parts, one of which comes from the anterior column of the
spinal cord, while the other comes from the posterior column, and,
as represented, has always a small ganglion or swelling on it. He
further showed, that if the anterior root be cut, the power of motion
in the part supplied by the nerve is extinguished, as is also sensa-
tion, by dividing its posterior root. In his experiments, when the
posterior or sensitive roots of the nerve in a newly killed animal
were irritated with a sharp instrument, no effect was produced ;
but when the anterior or motive roots were irritated, the parts of
the body to which these nerves went, were thrown into convulsions.
An ass was killed, and immediately the motive nerve which sup-
plies the muscles of the jaws was irritated. The muscles con-
tracted strongly, and closed the jaw with a snap ; but when the
same nerve was divided in a living animal, the jaw fell relaxed.

These explanations will render intelligible the account we shall
now give of the different nerves derived from the brain and spinal
cord.* They come off in pairs, as represented in Fig. 33. Figure
32 shows, as already mentioned, a longitudinal section of the brain
and medulla oblongata. No. 1 (in both Figures) is the 1st or olfac-
tory nerve, which goes to the nose, and gives the sense of smell ;

* The derivation of the nerves from the brain is considered only apparent, many
physiologists believing that they can be traced to the spinal cord.

N

The cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons Varolii removed, the brain then cut
along the median line and laid open, to show its ventricles and their fibrous structure.
M M The anterior part of the brain. N N Posterior part of the brain, e e Vertical sec-
tions of the great inferior ganglions — color, bluish white, c c The black substance in
the centre of the great inferior ganglions, o o The cords of the mammary bodies which
plunge into the interior of the great inferior ganglions, t Mammary body of the right
side, the left being cut away, r r Optic nerves, n n Olfactory nerves, a a Great su-
perior ganglions— color, reddish grey.

FIG.

A— Front part of the right hemisphere of the brain. B— Gieat inferior ganglion.
C— Great superior ganglion.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

and No. 2 (also seen in both Figures), is the 2d or optic nerve, that
goes to the eye, and gives the power of vision.

No. 3 (seen in both Figures) is a nerve that goes exclusively to
the muscle of the eye. It has its origin from the anterior column
of the spinal cord, which runs up to the cerebrum, and is, therefore,
only a nerve of motion.

No. 4 (seen in both Figures) is the smallest nerve in the body,
being, in man, little thicker than a sewing thread. It goes to a
single muscle which moves the eye (trochleator) ; it is a nerve of
motion, and probably has an origin similar to the last, though this
has not been distinctly shown.

No. 5 (seen in both Figures, but best in Fig. 32) is a most exten-
sive and important nerve. It is the highest that arises by double
roots, and is, as shown by Sir Charles Bell, both a motor and a
sensitive nerve. Its first branch (Fig. 32, 5), which goes to the eye,
eyebrows, forehead, &c., comes only from the posterior or sensitive
root, and gives to the parts mentioned the sense of touch or com-
mon sensation. If this nerve were destroyed, we might have sensa-
tions from light, but we could have no feeling when anything else
came in contact with the eye. The second branch (Fig. 32, 5'),
like the first, comes from the posterior root, and gives sensibility to
the upper jaw, palate, upper lip, &c. The third branch (Fig. 32,
5") has its origin from both the motor and sensitive roots, and hence
gives both sensibility and the power of motion. It goes to the
muscles, skin, &c., connected with the lower jaw, tongue, and
mouth. The sensitive branches of the 5th nerve are those that are
so painfully affected in toothache and tic doloureux.

No. 6 (Figs. 32 and 33) is the 6th nerve. It has only one root
from the anterior part of the spinal cord, and is hence exclusively
a motor nerve. It goes to a single muscle of the eye.

No. 7 (Figs. 32 and 33) is the motor, or hard portion, as it is
sometimes called (portio dura), of the 7th nerve. It is extensively
distributed to the muscles of the face and forehead. When it is
cut, the muscles on that side are paralysed, and the mouth, as for-
merly noticed, is drawn to the other side.

No. 7' (Fig. 32) is called the soft portion of the 7th nerve. It
goes to the internal ear, and is the nerve of hearing.

No. 8 (Figs. 32 and 33) is called the glossopharyngeal nerve,
from being distributed to the root of the tongue and pharynx. The
functions of this nerve are at present the subject of dispute.

No. 8' (Figs-. 32 and 33) are called the pneumogastric nerves,

94 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

from being distributed principally to the lungs and stomach. These
are large nerves that run behind the carotid arteries in the neck.
Although they have been very frequently experimented on, their
functions are still a subject of dispute. There seems no doubt that
they give motor branches to the top of the windpipe, the pharynx,
the oesophagus, and probable also to the lungs, and they also seem
to furnish us with some of the sensations from the lungs. When
the pneumogastric nerves are cut below the branches to the wind-
pipe, the effect is, as formerly mentioned, generally, though not
uniformly, to suspend the process of digestion, the food remaining
in the stomach nearly unaltered. It was to these nerves that Dr.
Philip, under these circumstances, applied galvanism, and found
that the power of digestion was then restored.

No. 8" (Fig. 32) is called the spinal accessory, and is considered
to be a motor nerve. It is distributed to the muscles of the neck
and shoulder. This is called by some anatomists the third branch
of the eighth pair, the glossopharyngeal and pneumogastric being
considered its first and second branches. The next or hypoglossal
nerves, in this way, come to be called the ninth pair.

No. 9 (Figs. 32 and 33) is a nerve of motion, called the hypo-
glossal from going to the muscles, and consequently producing the
movements of the tongue.

No. 10 (Figs. 32 and 33) is called the suboccipital nerve, from
coming out immediately below the occiput or back of the head. It
goes to the back of the neck, &c., and belongs to the strictly regu-
lar nerves, or those which have both sensiferous and motor roots.
All the spinal nerves below this, as seen in Figs. 32 and 33, also
have sensitive and motor roots. They become interwoven in their
course, forming, in different parts, what is called a plexus. The
principal of these are, 1st, the cervical plexus (Fig. 33, ra), which
gives off, among others, two important nerves, one of which goes
to the diaphragm, and is called the phrenic or internal respiratory
nerve, and the other, from being also concerned in respiration, is
called by Sir Charles Bell the external respiratory nerve, g, Fig.
33, is called the brachial plexus, from supplying nerves to the arm.
Below this are the dorsal nerves (/), the lumbar nerves (TI), and the
sacral plexus (&), which last furnishes the large nerves that go to
the lower extremity.

It is evident that the influence of the will is confmetf to the
nerves, and does not extend to the arteries or other solid parts of
the body.

FIG. 19,

B

The brain proper or cerebrum is divided by anatomists into three lobes. A A Ante-
rior, D D middle, and B B posterior lobes. A B A B are the right and left hemispheres
of the brain. F F The cerebellum, e The pons Varolii, or Tuber Annulare. / The
Medulla Oblongata. r r The Corpora Pyramidalia. 5 s The Corpora olivaria. 1 1 The
Corpora restiformia. 1 First pair, or olfactory nerves. 2 Second pair, or optic nerves.
3 Third pair nerves, or motores oculorum. 4 Fourth pair nerves, or trochleares. 5 Fifth
pair. 6 Sixth pair. 7 Portio dura of the seventh pair. 8 Portio Mollis of the seventh
pair. 9 Glosso-pharyngeal nerves. 10 Par vagum.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

95

View of the brain and nerves.

Besides the nerves described above, there is a most extensive
system of nerves called ganglionic (from small ganglia or swellings
with which they are connected), that are principally distributed to
the lungs, bowels, and other viscera. Their functions are not pre-
cisely ascertained, but they do not confer either sensibility or the
power of voluntary motion. They are generally supposed to be
chiefly connected with secretion, and, from their connexions with
the spinal nerves, to form a bond of union between the rest of the
nervous system.

By whatever parts effected, there can be no doubt that a union
or sympathy of the different organs does exist. The effects, in
paralysing the heart's action, of a blow on the region of the stomach,
of extensive burns, &c., have already been stated. If the brain of
a rabbit be merely removed, the heart may beat for an hour or more
afterwards, but suddenly crushing the brain instantly stops its

96 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

action. Tickling of the soles of the feet, causing the action of the
diaphragm that takes place in laughing, tickling of the throat caus-
ing vomiting, &c., are examples of a similar connexion.

A subject of the utmost interest to the physiologist is presented
in the modifications which the corresponding parts of the nervous
system undergo in the different classes of animals. In none of the
lowest tribes of the Radiata have any traces of a nervous system
been discovered, though these creatures seem to possess both feel-
ing and voluntary powers. In the long round worm which infests
the human intestines, a slender nervous filament passes along the
lower part of the belly, and is divided by the gullet into two
branches. The nervous filaments in the star-fish encircle the
mouth, and radiate to its five divisions. In the Articulata the
nervous cords are interrupted by knots or ganglia, which, it is proba-
ble, perform functions analogous to the brain and spinal marrow of
the Vertebrata. The nervous system of the Mollusca contrasts with
that of the Articulata, in assuming more of a circular form. In
that of the sepia, there is a large ganglion, which is enclosed in
something like a rudimentary cranium, and probably performs func-
tions analogous to those of the brain. The parts from which the
optic nerves are derived in this animal, are even larger than the part
representing the brain.

In the vertebrated division, a brain and spinal marrow are always
present, but the size of the parts composing the brain especially, is
relatively so much altered, as almost to prevent them from being
recognized. Among animals of this division, fishes have the most
simple nervous system. From these there is a regular gradation in
complexity of organization up to man, in whom all the parts be-
longing to the other classes are found, besides some that are pecu-
liar to himself.

The nervous system of man is particularly distinguished by the
ample development of the cerebral hemispheres. The human cere-
brum extends so far backwards as to cover the whole of the cere-
bellum ; the ourang-outang's cerebrum allows the cerebellum to be
seen behind it, and the otter's and sheep's do so still more de-
cidedly. In the marmot, and other Rodentia, not only the cere-
bellum, but also the parts from which the optic nerves arise (optic
tubercles, also called corpora quadrigemina) are partially exposed^
and the convolutions on the surface of the brain have disappeared.
In birds the exposure is still greater, and becomes complete in rep-
tiles and in fishes.

FIG. 14.

The right hemisphere of the brain cut through the corpus callosum, pons Varolii, me-
dulla oblongata, and cerebellum. M M Convolutions, flat — color, reddish grey. A, Me-
dulla oblongata cut through the median line. Color, outer portion bluish white — inner
portion, reddish grey, a Pyramidal body. B Pons Varolii, or tuber annulare. Color,
white outside — inside, reddish grey, c Tubercula quadrigemina. D, Crus cerebri. E
The great inferior ganglion — posterior striated body (thalamus) — color, bluish white.
F The great superior ganglion — anterior striated body — color, reddish grey. G Annular
ganglion. H Corpus callosum — color, bluish white. K Fissura Silvii. L the cerebel-
lum, e The arbor vitae— color, white, in the reddish grey ground of the incised cerebel-
lum. T The tentorium, separating the cerebellum from the brain, n Locus niger.

FIG. 15.

Represents the right hemisphere of the brain, in which the convolutions are cut away
to the depth of about three-quarters of an inch to show the fibres radiating from the cen-
tre of the outer surface of the great inferior ganglion into the convolutions.

The white spot in the centre of the figure represents the outer surface of the great in-
ferior ganglion over which the fibres are drawn with great accuracy from the original.

c Internal structure of the convolutions, e Fibres of the convolutions agglutinated by
a very delicate neurilema.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 97

It was at one time thought that the brain of man was not only
relatively, but absolutely, larger than that of any other animal ;
but it is now known that the amount of nervous matter in the
elephant's brain, and in some others, is greater. Relatively, how-
ever, to the size of their bodies, the comparison is more in our
favor. For example : in man, the ratio of the weight of the brain
to that of the whole body is about one to 28, while in the dog it
averages about 1 to 160, in the horse 1 to 400, and in the elephant
1 to 500. But again, on the other hand, it is curious to remark,
that the brain of the canary bird, compared with its body, is as high
as 1 to 14 ; and there is a species of monkey in which the propor-
tion is even 1 to 11. For various reasons, however, comparisons of
this kind are not considered as furnishing a fair estimate. Another
method has been proposed by Soemmering, an eminent physio-
logist, to which hitherto few if any exceptions have been found,
and which depends on the ratio which the size of the brain holds to
the aggregate bulk of the nerves that proceed from it. As an illus-
tration of this method, the example of the horse may be cited.
The absolute size of the Brain of the horse is only about half that
of the human brain, while the mass of the nerves of the horse, at
their origin, is no less than ten times greater than that of man.

By adopting this principle, we are able, in most instances at least,
to trace a correspondence between the cerebral development and
the amount of intelligence, and we pass by easy gradations, from
one class of animals to another upwards to man, between whom and
all the rest there exists a great gap. Between the two extremes
the difference is very striking. To show this, we weighed a cod,
and found it to be 27 pounds. We weighed its brain (including all
the nervous matter above the medulla oblongata), and found it to
be 44 grains. As a comparison we weighed a child, which died
four days after birth, and found it to be seven pounds. Its brain
was also weighed, and was found to be no less than 6912 grains.
A similar comparison may be made with the adult brain. Mr.
Scoresby found the brain of a young whale (whose body weighed
11,200 pounds) to be 3 pounds 12 ounces. The body of Byron or
Cuvier would probably not weigh more than 200 pounds, and yet
the brain of the former is said to have weighed 4J pounds, while
Cuvier's brain weighed 4 pounds 13J ounces* — the heaviest we
believe upon record.

From the great mass of nervous matter which man's brain con-

* Brigham on the Influence of Mental Cultivation on the Brain.

7

98 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

tains, it is necessarily a very active organ. It is to it, as the organ
of the mind, that we owe our pre-eminence as moral beings, as
well as all that has been accomplished in the arts, in science, and in
literature. While we cannot but be gratified for what has thus
been done, it must be confessed that the too great activity of this
organ often leads to melancholy consequences. A large proportion
of those who devote themselves to intellectual occupations, irre-
parably injure their health. This arises from two causes. 1st,
Because these persons often do not mingle a due amount of bodily
exercise with their studies. Many young students, especially,
fall a sacrifice to this error. Where proper out-of-door exercise is
regularly taken, we are inclined to believe that moderate study will,
in most instances, be found the reverse of hurtful. But 2dly, by far
the most injurious consequences follow from such engagements or
studies as continually excite, and agitate, and harass the mind, and
consequently the brain. The constitution must be good, indeed,
in which such a course does not give rise to impaired appetite,
habitually painful digestion, or some more serious disease. The
brain, like every other organ, if its powers are continually put upon
the stretch, almost necessarily becomes itself deranged, or deranges
some other organ.*

The diseases of the brain are too numerous to allow of even a
reference to them individually. The one most commonly met with
in practice, is perhaps that particular species of inflammation which
gives rise to hydrocephalus, or water of the head. This fatal
disease occurs most commonly in childhood, and the physician can
usually trace it to the variety of constitution termed the scrofulous.
The tendency to it is generally derived from parents ; and hence,
when it has once occurred or is suspected in a "family, very gr£at
attention to the general health of the other members of it is called
for. Another disease of the brain, unfortunately of frequent occur-

* " Every physician,'' says a writer, l: has melancholy experience of such cases.
We lately met with a painful one, which may be mentioned as an example. A young
gentleman, a student of divinity, of not a very strong constitution originally, met with
a favorable opening for commencing a school in April, 1837. Anxious for the success
of his school, as well as for the progress of his studies, he made the harassing duties
of the former the only relaxation from the latter. The consequence was, as might have
been naturally anticipated, that his health sank under it, and he was obliged to give up
his school in April, 1838. His health continued in the most precarious state until
June: 1838, when he was seized with inflammation of the membranes of the brain,
which proved fatal. After death, not only the brain, but all of the other important
organs, were found in a highly diseased state."

FIG. 10. SIDE VIEW AND EXTERIOR OF THE BRAIN, CEREBELLUM, CONVO-
LUTIONS, AND MEDULLA OBLONGATA.

C— Cerebrum. D— Cerebellum. E— Melulla Oblon^ata.
FIG. 11.

A horizontal section of the brain at a depth of about an inch from its base, or under
surface, e e Convolutions or cortical part of the Brain — color, reddish grey, u, Fourth
ventricle, v Posterior commissure— ctlor/white. s Third ventricle, or separation be-
tween the great ganglions, d d Great inferior ganglions — color, bluish white, x Mid-
dle commissure, n Anterior commissure, p p Great superior ganglions — striated —
color, reddish grey, t Anterior opening into the lateral ventricles.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 99

rence, is called delirium tremens. It arises from the continued
abuse of ardent spirits. There are three organs especially affected
by this baneful habit — the brain, the liver, and the kidneys. The
two latter slowly, but surely, become diseased, and their diseases
generally prove fatal. Delirium tremens, however, though a dan-
gerous, is not usually a fatal disease. The person affected is in a
high state of excitement, thinks he is surrounded by evil spirits,
imagines all his friends are plotting against him, and a thousand
other fancies. The mind, in certain other states and diseases, is
also very singularly affected, which it would be curious to refer to,
did our space permit. Dr. Abercrombie's work on the intellectual
powers, the works of phrenologists, those on somnabulisnr and
animal magnetism, &c., contain some very interesting facts on this
subject.

[To illustrate this section, the brain of a sheep may be exhibited, which can easily
be done by sawing through the skull from behind the eyes down to the opening for the
spinal marrow (taking care not to saw too deep), and then wrenching it off with a
screw-driver or other strong lever. The membranes covering the brain will be observed.
These should be slit open, and the brain lifted up anteriorly, when the different nerves,
commencing with the olfactory, will come into view, and must be cut through, and the
brain taken out and placed in spirits for a few hours to harden it. The nerves, as seen
in Fig. 33, the ventricles in the interior of the brain, and the other parts described
here, and in anatomical works, may then easily be seen. A cod's or haddock's brain
and spinal marrow may easily be shown, by cutting with a strong pair of scissors the
spinal rings and the skull.

Besides these, if wished, the progressive development of the brain in different species
may, with a little care and patience, be shown in the fowl, the hare or rabbit, the adder
or frog, &c.

A few casts, showing the size and appearance of the human brain, that of the
ourang-outang, of idiots, &c., and casts cf the heads of the Carib, Negro, European,
&c., form excellent illustrations of this section, and can easily be obtained.

Appropriate figures for illustrating this section will be found in Fletcher's Rudiments
of Physiology, Part I., pages 47 and 48; in Lizars colored plates, pages 64, 67, 68; in
Roget's Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii. pages 547, 550, 552, &c.]

Front view of a section of the Spinal Cord, and Spinal Nerves

A— Spinal Cord. B — Spinal Nerve. C — Motor branch of Spinal Nerve, D — Ganglion of
posterior branch of Spinal Nerve.

100

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

The order and uses of the ten pair of nerves are thus explained

by a French poet : —

" On viewing nature's noble plan of things,
We find five senses mov'd by double strings ;
While every fibre aids the lively sense,
Ordain'd by wisest laws of Providence.
The first, in rank, directs oar fragrant smell ;
The second gives us power of seeing well ;
The third commands the motions of our sight,
To contemplate with ease the sacred light ;
The fourth to secret lovers gives the law;
The fifth keeps time in moving either jaw;
The sixth, by turns, pourtrays our pride or sight ;
The seventh asserts to melody a right ;
To wake the soul with feelings fit for kings ;
The eighth strong nerve employs a hundred springs ;
The ninth excites the call for daily bread,
The tenth sustains with grace the neck and head."
A front view of the Mudulla Oblongata, lateral nerves, Pons Varolii, and fifth pair of nerves

M — Medulla oblongata. A — Pons Varolii. B — Corpus Pyramidale. C — Corpus Olivary. D —
Spinal accessory nerve. E — Par Vagum. F — Glosso-Pharyngeal nerve. G — Portio Dura of the
seventh. H — Fourth Nerve. I I — Anterior column of the Spinal Cord, a — Ganglionic branch of
the fifth nerve, c— Ganglion, d— Motor branch of the fifth nerve.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
View of the ganglions, brain, and spinal nerves, size, &c.

101

a

a

a a, Great superior ganglions— color, redish grey. 6 6, Great inferior ganglions— color, bluish
white, e e, Cerebellar ganglions — color, bluish white, i i, Olivary ganglions — color bluish white.
h h h, Ganglions of spinal nerves, n n, Pyramidal bodies — color, bluish white, o o, Restiforra
bodies — color, bluish white, d d, Posterior quadrigeminal bodies — color, bluish white, cc, Ante-
rior quadrigeminal bodies— color, bluish white, s. Pineal gland— color, redish grey. /Medulla
oblongata — color, bluish white. «, Spinal cord — color, bluish white, v, Middle cineriterous por-
tion of spinal cord — color, redish grey.

102

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

The cerebellum, and its connexion with the Brain, or Cerebrum.

A A, The cerebellum. B, Processus vermiculares — organ of motion, a a, The posterior cor-
pora quadrigemina. c c, The great anterior corpora quadrigemina. d d, The great inferior gang-
lions. «, Pineal gland, m m, Posterior part of the great superior ganglions.

NATURE, CAUSES, AND TREATMENT OF NERVOUS DISEASES.

Having described the nerves, I will add a few remarks on the
diseases to which they are liable, and there is no class of diseases
more afflicting and protracted. Most of nervous complaints proceed
from inveterate irritation of the sentient ends of nerves, and cause
morbid influences by sympathy. The head, stomach, liver, and
bowels, all reciprocally act upon each other, and the mind, being
connected to the body by these nerves, becomes proportionably
diseased, melancholy, depressed, if not deranged.

The treatment consists in removing, as far as possible, all excit-
ing causes ; in regulating the digestive organs by appropriate vege-
table medicine, and proper diet, which should be light and nutritious.
The surface of the body should be daily bathed with weak cold ley
water, followed by friction. Exercise should be taken daily in the
open air, in pleasant weather. Constant employment is indispensa-
bly necessary. All gloomy stories and objects to be avoided. The
medicines indicated are laxatives, nervines, and tonics. Mercury to
be avoided. Fowler on the subject of Nervous Diseases has the
following remarks : —

" THE CURE OF DISORDERED NERVES.

" The mental signs of nervous disease or state of feeling have
already been pointed out. It remains to give a few physical in-

FIG. 23.

Series of glands along the neck with some of their satellites, together with the princi-
pal nerves of the neck and face with which they are connected. This series, with that
on the left side of the neck, is continued along the whole length of the spine under the
names of dorsal, lumbar, and sacral glands before noticed. On an examination of the
fluid that has passed through these glands on its way to the heart, with a magnifying
glass, it is found to contain a great number of minute round bodies of a white or milky
color, which are accumulated in the blood and form its globules.

*, *

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 103

dices, so that those afflicted may know what ails them. Tender-
ness, amounting perhaps to soreness, on the top of the head just
behind Veneration betokens this disease. The reason is this. As
the heart, lungs, stomach, muscles, and all the internal organs have
each their respective cerebral organs in the cerebellum, so the
nervous system has its centre at that seat of the soul already pointed
out, so that the painful state of the nerves causes pain at this their
centre, and of course a tenderness at the top of the head over this
seat. This shows why nervous derangement disorders all the feel-
ings and renders all the mental operations painful. Hence nervous
people can never enjoy life till they restore their nerves.

" Besides this tenderness, nervous patients are easily agitated,
flustered, and thrown into a confused state of mind by trifles, are
easily elated and depressed, quick in all their movements, full of
excitement, liable to wakefulness, and full of bad feelings through-
out mind and body.

" But to their cure. This disease is more frequently sympathetic
than primary. Dyspepsia is always accompanied by nervousness.
So are heart affections, scrofula, gout, fevers, colds, and nearly or
quite all forms of disease. In fact, as the nerves are ramified
throughout every organ and portion of the body, and reciprocally
inter-related with every part, of course they sympathize perfectly
with the healthy and diseased, active and sluggish state of the body
as a whole, and of all its parts. Hence, whether nervous disorders
are primary or sympathic, the effectual means of curing them is to
restore the tone and vigor of the SYSTEM AS A WHOLE, by obeying
those laws of dietetics, circulation, respiration, sleep, bathing, fric-
tion, exercise, and the like, already pointed out. True, health of
nerves more effectually promotes general health than perhaps all
other instrumentalities. Indeed, the perfect reciprocity existing
between them and the rest of the system renders it difficult to say
whether remedial agents should be applied primarily to them when
disordered or to the system as a whole. But this much is certain,
that the promotion of general health is the great means of restoring
disordered nerves. Let nervous patients then strictly fulfil all the
conditions of health, if they would effect a cure. To a few items,
however, special attention should be directed.

" 1. The importance of bathing, friction, and healthy action of
the skin is to such doubly enhanced, directions for which need not
be repeated. The hand-bath, properly applied, will be found an
almost sovereign panacea for these complaints.

104 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

" 2. Those nervous subjects who are also dyspeptic need not ex-
pect to restore their nerves till they restore their stomachs. The
corruption engendered by impaired digestion, is so great as to keep
even healthy nerves in a perpetual fever. This irritating cause
must be removed before health can be restored ; directions for which
will be found under dyspepsia.

" 3. Nervous people are particularly troubled with restlessness.
Though perpetually worn out for want of rest, they can compose
themselves to sleep only with difficulty, sleep lightly, are restless,
disturbed by dreams, easily wakened, and find great difficulty in
again getting to sleep. Hence such should sleep ALL THEY CAN.
No cure for nervousnes at all equals sleep j nor are eight and even
ten hours per diem too much for such. They sleep slowly when
asleep, yet exhaust themselves rapidly while awake, and hence
should devote the more time to this all-important function. Let
such observe with especial assiduity the directions for promoting
sleep already prescribed. To such, light suppers and as much
exercise as can be well borne will be found especially important.
Yet such hate to move till obliged to, and then are perpetually lia-
ble to over exertion — not to do too much absolutely, but too FAST, so
as to induce that trembling already pointed out as a sign of this.
If they would only exercise moderately, they might do a great deal
more, but their nervousness renders them always in a great hurry,
and hence they take hold of exercise too rashly. Such should work
moderately till just comfortably tired, then rest awhile, perhaps lie
down, and, if possible, take a nap, then return to work, and thus
often alternate between action and rest. Day naps to the nervous
will be found especially serviceable.

" 4. To the influence of griefyand all kinds of sadness, melan-
choly, and despondency, special attention is invited. See how
many tolerably healthy mothers have become nervous immediately
on the death of a dearly beloved friend or child, have declined
rapidly, and soon after followed their lost one to a premature grave.
Those at all predisposed to nervous disorder, who may lose friends,
must banish grief, and, as far as possible, not indulge it. Must their
death hasten yours 7 If your grief could benefit their souls, indulge
it ; but since it injuries you in the most effectual manner possible,
without doing any good, practical wisdom dictates its banishment.
Instead, cultivate cheerfulness and even mirth. Nothing will
equally soothe irritated nerves, or tend to restore their tone and
happy function.

FIG. 20.

Fibres are here seen radiating from the third ventricle or clmty p, into the substance
of the brain, and along the medulla oblongata and spinal cord r, and the convolutions in
the front part of the cerebrum D D are here seen to converge to a centre. In dissec-
tions, the radiations are also seen extending along the nerves, like those along the optic
nerves seen in this figure, and from the spinal cord along the spinal nerves connected
with the organs. So that the medulla oblongata, spinal cord, and spinal nerves, with
those that issue from the central portions of the brain, appear like an elongation or con-
tinuation of its stria.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 105

" 5. Severe mental application is especially deleterious to nervous
invalids. Their disorder consists mainly in predominant cerebral
and nervous action ; and their cure, in restoring the requisite balance
by reducing it. Those, then, whose occupation requires much
mental application, must give up their business or their happiness,
if not lives. The former may be like plucking a right eye, but the
latter is worse. Why prosecute business at the sacrifice of life 7
Do you not pursue your avocation simply as a means of enjoy-
ment 1 Then why not give it up when it conflicts with this only
end of life ? Besides, by suspending it till restored, how much
more you will be enabled to do in the long run. So that, merely
for the sake of accomplishing the very business you would do,
postpone it temporarily.

" What folly to sacrifice a lifetime of business to a few months,
or even years ! Why kill the goose that lays the golden egg 7
Cure your nerves first, and do your business afterwards.

" A light, simple diet is quite as indispensable to the nervous as
dyspeptic. Few things oppress the nervous more than over- eating,
or relieve them more than abstemiousness.

" 6. But a cooling diet is even more important. All condiments,
all stimulants, act mainly upon the nerves, and re-excite, and still
farther disease them. Hence all alcoholic drinks, wines, beers,
cider, ale, all kinds of fermented liquors are fire to them, and should
be wholly avoided. Tobacco is another powerful irritant — is fatal
to nervous quiet. In common with opium, it exhilarates tempora-
rily only ultimately to fever and disorder. No higher proof of this
is required than the feelings consequent on its abstinence. And
the more wretched you feel when deprived of yoi^Jupe, quid, or
segar, the more it has already impaired your ner^pind will in-
crease its ravages.

" 7. Tea and coffee have a similar effect. The stronger teas are
rank poison to the nerves, and black teas are poisonous, though less
so. Coffee is still worse. Its strong narcotic properties powerfully
enhance nervous irritability, and will create, much more aggravate
nervous disorder. Susceptible as my nerves are, nothing would
tempt me to fever them by tea, coffee, tobacco, or alcohol, and all
who do are consummately foolish, and even wicked, and sinning
against their own peace."

106

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY,

IMPROVED METHOD TO DISCOVER DISEASE THROUGH THE MEDIUM
OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

In concluding this chapter on the nervous system, I will give the
method practised much by Dr. H. H. Sherwood, of this city, in

Press here to find
symptoms of tuber-
cula of the head,
throat, and tongue.

Cervical vertebrae.

Here to find them
of the arms.

Here to find dis-
ease of the lungs
and heart.

Here to find dis-
ease of the stomach
and large intes-
tines

Here to find dis-
ease of the liver.

Here to find dis-
ease of the small
intestines.
Here to find dis-
ease of the kid-
neys.

Here to find dis-
ease of the uterus.

And here to find
disease of genital
organs.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 107

forming a diagnosis or opinion of disease, and which, in many
obscure cases will enable or aid the physician much better to dis-
criminate between different diseases. Some persons expect or
think that a doctor must know everything, and tell their complaints
perhaps without asking them a single question. This method will,
in many cases, impart this secret. Generally, however, it is neces-
sary to form our opinion by other means of investigation.

Sherwood states as follows, in a treatise called his MOTIVE
POWER : — These forces point to the disease in every other part
of the system that may be tuberculated, in the most arbitrary man-
ner, as in these cases without any regard to the classification of
nosologists, or the pedantic theories of the schools.

In tubercula of the stomach, and its immediate appendages,
called dyspepsia, pressure between the 2d, 3d and 4th, and some-
times 5th and 6th dorsal spaces, (counting from the last or large
joint of the neck,) produces pain.

In tubercula of the liver, called chronic inflammation of the liver,
or liver complaint, pain is produced by pressing on the right side,
between the 7th and 8th, and 8th and 9th dorsal spaces, and
directly opposite to the lower part of the right shoulder blade.

In tubercula of the spleen, pain is produced by pressure on the
left side of the last named, or 7th and 8th, and 8th and 9th
dorsal spaces, and opposite to the lower part of the left shoulder
blade.

In tubercula of the right kidney, pain is produced by pressure on
the right side of the space between the 12th or last dorsal, and first
lumbar vertebra, and in tubercula of the left kidney, pain is pro-
duced by pressure on the left side of the 12th dorsal and first
lumbar.

In tubercula of the uterus, called leucorrhoea, cholorosis, ame-
norhoea, and menorrhagia, pain is produced by pressure, between
all the joints of the back, except the 1st and 2d.

In tubercula of the genital organs, pain is produced by pressure,
between the 5th or last lumbar space, and the os-coxyx.

This pain, produced by pressure, is always more or less severe,
in proportion to the severity of the disease. If there is but little
disease, the pressure will produce but little pain ; but if there is
much disease, the pain will be severe.*

The disease, in whatever organ it may be, is always either active
or passive, and if it is active, when such pressure is made, this pain,
* Reason, a part of greater sensibility, sympathizing with one of less.

108 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

on every repetition of the pressure, will dart into the diseased organ,
with a force or violence, proportioned to the intensity of the disease.

ANOTHER BUT SIMILAR FIGURE TO LEARN DISEASE.

Acute and chronic tubercula, or inflammatory, and chronic
diseases of the serous membranes, or serous surfaces of the body,
organs or limbs, including the skin and facia of the muscles, is
easily and invariably distinguished by pain more or less severe (in
proportion to the intensity of the disease), produced by pressure on
the ganglions of the spinal nerves, in the intervertebral spaces along
each side of the spine without any previous knowledge of the case
— no matter what name may have been given to the disease by phy-
sicians, nosologists, or other medical writers.

Ganglions of the Spinal Nerves in the intervertebral spaces.

There are 7 cervical vertebrae, C ; 12 dorsal, D ; and 5 lumbar, L ; these vertebrae, with the os
coccyx, m, constitute the spinal column. The spinal cord passes from the brain along the round
cavity through the middle of the vertebras, and the above ganglions are connected with it by the
sympathetic nerves, which are also connected with the organs and muscles.

Press on the sides of the 1st cervical vertebra to find symptoms
of tubercula of the head — of the brain, throat, nose, eyes, or ears.

Press on the sides of the 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 cervical to find tu-
bercula of the muscles (Rheumatism), or of the vertebra, or of the
joints of the limbs — white swellings, &c.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM* 109

Press on the sides of the intervertebral space between the 7 cer-
vical, and 1 dorsal, to find tubercula of the lungs ; and

Press on the left side of the same space to find tubercula of the
heart.

Press on the space between the 1 and 2 dorsal vertebrae to find
tubercula of the stomach.

Press on the space between the 2 and 3 dorsal to find tubercula
of the duodenum.

Press on the right side of the space between the 7 and 8 dorsal
to find tubercula of the liver.

Press on the spaces between the 11 and 12 dorsal to find tuber-
cula of the small intestines.

Press on the spaces between the 12 dorsal and first lumbar to
find tubercula of the kidneys.

Press on the spaces between the 1 and 4 lumbar to find tuber-
cula of the uterus.

Press on the spaces between the 4 lumbar and os coccyx to find
tubercula of the ovaria, prostrate gland, vesicular seminales, and
testes.

Press on the spaces between the 4 lumbar and os coccyx, to find
tubercula of vagina, &c.

We always press with the thumb of the right hand on the inter-
vertebral spaces of the left side of the spine, and with that of the
left hand on the intervebral spaces of the right side.

These directions will enable any person of common sense to dis-
tinguish tubercular disease with facility and certainty, without the
aid of a physician.

110

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Spinal Cord.

Spinal nerves con-
nected with the left
arm

Left lung.

Stomach.

Spleen. •—

Portion of the small
intestines and mesen-
tary.

Left kidney.

Uterus.

Spinal nerve con-
nected with the sa-

Spinal nerves distri-
buted to the lower
limbs.

Spinal nerves con-
iS nected with the right
arm.

Right lung

Stomach.

Liver.

Small intestines and
mesentary.

— — Bight kidney.

Uterus.

Spinal nerve con-
nected with the sa-
crum.

Spinal nerves dis-
tributed to the lower
limbs.

A, Representing a back view of the organs, cords, and connexions with the spinal and sympa-
thetic nerves, ganglions, and glands, with tubercular diseases of these organs, as seen in clusters
like grapes— F and G.

Gives a beautiful view of the grand sympathetic nerve, ganglions, and other organs
of the body connected with it. Reduced from Manec's plate. This nerve has its
origin in or near the brain, and is extensively distributed over various parts of the body,
and accounts for the sympathy which one part has with another, though very distant.

The figures refer to the infinite number of ganglions, flexures, and branches of this
great and extraordinary nerve. Sherwood says, " I have no doubt the ganglions of this
nerve evolve a nervous fluid, which is magnetic, being magnetic poles'or forces."

RESPIRATION. Ill

CHAPTER VII.

RESPIRATION.
STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS THE THORAX AND ITS CONTENTS.

THE thorax is Bounded anteriorly by the sternum and cartilages
of the ribs, posteriorly by the vertebrae and lesser circle of the ribs,
and on either side by the shafts of the ribs and the intercostal mus-
cles. Its upper orifice is transversely oval, and allows the exit and
entrance of vessels, nerves, and muscles to and from its cavity ;
its inferior orifice, or circumference, being much larger, and closed
by the diaphragm.

The thorax contains the heart and lungs, and also several vessels,
nerves, glands, &c., to be noticed as we proceed.

THE PLEURJE

Are two serous membranes, one on either side, which cover the
inner surface of the thorax, and are reflected upon the outer sur-
faces of the parts contained in its cavity. That portion of the
pleura which lines the thorax, is called the parietal layer, and that
which lines the contained parts the visceral layer. Each pleura
can be traced in the following manner : — From the posterior sur-
face of the sternum it passes backwards until it meets with the
anterior surface of the pericardium, along the side of which it passes
to the anterior surface of the root of the lung ; from this it passes
upon the lung, and is reflected over the entire surface of the organ,
until it arrives at the posterior surface of its root and of the peri-
cardium, from whence it passes upon the sides of the bodies of the
vertebrae, reaching as high as the transverse process of the sixth
cervical vertebra on the right side, the seventh on the left, and de-
scending to the diaphragm, the thoracic aspect of which it covers ;
it finally lines the ribs and intercostal muscles, until it arrives at
the portion which was opened, and which corresponds to the pos-
terior aspect of the sternum.

Ligamentum latum pulmonis (one on either side) is merely a tri-
angular fold of pleura, formed by the reflection of the membrane
from the lower edge of the root of the lung upon the diaphragm.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

ANTERIOR MEDIASTINUM,

A triangular cavity formed by tearing through the cellular tissue,
which connects the right and left pleura behind the sternum ; the
base is formed by the sternum, the sides by the separated pleura,
and the apex corresponds to the anterior surface of the peri-
cardium, where the pleurae separate to enclose this bag. Thus
formed, it contains the origins of the sterno-hyoid and sterno-
thyroid muscles, branches of the descendens noni nerve, the remains
of the thymus gland, lymphatic glands and a^orbents, the mam-
mary vessels, the triangulare sterni muscles, and loose cellular
tissue.

MIDDLE MEDIASTINUM

Is of an oval shape, and is formed by the reflection of the pleura
upon the sides of the pericardium ; it consequently contains this
bag and its contents.

POSTERIOR MEDIASTINUM

Is formed by the reflection of the pleurae upon the sides of the
bodies of the vertebrae ; it is of a triangular form, the apex anterior
corresponding to the posterior surface of the pericardium, the sides
formad by the pleurae, and the base represented by the anterior sur-
faces of the bodies of the vertebrae ; it extends from the third to
the tenth dorsal vertebra, and contains the following parts : — the
bifurcation of the trachea, the oesophagus, and pneumo-gastric
nerves, the thoracic duct, the vena azygos, the thoracic aorta, the
splanchnic nerves, lymphatic glands, absorbents, and loose cellu-
lar tissue.

THE LUNGS

Are two soft, spongy, vascular bodies, one contained on each side
of the cavity of the chest. Each lung resembles a cone, with that
side corresponding to the median line truncated ; the base concave,
corresponds to the diaphragm, the obtuse rounded apex rises in the
neck, a little above the level of the first rib ; the external convex
surface corresponds to the internal concave surface of the thoracic
parietes, and the flat or truncated surface corresponds to the me-
diastina. The posterior edge of the lung is thick and rounded,
whilst the anterior is thin and irregular. Each lung is distinguished
into lobes, which are separated from each other by fissures ; a little
above the centre of each is the root formed by the pulmonary ves-

RESPIRATION. 113

sels and bronchial tube, connected to each other by cellular tissue,
and invested by the pleura. The bronchial tube is situated posterior
and superior to the pulmonary vessels ; the two pulmonary veins
are placed anterior and inferior to the artery and bronchus, and the
pulmonary artery is placed between the bronchus and the pulmonary
veins, but behind the pulmonary veins and before the bronchus.
The root of each lung has anterior to it the phrenic nerve and fila-
ments of the pneumo-gastric nerve ; posterior to it the pulmonic
plexus, and inferior the ligamentum latum. The root of the right
lung has the vena«azygos arching over it.

The right and left lungs differ from each other in some important
particulars : the right lung is broader and shorter than the left, and
consists of three lobes, separated by two fissures ; the right also
ascends higher in the neck, and the anterior edge of the left pre-
sents a notch where it corresponds to the apex of the heart.

The intimate structure of the lungs consists of the ultimate rami-
fications of the bronchial tubes, which are the continuations of the
trachea, and the branches of the pulmonary artery and veins ; they
also receive bronchial arteries for their nutrition.

TRACHEA AND ITS RAMIFICATIONS.

The wind-pipe, or trachea, is a cylindrical tube, extending from
the crycoid cartilage of the larynx to the level of the third dorsal
vertebra. It consists of from seventeen to twenty fibro-cartilagi-
nous rings, truncated behind, and connected to each other by an
elastic membrane ; about the posterior fourth of each ring is de-
ficient, and its place is supplied by fibrous membrane.

Opposite the third dorsal vertebra the trachea divides into the
right and left bronchial tubes ; the right bronchus is larger than the
left, and runs transversely into the root of the lung and divides into
three branches ; the left bronchus passes through the arch of the
aorta to the root of the left lung, and divides into two branches.

The bronchi consist of cartilaginous rings, but as these tubes
advance into the substance of the lung, they diminish in size and
firmness, until their place is supplied by fibrous tissue, or transverse
circular fibres, which tissue also disappears, and at length nothing
remains hut the mucous membrane, which terminates in the air-cells,
upon which ramify the ultimate ramifications of the pulmonary
artery and the commencing radicles of the pulmonary veins.

The ramifications of the pulmonary artery communicate with
those of the pulmonary veins, beneath the mucous membrane of the
8

114 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

air-cells, and are enveloped in fine cellular tissue ; and except this
cellular tissue, the lung has no proper parenchyma, its structure
being entirely filamento-vascular. The lungs are supplied with
blood by the bronchial arteries, derived from the thoracic aorta ;
these vessels run along the bronchial tubes, subdivide as they pro-
ceed, and form a minute net-work on the attached surface of the
bronchial mucous membrane ; the blood they convey to the lungs
is returned to the vena azygos, or superior cava. The nerves dis-
tributed to the lungs are derived from the eighth pair, and a few
filaments from the sympathetic. •

We have now to 'Consider the changes the blood undergoes in its
course to and through the lungs. It will be recollected that the left
side of the heart sends the blood into the general system ; this is
called the systemic circulation. The right side of the heart sends it
into the lungs, and this has received the name of the pulmonic circu-
lation. But if the blood that goes to the lungs were received in the
same state as it is sent, death would be the consequence, for venous
blood is poison to the body ; and this is the reason why an animal
dies when the air is prevented from getting into its windpipe by hang-
ing or drowning. Bichat showed this very decisively. He connected,
by a tube, the jugular vein of one dog with the carotid artery (which
sends the blood to the brain) of another, and allowed the venous
blood to flow into it. The immediate effect of this was, that the
dog in whose brain the venous blood was made to circulate, became
completely insensible, and would in a short time have died. On
allowing the arterial blood, however, again to circulate in its brain,
the dog was quickly restored.

What are the changes, then, that take place in the lungs, and
how are these changes effected ? The lungs, then (vulgarly called
lights), are principally composed, 1st, of air-tubes (bronchi), of
which the windpipe (trachea) is the commencement, and which
divide and subdivide until they terminate in very minute bags or
air-vesicles ; and, 2dly, of the branches of the pulmonary artery,
which branch out upon the sides of these air-tubes. The annexed
plate shows the windpipe, with the lungs entire on one side, and
with the branches of the air-tubes dissected on the other. These
tubes terminate in vesicles, which are said to vary in size from the
fiftieth to the one hundredth part of an inch in diameter.

Fio. 27. THE RIGHT LUNG, AND AIR-PASSAGES or THE LEFT LUNG,

, £ The Jra.chea or windpipe, b Bronchial tubes, c c c Three lobes of the ridit lung
d The inferior or concave surface of the right lung, e e e Air-passages of the left Jun|
or division and subdivision of the bronchial tubes S'

FIG. 28. THE HEART AND ITS BLOOD-VESSELS.

RESPIRATION.
Figure I.

115

Represents the Trachea, or windpipe, its bifurcation or division into two great branches, called
bronchial tubes or pipes (the seat of BRONCHITIS). They again divide into numerous branches,
too small to be seen with the naked eye. and terminate in a multiplicity of cells, which at every
inspiration are filled with atmospheric air, which comes in contact with venous or impure blood,
and changes it from a dark state to a bright, healthy vermillion or red color, and then is transmitted
back to the heart.

Figure 2.

Represents the vesicles or air bladders, the first round and natural ; ihs second, dissected or open.

If we tie up tightly in a bladder a quantity of venous or dark
blood, we shall find, in a short time, that exposure to the air has
changed the color of the portion near the surface. The air has
passed through the bladder, and has converted the venous into red
or arterial blood. Exactly the same thing takes place in the lungs ;
for %ie air, in the air-vesicles, is separated from the blood in its
vessels by a membrane not more than the thousandth part of an
inch in thickness. But we shall find, immediately, that it is not the
blood alone that is altered in its qualities. The air also undergoes
alterations. The blood in the lungs becomes fit for supporting life ;
the air becomes unfit for this purpose. We must, therefore, describe,
1st, the means by which the air is brought into, and then removed
from, the lungs ; and, 2dly, the changes of composition that thence
occur in the air and in the blood.

116 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

The lungs, then, are contained in the chest or thorax, a conical
cavity formed by the sternum or breast-bone before, the back-bone
behind, and the ribs above and on the sides. It is separated in-
feriorly from the abdomen or belly by a fleshy movable partition
called the diaphragm, which is fixed to the bottom of the breast-
bone and edges of the short ribs before, and extends downwards
and backwards to be attached also to the spine behind. Through
this the cesophagus or gullet, blood-vessels, &c., pass. The whole
inside of the chest is lined by a thin smooth membrane called the
pleura, which divides the chest into a right and a left side, and
which likewise covers the lungs ; but these are, nevertheless, on
the outside of the pleura, in the same way as the head is on the
outside of the double nightcap. There is no opening to admit the
air between the lungs and sides of the chest, but it gets in easily
by the windpipe into the air-tubes of the lungs.

From these explanations it will be easy to understand the
mechanism of respiration (breathing). Drawing in a breath is
called inspiration. We do this, 1st, by raising the ribs, which are
provided with numerous muscles for this purpose between the ribs,
and attached to the ribs and neck ; and, 2dly, and at the same
time, by depressing the diaphragm. Of the latter movement we
become sensible, by placing the hand on the abdomen during in-
spiration, when we notice the ribs raised, and find the belly pushed
outwards at the same moment by the descent of the diaphragm. It
is, therefore, evident that the cavity of the chest must be consider-
ably enlarged by inspiration. But the cavity of the chest cannot be
enlarged without something filling it up ; and as no air can get
between the lungs and sides of the chest, if the windpipe remain
open, the air necessarily rushes by it into the air-tubes and vesicles
of the lungs, and blows them up as we might blow up a
bladder. The expulsion of the air from the lungs is effected prin-
cipally by the elasticity of the ribs, and by the contraction of the
muscles of the belly pushing up the diaphragm. It is called expi-
ration.

It must be manifest, from considering these arrangements, that
the amount of blood and air brought together in the lungs must be
very great. The whole extent of the air-tubes, in man, taken col-
lectively, has been calculated by Hales at about twenty thousand
square inches, and by Monro at twenty times the surface of the
human body ; the branches of the pulmonary artery, which ramify
upon this surface, are so twined and interlaced, that they have re-

RESPIRATION. 117

ceived the name, from anatomists, of the wonderful net-work ; while
the air received into and expelled from the lungs, and consequently
brought into contact with its air-tubes and blood-vessels, cannot
be less, in an ordinary man, than between three and four thousand
gallons daily.

Fresh supplies of air, then, that the blood may be purified, are
the essential objects of a respiratory apparatus ; and from the
necessity of having some modification of such an apparatus, no
animal whatever is exempted, although the supply of air required
varies much. A frog or lizard, for example, will live a considerable
time in air which a bird has been forced to breathe till it has died,
and insects will live for a long period even in the air that has
ceased to support both the bird and the lizard. Fishes, again,
whose gills perform the same office as our lungs, can exist upon
the small portion of air they extract from the water in which they
swim. But, however small the quantity required, none can want
it altogether ; and if any of them be placed under the receiver of an
air-pump, and the air be exhausted, they immediately become dis-
tressed, and die in a short time.

There is one remarkable circumstance that may be noted when
the motions of the heart, or intestines, and those of respiration,
are contrasted. The motions of the former are entirely removed
from the influence of the will, and usually do not excite in us any
consciousness of their existence ; while those of respiration are
always preceded by a sensation, if not also by an act, of volition.
Before the air is drawn into the chest, we have always a peculiar
sensation, reminding us that a fresh supply of this material is re-
quired. At first, this sensation is merely a gentle intimation ; but,
if neglected, it becomes so intolerably painful, as to compel us to
relieve it by breathing. When an individual becomes partly insen-
sible, the sensation requires to be considerable before he attends to
it ; and accordingly we find, that, instead of breathing, as we ordi-
narily do, fifteen or twenty times in a minute, he will breathe only
once in half a minute. When insensibility increases still further,
this and all other feelings become extinct, and then he dies. It is
upon this principle we give an explanation of sighing. When a
perso'n sighs, the mind has been intensely fixed on some object.
The consequence is, as Dr. Darwin has remarked, that he forgets
for a short time to breathe, until the sensation in the chest becomes
so importunate as to oblige him to make a more than usually full
inspiration to relieve it.

118 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

The mechanism of respiration is considerably modified in other
classes. Whales (which breathe air) have parts that are thought
to serve as reservoirs, both of venous and arterial blood ; and this
is conjectured to be the reason why they are able usually to remain
under water twenty minutes, and sometimes upwards of an hour,
without breathing. The lungs of birds, instead of being free in the
chest, are fixed to its sides, and also have openings in them which
allow the air to pass into air-cells that pervade almost every part of
their bodies. As a proof of this, if the windpipe of an eagle be tied,
and the largest bone of its wing (humerus) be broken, it can breathe
through the broken bone instead of its windpipe. It is this ar-
rangement that causes the respiration of birds to be called double,
for the air acts on the blood, 1st, in passing through the lungs to
the air-cells ; 2dly, in passing out of these, and probably also while
it remains in the air-cells. Hence, they consume more air than any
other class of animals.

Reptiles can act but imperfectly on the air, from the cells of their
lungs being very large, and from this cause of course diminishing
the surface upon which the blood-vessels have to be distributed.
The frog has no ribs, nor has it any diaphragm, the abdomen and
chest forming but one cavity. As a substitute for these, the air is
forced into the lungs by a species of deglutition. A frog perishes
if its mouth is kept open, because, before this deglutition can be
accomplished, the mouth must be closed.

The surface occupied by the gills of fishes is often very consider-
able. Those of one kind are said to have a surface nearly equal to
that of the human body. The reason why air cannot usually be
directly breathed by gills, is believed to be principally because they
become collapsed and dry. The eel, the crab, and some other
species, that breathe by gills, can, however, breathe in air for a
considerable time.

The only other modification of the respiratory apparatus we
shall refer to, is that of insects. The veined appearance of the
wings of the butterfly is produced by what are called tracheae, that
have openings on the surface (stigmata) for admitting the air, and
extensive ramifications over the body. There are similar openings
on the side of the bee-worm and in other species. If these are
closed, the animal immediately dies. In all the lowest classes of
animals, and even as high as the class of reptiles, the skin is also
an active respiratory organ.

What has been said may render intelligible the mechanism by

RESPIRATION. 119

which the air is introduced into the body. It will now be necessary
to describe the changes that take place there. The atmospheric
air, when it goes into the lungs, is composed of about four parts
of a gas called nitrogen, and one part of another gas called
oxygen, (a small quantity of carbonic acid in the air). But
the air which comes out from the lungs is not the same in com-
position, for a considerable quantity of oxygen is found to have
disappeared, and in its stead we find another gas, called carbonic
acid, which is produced by the union of a portion of oxygen with
the carbon which forms a large ingredient in the composition of the
blood and of the body in general. Carbonic acid is a gas which is
fatal to animal life, and it is therefore discharged from the lungs.
IT an animal is made to inhale it, insensibility and death follow in
a very few minutes. We have already seen that the venous blood
is equally a poison to the animal body, and it is this same carbon,
or charcoal, that makes it noxious. It appears that about forty-five
thousand cubic inches of oxygen are consumed by an ordinary man
in twenty-four hours, and that forty thousand inches of this gas go
to form the carbonic acid produced during the same period, the re-
mainder of the oxygen probably combining with other ingredients
of the blood. This union causes animal heat similar to the
burning of fuel. If so the lungs and arteries are a fire-place or
stove which constantly generate heat. Under different circum-
stances, however, the consumption of oxygen varies. It is con-
siderably greater when the temperature is low than when it is high,
and during digestion the consumption has been found one-half
greater than when the stomach is empty. By violent exercise,
when the stomach is empty, it has been found to be augmented to
three times its usual quantity, and to four times its usual quantity
when food has been taken after this.

When we thus see the great quantity of pure atmospheric air
which a single individual requires to carry off the noxious parts of
the venous blood, and to convert this into arterial blood, we can
easily comprehend why such dreadful consequences should follow
the breathing of a highly vitiated atmosphere. The most melan-
choly instance of this kind on record, is the well-known one that
occurred in the Black Hole at Calcutta. In this dungeon,
eighteen feet square, and having only two small windows on the
same side to admit air, one hundred and forty-six men were im-
mured. In six hours ninety-six of them had died from suffocation,
after the most horrible sufferings ; and in the morning, when the

120 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

doors were opened, only twenty-three out of the whole number re-
mained alive.

From the same cause we can understand how injurious it must be
continually to breathe the air of ill-ventilated rooms, confined sleep-
ing apartments, crowded low-roofed schools, or other places in
which numbers are assembled together, and where ventilation is not
particularly attended to. A long continued and constant residence
in such places most certainly shortens life by several years,
and not unfrequently terminates it rapidly by giving rise to fatal
disorders.

It must not be supposed, however, from what has been said, that
the carbon separated at the lungs is to be viewed as a merely
noxious material. If it were retained, death would undoubtedly
take place ; but if we had no carbon to separate we shall find that
the heat of our bodies could probably not be maintained. When
charcoal is burned in atmospheric air, the changes which occur
seem to be almost precisely similar to those that are produced by
respiration. Oxygen disappears, and carbonic acid is formed. It
seems reasonable, therefore, to conclude, that the heat produced in
both cases is connected with these changes. That the production
of animal heat bears some resemblance to combustion, is rendered
probable by the following considerations : — 1st, It has been deter-
mined by experiment that the charcoal contained in the carbonic acid
formed during a given period by respiration, would give out, when
burned, fully more than half the heat produced by the animal in
that period. It takes no less than about eleven ounces of carbon
to form the carbonic acid of an ordinary man's daily respiration.
Dr. Milne Edwards thinks that this, and the superabundant oxygen
which is absorbed by the blood (which probably combines in great
part with hydrogen to form water), will account for nine-tenths
oi the heat an animal produces, the remaining tenth probably being
the product of the friction of the different parts of the body, the
changes occurring in secretion, &c. 2dly, This view is supported
by the fact, that the temperature, in the different classes of animals,
very accurately corresponds to the quantity of oxygen consumed.
The temperature of birds is highest, and they consume most. The
young, among the Mammalia, consume the least, and have the
temperature lowest. Indeed, it may be remarked, that the young
of most of the Mammalia, including children, have much difficulty
in supporting any degree of cold when separated from their
parents ; and where incautious exposure takes place, the mortality

RESPIRATION. 121

among them is found to be very great. Reptiles, which consume

k. little oxygen, have a temperature only a few degrees above the

it medium in which they live, and the same may be said of fishes,

•with the remarkable exception of the Cetacea (whale, porpoise, &c.)

•which have a high temperature, but consume much oxygen, as they

breathe air by lungs.

But it may be said, if the heat of the body is produced chiefly by
respiration, why have the lungs not the temperature of a furnace 7
Several reasons may be assigned why this should not be so ; and,
1st, it must be recollected, that, even though a considerable portion
of heat may be supposed to be produced in the lungs, there is also
a constant and most rapid influx of cold blood, from the exposed
parts of the body, into these, to carry off the heat as soon as it is
generated.* Besides, it appears pretty certain that the blood com-
ing from the lungs is really a degree or two hotter than in other
parts of the body. 2dly, Dr. Crawford in his celebrated Theory of
•Animal Heat, has very ingeniously attempted to obviate this diffi-
culty by maintaining that the capacity for heat (as chemists call it)
is greater in arterial than in venous blood ; that as this enlargement
of capacity takes place at the same moment, and in the same place,
as the heat is generated, a considerable portion of it must be ab-
sorbed ; and that this latent heat comes to be given out as the
arterial, in its course, is again gradually converted into venous
blood.

The correctness of Dr. Crawford's theory has been doubted by
many physiologists, on the ground, 1st, that other chemists have
not found the capacities of arterial and venous blood to correspond
with his statements ; and, 2d, that it has been, since his time, ren-
dered highly probable, by the experiments of Dr. Edwards and
others, that a considerable portion, at least, of the carbonic acid
produced by respiration, is formed, not in the lungs, but by the
blood in its course, and is merely separated or given off at the
lungs. Still, many of the most eminent physiologists consider
modifications of Dr. Crawford's theory as affording the best explana-

* An experiment of Mr. Hunter's shows the influence of the circulation in keeping
down temperature. A living part (with blood circulating through it, probably near 98
degrees) was placed in water at 118 degrees, and had its temperature elevated to 102!
degrees, that is, only 3 or 4 degrees above the natural temperature of some parts of the
body ; while a dead part, under the same circumstance, rose to 1 14 degrees, or about
12 degrees higher. Mr. Hunter imputed this difference to the influence of the vital
principle, but our friend Dr. Holland has probably given a more correct explanation,
in referring it to the comparatively colder fluid that circulated in the living part.

122 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

tion of the phenomena of animal heat that we at present possess.
One modification of this theory we may here state. It has been
supposed that the oxygen, when it is absorbed by the blood in the
lungs, exists there only in a loose state of combination ; that as it
circulates, the union with the carbon, &c., of the blood, becomes
more intimate ; and that the heat comes thus to be gradually dis-
engaged, and diffused through every part of the body. For further
information on this subject we must refer to the works of Drs. Smith,
Alison, Bostock, &c. ; but we must not omit to mention that many
facts, which our limits will not allow us to state, prove decisively that
the nervous system is connected, directly or indirectly, with the pro-
duction of animal heat. We can only state generally, also, that
the body possesses the power of keeping down its heat to nearly
the natural standard, even when exposed to a very high tempera-
ture. Sir Charles Blagden remained, without any great incon-
venience, in a room, the temperature of which was fifty -two degrees
above that of boiling water, until eggs were roasted hard, and a
beefsteak made ready by blowing air on it.* Indeed, the heat of
his body, though the temperature of the apartment was 264 degrees^
rose only three or four degrees above ninety-eight degrees, its
natural standard. It has been found that the principal agent in
keeping down the temperature, is the immense evaporation that
takes place from the lungs and skin. Accordingly when the skin
is varnished, or the air of the apartment is saturated with moisture,
so as to prevent evaporation, a temperature one-half so high can
hardly be borne.

Having now given a short but connected account of the physi-
ology of respiration, we cannot but remark how varied arid how
complicated are the agents employed, and yet how accurately each
of these performs the part assigned it. Such investigations as those
with which we have been occupied, form the proper foundations of
natural religion. No one can rise from the study of these parts of
the animal frame, without intensely feeling that design, and design
of a kind the most exquisite, guides every motion and change of
the vital fluid. Never did any piece of machinery invented by
man, indicate with greater precision the intentions of its maker.

The voice is produced in what is called the larynx, at the top of

the windpipe. The air, in passing through its opening (glottis),

causes parts called vocal ligaments to vibrate, and to give out the

different varieties of sound. These sounds can be further modified

* Dr. Chaubert, of this city, a few years ago practised the same experiment.

I

RESPIRATION. 123

by the parts in the mouth, &c., so as to produce articulate speech.
Singing-birds have a simple larynx at the top, and a complicated
me at the bottom of the windpipe.

f DISEASES.

When foreign bodies, such .as cherry or plum stones, get into the
• larynx or windpipe, they cause excessive irritation, and not unfre-
quently death. A few years ago, a child swallowed a clasp, one
half entered the windpipe, the other the gullet. When I attended
the medical lectures in the old Barclay street Medical University,
this specimen, preserved in spirits, was exhibited to our class. The
professor staled that the foreign body might have easily been re-
moved had any one present possessed a little anatomical know-
ledge.

Affections of the top of the windpipe produces suffocation, and,
among these, by far the most common and fatal, is croup. This
disearse consists in inflammation and swelling of the inner or mu-
cous lining of the larynx and windpipe.

When the inner or mucous membrane of a few of the larger
knches of the windpipe is slightly inflamed, it is called a common
cold ; when the inflammation is greater and extends to the lesser
air-tubes (bronchi), it is called bronchitis, and is often denoted by
considerable wheezing in the breathing;* when the air- vesicles,
and the substance which connects them, become inflamed, it is
called inflammation of the lungs (pneumonia). The last is a very
fatal disease, if not early checked. The importance of early atten-
tion to it will be understood from this, that it consists of three
stages, in the first of which the part of the lungs affected is merely
engorged with the watery serum of the blood. A free perspiration
will frequently remove this,. But if allowed to remain, this rapidly
passes into the second stage, in which the lung becomes solid, like
a piece of liver (hepatization\ and ultimately into the third stage,
when the solid portion is infiltrated with matter (pus). The two
latter stages are comparatively seldom recovered from.

When the membrane (pleura) covering the lungs and lining the

* Millers, masons, sawyers, grinders, and others who are exposed to the inhalations
of various kinds of dust, are very subject to this disease, and have their lives much
shortened by it. Dry grinders seldom live beyond 30 or 35 years. In M. Lombard's
returns for Geneva, the average longevity of stone-cutters is stated at 34 years, of sculp-
tors at 36 years, and of millers at 42 years ; while painters live, on an average, to 44,
joiners to 49, butchers 53, writers to 51, surgeons to 54, masons to 55, gardeners to 60,
merchants to 62, preachers to 63, and magistrates to 69 years.

124 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

inside of the chest is inflamed, it is called pleurisy or pleuritis, and
is denoted by the sharp cutting pain which is felt when we draw a
breath. If uncombined with pleuritis, the pain in pneumonia
(inflammation of the lungs) is not great. It is rather tightness of
the chest, and oppression of the breathing, that are felt. These
are caused by the difficulty the air finds in getting admission into
the condensed air-vesicles. From the same cause, pneumonia is
generally attended by rapid heaving and breathing. As the quan-
tity of air that can be brought into contact with the blood is dimin-
ished, fuller and more frequent inspirations require to be made. If
the hepatization extends to the whole of one lung, then there can
be no motion of the chest on that side, as the air enters only to
other lung. These signs are of special importance in children.
Whenever the breathing of a previously healthy child becomes
rapid and heaving, alarm should be felt for its safety.

The branches of the windpipe have another coat below the inner
or mucous one, which, like that of the intestines, is muscular, and
can, it is thought, contract and diminish their size. This contrac-
tion is supposed to be the cause of the sudden difficulty in breath^
ing, so often felt by asthmatic persons. In asthma, however, other
causes combine to produce this difficulty; for, 1st, there is generally
more or less habitual inflammation of the larger air-tubes ; and,
2dly, from the repeated violent fits of coughing, the air-vesicles
become distended or ruptured, so that the cavity of the chest is per-
manently filled to a considerable extent with these distended vesi-
cles (bullce). The surface of the lungs of old asthmatic persons
may be seen studded with these, like little bladders, sometimes as
large as walnuts.

The only other disease of the lungs we shall notice, is the almost
invariably fatal one, consumption (phthisis pulmonalis). This dis-
ease consists in the formation, in the lungs, of a peculiar substance
called tubercle. Tubercles are at first small semi-transparent
bodies, like pins'-heads ; but as they increase in size and number,
they unite, and form masses generally like yellowish cheese, occa-
sionally as large as a walnut or an orange. At a later period, this
cheesy matter becomes softened, and is coughed up, leaving cavities
in the lungs more or less extensive, under the irritation of which
the patient sinks. Consumption, from very accurate calculations,
is known to cause about one in every four deaths in England and
North America, so that some knowledge of the causes which produce
it, is important to almost every one. From extensive statistical

i

I

RESPIRATION. 125

inquiries made in Geneva by Dr. Lombard, he has found that the
average number of consumptive cases occurring in all the different
professions of that town, is 114 in the 1000. In some it rises
much above, while in others it falls greatly below, this average
number. Thus, among varnish-painters no less than 37 out of the
100 were found to have died of this complaint, while of gardeners
only 4 in the 100 fell a sacrifice to it. The causes which princi-
pally tend to produce consumption, Dr. Lombard finds, are, 1st,

Jwreathing air in which mineral, vegetable, or animal powders are

floating : among polishers, sculptors, stone-cutters, plasterers,

(rSfeh -hand-makers, &c., the proportion of consumptive complaints

^ffv7 in the 1000. 2d, Sedentary occupations seem to have a
great effect in producing this disease, the mortality among clerks,
printers, tailors, engravers, &c., being 141 in the 1000; while
among such active professions as carpenters, blacksmiths, slaters,
agriculturists, &c., the average proportion is 89 in the 1000. 3d,
Indigent persons seem about twice more liable to consumption than
those living in easy circumstances : annuitants in Geneva, who may

Bfe reckoned as generally leading an easy, comfortable life, average
only 50 consumptive persons in the 1000. , 4th, The more or less
impure state of the air breathed, its temperature, dryness, &c., seem
to influence considerably the production of consumption. In pro-
fessions in which life is spent in shops or manufactories, the pro-
portion of cases is 138 in the 1000 ; while in those professions in
which life is spent principally in the open air, only 73 in the 1000
•bme its victims. An atmosphere loaded with animal emana-
tes, such as is breathed by butchers, tanners, candlemakers, &c.,
seems to act rathei* as a preventive to this complaint, the average
among these professions being only 60 in the 1000. Breathing a
moist air seems also a preventive circumstance, as weavers, dyers,
Meachers, watermen, &c., are found liable to it only in the propor-
tion of 53 in the 1000 ; while those who breathe a hot dry air, such
as toolmakers, enamellers, file-smiths, &c., have 127 in the 1000
affected. These deductions may be considered as, at least, approxi-
mations to the truth, and they in general agree with what might
have been expected, as we know that even in the lower animals
consumption can be produced at pleasure by general debilitating
causes, or by irritants applied directly to the lungs. A large pro-
portion of the monkeys brought from their own warm to this cold
and changeable climate, die of this scourge of our race ; and M.
Flourens, a French physiologist, has shown, that by keeping

126 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

chickens in a dark and damp cellar, and upon a scanty diet, they
are rapidly carried off by this affection. Though the lungs are th
parts most usually affected by this disease, it is a mistake to su
pose that it is a merely local complaint. Very commonly, th
cheesy matter is found, at the same time, in the liver, mesentery
and many other parts ; and there can be little doubt that the essen-
tial cause of the whole is a particular form of constitution, either
inherent from parents, or brought on by irregular habits, want of
fresh air and exercise, or other diseases and circumstances that
enfeeble the body. Where the predisposition to this disease is
very great, we see whole families cut off by it; but when the pre-
disposition is less, we often notice only those affected that follow
occupations, or have contracted habits, that impair their health.*
The woeful system of quackery pursued by our popular doctors, con-
sisting of bleeding and mercury, is another fruitful source of pulmo-
nary diseases.

The mechanism of respiration may be beautifully seen in the
rabbit. After skinning, &c., open the belly, take out the intes-
tines, liver, &c., and cut through the spine high up with a strong
knife. The diaphragm, separating the belly from the chest.J
then be seen. To show the parts contained in the chest, next take
away the fore-legs, and cautiously detach the ribs from the breast
bone, on each side, except at the top and bottom, breaking or cut-

* We have said that consumption is a hereditary disease, or arises from a peculiar
constitution transmitted from parents to children. This is what is called the scrofulous
constitution, which can often be detected by a practised observer, but of which it is not
easy to give any definition, except that the formation of tubercular (cheesy) matter in
any part always denotes it. When much developed, and when it affects the glands of
the neck, it is vulgarly termed " king's evil." Constitutions are variously tainted with
it, however, from a very slight to a very high degree ; and it may easily be conceived
how generally the taint is diffused, when we have stated that one in every four or five
dies in this country from one of its forms. There are many other diseases, the tendency
to which is derived from parents, such as asthma, insanity, gout, &c. ; and there can be
little doubt that this class of diseases constitutes the great bar to the physical improve-
ment of the human stock. Until correct views on this subject become more general,
little hope of improvement can be entertained. At present, persons in every rank make
eager inquiries as to the worldly condition, &c., of those who are likely to form their
partners for life; but how seldom does it happen that the tendency to even serious
hereditary disease forms a bar to their union, or that persons even take the least pains
to satisfy themselves where such exists ! The great part of mankind neglect far too
much the fact that they are animals, and that they are therefore subject to those general
laws which regulate the transmission of peculiarities or diseases to their children.
Hence, from this serious error, they fail to take the precautions which are necessary to
secure an approach towards physical perfection in their own progeny, the neglect of
which they would be ashamed of, even in regard to their dogs and their horses.

!

RESPIRATION.

127

ting through with scissors the detached ribs near the breast-bone,
d removing them. The breast-bone will thus be left in its place,
upported by a rib or two at the top and bottom, and the division
f the chest into two halves by the pleura — the heart lying in its
ag or pericardium — as well as the appearance and position of the
lungs, will be seen. Great care must be taken in opening into
the chest, and in cutting the ribs posteriorly, not to injure the
lungs. To show the action of the lungs, the windpipe must now
be cut down upon in the neck, cut through, and detached, and a
small tube tied into it. When this is gently blown into, the lungs
will be seen to be inflated. A much more elegant mode of showing
their action, however, is, carefully to take out both windpipe and
lungs, and to attach them as represented in the following figure,

c-

Rabbit's lungs in a bottle.

where a is a bottle, six or seven inches high, and about three wide,
such as is used by druggists, with the bottom cut off; b is the rab-
bit's lungs (with the windpipe left moderately long) tied to a
notched tin tube (c), that passes through a cork accurately fitting
the neck of the bottle ; d is a wooden piston, three-fourths of an
inch thick, covered with soft leather, which is stuffed with hair,
and oiled to make it fit accurately. When the handle of the piston
is drawn quickly down, the air rushes by the tube and windpipe
into the lungs, and inflates them, and this can be repeated by push-
ing the piston gently up, and then again drawing it quickly down.
The bottle must be of the same width throughout, and the lungs
must not be cut or injured in any part. The lungs should be in the
bottle, and the windpipe tied on the tube, before the cork is fitted
into the bottle. This is a remarkably striking experiment, and
should be seen by every one who wishes to form a just conception
of respiration. A pig's bladder will answer very well to show the
nature of respiration. A beautiful experiment may be performed by
procuring of a butcher a sound pair of calf's lungs, or lights, in

128 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

troduce a tube, and blow them up or inflate them. They suddenly
expand, change their color, and present a very imposing effectjJB
Every vessel but the trachea must be tied.

In my popular lectures on Physiology and the reformed practiceS
I repeatedly tried this interesting experiment. The boy who in-^
flated the lung used no tube, but put the end of the windpipe into
his mouth. His stomach was not very delicate. I have a model
in wax by the best artist of the lungs, in connexion with the heart,
which is extremely beautiful.

The power of oxygen in supporting combustion, and of carbonic
acid in extinguishing it, should also be shown by introducing a
lighted candle, fixed to a wire, into jars of these gases.

That the expired air contains carbonic acid, may easily be shown
by breathing through a tube immersed in newly prepared lime water.
The carbonic acid throws down the lime in the form of carbonate
of lime.

By placing the ear to the upper part of the chest of a young per-
son, the murmur produced by the air rushing through the air-
vesicles may be heard ; or the stethoscope may be used for hearing
this, as well as the sounds of the heart.

Preparations of the bronchial tubes are generally made by anato-
mists with wax. These, however, have the disadvantage of being
easily broken. There may be used, instead of wax, some of the
metals. Equal parts of tin and lead answer well for the larger
bronchi. Take a sheep's lungs, clear away fat, &c., but taking
care not to injure them, and cut off the windpipe three or four
inches above the lungs ; dry the interior of the windpipe by BRro-
ducing pieces of lint on the end of a stick, and afterwards allowing it
to remain exposed to the air for a few hours. Then transfix the
windpipe at the upper part with two darning-needles crossed, to
hang the lungs by ; fasten the needles to the ring of a retort-stand ;
fasten a wide-mouthed tin funnel, supported by another ring of the
retort, in the windpipe, and pour in the melted metal ; boil the
lungs for two hours, cut out the preparation, and varnish with wax
dissolved in boiling spirits of wine. A much more delicate pre-
paration can be made in the following manner : — Instead of tin and
lead, take the composition called the fusible metal ,* and pour it into
the lungs, and then place these in a large pot of water, to be kept
boiling for an hour. The air is thus, in a measure, expelled ; and

* The Fusibk Metal may be composed of two parts bismuth, one lead, one tin, and
one quicksilver, to be all melted together and well mixed.

RESPIRATION. 129

as the metal melts at the boiling point of water, it finds its way
into the most minute ramifications. When heated, the air in the
air-tubes causes the lungs to become buoyant, which prevents the
metal getting properly into the lower bronchi. To obviate this,
the lungs may be enveloped in a cloth, which should be loaded with
heavy weights, to keep them in the upright position. As the metal
is extremely brittle when hot, the lungs should not be taken out of
the pot till they are cold ; then hang them in some place where
flies can deposit their eggs, moistening the outside daily, and allow
them to remain until the maggots eat away all the flesh ; after this,
hang them in water until the preparation can be easily cleaned.
In making both preparations, about one and a half pounds of metal
vtt required, and the tin filler should be heated to make the metal
run the easier. If any of the large branches are broken, any tin-
smith will easily solder them. When well managed, preparations
made in this way have a truly wonderful appearance ; the
bronchial tubes, though beautifully distinct, and as fine as hairs,
presenting almost a solid mass. The existence of air-vesicles has
Jieen doubted by some authors, and these preparations seem to sup-
port this opinion.

BDther illustrative figures for this section will be found in Bell's
Anatomy, vol. i., page 699 ; Dr. Smith's Philosophy of Health,
vol. i., p. 243 ; " Animal Physiology," in the Library of Useful
Knowlege, pp. 88, 89, 92, &c., &c.

MEDICAL TREATMENT AND REGIMEN.

aving given a description of the structure, physiology, and
iseases of the lungs, I will add a few remarks on the medical
treatment and regimen of pulmonary disease, being the most com-
mon complaints of these organs. It is a melancholy fact, that
diseases of the lungs cause greater mortality than all others to-
gether, particularly in all northern climates. In this country and
in England, about one-fourth or fifth adult persons are taken off by
consumption, the causes of which are various, principally sudden
changes of the weather, which is exceedingly great, even not un-
frequently during a single day. This checks the secretion of the
skin, and retains deleterious agents, which become a source of irri-
tation ; and in addition to which that immense amount of blood
which is constantly distributed to every part of the body, particu-
larly the surface or skin, is forced inwardly by the refrigeratory
influence of cold, and closes the capillary vessels, and drives the
9

130 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

blood back from their original channels to the internal organs of
the system. This consequently engorges or congests them, and
brings on inflammation, and perhaps ulceration, which may prove
fatal ; and especially so if there be any predisposition to scrofula or
tubercular state of the lungs. Nearly every complaint of the kind
can be traced to what is commonly called " colds."*

It is also more to be regretted that notwithstanding all our re-
searches, we have not been able to discover a remedy for confirmed
tubercular consumption. I know that it is sometimes removed in
the incipient state, and even when apparently there has been no
prospect of recovery ; but this forms only exceptions to a general
rule. Every philanthropic physician then should exert all his
abilities to investigate the pathology or nature of this disease, and
find a cure. " Who knows," says Dr. Rush, " but there grows a
plant at the foot of the Alleghany Mountains that will prove a
remedy for consumption?" Notwithstanding the discouraging
aspect, much may be done both to prevent and to cure. To accom-
plish the first, avoid every exciting cause, and especially a check
of perspiration, which is the great and first cause of it. As pneuj
monia, or inflammation of the lungs, usually ushers in the corjH
plaint, it must be either reduced or moderated by attention to the
secretions and excretions of the system, counter-irritants, &c.
Bleeding must by no means be resorted to ; it only has a tendency
to exasperate the symptoms by abstracting that vital fluid on which
the restorative success depends. If the disease has become seated,
strong tonics, expectorants, and sedatives are indicated. Horseback
exercise is a powerful means of recovery. Bathe the surface daily
with cold weak ley-water, followed by friction. This is a valuable
auxiliary, especially to remove that predisposition to those frequent
coughs which precede the disease. The artificial asses' milk men-
tioned in my Medical Dictionary, under the head, I think, of Sea
Holly, has been highly extolled by a physician who used it very
extensively, and it is said was invariably successful in its treatment.
The diet should be nutritious ; milk, warm from the cow, is excel-
lent. A sea voyage and a change of climate sometimes is attended

* The barbarous Chinese custom of contracting the feet of women, and the great
extent to which their irrational purpose is accomplished, are well known. While the
Europeans were expressing their surprise at such an absurdity, and pitying the suf-
ferers, they were constantly permitting under their own eyes the equally, if not more
pernicious practice of tight stays ; by which I have seen the figure of the thorax com-
pletely and permanently altered at its lower part— a great cause of consumption, by
impeding the motion of the lungs.

RESPIRATION. 131

with a salutary effect. The best climate is the Brazils, at Para,
situate on the river Amazon. An excellent preventative for
chronic bronchial affections is the application, two or three times
a day, of cold water to the neck and chest, followed by friction with
a coarse towel. The irritating plaster is also very valuable. For
more particular medical treatment, see my Reformed Practice.
Also for other diseases of the lungs.

The Stethoscope has of late become very common -among phy-
sicians in forming a diagnosis or opinion of pulmonary diseases. I
have very little confidence in it myself. Lugol, of Paris, has the
following remarks on the use of it : —

^ The numerous checks and repeated deception to which phy-
sicians are daily exposed in the DIAGNOSIS and TREATMENT of tu-
berculous diseases, do they not prove that it is necessary to leave
the beaten track of inquiry and pursue some other which is less
fallible 1 You all know that auscultation and percussion are use-
less in the diagnosis of pulmonary tubercles. Both alike insuffi-
cient to announce the commencement of the mischief, they are
superfluous at the very time that they become capable of indicating
the presence of the tubercles ; for then these are discoverable by
other means, and, alas ! are too far advanced in their development
to warrant our hopes of arresting their progress — at least in the
generality of cases. I will even go a step further, and say that the
unlimited confidence placed by the greater number of practitioners
of the present day in auscultation and percussion, has had the effect
of too often inspiring a fatal security in many tuberculous diseases,
which are thereby allowed to advance in their progress, until this
is revealed by physical phenomena at a period when remedial mea-
sures have but little chance of effecting any good.

" But what are the means, you will say to me, that are to be sub-
stituted in the room of auscultation and percussion? I answer,
gentlemen, induction. Examine by these boasted methods this
patient, and tell me what results you obtain. Negative results,
you will reply. And yet I maintain that he is tuberculous ; for his
father, his mother, and his brothers have all died of tuberculous
disease ; and he himself is affected with it in his chest at the pre-
sent moment. Believe me, this plan is much less deceptive than
the other one. I tell you, the inductive method cannot mislead
you, for nature is invariable in its causes as in its effects ; and the
external signs of tuberculous scrofula must give you assurance that

132 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

similar morbid productions exist in internal organs, especially in
the lungs.

" It is by viewing the question from this elevated point of view,
by studying it in all its ensemble, that you will be best enabled to
comprehend it in its details ; and these cannot be understood by the
special methods of examination which have been so much recom-
mended of late years.

" The tubercularization of internal organs exhibits in its develop-
ment the same phenomena as tubercles which are outwardly situ-
ated— there is no pain, and nothing of mechanical derangement.

" The existence of tubercles in the lungs is so frequent, that I
must admit that they are present in all scrofulous persons. You
know that all, or almost all, patients, who have pulmonary tuber-
cles, are, or have been at some time, affected with tubercles in the
neck ; the majority have had during infancy this external sign of
scrofula ; while others have had it at a later period of life. I be-
lieve that pulmonary tubercles frequently exist in early youth ; but it
is chiefly about the age of puberty that they are apt to be developed."

A person in this city informs me that he has derived great benefit
for a seated cough by breathing through an ivory tube with a
small aperture at the end to allow the air to pass through slowly,
that the lungs may become expanded and exercised.

Says Lawrence on Man : " The accumulation of numbers in
large cities, the noxious effects of impure air, sedentary habits, and
unwholesome employments ; — the excesses in diet, the luxurious
food, the heating drinks, the monstrous mixtures, and the pernicious
seasonings, which stimulate and oppress the organs, — the unnatural
activity of the great cerebral circulation, excited by the double im-
pulse of our luxurious habits and undue mental exertions, of the
violent passions which agitate and exhaust us, the anxiety, chagrin,
and vexation, from which few entirely escape, and then re-acting
on and disturbing the whole frame ; — the delicacy and sensibility to
external influences, caused by our heated rooms, warm clothing,
inactivity, and other indulgences, are so many fatal proofs that our
most grievous ills are our own work, and might be obviated by a
more simple and uniform way of life. Our associates of the animal
kingdom do not escape the influence of such causes. The moun-
tain shepherd and his dog are equally hardy, and form an instruc-
tive contrast with a nervous and hysterical fine lady, and her lap-
dog ; — the extreme point of degeneracy and imbecility of which
each race is susceptible."

CIRCULATION. 133

CHAPTER VIII.

CIRCULATION.

I WILL commence this subject with a description of the heart and
blood-vessels, and then describe the circulation.

In all those animals which most resemble man (anatomically),
such as the monkey, the dog, horse, ox, &c., the heart is- placed
between the two lungs, in the cavity of the chest, which anatomists
call the thorax.

The general form of the heart is that of an inverted cone, the
apex down, and a little to the left. The size of the heart is
very nearly that of the fist of the individual to whom it belongs.

This organ is enveloped in a double membranous sac, called
pericardium, and is suspended in the pericardium by the vessels
which arise from its superior and enlarged extremity ; but it does
not adhere at any other point of its surface to the neighboring
parts.

The substance of the heart is almost entirely fleshy ; it is a hol-
low muscle, the cavity of which communicates with the arteries
and veins.

In man and all the mammalia, as well as birds, it has four dis-
tinct cavities. A thick, vertical partition divides it into two halves,
each one forming two cavities, one above the other ; a ventricle, and
an auricle.

The two ventricles occupy the inferior part of the heart, and do
not communicate with each other, but each one opens into the
auricle above it.

The heart, then, may be described as a hollow muscle, which, in
birds and mammalia, as in man, is divided into four distinct cham-
bers, as shown in the following figure. This division is effected

134 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Superior Pulm. Pulmonary

vena cava. art. Aorta, artery.

•" ' Pulmonary veins.

Pulmonary veins. ^..TM^^jJ^y^^J^ .- Left auricle.
Eight auricle. ^•^fflW^ **** ^
Tricuspid valve. '"'
Inferior vena. cava. -'- W\3J| I HV/- Left ventricle.

Right ventricle. , .

Partition. Aorta.

by a strong vertical partition, that divides the entire heart into two
halves, which are almost exactly similar to each other, excepting
in the greater thickness of the walls on the left side ; and each of
these halves (which do not communicate with one another) is again
subdivided by a transverse partition, into two cavities, of which the
upper one is termed the auricle^ and the lower the ventricle. Thus
we have the right and left auricles, and the right and left ventricles.
Each communicates with its corresponding ventricle, by an aperture
in the transverse partition, which is guarded by a valve. The walls
of the ventricles are much thicker than those of the auricles ; and
for this evident reason, — that the ventricles have to propel the
blood, by their contraction, through a system of remote vessels ;
whilst the auricles have only to transmit the fluid that has been
poured into them by the veins, into the ventricles, which dilate
themselves to receive it. The comparative thickness of the walls
of the left and right ventricles is explainable on the same principle ;
for the left ventricle has to send the blood, by its contractile
power, through the remotest parts of the body ; whilst the right
has only to transmit it through the lungs, which, being much
nearer, require a far less amount of force for the circulation of the
blood through them.

We are thus brought, then, to consider a second important depart-
ment of our science, the circulation of the blood ; but, first, it is
necessary to inquire into the nature of the blood itself.

With the appearance of blood, as it occurs in the higher classes
of animals, every one is familiar. When drawn from one of the
vessels which immediately receive it from the heart, and which are
called arteries, it is of a bright scarlet color ; but when taken, as it
usually is in the common operation of bleeding, from a vein, it is

CIRCULATION. 135

much darker, being of the shade called by painters Modena red.
When first drawn from the vessel, it is a somewhat glutinous and
apparently homogeneous fluid, but, after standing for a short time,
it separates into two parts, one a watery part, called the serum, the
other a more solid part, called the clot, or crassamentum. The
serum is chiefly composed of water, with a considerable quantity
of the same substance as the white of the egg (albumen) dissolved
in it ; so that, if it is exposed to a boiling heat, this coagulates and
makes the whole solid. The clot, again, likewise consists of two
principal substances, one of which gives it the red color, and, by
repeated washings, can easily be separated from the other, which is
a white, tough, fibrous matter. It is known by the name of fibrin,
and is said to be nearly identical in composition with the part that
gives contractility to the muscles.*

Although the blood in all animals appears to be of essentially
the same nature, separating when out of their bodies into a solid
and a serous part, yet, in a large proportion of the lower classes,
it has not the same florid appearance Which it assumes in most of
the Vertebrata. Thus, in insects, this fluid is nearly transparent,
while in the caterpillar it has a greenish hue. In fishes, again, it is
transparent in the bulk of the body, but it has a red color in the
gills, heart, and liver ; and even in the human body, some textures,
as the transparent parts of the eye, circulate only a colorless fluid.
In certain diseased states of the system, indeed, nearly the whole
blood becomes colorless.

When the blood is examined with a microscope, its florid color is
perceived to arise from the numberless extremely minute red
globules suspended in the watery serum. These have, in every
species where they exist, a determinate size and form, being in
man of a circular flattened shape, and from the three-thousandth to
the five-thousandth part of an inch in diameter. In birds, reptiles,
and fishes, they get progressively larger, assuming at the same time
an elliptical form. Their number corresponds very constantly to
the temperature of the animal, and hence the two divisions of warm
and cold-blooded. In birds the red globules constitute, in general,

* The following, made by M. Le Canu, is the most recent analysis of the composi-
tion of the human blood :— Water, 786.500 ; albumen, 69.415; fibrin, 3.555; coloring
matter, 119.626; crystallizable fatty matter, 4.300 ; oily matter, 2.270; extractive mat-
ter, soluble in alcohol and water, 1.920 ; albumen combined with soda, 2.010 ; chloruret
of sodium and potassium, alkaline phosphate, sulphate and subcarbonate, 7.304; subcar-
bonate of lime and magnesia, phosphates of lime, magnesia and iron, peroxide of iron,
1.414; loss, 2.586. Total, 1000.

136 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

about fourteen or fifteen per cent, by weight of the whole mass, in
man twelve or thirteen per cent., and both of these are warm-
blooded animals. The red globules in fishes (which are cold-
blooded, or only slightly warmer than the water in which they live)
amount to about five or six per cent. It is also stated that these
globules are in general more numerous in the blood of men than in
that of females, and in persons of a sanguine than in those of a
lymphatic temperament.

One of the most singular properties of blood, is its power of co-
agulating. It has been supposed that the globules of blood are
really vesicles or bags, the outer portion of which is composed of red
coloring matter, while the centre consists of fibrin ; and that, during
coagulation, the vesicle is burst, and the particles of fibrin adhere
to each other. But it has been more recently shown, by the ex-
periments of Babington and Miiller, that the fibrin is riot contained
in the red globules, but in the fluid part of the blood in which they
float. When inflammation exists, the separation of the two parts
is most complete, the yellow or upper buffy layer being the fibrin.
Much beautiful design, as Dr. Prout remarks, is probably concealed
under this arrangement. One object of it is evident. If the blood
did not coagulate, the existence of animals would be most precari-
ous, as, on the slightest injury, they would be liable to bleed to
death.

There must, therefore, evidently be a cause for the fluidity of the
blood within the body, and many experiments render it highly pr<
bable that this depends, to a certain extent at least, upon the vital-
ity of the veins and arteries circulating it. Even the vitality of
the blood itself is made more than probable by the experiments of
Mr. John Hunter. Like the egg, it can, within certain limits, resist
the influence of various agents, such as heat and cold, while it
retains life, but yields to them when it dies. An electric shock
passed through it, instantly extinguishes its vitality, and this is the
reason why the blood in persons struck dead by lightning is always
fluid.

While physiologists had yet but inaccurate ideas of the uses and
structure of different organs, great benefits it was thought might
follow from transfusing a healthy animal's blood into a diseased
person's body, and some dangerous and even fatal experiments of
this kind were performed in France, until the practice was inter-
dicted by law. Of late years the practice has been revived, in cases
where great loss of blood has happened, and its previous failure has

li-
ne"
ro-

CIRCULATION. 137

been shown to have arisen from transfusing the blood of one species
into the body of another, in which the globules are of a different
size or shape. The blood of a sheep, for example, transfused into
a cat or rabbit, causes death in a short time ; and instantaneous
death follows the transfusion of blood with circular globules into an
animal which has these elliptical.

If other substances are mingled with the blood, equally serious
effects follow. Farriers produce instantaneous death in horses by
blowing air into their veins ; and a person in Paris, a few years ago,
who was having an operation performed in which a large vein in
the neck had to be cut, from the entrance of air fell over and ex-
pired. No less than about thirty other cases have been published,
in which it is probable death occurred from the same cause.

Having made these observations regarding the blood, we must
now explain the means employed for its circulation ; and in doing
so, we shall first describe this as it takes place in man and in the
other Mammalia ; for though their circulating system is really the
most complex, a knowledge of it forms a key to all the modifica-
tions which it sustains in the other classes.

The course of the circulation of the blood was unknown until
the reign of James I., when it was discovered by Dr. Harvey. The
ancients knew of the existence of the veins and arteries, but
thought that the blood was moved backwards and forwards in the
veins, and that the arteries were filled with air. The name of the
latter, indeed, is derived from arteria, or air-tube. Harvey publicly
taught his new doctrines as early as 1616 ; but, with a caution
worthy of one whose fame was to be coeval with our race, spent no
less than twenty-six years in amassing materials for his immortal
work on the circulation. The reception it met with, when pub-
lished, is instructive. Derided by his own profession as a quack,
he was looked upon by the vulgar as crack-brained, as is always
the case with the ignorant, prejudiced, and jealous; and in a letter
written to a friend at this period, he complains that his practice had
suffered seriously since the publication of his book. To the honor
of mankind, however, it must be said that he lived long enough to
^see his system taught in every university in the world.

The circulating system in the Mammalia may be said to consist
of four principal parts — first, the heart, which is the centre of the
whole; second, the arteries, which receive the blood from the
heart ; third, the veins, which return tie blood to the heart ; and.

138 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

fourth, the capillary (hair-like) vessels, which unite the termination
of the arteries with the commencement of the veins.

Every one knows the appearance of the heart — an ox's or a
sheep's, for example. When cut up, it is found to consist of four
cavities, two on the right side that communicate with each other,
but not directly with those opposite. The diagram or figure affords
an exact representation of the human heart, with the circulation of
the blood to and from the lungs on both sides.

To make the course pursued by the blood more plain, we take
asunder the two sides or chambers of the heart, and represent them
as separate from, and opposite to, each other, as seen in the figure
adjoining.

In this ideal plan of the circulation in the Mammalia, the arteries
and veins are supposed to be thrown into continuous chains, with
the capillaries as their connecting links. In describing this plan,
we shall commence with the veins. It will be seen that they
gradually unite, until those coming from above and those from below
form two large vessels (vence cava), that empty themselves into the
upper cavity of the heart on the right side, called the right auricle.
From the contraction or drawing together of this auricle, the blood
easily passes downwards into the next cavity, called the right ven-
tricle j and this, which is still more powerful, also in its turn con-
tracting upon the blood, sends it through the vessel (p a), called the
pulmonary artery. It is plain, however, that, if nothing hindered
it, the blood could as easily go back to the right auricle, as forwards
into the pulmonary artery ; but this is effectually prevented by a
valve that is placed between the right auricle and the right ventricle,
and which allows the blood to enter, but prevents it going back.
Another valve, which acts in a similar manner, is placed at the
mouth of the pulmonary artery, so that the blood, by the successive
contractions of the ventricle, is forced to go forward into the lungs.
Here, as will afterwards be explained, it becomes purified, as is
shown by its red color, and is sent by the pulmonary veins ( p v) to
the left auricle of the heart, to pass, as on the other side, into the
left ventricle. This last is the most powerful of all the parts de-
scribed, as it is required to propel the blood into the artery called
the aorta (o a), and from it into the whole of the body. Valves are
placed on the left side, between the auricle and ventricle, and at
the mouth of the aorta, which have a similar action and appearance
to those on the right side. Those between the auricles and ven-
tricles are called cuspid, that is, pointed valves ; on the right side,

FIG, 33. CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.
c a P

Two halves of the Heart a little separated, g Left side, a Aorta, cap Capillary
vessels which terminate the artery, v Venous system, d Right side of the Heart, a f
Pulmonary artery, v p Pulmonary vein. The arrows show the course of the blood.

FIG. 34. SUPERIOR MESENTERIC ARTERY.

It arises from part of the Aorta and supplies the Mesentery with blood. It also sends
off branches to the Intestines. The course of the Colon is shown in the figure.

CIRCULATION. 139

from having three points, tricuspid ; on the left side, from having
two points, bicuspid. Again, those at the mouths of the pulmonary
artery and aorta, are, from their shape, called semilunar valves.

The blue color at once gives an idea of the parts of the body in
which impure or venous blood is circulated (the veins, right side of
the heart and pulmonary artery). The red color also indicates in
what part the blood becomes purified (the lungs), and where it is
circulated as arterial or pure blood (the pulmonary veins, left side
of the heart, and arteries). It is in the capillaries between the
arteries and veins (which are too minute to be fully represented in
the figure, but which pervade every point in our bodies) that the
blood parts with its vivifying qualities. (See plate.) The commu-
nication of these qualities to the different structures, may be said,
indeed, to constitute the great object of the circulation. The
arrows in the figure show the course pursued by the blood. The
figure shows the situation of the heart in the chest, with the aorta
and its branches going off from it. The two ventricles are seen
united. The two auricles are also seen. The carotid arteries going
to the head. The superior vena cava (which empties itself into the
right auricle), in which the jugular veins from the brain, and the
subclavian veins from the arms, are seen to terminate. The water-
works of our city represent the circulation of the blood — the reser-
voir the heart, the pipes the arteries.

The course of the circulation, as shown in the figure, will now be
easily understood. The two vense cavse empty themselves into the
right auricle. From this the blood passes into the right ventricle,
which sends it into the pulmonary artery, and this immediately
divides in the lungs into innumerable branches, only a few of which
are represented in the figure. In the lungs, as already mentioned,
the blood is purified, and the pulmonary veins are therefore repre-
sented as bringing back to the heart red or arterial blood. The
pulmonary veins from both sides pour their supplies of blood into
the left auricle, from which again it passes into the left ventricle,
and is by the latter sent to all parts of the body through the aorta
and its branches, to be again conveyed by the veins to the right side
of the heart. By attending to the directions indicated by the arrows,
Nthe course of the circulation in this and the other figures will be
made very plain.

To recapitulate what has just been said, on the route pursued by
the blood, in the apparatus of the circulation in mammiferous ani-
mals and birds, we see :

140 AJTATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1st. That the venous blood arrives from all parts of the body by
the general system of veins ;

2d. That from these veins it enters the right auricle of the heart;

3d. That from the right auricle it passes into the right ventricle ;

4th. That from the right ventricle the venous blood passes through
the pulmonary artery to the lungs ;

5th. That in the capillary vessels, which form the termination
of the pulmonary artery, and commencement of the pulmonary
veins, this liquid is changed into arterial blood ;

6th. That this arterial blood returns from the lungs, through the
pulmonary veins, and enters the left auricle of the heart ;

7th. That from the left auricle it descends into the ventricle of
the same side ;

8th. That from the left ventricle it is forced into the aorta, by
which it is distributed to all parts of the body.

And 9th. — and finally, that in the capillary terminations of the
system of canals formed by the aorta, the arterial blood acts upon
the organs, is changed there into venous blood, and enters the veins
to be carried again to the heart.

In accomplishing the circulatory circle, the blood then passes
twice through the heart, in the state of venous b]ood on the right
side, and in the state of arterial blood in the left side of this organ ;
yet the circulation is complete, because the pulmonary and aortic
cavities of the heart do not open one into the other, and the venous
blood passes through the entire respiratory apparatus to be trans-
muted into arterial blood.

From the description given, it must be plain that the office
filled by the heart, with its accurately-working valves, is essentially
that of a forcing-pump. And with what inimitable precision and
regularity does it perform this all-important duty ! Unweariedly
during the whole term of a long life it sends out daily its one hun-
dred thousand waves of healthful fluid to refresh and renovate every
corner of the system ; and small as each wave may be individually,
the aggregate amount is enormous. Thirteen thousand pounds of
blood pass out of the left ventricle of the heart of an ordinary man
every twenty-four hours. But the aorta of man is not an inch in
diameter, whereas the aorta of a whale is three feet two inches in
circumference. Well, therefore, might Dr. Paley say, that the. cir-
culation is a serious affair in such an animal. " The aorta of the
whale," says he, " is larger in the bore than the main pipe of the
water-works at London Bridge ; and the water roaring in its pas-

FIG. 25.

1 The right ventricle. 2 The left ventricle. 3 The right auricle. 4 The left auricle.
5 The pulmonary artery. 6 The right pulmonary artery. 7 The left pulmonary artery.
8 The remains of the ductus arteriosus. 9 The arch of the aorta. 10 The superior
vena cava. 11 The right arteria innominata. 12 The right subclavian vein, and be-
hind it its corresponding artery. 13 The right carotid artery and vein. 14 The left
vena innominata. 15 The left carotid artery and vein. 16 The left subclavian vein and
artery. 17 The trachea. 18 The right bronchus. 19 The left bronchus. 20, 20 The
pulmonary veins; 18, 20 form the root of the right lung; and 7, 19, 20 the root of the
left. 21 The superior lobe of the right lung. 22 Its middle lobe. 23 Its inferior lobe.
24 The superior lobe of the left lung. 25 Its inferior lobe.

FIG. 26.

1 The trachea. 2 The right and left bronchus. 3 Right auricle of the heart. 4 Left
auricle. 5 Right ventricle, 6 The aorta arising from the left ventricle, the left ventri-
cle being in this diagram concealed by the right. 7 Pulmonary artery arising from the
right ventricle and dividing into, 8 The right, and 9 The left branch. 10 Branches of
one of the pulmonary veins proceeding from the terminations of the pulmonary artery on
the air vesicles,where together they form the net- work of vessels termed the Rete Mirabile.
11 Trunk of the vein on its way to the left auricle of the heart. 12 Superior vena cava.
13 Inferior vena cava. 14 Air vesicles magnified. 15 Blood-vessels distributed upon them.

CIRCULATION. 141

sage through that pipe, is inferior in impetus and velocity to the
blood gushing through the whale's heart."

But if we are astonished in reflecting what must take place in
the aorta of the whale, our admiration will be not less excited on
examining the circulation even in the web of a frog's foot. When
this is brought under a moderately powerful microscope, we can
perceive with ease through the transparent coats of the tiny vessels,
the red globules of the blood — in some singly, with long intervals
between — in others, two abreast — and, in others still, numbers
crowded together — pursuing their beautiful course, like the trains
of spectral figures that pass before us in our dreams — now moving
onwards with the most steady regularity, and again hurried forward
by the struggles of the little animal. This sight, an excellent
writer well observes, " is one which no man who has once seen can
ever forget ; and he who has not seen it, has not seen one of the
most curious, and wonderful, and beautiful objects which animated
nature presents."

Like most of the organs of organic life, the heart, in its usual
state, gives us but slight indications of sensibility. Harvey met
with an extraordinary opportunity of showing this. A young
nobleman, from disease, had the heart exposed, so that it could
even be handled while beating ; and Harvey, to his astonishment,
found that, unless his fingers came in contact with the outer
skin, the young man was altogether unconscious of the heart being
touched. Though nearly destitute of the sensations of touch,
however, the heart is instantly affected by every powerful bodily
excitement, or strong mental emotion. Upon the first of these de-
pends the use physicians make of the pulse (which is just the
heart's beat transmitted through the arteries) in judging of the dif-
ferent bodily ailments ; while the power of emotions over the heart
has furnished the poetry of all languages with some of its strongest
images. The capillaries also share in the influence of emotions,
of which we have a familiar example in blushing.

The greater or less vigor with which the blood is circulated
through the system, gives rise to important effects. We see this
particularly in two forms of constitution. In the one, the circula-
tion is very vigorous ; all the functions are performed with energy ;
and the diseases in general are of an acute character. When the
complexion is fair, this constitutes what has been called the sanguine
temperament — when dark, the choleric. In the other variety, the
circulation, and all the functions connected with it, are languidly

142 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

performed ; the surface is easily chilled, and the diseases have fre-
quently a low insidious character. When the complexion is fair,
this has been called the phlegmatic temperament, and the melan-
cholic when the complexion is dark. With a feeble circulation, the
general health never can be good ; and hence we find the action of
the heart weak in most delicate persons.

The arteries, like the intestines, are composed of three coats, and
the middle one is generally considered to be muscular, in order to
assist the contractions of the heart ; but its muscularity is by no
means so marked as is the muscularity of the intestinal canal.
These coats possess also different degrees of distensibility, the
inner one having the least. This gives rise to the remarkable cir-
cumstance, that when, as in those horrid accidents that are some-
times caused by machinery, a limb is torn off, frequently not a
spoonful of blood will be lost. The reason is, that the inner coat,
which is ruptured first, curls up, and, assisted by the outer coat,
forms a plug in the blood-vessels. These coats are sometimes dis-
tended more gradually by the continued impulse of the heart,
constituting the disease called aneurism. The sac thus formed, if
on the largest vessels, occasionally attains the size of a child's
head, and produces instantaneous death when it ultimately bursts.

The part of the circulating system most liable to disease is the
valves, and especially those of the left side of the heart. Ossifi-
cation, or the disposition of bone in their substance, is what most
commonly affects them. As might be anticipated, the blood regur-
gitates and stagnates, and great distress in breathing, dropsy, &c.,
are the consequences. The only other valves in the circulating
system are in the veins, and they seldom become diseased.

The cavities of the left side of the heart contain arterial blood,
and those of the right side, venous blood.

The vessels which convey arterial blood into all the organs take
their origin from the left ventricle of the heart, through the medium
of a single trunk, called the aorta.

This great artery first mounts upwards towards the base of the
neck, then bends downwards, forming a sort of crook, passes be-
hind the heart and descends vertically, in front of the spine, to the
lower part of the belly. In its course, the aorta gives off a great
number of branches, the principal of which are :

1st. The two carotid arteries mount along the sides of the neck,
and supply the head with blood.

2d. The two arteries of the upper extremities, successively

CIRCULATION. 143

obtain the names of subclavian, axillary, and brachial arteries, as
they pass under the clavicle, or cross the armpit, or descend along
the arm to the elbow, where they divide into two branches, called
the radial a,nd ulnar, or cubital arteries.

3d. The intercostal arteries are several in number, and run be-
tween the ribs on each side of the body.

4th. The ceeliac artery, which is distributed to the stomach, the
liver, and the spleen.

5th. The mesenteric arteries, which ramify upon the intestines.

6th. The renal arteries, which penetrate into the kidneys.

And 7th. The iliac arteries, which in a manner terminate the
aorta, and which convey blood to the lower extremities, descend
along the thighs, and are there called femoral arteries ; then they
divide into many branches which terminate in the feet.

The veins, which receive the blood thus transmitted to all parts
of the body, follow very nearly the same course as the arteries ;
but they are larger, more numerous, and generally situated more
superficially. A great number of these vessels pass beneath the
skin, others accompany the arteries, and, at last, they all unite to
form two great trunks which empty into the right auricle of the
heart, and which have received the names of vena cava superior
and vena cava inferior.

The veins which come from the intestines present an important
peculiarity. After uniting in a large trunk, they penetrate the
liver, and there ramify like the arteries ; there they again unite into
a trunk and terminate in the inferior vena cava close to the heart.
This arrangement of the vessels is called the system of the vena
porta.

When the chambers of the heart which open into each other,
and which as freely communicate with the great vessels that enter
and proceed from them> are forcibly closed, and the blood they con-
tain is projected from them, how is one uniform forward direction
given to the current ? Why, when the right ventricle contracts, is
the blood not sent back into the right auricle, as well as for-
ward into the pulmonary artery 1 There is but one mode of pre-
venting such an event, which is to place a floodgate between the
two chambers ; and there a floodgate is placed, and that floodgate
is the valve. As long as the blood proceeds onwards in the direct
course of the circulation, it presses this membrane close to the side of
the heart, and thereby prevents it from occasioning any impediment
to the current. When, on the contrary, the blood is forced back-

144 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

ward, and attempts to re-enter the auricle, being of course driven
in all directions, some of it passes between the wall of the ventricle
and the valve. The moment it is in this situation it raises up the
valve, carries it over the mouth of the passage, and shuts up the
channel. There cannot be a more perfect flood-gate.

This is beautiful mechanism ; but there is another arrangement
which surpasses mere mechanism, however beautiful. It has been
shown that one edge of the membrane that forms the valves is firmly
adherent to 'the wall of the ventricle, while the other edge, when
not in action, appears to lie loosely in the ventricle. Were this
edge really loose the refluent current would carry it back completely
into the auricle, and so counteract its action as a valve ; but it is
attached to the tendinous threads proceeding from the fleshy
columns that stand along the wall of the ventricle. By these ten-
dinous threads, as by so many strings, the membrane is firmly held
in its proper position ; and the refluent current cannot carry it into
the auricle. Thus far the arrangement is mechanical. But each
of these fleshy columns is a muscle, exerting a proper muscular
action. Among the stimulants which excite the contractility of the
muscular fibre, one of the most powerful is distension. The
refluent current distends the membrane ; the distension of the mem-
brane stretches the tendinous threads attached to it ; the stretching
of its tendinous threads stretches the fleshy column ; by this disten-
sion of the column it is excited to contraction ; by the contraction
of the column its thread is shortened ; by the shortening of the
thread the valve is tightened, and that in the exact degree in wrhich
the thread is shortened. So, the greater the impetus of the refluent
blood, the greater the distension of the membrane ; and the greater
the distension of the membrane, the greater the excitement of the
fleshy column, the greater the energy with which it is stimulated
to act, the greater, therefore, the security that the valve will be
held just in the position that is required, with exactly the force that
is needed. Here, then, is a flood-gate not only well constructed as
far as regards the mechanical arrangement, but so endowed as to
be able to act with additional force whenever additional force is
requisite ; to put forth on every occasion, as the occasion arises,
just the degree of strength required, and no more.

The contraction of the heart is the power that moves the blood ;
and this contraction generates a force which is adequate to impel it
through the circle.

It has been shown that the different chambers of the heart have

CIRCULATION. 145

a tendency to perform their movements in a uniform manner, and in
a successive order ; that they contract and dilate in regular alterna-
tion, and at equal intervals ; but, moreover, they continue these
movements equally without rest and without fatigue. On go the
motions, night and day, for eighty years together, at the rate of a
hundred thousand strokes every twenty-four hours, alike without
disorder, cessation, or weariness. The muscles of the arm tire
after an hour's exertion, are exhausted after a day's labor, and can
by no effort be made to work beyond a certain period. There is no
appreciable difference between the muscular substance of the heart
and that of the arm. It is true that the heart is placed under one
condition which is peculiar. Muscles contract on the application
of stimuli ; and different muscles arjeobedient to different stimuli,
— the voluntary muscles to the stimiffis of volition, and the heart
to that of the blood. The exertion of volition is not constant, but
occasional ; the muscle acts only when it is excited by the applica-
tion of its stimulus : hence the voluntary muscle has considerable
intervals of rest. The blood, on the contrary, is conveyed to the
heart without ceasing, in a determinate manner, in a successive
order ; and this is the reason why through life its action is uniform :
it uniformly receives a due supply of its appropriate stimulus. But
why it is unwearied, why it never requires rest, we do not know.
We know the necessities of the system which render it indispensa-
ble that it should be capable of untiring action, for we know that
the first hour of its repose would be the last of life ; but of the
mode in which this wonderful endowment is communicated, or of
the relations upon wTiioh it is dependent, we are wholly ignorant.

The force exerted by the heart is vital. It is distinguished from
mechanical force in being produced by the very engine that exerts
it. In the best-constructed machinery there is no real generation
of power. There is merely concentration and direction of it. In
the recoil of the spring, in the re-action of condensed steam, the
energy of the expansive impulse is never greater than the force
employed to compress or condense, and the moment this power is
expended, all capacity of motion is at end. But the heart produces
a force equal to the pressure of sixty pounds by the gentlest appli-
cation of a bland fluid. Here no force is communicated to be again
given out, as in every mechanical moving power ; but it is new
power, power really and properly generated ; and this power is the
result of vital action, and is never in any case the result of action
that is not vital.

10

146 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

MECHANISM OF THE CIRCULATION.

The mechanical action, by which the blood is caused to circulate
in the vessels, is easily comprehended. The cavities -of the heart,
as already explained, contract and dilate alternately, by the alter-
nate shortening and relaxation of the muscular fibres that form their
walls ; and the force of their contraction is sufficient to propel the
blood through the vessels which proceed from them. The two ven-
tricles contract at the same moment ; the auricles contract during
the relaxation of the ventricles, and are themselves relaxed whilst
the ventricles are contracting. The series of movements is, there-
fore, as follows : — The auricles bein'g full of blood which they have
received from the venae cavaB and pulmonary veins, discharge it by
their contraction into the ventricles, which have just, before emptied
themselves into the aorta and pulmonary artery, and which now
dilate to receive it. When filled by the contraction of the auricles,
these contract in their turn, so as to propel their blood into the great
vessels proceeding from them ; and whilst they are doing this, the
auricles again dilate to receive the blood from the venous system,
after which the whole process goes on as before. It is when the
ventricles contract, that we feel the beat of the heart, which is
caused by the striking of its lower extremity against the walls of
the chest ; and it is by the same action that the pulse in the arteries
is produced.

The combined action of each auricle and its ventricle may be illus-
trated by an apparatus like that represented in the following figure.
It consists of two pumps, a and 6, of which the pistons move up and
down alternately ; and these are connected with a pipe, cf, in which
there are two valves, d and e, opening in the direction of the arrow.
The portion c of the pipe represents the venous trunk, by which
the blood enters the heart ; the pump a represents the auricle, and
the raising of its piston enables the fluid to enter and fill it. When
its piston is lowered, its fluid is forced through the valve d into the
pump b (which represents the ventricle), whose piston is at the same
time raised to receive it ; and when this piston is lowered in its
turn, the fluid (being prevented from returning into a by the closure
of the valve d) is propelled through the valve e into the pipe/,
which may represent an arterial tube ; whilst at the same time a
fresh supply of blood is received into the pump a by the raising of
its piston.

CIRCULATION,

147

Such is the description, and with the exception of the first proof,
such the evidence of the circulation of the blood in the human
body, pretty much as it was given by the discoverer of it, the illus-
trious Harvey. Before the time of Harvey, a vague and indistinct
conception that the blood was not without motion in the body had
been formed by several anatomists. It is analogous to the ordinary
mode in which the human mind arrives at discovery, that many
minds should have an imperfect perception of an unknown truth,
before some one mind sees it in its completeness and fully discloses
it. Having, about the year 1629, succeeded in completely tracing
the circle in which the blood moves, and having at that time col-
lected all the evidence of the fact, with a rare degree of philosophi-
cal forbearance, Harvey still spent no less than eight years in re-
examining the subject, and in maturing the proof of every point,
before he ventured to speak of it in public. The brief tract which
at length he published was written with extreme simplicity, clear-
ness, and perspicuity, and has been justly characterized as one of
the most admirable examples of a series of arguments deduced from
observation and experiment that ever appeared on any subject.

Contemporaries are seldom grateful to discoverers. More than
one instance is on record in which a man has injured his fortune
and lost his happiness through the elucidation and establishment of
a truth which has given him immortality. It may be that there are
physical truths yet to be brought to life, to say nothing of new
applications of old truths, which, if they could be announced and
demonstrated to-day, would be the ruin of the discoverer. It is
certain that there are moral truths to be discovered, expounded, and
enforced, which, if any man had now penetration enough to see
them, and courage enough to express them, would cause him to be
regarded by the present generation with horror and detestation.
Perhaps, during those eight years of re-examination, the discoverer

148 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

of the circulation sometimes endeavored in imagination to trace the
effect which the stupendous fact at the knowledge of which he had
arrived would have on the progress of his favorite science ; and, it
may be, the hope and the expectation occasionally arose that the
inestimable benefit he was about to confer on his fellow men would
secure to him some portion of their esteem and confidence. What
must have been his disappointment when he found, after the publi-
cation of his tract, that the little practice he had had as a physician
by degrees fell off. He was too speculative, too theoretical* not
practical. Such was the view taken even by his friends. His
enemies saw in his tract nothing but indications of a presumptuous
mind that dared to call in question the revered authority of the
ancients ; and some of them saw, moreover, indications of a malig-
nant mind, that conceived and defended doctrines which, if not
checked, would undermine the very foundations of morality and
religion. When the evidence of the truth became irresistible, then
these persons suddenly turned round and said, that it was all known
before, and that the sole merit of this vaunted discoverer consisted
in having circulated the circulation. The pun was not fatal to the
future fame of this truly great man, nor even to the gradual though
slow return of the public confidence even during his own time ; for
he lived to attain the summit of reputation, and to see his great
discovery taught in all the medical colleges, as before stated.

The parts of the circulating system most difficult to be understood,
are the valves of the heart and their action. Both these can be beau-
tifully shown in a cow's heart, the vessels of which have been cut
high up, and as little injured as possible. The hard suet being cleared
from the base of the heart, to show the bicuspid valve between the
left auricle and ventricle, pass the finger into the large opening of
the aorta (which is the vessel butchers often hang the heart by)
nearest the heart, when will be felt the semilunar valves at the
mouth of the left ventricle. These must be broken down by
cautiously introducing a scalpel, or penknife, and cutting and then
forcibly rupturing them with the finger. Having done this, close
all the openings on the side of the aorta, by tying them, or trans-
fixing them with a needle, and twisting thread round it, or putting
a small cork in the largest, fastening with needles, and twisting
thread round them, &c. Now pour water gently into the aorta, and
notice where it escapes. This will be by the left auricle, which is
to be cautiously removed (but not cut quite to its base), until the
valves are exposed. If water is now poured quickly into the aorta>

THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM.

Showing the Aorta, or main pipe, from its orifice, together with its branches, and
all the arteries with their various ramifications throughout the Human System, in
their«natural color, carrying, with fearful rapidity and power, the crimson fluid, from
the great reservoir, the Heart, to the minutest part of the system, flowing in jets and
causing the pulsations at the wrists

THE VENOUS SYSTEM.

Showing the two Vsna Cavce, or great veins, together with all the veins in the Human
System, in their natural color, returning the blood to the great fountain, the Heart.

CIRCULATION. 149

the bicuspid valve will be1 seen to be lifted up, and to prevent its
escape ; or, what is better, the air may be made to take the place
of the water, by drawing in the breath and blowing forcibly, in
quick succession, through the aorta. The action of the valve during
life may thus be shown with tolerable accuracy.

When this has been examined the heart may be cut through
transversely, two or three inches above the apex, to show the
greater thickness of the left than the right ventricle ; the left
ventricle and aorta may then be cut up to show their internal
surface — the fleshy columns and tendinous cords, which assist the
heart in contracting, the appearance of the bicuspid and semilunar
valves, the grooves leading to the branches from the aorta, &c.

The action of the semilunar valve may now be shown by cau-
tiously cutting away the right ventricle, till the valves at the mouth
cf the pulmonary artery are exposed. Take a pig's bladder, and
cut about two inches off each extremity. Sew the narrower end
round the inner surface of the pulmonary artery ; pour a jugful of
water quickly into the bladder, and the action of the valves, in
preventing its return, will be seen.

By mixing Paris plaster (which may be got from any plasterer)
bulk for bulk with the water, casts of the pulmonary valves, of the
left ventricle, &c., may be made, and cut out when dry. To take
a cast of the right ventricle, the pulmonary valves must be broken
down, as above. These make very instructive preparations, when
the valves, &c., are distinguished by being colored.

Attention should also be directed to the great difference in mus-
cularity between the auricles and ventricles, and to the sounds of
the heart as they can be heard by applying the ear to the left side
of the chest of a ttiin person. The first dull sound is supposed to
be produced principally by the contraction of the ventricles, the
succeeding sharp sound by the falling back of the blood on the
semilunar valves. In disease, these sounds become louder and
much altered — in some cases resembling the blowing of bellows, in
others the rasping of a file, &c. The contraction of the heart is
called its systole, the time it rests its diastole.

To show the fibrin of the blood, get some from the butcher (who
extracts it by turning his fingers in the blood while coagulating),
and wash it till it is pure white. The coagulability of the serum
should be shown by heating it in a Florence flask.

As mentioned in the text, the microscope shows the circulation
in a frog's foot.

150 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Other figures to illustrate this section may be found in " Animal
Physiology " in the Library of Useful Knowledge, pages 69, 70,
71, 73, 74 ; in Dr. Roget's Bridgewater Treatise ; in Dr. Smith's
Philosophy of Health ; in Bell's Anatomy, &c.

The blood is subject to disease with other parts of the body,
arising from various causes, and the most frequent is an unequal
circulation of it. When the capillary system of the skin ceases to
perform its functions, or does it imperfectly, the blood is diverted
from its ordinary channels, and driven inwards to some of the
organs, and by its preternatural accumulation, in connexion with
retained morbid perspiratory matter, becomes a source of irritation
and inflammation. This state of the system does not prove that
there is too great a quantity of this fluid in the body, but that the
balance of the circulation is lost ; that there is not an equable
distribution throughout the blood-vessels. The defective doctor
now steps in, not as a servant of nature to assist her to return back
the blood to its original channels by appropriate treatment, but
abstracts a portion of it, and thus frustrates her intentions to accom-
plish this object.

As the restorative process depends on, the blood, just in propor-
tion to the amount taken is the power to produce re-action dimi-
nished, and it appears to me to be as unphilosophical and unrea-
sonable to bleed a man to cure him of a disease as it would be to
lay an additional weight on anything which a person was exerting
all his strength to lift. The inability to raise it would be just in
proportion to the amount added, and thus the phlebotomist retards
instead of assisting nature.

According to this view, then, the proper treatment consists not
in lessening the quantity of blood in the system, but in equalizing
it ; and this must be effected by administering such medicines as
cause a determination of the blood to the surface from whence it
has retreated. Warm herb tea to be given, aided by warmth exter-
nally, as hot bricks, or bottles of hot water to the sides and feet.
In some cases the vapor bath or a " rum sweat." The cardinal
indication or intention to fulfil this is to equalize the circulation of
the blood, not impair it, or abstract it. In those cases where there
is a taint or impurity, alterative agents should be given.

IN FEBRILE DISEASES

Pursue the following course : — Commence by taking an emetic,
and the next day take a cathartic. When the operation is over,

CIRCULATION. 151

use means to produce free perspiration ; if the attack is severe, take
a rum sweat. This may be done over a cane seat or open seated
chair, with the patient divested of all clothing, but covered from
the neck to the floor with two or three blankets or coverlids to keep
in the vapor, and his feet placed at the same time in weak warm
ley-water. Put a quantity of rum in a tin or earthen vessel, and
place it underneath the chair, and set fire to it. Let the patient
continue in this situation till free perspiration is produced ; then
remove him to the bed, and give freely of herb tea as before directed.
When the perspiration has subsided, take weak ley-water, rather
cool, dip a sponge or towel into it, and, if the patient is unable to
sit up, raise the clothes with one hand, and with the other bathe

the whole surface of the body and extremities, as represented in
the above figure, at the same time administer freely of catnip or
other herb tea. This ablution or bathing must be repeated as often
as there is an accession or increase of fever, which usually takes
place towards evening. This will thoroughly cleanse the surface of
all morbid or viscid matter which obstructs perspiration, and while
it invites the fluids to trie surface, opens the pores of the skin and
equalizes the circulation — and which prevents the necessity of ab-
stracting any blood. This course soon diminishes the pulse and
fever surprisingly, and secures rest and sleep.

A purgative, as a general rule, may be given every other morning.
If the disease is very obstinate, the emetic may occasionally be
repeated. The cathartic and the bathing must be regularly perse-
vered in. If there is determination of blood to the head plasters
of mustard, Indian meal, and vinegar, combined, must be applied
to the feet, and between the shoulders, until the skin become a
little red ; also bathe the feet in warm weak leyTwater.

152 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

The patient may take, as often as he is thirsty, half a tumbler
of the

GREAT FEBRIFUGE COLD SPRING WATER,

also lemonade, if it can be procured, or a little vinegar, sugar, and
water combined, and cold toast or barley water. This course regu-
larly persevered in, will cure all cases of bilious remittent fever in
our Southern and Western country, unless there is some organic
disease of the system. But the disease is usually protracted under
the best treatment, and requires perseverance and confidence in the
means used.

Beware of making any changes in the above treatment at the
suggestion of mineral doctors, or of meddlesome and gossiping old
women, or others. And should medical counsel be really required,
call in a physician of the

REFORMED SCHOOL OF MEDICINE,

any one of whom will be found more safe and successful than any
others in the treatment of these diseases.

See " American Practice and Family Physician," a work which
should be in the hands of every family.

CHAPTER IX.

OF DIGESTION.

IN order to repair the waste of their bodies which is continually
going on, there is a necessity in all organized beings for nourishing
matter to be taken from without, to be added to their system.
Vegetables depend on extraneous matter for subsistence, which is
taken up by the roots, and distributed by means of the sap-vessels.
But the grand characteristic of animals, is their possessing a
stomach, a central cavity, into which the nourishing matter is first
put, to be from thence taken up into the circulation, and so distri-
buted all over the system. The stomach and bowels constitute the
proper digestive apparatus, and several other organs which co-

FIG. 30. THE OESOPHAGUS, STOMACH, AND INTESTINES.

/(Esophagus or gullet, i The stomach, h The pyloric orifice, where the food enters
the intestines. 3 3 External rim of the liver, k The hepatic duct, m Cystic duct, n
Common duct, formed by the union of the two. j Gall-bladder. The arrows represent
the intestines, with the course of the food.

OF DIGESTION. 153

operate in various ways to aid it are the assistant digestive appara-
tus. Besides, we have a set of organs for preparing the food for
the stomach, tearing, bruising, grinding and mixing it with fluid
that it may be easily swallowed. It is most convenient, though
perhaps not most philosophical, to trace these parts successively
from the mouth downward ; we will, therefore, commence with the
parts concerned in digestion, inquire into the nature of the action
of swallowing, and trace the food as far as the stomach. From the
stomach we will follow it down into the small intestines, see how
it is mingled with the bile and the pancreatic juice, and learn how
the nourishing parts of it are absorbed and carried into the circu-
lating mass, and how that part which is useless is pushed on, until
it is expelled from the body.

MOUTH.

The mouth is a cavity having somewhat the shape of a hemi-
sphere, the flat surface being directed downward and the con-
vexity upward. Its roof is formed by bone ; it is shut in at the
sides and front by the muscular parts forming the cheeks and lips ;
below, it is enclosed round about by the lower jaw, and its floor is
formed by the tongue. From the back part of the mouth hangs
down a conical bag, which leads into the oesophagus or gullet, and
the nose communicates with it from above. Hence is the reason
that we can breathe equally by the nose or mouth, and that some-
times if we are taken by surprise with a fit of coughing while swal-
lowing, the contents of the throat run out through the nose. In
order to- prevent this from occurring constantly, there is a curtain
placed at the back of the mouth, which we see on looking into a
glass, and which rises or falls according to the necessity for its
being applied either above or below. A long red tassel hangs
down from the centre of it, nearly touching the top of the tongue,
which is endowed with great sensibility, and warns the curtain to
rise whenever the food comes in contact with it. When food is
about to be swallowed, it is rolled about in the mouth and mixed
with saliva, till it forms a kind of ball, and when it gets to the back
of the mouth, between the arches of the palate, there is felt an irre-
sistible tendency to swallow. The curtain now rises so as to pre-
vent any of it passing up into the nose, the tongue rises against the
roof of the mouth, so as to keep it from getting, forward again, and
the only course left for it is to pass down into the gullet. It is a
mistake, however, to suppose that food falls into the stomach, tho

154 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

fact being that a man can swallow nearly as well when standing on
his head as on his feet. This will be understood if we suppose an
imaginary division of the gullet into a number of rings. When one
ring contracts, the food passes down into the next, then the second
contracts, and squeezes it down into the third, while the first being
still contracted, prevents it from getting up, and so the process goes
on, regularly downward, until the ball arrives at the stomach. And
in vomiting, an action takes place precisely the reverse of this, and
the food is squeezed up from the stomach into the mouth, although
so rapidly as to seem almost instantaneous.

TONGUE.

The tongue is fixed to the back of the chin, and has a muscle
arising from this point and radiating through it, forward, upward,
and backward, which can protrude the tongue, turn it upward,
downward, or to the side, render its surface convex, or hollow to
serve for a conduit, as in drinking. There are three pairs of mus-
cles actually forming the substance of the tongue, and not less than
six pairs more which can aid in its motions. The whole inner sur-
face of the mouth is lined with a soft mucous membrane, so called
because it pours out a mucus from its surface to lubricate it, to
protect it? and to assist the food, to slide easily through it. The
upper surface of the tongue is covered with many delicate papillae
or points in which the nerves of taste end, which vary in appear-
ance in different animals. In the cow, for example, they are much
rougher than in man ; in the lion they are so rough as to be capable
of peeling one's skin off should he attempt to lick it ; and in some
of the marine animals which swallow living shell-fish, both the
tongue and the gullet are covered with thickly set spines, directed
backward, to prevent their prey from actually creeping up again.

SALIVARY GLANDS.

Six glands are placed about the mouth for the purpose of supply-
ing saliva to be mixed with the food; two very large ones lie
behind the ear, in the hollow between the lower jaw and the tem-
poral bone, so that the motion of eating squeezes out their contents..
Their ducts run forward in the cheek, and perforate the mouth
opposite the second last tooth in the upper jaw, where with the
tongue a small soft projection may be recognised. Two others lie
on each side under the tongue, having a common duct, which may
be seen opening on the fold of membrane that bridles down the

OF DIGESTION. 155

tongue. This fold, it may be mentioned here, is what produces the
appearance called tongue-tied, when too short. The tongue, then,
cannot be well put out of the mouth, and the infant cannot nurse
conveniently. A little time, however, relaxes the parts.

One or other of the ducts which open below the tongue is subject
to become stopped up, and the saliva distends it into a soft- swell-
ing, which impedes the motions of the tongue in the actions of
speech and mastication. But the most annoying thing connected
with the salivary ducts is, when one of those running in the cheek
is divided, as by a cut ; it is then difficult to heal, and the saliva is
constantly running over the cheek. The quantity which is lost in
this way in such cases, is very great indeed.

TEETH.

The teeth are the hardest parts in the whole body. In the adult
they are thirty-two in number, eight upon each side of each jaw.
They are of four different kinds ; in front there are, on each side,
two incisors or cutting teeth, whose edge is like that of a chisel ;
next them is one eyetooth, which is pointed ; thirdly, there are two
small grinders; and lastly, there are three large grinders. Tha
teeth in the two jaws do not exactly meet ; the cutting teeth of the
upper jaw overlapping those of the under, while the grinders just
meet one another. We sometimes, however, see people whose
under teeth project beyond their upper, giving a peculiar appear-
ance of length to the lower part of the face.

The crown is that part which appears above the gum, the body
is the thick part, and the fangs or roots penetrate down into the
socket. A cavity is seen in the body of the tooth, which is occu-
pied by a pulpy 'substance, containing some blood-vessels and nerves,
and a small canal is seen leading from the cavity into each fang,
and opening by a minute hole, through which the blood-vessels and
nerves enter. The bony part of the tooth which projects above the
jaw, and is destined to meet its fellows, and to come in contact with
the fluids in the mouth, is protected by the enamel, which is the
hardest substance in the body. It is thought not to be an organized
substance at all, as no blood or sensibility has been detected in
it, so that it seems to be merely a protection, to prevent the re-
mainder of the tooth from being worn. When broken off, it is
never replaced, and the tooth of necessity passes into decay.

The structure of the bony part of the tooth is similar to that of
bone elsewhere, only it is much harder. Hence, by referring to

156 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

the chemical structure of bone, detailed before, it will be under-
stood how the teeth are pained when anything hot or acid is taken
into the mouth ; why the patient who is to use acid drops is always
directed to suck them through a quill, that they may not come into
contact with the teeth, and how the teeth blacken, and are actually
dissolved away in persons who are subject to acidity of the stomach.
When a hole has formed in a tooth, no pain is felt till the cavity is
reached, and the nerve exposed, and then, as almost every one
knows by experience, the pain is most excruciating. Sometimes
it is relieved by some powerful stimulant dropped into the tooth, as
the essential oil of cloves, sometimes by the recently discovered
substance called kreosote, which has the property of deadening the
nerve, and sometimes the tortured victim is glad to appease the
tormentor by destroying the nerve, by the introduction of a hot
wire. If the cavity is not large, it ought to be stopped ; an opera-
tion which generally succeeds in preserving the tooth for a long
time, by excluding the air, and all other agents which could act
upon it. This stopping ought to be done with gold leaf, or some-
thing of that kind, and by a respectable dentist ; and no one should
trust his teeth in the hands of an ignorant dentist. If stopping
the tooth does not prevent the recurrence of toothache, the offending
member must be removed ; and this last resource should never be
deferred so long that the stump requires to be dug out of the jaw;
because then what is a brief though painful operation, is converted
into one which is tedious, and often insufferable.

The teeth at first lie deep within the jaw bones, covered, at birth,
by the thick gum. Their rudiments at birth are very small. The
crown or upper part of the tooth is formed first, then the body, then
the enamel is deposited on the crown, and lastly, the fangs grow as
the tooth becomes protruded. When the jaw of a new-born child
is dissected, a pulp is found for each tooth, like a little stool, into
which blood-vessels are seen running, on the top of which the bone
is deposited, and after the tooth has attained its shape, the pulpy
stool shrinks away almost to nothing, except the small quantity of
cellular tissue which conveys the vessels and nerves into the cen-
tral cavity. The whole tooth is enclosed within a delicate mem-
brane, which becomes ruptured when the tooth bursts forth. The
gum of an infant has a sharp line running along it, which serves it
to catch anything that is put into its mouth ; and this line becomes
broader and flattened, and finally disappears, previous to the erup-
tion of teeth. The order of eruption is generally the following :

OF DIGESTION. 157

First, the two central incisors of the lower jaw appear, then the
corresponding ones above. After this, the order is not regularly
backwards, for the foremost of the two grinders now appears below,
then that above, then the eye-tooth below, then its corresponding
one above, and lastly, the second grinder comes through about the
end of the second or beginning of the third year. When they do
not follow this order, dentition is generally attended with more than
usual irritation. The period when the teeth appear varies much.
" I know one lady," says Douglas, u who was born with two teeth,
as Richard III. says of himself." It is rather early for them to
appear at the age of four months, more commonly seven have
passed before any signs of uneasiness are discovered, and some-
times even twelve or thirteen. A good deal of constitutional dis-
turbance generally attends teething : the mouth is hot, the gums
itchy, and the infant rubs them with anything it can get into its
hands. For this purpose nothing is so good as the common ivory
ring ; all manner of corals and bells should be discarded, as they
are apt to injure the mouth, or even to be thrust into the eyes.
The bowels are apt to become much deranged, and require constant
attention.

From the hardness of the teeth, they are not capable of growing,
so as to fill up the increased size of the jaws in after years. Hence
we see a growing child come to have spaces left between its teeth,
as they are removed from one another by the elongation of the jaw.
About the seventh or eighth year, a third grinder on each side of
each jaw makes its appearance, which is the first of the permanent
teeth, and never changes. When this one is rising above the gums,
the central incisors of the under jaw are becoming loose. If a jaw
bone be dissected at this period, and its outer part be filed away, a
very beautiful preparation is obtained. The first teeth are seen in
their places, and the second set are seen deep in the jaw, below,
and rather behind them, ready to rise up and supplant them. It is,
however, quite a mistake to suppose that the new teeth push out
the old ; the fact is, that they cannot get up until the old ones be
removed. Preparatory to the removal of the old ones, their fangs
become absorbed, so that they are not a quarter of an inch in
length ; whereas, had they been examined some months sooner,
they would have been found three times as long. I have a very
interesting specimen in my Museum to show the second dentition.
It is the cranium or skull of a child, in which is seen the second set
of teeth forcing out the first.

158

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Somewhere between the completion of the seventh and eighth
years, the second dentition commences. The first permanent grinders
appear, and the central incisors fall out and are replaced. In three
months more, the lateral incisors follow. In from six to twelve
months more, the grinders give way, and after them the eye-teeth.
The grinders are succeeded by a new species of teeth, which do
not exist in the milk set, called the small grinders. These changes
take place about the tenth or eleventh year, and it is not for two or
three years more that the second of the permanent grinders makes
its appearance. A long interval now succeeds, and the jaw acquires
its full proportion, and about the nineteenth or twentieth year the
wisdom tooth cuts the gum, but sometimes not till even a later
period. \Yisdom teeth sometimes appear at thirty. The grinders
often give pain in coming through, on account of their broad sur-
faces meeting with much resistance. The following is a view of
the teeth, fangs, and nerves.

STOMACH.

j. ne stomach is a bag of a conical shape ; the large end of
which lies in the left side of the belly immediately beneath the
diaphragm, and the small end at the hollow, which is familiarly
known as the pit of the stomach. It is bent besides on account of
its passing across the spine ; the concave border being directed
backwards, and the convex border forward. When the stomach is

FIG. 35. BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE STOMACH.

FIG. 36.

The above figure shows the Liver turned back. The Gall-bladder i, Stomach, epiplon
or omentum which forms a sort of apron in front, which covers the intestines. It
shows also the gastric artery, and ggg the epiploic branches, i shows the cystic artery.

OF DIGESTION. 159

nearly empty, the convex border hangs downwards, and when filled,
it rises forwards, producing sometimes a painful feeling of disten-
sion. This is most felt by persons who are troubled with flatulence
after taking food. In such persons, if one finger be laid over the
stomach and struck with one of the other hand, it will sound like a
drum, in consequence of the quantity of air which is contained in
it. The oesophagus or gullet enters the great or left end of the
stomach, and the pyloris or small intestine commences at its smaller
or right end. These two orifices are upon the same level, so that
the food does not run out of the stomach, but can only get out of it
by the contraction of its coats. These are muscular, as indeed are
the coats of the whole intestinal canal, and are particularly strong
at the smaller end, where they form a ring, which contracts and
completely closes the communication between the stomach and
intestines. The stomach is lined with a velvety mucous membrane,
similar to and continuous with that which lines the mouth and
gullet. This membrane is full of minute blood-vessels, from which
a mucous fluid is poured, which serves at once to mingle with the
food and assist its digestion, and to protect the coats of the stomach
from injury. Accordingly, when any irritating substance is swal-
lowed, mucus is immediately poured out, which envelopes it, and
prevents, as far as possible, the evil consequences which might
ensue.

GASTRIC JUICE.

Besides the mucous, another fluid is poured into the stomach by
its coats, which is called the gastric juice. This is a clear ropy
fluid, of a saltish taste, possessing the power of dissolving all sub-
stances which are fit for food. It has no effect, however, on the
living stomach ; but we often find, on opening persons who have
died suddenly, with a quantity of the gastric juice in the stomach,
and no food, that the dead stomach itself has been dissolved, and
that a large irregular opening exists in its back part.

After a meal, the stomach becomes agitated by a constant succes-
sion of gradual contractions, which turn the food gently back again,
churning it and mixing it all well together, so that it acquires the ap-
pearance of so much porridge or gruel, the different aliments that have
been swallowed becoming so blended as to form a homogeneous mass
of a greyish color. It is turned backward and forward for three hours
or more, until the delicate sense which resides in the orifice leading
into the intestines is satisfied that it is fit to pass further. The con-

160 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

stricted ring then opens to let it through, and it passes into the
commencement of the bowels. But such is the delicacy of per-
ception with which the orifice of the stomach is endowed, that it
will not lefr undigested food pass, until it has been rolled about in
the stomach for many hours, and presented to it and rejected many
successive times. Indeed it often refuses to allow such food to pass
at all, and then there is no help for it but that it be ejected sum-
marily by vomiting.

Let us now inquire into that part of the process of digestion
which goes on in the stomach.

DIGESTION.

In this organ the first of those changes takes place which fits the
extraneous matter swallowed as food, for being received into the
circulation of the fluids of the living body, and for becoming a
component part of the animal. For now, the gastric juice, acting
on the semifluid mass, quickly dissolves out the digestible part, and
entering into union with it, produces a new, thick, and turbid fluid,
which has been called chyme. The alimentary mass changes its
sensible and chemical properties, by an operation peculiarly animal,
or depending on the existence of life. The change is not strictly
chemical, for we do not find anything like it going on out of the
living body. An.imal or vegetable matters in any vessel possessing
the heat and moisture of the stomach, would quickly fall into fer-
mentation, and become sour, but the living properties of the stomach
prevent this. No acid is formed in the stomach in the healthy
state ; but when it is weak, and its nervous action is deranged, then
the symptoms which announce the diminished power are the extri-
cation of gas. and formation of acid, with oppression and uneasy
sensations. The contents of the stomach consist of air, partly
swallowed, partly formed in it, of the mucous secretion from its
coats, and of the chyme. The stomach having been stimulated by
fulness, by wind, and still more by the peculiar irritation of the
food undergoing digestion, the muscular coat is brought into action,
and the contents of the stomach delivered into the commencement
of the small intestine (duodenum).

HUNGER.

We are solicited to take food by the uneasy sensation of hunger,
a sense which appears placed as a safeguard lest the body should be
permitted to wear out. In the artificial state of society in which

FIG. 31. CONTENTS OF THE ABDOMEN AFTER REMOVAL OF THE INTESTINES.

L L L L Liver. G Gall-bladder. P P Pancreas. S Spleen. K K Kidneys. B
Bladder. U U Ureters. R Rectum. A Aorta. V V Vena cava.

OF DIGESTION. 161

we live, where regular hours are appointed for meals, so that one
shall succeed before the interval after the preceding shall have been
so long as to produce pain, scarcely any one knows what hunger
really is, except by some self-inflicted abstinence. Yet though
unaccustomed to be felt by us, there is an unpleasant sensation
produced by want of food, amounting at first only to a feeling of
emptiness, lassitude, and indescribable uneasiness, but gradually
getting worse until it end in actual pain, as if the inward parts were
all on fire. There was a time when it was thought that the internal
surfaces of the empty stomach rubbing against one another pro-
duced hunger, and hence arose the vulgar phrase of " taking the
wrinkles out of your stomach," by satisfying the appetite ; but that
is too mechanical an explanation. If the sensation proceeded
merely from such rubbing of the coats of the stomach, food swal-
lowed would be more likely to aggravate than to assuage the gnaw-
ing of hunger ; to excite the action of the stomach would be to
excite the appetite ; and an irritable stomach would be attended
with an insatiable desire for food. Something more than mere
emptiness is required to produce hunger. By some of the ancients,
hunger was referred to the weight of the liver dragging down the
empty stomach, forgetting that the liver is as heavy, and will drag
as much when the stomach is full as when it is empty. By others,
with more probability, it is supposed to proceed from the action of
the gastric fluid on the nerves in the coats of the stomach. Hun-
ger is, like thirst, a sense placed as a safeguard calling for what is
necessary for the system, and depending on the general state of the
body. Morbid craving may proceed from many causes ; a tape-
worm in the bowels has occasioned voracious appetite, and ardent
spirits and high ^seasoning excite it even when the stomach is full ;
but natural hunger has always a reference to the wants of the gene-
ral system.

THIRST.

Thirst is a sensation seated in the tongue, throat, gullet, and
stomach. It depends on the state of the membrane which lines
these parts, and of the fluids which naturally moisten it, and may
arise either from a deficiency of that fluid, or from an acrid state of
it. It would appear to be placed as a monitor calling for the dilu-
tion of the fluids by drink, when they have been exhausted by
perspiration and the fatigue of the body, or when the contents of
the stomach require to be made more fluid, the more easily to suffer

162 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

the necessary changes of digestion. The feeling of thirst, when
carried to an extreme, is said to be much harder to bear than that
of hunger, and the most dreadful picture is given of it in some
accounts of shipwreck, particularly in that published of the horrible
calamities endured by the crew of the French frigate, the Medusa,
on the coast of Africa.

The changes which take place on the tongue, in consequence of
the state of the stomach and intestines, depend on its intimate
connexion with these organs, and the nervous sympathy which is
established between them. The state of the tongue, the loose or
viscid state of the throat, the secretion of the saliva, the softness or
huskiness of the voice, are all influenced by the state of the
stomach. We attend more to the effects on the tongue than to any
of the rest, because it is more accessible, and affords us a sort of
index to the state of the stomach. In health, it is clean, red, and
moist ; in indigestion, it is white ; in disorders of the bowels, it is
more or less thickly furred ; after excess in wine or spirits, it is
dry and chopped ; and in typhoid cases of fever, it becomes quite
black.

A great many absurd experiments have been performed, with the
view of elucidating the nature of digestion, on the one hand, and the
digestibility of various kinds of aliments, on the other. The most
remarkable are those of Spallanzani, a celebrated physiologist of
Modena. At the time when he entered upon his researches, it was
thought that this phenomenon was only a species of trituration, and
that the chyme was merely the food bruised till reduced to pulp : but
Spallanzani showed this not to be the case. He caused birds to swal-
low articles of food contained in tubes, and little metallic boxes,
the walls of which were pierced with holes, so as to preserve these
substances from all friction, but not to withdraw them from the
action of the liquids contained in the stomach, and he found that
digestion took place as under ordinary circumstances. He, there-
fore, justly concluded, that the gastric juice must be the principal
cause of the chymification of food, and to be more completely
assured, he had recourse to very ingenious experiments. He made
crows and other birds swallow little sponges attached to a thread,
by means of which he withdrew these bodies from the stomach after
they had remained there for some minutes, and had imbibed the
liquids contained in this cavity. Thus he procured a considerable
quantity of the gastric juice, which he placed in small vessels with
the food suitably divided : he took care at the same time to raise

OF DIGESTION. 163

the temperature, so as to imitate as nearly as possible the circum-
stances under which chymification takes place ; and at the end of
some hours he found the alimentary mass, submitted to this artificial
digestion, transformed into a pulpy matter, similar in all respects to
that which would have been formed in the stomach by a natural
digestion; thereby proving that the action of the gastric juice
upon the food is the principal cause of its transformation into
chyme.

A very curious case has recently occurred by which immediate
access was had to the living stomach, and the experiments which
were performed have been published by their author, Dr. Beaumont,
of Plattsburgh, in this State.

A young man, of a good constitution, when eighteen years of
age, was accidentally wounded in June, 1822, by a musket loaded
with buckshot. The shot tore away a piece of his left side, about
a hand's-breadth in extent, making a hole into his stomach. For
seventeen days everything that was taken by the mouth passed out
at the hole ; but after that period, by means of properly adapted
bandages, the food was enabled to be retained. The wound
gradually diminished until it became of the size and nearly of the
appearance of the natural anus ; and about a year and a half after
the accident, the lining membrane of the stomach came to form a
valve which prevented anything from running out, although the
finger, or a tea-spoon, or a tube could be readily introduced. By
two years after the accident, he had completely recovered his health
and strength, and Dr. Beaumont conceived the idea of making use
of the extraordinary opportunity thus put into his hands of examin-
ing into the nature of digestion.

When the stomach was empty and at rest, the interior of its
cavity could be examined to the depth of five or six inches, and '*
food and drink could be seen entering it, through the ring at the
entry of the gullet. The solvent power of the gastric juice was
ascertained in the most conclusive manner. Almost every variety
of aliment, whether animal or vegetable, when submitted to the
action of the fluid taken from the stomach when fasting, and kept
at a temperature of about 100°, was found to become reduced to a
paste in a few hours, which resembled very nearly the contents of
the stomach after the same kinds of aliment had been eaten. The
rapidity with which substances were dissolved by the gastric fluid
out of the body, was always in proportion to the purity of the fluid,
and the tenderness and state of minute division of the substances

164 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

submitted to its action. Milk and the white of an egg were invaria-
bly found to become first curdled by the fluid, and then dissolved.

The periods required for the solution of various substances in
the gastric juice out of the body, varied as follows : — Sago and
tapioca, boiled, were completely dissolved in about three hours and
a quarter; fresh bread, in about four hours and a half ; milk, in
about the same time as bread ; calf Vfoot jelly, in about four hours
and three quarters ; soft boiled eggs, in six hours and a half — hard
boiled, two hours longer ; oysters, raw and entire, seven hours and
a half, stewed, eight hours and a half ; beefsteak, in eight hours ;
boiled beef, in nine hours and a half; boiled mutton, and raw
pork, in eight hours and a half; beef suet, boiled, in twelve hours;
mutton suet, boiled, in ten hours ; cream, in twenty-five hours and
a half; olive oil, in sixty hours. In these experiments the gastric
juice employed was about eight times the quantity of the substance
to be dissolved. It will be seen from these experiments, that fat
and oily food were among the articles which presented the greatest
resistance to the solvent powers of the gastric fluid ; and this Dr.
Beaumont found to be the case in the stomach as well as out of it.
Some of his experiments indicate that the digestibility of this sort
of food is facilitated by a slight admixture of bile with the gastric
juice, and that very generally, when aliment containing fat. is eaten,
bile is found in the cavity of the stomach.

I will now transcribe the conclusions which Dr. Beaumont has
deduced from his experiments on his patient.

" The ordinary time required for the complete digestion of the
food received into the stomach, in a healthy state of that organ, is
generally three hours and a half. The facility of digestion is modi-
fied, however, by many circumstances, as the peculiar nature of
individuals, habit, the nature of the food, and the manner in which
it is prepared : minuteness of division, and tenderness of fibre,
wo\ild appear to be the two great essentials for the speedy and easy
digestion of the aliment.

" Albumen (white of eggs), if swallowed either raw or very
slightly coagulated, is perhaps as rapidly digested as any article of
diet we possess. If perfectly hardened by heat, and swallowed in
large solid pieces, it experiences a very protracted digestion. Fi-
brin (red muscular flesh) and jelly are affected in the same way ; if
tender and finely divided, they are disposed of readily ; if in large
solid masses, digestion is proportionably retarded."

Animal fat is invariably, and very quickly rendered fluid by the

FIG. 32. THE INTESTINAL CANAL.

A A A Under surface of the liver. B Gall-bladder. E Hepatic Artery. M M Sto-
mach. V V Pancreas. O Spleen. U U U U Colon. T Ccecum and Appendix Ver-
miformis. W Sigmoid flexure of the Colon. X Y Rectum. Z Z Muscles of the Rec-
tum. P Sphincter Muscle of the Rectum. R Duodenum. S S S S S Small intestines.

OF DIGESTION. 165

heat of the stomach, and, with any species of oily food, resists for
a long time the action of the digestive organ and its fluids. It has
already been noticed above, that this sort of food generally requires
an admixture of bile to render it soluble.

" Bulk is perhaps nearly as necessary to the articles of diet as
the nutrient principle. They should be so managed, that the one
of these qualities should be in proportion to the other. Too highly
nutritive diet is probably as fatal to the prolongation of life and
health, as that which contains an insufficient quantity of nourish-
ment."

A commencing state of putrefaction, sufficient to render the mus-
cular fibre slightly tender, was found to increase the digestibility of
most kinds of flesh. This is a practice which every housekeeper
in this country adheres to, though without knowing the principle
on which it is founded.

Some kinds of vegetable aliment, generally speaking, he dis-
covered to be slower and more difficult of digestion than animal. Its
solution in the stomach is greatly influenced, however, by division
and tenderness of fibre. Raw vegetables often pass through the
stomach in an undigested state, while other food is retained and
fully digested.

The thorough mastication of the food is essential to healthy
digestion. " If aliment," remarks the author, " in large masses be
introduced into the stomach, though the gastric juice may act upon
its surface, digestion will proceed so slowly, that putrefactive
changes will be likely to commence in its substance before it will
become completely dissolved. Besides, the stomach will not retain
undigested masses for a long time, without suffering great disturb-
ance." Consequently, eating too fast impedes digestion, by intro-
ducing food into the stomach in a state unprepared for the actions
of that organ and of its fluids. Also, if food be swallowed too
rapidly, more will in general be taken into the stomach, before the
sense of hunger is allayed, than can be digested with ease.

Overloading the stomach with food is invariably found to inter-
fere writh the regular process of digestion ; a portion remaining for
a long time undigested. This very soon becomes rancid, or runs
into the acetous fermentation ; and if not rejected by vomiting,
causes pain and irritation of the stomach, and other distressing
symptoms ; or if it be permitted to pass into the intestines, its pre-
sence almost invariably gives rise to colic, flatulence, or even more
dangerous affections.

166 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

Condiments, as spices, though they may at first excite the action
of a debilitated stomach, yet, when used habitually, never fail to
produce debility of that organ, and in this manner impede digestion.
Salt, pepper, and vinegar, are exceptions, and are not obnoxious to
this charge when used in moderation. They both assist digestion,
— vinegar, by rendering muscular substance more tender — and both,
by producing a fluid having some analogy to the gastric juice.
Spirituous, and probably all artificial drinks, cider excepted, impede
more or less the digestive process ; some more so than others, but
none can claim exemption from the general charge. Even tea and
coffee, the common beverages of all classes of people, have a ten-
dency to debilitate the digestive organs.

After a full meal, rest should be taken for at least an hour.
After that, moderate exercise rather aids digestion, but severe and
fatiguing exertion always impedes its performance. An experiment
was made by a medical" man on a couple of dogs of the same litter,
and of equal health. After giving them a good dinner of flesh,
one was taken out and hunted for four hours, while the other was
permitted to lie down and sleep. They were then both killed ;
the hunted dog had the meat in his stomach quite undigested, the
idle one had it quite gone. The lesson is a most instructive one.

The intestines form a membranous tube nearly six times the
length of the body, about five-sixths of this length belonging to the
small intestines, and about one sixth to the large. The small intes-
tines are the canals in which the chyme is received from the sto-
mach ; and when digestion is completed, the large serve chiefly as
receptacles for the refuse which is to be expelled from the body.

In the figure the small intestine is seen commencing from the
smaller or right extremity of the stomach, passing to the right side/
where it lies close below the liver, and receives from it the gall
ducts ; then turning downward and to the left, where it receives the
ducts from the pancreas ; then twisting and forming a great number
of convolutions which lie chiefly in the middle of the belly, round
about the navel, and finally terminate in the large intestine in the
right side. The whole intestine is lined with a continuation of the
velvety membrane which lines the stomach, and which is constantly
moistened by a mucous secretion. The thickness of the gut is
formed of muscular fibres, arranged in two layers, the outer layer
being longitudinal, and the internal layer circular. The effect of
the gradual contraction of these fibres is to squeeze the food down-
ward ; and if the belly of an animal newly killed be opened, the

OF DIGESTION.

167

bowels are seen moving in the manner of a bunch of earthworms,
whence the name of vermicular motion, which has been given to it.
The gall ducts enter the small intestine about six inches after it
leaves the stomach, and the moment the bile mingles with the
chyme, a chemical change takes place, and the separation of the
nutritious parts from the refuse begins to go on. A creamy-looking
white fluid, called chyle, appears on the surface of the food next to
the mucous membrane, and it is sucked up by an infinity of small
vessels called the absorbents. The use of the great length of the
alimentary canal is, that every part of the food may be turned
about, and successively be presented to the mouths of these vessels,
so as to have its nourishing particles fully removed. The food
becomes gradually thicker and drier as it passes down, and is
stained of a yellow color, from the admixture of bile, but it still
remains perfectly sweet, and without any unpleasant smell, until it
gets into the large intestines, where it puts on the character of faeces
or useless matter.

Intestines, Lacteals, and Mesentery Glands.

T D T D, the chyle duct ; L, lacteals ; M G, mesenteric glands, several of which are here repre-
sented ; S, spinal column. The folding structure of the intestines is here well represented.

The large- intestine is seen in the figure to commence by a blind
end, into the side of which the small intestine opens. A valve is
here placed, to prevent the regurgitation of the faecal matter into
the small bowels. A curious appendage, about the size of a large
earth worm, is seen hanging from the end of the commencement of
the large gut, which in man is merely rudimentary. In purely
graminivorous animals, the intestines are much longer than in man,
and have several of these contrivances, for delaying the less nutri-

168

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

tious food which they subsist upon, until all its useful particles can
be absorbed. In carnivorous animals again, the intestinal canal is
short, because the food is so highly nutritious, that digestion is
very quickly completed. From this pouch, then, the great gut
ascends in the right side, crosses over the belly below the stomach,
descends in the left side, forms a twist like the letter S, and then
turns into the pelvis to open outwardly at the anus. It is called
the colon.

It has already been stated, that the nourishing part of the food,
the chyle, is absorbed from the intestines by an infinity of small
vessels, having a close affinity to veins. Their structure is very
like that of veins, and they are provided with valves, which prevent

Lucteals, Mesentery Glands, and Thoracic Duct, running up the spine and emptying its contents,
the purified chyle, into the left subclavian vein, and thus mixing with the blood

r ideal vessels emerging from the mucous surface of the intestines. 2. First order of mesen-
teric glands. 3. Second order of mesenteric glands. 4. The great trunks of the lacteals. emerg-
ing from the mesenteric glands, and pouring their contents into — 5. The receptacle of the chyle.
6. The great trunks of the lymphatic or general absorbent system, terminating in the receptacle
of the chyle. 7. The thoracic duct. 8. Termination of the thoracic duct at — 9. The angle formed
by the union of the internal jugular vein with the subclavian vein.

OF DIGESTION. 169

the fluid which they convey from taking a retrograde course. They
are not more than the thirtieth of an inch in diameter, and are so
transparent, that they are not visible when empty. If a dog be
killed about two hours after a full meal, these vessels will be seen
in great numbers arising from the bowels, and filled with a white
milky fluid, whence they receive the name of lacteals. These ves-
sels unite at the right side of the spine into a trunk about the
size of a goose-quill, which at length pours its contents, containing
all the nourishment of the body, into the great vein of the upper
part of the body, near where it joins the breast, as may be clearly
seen in the preceding figure.

There is another set of vessels, of precisely the same kind, called
lymphatics, which are very difficult to discover in dissection, be-
cause the fluid which they convey is not milky, but transparent
lymph. These arise from every part of the body, and have for
their office to remove the worn out parts, which are no longer ser-
viceable, and which are to be replaced by new deposits from the
blood. The lymph is poured into the duct which has been spoken
of in the preceding paragraph, and is mixed with the blood in the
veins, so that afterwards it may be expelled from the body through
the lungs, the liver, the kidneys, and the skin. The lymphatic and
lacteal vessels are included under the common name of absorbents.
They both pass through glands, which are roundish bodies about
the size of hazel nuts, in which the absorbents subdivide and re-
unite, apparently for the purpose of mixing thoroughly the lymph
and chyle together. For a beautiful view of the lymphatics, see
steel engraving in front of this work.

The absorbent vessels and glands are very subject to disease in
those individuals who are of a scrofulous temperament. The glands
are very liable to enlarge, inflame, burst, and suppurate, particularly
in the neck, arm-pits, and groins, and produce sores which are very
tedious in healing. Sometimes in scrofulous children the larger
branches from the intestines become obstructed before they arrive
at the main duct, so that all the food .they eat (and they generally
have voracious appetites) never does them any good, because it
never gets into the circulation. Such children are generally small
and puny, with sharp thin faces, and large tumid bellies. Some
years ago, a person by the name of Calvin Edson was exhibited in
this city, called the " living skeleton," in consequence of having
been reduced so low. His weight, I think, was about forty
pounds. It proceeded from a disease or obstruction in the thoracic

170 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

duct, which proved fatal, ascertained by a post mortem examina-
tion. This fact shows conclusively the course of the chyle, the
only nutritious portion of the food.

The whole of the contents of the belly are covered with a thin
shining membrane, called the peritoneum, which also lines the
boundary walls o-f that cavity. It is of the same nature as the
membrane which lines the chest and covers • the lungs, and that
which surrounds the heart. Its smooth polished surface is evidently
intended to permit the constant gentle motions of the bowels to go
on easily, without our being at all sensible of them. Its inner sur-
face is kept moist by a thin liquid, the evaporation of which is the
reason why the body of an animal newly killed, is seen to smoke
when opened and exposed to the air. When this fluid is poured
out in too great quantity, the bag of the peritoneum becomes dis-
tended with it, and constitutes the disease called dropsy. It is cus-
tomary by physicians generally to tap the patient, that is, to insert
a small tube with a sharp point into the cavity of the belly, so as to
permit the water to run out. But this operation affords only tem-
porary relief. This membrane is exceedingly liable to become
inflamed, and when inflammation does come on, it runs a very rapid
course, and often proves speedily fatal. It is from this inflamma-
tion that many of those females sink, who perish after childbirth.

Let us now devote a page or two to a notice of the diseases of
the alimentary canal.

The stomach is rarely -the seat of inflammation. It is so accus-
tomed to have all manner of things indiscriminately, and often reck-
lessly poured into it, that it wrould not be fit for its place in the body
if it were too easily inflamed. Many poisons, however, such as vitriol,
arsenic, mercury, and corrosive sublimate, produce death by exciting
violent inflammation of the stomach. The stomach is nevertheless
very subject to a low degree of inflammation or irritation, which
gives great uneasiness to its possessor. There are many, particu-
larly among the female population, and those not in the lowest ranks,
who can scarcely swallow any food, without its being succeeded by
a feeling of distension, and a sense of uneasiness, not amounting to
actual pain, but as distressing as if it were, producing headache,
giddiness, coldness of the feet, and of the surface generally, acidity,
with eructations of gas, and sometimes the bringing up of a mouth-
ful of fluid. These annoyances last till the three or four hours
have passed, during which the food remains in the stomach. Com-
plaints of this kind are exceedingly difficult to remove without pro-

FIG. 29. THE INTERNAL PARTS.

H The heart. R L Right Lung. L L Left Lunj
rates the chest from the bowels. Livr- Liver. Stm-
Intestines.

. D D Diaphragm, which sepa-
stomach. G Gall bladder. Ill

OF DIGESTION. 171

per attention to diet. The food introduced must be as easily
digestible as possible. It is not easy to lay down any rule for this,
although the account given above of the digestibility of different
substances will furnish some data ; but the stomachs of those trou-
bled with indigestion are most capricious, and we sometimes see
them reject anything simple, and evince what we would consider
the most extraordinary predilections. Mild laxatives, tonics, bit-
ters, &c., all may take their turns as assistant remedies. Pustules
brought out on the stomach by our irritating plaster are often most
beneficial.

One habit, and a very important one too, and which is much
neglected, and often induces this and other complaints of the diges-
tive organs, is a neglect of proper mastication or chewing our food
sufficiently. Tyrone Power, in his Travels in America, speaking of
the hasty manner in which the Americans eat, thus remarks : —
" They dart their food with the rapidity of a wolf f" Fowler, in
his work on Physiology, thus remarks on this subject : —

HOW TO EAT ; OR MASTICATION.

" Our food once selected, the next question is, how shall it be
eaten 7 With teeth, of course, never with the stomach. Nature
forbids our throwing it into its receptacle as with a shovel. By ren-
dering its only passage way small, she literally compels us to de-
posit it in small parcels. She has also furnished us with a mouth,
set all around with two rows of teeth, which fit exactly upon each
other, and are every way adapted to crushing our food to atoms.
Nor can we swallow our food without its being more or less chewed.

To persuade as well as to compel such mastication, nature has
rendered it highly pleasurable. Instead of food being tasteless, she
has given it a far more delicious flavor than all the spices of India
could impart. Yet man does not know how to enjoy a tithe of the
gustatory pleasure she has appended to eating. Not one in thou-
sands know how to eat ! Not that all do not know how to eat
enough, yet few know how to eat little enough. All know hew to
eat fast enough, but very few know how to eat slowly enough.
And strange as it may seem, few know how even to chew, simple,
easy, and natural as this process is ! Nine hundred and ninety-
nine in every thousand eat mostly with their stomachs, instead of
with their teeth ! One would think that this poor slave had to per-
form two or three times its wonted task, simply to digest the
enormous quantities of heterogeneous compounds forced upon it,

172 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

instead of being compelled, in addition, to do what the teeth should
previously have done. Yet this practice is universal. Is eating
indeed so very onerous a task that it should thus be hurried
and slighted ? Most men pitch and shovel in their food in great
hunks, mouthful following mouthful, thick and fast, which they give
twist or two, hit a crack or two, and poke down 'in a jiffy ;' eat-
ing in five minutes as much as would take a full hour to eat well.
Americans generally treat eating as they treat impertinent customers
— dismiss it without ceremony for something appertaining to busi-
ness. Yet, than the due feeding of the body, what is more im-
portant 1 Of course the time occupied in eating should correspond.
Besides, how can we expect to enjoy the gustatory pleasure nature
has associated with eating, unless we take ample time for such
enjoyment? Instead of dispatching our meals to get to business,
we should dispatch business, and eat at perfect leisure. We should
never sit down to the table in a hurry, or till we have dismissed
from the mind all idea that we have anything else on hand, and
should then eat as leisurely as if time and tide waited for us. The
ox and horse eat as quietly as though their food was their all. Only
swine guttle down their food. And well they may ; for their tastes
are so coarse that they eat what is most loathsome, and derive their
pleasure from quantity mainly. Shall man imitate the swine?
Shall he bolt his food and hurry off to business, and thus forego
gustatory enjoyment, and also shorten his days ; thereby curtailing
that very business he is so anxious to do ? Take ample time to eat
well, and you will live probably twice as long, and this protraction
of life will enable you to do more business. Eating fast is the
worst possible stroke of business policy you can adopt. Let busi-
ness stand, while you eat with the utmost deliberation. Let nothing
hurry you to, or at, or from the table. Make eating a paramount
business, and the acquisition of wealth a trifling toy in comparison.
No one should deposit van ordinary meal in less than an hour.
How foolish to cram it down with swinish voracity in five minutes !
Yet sapheads often make quick eating their boast.

Though the loss of gustatory enjoyment— that most delightful
repast — consequent on eating fast, is great and irreparable, yet this
is one of its smallest and lightest evils. It breaks down the sto-
mach, and thus unmans and diseases the entire system. No other
cause, if even a combination of causes, is as prolific of dyspepsia
and all its dire array of evils, as this. We have not overrated the
importance of a due selection of food, yet its proper mastication is

OF DIGESTION. 173

far more important. Eat slowly and masticate thoroughly, and the
kind of food eaten, however noxious, will rarely break down the
stomach, but eating the best selection of food fast will ruin almost
any stomach. How can the gastric juice penetrate the food unless
it is mashed fine 1 Food deposited in chunks defies its solvent
power fo-r a long time, meanwhile irritating and weakening its
power ; whereas, if it were well crushed before it entered the
stomach, this juice could penetrate or get hold of it, and digest it
before fermentation occurred."

DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND BOWELS.

Cancer is a disease which attacks the stomach after the middle
period of life is passed ; it consists in a thickening of the coats
of the stomach, forming a growth which sometimes can be felt
even from the outside. It produces the most distressing symp-
toms, burning heat, constant craving for food and drink, with in-
ability to retain them, and at length the patient dies.

Inflammation of the bowels takes place after exposure to cold, or
the swallowing improper food. Some pain marks its approach, and
generally obstinate costiveness, and requires active treatment.

A not uncommon complaint connected with the belly, particu-
larly among the laboring population, is rupture. This consists in a
portion of the bowels being forced out from their natural position,
through some weak point in the walls of the belly, forming a swell-
ing, covered by the skin. This swelling requires to be pressed up in
a recumbent position, and means used to keep it from coming down
again. The apparatus used is generally a truss, consisting of a
steel spring covered with leather, which goes round the waist, having
a pad at one end, for making pressure on the weak part. Some-
times the rupture becomes strangulated, that is to say, it swells so
that it cannot be replaced, and then it would mortify, so that death
would be the inevitable consequence, were not means adopted by
which the stricture is dilated, and the protruded parts returned.

In speaking of morbid states of the stomach and bowels, I should
not omit to mention' the curious but simple means by which poisons
are now easily withdrawn from the stomach. A gum-elastic tube,
about the thickness of one's little finger, is passed down the throat
into the stomach, and a brass pump which holds about half a pint, is
attached to the end of it. Two or three pints of warm water are now
thrown into the stomach, to dilute the matters there, and the whole
contents are then easily withdrawn. The syringe can act either as

174 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

a sucking or forcing pump, so that by fresh supplies of water the
stomach can be thoroughly washed out. In extreme cases, this may
be resorted to, but in general, even after violent poisons have been
taken to commit suicide, as laudanum, &c., large doses of an emetic
power are sufficient to remove the contents of the stomach.

PHYSIOLOGICAL INFERENCES.

The digestive organs are very subject to derangement and disease,
such as indigestion, costiveness, &c. This proceeds from various
causes, such as error in diet, too great a quantity of food, or an
improper quality, and that not sufficiently masticated, and swal-
lowed like the hog — too greedily ; the use and abuse of ardent
spirits, tobacco, warm fat animal food, warm drinks, as tea and cof-
fee, calomel, blue pill, Thompsonian " courses " of medicine, con-
sisting of lobelia, capsicum, #c., over excitement of the brain, want
of exercise, &c. The stomach is a long period losing its tone, and
requires a long time to restore it. The remedies consist in abstain-
ing from all those exciting causes, and adopting a proper course of
diet, regimen, and medicine. The object should be to restore the
lost or enfeebled tone of the digestive organs. A mild cathartic
may be taken occasionally, and the bowels kept regular by the
Anti-Dyspeptic Pills. To strengthen the stomach, create an appe-
tite, and to remove that horrid depression and despondency which
renders life a burden, nothing is better than the Restorative Wine
Bitters. Bathing the surface daily with tepid or cold ley water,
followed by friction with a coarse towel. In general, a light vege-
table diet is preferable, and particularly bread made with unbolted
wheat flour, and which should be at least one day old. For more
particular information on complaints of the digestive organs, see
Reformed Practice.

Here let us devote a small space to the inquiry, What is the
natural and best food for a healthy state of the stomach, animal or
vegetable 1

Says Fowler — " Since, therefore, the form of the human teeth
creedes from that of the carnivora far more, even, than that of the
monkey and ourang-outang species, which are confessedly not car-
nivorous, therefore human teeth were not made to eat meat. What
proof can more conclusively attest anything than this establishes
the natural diet of man herbivorous ?

To this conclusion nearly every sound physiologist has been
impelled, by this dental, and other kindred arguments. The im-

OF DIGESTION. 175

mortal Linnaeus sums up this argument thus : 6 Fruits and esculent
vegetables constitute his most suitable food.' Cuvier, the highest
authority on this point, sums it up thus : c The natural food of man,
therefore, judging from his structure, appears to consist of fruits,
roots, and other succulent parts of vegetables ; and his hands offer
him every facility for gathering them. His short and moderately
strong jaws on the one hand, and his cuspidati being equal in length
to the remaining teeth, and his tubercular rnolares on the other,
would allow him neither to feed on grass nor devour flesh, were
these aliments not prepared by cooking.'

That distinguished physiologist, Professor Lawrence, sums up an
elaborate argument on this point as follows : ' The teeth of man
have not the slightest resemblance to those of carnivorous animals,
except that their enamel is confined to the external surface. He
possesses, indeed, teeth called canine, but they do not exceed the
level of the others, and are obviously unsuited for the purposes
which the corresponding teeth execute in carnivorous animals.'
' Whether, therefore, we consider the teeth and jaws, or the imme-
diate instruments of digestion, the human structure closely resem-
bles that of the simise or monkeys, all of which, in their natural
state, are-completely frugivorous.'

Dr. Thomas Bell, in his c Physiological Observations on the
natural food of man, deduced from the character of his teeth,' de-
clares, that * every fact connected with human organization goes to
prove that man was originally formed a frugivorous animal.' Cul-
len and Lamb took similar ground, and the Abbe Galani ascribed
all crimes to animal destruction. Pope protests against ' kitchens
sprinkled with blood,' and insists that animal food engenders crime.
Plutarch tells us that Pythagoras ate no pork, and wondered what
first < led man to eat carcass.'

These conclusions, however unpopular, have been extorted from
every rigid physiologist who has ever examined this subject ; and
are confirmed by the length of the alimentary canal, which is short
in the carnivora, long in the herbivora, and long in man — about six
times the length of his body.

These two arguments, derived from the structure of the teeth
and alimentary canal, of themselves completely establish the dietetic
character of man to be vegetable ; and, taken in connexion with
those converging principles already adduced and yet in reserve,
establish this anti-flesh-eating argument as a fundamental ordinance
of nature.

176 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

SLAUGHTER-HOUSE CRUELTIES, PESTS, AND NUISANCES.

Humanity condemns, in the strongest manner, those unheard-of
cruelties perpetrated on animals while killing them, in order to
render their meat less bloody, and more tender. To keep the feet
of calves and sheep tied together, in the most painful posture pos-
sible— tumble them into carts on top of one another — bang them
about as if they were so many boxes and barrels — keep them for
days together without a morsel of food, and then, after all this liv-
ing death, to hang them up by the hind feet, puncture a vein in the
neck, and let them hang in this excruciating torture, faint from loss
of blood and struggling for life, yet enduring all the agonies of
death, for six or eight hours ; — meanwhile pelting them, to beat
out the blood and render the meat tender, with might and main, so
that every blow extorts a horrid groan, till tardy death at length
ends their sufferings with their lives — and all perpetrated on help-
less, unoffending brutes — is a little worse than anything else except
human murder; yet it is but the legitimate fruits of flesh-eating.
Hear the piteous wail of these wretched animals, on their passage
from the farmyard to the slaughter-house ; see their upturned eyes
rolling in agony ; witness the desperate struggles, and hear the ter-
rible bellowings of the frantic bullock wrho apprehends his fate, as
he is drawrn up to the fatal bull-ring ; or even look at the awful
expression of all amputated heads, as seen in market, or carried
through the streets, and then say whether the slaughtering of ani-
mals is not a perfect OUTRAGE on every feeling of humanity — every
sentiment of right!" And yet all this is practised by great pro-
fessors of religion. Zealots ? What hypocrites !

In concluding this chapter on the digestive organs, I deem it not
irrelevant or out of place to advert to the common and injurious
effect of mercury in the stomach and system generally, which I will
do in the language of Dr. S. Chapman, of Philadelphia, late pro-
fessor in the Medical University there. When I delivered my
popular lectures in that city, the venerable old gentleman sent me,
through his son, his respects, and some of his writings, with a very
friendly invitation to visit him.

THE USE OF. POISONS, CALOMEL, AND DEPLETIONS.

The very principle upon which they act, is their destruction of
life. Taken in health, they induce sickness ; much more aggravate
it. And their reputation for curing diseases is due mainly to absti-
nence from food, perspiration, and emptying the stomach, all of

OF DIGESTION. 177

which can be effected by processes entirely harmless. Their effect
upon the teeth alone brands them with unequivocal condemnation ;
for whatever injures them first disorders the stomach. Their decay
foretokens incipient dyspepsia. Hence, since they are always im-
paired by these medicines — and whoever has taken poison is a living
witness of this fact — they of course always enfeeble the stomach.

Narrowing down our observation to that popular medicine CALO-
MEL. It powerfully stimulates the liver, but stimulates by POISON-
ING it. Hence liver affections almost always follow its administra-
tion— always except when both stomach and liver are extra
powerful. Dyspepsia follows its use almost as surely as sunrise
daylight, because induced thereby. Let observation, the more
extensive the better, pronounce the verdict. Language can never
adequately portray its ravages on health and life. On this point
hear Professor Chapman, of Philadelphia, to his class : —

" GENTLEMEN: — If you could see what I almost daily see in my private practice in
this city, persons from the South, in the very last stages of wretched existence, ema-
ciated to a skeleton, with both tables of the skull almost completely perforated in many
places, the nose half gone, with rotten jaws, ulcerated throats, breaths most pestiferous
more intolerable than poisonous upas, limbs racked with the pains of the Inquisition,
minds as imbecile as the puling babe, a grievous burden to themselves and a disgusting
spectacle to others, you would exclaim as I have often done, ' O ! the lamentable want
of science that dictates the abuse (use) of that noxious drug calomel !' Gentlemen, it is
a disgraceful reproach to the profession of medicine, it is quackery, horrid, unwarranted
murderous quackery. "What merit do gentlemen of the South flatter themselves they
possess by being able to salivate a patient? Cannot the veriest fool in Christendom
salivate — give calomel 1 But I will ask another question. Who can stop its career a
will, after it has taken the reins in its own DESTRUCTIVE AND UNGOVERNABLE HANDS'?
rfe who, for an ordinary cause, resigns the fate of his patient to mercury, is a vile
enemy to the sick ; and if he is tolerably popular, will in one successful season have
paved the way for the business of life ; for he has enough to do ever afterwards to stop
the mercurial breach of'the constitutions of his dilapidated patients. He has thrown
himself in fearful proximity to death, and has now to fight him at arm's-length as long
as the patient maintains a miserable existence."

Dr. Graham, of Edinburgh, in speaking of mercurial medicines,

says : —

" They affect the human constitution in a peculiar manner, taking, so to speak, an
iron grasp of all its systems, and penetrating even to the bones, by which they not only
change the healthy action of its vessels, and general structure, but greatly impair and
destroy its energies ; so that their abuse is rarely overcome. When the tone of the
stomach, intestines, or nervous system generally, has been once injured by this
mineral, according to my experience (and I have paid considerable attention to the sub-
ject), it could seldom afterwards be restored. I have seen many persons to whom it has
been largely given for the removal of different complaints, who, before they took it,
knew not what indigestion and nervous depression meant, only by the description of
others -} but they iiave since become experimentally acquainted with both, for they now
12

178 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

constantly complain of weakness and irritability of the digestive organs, of frequent
lowness of spirits and impaired strength ; all of which, it appears to me, they will ever
be sensible of. Instances of this description abound. Many of the victims of this prac-
tice are aware of this origin of their permanent indisposition, and many more, who are
at present unconscious of it, might here find, upon investigation, a sufficient cause for
their sleepless nights and miserable days. We have often had every benevolent feeling
called into painful exercise, upon viewing patients already exhausted by protracted ill-
ness, groaning under the accumulated miseries of an active course of mercury, and by
this for ever deprived of perfect restoration. A barbarous practice, the inconsistency,
folly, and injury of which no words can sufficiently describe."

This is the testimony of its FRIENDS — of distinguished members
of the medical FACULTY — and is true of the PRINCIPLE on which
calomel and all mineral poisons act. And the more virulent the
poison, the worse. Those who take them may recover, yet it will
be in SPITE of both disease and medicine. And their recovery will
be slow, and constitutions impaired.

" But," retorts one, " I took calomel, arsenic, quinine, and other
condensed poisons, was immediately relieved, and more robust
afterwards than before." Aye, but how long did you remain so 1
In a few months your stomach became impaired, and various aches,
to which you were before a stranger, afflicted you. Still, all are
quite welcome to swallow all the rank poisons they please, but for
one, however sick, I should rely on other remedies, particularly
perspiration.

Scarcely less detrimental than these poisons is that draining of
the life's blood which generally accompanies it. It does not extract
the disease, or at least only in proportion as it withdraws life itself,
and repeated depletion diverts the vital energies from brain and
muscle to the extra manufacture of blood.

A summary of these medicinal principles shows that we place
far less reliance on medicines, even vegetable, as restorative agents,
than on physiological prescriptions. Obey the laws of health, and
we need not be sick, and when sick a return to this obedience is
the most direct road to health. Still the existence of medicines
shows that they should be taken. Yet why in the present highly
condensed form 1 Why not in that diluted form in which we find
them in nature 1 In short, why not take them along with our
food'?*

The following figure represents the appearance of a person under
the influence of mercury, in this city, to whom the author was
called in consultation. The tongue protruded from the mouth, and

* Fowler.

SECRETION AND EXCRETION.

179

prevented him from speaking ; it was enormously enlarged and
burst open, jaws swollen, &c., &c. Over one hundred leeches had
been applied to reduce the inflammation.

CHAPTER X.

SECRETION AND EXCRETION.

WE have seen, in the preceding chapters, that there are arrange-
ments for circulating the blood and for keeping it pure. The great
object in these arrangements seems to be, that the substances re-
quired in the different parts of the system may be separated from
the blood in a proper state. There is a class of bodies, known by
the name of glands, whose office appears to be principally to form
different secretions. Thus, the liver is a gland, which is said tq

180

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

secrete (separate) bile : the salivary glands, we have seen, secrete
saliva ; and so on with others. It would be a mistake, however,
to suppose that secretion is performed only by glands, for thin mem-
branes, without any glandular structure, produce numerous secre-
tions ; and the deposition of the solid parts of the body takes place
without the intervention of anything like glands. It seems to be
the capillary vessels, themselves, in these cases, that are employed ;
and even in glands, however minutely we examine their structure,
there can be detected almost nothing but endless subdivisions of
circulating vessels, and ducts for collecting and carrying off the
secreted fluid.

Intimate structure of a Composite Gland [the Parotid].

Representation of a Kidney

The liver is the largest gland in the body. We have seen that
it secretes . the bile, which probably serves important purposes in
digestion. The numerous ducts of the liver unite and form one
large duct, called the hepatic duct, from which the bile passes into
the common duct, or into the gall-bladder, to be poured, when re-
quired- into the upper part of the intestinal canal. The bile is an

SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 181

alkaline fluid, which contains, besides other substances, a peculiar
resinous principle. Unlike other secretions, it is formed from the
venous blood. The whole veins of the stomach and intestines,
instead of going directly to the right side of the heart, first unite to
form one great trunk (vena portae), which divides, like an artery, in
the substance of the liver; and these branches, by which the bile
is secreted, again unite, and join the veins going to the heart in the
ordinary way. In some species the veins going to the kidneys have
a similar distribution. From this, and for various other reasons, it is
strongly conjectured that the liver assists the lungs in purifying the
venous blood, by depriving it of a portion of its carbon ; and,
accordingly, we always notice the liver larger in animals in propor-
tion as the activity of their lungs diminishes. The carbon unites
with oxygen, and forms carbonic acid in the lungs, but it seems to
escape from the liver in union with another gas called hydrogen,
forming the resinous and other principles of the bile. We have
before stated that less oxygen is consumed, and of course less car-
bonic acid is produced, when the temperature is high, than when it
is low. Hence, probably, a chief cause of the diseases of the
liver we are liable to in warm climates ; for if less carbon be given
off at the lungs, more will have to be secreted by the liver ; and
any part required to do more than its ordinary duty, is liable to
become deranged. It is thought about six or eight ounces of bile
are ordinarily secreted daily. Another analogous substance called
urea, is secreted by the kidneys, which are glands that also proba-
bly assist in purifying the blood. It is probable that both the
resinous matter in the bile, and the urea in the urine, exist ready
formed in the blood, and are merely separated by their respective
glands ; as, when the kidneys of dogs have been taken away, urea
has been detected in the blood, which could not be the case if the
kidneys formed it. It sometimes happens, especially in drunkards,
that one or both of these glands become diseased, and are incapable
of separating the peculiar fluids mentioned; and then these, being
retained in the system, act as poisons, producing insensibility and
death. In the case of the liver, this forms one cause of jaundice ;
but jaundice is more commonly caused by an obstruction to the flow
of the bile through its ducts. The passage of gall-stones (which
are only bile solidified) from the gall-bladder through the gall or
common ducts, is a common cause of obstruction. When the sub-
stance of the liver becomes diseased, the flow of blood through its

182 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

veins is also often obstructed, and this very generally gives rise to
the liver complaint and dropsy.

What has been said must suffice in regard to the larger glands ;
smaller ones are scattered in almost every part of the body. The
whole extent of the intestinal canal, and of the skin, is found to
be studded with bodies having a glandular structure, and producing
secretions.

Some secretions are evidently produced only in particular emer-
gencies, as we see with the increased secretion of bony matter when
a limb is broken ; other secretions are uncommon in their nature,
as in the case of such fishes as the torpedo or of the firefly, the
former of which can produce at pleasure powerful electrical dis-
charges, and the latter a substance that gives out light ; while in
other instances, again, secretions become unusual in their situation,
or of a morbid kind. Of a secretion unusual in its situation, a
curious instance occurred some years ago in France. A woman
who was suckling had the secretion of milk transferred from her
breasts to one of her lower extremities, from which her child con-
tinued to be supplied. Of morbid secretions we have examples in
ossification of the valves of the heart, in consumption, in cancerous,
brainy, and other tumors, and, unfortunately, in too many other
cases.

The secretions are much influenced by our mental states. Every
one has felt the flow of saliva increased from savory odors, or the
flow of tears from distressing feelings. A cheerful state of mind is
peculiarly favorable to the proper performance of the function of
secretion ; and we therefore learn how important it is to avoid such
things as distract, or agitate, or harass us ; and yet how un-
avoidable !

As to the agent which produces or directs the different secretions,
we have no very accurate information. In one instance, at least,
Dr. W. Philip found that its place could be supplied by galvanism.
He cut the principal nerves going to the stomach, and the secretion
of gastric juice was completely stopped ; but the secretion was
restored when a galvanic pile was made to communicate with the
lower extremities of the nerves. Of late years it has been dis-
covered that the operations of galvanism are much more various
and subtle than was formerly supposed, and it therefore seems not
unreasonable to conjecture that its agency may be important also in
secretion.

SECRETION AND EXCRETION. 183

GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE EXCRETING PROCESSES.

We have now passed in review the various processes, by which
the products of the disintegration or the animal tissues are carried
off ; and we have seen that the necessity for their removal is much
more urgent than for their replacement. A cold-blooded animal
may subsist for some weeks, or even months, without a fresh supply
of food ; the waste of its tissues being so small, if it remain in a
state of rest, as to be quite compatible with the continuance of its
life ; and a warm-blooded animal may live for many days, or even
weeks, provided that it has in its body a store of fat sufficient to
keep up its heat by the combustive process. But in either case, if
the exhalation of carbonic acid by the lungs, the elimination of
biliary matter by the liver, the separation of urea or uric acid by the
kidneys, or the withdrawal of putrescent matter by the intestinal
glandules, be completely checked, a fatal result speedily ensues ; —
more speedily in warm-blooded animals than in those which cannot
sustain a high independent temperature, on account of the greater
proneness to decomposition in the bodies of the former, than in
those of the latter ; — and more speedily in the latter, when their
bodies are kept at an elevated temperature by the warmth of the
surrounding medium, than when the degree of heat is so low, that
there is little proneness to spontaneous change in the substance of
their bodies.

It may be taken as a general principle, in regard to the excreting
processes (including respiration), that they have a three-fold pur-
pose ; — in the first place, to carry off the normal results of the waste
or disintegration of the solid tissues, and of the decomposition of
the fluids ; — in the second place, to draw off the superfluous ali-
mentary matter, which, though received into the circulating current,
is not converted into solid tissue, in consequence of the want of
demand for it ; — and in the third place, to carry off the abnormal
products, which occasionally result from irregular or morbid changes
in the system. Thus by the lungs are excreted a large amount of
carbon, and some hydrogen, resulting from the disintegration of the
tissues, especially the nervous and muscular ; the same elements,
in animals that take in a large proportion of farinaceous or oleagi-
nous aliment, may be derived immediately from the food, without
any previous conversion into solid tissue ; and there can be little
doubt that the respiratory function is also an important means of
purifying the blood from various deleterious matters, either intro-
duced from without (such as narcotic poisons), or generated within

N

184 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

the body (such as the poison of fever*). And it is important to
bear this last circumstance in mind ; since it enables us to understand
how, if time be given, the system frees itself from such noxious
substances ; and points out the duty of the medical attendant to be
rather that of supporting the powers of the body by judiciously
devised means, and of aiding the elimination of the morbid matter
through the lungs and skin by a copious supply of pure air, than of
interfering more actively to promote that which Nature is already
effecting in the most advantageous manner.

[Suitable views of the liver will be found in Lizars' Colored Plates, page 86, and of
the kidneys, at page 88.]

CHAPTER XI.

EXHALATION AND ABSORPTION.

BY exhalation is meant the escape of some portion of the- con-
tents of the blood-vessels (generally little altered), probably through
pores in their sides. When a fluid, colored with vermilion, is in-
jected into the blood-vessels of a dead animal, the fluid portion will
pass out of them, and is said to be exhaled, while the vermilion is
retained ; or when a solution of phosphorus is thrown into the veins
of a living animal, in a few seconds fumes of phosphorous acid are
given off from its lungs. By absorption is meant the removal of
the soft or hard parts of the body, or of substances placed in con-
tact with these parts. When a fat person becomes lean, or the
fluid in a dropsical person's belly has disappeared, the fat and the
fluid are said to have been absorbed.

The three most important exhaling and absorbing surfaces, are
the intestinal canal, the lungs, and the skin ; but these processes
are active also in the chest, belly, and other cavities. We have
already explained the structure of the intestinal canal and lungs,
and the skin will be treated of at the close of this chapter, so that
it will be necessary at present only to say that the skin has a thin

* There is strong reason to believe that, in many instances, a small amount of poi-
sonous matter introduced from without, in the form of a contagion or miasm, may
lead, by a process resembling fermentation, to the production of a large quantity of simi-
lar noxious substances in the animal fluids.

EXHALATION AND ABSORPTION. 185

outer covering, called the cuticle, or epidermis (the part raised by
blistering), which has no feeling, and little vitality ; and another
thicker part underneath, called the true skin (the part which tan-
ners convert into leather), which is plentifully supplied with nerves,
blood-vessels, &c.

From what has been said, it will be seen that the mechanism of
exhalation is very simple, the fluid merely passing through the sides
of its vessels. In every part of the system an active absorption is
carried on by the same means, the fluid removed merely passing
through the sides of the veins, to be carried off by the internal cur-
rent. It was at one time supposed that absorption was exclusively
carried on by a system of vessels, which received the name of ab-
sorbents ; but this is now known to be quite incorrect. Allusion
has already been made to one portion of these absorbent vessels
connected with digestion, which are called lacteals. Similar
vessels in other parts of the body receive the name of lymphatics,
from a fluid called lymph, which they convey ; and in their course
towards the thoracic duct, in which they almost all terminate, they
pass through glandular bodies, found in numbers in the hams,
groins, armpits, on the sides of the neck, &c. It is these glands
about the neck that so often swell and inflame when there is disease
of the gums, or eruptions on the head, or when there exists a highly
scrofulous habit of body.

The veins appear to take up all fluid matters indiscriminately that
are brought in contact with them ; the lacteals take up principally
(if not solely) chyle ; the office of the lymphatics seems to be chiefly
to mould the different parts of the body into their proper forms, and
the lymph contained in them is probably the removed animal mat-
ters, which, it is supposed, may undergo some changes while pass-
ing through the lymphatics and their glands, that render them fit to
be mingled with the blood. From the late researches of Fohmann,
Panizza, and Lanth, it would appear that the lymphatics commence
by minute plexuses, and that these at their origin do not communi-
cate with the arteries and veins, but begin by shut extremities. In
the frog, and in some other reptiles, there have been discovered
parts, connected with the lymphatics, that pulsate irregularly, like
hearts. The frog has four of these, which seem to be used for pro-
pelling the lymph.

Absorption and exhalation, in a healthy state, generally balance
each other, so that a full-grown person's weight, notwithstanding
the quantity of food consumed, will frequently for years vary only

186 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

a few pounds. The conditions which promote the one generally
impede the other. When the body is saturated with fluid, absorp-
tion goes on slowly ; but exhalation, under the same circumstances,
takes place rapidly. M. Majendie found that when a quantity of
water was thrown into an animal's veins, absorption was either
much impeded, or altogether suspended ; and, on the other hand,
when the blood-vessels were partly emptied by bleeding, the effects
of a poison, that usually showed themselves at the end of the
second minute, were distinctly perceived before the thirtieth second.
A frog, kept for some time previously in dry air, when its legs are
immersed in water, will in a short time absorb nearly its own weight
of the fluid.

We have already spoken of the absorbing powers of the intes-
tinal canal. The next in importance, as an absorbing surface for
external substances, is the lungs, and, of course, the matters ab-
sorbed are generally conveyed in the form of vapor. When a fluid
poison, however, is injected into the windpipe, it acts with fearful
rapidity. It is through this surface that substances diffused in the
atmosphere usually produce their effects on the system. The vapor
of turpentine, breathed along with the air of a room, may be de-
tected in the urine within a short time afterwards, and the concen-
trated vapor of such poisons as prussic acid will instantly kill an
animal if inhaled. The various poisons which produce fever,
measles, small-pox, and other infectious disorders, are in this way
introduced into the body, the smallest quantity frequently sufficing
for this purpose. We can conceive the small quantity of the poison
required, when we notice that the least particle of the matter of the
small-pox? placed in a scratch on the skin, gives rise to the same
disease. In proof of the action of poisons, when inhaled by the
lungs, the following facts may be stated.

M. Majendie contrived some experiments, in which dogs were
confined in the upper part of a barrel, the lower part being filled
with putrifying animal substances, which were separated from the
dogs by a grating. Confinement in this situation, from the absorp-
tion of the putrid effluvia, produced death generally about the tenth
day. The animals took food, and were even lively, but became
much emaciated before death. The same physiologist produced
symptoms exactly resembling those of yellow fever, by injecting a
few drops of putrid water into the veins of dogs.

A nurse in one of the Dublin hospitals, apparently in excellent
health, was desired by the physician to assist a patient, laboring

EXHALATION AND ABSORPTION. 187

under fever, to turn in bed. Being very feeble, he endeavored to
support himself by placing his arms round the nurse's neck, when
she suddenly drew back, struck by the offensive odor from his per-
son, and exclaiming that she had caught fever. She instantly
became cold, pale, and ghastly, and, appearing about to faint, had
to be removed to her room. Malignant fever, of a very severe
description, succeeded, and lasted for thirteen days.

In the island of St. Lucia, in the West Indies, two boatmen
were employed hauling their canoe up on the beach, close to a dan-
gerous swamp, when they perceived a small cloud of vapor
approaching, which gradually enveloped them. One immediately
fell down insensible, and the other was so much affected as to be
unnble to render him any assistance. The vapor soon passed away,
and both men recovered so far as to be able to walk home. The
one most affected, however, was seized with fever, and died within
forty hours afterwards.

Repeated instances occur in the West Indies of twenty or thirty
workmen being employed in cutting drains or canals in these infec-
tious swamps, nine out of ten of whom will be seized in a few days
with the most dangerous forms of tropical fever. Chiefly from these
pestilential fevers, also, the probability of life to Europeans in the
West Indies is very low. It appears, from the most accurate army
returns, that a young man's chance of life, which in this country
would probably be about forty years, is reduced in Jamaica to about
seven years.

In marshy districts, the poison diffused in the atmosphere operates
with intensity chiefly after sunset, and produces dreadfully fatal
fevers and agues. We see also, in the natives of these districts,
the effects which the slow operation of the poison produces on the
health. Their appearance in highly infected districts is miserable
in the extreme. Stunted in their growth, with swollen bellies,
stupid expression, and jaundiced complexions, they linger out a
miserable existence, and can anywhere, at a glance, be recognised.
Happily their sufferings terminate life quickly. It is a curious cir-
cumstance that these poisons generally lie latent or inactive in the
body for some time. In the fevers of this country, the latent period
may vary from a few days to some weeks ; while in marsh fever, a
person will often have left the infected district, six, twelve, or more
months, before he is seized with it.

We have entered into these details in order that it may be seen,
1st, that unnecessary exposure to air infected with the poison of

188 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

fever, is both improper and highly dangerous ; and, 2dly, to show
how important to health is pure air, attention to cleanliness, and the
removal of all putrifying animal and vegetable matters from the
vicinity of our dwellings. In a very filthy part of Constantinople,
called the Jews' quarter, the plague constantly prevails more or
less, and the same may be said of typhus fever in some confined
and dirty parts of London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and most other
large cities.

The city of New York, to the disgrace of its citizens, particularly
the corporation, is the most filthy of any other, with all its advan-
tages of Croton water. Both animal and vegetable substances are
suffered to accumulate, with pools of dirty, putrid, and noxious
water ; slaughter and fat-houses are tolerated, which ,are not only
extremely offensive and nuisances, but sufficient to spread infectious
diseases, and would, no doubt, were our city not surrounded with
the preventative of salt water. There are a sufficient number of
men who would consider it a favor to keep our streets clean and
healthy, even if they received one half of the sum which is ex-
pended to promote the interests of political parties only in the
items of banners, processions, feasts, &c.

In man, the absorbing powers of the skin are much more limited
than those of the lungs. When the cuticle is entire, indeed, it
appears to absorb almost none, unless the substance be rubbed on
it with force, or be of a very irritating nature. When the cuticle is
removed, however, it absorbs readily. This is the reason why the
most virulent poisons can be handled with impunity, only while the
cuticle is entire. Students often suffer severely from this cause,
when, in opening dead bodies, they accidentally puncture or cut
themselves, even in the slightest degree. The poison introduced
by the cut part inflames it dreadfully, and death not unfrequently
occurs within a few days. It is for the same reason that a slight
scratch must be made through, the cuticle before a child can be
inoculated. Have we not abundant means and facilities to acquire
all the knowledge necessary to treat and cure both physical and
surgical diseases, without robbing the graveyards, and resorting to
that revolting and dangerous practice of dissections ? Should any
one doubt it, let him pay a visit to my ANATOMICAL MUSEUM, and
if he is unprejudiced, he \vell be convinced of it. Here every part
of the human system is demonstrated with extraordinary minuteness
and accuracy, in natural plaster and wax, imitating most perfectly
every one of the original organs. Besides, all this may be studied

CUTANEOUS SYSTEM OR SKIN. 189

without the offensive effluvia of the dissecting-room, and at all
seasons. This great improvement constitutes a new era in favor of
MEDICAL REFORM, and must be identified with it, and must be car-
ried out as soon as circumstances permit.

CHAPTER XII.

CUTANEOUS SYSTEM OR SKIN.

THE glands which are disposed in the substance of the skin, and
in the walls of the intestinal canal, although individually minute,
make up by their aggregation an excreting apparatus of no mean
importance. The skin is the seat of two processes in particular ;
one of which is destined to free the blood of a large quantity of
fluid ; and the other to draw off a considerable amount of solid
matter. To effect these processes, we meet writh two distinct
classes of glands in its substance ; the sudoriparous or sweat-glands,
and the sebaceous or oil-glands. They are both formed, however,
upon the same simple plan ; and can frequently be distinguished
only by the nature of their secreted product.

The perspiratory form small oval or globular masses, situated
just beneath the skin, in almost every part of the surface of the
body. Each is formed by the convolution of a single tube;
which thence runs towards the surface as the efferent duct,
making numerous spiral turns in its passage through the skin, and
penetrating the^ epidermis rather obliquely, so that its orifice is
covered by a sort of little valve of scarf-skin, which is lifted up as
the fluid issues from it. The convoluted knot, of which the gland
consists, is copiously supplied with blood-vessels. On the palm of
the hand, the sole of the foot, and the extremities of the fingers,
the apertures of the perspiratory ducts are visible to the naked eye,
being situated at regular distances along the little ridges of papillae,
and giving to the latter the appearance of being crossed by trans-
verse lines. According to Wilson, as many as 3528 of these glands
exist in a square inch of surface on the palm of the hand ; and as
every tube, when straightened out, is about a quarter of an inch in
length, it follows that in a square inch of skin from the palm of the

190 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

hand there exists a length of tube equal to 882 inches, or 73J feet.
The number in other parts of the skin is sometimes greater, but
generally less than this ; and according to Mr. Wilson, about 2800
inches may be taken as the average number of pores in each square
inch throughout the body. Now the number of square inches of
surface, in a man of ordinary stature, is about 2500 ; the number
of pores, therefore, is seven millions ; and the number of inches
of perspiratory tubing would thus be 1,750,000 ; or 145,833 feet ;
or 48,611 yards ; or nearly 28 miles.

The Anatomy of the Skin.

1. The epidermis, showing the oblique laminae of which it is composed, and the disposition of the
ridges upon its surface. 2. The rete mucosum or deep layer of the epidermis. 3. Two of the
quadrilateral papillary clumps, such as are seen in the palm of the hand or sole of the foot ; they
are composed of minute conical papillae. 4, The deep layer of the cutis, the corium. 5. Adipose
cells. 6. A sudoriparous gland with its spiral duct, such as is seen in the palm of the hand or sole
of the foot. 7. Another sudoriparous gland with a straighter duct, such as is seen in the scalp.
8. Two hairs from the scalp, enclosed in their follicles ; their relative depth in the skin is pre-
served. 9. A pair of sebaceous glands, opening by short ducts into the follicle of the hair.

From this extensive system of glands, a secretion of watery fluid
is continually taking place ; and a considerable amount of solid
matter also is drawn off by the epithelium-cells that line the tubes.
Under ordinary circumstances, the fluid is carried off in the state of
vapor, forming the insensible perspiration ; and it is only when its
amount is considerably increased, or when the surrounding air is
already so loaded with moisture as to be incapable of receiving
more, that the fluid remains in the form of sensible perspiration upon
the surface of the skin. It is difficult to estimate the proportion of
solid matter contained in this secretion ; partly on account of the

CUTANEOUS SYSTEM OR SKIN. 19]

great variations in the amount of fluid eliminated by the sudori-
parous glands, which are governed by the temperature of the skin ;
and partly because the secretion can scarcely be collected for
analysis, free from the sebaceous and other matters which accumu-
late on the surface of the skin. According to Anselmino it varies
from J to 1 J per cent. ; and consists in part of lactic acid, to which
the acid reaction and sour smell of the secretion are due ; in part
of a proteine compound, which is probably furnished by the epithe-
lium cells that line the tubes ; and in part of saline matters, directly
proceeding from the serum of the blood. Sanctorius proved that
three-fourths of all taken into the system passed off by the skin.

The amount of fluid excreted from the skin is almost entirely
dependent upon the temperature of the surrounding medium ; being
increased with its rise, and diminished with its fall. The object of
this variation is very evident ; being the regulation of the tempera-
ture of the body. When the surface is exposed to a high degree
of external heat, the increased amount of fluid set free from the
perspiratory glands becomes the means , of keeping down its own
temperature ; for this fluid is then carried off in a state of vapor,
as fast as it is set free ; and in its change of form, it withdraws a
large quantity of caloric from the surface. But if the hot atmo-
sphere be already loaded with vapor, this cooling power cannot be
exerted ; the temperature of the body is raised, and death super-
venes, if the experiment be long continued. The cause of the
increased secretion is probably to be looked for in the increased
determination of blood to the skin, which takes place under the
stimulus of heat. The entire loss by exhalation from the lungs and
skin, during the twenty-four hours, seems to average a little above
two pounds. In a warm dry atmosphere, however, it has been
found to rise to as much as five pounds ; whilst in a cold damp one,
it may be lowered to one and two-thirds of a pound. Of this
quantity, the pulmonary exhalation is usually somewhat less than
one-third, and the cutaneous somewhat more than two-thirds ; but
when the quantity of fluid lost is unusually great the increase must
be chiefly in the cutaneous exhalation ; since the amount of exhala-
tion from the lungs is not influenced by the external temperature,
but only by the degree in which the surrounding air is previously
saturated with moisture.

The variations in the amount of fluid set free by cutaneous and
pulmonary exhalation, are counterbalanced by the regulating action
of the kidney ; which allows a larger proportion of water to be

192 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

strained off in a liquid state from the blood-vessels, as the exhala-
tion is less, — and' vice versa. The cutaneous and urinary excre-
tions seem to be vicarious, not merely in regard to the amount of
fluid which they carry off from the blood, but also in respect to
the solid matter which they eliminate from it. It appears that at
least one hundred grains of eifete azotized matter are daily thrown
off from the skin; and any cause which checks this excretion, must
increase the labor of the kidneys, or produce an accumulation of
noxious matter in the blood. Hence attention to the functions
of the skin, at all times a matter of great importance, is peculiarly
required in the treatment of febrile diseases ; and it will be often
found that no means is so useful in removing the lithic acid deposit
in diseases of the kidneys, as copious alkaline ablution and friction
of the skin, combined with exercise. The exhalant action of the
skin is completely checked by the application of an impermeable
varnish, the effect is not (as might be anticipated) an elevation of
the temperature of the body. A partial suppression by which
means gives rise to febrile symptoms, and there is an escape of the
albuminous part of the blood into the urinary tubes, in consequence
(it would appear) of the increased determination which then takes
place towards the kidneys. These facts are interesting, as throw-
ing light upon the febrile disturbance which accompanies those
febrile and cutaneous diseases that affect the whole surface of the
skin at once, and interfere with its functions ; and as accounting
also for the albumen which frequently manifests itself during their
progress, especially in fever.

The exhaling powers of both the skin and the lungs are very
considerable. In winter, we notice the watery vapor coming from
the lungs condensed by the cold air ; in summer, we see how much
fluid escapes from the skin in the form of perspiration. Inde-
pendently of this, however, from thirty to sixty ounces of watery
fluid are calculated to pass off daily from the skin in the form of
insensible perspiration. This insensible perspiration may be seen
to be condensed, when the point of the finger is moved along the
surface of a looking-glass, at about the distance of an eighth of an
inch, and also when we handle any polished steel instrument ; or
still more decisively when the arm is confined in a glass jar ; or
when the body is viewed by a microscope in a state of free perspira-
tion. It is then seen enveloped in a cloud or vapor ; this comes in
contact with the cold of the atmosphere, which condenses it, when
it falls down in the form of water or sweat, being then heavier than

CUTANEOUS SYSTEM OR SKIN. 193

the air. Rain is, no doubt, caused in the same manner. Dr. Smith
has performed some interesting experiments on the subject of ex-
halation, from the skin and lungs jointly. Eight workmen in the
Phoenix Gas-works, London (where they must work hard, and be
exposed to a high temperature at the same time), were weighed
before going to work, and immediately afterwards. In one experi-
ment, in November, they continued to work for an hour and a quar-
ter, and the greatest loss sustained by any one man was two pounds
fifteen ounces. In another experiment, in the same month, one
man lost four pounds three ounces in three quarters of an hour ;
and in an experiment of the same kind, in June, one man lost no
less than five pounds two ounces in an hour and ten minutes.

We shall conclude this chapter by stating a few other circum-
stances connected with the structure and functions of the skin.
We have mentioned that the external layer of the skin is called the
cuticle. M. Breschet^ a French author, who has very carefully
investigated the structure of the skin, considers the cuticle to be of
the same nature as the horny matter which forms the nails, the
hairs, feathers, horns, &c., of animals. It is secreted by particular
organs, and when intended to be colored, it is mixed with coloring
matter (which also is secreted by distinct organs) while in a fluid
state. The arrangement of the cuticle, in different parts of the
human body, is well worthy of attention. Where feeling is to be
exercised, it is thin and delicate ; over the joints it is lax and mov-
able ; on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, even in the
infant, it is thick and hard, and these properties are greatly in-
creased by constant use. Simple as this last provision may appear,
it seems doubtful whether the want of it would not have interfered
materially with the exercise of many of our most useful arts.

Between the cuticle and the true skin, formerly mentioned as the
part of animals that is tanned, is found the layer that gives the color
to the different varieties of the human species, &c. (rete mucosum.)
In Europeans it is generally of a light color, in Negroes it is black,
and in other races it is intermediate, or of other shades. The color
of the Negro does not depend on the blackening of the cuticle by
the sun, for his cuticle is seen to be as transparent as an European's
when raised by a blister ; and we observe, also, that the secretion
of the black coloring matter does not take place in the Negro child
until a day or two after birth. The change of color in the human
family, I have no doubt, took place at the confounding of the lan-
guages at the tower of Babel. It is all nonsense to suppose that
13

194 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

the climate is sufficient to make the difference of color in the human
family. Is it capable of making the nose flat, skin jet black, and
hair like wool 1 The idea is ridiculous.. I see no theory so rational
as that which supposes that the different colors of nature, almost as
many shades and varieties as dialects, were formed at the very time
their language was altered or confounded, viz. at the tower of
Babel, and for the very wise reason that, as the people could not
converse together, their colors were correspondingly changed.

The cutis, or true skin, is the third and most important layer.
Besides its uses already referred to, it has a very large supply of
blood sent to it ; is a surface of great sensibility, intimately sym-
pathizing with the internal organs ; and, from its exposed situation
and extent, is peculiarly liable to be affected by external influences.
Perhaps no other surface in the body is so much concerned in the
production of internal inflammatory disorders, and perhaps the
agents that above all others tend to produce these, are the various
degrees, and especially the sudden applications, of heat and cold.
When heat is applied suddenly and extensively, so as to give rise
to a burn or scald, the heart's action is frequently extinguished
within a few hours, even although the burn, in any one portion, is
altogether superficial and unimportant. Mr. John Hunter gives a
striking proof of the effects produced by a sudden change of tempera-
ture on the skin. He took an eel, which was swimming in water a
little above 30 degrees, and plunged it into water about 60 degrees,
a temperature in which it habitually lives with ease. The sudden
change, however, gave such a check to its system, that the animal
instantly expired.* In these cases the effect seems to be produced
principally through the agency of the nervous system ; but when
the application of cold produces its injurious effects, the blood that
is forced, by the constricted vessels, from the surface, upon the
internal parts, overloads them, and impedes the due performance of
their functions. Hence the indispensable importance of recalling
it back to the surface instead of abstracting. This theory over-
turns the old allopathic doctrine of blood-letting. When the body
is exposed for some time to a great degree of cold, the tendency to
sleep becomes almost irresistible. Under these circumstances, to

* Says a writer — " We lately met with a case exemplifying the effect of sudden
change of temperature. A person who had been treading snow in an ice-house felt his
feet uncommonly cold. To remedy this, he plunged them into water somewhat heated.
The consequence was, the little toe of one foot and part of the great toe of the other
mortified, and had to be cut off."

CUTANEOUS SYSTEM OR SKIN. 195

use the words of Dr. Solander, quoted by Captain Cook, "whoever
sits down will sleep, and whoever sleeps will wake no more."
These words were used by Dr. Solander during an excursion in
Terra del Fuego, with Sir Joseph Banks and nine other individuals,
when the cold was intense. Notwithstanding Dr. Solander gave
the precaution, he was the first to feel the effects of the cold, and
his companions were obliged to yield so far to his entreaties as to
allow him to sleep for five minutes. With the utmost difficulty he
was aroused. Two black servants also slept, and perished. Ex-
posure to a lesser degree of cold acts differently. Every one knows
the power of cold draughts of air, of cold or damp feet, the wear-
ing of damp clothes, or sleeping in damp sheets, in giving rise to
inflammations, even in persons whose surface has a vigorous circu-
lation, and is therefore not easily chilled. When the circulation on
the surface is languid, these causes act with tenfold force ; and
hence in all such constitutions it is of the utmost moment, 1st, that
the skin should at all seasons be protected from sudden chills by
warm (the best are flannels) coverings ; and, 2dly, that bathing,
a proper diet, and all other means that give permanent vigor to the
circulation should be specially attended to. Under all circum-
stances, indeed, frequently cleansing the skin, by removing noxious
excretions, and allowing the proper exercise of its functions, has a
much more important influence on health than is generally ima-
gined.

[Good views of the lymphatic vessels will be found in Lizars' Colored Plates, page
99, and of the skin, at page 82 of the same. Connected with the subject of the skin,
the teacher may introduce some instructive lessons on the five varieties of the human
species and their distribution. We have found that these lessons are rendered much
more impressive by having drawings of these varieties, and also a skeleton map of the
globe, of a large size (say six feet by four), colored so as to indicate their different
localities. Thus, the European, or Caucasian, may be left white, the Mongolian
colored yellow, the American red, the Malay brown, and the Ethiopian black. The
drawings, and the requisite information as to localities in making this map, will be
found in the latter part of Lawrence's Lectures on Man, 8vo. edition.]

196 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM

COMPREHENDS 1st, the vessels which convey the lymph and chyle
into the veins, and 2dly, the enlargements which occur in their
course, called glands or ganglia.

The Lacteal or Chyliferous vessels commence on the mucous
surface of the intestines, pass through the mesenteric glands back-
wards towards the spine, where they terminate in the thoracic
duct.

The lymphatic vessels are found in most situations of the body,
and generally observe a deep and superficial arrangement.

Lymphatics of the lower extremities. — The superficial set accom-
pany the external and internal • saphena veins : they communicate
freely in their course with the deep lymphatic trunks which accom-
pany the deep vessels. Those which accompany the external
saphena vein enter the glands in the popliteal space, whilst those
accompanying the internal saphena vein ascend to the groin, and
pass through the inguinal glands, having formed numerous con-
nexions with the superficial lymphatics of the abdomen, the peri-
neam, and the genitals. The deep lymphatics of the hip and
perineum are conducted by the branches of the internal iliac
vessels into the pelvis, and pass through the pelvic glands.
From the inguinal and pelvic glands the lymphatics pass along the
primitive iliac vessels to the receptabulum chyli.

The Thoracic Duct. — This canal commences by a dilatation called
receptaculum chyli, placed on the body of the 2d or 3d dorsal ver-
tebra : passing between the crura of the diaphragm it gains the
posterior mediastinum, where it lies between the aorta and the vena
azygos ; at the 5th dorsal vertebra it crosses the spine obliquely to
the left side, passing behind the oesophagus and arch of the aorta,
and placed behind the left pleura, and between the left carotid and
left subclavian arteries, it is then conducted by the oesophagus to
the left side of the neck as high as the 6th cervical vertebra, where,
making a slight curve downwards and outwards, it opens close to
the external angle formed by the left subclavian and jugular veins.

THE SENSES. 197

Lymphatics of the upper extremities. — The superficial set accom-
pany the superficial veins, and pass through two or three glands
situated at the inner condyle ; having joined the deep lymphatics
which accompany the venae comites, they proceed onwards to the
axilla, and pass through the axillary glands ; following , the course
of the axillary vein, they pass beneath the clavicle, join the lym-
phatics of the neck, and terminate in the thoracic duct. The
lymphatics of the right upper extremity, and right side of the neck,
unite to form the right or lesser thoracic duct, which opens into the
right vena innominata.

The lymphatics of the trunk consist of a deep and superficial set ;
in the chest, the former are seated between the muscles and pleura,
in the abdomen, between the muscles and peritoneum, the super-
ficial being subcutaneous. The viscera contained in the chest and
abdomen also have a superficial and deep layer of lymphatics — the
deep being distributed through the peculiar tissue of each organ,
the superficial running beneath the membranous envelope.

Lymphatics have been denied to the brain and spinal cord, and
to the ear, eye, and placenta. For a beautiful view of lymphatics,
see steel plate, Frontispiece.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE SENSES.

THE senses are the means by which the mind becomes acquainted
with external objects. Without the materials which they furnish,
its exercise would be impossible. When the mind has once ex-
perienced various sensations, the memory can recal them when they
are gone ; the judgment can compare them, and can perceive their
relations, and the imagination can combine them into endless
varieties ; but still, with all this, we are incapable of figuring to
ourselves any image, the elements at least of which have not first
been made known to us through sensation.

The senses generally enumerated are five, viz. — touch, taste,
smell, hearing, and vision. There are other sensations,, however,
such as those of thirst, hunger, nausea, sneezing, &c., which cannot
properly be classed under any of these heads.

198 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

TOUCH.

The sense of touch is diffused over almost the whole external
surface of the body, but is possessed in greatest delicacy by certain
parts, such as the lips, and the ends of the fingers. When the
innermost layer of the skin is examined with a microscope, it pre-
sents numerous projecting points, or papilla, to each of which it is
probable a branch of a sensitive nerve is sent, as they are seen in
greatest numbers where the sense is most acute. To exercise this
sense in perfection, it is requisite that the organ should be so
constructed as to be capable of being readily applied to bodies, in
a variety of directions ; and it is in the human hand that this quality,
the distribution of the sensitive nervous filaments, and a thin cuticle
covering these,' are united in the highest degree.

The late Dr. Thomas Brown, professor of moral philosophy in
Edinburgh, contended that touch gives us no, or at least very im-
perfect, ideas of extension or sp'ace, and of hardness or solidity.
Our ideas of these, he thought, are principally derived from what he
calls muscular sensations. Connected with this point, we may
remark, that Francisco Csesario, although entirely deprived of sensa-
tion on one side, so that even cutting it gave him no feeling, could
yet, with the same, judge of the weight and consistence of bodies.

A similar conjecture, as to the feelings derived from temperature,
seems to be supported by such cases as the following : — A physician
of Geneva, after an attack of palsy, could be pricked or scratched in
the right hand or arm, without giving him any sensation. When,
however, he took a cold body into his hand, he felt it, but it appeared
to him lukewarm. Here the feelings of touch seem to have been lost,
but a deranged perception of temperature existed.

The soft bodies of the lowest classes of animals are well fitted for
the exercise of the sense of touch, and it is doubtful whether many
of them possess any other. The organs of touch in insects, if, in-
deed, they are not allotted to some higher sense, are especially their
antennae or feelers, which, though in themselves minute, are gene-
rally feathered or radiated, so as to include parts too small for human
vision, and the sensations of which must be of an exquisitely delicate
nature. Huber, in his interesting work on bees, states, that it is by
feeling with the antenna? that they seem to direct their various
works in the interior cff the hive. If an insect be deprived of its
antenna?, it either remains motionless, or, if it attempts to fly,
appears bewildered. A queen bee thus mutilated, ran about,
without apparent object, as if in a state of delirium.

THE SENSES. 199

Spallanzani discovered that bats could thread their way with ease
through the darkest and most intricate passages, where obstacles
had been purposely placed in their way, even when their eyes were
put 'out or 'covered over, and hence thought that they must have
some other sense to direct them. It has been rendered probable,
however, that they owe this power to the delicacy of the sense of
touch in their wings and other parts.

TASTE AND SMELL.

The senses of taste and smell may be spoken of together, as they
appear in many places to be intimately connected. The sense of
taste resides in the tongue and mouth, and has generally been con-
sidered by physiologists as little more than a modification of touch.
The 5th nerve was supposed to confer both touch and taste.
Panizza, however, as was mentioned, has recently disputed this.
The papillae, already spoken of, are particularly well seen in the
tongue. If a fluid, such as strong vinegar, be applied with a hair
pencil, they will be seen to become curiously elongated.

The tongue is covered with a thin cuticle, and the nostrils are
lined by a soft membrane, called, from a celebrated anatomist, the
Schn-eiderian membrane. It is upon this that the olfactory nerve
ramifies ; not, however, covered by it, but protected from the air that
passes through the nostrils merely by the natural secretion, called
mu-cus. The vapor of different bodies thus comes directly into
contact with these nerves.

The following Figure shows the olfactory nerves which give the sense of smelling.

Substances tasted must be either naturally fluid, or must be
dissolved by the saliva. When this condition is observed, we are
sensible of certain feelings, commonly supposed to be produced in

200 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

the mouth. A large proportion, however, of the feelings conveyed
by the tongue, are little more than different degrees of pungency,
which we may almost conceive capable of being felt by the ends of
the fingers, had their cuticle been fine enough. The flavor of
bodies, generally included when we speak of their taste, is a sensa-
tion entirely owing to the action of their vapor on the back part of
the nostrils ; so that, when the membrane that lines these is inflamed,
pr otherwise diseased, whiskey, vinegar, mustard, and many other
substances, can with some difficulty be distinguished from each
other. Any onre may easily satisfy himself of the indefinite nature
of the sensation of taste, by pushing out the tongue, accurately
closing the mouth and nostrils, and then applying it to different
substances.

In the savage state, the sense of smell is much used, and becomes
proportionately acute. The American Indians, it is said, can
easily distinguish different tribes and nations by the odor of their
bodies. The blind and deaf boy, James Mitchell, whose history
has" been recorded by Mr. Wardrop and Professor Dugald Stewart,
knew his friends, and at once detected strangers in a room by this
sense.

These senses are very acute in some of the lower animals, and
particularly in the carnivorous Vertebrata. The olfactory nerves
of most birds are small. In the duck and similar tribes, however,
they are large, and are much used. The nostrils of fishes do not
communicate with the mouth, and smell becomes with them more
like taste, from the substance being dissolved in water instead of
air.

HEARING.

The sense of hearing results from vibrations in an elastic sub-
stance, such as air or water, being communicated to the ear. When
a bell is shaken in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, no sound
is heard, because the air which usually carries the vibrations to the
ear is absent. Sound travels through the air at the rate of about
twelve and a half miles in a minute ; through water its velocity is
four or five times greater ; and ice and other solid bodies are known
to transmit it even more quickly.

. The organ of hearing in man may be divided into external, mid-
dle, and internal parts. The external consist of the gristle of the
ear (c), of use in most animals for collecting the sounds ; and of a
funnel-shaped canal (m), which leads to the middle part or drum (t).

THE SENSES. 201

The external and middle parts do not communicate directly, there
being interposed between the two a thin membrane (d), attached to
the bony sides of the canal, exactly like the parchment on a real
drum. On this membrane the vibrations of the air strike, and to it
there is attached a chain of small bones (Z>), which are also con-
nected with the internal ear, in which last is placed the nerve of
hearing. The vibrations, therefore, first strike the membrane of the
drum, and then pass along these bones to the auditory nerve, seen
in the figure, n. The cavity of the drum (£), though it does not
communicate with the external ear, yet has air admitted to it. This
passes through a canal (e), called the Eustachian tube, which opens
into the back part of the throat or pharynx. Most persons have
felt their hearing become dull when inflammation of the throat
closes this tube, and prevents the passage of the air. The internal
ear is very intricate, and the uses of its different parts are not well
known. In the figure are seen parts of it called semicircular canals
(s), the cochlea (A:), the vestibule (t>), which are all filled with a fluid,
and the auditory nerve (n), going to these parts.

The Ear,

c, corcha or external gristle, m, csnal leading to t, the tympanum or drum, d, membrane of
the drum. 6, small bone of the drum, r, vestibule. 3, semicircular canals, ft, cochlea, n audi-
tory nerve, e, Eustachian tutxj.

Of the parts described, it would seem that the internal ear is the
only one that is essential, for cases have occurred in which disease
has destroyed both the membrane of the drum and the small bones,
and yet hearing has remained. It is a curious observation, made
by Dr. Wollaston, that there are persons, of whom he himself was
one, who are insensible to very acute sounds, though all others are
perfectly heard. Some cannot hear the note of the bat or the chirp
of the grasshopper, while others are insensible even to the chirping
of the sparrow.

202 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

I

The Radiata, and almost all the Mollusca, appear to want this
sense, but it is possessed acutely by many insects, though the organ
used is not accurately known. In the sepia is found the simplest
organ of hearing. It is merely a sac- filled with fluid, with the nerve
expanded in it, and having a hard body attached to its extremity.
Fishes have this organ a little more complicated, but in neither these
nor the sepia is there any external opening. They hear as we do
when a hard body is held between the teeth, the conducting power of
water for sound being much greater than that of air. When the
Abbe Nollet sank his head under water and struck two stones
together, the shock to the ear was almost insupportable. This
organ becomes progressively more complicated in reptiles, birds,
and the mammalia. Among the last we first find external cartilages,
which, as well as the internal tube, are directed forwards in those
which pursue their prey, and backwards in timid animals, such as
the hare, rabbit, &c.

VISION.

The next and last sense we have to treat of is vision. All the
affections of this sense are derived from the action of light. We
think we see the bodies themselves that are scattered round us, but
this is a mistake, for they themselves have no color. The color, or,
more properly speaking, the power to produce the sensation we call
color, resides entirely in the rays of light that are thrown off or
reflected from these bodies to our eyes. In spite of our convictions,
however, we cannot help conceiving of our sensations as abiding
qualities in these different objects.

If a ray of light be admitted through a small opening into a dark
chamber, it appears white, but by causing it to pass through a three-
sided piece of glass called a prism, it is seen to be composed of
different-colored rays. These, according to Dr. Wollaston, are
red, yellowish green, blue, and violet. In this way a ray of light
is decomposed ; when these colors are all uniformly blended, as
when a card on which they are separately painted is rapidly whirled
round, the resulting color is again white. Now, it is from the
power bodies possess of throwing off or of absorbing special rays
out of the number, that they appear to us differently colored. If a
body appears blue, the blue rays alone have been reflected ; and so
on wTith red, green, and other colors. We do not notice any inter-
val between looking at an object and the impression on our eye (as
we can do with distant objects in the case of sound), from the

THE SENSES. 203

I

rapidity with which light travels, and from not having any other
sense that can give us information more quickly. There is always
an interval, however, and in the case of the distant heavenly bodies
this has been calculated. We have said sound travels at the rate
of between twelve and thirteen miles in a minute, but light passes
through 195,000 miles in the sixtieth part of the same time.

As the eye is strictly an optical instrument, we must state that it
is a law of optics that the rays of light, while passing through the
same medium, proceed in straight lines, but that they are turned
out of their course when they pass from a less into a more dense
medium. They are then said to be refracted. This takes place
when the rays of light pass from air into water, and it is by virtue
of the same law that a common magnifying or double convex glass
collects the sun's rays into a focus or point.

. The eye has various appendages, which require some explana-
tion. The first to be noticed are the eyelids. These are composed
chiefly of a gristly substance placed under the skin that accurately
fits the ball of the eye, and which is lined internally by a thin mem-
brane called the conjunctiva, that turns over on the globe of
the eye, and keeps it in its socket. Attached to the eyelids are
the eyelashes, which protect the eye from too great a glare
of light, from particles of dust, &c. Persons without eyelashes
have always tender eyes. The chief purposes served by the eye-
lids are, 1st,. to protect from external injury, and to exclude the
light when they are closed ; and, 2dly, to distribute equally over the
eyeball the fluid which moistens it. This fluid is usually carried
off as quickly as it is formed ; but when the eye is irritated, or the
mind affected by various emotions, it is then secreted in such quan-
tity as to run over the eyelids in the form of tears. - The source of
this fluid is a gland, named the lachrymal gland, situated above the
outer angle of the eye. Tears, there secreted, pass downwards to
the eye, whence they flow, through two small holes (puncta lachry-
malia) near the inner angle of the eyelids, into a small receptacle
called the lachrymal sac, placed immediately behind the inner
angle, and from which there is a communication to the nostrils by
what is called the nasal duct. This is the reason why, when tears
are copious, a necessity for blowing the nose is felt. When the
nasal duct is obstructed, as often happens, the nostril on that side
is dry, and the tears run over the eyelids. The puncta lachrymalia
may easily be seen by everting the eyelids, and looking at their
inner angle ; and the opening of the nasal duct may be seen by look-

204 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

ing into tne nostril of the horse. The two edges of the eyelids,
when closed, form a channel, along which the tears flow. Birds
have a third eyelid, at the inner angle of the two others, which they
may often be seen moving. Fishes have neither eyelids nor
lachrymal apparatus.

Others of the appendages are the muscles that move the eye, six
in number. There are, besides these, two that move the eyelids.
A broad circular one, which closes the eyelids, lies immediately
under the skin. The other, which raises the upper eyelid, is a long
muscle, and is attached to the bone deep behind the eyeball.

We now come to consider the globe of the eye, the parts com-
posing which are seen in the following figure, representing a hori-
zontal section of it. C, the cornea, is the transparent part of the
eye in front, which, it will be seen, forms part of a lesser circle, and
therefore projects more than the rest of the globe. It is set into
the white part of the ball of the eye, and after steeping, can be
taken out of it like a watch-glass. S, the sclerotic or hard coat, is
the outermost one, or the white part of the eye seen in front. It
extends over the whole ball posteriorly, and, from its toughness,
forms its principal support. In the tortoise and in birds, this part
anteriorly has bony matter in its composition ; and in the immense
eye of the extinct reptile called the ichthyosaurus, it appears to
have been composed of bony plates. The coat (X), which lies
internal to the sclerotic, is called the choroid coat. It is lined on
its inner surface, in the human eye, by a brownish-black paint (con-
tained in hexagonal cells), which we see when we look deep into
the eye. Its use seems to be to absorb the rays of light not re-
quired in vision. The color of this paint is, as every one has seen,
yellowish-green in the eye of the cat. It is chocolate-brown in the
hare and rabbit, silvery-blue in the horse, and pale golden yellow
in the lion and bear. In general it is of a light shade in such ani-
mals as prowl by night. This paint is wanting altogether in albino
animals, such as white rabbits or ferrets, and the red blood-vessels
can then be seen in the eye. This coat seems to be continuous
with a number of foldings called ciliary processes (K). The inner-
most of the coats of the eye (R) is called the retina, from its netted
appearance. It consists of a very fine membrane, with the pulpy,
half transparent substance, which is continuous with the optic
nerve (0), expanded upon it. This is the seat of vision. All
visual impressions must, in the first place, be made upon this ex-
pansion, and are then conveyed by the optic nerve to the mind.

THE SENSES.
Human Eye Dissected.

205

C, cornea. S, sclerotic coat. X, choroid coat. R, retina. O, optic nerve. V, vitreous humor.
L, lens. A, aqueous humor. P, pupil. J, iris. K, ciliary processes.

The parts of the eye remaining to be described are the humors
and the iris. A is the aqueous or watery humor, placed imme-
diately behind (C) the cornea. It is divided into an anterior and a
posterior chamber by (J) the iris, which floats like a curtain in it.
The iris is the part that gives the blue, grey, or black color to our
eyes, and which has in its centre an opening (P) that enlarges or
contracts according to the quantity of light to be admitted. It is
supposed to possess a circular and a radiated set of fibres to effect
this. Behind the aqueous humor lies the lens (L), the firmest of
the three humors. Its form in the human eye, as seen in the figure,
is something like a highly convex magnifying-glass. In fishes it
is globular, and it is it that falls out like a pea when the eye is boiled.

Horizontal section of the Eye, showing the different humors.

Behind this, again, is placed the largest or vitreous humor (V),
which appears of rather greater consistence than the white of an

206 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

-egg, and is enclosed in a very fine transparent membrane, ramifying
also into its interior, as in the foregoing figure.

By the united action of all these parts, vision is produced. The
cornea serves the purpose of a convex or magnify ing -glass, to col-
lect into foci or points the rays of light that pass from an object to
the eye, and this effect is still further assisted by the lens placed
behind it. The point where these foci are thus formed, is the
retina ; and the eye may be compared to the optical instrument
called the camera obscura, which is, indeed, but an imitation of th£
eye itself. Those who have seen this instrument will know, that
when the part corresponding to the cornea is presented to a land-
scape, there is an exact picture of it formed on the back part of the
box. Kepler, the great astronomer, made the interesting discovery
that the same thing may be seen in the eye. If the eye of a
recently killed bullock be carefully stripped of its sclerotic and
choroid coats posteriorly, and the retina be supported by a piece of
transparent silk, it may be placed in the hole of a window shutter
looking out upon a landscape, and a diminutive but distinct picture
of the whole may be seen depicted on the retina. From the thin-
ness of the coverings of the eye in albino animals (such as the white
rabbit), this exquisitely beautiful experiment may be performed even
without removing any of the coats.

It is truly wonderful to think that all the accurate perceptions of
this sense are derived from the images of a crowded picture formed
at the bottom of the eye, on a space so small that it may be
covered with the point of the finger. What can be more astonish-
ing than the fact, that the image of the sail of a windmill, six feet
in length, seen at the distance of twelve paces, occupies only the
twentieth part of an inch on the retina, and that the image of the
same sail, when removed to the limits of distinct vision, occupies,
according to the calculations of M. de la Hire, only the eight
thousandth part of an inch, or less than the sixtieth part of the
breadth of a common hair! " We can never," to quote again Dr.
Paley's words, " reflect without wonder upon the smallness yet
correctness of the picture formed at the bottom of .the eye. A
landscape, of five or six square leagues, is brought into a space of
half an inch diameter, yet the multitude of objects which it contains
are all preserved — are all discriminated in their magnitudes, posi-
tions, figures, colors. A prospect is compressed into a compass of a
sixpence, yet circumstantially represented. A stage-coach, travel-
ling at its ordinary speed for half an hour, passes in the eye over only

THE SENSES. 207

on,e-twelfth of an inch ; yet is this change of image distinctly per-
ceived throughout its whole progress, for it is only by means of that
perception that the motion of the coach itself is made sensible to the
eye." How minute must be the object of man as represented in
the retina of a humming bird 7

THE EYE.

o, represents the eyeball. G, the crystalline lens, where the rays of light, 1 1 1, from A, the
arrow, meet like a sun-glass and diverge, or are refracted and thrown on the retina B,
which represents the object absolutely perfect, though extremely small, e, the optic nerVe,
conveys it to the brain, and gives it a knowledge of the above object. Ill, rays of light from
an arrow, which pass through C, the crystalline lens, by which they are concentrated the same
as in a sun-glass, in front, and refracted by the concavity of it on the back, and thrown on
the retina B, which ought to be a little further back. Here the object is formed. The other
letters represent the different muscles of the eye.

After what has already been said of the proofs of design furnished
by other parts of the body, it is almost unnecessary, in that point of
view, to direct attention to this admirable organ. Its mechanism is
so clear that no man can mistake its objects. A celebrated philoso-
pher held (and with good reason) that an examination of the eye was
a cure for atheism ; and he might have added, that it not only proves,
beyond all doubt, the existence of a great first cause, but also,
perhaps, more than any other organ, that our Creator's design is to
mingle pleasure with our existence. If only what was necessary
had been done, it has been well remarked, that nothing but the tame,
dull outlines of objects might have been made sensible to us. But
color, endless in its shades, ever variegated in its tints, has been
spread over the face of nature — with what purpose, it may be asked,
if not to convey to us delight, and to prove that He who made us,

208 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

also wishes us to be happy. But, after all, it would appear that
we cannot use that happiness, or much of it, without first having
passed through great sufferings, the lot of all mortals.

Among even the lower tribes of the Radiata, indications of sen-
sibility to light have been observed, but no distinct organs for this
sense have been discovered. Ehrenberg has lately described some
small spots in the rays of the star-fish, which he conceives answer
the purpose of the organs of vision. As we rise higher, visual organs
are seen, but the Sepia is the lowest that has eyes constructed like
those of the Vertebrata. The eyes of insects are called compound,
being, in truth, immense aggregations of eyes, apparently to com-
pensate for their want of mobility. The common house-fly has 8,000
of these eyes ; the dragon-fly, 12,544 ; and some other species have
upwards of 25,000.

DISEASES.

The diseases of the eye are very numerous. The conjunctiva,
lining the eyelids, and reflected on the eyeball, the sclerotic coat,
and the iris, are particularly liable to inflammation. The purulent
ophthalmia generally commences in the conjunctiva, and destroys
the eyes of great numbers. The lens often becomes opaque,
especially in old people, and causes blindness. When this happens,
it is called cateract, and very frequently an operation is performed
to .restore vision. Blindness also arises from opacity of the cornea,
closure of the pupil, disease of the retina or optic nerve, called
amaurosis, &c.*

* The operation for cataracts, instead of restoring the sight, generally destroys it, and
extends inflammation to the other eye. One surgeon says he spoiled a hat-full of eyes
before he could operate successfully. He should have added, " and then could not suc-
ceed in effecting a cure." It appears unreasonable to run an instrument into the ball
of the eye, and thus let out the humors, and cause inflammation, to remove blindness.
It appears to me, from pretty extensive experience and observation, that the means made
use of in diseases of the eye, are calculated to injure instead of benefiting them. In
inflammation, scarifying and cupping the eyes are practised, blistering, mercury, blue
vitriol, &c., &c.; all this barbarous and empirical practice is sufficient to cause blindness
in the eyes of those which are sound, and which, no doubt, is often done. And yet we
build asylums for the blind, and we feel great compassion for the inmates. Now, would
it not be much more wise to pass laws to suppress this woful quackery of our " sur-
geons " and " oculists," and thus prevent the evil and misfortune of those made blind
by their malpractice, in place of allowing them to use absurd and dangerous means cal-
culated to induce, instead of removing, blindness. But the major part of the commu-
nity are so stupid, prejudiced, and intellectually blind on the subject, that we despair of
a remedy, unless they or their posterity become more enlightened, if not more honest,
I believe if diseases of the eyes were taken in time, and prudently treated, seldom a
case of blindness would ever be seen.

THE SENSES. 209

THE MIND.

In concluding this chapter, I will add a few remarks on the mind,
this wonderful, unknown, mysterious, immortal principle, so inti-
mately connected with the body.

With the operations of animals, who always perform the same
work in the very same manner — the execution of any individual
being neither better nor worse than that of any other ; in whom the
individual, at the end of some months, is what he will remain through
life, and the species, after a thousand years, just what it was in the
first year — contrast the results of human industry and invention, and
the fruits of that perfectibility which characterizes both the species
and individual. By the intelligence of man the animals have been
subdued, tamed, and reduced to slavery ; by his labors, marshes
have been drained, rivers confined, their cataracts effaced, forests
cleared, and the earth cultivated. By his reflection, time has been
computed, space measured, the celestial motions recognised and
represented, the heavens and the earth compared. He has not
merely executed, but has executed with the utmost accuracy,
the apparently impracticable tasks assigned him by the poet : —

Go, wondrous creature ! mount where science guides ;
Weigh air, measure earth, and calculate the tidesv

'• * • '

By human art, which is an emanation of science, .mountains
have been overcome, and the seas have been traversed ; the pilot
pursuing his course on the ocean, with as much certainty as if it had
been traced for him by engineers, and finding at each moment the
exact point of the globe on which he is, by means of astronomical
tables. Thus nations have been united ; and a new world has been
discovered, opening such a field for the unfettered and uncorrupted
energies of our race, that the senses are confused, the mind dazzled,
and judgment and calculation almost suspended by the grandeur and
brightness of the glorious and interminable prospects. The whole
face of the earth at present exhibits the works of human power,
which, though subordinate to that of nature, often exceeds, at least
so wonderfully seconds her operations, that, by aid of man, her

Treatment. — In inflammation of the eyes, which in nearly every case precedes blind-
ness, means should be taken to reduce or moderate it by cathartics, and forcing the blood
from the head and eyes to the extremities and surface. Elm bark and cooling washes to
the eyes, are well calculated to fulfil these intentions. In order to dispense with specta-
cles and preserve the sight, wash them night and morning with cold water and a little
white castile soap ; and more than all, keep clear of the surgeon and professed oculist,
you wish your eves destroyed.

14

210 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

whole extent is unfolded, and she has gradually arrived at that
point of perfection and magnificence in which we now behold her.

In the point of view which I have just considered, man stands
alone : his faculties, and what he has effected by them, place him
at a wide interval from all animals — at an interval which no animal
hitherto known to us can fill up. The manlike monkey, the almost
reasonable elephant, the docile dog, the sagacious beaver, the
industrious bee, cannot be compared to him. In none of these
instances is there any progress either in the individuals or the
species.

In most of the feelings of which other individuals of the species
are the subjects, and in all which come under the denomination of
moral sentiments, there is a marked difference between man and
animals, and a decided inferiority of the latter. The attachment of
the mother to the offspring, so long as its wants and feebleness
require her aid and defence, seems as strong in the animal as in the
human being, and bears equally in both the characters of actions
termed instinctive. Its duration is confined in the former case, even
in social animals, to the period of helplessness ; and the animal
instinct is not succeeded, as in man, by that continued intercourse
of affection and kind offices, and those endearing relations, which
constitute the most exalted pleasures of human life. In a word, as
a writer has said : We can almost make the marble speak ; and
since this was uttered has it not been realized in the machine invent-
ed by a German, which articulates words, or talks by means of
keys, or machinery.

[ILLUSTRATIONS. — To illustrate the sense of smell, a longitudinal section of the nose
of a sheep can be easily made, keeping the saw as much as possible to one side, when
the spongy or turbinated bones, which are covered with the Schneiderian membrane,
and are convoluted to increase the extent of surface, may be observed. The structure
of the nose of the cod or haddock is also curious. It does not communicate with the
mouth, and ought to be shown. The olfactory nerves going to it from the brain, may
easily be exposed in the fish with a strong pair of scissors.

The organ of hearing lies deep in the bone, and is not easily got at. However, the
membrane of the drum in a sheep can be very nicely shown, by taking off the bone
containing the ear from the skull, and then cutting away the external bony canal lead-
ing to it, until it is exposed. The small bones of the ear may also be obtained by
breaking into the drum with a strong pair of cutting pliers. They should be taken out,
and fastened with gum on a card covered with a piece of black velvet.

A simple apparatus to show the vibrations of the air, in imitation of the external
ear, may be constructed by forming two pieces of firm pasteboard into a shape like a
common funnel used for decanting liquors, cutting the narrower extremity slopingly, so
as to leave an opening about two inches by one and a half, and gumming loosely over this
a piece of goldbeater's skin. The other extremity may be made about seven inches ic

1 Lymphatic, vessels. 2 Heart. 3 Lungs. 4 Liver.
5 Stomach. 6 Lumbar regions. 7Uterus. 8.8 Ovaries.

THE TEMPERAMENTS. 211

diameter. When this funnel is supported on a wire-stand, so as to bring the gold-
beater's skin into a horizontal position, and some fine sand is placed on it, the vibrations
produced by the air may be seen, by beating on a sheet of tin, or other strongly vibrat-
ing body, at the larger extremity. Any tinsmith will give the shape for the paste-
board.

The structure of the eye can be admirably shown. Direct attention to the puncta
lachrymalia ; to the appearance of the pupil, contracting and dilating as more or less
light is directed on the eye ; to the correspondence of the motions of the two eyes 5 the
color of the iris, &c. The muscles of the eyeball can be beautifully seen in the sheep,
but they require a good deal of dissection. The globe of the eye may be easily shown,
however. Get a bullock's or sleep's eye, clear off the fat, &c., and observe the optic
nerve entering it posteriorly. Take hold of the optic nerve, introduce a pair of sharp
scissors through its coats, rather more posteriorly than the middle of the globe, and cut
the coats round transversely. The exterior sclerotic coat, the pulpy retina (often curled
up) interiorly, and the choroid coat between these, will then be seen. Some of the
vitreous humor will probably escape in making the section, and both it and the lens,
lying behind the pupil, will be seen when the posterior section of the eye is removed.
A number of lines on the choroid coat, radiating from the circumference of the lens,
and called ciliary processes, may also be seen. The aqueous humor may be seen to
escape when the eye is made tense (when entire), and the cornea is punctured. The
iris may be examined when the humors are removed. A similar section of a cod's eye
should be made to show the globular lens. The eye of a fowl may also be examined,
and its bony sclerotic, third eyelid, &c., observed.

Such a section as has been mentioned should, of course, always be made, but the
anatomy of the eye is made much more simple by having a horizontal section model of
it. In this its coats, humors, &c., are all seen, and their relations may be comprehended
with the utmost ease by young students.

To show the inverted image on the retina, the eye of a white rabbit answers well.
It is seen best by candle light, and when two or three lights are moved before the eye.
All the muscles and fat must first, of course, be removed posteriorly.

A prism, to show the decomposition of light, and a small camera obscura, should be
exhibited.

For figures to illustrate this chapter, see Lizars' Colored Plates, pages 75, 76 ; Roget's
Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii., pages 384, 400, 401, 425, 464, 467.]

CHAPTER XIV.

THE TEMPERAMENTS.

THERE are four of these : 1st, The lymphatic, in which there is
easily seen a full, soft, and rounded form, and languid action.

2d, The sanguine, in which there is a florid complexion, ex-
panded chest, and general vivacity of disposition, showing the pre-
ponderance of the vascular system, known generally by the term
of plethoric or full habit, the circulation of the blood being very
full and strong.

212

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY,

3d, The bilious, in which the muscular system predominates.
The body is remarkable for compactness of fibre, indicative of
strength and activity.

4th, The nervous, in which there is a thin, sharp outline, irregu-
lar and vivacious activity, and great susceptibility of impressions,
and which betoken the predominance of the nervous over all the
other functions. Says Shakspeare —

Let me have men about me that are fat ;
Sleek-headed men, and such as sleep o' nights ;
Yond' Cassius has a lean and hungry look;
He thinks too much ; such men are dangerous.

The following figures represent the different temperaments : —
FIG. 18. LYMPHATIC. FIG. 19. SANGUINE.

FIG. 20. BILIOUS.

FIG. 21. NERVOUS.

THE TEMPERAMENTS.

213

The following Figures represent the facial angles of different
nations according to Camper : —

Head of the Negro (some races).

Ourang.

Ancient Greek Statue.

European.

*

APPENDIX.

PHRENOLOGY.*

I subjoin a few remarks on Phrenology.

DEFINITION. — Phrenology points out those connexions and relations which exist
between the conditions and developments of the BRAIN, and the manifestations of tlie MIND,
discovering each frem an observation of the other. Its one distinctive characteristic
featurfc is, that each' class o^ mental functions is manifested by means of a given
portiQmpf the brain', called an organ, the size of which is the measure of the power of
function. Thus the benevolent feeling is manifested and indicated by means of brain
in ihe frontal part of the top of the bead, and in proportion to the development of brain
here, will be one's spontaneous flow of kind, obliging feeling, and so of every other
quality of mind.

I am indebted to my friend Mr. Wells for the following cut of the phrenological
organs.

* Derived from the two Greek words, " Phren," which signifies mind, and " Logos," discourse ;
the two together signifying the science of mind, or its laws and phenomena, as manifested
through the brain.

APPENDIX. 215

.ARRANGEMENT, NUMBERING, AND DEFINITION OF THE FACULTIES.

1. AMATIVENESS— Love and attraction between the sexes as such; desire of

coition ; also, to caress, pet, and fondle.

2. PHILOPROGENITIVENESS— Parental love, regard for children, pets, and

animals, and desire for their welfare.

3. ADHESIVENESS— Friendship, attachment, affection, desire for society, associa-

tion, and social enjoyment.

A. UNION FOR LIFE— Desire to pair, to unite, and be in the constant society of

those whom we love.

4. INH ABIT! VENESS— Love of place, desire for a permanent homestead and

residence, to work and live in one place.

5. CONCENTRATIVENESS— Unity and continuity of thought and feeling;

tendency to dwell upon one subject.

6. COMBATIVENESS— Resistance, self-protection; spirit, of opposition, resolu-

tion ; disposition to brave danger. •>

7. DESTRUCTIVENESS— Executiveness, indignation, irritability, a destroying and

pain-causing disposition; energy.

8. ALIMENTATIVENESS— Appetite, desire of nutrition, sense of hunger, and

capacity to enjoy food and drink.

9. ACQUISITIVENESS— Desire to acquire and possess property as such; its

exercise tends to frugality and industry. *

10. SECRETIVENESS— Sense of secresy, concealment, cunning, evasion; disguis-

ing one's real sentiments and plans.

1 1. CAUTIOUSNESS— Sense of danger ; apprehension, delay, regard for present and

future safety; fear, dread of results.

12. APPRO BATIVENESS— Sense of character and appearance; desire to please,

love of praise and popularity ; vanity.

13. SELF-ESTEEM— Self-regard; pride, independence, dignity; love of power and

distinction ; self-reliance.

14. FIRMNESS — Decision, will, perseverance, stability, determination of purpose;

unwillingness to yield.

15. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS— Sense of moral obligation; regard for truth and

justice ; contrition, integrity, honesty, &c.

C. CIRCUMSPECTION— Sense of discretion, consistency, uniformity, and balanc-
ing power— [not fully established.]

16. HOPE — Sense of immortality, and of the future ; anticipation, expectation ; looking

forward for future results.

17. MARVELLOUSNESS— Credulity ; sense of the spiritual and supernatural; belie*

in invisible agency ; faith, curiosity.

18. VENERATION— Sense of greatness; adoration; respect for superiority, authority,

and deference to age or antiquity.

19. BENEVOLENCE — Munificence, sympathy, disinterestedness, and desire to pro-

mote the happiness of others.

20. CONSTRUCTIVENESS— Sense of mechanism, manual dexterity, contrivance,

ingenuity, and skill. •

21. IDEALITY — Sense of perfection ; delicacy, taste, refinement, appreciation of the

beautiful in nature and art.

B. SUBLIMITY— Sense of the vast, the grand, and the sublime in nature; love of

the highest kinds of composition.

22 IMITATION— Powers of representatation,|imitation, and adaptation'; versatility of
action ; ability to mimic others.

216 APPENDIX.

23. MIRTHFULNESS— Perception of the absurd and ridiculous; gaiety, levity,

playfulness, and buffoonery.

24. INDIVIDUALITY— Power to identify individual objects ; observation of details;

desire to be an eye-witness.

25. FORM— Sense of shape, likeness, expression, and outline ; memory of counte-

nances a.nd configuration.

26. SIZE — Sense of proportion, magnitude, and equality; and relation of outlines;

exactitude.

27. WEIGHT — Sense of gravity; power to balance, and apply the laws of gravity in

machinery and muscular motion.

28. COLOR — Sense of colors ; their beauty, arrangement, and harmony in nature and

painting.

29. ORDER — Sense of, and desire for convenience and arrangement; neatness;

perception of general economy.

30. CALCULATION — Perception of numbers, and their relations • numerical com-

putations.

31. LOCALITY — Sense of place, position, and direction; memory of objects by

location ; desire to travel, see places, &c.

32. EVENTUALITY — Sense of action, events, phenomena, statistical knowledge;

memory of facts ; love of narrative.

33. TIME— Sense of chronology, of duration, of passing time ; when, and how long ;

equality in step and beat 41 music.

34. TUNE — Perception of sound, of melody, of proper emphasis, and modulation of

the voice ; abi aty to compose music.

35. LANGUAGE— Sense of words or signs to communicate ideas; ability to talk;

memory or words and names.

36. CAUSALITY — Sense of cause and effect; power of abstract thought, penetration,

planning, invention, originality.

37. COMPARISON— Sense of resemblance, of analogies, similes, and power of

analysis ; association, comparison, &c.

The celebrated Alexander Campbell, founder of the, Campbellite Baptists, was
examined by Mr. Fowler. After which he addressed him the following letter, cor-
roborating the correctness of the examination : —

New York, May 3, 1847.
MR. N. L. FOWLER : —

" Dear Sir, — When, at the request of Mrs. Campbell, one of your readers, I called at
your office, without in any way making myself known to you, simply saying that I had,
at the request of a friend, called upon you to obtain a chart of my head. I little expected
to hear you so soon begin to tell me your views of my physiological and mental charac-
ter, and describe, with such remarkable exactness, what I knew of myself — two or three
points, at most, out of some twenty or more prominent characteristics of both, only
excepted. Had I had any doubts of the general principles of the science being founded
on facts, and facts well-arranged, I should have been delivered of them all. so far as
my own knowledge of myself will justify me in forming an estimate of the different
attributes you noted in my physiological and mental constitution.

" I am not one of these who imagine that any science, and still less that of the human
mind, or of human nature, can in a few years, or by one class of contemporary minds,
be completely and perfectly developed and matured. I am, therefore, of the opinion,
that the Science of Phrenology is but in progress, and not yet perfected ; but that it
should have, in so few years, and in defiance of the hoary and consecrated systems of
metaphysical science arrayed against it, and sustained by names the most admired and
revered in Christendom, attained its present state of perfection, is truly wonderful, and

APPENDIX. 217

characteristic of the rapid march of all sorts of improvement in this truly inquisitive
and ambitious age.

" I have been frequently solicited by friends who are amateurs in the science, to allow
them to give me a chart of my head. Their reports were, in the main, generally con-
formable to my knowledge of myself; but their previous knowledge of my character
was always such as to leave some dubiety whether they did not correct their Phrenology
from their memory or acquaintance with me, rather than simply utter the revelations of
the cranium. Your having no advantage of this sort, has given to your details a value
paramount to those of any other phrenologist with whom I have been conversant ; and
I cannot but admire the science which bestows upon its possessor the power thus to
develope the human mind, and to advance the cause of education, physical, and intel-
lectual, and moral. Please accept my thanks for the copy which you have sent me of
what you said to me, almost off-hand, with my wishes for your success in all your
endeavors to further the cause of a rational education, to improve the human constitu-
tion, and to increase the social happiness of our species.

" Respectfully, your obedient servant,

"A. CAMPBELL."

MESMERISM.

A PEW remarks on that functional state of the nervous system, termed Mesmerism,
may not be irrelevant to add in this treatise. It is called by some animal or human
magnetism. It was known to the ancients, and has been revived by the moderns,* par-
ticularly in the last century by Dr. Frederick Antony Mesmer, of France, from whom
it has derived its name. Under the name of " neurology," attempts have been made
in this country to put a new-dress upon it, and to bring it before the public with new
features, and to connect with it some new discoveries ; but it remains to be what it has
ever been, the principal difference being only different modes of illustration.

Of the nature of this mysterious principle or agent, we know but little, but of its
effects on the system we are quite familiar ; and it can be practised and demonstrated
easily by any one a little acquainted with the method of operating upon those termed
" impressible subjects." After repeated passes of the hand from the head downwards
nearly in contact with the body, the subject falls into a mesmeric sleep, formerly called
the crisis, in which the outward senses, particularly the sight, are apparently closed, and
the interior, or inward senses, are capable of seeing and describing objects not otherwise
visible — as internal diseases, reading when blindfolded, &c. The body sometimes
becomes fixed as in a trance, and is insensible to pain, so that even surgical opera-
tions have been performed in a magnetic sleep without causing distress.

A limb having been mesmerized, becomes stiff and almost immovable, and may be
made to adhere firmly to the head, so that it cannot be forced off until the fluid has been
withdrawn. The will of the person magnetized appears to be completely under the
direction of the magnetizer. In this condition, if any of the phrenological organs be
magnetized, it developes their peculiar character, and the subject involuntarily ex-
ercises them preternaturally ; for instance, combativeness, which arouses the pugnacious
or fighting propensities; if amativeness, the subject make loves to the operator. Some
who make extravagant if not visionary pretensions to magnetism, assert that by putting
certain agents into the hand, such as Capsicum, Antimony, &c., their effects will be felt

* Travellers in eastern countries describe paintings found in the temples of Thebes and other
ancient cities which represent persons in a sleeping posture, while others are making passes ever
them. The priests of Chaldea, of Nineveh, of Babylon, of Judea, and Jerusalem, and the priests
and physicians of ancient Greece and Rome practised magnetism in their temples and in the heal-
ing art, long before the Christian era. " Aristotle informs us that Thales, who lived six hundred
years befoie Christ, ascribed the curative properties in the magnet to a soul with which he sup-
posed it to be endowed, and without which' he also supposed no kind of motion could take place.
Pliny also affirms the magnet to be useful in curing diseases of the eyes, scalds, and burns ; and
Celsus, a philosopher of the first century after Christ, speaks of a physician by the name of
Asclepiades, who soothed the ravings of the insane by manipulations, and he adds that his manual
operations, when continued for some time, produced a degree of sleep or lethargy."

APPENDIX. 219

upon the system ; and no doubt those who have the organ of marvellous-ness largely de-
veloped suppose that some such effect is produced, with other strange fancies.

The question naturally arises, How far is it useful 1 This remains yet to be shown.
Some attach great remedial power to magnetism, and, no doubt, in some cases, it exerts
an influence, and may have proved useful ; but as yet nothing very definite or certain has
been established that we can rely upon. It would appear that those termed " clair-
voyants " are able to detect diseases, but most of them are unable to prescribe success-
fully, as I have proved in my practice. How far this agent will be more fully developed
remains to be seen. But probably much greater light will be thrown upon it by future
investigations. Without doubt all the phenomena are to be referred to natural causes,
and not to superhuman or satanic agency, as has been supposed. *

Some err, if not degrade themselves, by the false and visionary ideas they attach to
magnetism. They make it their " hobby," and much of their ideality is associated with
its wonderful effects on the system. To listen to them, we would suppose that their
claims to discoveries were superior to all others. This manifests a peculiar state of
mind bordering on monomania, and the healing art at least will not be much indebted to
such for improvements.

The subject of animal magnetism now excites considerable interest in England and
India, and some experiments have been made which illustrate very clearly its singular
effects upon the system. Institutions and periodicals have been established to promote it,
particularly among the poor, as a medical agent. A mesmeric infirmary has been esta-
blished for the poor in Dublin, and one in Madras, in India, called the Eckctic Mes-
meric Hospital. The British government has appointed a committee to investigate
its merits. The resident surgeon has reported several operations performed on native
patients for large tumors, which were removed without pain in the mesmeric trance,
weighing from thirty to a hundred pounds. Dr. Esdaile, one of the surgeons of the
institutions in India, closes the report on the effects of mesmerism in the following
language :—

" From the foregoing facts, I consider myself entitled to say that it has been demon-
strated that patients in the mesmeric trance may be insensible to,

" 1st, The loudest noises.

11 3d, Painful pricking and pinching.

" 3d, The cutting of inflamed parts.

" 4th. The application of nitric acid to raw surfaces.

" 5th, The racking of the electro-magnetic machine.

" 6th, The most painful surgical operation, and yet be aroused into full conscious-
ness by the exposure of the naked bodies for a few minutes to the cold air.

(Signed) " JAMES ESDAILE, M.D.

"* 1st January, 1847."

220

APPENDIX.

The following figure, which I have had engraved from an old English author, repre
8ents strikingly the method of operating at that day with the costume then worn.

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