r>r.

I

1

A

TREATISE

formng, improving, and managing
COUNTRY RESIDENCES,

A

TREATISE

ON

FORMING, IMl^ROVING, x\ND MANAGING

COUNTRY RESIDENCES ;

AND ON THE >

CHOICE OF SITUATIONS APPROPRIATE TO EVERY CLASS OF PURCHASERS.

IN ALL WHICH THEOBJUCT IN VIEW IS TO UNITE IN ABETTER MANNER THAN HAS HITHERTO BEEN DONE,
A TASTE IVUNDED IN NATURE HTTU ECONOMY AND UTILITY,

IN CONSTRUCTING OR IMPROVING

MANSIONS, AND OTHER RURAL BUILDINGS,

so AS TO COMBINE ARCHITECTURAL FITNESS WITH PICTURESQUE EFFECT;

AND IN

^ORMi^G GARDENS.ORCHARDS, FARMS, FARKS.PLEASUREGROUNDS.SHRUBBERIES, ALL KINDS OF USEIULOR DECORATIVE
PLANTATIONS, AND EVERY OBJECT OF CONVENIENCE OR BEAUTY PECULIAR TO COUNTRY .SEVIS;

ACCORDING TO THE EXTENT, CHARACTER, OR STYLE OF SITUATIONS,
ASD THE RANK, FORTUNE, AND EXPENDITURE OF PROPRIETORS ;

FROM THE COTTAGE TO THE PALACE.
WITH

AN APPENDIX,

CONTAINING AN ENQUIRY INTO THE UTILITY AND MERITS OF MR. REFTON'S MODE OF SHEWING EFFECTS BY SLIDES AND
SKETCHES, AND STRICTURES ON HIS OPINIONS AND PRACTICE IN LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

ILLUSTRATED BY DESCRIPTIONS OF SCENERY AND BUILDINGS,

Br REFERENCES TO COUyjIiTSEATS, AND PASSAGES OFCOUNTRY IN MOSTPARTS OFGREAT BRITAIN,

AND BY THIRTY-TWO ENGRAVINGS.

By JOHN LOUDON, ESQ. F.L.S.

MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS, COMMERCE, &c. LONDON, OF THE SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE, PLANTING, &c. BATH ;
AUTHOR OF A TREATISE ON HOT HOUSES, AND OBSERVATIONS ON LANDSCAPE GARDENING, &c.

IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I.

LONDON:

PRl.MTED FOR LONGMAN, HURST, KEES, AND ORME, PATEKNOSTER-ROVV,

BY C. WHITI'INGUAM, DEAN-STREST.

1806.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2010 with funding from

Research Library, The Getty Research Institute

http://www.archive.org/details/treatiseonformin01loud

TO THE

NOBLEMEN, LADIES, AND GENTLEMEN,

WHOSE RESIDENCES

ARE REFERRED TO IN THE FOLLOWING

WORK,

IT IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED

BY THEIR DEVOTED SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR.

90, Neivman Street,
1st Oct. 1S06.

PREFACE.

Though a work of this nature has hitherto been a desideratum
in rural economics, it was by no means that circumstance
which induced the author to compose the following Treatise.
The subject, from his earliest years, has been his favourite
study and amusement ; he has considered every branch of it
practically and theoretically — minutely and generally ; and he
is now engaged in it in a professional capacity. Hp is con-
vinced that the principles of the theory from which he acts
lead to effects much preferable to the results of general prac-
tice ; and that this theory is sufficient to establish an art (which
has hitherto been guided chiefly by fashion or caprice) upon
principles inherent in the nature of man. Conceiving that a
detail of these principles, and the practices which flow from
them, if disseminated in a book might tend materially to their
general introduction, he has thence been led to consider the
subject in that extensive manner which gave rise to the title
page of this volume.

Vlll \ PREFACE.

The reader will not imagine, from this, that every elementary
branch of the art of forming a residence is treated as minutely
as they would be in separate treatises. Such a plan would
have been mere book-making, and must have contained so
much of what has already been repeated by other writers; as
to have rendered it displeasing to all readers of taste : to those
of inquiry the drudgery of selecting the particular views of the
author among such a mass of common-place matter, would
have been so great as in all probability to have precluded the
task. The whole is but a short transcript of the leading ideas
and general principles which are prominent in the author's
mind on the sul3Ject of his profession. The reasoning and the
practices recommended are just those which he is in the daily
habit of applying to real scenery. Without implying any dis-
respect for the opinion of others, he has shewn no anxiety
either to coincide or difter with them, farther than as these
opinions have been put in practice.

It may be necessary here to make an apology to the pro-
prietors of those residences which I have occasionally so freely
criticised. Let it be considered, that no natural or unavoid-
able deformities are ever objected to ; but merely such as are
considered to be the result of bad taste, and such, of course, as
can be removed or improved upon, should the remarks that I
have made be felt to have any weight. Neither are these

PREFACE. IX

residences ever referred to as the only examples of faults or
beauties ; but merely as those which more immediately occur-
red to the author at the time of writing.

Both kinds of references became necessary, not only as illus-
trations of my principles, but as tests of their truth and prac-
ticability. And I may add, that in some instances it is done to
silence and set at defiance a certain class of men, who are ever
ready in theory to coincide with such principles as may be
deemed new or excellent; while by their practice they shew
that they neither understand nor feel the force of such
principles.

I may remark here, that where I use the word improver in
the following pages, I as commonly allude to such as direct the
operations upon their own grounds as to professors. When I
use the term Designer, or Landscape Gardener, I of course
allude to Professors. If when speaking of them, generally,
I have occasionally used strong language, it must be attri-
buted to two causes ; in the first place, to the general obsti-
nacy and dogmatical manner in which Mr. Brown's disciples,
and those who may be called geometrical architects*, give

* I mean those who never consider picturesque effect, and tlie harmony of the
building with the situation, but do every thing by geometrical elevations, without
any reference to surrounding scenery.

X PREFACE.

their plans and opinions, without being able to reconcile
what they propose with common sense, or ever condescend-
ing to alter or improve them agreeably to the natural taste
of their employers ; and, in the second place, to a firm
conviction of their truth, and a strong feeling of their im-
portance. It would have been easy to have softened them
off by palliatives, or even to have used weak expressions ; but
I have in every instance found, that writers who have adopted
this practice were actuated, not by real diffidence or mo-
desty, but by a conscious deficienc}' of knowledge — weakness
of intellect — or, an undecided opinion Avith regard to the
subject. Good taste and nature are the same, and their im-
pressions being congenial to unprejudiced minds, are deci-
sive, clear, and permanent. Language is the offspring of
impressions. Not a single remark, however, will be found,
either on art or its professors, but what is perfectly in unison
with that candour and politeness, which, if wanting, would
display such a bad taste as might justly induce the reader to
doubt my judgment in every thing else.

A number of the plates in this volume are mere geometrical
elevations, plans, or sections, and therefore are chiefly to be
considered in connection with the text. The others are alike
illustrative; but being views of the same scenes under two dif-

PREFACE. XI

ferciit styles of improvement, they also serve, by a mere in-
spection of thcni, to characterize the nature of that part of the
improvements proposed which regard picturesque effect. Such
are Plates VII. VIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XXIII. with their
contrasts, and also the other plates placed together at the
end of Vol. II. All these, except Plates VII. and VIII. are
taken from nature ; and though it would be next to ridiculous
to say, that every particular must be done exactly as shewn in
them, yet the general style of the alterations can never be mis-
taken for that of modern gardening. In opposing these im-
proved views to those of the scene in its previous state, it would
have been easy to have rendered the beauties of the one and
the defects of the other much more striking, by finishing the
one engraving more than the other. But this I have uniformly
avoided, as a trick uuAvorthy of science. Neither have I ever
used slides in Mr. Repton's manner, to which I have the same
objections*. But I wish it particularly to be remarked, that I
have not in any case given a fictitious age and form to the trees
in these drawings, as is commonly done. In them, as in every
part of the work, a rigid adherence to truth is observed.

I now submit this work to the reader, with that confidence
which arises from a strong experimental conviction, that the

* See Appendix, No. I.

XII PREFACE.

leading principles assumed, and the practices recommended,
are founded in good taste and utility ; but, at the same time,
with that deference to public opinion, which humility requires,
and that openness to correction and advice which a sense of
human imperfection renders necessary, and which good taste
naturally dictates.

CONTENTS.

PACE

General usttroduction i

Pleasures of a country residence 1

Advantages of a country residence 3

Antiquity of a country residence 5

General history of the art of laying out grounds in Britain 9

the architecture of mansions in Britain 13

The object or intention of country residences 1 +

Leads to the manner of treating the subject '. 15

Arrangement of this work 16

^ PART I.

TREATS OP THE ELEMENTARY BRANCHES OF THE ART OP FORMING AND IMPROVING

COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

BOOK I.— On Taste.

INTRODUCTION.

General view of the subject 17

Proposed mode of pursuing an inquiry into the principles of taste ... 18
CHAP. L 0/ lite elementary senses of taste.

Tasting — liearing 20

Smelling — seeing — touching 21

Effect of practice and reflection on these senses 21

c

co^TE^■rs,

PAGE

CHAP. II. Of the elementary modifications of matter which correspond to the elemen-
tary sensei of taste.

Forms 22

Disposition of forms 23

Hardness, softness, roughness, and smoothness 2'^

Colours — odours 25

Heat and cold — motion 26

Sounds — gravity 27

CHAP. III. Of the combinations of the elementary modifications of matter, forming

uhat may he culled different kinds and degrees of beauty 28

Truth and nature — utility 29

Fitness or proportion — symmetry or conformity 36

Uniformity — unity 31

Order 32

Contrast — variety 33

Intricacy — harmony 34

CHAP. IV. Of such comhinations of the modifications of rnatter as are productive of
particular expressions, and correspondtnt effects on the mind, andmay

be denoi/iinaicd characters 35

Difference between mere beauty and sentiment or character, or be-
tween that which affL-cts the senses, and that which touches the

soul 35

Sublimity 37

Beauty 38

Deformity 39

Picturesque, sculpturesque, antique, and romantic beauty 40

Wildness 40

Tranquillit}', melancholy, age, and ruin 41

Elegance, gaiety, novelty 42

Ridicule — other characters 43

CHAP. V. Of the exercise of the faculty of taste in discerning combinations and ex-
pressions 44

Danger of taste or feeling, without judgment 45

Practice and reflection suited to perfect judgment in matters of taste 46

Nature the source and end of taste 46

A general taste, though not refined, is greatly preferable to taste only

in particular arts 40

CONTENTS.

PACE

CHAP. VI. Of the causes which may influence our feelin<r and judgment in matters of

taste 47

The imperfection of the elementary senses 4-8

. other faculties of the mind 48

The limited sphere ofindividuals 48

Particular associations of ideas 49

CONCLUSION.

The natural progress of taste in the mind 50

Danger of proceeding on our own taste, before it become fixed and

can be resolved into good sense jl

PART II.— Of Painting.

introduction;.

Paintins; intimately connected with taste and rural improvement, be-
cause it tends to perfect our judgment in visible objects 55

Arrangement of this part of the subject b'i

CHAP. 1. Of the general principles of landscape painting.

Design 54

Disposition, drawing, and perspective 55

Light, shade, and keeping — colouring 56

Expression — general effect — grace 57

CHAP. H. Of ilie advantages to be derived from the studj/ of the principles and practice

of painting, in architecture, and laying out grounds 58

Its use in perfecting the faculty of taste 5fi

In assisting in the discrimination of character 60

In assisting in the composition of real scenery 61

The advantages of perspective and optics in architecture 62

The advantages of practising drawing or painting 62

CHAP. III. Of the advantages to be derived from studying prints and paintings 65

They enable the improver to distinguish the excellent from the in-
ferior scenes in nature 65

They may sometimes mislead those who are not acquainted with the

practice of drawingor painting 66

CONTENTS.

PART III.— Architecture.

INTRODUCTION.

Pundamental principles of this art 67

Arrangement of this part of the work 67

DIVISION I. THE THEORY OF DESIGN IN ARCHITECTURE.

CHAP. I. Of titililj/ and convenience.

' In buildings for the inferior animals 69

In buildings for the different classes of mankind 70

CHAP. II. Of beaulj/ in architecture 71

Truth, utility, and fitness 72

Fitness the most general beauty iu buildings 73

Symmetry — uniformity 74

Unity, order, variety, intricacy, and harmony 75

Harmony the most exquisite beauty in buildings 76

CHAP. III. Of character in architecture.

Grandeur, sublimity, and beauty — how produced 78

Antique beauty, melancholy, &c 79

Every building ought to assume a decided character, and one ex-
pressive of its use 79

CHAP. IV. Of the manner or style of execution in architecttire 79

Two manners have long prevailed — the Grecian and the Gothic .... 79

General characteristics of each 80

Advantages of inquiring into the origin of these styles or manners ... 82

CHAP. V. Of the Grecian slyk of architecture 83

Buildings in the early ages were probably constructed of timber ... 83
Grecian buildings, we may suppose, were formed of timber regularly

hewn 83

This rendered plausible from the members of Grecian architecture .. 84
Grecian architecture exemplified in the antient Athenian temples,

to which this mode of building was first applied 85

Afterwards applied to the houses of individuals 86

And thus its characteristic simplicity injured even in Greece 86

And the style much corrupted by the Romans 87

Roman architecture imitated in Britain, and not the chaste Grecian

models 88

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Inferior artists in this country have done little but copied parts from

these Grecian or Roman edifices, and misplaced them 83

Hence the degradation of the column and pilaster 88

. misapplication of the pediments 90

cornices 91

Chimnej'-tops a fruitful source of variety in the hand of an able
artist — the vulgarity of those used in Grecian buildings in

this country shews the penury of our inventive powers 93

Luxuriant fancy of Sir John Vanbrugh, as opposed to this want of

originality or invention 94

Varieties of Grecian architecture commonly called Orders 96

The characteristics of these Orders 96

CHAP. YI. Of the Gothic style of building.
SECT. 1. Of the pointed Gothic style.

Original Gothic buildings may be supposed to have been built by

young trees, not hewn timber, as in the Grecian style 97

This rendered plausible from the facility with which they might
form Gothic windows and columns, such as we see in ca-
thedrals 9S

Though this theory may not be true, it affords good leading princi-
ples of criticism and design 99

The characteristics of a Gothic cathedral 100

The great beauty and fitness of this style of architecture 101

Fitness too much neglected by architects, exemplified in the Gothic

Hall in Windsor Castle, recently finished 101

2, Of the Saxon Gothic style.

This, to give an idea of it to general observers, may be considered

as a medium between the Grecian and pointed Gothic style ... 103

Characteristics of the Saxon style lO*

* 3. Of the irregular or mixed Gothic style 105

Applicable chiefly to the houses of individuals 105

Capable of every variety of beauty and use 106

Consists of several varieties — cathedral style ' 107

Castle style 108

Quadrangular style — tower style 109

Turret style — other styles Ill

New styles , 112

■^r-

CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAP. VII. Of styles composed both of Grecian and Gothic architecture.

SECT. 1. Of mixing Grecian and Gothic architecture 11*

2. Of blending or compounding them 115

Numerous buildings in this style erected and erecting in Scotland 117
Great mistake of the artist who first introduced it, and the bad taste

and servile ideas of those who adopt it 118

DIVISION II. THE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN' TO THE DIFFERENT

SUBJECTS OF ARCHITECTURE.

CHAP. I. Of public buildings 119

SECT. 1. Of churches.... 120

General form ofthe masses in churches 120

Of spires 121

The form of churches being generally alike in all parts of the

country, is a source of sublimity and moral instruction 122

2. Ofbridges 122

Simplicity ought to be their characteristic in general cases, ornaments
being lost from the excess of light on all sides preventing

examination of minutis 123

CHAP. II. Of private buildiiigs.

SECT. 1. Of cottages 124.

The English cottage characterized 126

The Scots cottage characterized ^ 129

2. Of ornaments in cottages ' 133

Decorations of the English cottage 133

Scots cottage 134.

3. Of the fire-places of cottages , 137

4. Of improved and ornamental cottages 14I

5. Of villages U3

Their origin H3

Villages avowedly artificial 144

Villages professedly irregular, in imitation of the most picturesque

natural ones 14-5

6. Of towns and cities 1+6

Their different characters of maritime, inland, &c 147

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Towns and cilies in regard to streets 147

to the preservation of character 14-7

— — to the magnitude of the buildings which

they contain 149

The vulgar vanity of most magistrates, often injures both the uti-
lity and picturesque effect of towns and cities, exemplified at
Edinburgh 151

7. Of manufactories 151

Great beauty of water mills and iron works when judiciously placed 152

8. Of the habitations of the husbandmen 15'2

Best examples for utility 153

Best examples for effect 154

The union of both qualities desirable, especially in the farms of

country residences 154

CHAP. 111. Of ihe hahitaiions of the wealthy and noble.

General remarks and proposed arrangement of this chapter 155

SECT. 1. On chusing a situation for a country-house 157

With regard to relative convenience 157

the most striking site 158

the views toward the country 160

2. On adapting the style of the building 161

With respect to the growth of trees 162

forms of particular trees which may be peculiar to

the site 164

■ the general character of the country 164

colour of the surrounding rocks and ground 166

Importance of attending to these considerations collectively 169

2. Of uniting the mansion to the scenery by means of the offices or

other architectural appendages 170

Connection universal in nature 170

Should thence be imitated in works of art 171

3. Of uniting a mansion with the surrounding scenery by means of

the offices 172

These ought not to be concealed as at present 172

Advantage should be taken of gentle elevations of ground — and

deviations made from vulgar forms in the buildinffs, &c 172

Towers may sometimes be raised even with a view to utility 173

Attention requisite to group these buildings with trees 173

INTRODUCTION.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Bad taste of those who, because they cannot give dignity to common

buildings, attempt to change their character 174.

Great economy results from shewing buildings in a proper manner 174

beauty would thus be added to particular residences and the

country at large 175

. Of uniting the mansion with the surrounding country, by means of

architectural appendages, chiefly ornamental 175

In common labourers' cottages 176

In ornamented cottages , 176

In the entrance frontof villas 177

houses of greater magnificence 178

In the garden fronts of the commonest villas 180

more elegant villas 180

magnificent buildings 181

DIVISION III. OF EXECUTION AND FINISHING.

Importance of attending to the qualities of the foundation 18S

— of the stone and other materials 183

' of the mortar 183

Conclusion — general remarks on architects, and books of architec-
ture 184.

None have ever laid down fundamental principles; Perrault, Cham-
bers, Wren, Palladio, and every other author have copied ser-
vilely from the antique, or from Vitruvius, without either con-
sidering the intrinsic causes of their beauty, or the fitness of

buildings to our climate and purposes 185

Vitruvius lays down no abstract principles — and beauty in no art

or class of objects can be fixed until this is done 186

PART IV. — Agriculture.

Agriculture, a branch of husbandry 187

General principles of husbandry 187

view of the vegetable kingdom, as subservient to the pur-
poses of husbandry 188

CONTENTS.

PAGE

The economy and laws of vegetation , 188

The classification and nomenclature of vegetables 188

The properties of vegetables 189

The uses of vegetables 191

General view of the animal kingdom, as subservient to the purposes

of husbandry '■• 192

The animal economy, physiology, anatomy, &c 192

The classification and nomenclature of animals 193

The natural properties of animals 194

Their uses or subserviency to mankind U)*

General view of the mineral kingdom, as subservient to the purposes

of husbandry 195

General view of the mechanical powers, with a reference to the pur-
poses of husbandry 196

Gravity, cohesion, extension, motion 196

General view of husbandry, with a reference to country residences... 197
The ignorance of professors in the different branches of
husbandry, has been the grand source of error in ru-
ral improvement, and the ruin of many individuals... 198
Proposed arrangement of the branch of husbandry under consider-
ation, namely, agriculture 199

CHAP. I. Of the improvetnent »f the soil and surface 200

Draining 200

of springs 200

of lakes, bogs, and morasses 202

-surface or Essex draining 205

Embanking, general view of. 203

Of the general causes of the failure of embankments al-
ready made 203

Of the forms of the most secure natural shores, with the

causes of their security 208

Of the modes of imitating these forms by art, or of improv-
ing upon them 210

Of the preservation of embankments or banks of rivers, by

erecting piers or projections to ward off the current... 213
Of the materials with which embankments are constructed 215

Of the expense of forming embankments 218

Of the management of land gained from the sea 219

d

CONTENTS.

PACK

Of the quantity of land which might be gained by embank-
ing, and preserved by constructing piers 223

Warping, paring, burning, and clearing of surface incumbrances... 225

Improving the composition of soils 225

Inclosing 225

I The propriety and advantage of inclosing 226

The size and magnitude of inclosures 226

Their form 227

The direction of the fences 227

The kind offence 227

Hedgerow trees 228

Sheltering exposed grounds 228

inland exposures 228

maritime exposures 229

CHAP. II. Of the improvement of the situation 230

Roads

Their direction 231

Their formation 231

Their future management 231

Canal making 231

CHAP. III. Of cultivation, and of ike culture of the vegetables used in agriculture.

Cultivation of the soil 232

Different implements used 232

Destruction of weeds 234

Perennial or root weeds 234'

Annual or seed weeds 234

Manuring

Manures which augment the quantity of vegetable nou-
rishment 235

Manures which bring what already exist into creation 235

Great advaiftages which might attend the use of salt both

to vegetables and animals 236

Watering 237

Culture of vegetables 237

The different species of corns 237

The different species of grasses 237

Top dressing 238

Irrigation 23S

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Flooding 239

Roots, leaves, and other herbage 240

Particular crops, or garden vegetables 21-0

CHAP. IV. Of breeding, rearing, and fattening animals, and of their general management 24-2

Breeding 24-2

Rearing beasts for the butcher 21-2

of labour 213

and training horses 243

■ poultry, game, fish, rabbits, bees, pheasants, swans, &c 24 1

CHAP. V. Of the size, formation, and managanent of farms 245

Their size in general 245

The size of sheep walks 24t)

The size of farms under particular modes of Husbandry 246

The formation of farms 247

Their subdivision by fences 247

The formation of buildings 24S

for arable farms 248

Pasture farms 249

Mixed kinds 249

Family farms 249

The management of farms 251

Rtrmarks on bailiffs 251

PART V. — Useful or culinary gardening.

INTRODUCTION 255

Horticulture, its subdivisions 253

Distinctions between culinary gardening and agriculture 254

Theory of culinary gardening 254

Proposed arrangement of this part 255

CHAP. I. Of the cultivation of the soil 250

Pulverization 256

Resting or refreshing soil 257

by particular crops 257

by particular modes of exposing the soil to be cropped 257

Rotation 258

CONTENTS.

PAGE

According to the naUire of the plants cultivated 259

modes of culture used 259

duration of the plants cultivated 259

Destruction of weeds 261

. vermin 261

Watering 262

To excite vegetation 263

To promote vegetation 263

To destroy insects 263

Pruning, to promote the growth of trees 263

To retard their growth 263

To modify their growths 263

General effects of pruning that part of trees above ground

only 264

— in the ground only 264

The different modes in which trees produce their fruit, lead

to correspondent modes of pruning 265

Training 265

to protect trees from the wind 265

to improve their climate 265

to support climbing plants 265

general and important effect of bending branches of fruit

trees 267

cutting the roots of trees 268

Ablaqueation 269

CHAP. II. Of the culture of herbaceous vegetables 269

The annual or biennial 269

The perennial 269

Pot herbs and salads 269

Great advantages of cultivating the annual garden crops in

the open fields of a farm 270

CHAP. III. Of the culture of fruit trees and fruit shrubs 272

The culture of wall fruits 272

Formation of the soil for the different kinds 272

Choice of proper sorts and healthy plants 274

General management 274

The culture of espaliers 275

— standards 275

of standards for walls 275

CONTENTS.

PAGE

The culture of standards for orchards 276

The cultivation of small fruits 276

CHAP. IV. 0/ ihe culture of culinary exotics 2/

The pine ^'^^

278

vine

Modes of accelerating the ripening of the fruit 279
retarding the ripening of the fruit... 279

Melons and cucumbers

90 1
Passiflora quadrangularis

Cactus opuntia, or Indian fig 2^?

„ 282

Oranges •

CHAP. V. Of forcing vegetables into a slate of growth or fruit at particular or unnatu- ^^^

ral seasons

Forcing by mechanically operating upon the vegetable, or

altering the nature of the soil only •• 2SS

.. by preservation, &c '^^^

by removing vegetables into an artificial climate. 286

CHAP. VI. Of the construction of hot-houses, hotiualts, pits, hot-heds, and mushroom-
houses.

General history of the rise and progress of building hot-houses 286

Plans of Speechly,Abercrombie, Nicol, &c 288

Dr. Anderson, Stewart, &c 289

the late John Mawer, Esq 290

• ■ .• 2Q1

Hot-houses, their requisite properties ^■'

291
Heat, how produced in them

Soil, air, light, water, wind, how produced 293 •

Hot-houses for peaches, cherries, figs, &c ■ 29-t'

295

, vines

295

.. pines

,, 296

Hot- walls

297

Pits

„ , , 299

Hot-beds

099

Mushroom-houses

CHAP. VII. Of other buildings v^hich are requisite for a kitchen garden 300

Sheds for implements, &c ^'^'^

Seed-rooms, fruit-rooms, &c

Covered seats, porches, porticos, &c 301

, , J 302

CHAP. VIII. Of the formation of orchards....: ^^^

Family orchards •

CONTENTS.

PACE

Farm orchards 303

CHAP. IX. Of the general formation of a garden 304

Exposure 304

Shelter MS

Situation 305

Proper soil 306

General form 308

Subdivisions by walks, walls, espaliers, hedges 309

Disposition of buildings, &c „ 310

Impropriety of introducing ornamental productions 31 1

Ancient British gardens 312

Yearly management of gardens, an agreeable recreation 313

PART VI. — Ornamental gardening.

LNTRODLCTIOX.

Ornamental gardening includes parterre, botanic, and shrubbery

gardening 314.

Their objects 315

Their connection with useful gardening in regard to culture 315

Proposed arrangement of this part 315

CHAP. I. Of the materials of ornamental gardening 316

Lawn 316

Gravel and sand — soil 317

Water 318

Stones 319

Flowering and botanic plants 319

Bulbous-rooted plants 319

Tender herbaceous plants 320

Common herbaceous plants 320

Annual flowers 321

Bog or moss plants .' 322

Botanic plants, shrubs, and trees 322

Shrubs 323

Trees 324

Statues, urns, inscriptions, busts, monuments, &c 325

Inscriptions 327

CONTENTS.

FACE

Buildings 328

Covered seats 328

Arches or gateways 329

Hot-houses 329

CHAP. H. Of the principles of selection and arrangement in ornamental gardening 330

The selection of single objects 330

The exhibition of objects collectively 330

Arrangement and grouping effects this last purpose 331

Botanical arrangement 331

Arrangement with a view to culture 331

The arrangement universal in nature 331

Artificial borderiugs 333

Grouping -'^^

CHAP. HI. Of the subjects of ornamental gardening.

Parterres, or tlower gardens 337

A general parterre 338

A winter garden, or parterre 339

A spring garden, or parterre 340

An autumn garden 34-0

A parterre of bulbous roots 34-1

Gardens of difterent kinds of flowers 341

An ancient British flower garden 341

Modern British flower gardens 342

Chinese, Grecian, Roman, Dutch and French gardens, or

34'>
parterres • ■'^-

A small botanic garden, or botanic parterre 343

Hot-houses ^^^

Stoves — green-houses -^^^

Conservatories 340

Conservatories, and also vineries, may be united to man-
sions, and heated by the fires of the rooms 347

Small groups of shrubs and flowers 349

Dug patches may easily be made to assume the appearance

of natural groups 350

Shrubberies ^^^

Pleasure grounds •'•'^

CONTENTS.

VOL. II. BOOK I.

PART VII. — Picturesque improvement.

PACE

♦NTRODICTION.

This subject oncrally treated under the term landscape gardening 355

This term an incorrect one 355

The term picturesque improvement proposed to be substituted in

its room 356

This innovation agreeable to the sentiments of most writers 356

The history of picturesque improvement mucii involved in planting

and ornamental gardening 357

Much injury has arisen to proprietors from landscape gardeners con-
sidering every part of a residence, with a view to the produc-
tion of ornament or landscapes 357

Proposed arrangement of this part 357

CHAP. I. Of the principles ofpicturesijueimprovetnenl 358

Unity of design, or character in regard to the whole 353

Grouping, or connection in regard to the parts 358

DifTerent characters of scenery 359

The natural character improved, generally preferable to artificial

characters 360

Connection pervades all nature 361

How effected in works of art 361

Improvers generally neglect connection 362

Grouping, a term of painting of similar import, when applied to

scenery 363

iCHAP. 11. Of the materials of real landscape 305

SECT. I. Of the necessary or permanent materials 363

Ground 363

In respect toquality of surface 364

form of surface 364<

character 364

connection 366

the comparative extent or magnitude of parts... 367

Rocks 368

In respect to shewing them i&i

CONTENTS.

PAGE

In respect to concealing them partially 370

complete concealment 371

They may be rendered more characteristic 371

Stones 372

Their general eflect illustrated from the Esk 373

Wood 374

Plants, grasses', and lower shrubby growths 374'

Such as are used for clothing the surface 374

Illustrated from a glen near Collington 375

Such as are used to give intricacy to foregrounds, &c 377

Illustrated from Necdwood forest 378

Water 380

Its general uses and effects 381

Excellent ideas of Messrs. Price and Knight on this subject. . 382

Erroneous ideas of Messrs. Marshall and Repton 382

The relative situation of water S85

The general shape 386

The margin and accompaniments 383

Tree.s, shrubs, plants, &c 389

Buildings, bridges, &c 392

Cascades and waterfalls 394

Waterfalls 395

Cascades 396

The picturesque improvement of pieces of water already existing... 397
The management of natural pieces of water, where they come within

the progress of picturesque improvement 403

Waterfalls and cascades may be formed 403

Particular effects may be imitated 403

Islands, aits, &c 404

The expense attending the formation of artificial water 405

The expense of excavating and forming the head 405

spreading the earth and managing the sur-
rounding surface 406

Buildings 407

The necessary 407

The convenient 408

The appropriate 409

The accidental 410

bad taste of those who destroy ruins 412

e

CONTENTS.

PAGE

2. Of the occasional or appropriate materials of landscape 414'

Roads and walks 414'

In avowedly artificial scenery 414

In natural or picturesque scenery 415

The edginess of artificial walks 415

Fences.

Theirgeneral uses in picturesque improvement 415

Different sorts, with their properties and defects 417

The invisible fence 418

Another species of fence 420

Any useful fence may be made ornamental 421

3. Of the fleeting or accidental materials of landscape.

Animals of different orders, classes, and species 422

Moving objects 423

The changes in the elements 424

Other natural charms 425

CHAP. III. Of the union of the materials of landscape in forming picturesque com-
positions 427

All pleasing objects consist of visible component parts 427

landscapes consist of not less than three marked distances

or parts 428

The foreground 428

middle distance 428

back ground 429

CHAP. IV. Of the subjects or particular scenes of picturesque improvement.

Parks 431

of small residences where utility is the chief object 431

— ^— of grand residences where character is the chief object 432

Pleasure-grounds 434

They may consist of a great variety of scenes 434

Dells and dingles among the finest of these 435

Dell at Valley field barbarously treated by Mr. Repton ... 437
Fine dell near Roslin Castle * 439

CONTENTS.

PART VIII. — -The formation and management of useful and pic-
turesque PLANTATIONS.

PAGE
INTRODUCTION'.

The variety and effect of trees singly, collectively, and in connec-
tion with every kind of scenery 4U

In characterizing the seasons 413

The great utility of trees especially to a country which depends on

its maritime force 445

Trees have been cultivated by every wise nation — by the Romans.... 445
Also in Britain ; though at present there is some danger of timber
becoming alarmingly scarce, from the rapid increase of ship-
building 445

Besides the intrinsic value of timber, wood is useful for sheltering

exposed grounds 447

Plantations confer value on property even while the trees are

quite young 447

The great beauty of wood on individual estates 448

The pleasure attending planting 443

The profits to individuals 449

Gentlemen have the most powerful motives to plant 451

Intimate connection of this subject with the beauty and utility of

residences, and of landed property in general 452

Proposed arrangement of this part 452

CHAP. I. Of the objects of planting.

Ornament 453

Beautiful variety 453

Picturesque variety 454

Grandeur or sublimity 454

Characters of individual trees 455

Utility 455

Profit from the timber 455

from the shelter or shade 456

Hence the necessity of a proper acquaintance with the kinds, cha-
racters, uses, and properties of trees and shrubs 457

CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAP. II. Of trees and shrubs, the materials with which the objects of planting are to
be accomplished.
SECT. 1. The classification of trees and shrubs, according to their visible cha-
racteristic distinctions and useful properties 458

Their magnitude — form +59

texture 460

colour 461

modes of growth — smells 4G2

The colour and properties of their barks and buds 463

The variety of the leaves of trees 464

Their flowers, — fruits 465

Their roots — their mode of propagation — their natural soils 466

Their natural situations — culture 467

The pruning of trees — their removal 468

Their products — the uses of these 469

The relative value of timber 470

The natural expression or characters of trees 471

Their accidental expression 472

2. Some trees and shrubs having properties deserving the more parti-
cular attention of planters of the present day.

The ash 474

The beech — horse-chesnut — larch, its properties 475

The larch may be bent so as to retain shapes fit for particular

purposes in naval architecture 470

This is deserving of public attention, as oak wood will probably

become very scarce 479

The laburnum 481

The Norway maple — Lombardy poplar 4S2

The Carolina, Canadian, and Hoary poplars — Scotch elm 483

The elder 484

Evergreens — Scotch fir 485

The cedar of Lebanus 486

The hemlock spruce — cypress — holly — evergreen oaks — ivy 487

The great advantages that might result from planting the ivy... 487

For varying the stemsof single trees and small groups 487

cottages, ruins, and irregular buildings 488

and beautifying naked stone fences, sunk fences, or

dykes between fields 4SS

CONTENTS.

PACE

The admirable effect this would have in many parts of Scotland 489

Shrubs 490

3. Of the effects of culture on trees, in regard to characteristic beauty
and timber produce.

This subject hitherto entirely neglected both by authors and practi-
cal men 492

Astonishing effects of culture in altering the qualities of herbaceous

vegetables 493

Must it not alter the qualities of timber ? we are certain it alters the

characteristic beauty of the general forms of trees 493

Proofs that it does so, from the experience of practical men 495

' timber of the common oak when

grown in Italy 495

Proofs that it does so, from the qualities of larch wood when that tree

is grown on a rich warm soil.., 497

Proofs from the different qualities of common Scotch fir timber in

diverse soils 409

The dangerous effects of too much pruning considered, with a refer-
ence to the quality of timber 502

Proofs of this from the experiments of Knight and Mirbel 593

General conclusions respecting the management of trees 504

CHAP. III. Of the principles of operating with trees so us to effect the objects in view.

SECT. 1. Of their arrangement and disposition so as to produce variety in

regard to form 507

Common ideas of variety erroneous, and tend only to produce in-
congruity 508

True variety produced by contrasts, not by opposites 509

How it may be effected in different species of trees 509

How itexists in natural forests 510

2. Of the arrangement of trees so as to produce harmonious and varied

colouring 511

In summer 512

In autumn 5 13

To imitate the effects of aerial perspective 514

3. Arrangement of trees so as to unite beauty with utility 5 15

How this is effected in natural forests ... 516

Should be imitated in artificial plantations 517

4. Of the disposition of wood with respect to the surface of the grounds

of aresidence, and the general surface of the country 5IS

f

CONTENTS.

PACE

EfTect of planting the hollows only • • 518

the eminences chiefly 519

Great importance of this subject 520

Particularly to Scotland and Wales 521

5. Of the disposition of wood on a residence witii respect to quantity 522

On level residences 523

On hilly situations 523

CHAP. IV. Of tlte subjects of planting, or different kinds of plantations 525

Groves 525

Woods 526

Copse-wood — groups — avenues — rows of trees 532

Importance of attending to the particular kind of plantations, both
for their beauty and utility, and also oeconomy in general ma-
nagement 533

CHAP. V. Of the formation of plantations.

SECT. 1. Of their outlines « 535

Their outlines where the character to be eftected is grandeur 535

variety.... 535

The outlines present, and future, of groups and masses 537

No occasion for circular clumps or belts in any case whatever 538

2. Of inclosing, and of different kinds of fences 540

Hedges 5+1

Walls 543

Ditches 544

Fences for single trees, and small groups 5i5

General management of fences 546

3. Of the preparation of the soil previously to planting 547

Drainingand cleaning 543

Preparing by the plough 5 19

. spade 550

Pitting and planting by slits, without preparation 350

4. Of the size of the plants, and mode of planting or sowing 551

Tnickness and regularity of insertion in the soil 552

Different modes of insertion 552

Advantages of sowing trees where they are finally to remain 553

Mode of sowing 55-^

5. Of sheltering young plantations 555

CONTENTS.

FACE

In the most exposed situations 555

In general cases 556

CHAP. VI. Of the management of plantations.

SECT. 1. Of cultivating the soil .' ;.... 557

Of growing vegetables among trees 557

Of cultivating by the plough 55S

2. Of pruning plantations.

General efiects of pruning 559

Mode of performing the operation 50O

Pruning most commonly is either entirely neglected or overdone... 561
Importance of pruning in regard to the characteristic beauty of

trees 562

3. Of thinning plantations 563

This operation of the greatest importance 563

Unphilosophical mistake of those who argue against thinning, be-
cause natural forests are not thinned by art 5Qi

Thinning plantations of the fir tribe 565

woods 566

• copsewoods, &c 566

4. Of the management of neglected plantations, with a view to re-

claim them 567

Few plantations which do not come under this head 567

Reclaiming plantations of hard wood 569

■ resinous trees 570

hard wood and resinous trees mixed

together 570

General operations necessary in reclaiming plantations 571

Draining 571

Training, pruning, &c 572

5. Ofhedgerow timber 573

The lands where hedgerow timber may be planted 573

The species of tree which ought to be planted 574

General bad management ofhedgerow timber 575

6. Of felling wood.

The proper season in regard to timber trees 577

undergrowths or copsewoods 578

Modes of felling timber 578

Importance of felling at the proper age 579

Bad consequences of neglecting to fell oaks at the proper age 580

&

CONCLUSION.

CONTENTS.

Many good books on planting; but none hare hitherto considered
the subject both with a view to ornament and utility, in con-
nection with practical directions for forming and managing
plantations 5S2

General mistakes of gentlemen in regard to planting 583

Plantations too much under the control of gardenersj foresters, and

land stewards 584

A plan proposed as better calculated to enhance the value of landed

property 585

The true way of rendering an estate of the greatest value is, in con-
nection with good general management, to take advantage of
all particular improvements 587

PART IX. — Of the conveniencies peculiar to country residences.

IKTRODUCTION.

Their design in general 589

Their adaptation — situation, &c 589

The approach 590

The approach designed for North Berwick 591

The drive 592

Lodges 592

Gates 593

Family offices, wash-house, drying-rooms, dairy 594

Cow-houses, poultry-houses, pheasantry 595

Aviary, apiary, pigeon-house, &c 596

Fish-ponds of fresh water 596

saltwater 597

Dog-kennels 597

Ice-houses, tennis-courts, bowling-greens, &c 598

CONTENTS.

BOOK 11.

THE FORMATION, IMPROVEMENT, AND MANAGEMENT OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

PART I. THE PRACTICE OF FOIUMING A COUNTRY RESIDENCE, OR IMPROVING SUCH AS

ALREADY EXIST.

PAGE
INTRODUCTION.

The separate parts of a residence already treated of, the object here

to lay down general rules for connecting them together 599^

Proposed arrangement of this part 000

CHAP. I. Of ihe hading principles nf union GOO

These ])rlnciples are unilj/ und connection 600

Mr. Repton's principles of utUil}/, proportion, and scale, are appli-
cable to every thing or nothing 601

The first verse of a poem — the first bar of a piece of music, &c. in-
stantaneously impress us with the character of the whole 601

Not so the first glance at any part of moJeni residences 601

The grand object of this work is to lead to the accomplishment

of this 602-

General directions for accomplishing it in a grand or suulime

situation 602

In a beautiful one 604

In a romantic one 605

In a situation of mere extent 607

an unsuitable expression 609

In a grand one when beauty is the object 009

In a beautiful one when picturesqueness or grandeur, &c. is the

object 611

General remarks 61 1

CHAP. II. Of forming the design, or general plan, whether for the entire formation or
farther improvement of a country residence.
Ichnography, and bird's eye views of its present state, necessary in

the first place 612

f

CONTENTS.

PACK

Upon these must be sketched the proposed improvements 613

And then finished plans and views may be made out 613

Or models in some cases 614>

. Great disadvantages of neglecting to preconceive a general plan of

procedure before operating upon any of the parts 616

CHAP. III. Of forming an estimate of the expenses.

The general estimate by the designer, pieviously to the determina-
tion of the plan 617

The particular estimate of artisans for real execution after the plan

is fixed on 613

What parts of execution a proprietor ought to accomplish by his own

labourers 613

What part he oughtto get finished by estimate or contract 618

Agreeable recreation of attending to (he completion of plans of im-
provement 619

Analogous to a general source of happiness which exists in every

classo mankind 619

CHAP. IV. Of marking out improvements on the ground, and of some practical opera-
tions of execution 620

General rules for protracting geometrical forms on ground 620

taking levels 621

proving the effect of water, roads, buildings, re-
moval of ground, &c. &c 621

Some general remarks on execution 621

Removal of ground , 622

by manual labour 622

combined labour 622

— mechanical powers 622

Caution in removing ground 623

Forming heads for pieces of water 623

PART II. — Of the preservation and management of country

RESIDENCES.

Preservation and management of a kitchen garden and orchard 626

First business of a kitchen gardener to provide fruits and vegetables 626

CONTENTS.

PAG*

The second, to preserve order, &c 626

The third, to renew objects, propagate trees, &c 627

Preservation and management of the farm, pasture of the park or lawn, and
the hve stock.

First duty of a bailiff to provide farm produce 628

Second, to preserve propriety, order, &c 629

Third, to repair, renew, &c 629

Preservation and management of the ornamental and picturesque scenery 629

First duty, to provide flowers, &c 630

To preserve character and beauty, &c 630

To provide for the effects of decay, change of taste, &c 632

Preservation and management of woods.

First, young plantations must be formed and managed 633

Secondly, timber and copse provided for home use — the tenantry,

and for the market 634

Thirdly, a nursery for young trees must be formed, and conse-
quently tree seeds collected, &c 63+

Hints respecting a plan for the general preservation and management
of woods, and the ornamental scenery of residences, which has
proved to be highly advantageous for proprietors 635

PART III. — Different styles of forming a country residence cha-
racterized, AND COMPARED WITH THE MODE PROPOSED IN THIS WORK.

INTRODUCTION.

CHAP. I. Part of an estate lo be formed into a residence 6+0

CHAP. II. The formal or ancient stj/le of forming a coiiMiy residence, as practised bi/

London, Wise, Siiiizer, l(c 6U

CHAP.UI. The qffectedli/ gracef id or modern style of forming residences, as practised by

Brown, White, Repton, Fames, 4r 6+2

CHAP. IV. The characteristic or natural style recommended in this work, and adopted by

the author in practice 61+

References to residences laid out or improved agreeably to this style,

by the author 6+7

CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAP. V. The leading distinctions betiveen the affecledlt/ gracef'd system of Brown, and
Rq>ton, and the characteristic style of die author.

In regaril to the whole 650

parts 650

wood, buildings, water, ground and parks 651

pleasure grounds, kitchen gardens, original and

yearly espen^e, and other less striking differences 65'2

BOOK III.

ON CHUSLNTG SITUATIONS FOR COUNTRY RESIDENCES, AND ON THE GENERAL
ADVANTAGES OF IMPROVING THEM.

PART I. OF THE CHOICE OF A SITUATION FOR A COUNTRY RESIDENCE, APPROPRIATED TO

EVERY CLASS OF PUKCHASEKS.

INTRODUCTION.

Little occasion to attend to this under the former systems 655

As they made every scene alike artificial, without attending to natu-
ral character 656

There is an analogy between the minds of men and scenery 657

The reasonsof it 660

To assist those who wish to purchase, to discover the tendency of

their own minds, the chief object of this part 661

To preserve fine scenery from falling into the possession ot those who

do not know its value, is also an object of it 662

The consequences that would result from a general attention to this
mode of viewing the subject, would be highly advantageous both
to sellers and buyers of landed property , 66J

CONTENTS.

PACE

Health, the sole object of some in retiring to the country 666

Recreations in horticulture better both for health and morals
than sea-bathing 666

Profit, the object of others 6G7

The display of wealth the object of others 668

Directions for doing this in the most ostentatious manner 668

To INCREASE THE CIRCLE OF AMUSEMENTS a common objcct in view... 669

To LAY THE FOUNDATION OF A FAMILY NAME the objeCt of SOilie 670

The improvement of the country the object of some 670

The gratification of a taste for rural life the object of others... 671

Disgust at a public life compels some to retire 672

To indulge in grief for PAST misfortunes may be the object in

view 672

To feel and enjoy all the appearances of nature the object of

some 67 S

General remarks respecting those already in possession of residences 67*'
There is no situation, however bad, but may be improved, so as
to become superior to the finest place laid out in the modern

style — if nature be imitated 67 +

Therefore no person should be anxious to change, nor be displeased

with, an entailed estate on account of its situation 675

Strangers or new possessors should be carried to residences in fine

weather, &c 67j

A proprietor ought to retain the same residence all his life-time 676

The country not long to be enjoyed without society, unless by con-
noisseurs, who are never persons of general taste 677

The studj' of the human figure most interesting when we discover

character or expression in the countenance 678

The true and most exalted enjoyment of nature consists in the dis-
covery and continual perception of that wonderful expression
«R MIND which pervades the universe 673

PART II. — Some considerations with a view to promote rural

IMPROVEMENT.
INTRODUCTION.

The different classes of mankind dependent on each other 679

Hence the reciprocal duties 6S0

CONTENTS.

PAGE

The poor compelled to duty from necessity and laws 080

The duties of the rich and enlightened flow from benevolence, &c. 680
Should they neglect them, they are stimulated to action by literary
men, wlio with the clergy preserve the general balance in fa-
vour of virtue and happiness 6S&

The IMPUOVEMENT of rural scenery demands attention, from its gene-
ral influence on society 68(>

The peasantry of rude countries , , CSl

^— cultivated parts of the countrjr 081

^^^— romantic parts of the country 682

Artisans in cities... 083

Rural improvement demands attention, from its influence on the es-
tates and families of the individual possessors , 683

General effects of the objects of taste 68-t

Their use in conferring happiness 684.

Use of the pleasures of taste and imagination in old age.... 685
Advantage of possessing knowledge and judgment, as well

as sense and feeling 685

The progress of human happiness from the pleasures of

sense to those of intellect 685

Rural improvement demands attention when we consider the effects
of neglect, or a contrary practice

The life of a rural miser.... 6S6

Citv amusements allowable, when not extravagantly pur-
sued 687

Then they dissipate the mind ; for if their votaries are
wrapt up in them, they cannot enjoy the simplicity

and repose of the country 687

This upon the whole is against the balance of happiness... 688
The country elevates and ennobles the minds of the con-

templativ.e 688

City amusement tends to the destruction of private pro-
perty, and the corruption of society, both there and

in the country 689

The country folks much corrupted by livery servants

from towns 639

Rural improvement demands attention, from the consideration that

wealth is bestowed upon individuals for the general good 689

Th« love of praise ought to stimulate to improvement 690

CONTENTS.

PACE

This is sure to be obtained by rural improvers 690

And of a kind more lasting, more general, and more truly

noble, than that obtained by heroes 691

The glory of national character ought to stimulate to the improve-
ment of residences, because one branch of this art, picturesque
improvement, is an art invented and pursued almost solely in

Britain 092

General view of a patriotic improver 093

Conclusion of the whole ,,.. 700

APPENDIX.

An enquity into the merits 2.x\d utility of Mr. Repton's mode of shew-
ing eifects by slides and sketches, with strictures on his opinions
and practices in rural improvement, as displayed in the residences
laid out from his plans, and in his writings on landscape

GARDENING.

INTRODUCTION.

Mr. Repton claims the important right of " guiding the taste, and im-
proving the scenery of his country" 703

Others, as well as myself, (such as Messrs. Knight, Price, &c.) consi-
der this taste as false judgment 701

Hence the following strictures 703

Errors in taste, as in every thing else, effect their own improvement 703

The high price (of 10. 10.) of Mr. Repton's writings, and his autho-
rity with a number of the higher classes, have prevented his
opinions from being freely discussed by general readers and
proprietors 704-

Otherwise his system could not have retained its ground so long as it

has done 70+

Mr. Repton, from his ignorance in the different branches of hus-
bandry, has not, and never can, effect any real improvement in
the art of laying out grounds 70+

Still Mr. Repton has naturally a considerable shareof superficial and

pleasing ability, and is deservedly at the head of Erown's School 70+

Proposed arrangement of these strictures 70+

No. I. An enquiry info the merits of Mr. Repton's manner of using slides with
sketches, as displayed in his published works and private red
books or MSS.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Mr. Repton not their inventor, as he affirms 705

Description of a slide and its use 705

Compared with the author's mode of producing two distinct land-
scapes 705

The proposed advantages of using slides 705

The use of slides does not admit of a fair comparison between the

present and improved states of the subjects 705

From the edginess of the boundary lines of the slide 700

exciting of curiosity to see what is under it 700

the necessary discomposure of that view in which the slide

forms a part 706

But supposing slides were allowable, the ease with which propri-
etors may be deceived by them, by the slightest difference in
the execution of the drawing, is a sufficient argument against

their use 707

The arlist may deceive by mere negligence in execution, whether

in drawing, keeping, perspective, &c 707

• the distribution of light 707

colour 707

Slides may be compared to quack medicines 70S

Result of this enquiry 708

1. That slides are liable to deceive of themselves, and ought never to be

us'^d 703

2. That the artist has a much greater opportunity of deceiving by

them than by the author's mode ; and that Mr. Repton has done
this in every slide given in his published works, and in all his

red books seen by the author 708

No. II. Strictures on Mr. Repton's published works on Landscape Gardening; and
chiefly on his mode of operating with water and wood, the
two principal materials of landscape.

Wood and water by far the most important materials for improving

rural scenerj' 709

The temples, porticos, pavilions, &c. erected by Mr. Repton, and
exhibited in his drawings, daily becoming disgusting to men
of elegant taste 709

Mr. Repton's avowedly ostentatious display of art in altering ground. 710

remarks on water. He shrinks from comparing his

practice,and that of his predecessor, with that of Mr. Price.... 710

— object is to display extent, not character 711

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Mr. Repton's ol)ject is at best to please or amuse, not to interest or

enrapture 71 I

He endeavours by argument to satisfy the understanding while the
soul will revolt at the efttct, upon the slightest glance at the

scene 7 1 1

Mr. Repton even argues from peculiar or ugly nature ! What w ould
be the consequences of pourti-aying human character from such

sources ! — Sir Joshua Reynolds's opinion on the subject 7 12

• defends baldness inartificial pools 7 12

the introduction of rock cascades in tame

grounds, where no rock exists naturally 7 12

Examples respecting water from Wentworth 713

Mr. Repton assumes it as a principle, that " a river is much easier to

imitate than a lake" 713

This is in direct violation of nature and characteristic beauty 711

A novel ferry-boat proposed for Holkham 713

This scheme whimsical and destructive of characteristic beauty 7I4-

Attempt to defend by argument three pieces of water at Harewood,
which the feelings of any person accustomed to admire natural

scenery would instantly revolt at .""... 71 +

References to other passages, containing similar arguments in favour

of existing deformities 715

Such reasoning may sometimes deceive in a book, but never can in-
fluence men of strong minds, or even natural feelings when up-
on the spot 715

The reasons why 715

General conclusions respecting Mr. Repton's opinions and his prac-
tices, and the consequent expences which must attend his ope-
rations with water • 715

Wood its importance in residences, as almost every thing is eflected

by it 716

From Mr. Repton's great experience and extensive practice, much

useful information might be expected from his writings 716

What is advanced is desultory and completely erroneous 716

Instances referred to in "The Enquiry" and in " Hints and Sketches" 717

Dangerous opinions in regard to thinning 717

Erroneous opinions in regard to forming drives 717

variety 717

inserting the plants 713

CONCLVSION.

CONTENTS.

PAdE

Examination of a chapter of unconnected remarks on planting, in

" Observations" 718

Effects — clumps- — groups — masses 713

Planting wastes — browsing line — masses — outlines 719

Examination of a chapter of unconnected remarks on wood, in

" Observations" 720

Wood and lawn — a drive — thinning, &c 720

On thinning woods 721

Apology for further directions 721

Proofs that Mr. Repton has no fixed principles on this subject 721

Reasons why his experience in planting can never be of any use.... 721
Mr. Reptou's hints on utility and convenience.
He denies the practicability of uniting beauty and utility in

farms 722

Mr. Repton's opinions on wood and water are similar to what

Mr. Brown's were 722

Independent of beauty, very bad consequences in regard to the value
of landed property, have resulted from Mr. Brown's practice,
and hence must also result from Mr. Repton's 722

Proofs of this in Kent's Hints on Landed Propertj% &c 722

LIST OF

COUNTRY RESIDENCES

REFERRED TO IN THE FOLLOWING WORK.

Abercairnie Colonel Murray Perthshire.

Adlestrop J. H. Leigh, Esq Gloucestershire.

Airthrie Sir Robert Abercrombie, K. B Stirlingshire.

Airth William Graham, Esq Stirlingshire.

Aimsfield The Right Hon. the Earl of Weniyss Haddingtonshire.

Allerton Hall William Roscoe, Esq Lancashire.

Althorpe Park The Right Hon. Earl Spencer Northamptonshire.

Alnwick. Castle His Grace the Duke of Northumberland Northumberland.

Archerfield J. K. Nisbet, Esq Haddingtonshire.

Barnbarrow Robert Vans Agnew, Esq Wigtonshire.

Baldoon The RightHon. the Earl of Galloway Wigtonshire.

Barnton William Ramsay, Esq Edinburghshire,

Barnbiigle The Right Hon. the Earl of Roseberry Linlithgowshire.

Barganny Sir Hew Hamilton Dalrymple, Bart Ayrshire.

Bellevue City of Edinburgh Edinburghshire.

Beanston The Right Hon. Lord Elcho Haddingtonshire.

Belmont Mrs. Walker Edinburghshire.

Beaumont Abbey Colonel Beaumont Northumberland.

Belvoir Castle His Grace the Duke of Rutland Lincolnshire.

Beaudesart The Right Hon. the Earl of Uxbridge Staffordshire.

Beverley Park. Sir R. M. VVilmot, Bart Kent.

Bevelaw John Johnson, Esq Edinburghshire.

Birchhill James Gillespie, Esq Fifesbire.

LIST OF COUNTTvY RESIDENCES.

Blenheim Ills Grace tlie Duke of Marlborough Oxfordshire.

Blair-drummoiid William Drummond, Esq Stirlingshire.

Blaize Castle. T. Harford, Esq Gloucestershire.

Boltoii Abbey His Grace the Duke of Devonshire Yorkshire.

Bolliwfll The Right Hon. Lord Douglass Lanarkshire.

Braid House Gordon, Esq Edijiburghshire.

Bramham I'ark W. Fox Lane, Esq Yorkshire.

Braham Castle The Right Hon LordSeaforth Bamfshire.

Burleigh Ihe Right Hon. the Earl of Winchelsea Rutlandshire.

Caernarvon Castle The Right Hon. the Earl of Caernarvon Caernarvonshire.

Castle Howard The Right Hon. the Earl of Carlisle Yorkshire.

Captainhead William Slierricf, Esq Edinburghshire.

Castlewigg John Hawthorn, Esq WIgtonshire.

Callander Forbes, Esq Stirlingshire.

Carphin James Stewart, Esq Lanarkshire.

Cames-Eskan James Denniston, Esq Dumbartonshire.

Ca^hiobury The Right Hon. the Earl of Essex Hertfordshire.

Castleton Sir Hew Hamilton Dalrymple, Bart Haddingtonshire.

Claremont The Right Hon. the Earl of Tyrconnel Surrey.

Clonyards Archibald Loudon, Esq Kircudbrightshire.

Clytiio J. Jones, Esq Monmouthshire.

Condover S. Owen, Esq Shropshire.

CorbyCastle Henry Howard, Esq Cumberland.

Colzean The Right Hon. Lord Cassilis Ayrshire.

Corsham Paul Melluien, Esq Wiltshire.

Conway Castle The Right Hon. the Earl of Conway Denbighshire.

Coats John Walker, Esq Edinburghshire.

Coombe Lodge S.Gardiner, Esq Berkshire & Oxfordsh.

Covvdray Park \V. S. Poyntz, Esq Sussex.

Covvper's Hill G. Bikerdyke, Esq Surrey.

Coningbburgh Castle His Grace the Duke of Leeds Yorkshire.

Crighton The late Sir James Justice, K. B Edinburghshire.

Craigend William Morrison, Esq Lanarkshire.

Craigie Hall William Hope Weir, Esq Linlithgowshire,

Croome Park The Right Hon. the Earl of Coventry Warwickshire.

Dairy George Walker, Esq Edinburghshire.

Dalkeith House His Grace the Duke of Euccleugh Edinburghshire.

Ditchley House The Right Hon. Lord Dillon Oxfordshire.

Dirleton Castle J. K. Nisbet, Esq Haddingtonshire.

LIST OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

Downlon Castle R. P. Kniglit, Esq Herefordshire,

Doiininotoii Park The Right Hon. the Earl of Moira. ....'. Leicestershire.

Douglas Castle Sir Win. Douglass, K B Kircudbrightshire.

Jireghorii Castle William Trotter, Esq Edinburglishire.

Dunbar House The Right Hon. the Earl of Lauderdale Haddingtonshire.

bunkeld His Grace the Duke of Athol Perthshire.

Duddinwston The Most Noble the Marquis of Abercorn... .Edinburghshire.

Eaton Hall The Right Hon. Earl (Srosvenor Cheshire.

Edenside William Rigg, Esq Fifeshire.

Eaham Park William Parry, Esq Surrey.

Eglinton Castle The Right Hon. the Earl of Eglinton Ayrshire.

Enniore The Right Hon. the Earl of Egmont Somersetshire.

Enville TheRiglit Hon. Lord Stamford Worcestershire.

Esher The Hon. Miss Frances Pelhara Surrey.

Exlon Park .^. Colonel G. Noel Edwards Rutlandshire.

Farnley Hall Walter Fawkes, Esq Yorkshire.

Fluers His Grace the Duke of Roxburgh Roxburghshire.

Fonthill Abbey Wm. Beckford, Esq Wiltshire.

Foxley Uvedale Price, Esq Herefordshire.

Gleneagles -Miss Euphemia Haldane Stirlingshire.

Glenfuir Colonel Duncan Stirlingshire.

Gossford The Right Hon. the Earl of Wemyss Haddingtonshire.

Gordon Castle His Grace the Duke of Gordon Aberdeeuihire.

Gorhauibury The RightHon. Lord Griraston Hertfordshire.

Gogar William Ramsay, Esq Edinburghshire.

Grange T. A. Knight, Esq Herefordshire.

HaddonHall His Grace the Duke of Rutland Derbyshire.

Hagley The Right Hon. Lord Lyttelton Worcestershire.

HarewoodHall The Right Hon. Lord Harewood Yorkshire.

Hawkstone Sir Richard Hill, Bart Shropshire.

Hawthornden The Rt. Rev. the Lord BishopofAbernethy.. Edinburghshire.

Hamilton The Most Noble the Marquis of Douglas Lanarkshire.

Havod Thomas Johnes, Esq Qardiganshire.

Heathfield Park ..¥. Newbery, Esq Sussex.

Heythorpe The Right Hon. the Earl of Shrewsbury Oxfordshire.

Heron House Sir John Stewart Maxwell Heron, Bart Wigtonshire.

LIST OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

Hcrdniaiislon The Right Hon. Lord Sinclair Haddingtonshire.

Hackfall Mrs.Allanson Yorkshire.

Holme H. Peploe, Esq Herefordshire.

Holkham T. W. Coke, Esq Norfolk.

Hojiton Court T. Boltield, Esq Shropshire.

Holly Bush \V. Gisborne, Esq Staffordshire.

Hopton House The Right Hon. the Earl of Hopton Linlithgowshire.

Hurst Park Susse.x.

Hulne, or Holme Abbey His Grace the Duke of Northumberland Northumberland,

Ickworth The Right Hon. the Earl of Bristol Suffolk.

Inverary His Grace the Duke of Argyle Argyleshire.

Ingleston James Gibson, Esq Edinburghshire.

Ingestree The Right Hon. Earl Talbot Staffordshire.

Ham Port, Esq Derbyshire.

Kinnaird Castle Sir David Carnagie, Bart Angusshire.

Kenilworth Castle The Right Hon. the Earl of Clarendon Warwickshire.

Kerse Hall William Loudon, Esq Edinburghshire.

Keddleston The Right Hon. Lord Scarsdale Derbyshire.

Kelham House J. C. Girardot, Esq Nottinghamshire

Kenwood, or Caenwood.The Right Hon. the Earl of Mansfield Middlesex.

Kentchurch Park J. Scudamore, Esq Herefordshire.

Kingswood Lodge Gideon Bikerdyke, Esq Surrey.

Kings M'eston The Right Hon. Lord De Clifford Gloucestershire.

Kimbolton His Grace the Duke of Manchester Huntingdonshire.

Kirrochtree S. J.S. Maxwel Heron, Bart Wigtonshire.

Knowlesly Hall The Right Hon. the Earl of Derby Lancashire.

Knowle Her Grace the Duchess of Dorset Kent.

Llanarth John Jones, Esq Monmouthshire.

Lanercost Abbey The Right Hon. the Earl of Carlisle Cumberland.

Laggan J. C. Macdoual, Esq Wigtonshire,

Langhangles Monmoulhshire.

Lenny Park Robert Carlaw, Esq Edinburghshire.

Lesbury William Hay, Esq Northumberland.

Levens Park William Bridgeman, Esq Lancashire.

Grove Richard Denniston, Esq Dumbartonshire.

Leughie Sir Hew Hamilton Dajrymple, Bart Haddingtonshire.

Leasowes C. Hartop, Esq Worcestershire.

Linkhouse Thomas Allan, Esq Haddingtonshire.

LIST OP COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

Lowther Hall The Right Hon. Lord Low ther Cumberland.

Loudon Castle The Rt. Hon. Countess of Loudon SrMoira ...Ayrshire.

Luton Park The Most Noble the Manjuis of Bute Hertfordshire.

Malsley Castle The Right Hon. tlie Earl of Hyndeford Lanarkshire.

Markle Robert Brown, Esq Haddingtonshire,

Machany Castle General Drumniond Perthshire.

Maybie Richard Howat, Esq Dumfriesshire.

Margan Park Talbot, Esq Glamorganshire.

Mersehead John Hutchinson, Esq Kircudbrightshire.

Melville Castle The Right Hon. Lord Melville Edinburghshire.

Mevisbank J. Smith, Escj Edinburghshire.

Michelgrove The late R. Walker, Esq Sussex.

Millburn Robert Liston, Esq Edinburghshire.

Milton Abbey Earl Wentworth Fitzwilliam Northamptonshire.

Miiito House The Right Hon. Lord Minto Roxburghshire.

Monrith Sir William Maxwell, Bart Wigtonshire.

Mount Edgecumbe The Rt. Hon. Ear) of Mount Edgecumbe Devonshire.

Mountwhannie James Gillespie, Esq Fifeshire.

Moccas Court Sir Geo. Cornwall, Bart Herefordshire.

Mulgrave Castle The Right Hon, the Earl of Mulgrave Yorkshire.

New Liston William Hogg, Esq Edinburghshire.

Nelherby Sir James Graham, Bart Cumberland.

North Berwick Sir Hew amilton Dalrymple, Bart Haddingtonshire.

Nuneham The Right Hon. Earl Harcourt Oxfordshire.

Oatlands His Royal Highness the Duke of York Surrey.

Oakhampton The Right Hon. Lord Viscount Courtenay... Devonshire.

Orchardton James Douglass, Esq Kircudbrightshire.

Palatine House William Everett, Esq Middlesex.

Penshurst Sidney, Esq.' Kent.

Pinchea Cornwall.

Piercefield Colonel Wood , Monmouthshire.

Plympton The Right Hon. Lord Harewood Yorkshire.

Polton House William Proven, Esq Edinburghshire.

Prinknash J. B. Howell, Esq Gloucestershire.

Purley J. A. Storer, Esq Berkshire.

Rainham Hall TheMost Noble the Marquis Townshend ....Norfolk.

Raby Park » ...The Right Hon. the Earl of Darlington Durham.

LIST OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

llagley Tlie Most Noble the Marquis of Hertford ...Warwickshire.

Raitli Ferguson, Esq Fifeshire.

Eeveseby Abbey Sir Joseph Banks, Bart Lincolnshire.

Rhydal Sir Mich. Le Fleming Westmoreland.

Rocliester Castle The Kight lion. Lord Cwydir Kent.

Rosyth Castle The Crown Fifeshire.

Roslin Castle Tlie Right Hon. Lord Roslin Edinburghshire.

Saughton Hall William Watson, Esq Edinburghshire.

Sanipford Park Dorsetshire.

SchawPark ....The Right Hon. the Earl of Mansfield Clackniannansiiire.

Scone Ditto Perthshire.

Shardeloes T. D. T. Drake, Esq Buckinghamshire.

Skelimorlie The Right Hon. Lord Montgomery Ayrshire.

Slatford Cottage Dr. Munro Edinburghshire.

Southwick General Dunlop, of Dunlop Kircudbrightshire.

Sprinkell Sir J. S. Maxwel Heron, Bart Dumfriesshire.

Stow The Most Noble the Marquis of Buckingham. Buckinghamshire.

Studley Mrs. Alanson Yorkshire.

Stourton Castle Miss Foley Worcestershire.

St. Mary's Isle The Right Hon. the Earl of Selkirk Kirkcudbrightshire.

Thirkleby Flail Sir Thomas Frankland, Bart Yorkshire.

Thorndon Hall The Right Hon. Lord Petre Essex.

Thoresby The Right Hon. Lord Newark Nottinghamshire.

Tiln'^y Hall The late Sir James Tilney Long, Bart Hani])shire.

Tyningham The Right Hon. the Earl of Haddington Haddingtonshire.

Trentham The Most Noblethe Marquis of Stafford Stalfordshire.

Trigger Hall Walden Orme, Esq. ., Middlesex.

TuUyallan The Right Hon. Lord Keith Clackmannanshire.

Valleyfield Sir Robert Preston, Bart Perthshire.

Warwick Castle The Right Hon. the Earl of Warwick Warwickshire.

Wallace Tower The Right Hon. the Earl of Mansfield Perthshire.

Welbeck Abbey His Grace the Duke of Portland Nottinghamshire.

Wentworth House The Right Hon. Earl FitzwiUiam Yorkshire.

Castle J. H. Raye, Esq Yorkshire.

"West Carse The Right Hon. Lord Dundass Stirlingshire.

West Wycombe Sir John Dashwood King, Bart Buckinghamshire.

White Knights The Most Noble the Marquis of Blaudford... Berkshire.

LIST OF COUNTRY RESIDENCES.

Wimpole The Right Hon. the Earl of Hardwicke Cambridgeshire.

Wilton House The Right Hon. the Earl of Pembroke Wiltshire.

Woburn His Grace the Duke of Bedford Bedfordshire.

Woolaton TheRightHon. Lord Middleton Nottinghamshire.

Woodhall General Campbell Lanarkshire.

Woodside David Russel, Esq Stirlingshire.

Woodheuslee Lord Woodhouslee Edinburghshire.

Worksop His Grace the Duke of Norfolk Nottinghamshire,

Yoxal Lodge Gisborne, Esq Staffordshire.

Zion House His Grace the Duke of Northumberland Middlesex.

THE

THEORY AND PRACTICE

OF FORMING A.

COUNTRY RESIDENCE.

INTRODUCTION.

Rural scener}' is so congenial to the human mind, that
there are few persons who do not indulge the hope of retiring
at some period into the countr}-. Its peculiar and gentle
pleasures are suited to all ages and every rank of life, and af-
ford not less gratification to the general observer, than to
the philosopher, the poet, or the painter. Works of art ge-
nerally require from their votaries time, thought, and a parti-
cular study, in order to become acquainted with their beauties :
but Ave have only to see nature, to love and admire her.
Every one feels himself touched by her effects, — enlivened by
scenes of verdure, freshness, and fragrance, — aroused by the
roar of the cataract, — or soothed almost to repose by the set-
ting sun gilding the western skies, and illuminating the tops of
the distant mountains. AVho has not felt the varied effect of
the seasons, or even the no less amazing variety of a single
day ? Who does not feel himself animated by the rising splen-

4 INTRODUCTION.

dour of the morning ? Who has not felt the heat and excess of
noon, the serenity and magnificence of evening, and the solem-
nity and grandeur of night ? If there be any one whose frozen
soul has never felt the energy of such scenes, to him it is
in vain to recommend them ; to others no recommendation
is wanting.

Those who enjoy a countr}' residence have an opportunity
of adding to the charms of rural scenery, the pleasures re-
sulting from agriculture and gardening. These recreations are
almost equally congenial with the human mind ; and the plea-
sure that attends their pureuit is still farther recommended by
their utility in life and their influence on society. The culti-
vation of a garden was the first employment given to man >
and agriculture and planting have been pursued by some of
the greatest men in every age ; many of whom have left ample
testimonies of the satisfaction which they derived from prac-
tising those arts. " God Almighty first planted a garden,"
says Lord Bacon ; " and indeed it is the purest of human
pleasures. It is the greatest refreslmient to the spirits of man ;
without which, buildings and palaces are but gross handy-
works."

Such is the superiority of rural occupations and pleasures,
that commerce, large societies, or crowded cities, may be

INTRODUCTION. 5

justly reckoned unnatural. Indeed, the very purpose for whick
we engage in commerce is, that we may one day be enabled to
retire to the country, where alone we picture to ourselves days
of solid satisfaction and undisturbed happiness. It is evident
that such sentiments are natural to the human mind. All
men, even though born in cities, possess the same ideas, which,
if they be not erased by poverty and disease, haunt them
through the whole journey of life. Perhaps it is in this sphere
only that man may approach the simplicity of nature, and at-
tain the enjoyments and pleasures of pristine innocence.

But laying aside these considerations, which may be slighted
or misconceived, let me add a motive more common, and
likely to be more generally attractive; I mean the ease, liberhj,
and independence of a country residence. Large cities, from
their very nature, are scenes of continual activity. Tliere
every individual must fill up with vigour and constancy the
place which he occupies in society ; he must often forego his
own pleasures, in order to accommodate himself to the inte-
rests, wishes, humour, or caprices of those with whom he is
connected. He must enter into their business and amuse-
ments ; speak and think in a certain degree upon the same
topics; dress, and even perform many of the animal functions,
in the fashion of his neighbours, or he will be despised, and
discarded from society. But even though he conform as much

6

INTRODL'CTlOISr

as possible to the ruling fashion of the da}-, he is still liable,
whilst among such numbers, to incur displeasure.

In the country, however, it is otherwise: there, a gentle-
man may live with his family upon his own estate, free from
the intrusion, bustle, and discord, which prevail in public cities.
In place of the risk and uncertainties of commerce, he enjoys
the less fleeting products of the soil. His hours are devoted
to the pleasure of cultivating his fields, gardens, and planta-
tions, and in promoting the happiness and prosperity of an in-
dustrious peasantry. In this way he enjoys the society of his
own amiable family : — his improvements give bread and com-
fort to the poor; while he selects his particular friends, and
renders all around him smiling, comfortable, and happy.

But without saying any thing more on the pleasures and
advantages of a rural life, I shall proceed to make some re-
marks on the nature of a country residence, and on the plan
of this work.

The wants of man, even when in a low state of civilization,
are such, that no one spot of nature is sufficient to supply
them. If he take up his residence in a forest, he must have
recourse to the open country for pasturage for his cattle, or for
the cultivation of grain. This, from obvious reasons, he would

INTRODUCTION.

soon find inconvenient. If he resolved to live entirely on tlie
plain, in order to guard his cattle and preserve his corn, he
must first have recourse to the forest for wood, or to the loose
rocks of the neighbouring hills for stones, to construct huts and
fences. Water, it is true, he might generally command, by fixing
on a spot near a spring or a river. Finding some of the advan-
tages of this situation, he would easily discover methods of in-
creasing its conveniences ; and a very trifling reflection would
suo-aest to him the possibility of intermingling part of the
forest Avith the plain, thus to add shelter, shade, and fuel, to
his house, corn, and cattle. These being continually in his
view, he could easily guard them from the ravages of other
animals, which would lurk in forests and commit frequent de-
predations on the flocks and corn in the vallies. To obviate
the trouble of keeping, he would soon invent fences ; and to
provide shelter or shade, in seasons of excessive heat or violent
storms, he would naturally have recourse to trees, either planted
along: those fences or collected in some place of no great use,
and where, in all probability, they would grow spontaneously
when surrounded by any rude fence.

It is easy thus to conceive what would be the appearance of
a primitive country residence ; which, in fact, would be no-
thing more than a farm and a farm-house of the rudest struc-
ture. As population increased, however, and property be-

8 INTRODUCTION.

came known, different orders of society would be established.
These farms, when possessed by individuals in the higher classes,
would be distinguished from those of the vulgar, bj^ a due cor-
respondency with their rank, fortune, or power, — as well as the
nature of the country. In almost every case, in the progressive
state of cultivation, that place would be considered as most
elegant, which contained the greatest appearance of art, in the
house, garden, and grounds. The surrounding objects being
nearly in a state of nature, their beauties were unperceived,
and no one could venture to put them in competition with the
charms of novelty, and the appearance of wealth and power.

To give these appearances in a rude age and a wild coun-
try, little more would be necessary, after building the house,
than to form near it a walled garden, and to place the divi-
sions of the fields in straight lines. But in the progress of
improvement, and as agriculture became general, inclosure
would be common over the greater part of the country. This
would lead to a progressive step of refinement, in order to
preserve the proper distinction. Trees would now be planted,
either in masses of artificial forms, in particular devices, or in
avenues. And now the formation of a place would have some
relation to the fine aits. The magnitude or architectural deco-
rations of the house would be increased. The ground near it
would be smoothed, and formed into terraces and platforms;

INTRODUCTION. 9

and, in time, bowling greens, labyrinths, parterres, and wilder-
nesses, would be introduced, either in the gardens, or in some
place convenient to the house. The trees in the garden, in
order to distinguish them from others, would not only be
placed in an artificial manner, but would also (thus more
strongly to produce the strange, and excite wonder) be cut
into singular shapes, sometimes of gcorhetrical figures, as
pyramids, cones, &;c. and at others, into the figures of men
or other animals.

Rural improvement still continuing its advances, to these
decorations would be added other ornamental appendages,
which might either arise from the manners of the people, the
nature of the country, or the principle of imitating other na-
tions. Thus one country might introduce architecture or sculp-
ture, because it excelled in those arts : another might contrive
fountains, which threw the water into the air, and produced
an appearance of gaiety and coolness analogous to the cli-
mate and the temper of the people. Another nation might in-
troduce water in the forms of ponds or canals, which are more
still in their effect, but more useful in domestic or horticultural
oeconomy. These modes, characteristic of particular countries,
have been imitated by each other and hence have produced a
diversity of ornament and show. Thus statues, fountains, and
ponds, are often found collected together in one place.

c

10 INTRODUCTION.

It should here be remarked, that the kitchen garden, which
still formed the capital feature in the place, and was the usual
receptacle of these decorations, was generally placed in front
of the house, and consequently would be the chief resort of
such as chose to walk for pleasure. This garden, in cold cli-
mates, was always surrounded by a strong and high wall, which
added to its security, comfort, and utility. In laying out the
walks and divisions, every thing was done by lines, distin-
guished from those in nature by their simplicity and deterr
mined character. They were either perfectly straight, or re-
gularly curved. In the general disposition of these lines, sym-
metry and regularit}' were prominent features. Avowed con-
sequence and formality gave the lef?cling hints in conceiving
the whole design. Symmetry directed the execution.

In this state was the art of laying out the grounds of a rural
retreat all over Europe in the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury. But when mankind are in a progressive state of civili-
zation and refinement, the polite arts seldom remain dor-
mant:— they either make advances toward nature, Avhich is
ultimately perfection in every polite art, or they are entirely
neglected, and sink into their primitive rudeness.

To the immortal honour of this country, the art of laying-
out grounds was destined to make one advance, to which it had

INTRODUCTION. 11

never before approached in anj^ age or nation. A painter,
uniting his profession with that of architecture, liappened to be
employed on a small estate near London. There he ventured
to extend his operations from the house to the scenery ; in ma-
naging which, he produced a new style of Ornamental or Land-
scape Gardening*: a style, the imperfections of which ought
not to detract from the merits of its inventor, who deserves
our gratitude for introducing it, and Avho has justly obtained
this praise from the common voice of the age. From the na-
ture of the place first modelled in tliis style, from Mr. Kent's
want of practical knowledge in husbandry, as well as from
some professors who evidently never practised from principle,
but merely from imitation, several difficulties arose, which have
retarded its progress toward perfection ; and Avhich have con-
tributed to establish a style much worse than any of Mr. Kent's
works ; I mean that of Mr. Brown, who seems evidently to
have been guided by the idea of one model which might be
applied to every situation. Many of the defects and absur-
dities of this style are known to men of taste. It is, how-
ever, still generally followed by the professors of landscape gar-
dening, and often Avith a rigid adherence to the plan of their
great self-taught predecessor. Of this any one may be con-
vinced, by viewing a few of such estates as are at present under

* First so denominated by Shenstone, in his Remarks on Gardening.

12 INTRODUCTJON.

their operations. Trees are still planted in clumps and belts;
and parks could be referred to, laid out in 1804, if possible
more ridiculous in these respects than even Fisherwick, one
of Mr. Brown's first efforts. Water is uniformly confined in
long canals regularly serpentine ; and instances are common,
both in England and Scotland, where natural brooks and rivers
have had their banks shaped, sloped, and smoothed, and often
their general direction rendered serpentine in imitation of made
canals.

But these things, with many others practised and recom-
mended by the followers of Brown, have not escaped the
criticisms of men of taste, A few years ago Mr. Price of
Foxley, and Mr. Knight of Downton, exposed its absurdities ;
the one in the " Essay on the Picturesque," and the other
in " The Landscape," a didactic poem. These works have
had considerable influence in stimulating a number of persons
to think for themselves ; and it is highly probable that they
will finally effect a change in landscape gardening very diffe-
rent from Mr. Brown's system. Its introduction will be the
more gradual, because in matters of practice men are less in-
fluenced by precept than example ; but when once intro-
duced, it is reasonable to suppose that it will be of lom^er du-
ration than any style hitherto adopted.

INTRODUCTION. 15

society and agricultural cultivation. What is useful and con-
venient in one age, may be useless, cumbersome, or inadequate
in another. And what is ornament to a rude people in a wild
country, ma}^ where society are in a more polished state, and
the face of nature regularly cultivated, be rejected for a portion
of that wildness or natural beauty, formerly neglected for its
superabundance, but now becoming valuable, not only from
its rarity but congeniality to the human mind, when men are
in that stage of improvement most proper for the discernment
of real beauty.

In the following treatise the rules of good taste, derived
from natural scenery; and those of utility akd conveni-
ETsrcE, derived from the wants of every rank in the present state
of society, form the general principles. The arrangement of
such a work appears natural and easy. The first thing that
would seem requisite, is to enquire into the principles of
taste or beauty. This done, the next thing would be to enquire
how far that art (painting) could assist us which has con-
fessedly for its object the study of the effects of scenery. This
is attempted in the essay on pj^inting. These essays form the
standard of beauty Avhich is applied throughout the whole
work. After treating on taste and painting, I proceed to those
arts which regard utility, in connection with beauty; these
are, architecture, agricnlture, useful or kitchen gardening, orna-
mental or parterre gardening, picturesque improvement, useful and

l6 INTRODUCTION.

picturesque pla7iting, and the conveniencies peculiar to a country
seat. These may be called the elementary branches of the art
of forming or improving rural residences, and therefore they
constitute the first book* of this work.

The SECOND BOOK treats, 1. Of the union or application of
these elementary branches to different subjects, with a view to
the formation or further improvement of different styles of resi-
dences ; 2. Of the preservation and future management of
residences agreeably to the same principles; and, 3. Of the dif-
ferent styles which have been used, in laying out the grounds of
residences.

The THIRD BOOK trcats, 1. Of the c/?o«ce of a situation for a
country seat, analogous to the mind and object in view of
every class of purchasers ; and, 2. Of the tnotives to the intro-
duction of good or natural taste in rural improvement.

* In treating each of the different parts in this Book, I have first endeavoured to
lay down its fundamental principles; next, their general application to practice; and,
lastly, the particular relation or application of the art to country residences. This
appears to me much the best way to enlarge the mind, and lead from the study of
particulars (which too much engross the several followers of each of those arts)
to habits of generalizing and abstract reasoning. The power of ascending from
particulars to generals — from the soil and culture of a plant, or the mouldings of a
cornice, to the design of a garden, or the elevation of a house ; and from the design of
a garden or a house, to that of a whole residence, constitutes the highest degree of
professional excellence in this art. It is this power alone which can unite beauty,
uliliti), and economy : the partial study of the art, and the neglect of some of the
useful elementary branches, has occasioned such ignorance in regard to planting,
convenience, expense, and execution, as often to have produced the most serious
consequences to proprietors.

IXTEODUCTIOX. 13

Improvements in the architecture of mansions, and the other
necessary or convenient appendages of country residences, have
been graduall}' introduced in proportion to the progressive im-
provement and additional wants of society. From the earliest
periods of British history, until the beginning of the sixteenth
century, the mansions or castles were almost invariably built in
that st3^1e generally denominated gothic, including several va-
rieties, all which are easily distinguished from the regular ar-
chitecture of Greece and Rome. In its rudest state it was in-
troduced by the Danes, whose castles seem to have been little
better than dungeons*. These were much improved by Al-
fred-f, and afterwards greatly enlarged by Gundulph, Bishop
of Rochester, who first introduced windows, sally ports, and
greatly improved the forms of the loops or arrow holes:}:. From
this time improvements were rapicj, until in the reign of Henry
III.; the noble castles of Conway and Caernarvon, and after-
wards, during the reigns of Elizabeth and James, Haddon
House, Knowle, Kowdry, and Penchurch, may be said to have
completed the progress of gothic mansions. About this time,
Grecian architecture began to be mixed with the other style,
which at first corrupted it, but afterwards, chiefly from Queen
Anne's reign to that of his present Majesty, produced the mag-
nificent palaces of Burleigh, Castle Howard, Blenheim, Kcd-

* As Conningsburgh in Yorkshire, and Castleton in Derbyshire,
t Chfford's Tower at York is said to have been built by this king.
X See Rochester Castle.

C 3

J4 UTTRODUCTION.

dleston, Ilarewood, and Gossford. For some years back the
gotliic seems again to prevail, and with great propriety, as it is
a style more congenial to our climate and purposes than any
other. Some of the best gothic mansions erecting at present
are Dreghorn, Bel voir, Loudon Castle, Scone, and Fonthill
Abbey. The chief defects which have all along attended the
progress of architecture in the country is the neglect of harmo-
nizing the buildings with the situation, and a too great atten-
tion to minute external ornaments, which, amid the beauties of
vegetation, and the intricacy of rural scenery, lose their effect,
and only needlessly increase expenses. Now, however, sym-
metry and superfluous ornaments are giving way to irregularity
and characteristic beauty. By this means much expense is
avoided, and preferable effects with greater conveniences pro-
duced.

From this general sketch of the pleasures and advantages of
a rural life, and the progressive improvement of rural architec-
ture, and the art of laying out grounds, may be inferred the
requisite qualities of a country residence. These are utility, con-
venience, and beauty*, all of them depend upon the state of

* This term is used in two senses throughout this work. The first is that beauty
which is analogous to female beauty, is characterized by delicacj/, and may be de-
nominated supreme beauty. The second includes every species of excellence in
objects or scenery, except sublimity. The term picturesque is used, 1st. To denote
that species of effect characterised by roughness, abruptness, and sudden variation;
and, 2nd. For every species of visible effect which is agreeable to the general prin-
ciples of painting. Good, true, natural, and genuine taste are used as synonymous
terms, for that faculty which with its objects in regard to the material world is ana-
lyzed in Book I. Part I.

BOOK I.
PART I.

OF TASTE, CHIEFLY IX REGARD TO SCENERY AND
ARCHITECTURE.

Standing upon an eminence, and looking around us on rural
scenery, we perceive a combination of a great variety of ob-
jects of different forms and colours, and of different degrees
of clearness or obscurity. IMankind in general denominate
the view grand, beautiful, fine, rude, barren, or disagreeable,
as it fills them with pleasurable emotions, or excites sensations
of disgust. The philosopher of taste inquires into the causes
of these opposite effects which are thus produced upon the
mind by different scenes ; and he has been able to arrive at this
general knowledge, that where the combination is discordant,
disgust, or other disagreeable sensations, are produced ; but
where it is harmonious, the effect is always pleasing, and often
fills the mind with the most exalted emotions of which our
nature is susceptible. A lively sensibility to these effects is
denominated Taste, or intellectual feeling. A knowledge of

D

18 OF TASTE. BOOK I.

the manner in which they are produced, is suited to perfect
our judgment, and instruct us in the art of criticism ; and also
to form artificial productions upon the principles which per-
vade the works of nature.

The faculty of taste results from the combination of five
elementary senses. The objects of taste, or beauty, result from
the combination of certain modifications of matter which
correspond to those senses. As the result of the elementary
senses is denominated Taste, so the result of the elementary
modifications is called Beauty; a term, in general, indiscrimi-
nately applied to all objects, of superior excellence. Taste is
inherent in the human mind, though in degrees varying per-
haps according to the education, habits, and moral sentiments
of men. The elementary principles of beauty are universal ;
but their combinations are as various as the diverse forms of
nature ; and their consequent effects pass all the gradations
from the highest rapture to the coldest disgust.

According to this view of taste and its objects, an inquiry
might perhaps be pursued in the following manner, viz.

1. Of the elementary senses of taste, and their union in form-
ing that faculty of the mind.

PART I. OF TASTE. 19

2. Of the elementary modifications of matter which corre-
spond to the elementar}' senses of taste.

3. Of the combination of the elementary modifications of
matter, forming different kinds and degrees of beauty : or
pleasing combination.

4. Of such combinations of the modifications of matter as
are productive of particular expressions and correspondent ef-
fects on the mind, and may be denominated characters.

5. Of the exercise of the faculty of taste in discerning pleas-
ing combinations or characters ; and, finally,

6. Of causes which may influence our feeling and judgment
in matters of taste.

To pursue the subject under these different heads with the
requisite illustration, would occupy a considerable volume :
here, a few remarks only can be noticed, with a view of bring-
ing some of the more important particulars in this branch of
science to the memory of the reader. The subject is con-
fessedly difficult, and should therefore induce him to be the
more ready to pass over such speculations or opinions as may
not coincide with his own preconceived notions.

20 OF TASTE. BOOK I.

CHAPTER 1.

OF THE ELEMENTARY SENSES OF TASTE.

These are simply the five senses ; each of which, it may be
observed, is capable of producing two different kinds of sensa-
tions upon the mind. The first kind of sensations seem merely
for the purposes of the animal economy, and are enjoyed by
man 3^ other animals in common with man.

The second kind of sensations are peculiar to man, and are
acquired by practice in and reflection on the first kind of
sensations. Thus, at first, we are satisfied with food or liquor
of simple and mild qualities; but by practice we come to
relish mixtures of sweet, bitter, acid, or astringent substances.

In music likewise, we at first choose or prefer simple sounds,
with Avhich we are pleased or afl'ected according to the nature
of the emotion which they are adapted to excite ; afterwards
we come to relish particular combinations of dissimilar sounds,
in what is called harmony ; and in this perception of compli-
cated sounds we even acquire such an exquisitely delicate sen-
sation, that the smallest discord disturbs our pleasure.

PART I. OF TASTE. 21

A similar refinement takes place in the olfactory powers. In
our earliest youth, or when man is in a simple state, he relishes
only the fresh smell of grass in spring, of hay in autumn, of
fragrant flowers and such like simples ; but by practice he ac-
quires a relish for all the combinations of the perfumer.

In vision, we are at first most pleased with simple soft colours,
as green, blue, violet, and gentle gradations of shade, as in
round bodies; afterwards we acquire a relish for strong con-
trasts and harmonies, and dark shadows abruptly mixed with
lights.

In the remaining sense of touch, there are similar secondary
sensations, which are of various kinds, as that sense is diff'used
over every part of the body. Titillation is a secondary per-
ception of the sense of touch, and the reader will recollect
several others.

The union of these secondary perceptions of the senses consti-
tute, as has been already observed, the faculty of taste. A per-
son possessing this faculty, who formerly used to look at scenes
only with a reference to the first sensations — who formerly
admired cultivated fields of corn or pasture, cows, sheep,
horses, fragrant flowers, singing birds, and crystal rivulets,
(only for their utility) now derives his chief pleasure from

32 OF TASTE. BOOK I.

massy rocks, foaming cascades, deer, wild asses, neglected
forests, eagles, and (in place of flowers) ferns and sedges. But
as the elementary senses and their secondary sensations are not
always present or perfect in each individual, hence arises a
difference of opinion with regard to the beauty of such secon-
dary combinations of scenery.

CHAPTER II.

OF THE ELEMENTARY MODIFICATIONS OF MATTER WHICH
CORRESPOND TO THE ELEMENTARY SENSES OF TASTE.

Some of the modifications of matter are perceived by one sense
only, as is that of smell or sight ; others are perceived by two,
as that of form, Avhich we can both see and feel. This occa-
sions a slight degree of intricacy in the division of these modi-
fications ; but the order in which they are noticed in this chap-
ter is sufficiently clear for the proposed purpose.

Forms. — ^These are all compounded of lines ; the two oppo-
site modifications of which are circles and triangles. From the
various combinations of these elementary forms are derived all
other geometric figures, as squares, ovals, polygons, cones.

PART I. OF TASTE. 2S

ellipses, as well as all the irregular forms of nature, which are
without names. The cone has been reckoned the most beau-
tiful, as uniting the three elementary forms of the line, the
triangle, and the circle ; but the chief reason Avhy we denomi-
nate one object more beautiful than another, is generally from
its relation to the female form, whence originated, not only
the name, but likewise all our ideas of beauty. A well-pro-
portioned female figure, placed erect, assumes nearly the form
of two cones united at their bases*. The breasts are also each
a cone, and the pupil of the eye a circle. The circular surface
prevails also throughout the whole body, and hence is consi-
dered as the most beautiful in other objects.

DisPosiTioy OK FoKMs. — Matter is not only capable of
producing effects which result from its modification or form,
but also from the disposition of these forms with regard to one
another. A hundred small cubes, or balls, may be regularly
placed at equal distances from one another upon an even sur-
face. This is perfectly simple and easily comprehended by
either the sight or the touch. But let these cubes or balls be

* It is remarkable, that the female dress formerly worn in this country had
the direct tendency to counteract the natural form of the body, and, in place
of two cones united at their bases, as in the naked figure, the order was comjjietely
reversed, and thus we had two cones united by their apices, as may be seeirin any
prints of the court dresses of the last century.

24 OF TASTE. BOOK I.

scattered irregularly, and in some places raised into small
heaps, and a spectator, who had not seen the whole operation,
will not be able fully nor quickly to conceive an idea of
each form; and will be totally at a loss to know what is con-
cealed in the heaps, whether forms of the same kind, or some
Others of totally different qualities.

Hardness, softness, roughness, and smoothness, —
are qualities of forms which perhaps might have been included
under Disposition, They address themselves both to the sense
of feeling and of sight. Separately, they are calculated to ex-
cite alternately pleasing and painful sensations; but, com-
bined, their effect becomes exquisite. The eye acquires a
knowledge of some of these qualities by experience; thus
roughness is discerned by the abrupt union of light and shade;
smoothness by their gradual intermixture, or by their equality.
Brightness is the extreme of smoothness, and is a great beauty,
as in the eyes of animals, and in water. It is always accom-
panied by roughness, which as uniformly produces shade, as in
the eye-lashes and the shaggy banks of rivers, lakes, &c. If
brightness any where exists without roughness, it is in the leaves
of shining vegetables ; but even in these, nature produces the
effect of roughness by varj'ing the surface, which, according to
a simple law in optics, occasions a total absorption of the rays,
and consequent darkness in one place ; while tlie entire reflec-

PART I. OF TASTE. 2d

tion of them in another displays light and smoothness. These
effects frequently both happen in the same leaf at the same
time, as any one may observe in the camellajaponica.

Colours addre^ themselves to the sight alone. They may
be divided into four kinds. 1. The cold colours ; as green,
blue, violet, &c. 2. The hot, or powerful colours ; as red,
orange, scarlet, &c. 3. The gay ; or white. 4. The gloomy ;
or black. The cold are the most pleasing when alone ; the hot
the most striking ; and consequently their mixture constitutes
the most powerful harmony. The most agreeable and alluring
harmonies are formed by the union of the hot and gay ; as in
the red and white of the human skin. The most dissjusting are
formed by the presence of the gay and solemn, when abruptly
interposed ; as in black clothes upon pale faces and hands, or
white clothes on black or tawny people ; or in mourning suits,
where black and white stuffs are mixed and opposed.

Odours only affect the sense of smelling. They are either
soft and fresh, as the smell of hay, lavender, roses, &c. or
strong, as that of pine, birch, assafcetida, and the civet cat.
The former are the most pleasing, the latter the most powerful.
Their mixture is often grateful ; as in spring, in a woody glen,
where birch, pine, and willow, shelter violets, primroses, and
wild hyacinths.

26 OF TASTE.

BOOK 1.

Heat and Cold are perceived by the sense of touch. Their
combined effect is most pleasing in spring and autumn, which
seasons are farthest removed from the extremes of each. When
every part of the sense of touch is ahke affected by heat or cold,
the effect is most grateful; as in cold and hot baths, where one
part of the body is hot and another cold ; as is generally the case
with mankind in clothed and civilized nations ; the effect is
more or less disagreeable, according to the degrees of difference
between the temperature of each. The most grateful effect of
coolness is in the mid-day breeze ; the most grateful effect of
heat in the tepid bath.

Motion is perceived by the eye. The elementary motions
may be reduced to two, straight and circular. The gradations
of motion vary from the imperceptibly rapid to the insensibly
quiet. Their compounds are produced either gently or forci-
bly. Such motions as are gentle, and in which the circular
prevails, are the most pleasing and graceful ; as in that of the
bending of trees, the waving of corn, the flying of small birds ;
and, above all, the movements of the eyes and mouth in the hu-
man countenance, when love or benevolence reigns in the heart.
Horizontal, angular, abrupt motions are generally the most
ridiculous, as those of drunkards. Undulating and continued
motions the most beautiful, as in dancing. Perpendicular de-
scending motions are the most terrific, and perpendicular as-
cending the most sublime, &c.

PART I. OF TASTE. 2?

Sounds are capable of producing very powerful effects upon
the mind, either simple or combined, either melodious or har-
monic. The melodious sounds of birds are the most univer-
sally pleasing ; the roar of the sea, or the noise of thunder,
the most terrific or sublime.

Gravity is another property of matter. It is at first known
by the touch and the eye which discerns motion ; but from ex-
perience we perceive it, in many cases, by the eye alone; which
requires that erect objects be properly balanced, or have their
line of gravitation pass through their centre.

Gravity requires to be particularly attended to both in the
combination of forms, as in architecture ; in their position, as
in pruning trees ; or in their motion, as in walking, &c.

28 OF TASTE. BOOK 1,

CHAPTER III.

OF THE COMBINATION OF THE ELEMENTARY MODIFICATIONS
OF MATTER FORMING DIFFERENT KINDS AND DEGREES OF
BEAUTY, OR PLEASING COMBINATION.

Those qualities of matter which have been noticed seldom or
never exist separately, but are combined with each other in
different proportions. Colour, or motion, cannot exist withmit
form, nor smell without substance. These combinations are
fitted to excite strong or weak sensations or emotions upon the
sense of taste, and according as these are pleasing or disagree-
able, we denominate the combinations which produce them
beautiful, disagreeable, or deformed. We receive different
degrees of pleasure from different kinds of combinations ; and
consequently we ascribe to objects, or scenes, different de-
grees of beauty. To endeavour, to discriminate the most
material of these different beauties, or as they may be called
elementary qualities of perfect beauty, is the purpose of this
chapter. It may be remarked, that most of our disputes about
taste belong to this branch of the subject ; and the reason
seems to be, that writers on taste do not agree as to what kind
of beauty tliey expect to find in the object or scene under con-
sideration.

PART I. Of TASTE. 29

Truth, or Nature. — The first thing perceived by the mind
in any object, on its being presented, is its truth or falsehood,
or in other words its congeniahty. We instantly perceive this
in the general form and parts of animals ; and when we find the
leaf of a tree, or the ear of a horse, not similar to those of its
kind, we instantly pronounce it to be false or monstrous. The
same thing applies to all the qualities of matter. A river of a red
colour, or a bar of iron destitute of its usual gravity, or a horse
with only one ear, are all monstrous productions, though in
different degrees. Custom gives an air of truth or nature to
certain objects, the want of which often produces disagreeable
emotions ; as in no case is more powerfvdly illustrated than in
the dress of nations, either compared with each other, or among
themselves, or even of the sexes in the same nation.

Utility. — This term is applicable to any union of the qua-
lities of matter that is made with a view of satisfying, either
directly or indirectly, the corporeal wants of mankind. Most
implements of the useful arts please principally on this ac-
count. Utility is best perceived when accompanied with sim-
plicity ; as in the spade or plough ; and least perceived « hen
joined with complexity, which requires the assistance of reason,
as in spinning or cotton machinery. An object with no other
quality or property to recommend it than its use, is still pleas-

30 OF TASTE. BOOK I.

ing to those who are interested in it ; but destroy that property,
and it only excites our contempt.

Fitness, or Proportion, is nearly allied with utility, and
always supposes that we are acquainted with the end or pur-
pose for which the animal or object is intended. We could
perceive no fitness in the proboscis of the bee, nor the broad
finny feet of the duck, did we not know their relative use. We
could not even judge of the fitness of a prop, or support, to
bear the weight placed on it, if Ave had not some previous
knowledge of the qualities of each. We have not always cor-
rect ideas on this subject ; and hence we judge oftener from
their imaginary than from their real qualities. This is one
cause of the change of fashion in the proportions of the most
common implements, or pieces of furniture ; and it may serve
to expose the absurdity of taking any one relative proportion
as the standard of perfection for all kinds of columns.

Fitness of the parts in relation to each other excites appro-
bation, even without knowing their use, or perceiving any other
beauty in the whole. The opposite quality, insufficiency, al-
ways excites dislike.

Symmetry, or Conformity, is a term applied to that de-

PART I.

OF TASTE. 31

gree of beauty which arises from seeing one half of an object
correspond with the other ; as in the human figure, and most
animals, as also in the leaves of vegetables. Symmetry is the
first beauty which we perceive after discerning truth, use, and
fitness ; and accordingly it is first attended to in artificial pro-
ductions, by rude artists, where they attempt ornament. Ma-
sons would first adopt it in the windows and chimnies of build-
ings, afterwards in the breaks and recesses, and finally in the
addition of wings.

The opposite of symmetry is disparity or disproportion ;
which, being inconsistent with use, fitness, or truth, is always
displeasing in the extreme.

Uniformity is the constant repetition of one colour, sound,
or other quality, among others of different kinds ; as the leaves
upon a twig, the windows in a house or street, or the columns
in colonades, &c. It is a considerable beauty both in large
and small objects.

Uniformity is either regular, as in the leaves on a twig ; or
irregular, as is often the case in Avindows in a front. In this
last case, it connects itself with variety.

Unity is a term applied to such objects as have one general

33 OF TASTE. BOOK I.

quality which pervades the whole ; as in the colour of a land-
scape under the warm tint of sunset ; or of form, as in a grove
of oaks ; or of sound, as in the Scotch bagpipe. Unity is a
very great beauty, and in landscape often supplies the place
of many others, as in moon-light or twilight scenes.

Order consists in the relation of parts to each other, or to
one common centre. Unity may exist in a mass, composed,
for example, of twigs, branches, and foliage ; but it is order
only which forms them into a tree. An animal may be sym-
metrical, it may have all the members which animals of its
kind have ; but unless order dispose of them in their proper
places, it will not be complete. It is order in the arrangement
of the colours of the rainbow which produces a whole ; for the
same colours might have been placed together agreeable to the
principles of harmony, and yet have made it appear as com-
posed of two bows placed together. Regular order gives con-
siderable pleasure, as in regularly trained trees placed against
a wall ; when joined with variety and intricacy, it is greatly
heightened ; as in a tree in its natural state, or any production
of nature composed of many parts.

Confusion is the opposite of order ; it is easily discovered ;
and its opposite is so generally expected, that the absence of no
beauty, either in form or manner, so soon occasions dislike.

PART I. OP TASTE. 35

Contrast results from qualities being brought into combi-
nation which are of different natures. If they are opposite or
contrary in every respect, they produce discord ; if opposite or
contrasted in a few particulars only, the effect is striking, and
may produce either variety or harmony, or may serve to fix the
attention on some beautiful figure or object*.

Variety is formed by the union of contrast with unifor-
mity, or, in other words, by bringing objects or qualities toge-
ther, which possess one quality in common, but in different
degrees. Thus variety in colours is produced by contrasting
different shades of the same colour together. Variety in forms,
by contrasting the, same form of different degrees of magni-
tude— when another colour or another form is introduced, it
either produces discord or harmony.

Variety is bounded on the one hand by sameness, and on the
other by diversity. The term Diversity is applied when many
kinds of forms, colours, and qualities are brought together and
represented in the same view ; joined with regularity, it pro-
duces monotony ; with irregularity, incongruity. The former
may be exemplified by placing together one of every kind of
form on a plain surface, or every colour upon a palatte or piece

* This is practised on the face, by placing black patches in proper places.

«

;}4 OF TASTK. BOOK I.

of canvass ; the latter, by making two or three of the forms or
colours more conspicuous than the rest. But if incongruity re-
sults from the want of unity in one quality of matter, it is still
more conspicuous in the forced union of two qualities which
fitness and truth require to be separate ; thus a piece of archi-
tecture executed in stone painted green, or a tree cut in the
form of a man oi- a horse, alike displease those of a chaste and
natural taste.

Intricacy is ditferent from variety, as it always requires
the presence of two qualities, form and colour, light and dark-
ness, or form and disposition. When we speak of an intricate
form, we always refer to the qualities of its surface, or to the
parts of which it is composed. Intricate objects, Avhatever may
be theyb/7« employed, black, or a mixture of black Avith blue,
is always the best colour ; for as intricacy operates by conceal-
ment, which excites curiosity, no colour aids rf/s/?os/Y/o« so much
as black, which of itself serves to obscure objects, while dis-
position totally conceals them. Still, however, there are forms
better adapted for producing intricacy than others. Lines, when
properly disposed, are much better than either squares or cir-
cles ; as we may observe on the rough grassy banks of water,
or in the hair or wool of animals.

Harmony is the last and most exquisite combination of the

PART I. OF TASTE. 35

modifications of matter. Variety is composed by uniting dif-
ferent degrees of the same modifications ; but liarmony admits
of modifications of different kinds. In other respects, their ge-
neral principles are the same. Harmony lies between discord
and variety ; and the great art in forming harmonious combi-
nations in architecture, music, and painting, in which arts it
is best understood, is to prevent it from degenerating into the
one, and proceeding to the excess of the other. The irregular
style of Gothic architecture affords ample scope for contrasts,
both in the form and disposition of solids, and in the magni-
tude, shape, and disposition of openings ; from productions of
this kind it is easy to perceive that most artists are more in-
fluenced by Grecian architecture and a veneration for anti-
quity, than guided by any fundamental principles. Hence
the frequent absence not only of harmony but of the lesser
beauties of fitness, intricacy, and variety.

CHAPTER IV.

or SUCH COMBINATIONS OF THE MODIFICATIONS OF MATTER
AS ARE PRODUCTIVE OF PARTICULAR EXPRESSIONS AND
CORRESPONDENT EFFECTS ON THE MIND, AND WHICH
MAY BE DENOMINATED CHARACTERS.

But INTRICACY, HARMONY, or VARIETY, or any other merely
pleasing combination of the qualities or modifications of matter,

F 2

36 OF TASTE.

BOOK I.

are far inferior to such as are expressive of sentiment or charac-
ter. This will be easily understood if we apply the remark to
the productions of music or painting, to the physiognomy of the
human countenance, or to the moral actions of men. Every
one knows the difference between that mixture of musical
sounds which pleases the ear, and that which touches the
heart — between a common-place countenance, and that w4iich
indicates the prevailing faculties of the mind. A simply good
man is but a pleasing and useful being ; one remarkable for the
excess of some quality of mind is always interesting. All these
sentiments, emotions, or expressions, may be traced to the as-
sociation of ideas*. In architecture and scenery, such objects
or scenes as produce them are denominated characters. The
most powerful and universally distinguished emotions which
are produced upon the mind are by the characters of sublimity
and beauty ; but there are other emotions -which, if they are
not of a nature specifically different from these, yet the terms
applied to them are still deserving of attention in this work ;
and the characters themselves deserve study on account of their
agreeable or pleasant effects upon the imagination. Some of
the principal of these shall be noticed after the characters of
Sublimity and of Beauty.

* See this beautifully explained by Hartley — " Observations on Man," Vol. I.
cb. 1. and 2.

PART I. OF TASTE. 37

Sublimity. — In visible objects, this emotion* is produced
by immensity ; as the ocean. By great dimensions and deter-
minate variations of outline ; as in mountains, and the sky
outlines of buildings. By considerable dimensions and inde-
terminate variations of outline ; as in objects placed more or
less in obscurity, as large ships, towers, or castles appearing
through dark fogs ; or mountains with their tops hid in the
clouds. It may be produced by magnitude, succession, and uni-
formity; as in ample colonades ; or by great height or depth ;
as in spires, precipices, &c. Sec. Whatever gives the idea of
immense power, either exerted, or capable of being brought
into action, seems to convey this emotion of sublimity. But,
after all that has been Avritten upon the subject, it is difficult
to offer any thing conclusive as to the final cause of this emo-
tion. Certain it is, that love and ambition are the most power-
ful passions in the human mind. Power is the object of ambi-
tion as beauty is the cause of love. When power is exerting
for, or apparently for our destruction, it causes terror, or the
loss of reason, as in a violent storm at sea, an engagement, or
on a death-bed. When it has been exerted in time past, or is
exerting, but in a way Avhich does not endanger our lives, as
in buildings, viewing the calm ocean, &c. it often, if not al-
ways, raises the true sublime.

* For the difference between emotion and sensation, see Allison on Taste.

38 Ol- TASTK. BOOK 1.

Beauty. — Such objects only as excite our love of possession,
whether from their rarity, or suitableness to our ideas of com-
municating pleasure, are generally termed beautiful. Supreme
beauty, to the mind of man, is only found in a lovely wo-
man; the beauty of all other objects may be termed relative.
With respect to forms, and other qualities of surface, we
consider those as most beautiful, which approach nearest to
that of woman : thus gentle undulations, insensible transitions,
smooth and soft surfaces, circular or conical forms, are all
termed beautiful, except when they are connected with some
moral evil or deformity in relation to man.

The most beautiful women, either in form or colour, are
always tender and delicate. Delicacy and refinement, indeed,
seem necessary properties of beauty ; for it is in these respects
that the form of woman differs chiefly from that of man. Ac-
cordingly, whatever communicates the appearance of delicacy
to objects or scenes renders them beautiful. This appearance
may be given in supports, by employing a smaller quantity of
materials, as in elegant furniture or columns ; and in other
bodies by undulations, smoothness, and tender ornaments or
colours, as in fine veined mahogany ; or by clearness, as in works
in iron or glass, as grates, chandeliers, &c. Such properties in
these kinds of objects are universally called beautiful or ele-
gant (for the terms are synonimous when both are in fashion),

PART I. OF TASTE. 39

except when these quaUties are not in repute in such objects ;
but still men of true taste will perceive them ; and any other
fashion is mere whim or caprice, and never can excite any other
emotion than that of surprise, which is not of long duration.

Deformi'P'Y and (ugliness or) disagreeableness are the oppo-
sites of beauty. Disagreeableness refers chiefly, if not entirely,
to the surface of objects ; and is applied, when they want that
smoothness or clearness which we expect in such as pretend to
beauty. Deformity, as the term implies, refers to the form, and
is applied whenever that deviates from truth. In some respects
it is nearly allied to monstrosity; but this term generally im-
plies a deviation from truth, by the addition, or from the ab-
sence, of some part or quality. In deformed objects or scenes,
every part exists, but Avith some deviations from the beauty or
usual form of such parts.

Disagreeableness, or deformity, is frequently applied to
such scenes as are injurious to mankind from moral qualities,
though the scene may be harmonious of itself: thus a fen co-
vered with poisonous plants, serpents, and pestilential exhala-
tions, forms a unity or whole ; but in relation to the rest of
nature it is deformed, and to man it is discordant and produces
disgust.

40 OP TASTE. BOOK I.

Picturesque Beauty. This term seems to have been ori-
ginally applied to such objects or scenes as were best suited
for producing a good effect when painted. It is noAv applied
more generally, and is characterized by roughness, abruptness,
and irregularity, either in the outline, form, disposition, or
colour. — See Price's Essays.

Sculpturesque Beauty may be applied to such objects,
or figures, as are peculiarly calculated for being represented
by the art of sculpture.

Antique Beauty is applied to such works of art, particu-
larly in sculpture and architecture, as are in design similar to
the productions of antient Greece or Rome.

Rom antic Beauty is aterm applied to such scenes or objects
as are more like the fanciful productions of romance writers,
than general nature. It unites the grand without the awful, the
wild without the savage, the solitary without the forlorn, the
cheerful luxuriance and variety of nature without the teeming
abundance and regularity of art.

Wildness, as opposed to the elegance and refinement of cul-
ture, or polished nature, is occasionally a great beauty ; as, in
spots of heath, furze, thorns, or copse, when amid the more rich

PART I. OF TASTE. 41

scenery of parks ; or a few wild gipsies scattered among the
dressed villagers at a wake or fair. Wildness is an exquisite
beauty, and will increase in rarity in proportion as countries
become cultivated and the people civilized. Then it will have
more of the charms of novelty in addition to its intrinsic sua-
vity : it differs from savageness, in presenting more serenity
and fertility, and less rugged sublimity.

Tranquillity is a term applied to such objects or scenes
as, when viewed, leave the mind in a state of rest. Still-
ness, seclusion, and solitude, are requisite for producing this
effect.

Melancholy. — Unity, and simplicity either in form or co-
lour, with a marked appearance of drooping and dejection, are
called melancholy, from the relation between their appearance,
and the state of the mind when under that disease ; as in the
weeping willow Solemnity is nearly allied to it, as in the yew
and cypress. In lines it is indicated by such as are straight de-
generating into circular ones ; as may be seen in high walls bent
or twisted, or large ruins. It is striking in the river front of
Warwick castle, from these causes.

Age and Ruin, whether of animated nature, trees, or build-
ings, have expressions peculiar to themselves. Painters com-

G

42 OF TASTE.

BOOK I.

monly denominate them picturesque ; but the emotion which
they e"xcite in the bosom of the man of taste is that of reverence.

Elegance is a term applied to such objects as show a de-
gree of refinement, or smoothness of surface, and delicacy of
proportion, when compared with the general appearances of
such objects. It changes its meaning with the fashions, and is
often applied to any kind of form or colour which deviates
from, and has the appearance of being more expensive than,
those of the same kind in common use ; as is the case in new
or fashionable furniture. It is no character, but merely a
term deserving explanation because much used.

Gaiety is applied to such objects as fill the mind with
cheerfulness ; as the sportive play of animals, or water from a
fountain, &c. or in colours, to white-washed cottages, &c.

Novelty. — Though this cannot be called an inherent ex-
pression in objects, still such objects or scenes as we have never
observed before communicate a pleasure seldom surpassed by
such as are familiar to us. The highest degree of novelty is
that when an object is not only new, but of a strange or un-
common nature. But unless objects have something more to
recommend them than novelty, they do not continue long ta
please.

PART 1. OF TASTE. 43

Ridicule is produced by contraries and incongruities, and
excites risible emotions very different from those of taste.
Being chiefly applicable to the imitative arts, it is the less
connected with the subject of these remarks.

There are many other epithets or characters of expression
belonging to combinations, or even to single modifications ;
but they are not so immediately connected with the subject of
this work as those which have been noticed. The mind con-
forms itself to the nature and appearance of whatever is pre-
sented to the senses, and experiences a sensation or impulse
analogous to the nature of that object. The idea of that sen-
sation is understood by the general term expression ; and the
particular conformation or disposition of the parts which pro-
duce it is called character. Thus all trees consist of a certain
harmonious combination of branches, twigs, and leaves ; but
it is the particular conformation of these in each species, which
constitutes its character, and gives it expression. Expression
is indispensable to every object or scene designed to please ; for,
whatever we see or hear, unless it communicate some senti-
ment, or excite some particular emotion, we pass it unnoticed ;
as the want of such expression implies that it has no commu-
nicable feature or character. AVhether objects be beautiful or
merely useful, we always endeavour to describe their pecuhac
beauties or uses, that is, their particular expressions.

44 OF TASTE. BOOK T.

CHAPTER V.

OF THE EXEUCISE OF THE FACULTY OF TASTE IN DISCERN-
ING COMBINATIONS AND EXPRESSIONS.

Having slightly noticed the formation of the sense of taste,
by the union of the five elementary senses ; and having also
glanced at the combinations of the modifications of matter,
which are its objects ; the next thing, in a dissertation on this
subject would be to treat of exercise and its effects on that fa-
culty. Here, however, it is onl}^ necessary to make a few
general remarks.

Taste, like every other faculty of the mind, is improved by
exercise. This consists in viewing, comparing, and judging
of such Avorks of nature and art as are particularly distin-
guished for their excellence. It is by these means alone that
taste becomes delicate, sensible, and refined ; that the amateur
can judge with correctness, and the artist produce works wor-
thy of attention. A taste thus improved will, no doubt, receive
less pleasure from general objects, than that of a person desti-
tute of the power of judging with accuracy ; but when it
does perceive true excellence, the pleasure derived will be
much more exalted and exquisite than that of the other. In

PART I.

OF TASTE. 45

particular, many of the superior beauties of nature which escape
common observation will fill improved taste with a rapture and
enthusiastic delight to which most men are entire strangers. But
a man of improved taste still receives considerable pleasure from
viewing less perfect productions ; from the exercise of his judg-
ment in determining what is right and wrong, deficient or super-
fluous ; or in works of art he may be gratified by perceiving
the dawnings of future genius.

An ardent passion for objects of taste, like keen feelings or
strong passions in life, are alike dangerous when not joined with
a sound judgment. In the arts, taste without judgment pro-
duces the most extravagant productions, under the fancied
impulse of genius: ardent passions, ungoverned by judgment,
hurry us into the most improper and dangerous actions, under
the guise of love, honour, or even virtue. These evils however,
though like many others they work their own remedy, often
have eifects which a long perseverance in a contrary practice
can scarcely remove. Nothing contributes more both to the
moral and political government of the passions, than the rigid
discipline required by the principles of good taste, which are
always in unison with those of good morality ; and without the
latter, the former cannot exist*.

* ** A woman without virtue is never beautiful," say the Italians with mucb
truth.

46 OF TASTE.

BOOK I.

B}' constant observation, and the practice of viewing objects
of taste, a person may acquire a delicate and just feeling, though
he may not be able accurately to describe the causes of plea-
sure or dislike being excited by particular objects. Thus m
music, many have what is called a good ear, or a delicate and
accurate perception of melody and harmony or discord, who
yet may be quite unable to compose a tune, or to explain the
principles of harmonious and melodious combinations of sounds.
A similar kind of perception takes place in painting ; where
the artist often produces beauty entirely from feeling, without
being able either to reason himself into the production of a
good landscape ; or to analyze a picture, and say precisely why
this or that part produces more pleasure than other forms or
colours Avhicli might have been substituted in their place. The
constant practice of seeing and comparing the various beauties
of nature and art is of the utmost importance for such as would
aspire to a critical knowledge. Nature is the source of every
excellence ; in her productions the student ought ever to exer-
cise himself; not merely in relation to visible objects, but to
general laws, harmonies, and moral relations, which do not ap-
pear to the eye which gazes only on the surface. This way of
studying nature, not in opposition to, but in conjunction with
those arts which relate to visible objects, has a tendency to pro-
duce a just judgment both in taste and morals. Without tak-
ing this general view of nature and mankind, we can only study

PART I.

OF TASTE. 47

scenery with a reference to some art or system to which Ave are
shackled by habit and ignorance. But such a general view of
nature as I have mentioned, and as may be called universal taste,
is, even though incomplete, the source of the highest delight
which man can enjoy. It is by these means that we find

" books in the running brooks,

" Sermons in stones, and good in every thingJ

CHAPTER \ I. ♦

OF CAUSES WHICH MAY INFLUENCE QUR FEELING AND
JUDGMENT IN MATTERS OF TASTE.

Doubtless, many inconsistencies occur in our decisions ;
and it is the common source of disputes in matters of this kind,
which has occasioned the well knoAvn adage, " that there is no
disputing in matters of taste." The business of this chapter
should be to inquire into the chief reasons of these inconsist-
encies; but as this would require more discussion than can be
admitted in a work of this nature, I shall do little more thaa
state them.

48 OF TASTE.

BOOK r.

1. The senses which compose or administer to the faculty of
taste may be all imperfect, or partly so ; or some of them not
sufficiently cultivated, or totally wanting.

2. The other faculties of the mind, as the moral sense, me-
mory, imagination, judgment, &c. may be imperfect, or culti-
vated in difterent degrees. The want of a well-cultivated ima-
gination, in particular, will render the impressions made by
painting, poetry, and sculpture, comparatively weak, and even
erroneous. A good understanding may enable us to compare
the representation with the thing represented ; but unless it has
often been employed about objects of the same kind, and has
treasured or accumulated an ample stock of ideas in the mind,
we naturally stop, and think of no farther pleasure ; or else en-
deavour to find beauties and resemblances which were never
intended. But a single idea of excellence presented to the
fertile imagination rouses a long train of corresponding sensa-
tions, which often carry us, as it were, beyond ourselves into
the regions of romance and enthusiasm.

3. The limited sphere of some individuals may have pro-
scribed their knowledge of objects of taste, and thus vitiated
their natural faculties. But though this can never be supposed
to take place in general, it ma}', and really does frequently
happen in particular cases. Thus travellers are often ready to

PART I. OF TASTE. 49

consider those regions as most beautiful which most resemble
their native country ; the lover thinks those females most en-
chanting, whose features, forms, or manners, bear most relation
to those of his mistress, &c.

4. Association of Ideas, — From habit, a particular person
may have certain ideas which present themselves to his imagi- *
nation whenever he views a certain class of objects ; and at
the same time another person, of a taste equally delicate and
cultivated, may be totally destitute of such impressions, or
what are called associated ideas. This alone would not be pro-
ductive of disputes, if the person having such ideas could, in
judging of real merit, so entirely divest himself of them as to
be in the situation of the other; but this is rarely to ])e ex-
pected. Could it indeed be effected, the first and most impor-
tant advantage which would result from it would be the forma-
tion of a standard of taste : but until men's judgments shall
enable them to lay aside all false associations, and agree in
what is general nature, a perfect standard in taste cannot be
produced. And as this, in all probability, can never take
place in the full extent of the word, it is the safest and best
way, 1st, to lay aside all differences about trilling objects ;
and, 2dly, to treat the opinion of those who differ from us in
important particulars with deference and respect, or pass them
over in silence ; according as they may be agreed in their general

H

50 OF TASTE. BOOK I.

feelings and judgment, with such emotions as have been con-
fessedly felt by all men of taste ; I mean the emotions excited
by sublimity and beauty.

CONCLUSION.

The progress of taste in the human mind admits of three divi-
sions. The first is from our earliest years, until a relish for the
sublime, and the chief sorts of beauty*, is acquired. The se-
cond, from that period until the judgment in matters of taste
is matured. With respect to artists, poets, musicians, or those
who are capable of embodying their ideas, a third period may
be said to commence; Avhich is that wherein they produce
Avorks of genius. Formerly, nature, or the models of a master,
were indiscriminately copied by the artist : now he selects, ar-
ranges, and forms new combinations of his own. These three
stages of taste, so to speak, are perfectly applicable to archi-
tecture and landscape gardening. Those who begin to design,
either for their own properties or for those of others, before
they have a feeling for beauty and character, will do much
mischief. Those who begin to do it before their judgment is

* Such as supreme beauty, picturesque beauty, and antique beauty.

PART I. OF TASTK. 51

matured, run great risk of producing absurdities, even though
the}^ may have good taste and sense in other kinds of produc-
tions. And the misfortune is, that persons who begin to im-
prove in this stage think that no effect can be produced without
performing a great deal, or overcoming some natural ob-
stacle, the doing of which may excite the admiration of
their neighbours ; and the common consequence is, that they
involve themselves in an immense expense without producing
any adequate beauty or advantage. But those whose more
matured judgment may enable them to think for themselves
will, in all probability, produce effects striking and natural,
even without the aid of much experience. A taste for beauty,
even though unattended with mature judgment, will most fre-
quently be of vast importance, as well to those who lay out
their own grounds, as to those who commit them in some degree
to others. It will enable them to throw off" the trammels of
custom, prejudice, or system, and give way to the natural feel-
ings of the heart. In this way, a proprietor would get his house
or his place formed in a style analogous to his own mind, which
would unquestionably give him more pleasure than any other
style.

I

53

BOOK I.

PART II.
OF PAINTING.

INTRODUCTION.

The art which, next to the study of the principles of taste,
"will contribute most to improve the ideas of a rural designer,
is landscape painting ; which, indeed, is so much connected
with taste, that- the study of the one ought to go hand in hand
with the other. The remarks which it is proposed to offer will
be chiefly with a view to shew the importance of this study.
They shall be included under the following heads :

1. The general principles of landscape painting.

2. The advantages to be derived from a study of the prin-

ciples, and also from the practice of this art in archi-
tecture, and the laying out of grounds.

3. The advantage to b'^ derived from studying prints and

paintings.

1

54 Ol' PAINTING. BOOK I.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LANDSCAPE PAINTING.

The student in landscape painting, before he presumes to de-
sign from imagination, must acquire a facility in copying ob-
jects, and must study nature until he can distinguish her pro-
ductions and effects. Tliis done, he may select and combine,
according to his own fancy or imagination. Supposing him
about to paint a landscape, all the leading operations will be
included under the following heads : Design, Disposition,
Drawing and Perspective, Light, Shade, and Keeping, Colour-
ing and Expression.

1. Design. — ^The subject or style of landscape being given,
or conceived in the mind of the artist, design relates to the pro-
duction of a whole by a proper selection of separate parts, which
shall mutually co-operate for this purpose. Thus, suppose the
subject given be a landscape with the sun setting : the artist will
first consider in what kind of country nature produces this effect
with most advantage. He Avill probably conceive that a moun-
tainous country, with a large river watering a fertile valley, and
losing itself in the ocean, Avill furnish fit materials for such a
picture. As every striking landscape consists of three marked

PART H. OF PAINTING. 55

distances, he will probably propose — 1. A bold foreground con-
taining rocks, a large dark group of trees, and some cattle. —
2. A rich middle distance of rocks, buildings, hills, and woods,
gliding into (3) the ocean, as the background.

2. Disposition. — We have now the three distances distinctl}-
marked out, and the materials which are to compose each
rudely thrown in. Disposition combines, arranges, and groupes
these parts so as to produce a harmonious whole. The great
art of grouping lies, first, in contrasting the same parts of ob-
jects brought together in one group; and secondly, in con-
trasting the groupes with each other. Without grouping, every
thing appears scattered and unconnected : instead of unity of
expression, or a whole being produced, which is the ultimate
end of painting, the result is incongruity, which becomes dis-
gusting in proportion to the number and diversity of objects
jumbled together.

3. Drawing and Perspective. — These branches of the
art are so generally studied by all who have the least preten-
sions to composition, that it is only necessary to observe, that
a thorough knowledge of the last is of great importance in lay-
ing out grounds, no less than in architecture, as Avill appear in
the sequel.

56 OF PAINTING. BOOK I.

4. Light, Shade, and Keeping. — The forms of all the
objects in the landscape being now determined, the next thing is
to give them substance. This is accomplished by lights and
shadows ; the modes of forming which, whether in oil or water
colours, are generally known. A second use of light and shade
is for effect ; and nothing contributes so much to form a whole,
whether in a picture or a real scene. In the landscape which we
have designed, disposed, and outlined, the great mass of light
will be thrown on the distance and water, and the great mass of
shade on the foreground, and the trees, whether there, or in the
middle distance, which are opposed to it. A third use of light
and shade is called Keeping. This is what produces aerial per-
spective, and is effected by making the objects which are
nearest the 63^6 darkest, and letting them die away as they re-
cede into the remote distance.

5. Colouring. — In painting, colours are divided into two
kinds only (light and shade, including the black and white co-
lours): the cold ; as blue, lilac, green, &c. : and the hot; as red,
yellow, orange. Sec. These two classes, when mixed together,
are capable of producing varieties, harmonies, discords, and
privations. Harmony ought to pervade ever}"^ picture ; and
where a^strong effect is to be produced, one colour ought to
prevail over all others, and be echoed (so to speak) throughout
the whole piece. Thus in the landscape which we have now

PART II. OF PAINTING. Of

supposed shaded, the red and orange colour of the evening sky
is reflected in the water, and upon the tops of the mountains ;
on the hght side of the rocks and buildings ; and, more or
less, on every light object in the picture. The natural contrast
to this colour is greenish black, and purple ; the former in the
foreground ; the latter in the distance, and on the shadow}'
sides of the clouds.

The general effect and expression of the picture being now
completed, we have only to add the last touches... These may
be included under — 1. Expression; and 2. Grace, which sup-
poses figures or animals to be introduced.

1. Expression relates to the trees, animals, plants, and
every object near the eye, and serves to characterize the diffe-
rent kinds of each ; not the minute botanical differences, but
the general distinctions. Thus the finishing touch of an ash,
oak, elm, and beech, are each different. The first is loose,
somewhat drooping, and free ; the second horizontal, firm, and
close ; the third a medium between these extremes; the fourth
compact, pointed, and upright, &c. The (ouch of the Scotch
fir, larch, and stone pine, are equally distinct from each other,
and totally different from those given to deciduous trees. In-
deed almost every species of tree has a distinct kind of touch,
which serves to characterize it. In the indigenous plants and

I

58 OF PAIKTING. BOOK I.

trees of Great Britain these may easily be acquired by observ-
ing nature ; but exotic sorts are either so crowded among
others, and confined in their growths; or are as yet so sparingly
introduced into this country, and at all events so young, that
the central form of the touch of each species, cannot at pre-
sent be acquired.

2. Grace is the next consideration in finishing the parts :
it applies chiefly to the human figure, and is given principally
in the drawing; though in single figures it may be. greatly
lowered or heightened by judicious touches in the finishing.

CHAPTER II.

OF THE ADVANTAGES TO BE DERIVED FROM THE STUDY OF
THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PAINTING IN ARCHI-
TECTURE AND THE laying; OUT OF GROUNDS.

The foregoing remarks may serve to recal to the reader the
leading principles of painting, and are suflficient in this place
to enable me to shew the use of that art in the creation of real
landscape. This I propose to do by making a few remarks —
1. On its use in perfecting the faculty of taste. 2. Its assist-
ance in leading us to discriminate character. 3. The use of

PART II.

OF PAINTIXG. 59

the principles of composition. 4. The use of perspective.
And 5. Tlie use of drawing in water-colours.

1. Its use in perfecting the faculty of taste. — The first ad-
vantage which results from the study and practice of paint-
ing, is a taste for excellence, and especially picturesque
beauty, in most visible objects, both of landscape and archi-
tecture. An improver, ignorant of the principles and dead to
the excellencies of painting, will look at nature only with a
reference to the mechanical principles of his own art, as a
mere walk-maker, dumper, or grazier ; and of course he will
admire only such trees as are regular and present one mass of
smooth green, and such groupes as have fewest undergrowths
and are nearest the shape of the clump. All rough plants,
ferns, or low growths, he will disregard, as obstructing the
smooth surface of the pasture ; and all natural paths please
him only as their direction is formal or serpentine and their
edges marked by distinct straight lines. But a person who
has studied painting acquires a relish for connexion, intricacy,
and truth ; and soon perceives that the chief excellence of
rural scenes consists in the prevalence of natui'e. Hence
wherever nature is to prevail, he wisely judges either to conceal
art, or banish it altogether. His Avalks are only marked with
distinct edges in scenes avowedly artificial, as near the mansion
and in the kitchen garden. His trees and shrubs are never

^•i

60 OF PAINTING. BOOK I.

forced into form.nl shapes, except in hedges, which are regu-
larly shorn for particular purposes of utility ; and his turf is
only made smooth, and the fern rooted out, in the Ferme orn6e,
or -where the utility of the pasture is intended to prevail over
the effect of the foreground scenery.

A similar revolution will take place in the taste of a mason
after studying painting. Instead of endeavouring to shew his
skill in the five orders upon every occasion ; instead of crowd-
ing together ornaments which have no reference to utility, or
decorating a cottage or villa with the appendages or parts ap-
propriated to the palace or the temple, he studies first the use,
and then the character of his subject. He makes simplicity
the prevailing idea in a cottage, elegance in a villa, and gran-
deur in a castle: these qualities in each he combines with use;
and thus, from a mere builder, he becomes an architect.

2. The next advantage resulting from painting is the power
of discriminating character. At first, the mind naturally thinks
only of parts. Now it views these parts in relation to a
whole ; judges of their agreement or disagreement, of their
general effect, and of their distinguishing characteristics. This
is of great advantage, by enabling us first to discover the ten-
dency of any scene to a particular character; and then to
heighten or complete that character, by the addition of such

PART II.

OF PAINTING. 61

objects as are necessary, or b}' the removal of such as are of-
fensive. Another advantage is, that by enabhng us to discover
in what character consists, we can frequently create that ex-
cellence where nature appears iadifferent or disagreeable.

3. The next advantage to be derived from painting is, the
art of composition in real scenery. Here, though the design
be, as in painting, first formed in the mind, the disposition,
light and shade, colour, &c. are not added in succession, as
in that art, but are all brought forward at once ; Avherefore
the whole knowledge of the principles of painting must be con-
centrated and applied in one act, and this act is composition.
The idea of unity of character being formed where a real
scene is to be created, the principles of grouping, and light
and shade, are of immense importance in the execution. With-
out a judicious mixture of light and shade, no piece of masonry
is worthy the name of architecture ; and without attending to
the principle of grouping, no building will unite with the sur-
rounding scenery. In planting and modern gardening the
neglect of grouping is a fruitful source of distinctness, forma-
lity, and a kind of unnaturalness evident to a painter at first
sight, and which effectually distinguishes made scenery from
that of nature, when even no mechanical effect of art is seen.
This is exemplified in almost every park or pleasure ground.

63 OF PAINTING. BOOK I.

The principles of grouping are the chief guides in thinning
old plantations or clumps, and even in pruning single trees:
indeed there is no one principle of painting more extensively
applicable in rural improvements.

4. The knowledge of perspective and optics is of very great
use both in architecture and the laying out of grounds. In al-
tering or improving old places, or in uniting scenery where
trees already exist, it is one of the leading principles. In hilly
or mountainous countries, Avhen young plantations are to be
made on their sides, it is of great importance. By attending to
it in forming their outlines, the hill may be made to assume a
woody or clothed appearance, by covering only a very few
acres, and thus preserving most of the ground which by the
plantations will often be rendered of double value, either for
pasturage or aration. In the north of Scotland I have had
frequent opportunities of contrasting this practice with that of
making only one laige inclosure unconnected with every thing
else ; which, while it had no more the appearance of massive-
ness than the other, covered the whole surface, and left none
for agricultural purposes.

5. The next advantage to be derived from the art of painting
is of less importance than the former ; but still has its use,

PART II. OF PAINTING. *■ 6.

3

especially to the artist. It is the art of drawing in water-co-
lours. By means of this art, effects may be shewn upon paper
before they are produced in scenery ; and thus proprietors or
others may conceive more clearly the ideas of those who pro-
pose to improve either in landscape or architecture.

A person accustomed to draw from nature, or good copies,
will often, in a degree mechanically, introduce proper and ac-
cording objects into his landscapes ; although, in speaking or
writing on the subject, he would perhaps be at a loss how to
proceed. A striking instance of this 1 have in my mind at pre-
sent. It is a scene in which a painter, once attempting to
make a picturesque foreground to a small pond, collected at
random a number of round and narrow stones of fantastic
forms, incapable of any breadth of light or shade, and of course
of all strength of effect, and placed them among ferns and
other plants on its margin. Had that painter introduced stones
on his canvass for the same purpose, he would have chosen
broad massive forms, and given them a breadth of effect suit-
able to the nature of the subject ; but he would have done this
evidently from mere feeling, without reason or judgment.

Every architect nmst have experienced something of the
same kind when he first began to design buildings in perspec-
tive. The hand naturally, and without thought, groupes the

64 OF PAINTING. BOOK I.

parts, harmonizes the forms, and seldom leaves the pencil with
satisfaction till it has completed a whole. But this idea is
more strikingly applicable in landscape painting ; because on
paper the forms and shadows are completed at once ; but in
the reality the first operation in producing these is merely
planting a seed, or a young tree scarcely visible. Thus, sup-
pose in grounds an upright rock of a formal even surface, and
naked above ; that is, presenting to the eye one mass of light
unbroken by shade. In what way would a person, who had
never studied drawing, or the principles of painting, attempt
to improve that rock ? The truth is, he would not think of im-
proving it at all. But teach him the art of drawing for a few
weeks, without saying any thing of general principles, and then
place the outlines of such a rock before him in an unfinished
picture, and he will insensibly, as by instinct, disguise its uni-
formity, either by perpendicular breaks and shadows, or by
overhanging it with trees, bushes, or creepers. This use to be
derived from painting may appear fanciful to some ; but I be-
lieve most artists will be inclined to think it true not only in
the practice of painting, but also in the other arts, as sculpture.
It is even evidenced in some degree in cabinet-making ; where
very beautiful forms and combinations are frequently pro-
duced without much knowledge or forethought.

PART II- OF PAINTIITG. 65

CHAPTER 111.

OF THE ADVANTAGE TO BE DERIVED FROM STUDYING
PRINTS AND PAINTINGS-

The study of pictures, in connexion with that of painting or
drawing, will facilitate the acquirement of the general princi-
ples of the art, and materially contribute towards the forma-
tion of a good taste in visible objects. No guide is so useful,
for enabling the improver to discern the excellent from the
inferior scenes in nature ; and, in general, no study can better
direct the architect, both in chusing the forms of his buildings,
and in suiting them to the surroundina; scenery. In forming
ideas of buildings from pictures, however, care must be taken
to distinguish between the effects of time or accident, and the
result of good taste in design. Many Italian edifices, stuck
round with pilasters, half columns, and other useless appen-
dages or degraded parts, are in a bad taste, and could never
give pleasure to a person who had studied fitness and painting,
and applied their general principles to the art of building, with-
out being prejudiced in favour of any style or set of models.
Still such edifices are not unfrequently introduced into the
landscapes of the best masters ; but then, either in ruins, under

K

66 OP PAINTING.

BOOK I.

particular effects of light and shade, or so disguised by other
objects as not to strike those Avho look only for the general ef-
fect or expression of the composition. It must be remembered
also, that the least break or projection, which in the reality
may be scarcely discernible, will, by particular modes of
opposing objects to the light, appear to produce considerable
shadows in a picture, which it would very seldom do in the
reality. This may be productive of great mischief, respecting
these effects, should the architect copy such absurdities. But
the great use of studying pictures is to direct the improver to
proper subjects in nature ; there he not only sees the effect, but
can examine every object and part of the scene on all sides ;
he can discriminate the species of trees, the nature of the soil,
the progress and decay of vegetation, and a number of other
circumstances, of which a mere student of pictures can form
no idea. In this study, the improver must be guarded against
mistaking the idea of mere copying without attending to prin-
ciple, and of mistaking peculiarities for general nature. The
study of pictures may direct him as far as relates to visual
effects of objects. But the particular soils and situations of
trees, shrubs, and plants, can only be acquired by comparing
one part of nature with another, and finding the general me-
dium. In this study, botany and husbandry are of particular
advantage, as will be seen in the proper place.

67

BOOK I.

PART III.

ARCHITECTURE.

INTRODUCTION.

Numerous dissertations have been written on the origin and
antiquity of architecture, which it is unnecessary to repeat : all
these have proceeded on the self-evident necessities of human
life, and the early adoption of some means of defence against
the inclemency of the weather. It is of no importance, of what
form, or with what materials, original huts were constructed ;
there cannot be a doubt that in these particulars they would
differ according to situation, climate, and other circumstances.
It is sufficient, when enquiring into the fundamental principles
of this art, to know that they were constructed for the purpose
of utility ; and whatever were the forms or materials then used,
there can be no reason, in the nature of things, why such forms
or materials should be used ever after : on the contrary, as

68 ARCHITECTURE, BOOK I.

society improves, propriety requires a corresponding improve-
ment in the arts which are subservient to its purposes. The
progress of improvement in every art consists in two things —
the addition of conveniency, and the introduction of ornament;
the former, to render the habitation of man adequate to his
wants ; and the latter, in imitation of that beauty which the
Author of Nature more or less bestows on all his works. Here
then we have the two leading principles of architecture, and
the source of instruction in these principles. Convenience and
utility, derived from a knowledge of the wants of the inhabi-
tant ; and beauty, or ornament, conferred upon the same prin-
ciples as we see it in the natural world, — of different degrees,
and assuming different characters. This then is the true theory
of design in architecture, and Avill constitute the first division
of the following remarks ; the second division shall treat of the
application of the principles of design to the different kinds
of buildings, or subjects of architecture ; and the third divi-
sion shall contain a few remarks on execution and internal
finishing.

PART III.

ARCHITECTURE. 69"

DIVISION I.

THE THEORY OF DESIGN IN ARCHITECTURE.

CHAPTER I.

UTILITY AND CONVENIENCE.

So various are the purposes for which buildings are erected,
that to treat this subject at any length would far exceed the
proposed limits of this work, and Avould indeed be in a consi-
derable degree superfluous ; as it is a branch of knowledge
the application of which to architecture is better known than
most others. In contriving the internal arrangement of a
house, two things require to be considered : first, The nature,
magnitude, and number of the apartments or divisions ; and,
secondly, their connexion.

In buildings for the inferior animals, as horses, cows, &c. we
commonly allow each individual a space equal to the square of
its own length ; in some cases more room is allowed, as in dog-
kennels, poultry-houses, &c. but in every case of this class of
buildings, the arrangement and connexion is perfectly simple
and universal] V understood.

70 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

The lower classes of mankind are commonly allowed two
apartments to each pair or family ; in some cases, however,
with additional apartments ; placed either close under the ridge
of the roof, as what are called garrets; or added externally, as
sheds or hovels.

The middling and higher classes of mankind require a consi-
derable number of apartments ; because, having more time and
wealth, they consequently can enjoy more frequently, and in a
greater degree, the luxury of assembling their friends. This
requires those apartments, and that arrangement and con-
nexion, which we find in the houses of private gentlemen. This
class possessing or having cultivated a taste for beauty, orna-
ment is added to their apartments, either by elegance in the
architectural finishing, or by introducing fine furniture, pic-
tures, &c. and generally in both ways.

The highest classes have all the apartments of the middling
class, but frequently on a larger scale and more richly deco-
rated : often, too, they add other apartments, as the gallery y
oratory, zmrdrobe, &c. though all these are not now necessarily
confined to the prince or the peer.

These remarks are merely introduced to shew, that there can
be no fixed rule for determining the limits of conveniency ; for

PART III. ARCHITECTURJE. 71

as there is no drawing the line between the diflferent classes of
mankind, nor any fixed rate of expenditure in any of these
classes ; so there can be no given determinate number, kind,
or size, nor any universal arrangement in the suites of apart-
ments. The fashion of the day, therefore, and the will of the
party, must be the general regulator in these things. What
that fashion is at present may be known by any one who chuses
to examine the plans, or visit the structures erected in this
country for the last fifty years. This is a species of knowledge
which every architect ought to possess : those who design for
rural situations will soonest acquire it by travelling through
the country.

CHAPTER II.

OF BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE.

As utility originates in necessity, so beauty has its origin in
nature. Beauty addresses itself to the faculty of taste; in treat-
ing of which, that quality has been divided into several different
kinds* : to which we must now have recourse, and try how far

* See Chapter III. page 18.

72 AKCIIITECTURE. BOOK I.

the whole, or any part of them, can bemtroduced in buildings,
consistently with use. The first there mentioned is that of
TRUTH, or the resemblance of one object to those of its kind ;
but as buildings are artificial objects, they cannot be any guide
to real beauty, unless we are sure that other buildings are truly
beautiful ; but as they are the productions of men, it is proper,
in an inquiry like the present, to doubt this.

Utility. — Every building is capable of this beauty, accord-
ing to the purpose for which it is intended ; as we have seen in
the last chapter.

Fitness. — This is one of the chief beauties of which build-
ings are capable. Fitness may be either real or apparent ; real
fitness appeals to the understanding, and is perfect when all
the parts suit their respective uses ; when the walls and other
supports are of proper thickness and solidity to bear up the in-
cumbent parts ; and when the rooms, doors, &c. are sufficiently
high for use, and the admission and passage of air. Apparent fit-
ness requires such proportions in all these things as will please
the eye. But there are no general proportions in nature which
can be applied to architecture, nor any proportions discovered
by architects which are applicable in every case. Thus every
mason knows that the proportions which please best in a small
room are totally inapplicable to one of double the size. In

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 73

both real and apparent fitness, all the parts should concur in
promoting the same end, or producing a unity of effect. No
part ought to appear too large for the whole ; openings should
not be too numerous, nor too large, as they will thus hurt both
the reality and appearance of solidity. Solid parts should be
placed above solid ; and on the contrary, openings above open-
ings, according to the common rule. Columns, though suffi-
ciently strong to bear what is placed above them, should be
made to appear so by giving them somewhat of that degree of
thickness which we are accustomed to see in objects or mate-
rials of the same nature. Doors should bear some relation to
the size of the human figure ; they should not be as broad as
they are high, nor appear too narrow for their height. The
same remark will nearly apply to windows ; for it may be ob-
served, that there is more both of real and apparent fitness
when the general form of a window is that of a parallelogram,
than if they were of square, circular, or oval forms ; and much
more propriety in a pointed or circular top, than if the lower
ends were made of either of these forms; for in this case we
should instantly conceive that the bottom of the window would
ill accord with the level of the floor. In the internal part of a
house, every one can tell when the apartments are too long for
their width, or too Avide for their height ; and though remarks
of this kind are never meant to convey the idea of danger from
insufficient strength ; yet it is what the eye requires to co-

L

74 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

operate with the understanding, in approving the fitness of the
whole. The same idea will apply in the case of comparing the
size of the apartments with the windows and other things in the
external appearance of the house (a matter which at present
seems least of all attended to) ; to their magnitude when com-
pared with each other; to the furniture, the ornaments, and
indeed to every thing in a building.

Symmetry is a beauty Avhich may be, and often is intro-
duced into buildings of the lowest order. It is so easy to apply
it, that no directions are required.

Uniformity. — ^Architecture is very capable of this beauty ;
it appears in colonnades, in ranges of windows, in projections,
in towers of similar forms, and chimney tops, &c. Uniformity
generally pleases more than variety in parts of a building which
are always used for one purpose ; as windows, doors, &c. It
is not meant, however, that there should be a set form of these
parts to be used in every building, but mei'ely that one form of
these parts should generally prevail wherever it is introduced :
in larger buildings, this does not always hold; for as some or
all of the upper floors generally contain the smallest and lowest
apartments, the windows may frequently be made of a form
somewhat different from the others.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 75

Regular Uniformity, or, as it is frequently called, Regularity,
is applied to a building, when all the parts intended for the
same use (as, for instance, the windows,) are of the same
form, and placed at the same distance from each other. Irre-
gular uniformity, or irregularity, is Avhen parts of the same
kind are alike in shape, but not in situation ; as, for example,
when the distances between the windows are various.

Unity and Order are beauties alike applicable to archi-
tecture. The former refers chiefly to the style, and to the ex-
ternal colour of the walls ; the latter to the parts in relation to
each other, and to the whole.

Variety, in the general appearance, is produced by the
introduction of projections of different degrees of magnitude,
or of similar magnitudes placed at various distances from each
other. In the outline against the sky, it is produced by the
different heights of these projecting masses, by the chimnies,
or by breaks in the ridge of the roof, &c.

Intricacy is effected by the shade of cornices, and the
concealments occasioned by buttresses and other projections.

Harmony, in the general form, is produced by the introduc-

76 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

tion of masses and towers of different forms and sizes, and plac-
ing them at different distances from each other : in the parts, by
introducing similar varieties and contrasts, as projecting, cir-
cular, or bay-windows, among common or simple forms ; chim-
ney tops of different heights and shapes, &c. In the cornices,
it is effected by introducing sharp or angular, among round
mouldings, as in those in the Grecian style. The 2;reat art in
harmony is, to avoid discord and incongruity ; the former is
produced by the introduction of too violent oppositions, the
latter by repeating lesser oppositions too frequently. The irre-
gular Gothic style is much more capable of harmony than the
Grecian, which is chiefly adapted for uniformity and variety.
The greatest excellence in an architect is to have a delicate per-
ception and accurate knowledge of harmony; to be able to
distinguish it from variety ; and to know when the one should
give way to the other. In most buildings in the low styles,
harmony should never be attempted, variety is sufficient ; har-
mony destroys simplicity, which in this class of buildings ought
always to be the characteristic. Nevertheless, we see this ex-
quisite beauty attempted and prostituted in cottages, stables,
and almost every other low building. Tlie general excuse is,
that the proprietor wished something uncommon; but this
is no reason for deviating from simplicity. It is, in fact, the
incapacity of the architect. There is a Avide difference between

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 77

a rustic hut and a doiic temple, between the language of a
peasant and that of a philosopher ; but, in all, simplicity maj
be the prevailing characteristic.

These different degrees of beauty refer principally to the ge-
neral effects of an edifice. In the choice of parts, we may find
some assistance by attending to such of the elementary qualities
of matter as are applicable to buildings. Of forms, for example,
we can frequently introduce the most beautiful, as cones,
domes, and circles. We can dispose of these in various ways,
and produce concealment and intricacy. They may be either
hard, soft, rough or smooth, or clear, as in the glass of win-
dows. Colours cannot be introduced in great variety in the
external parts of buildings, except what is produced by the
veins of the stone ; but in the finishing of apartments they
may. The other qualities of matter are generally inadmissible.
See Chap. II. of the Essay on Taste,

78 ARCHITECTURJt. BOOK I.

CHAFI'ER III.

OF CHARACTERS IN ARCHITECTURE.

We have seen in the former chapter that all the beautiful com-
binations of forms which. we find in nature may be produced in
architecture. These combinations are also capable of particu-
lar expressions ; as will appear evident, by just noticing, from
Chap. IV. of the Essay on Taste, some of the characteristic
marks by which these expressions are produced.

Thus Grandeur and Sublimity are produced by greatness
of dimensions, succession, and uniformity of parts, &c. of which
buildings are perfectly capable.

Beauty is characterized by delicacy, the prevalence of cir-
cular forms, and smoothness of surface, which, to a certain
degree, are also capable of being produced.

Picturesque Beauty is characterized by roughness and
irregularity, &c. which can easily be produced both in the out-
line of the mass, and the surface of the materials.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 79

Antique Beauty is easily produced, by copying either the
exact form and distribution, or the style of the ancient edifices
of Greece or Rome.

Melancholy may be produced by the absence of clear-
ness, intricacy, and harmony ; as in a building with few win-
dows, and those also smaller than usual and irregularly placed :
this we sometimes see in old castles, and also in hospitals.

In like manner, the gay, the romantic, the wild, &c. may
be produced, by attending to the characteristics which produce
those expressions.

CHAPTER IV.

I

of the manner or style of execution in
architecture.

On a very slight reflection, it will appear, that the beauties of
combinations and characters mentioned in the preceding chap-
ters may be effected or produced by different kinds of mate-
rials, or by different modifications of the same material. Thus
a simple building may be erected either of clay, wood, or stone,
or of all of these together ; or it may have its general form

80 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

round or oblong, and its windows eith6r round or square, or
broad or narrow, and still retain the beauty of uniformity and
the character of simplicity. In the same way, a colonnade,
perhaps confessedly sublime, may be composed either of square,
circular, angular, or clustered columns, and nevertheless retain
its regular uniformity in each of the figures of the columns.
The same remarks will apply to every character and to every
part of a building : thus one cathedral may be sublime, with
clustered columns, painted windows, buttresses, and coni-
cal towers or spires ; and another equally so, with round co-
lumns, circular topped windows, colonnades, and circular
domes or cupolas. This different way or manner of producing
the same effect, is what is called style in architecture. There
may, therefore, be many different styles ; and it is natural to
think, that every country would originally produce one of its
own, according to the materials Avith which it most abounded.
Be that as it may, there are now two styles which in Europe
prevail over all others, and which are well known under the
names of Grecian and Gothic : the former characterized by cir-
cular columns, and openings square or circular at top ; the
other, by clustered columns, and openings square pointed at
top.

It may be remarked farther, respecting styles in general, that
as in all ages architecture would first be employed in the con-

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 81

struction of temples or churches, so in them style would first
make its appearance, and be carried to considerable perfection
before much attention was paid to the houses of individuals. It
is reasonable to suppose also, that as individuals, by reason of
superior riches or honours, became desirous of being lodged in
better houses, the only way that would occur to the builder
would be to give them something of the style of the temples,
which all allowed to be the highest degree of grandeur, and
which he was best acquainted with, and could best introduce
or vary, as became necessary in edifices which were to be used
for a dift'erent purpose. This, if it be a reasonable supposition,
would have produced two distinct species of each style : the
one the original style, used for the temples ; the other, the
mixed or irregular style, used for the dwellings of individuals.
This is, in fact, the case in both Grecian and Gothic architec-
ture. In the Grecian, the oblong temples of the ancients Avith
a naked roof, and those of the moderns with the addition of a
dome, form the first or temple style. The villas of Greece and
Rome with colonnades and porticoes, form the second or irre-
gular mansion style. In Gothic architecture, the first style is
characterized by the form of a cross and a square tower, as in
the ancient Gothic or Saxon style ; or by the form of a cross
and often a pyramidal tower, as in the Norman or modern Gothic
style. The irregular, or mansion style, in this manner of archi-
tecture, is characterized by irregularity in the general mass»

M

82 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

concave mouldings in the parts, and frequently groined roofs
internally, &c. as in the ancient villas of Great Britain, &c.

A free inquiry into these different styles will enable us to dis-
cern the characteristic properties of each ; to see whether they
are suitable to the purposes for which they are designed, and
perhaps to discover errors and propose improvements. To trace
the history of architecture in this way, would require consider-
able time, and would contain much uninteresting matter to the
reader not curious in this science. What I shall attempt in the
following remarks will be, to improve the taste of such as have
already paid some general attention to the subject ; or, if I dare
not arrogate so much, to induce gentlemen and young archi-
tects to be guarded in their veneration of antiquity, and to
think for themselves on a subject which has its foundation in
nature.

f

PART m. ARCHITECTURE. 83

CHAPTER V.

OF THE GRECIAN STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE.

It is commonly and most naturally supposed, that buildings
would in the early stages of society be constructed chiefly of
timber. This timber we may suppose either to be cut or di-
vided into such shapes and sizes as would best serve the in-
tended purpose ; or we may imagine the artist to have searched
in the wqods and collected such small pieces as by being joined
together would effect \vhat he wanted, with a much less degree
of labour thall*^vould be necessary in the other method.

The Grecian style of architecture seems to have been in-
vented after the manufacturing in wood was known ; it was
certainly not matured until that art, or the art of cutting in
stone, was brought to considerable perfection. This is evident
from the different mouldings of the cornices and the bases and
capitals of columns, which have scarcely any archetypes in na-
ture. Had the case been otherwise, we should still have been
able to distinguish a relation between most of the parts of co-
lumns, cornices, &c. and the trunks and branches of trees.

84 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

This, however, is not the case, except in the shaft of the column
alone : and there, it evidently appears, they had the smooth
bole of a tree in view ; otherwise they would not have em-
ployed the taper form, for a perfect cylinder would have suited
their purpose much better in so far as utility is concerned. The
capital and base of the Grecian column are different from every
thing in general nature ; leaves never coming out in close clus-
ters from the trunk of a tree, as in the Corinthian and Compo-
site capitals ; nor circular concavities and convexities, or
square plinths, ever surrounding that part of the trunk of a
tree which joins it with the root, or ever existing on any part
between the ground and the lower branches. These things
would not be worth notice, were it not to shew, that we can-
not find an}' complete theory for the component parts of this
style of architecture in the materials of nature when in a sim-
ple state. We must have recourse, therefore, to the original
forms of temples, to the oldest Grecian antiquities, and to what
is said on the subject by the earliest writers on architecture.

From these sources we may deduce, that the original Grecian
temples (in which, as already observed, buildings would first as-
sume their proper style,) were characterized, as to the general
mass, by a length and breadth much greater than the height,
and by columns and horizontal bearings or entablatures, with
few arcades and arches. The columns were round and tapered.

PART III. ARCHITF.CTURE. 85

placed upon a base, either a simple plinth or square piece of
no great thickness, or one composed of several pieces, having
convex, concave, or angular edges. These columns terminated
in a capital, Avhich is a small part of the column near the top,
swelled out either in forms somewhat like those of the base, or
in leaves, "volutes, and other ornaments. These columns al-
ways supported, first, a horizontal piece of a height somewhat
more than the diameter of the column, and divided into two
parts, called the architrave and frieze ; and, secondly, a laro-e
projection often shewing a number of angular and circular
mouldings, called the cornice. From the outer edge of this
cornice, rises the roof with a gradual ascent; the ridge of
which forms one hoiizontal straight line, that reaches from one
end of the edifice to the other. Imagine an oblono- buildino-
one story high, having a colonnade on each of the two sides,
and at the two ends having porticoes and pediments ; the
whole supporting a plain unconcealed roof; and you have an
ancient Grecian temple. It is only to be further remarked,
that the square mass inclosed by these columns contained open-
ings, which were generally, if not always, parallelograms placed
on their narrow ends, or, in common language, plain square
doors and windows.

This kind of temple served every purpose of their religion,
and was therefore complete as to utility. It is easy to conceive,

86 ARCHITECTURE. BOOjc I.

that the general form might be varied or improved upon, and
the parts more highly ornamented. Hence circular and other
forms were used in the general mass ; and hence also the Co-
rinthian and Composite capitals and cornices to the columns,
Avilh several other improvements and decorations, were in-
troduced.

It has already been observed, that this mode of architecture
was originally employed only in temples for religious worship.
In process of time however, as individuals from different causes
acquired riches, the particulars of this mode of building began
to be applied to their houses, and hence the production of
sumptuous palaces, baths, and other public buildings ; which,
as they required to be made of greater height than the temples,
wefe the source, even in Greece, of an entire change in this style
of architecture. In Greece, it would at first, probably, retain
much of its primitive simplicity and fitness ; but as this appli-
cation of the art became more general, it would give rise to a
numerous class of artists ; among whom would be some of in-
ferior abilities, who, it may reasonably be supposed, would
misplace the noblest parts. Accordingly, we find that columns
were placed in buildings where they had no real use, and thus
became mere ornaments. As those columns were generally
accompanied by cornices, these were also applied, and carried
across walls; which, as by a fatal blow to the genius of this

PART in. ARCHITECTURE. 87

style, has totally destroyed that beautiful simplicity which, as
we have seen, was formerly its genuine characteristic.

But it was reserved for the Romans to complete the corrup-
tion of this style of architecture. They raised many stories
above each other, and piled column above column, and stuck
them upon the outsides of walls, frequently to such a height
that they seemed in danger of falling. With them, columns
might be applied upon every occasion, as the whim or caprice
of the architect deemed fit. Sometimes these columns were
merely attached to the wall (what we call three quarter co-
lumns), and might occasionally be of some advantage by
throwing shadows, which is still however mere ornament ; but
at other times they were half sunk into it, where they produced
scarcely any shadow, and thus could neither be ornamental nor
useful. Pilasters also, which probably were originally square
columns placed in slender walls, in order to give them strength,
or to support the roof, were imitated by shewing their supposed
projections from the wall ; a practice which in general, and
particularly in all stone buildings, had so little the appearance
of utility, and produced so little shade, as neither gave effect
by its variety, nor fitness by its strength or apparent solidity.
These remarks, which may be said to characterize the second
variety of the temple style, are very applicable to most of the
Roman amphitheatres, baths, and temples.

88 AKCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

It is chiefly this corrupted style of" Grecian architecture
Avhich we have copied and imported into this country ; not that
we did not know of the more chaste Grecian models, but that
those of Rome were reckoned incomparably better * !

To this false taste we owe such huge masses of deformity and
incongruity in almost all our public buildings, as Avill long be
regretted by men of liberal sentiment, who are not biassed in
their opinions by the authority of great names. As for private
buildings or streets, the columns, pilasters, and pediments, &c.
which are stuck on the doors of houses, shops, and ware-rooms,
are contemptible and unworthy of notice.

As an apology for such incongi'uities, it will probably be
urged, that where an ornamental or elegant edifice is desired,
nothing better can be done. Columns, it may be said, are the
noblest parts of architecture ; and as we have seldom any thing
to support with these columns, we must apply them close to
the wall, that they may at least have the semblance of co-ope-
rating with it in supporting the roof. But this, though perhaps
the only rational apology that can be made, will never be suf-
ficient to satisfy men of taste, who are not deluded by the habit
of seeing such buildings, and hearing that they are copied from

* See Chambers's Arcliitecture, in which he extols the Roman style, and regrets
that some should have proposed to introduce that of Greece, which he endeavours
to decry and oppose.

PART in. ARCHITKCTUKE. 89

the productions of Greece or Rome. To take a part which in
one edifice is applied to the noblest purposes, and which pro-
duces an effect of light and shade, so striking as not to be sur-
passed by any object in nature ; to take that part, and place
it where it is incapable of either of these beauties, stimulates
to a comparison ; and the difference occasioned by the change
of situation is no sooner perceived, than good taste recoils at
the deformity, or spurns the heterogeneous assemblage. Let any
person observe the noble effect of the portico of St. Martin's
church near Charing Cross, and then pass to the front of Somer-
set House ; and if he be at all sensible of the effect of visible
objects, he must observe this difference. The same may be per-
ceived in Edinburgh, by viewing first the portico of St. An-
drew's church, or the Surgeons' Hall ; and afterwards, Char-
lotte Square, the east side of St. Andrew's Square, or the
Register Office. There is a kind of middle way, between plac-
ing columns where they are of real use, and where they are fixed
in the wall, which is equally to be condemned. In this case,
they are placed just so as to appear distinct and unconnected.
The entablature Avhich they support is of no use, because, pro-
jecting so little, it neither affords shelter, nor produces suffi-
cient shadow. This mode is exemplified in the New College
and Bank of Edinburgh. It is often placed where neither
shelter nor shade are necessary; as in that huge mass of defor-
mity, the Bank of England.

N

i90 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

A similar comparison may be made between pilasters of dif-
•ferent degrees of projection. Where they project one-third, or
even one-fourth of their width, they frequently have a good
effect ; we are then ready to allow, that they may strengthen
•the wall, because they appear of a form capable of being well
united with it. They also throw a considerable shadow and
appear to connect the cornice with the wall, especially in low
buildings, where they reach from the ground to the roof. When
introduced at the corner of a break, they take away from the
poverty of a naked angle. But when, in place of one-third,
they scarcely project one-fifth, or when they are sunk into the
wall entirely, and only distinguished by the form and size of the
stones of which they are composed, as in the Bank of England,
and other places, they are miserable substitutes either for
beauty, variety, or fitness, and had much better be absent al-
together.

Large pediments, which are intended to represent the ends
of roofs, have been equally misplaced. In situations where
they are of real or apparent fitness, they are a great beauty, by
producing both variety and intricacy. They are conspicuous
in almost all Grecian or Roman buildings ; and as their form is
easily retained by the architect, they are with him a common
resource upon all occasions. They are frequently reared for no
other purpose than that of varying a roof, and often stuck upon

PART III. ARCHITECTURK. 91

walls and parapets where they can only distract the eye and
produce incongruity. Sometimes too they are placed above
each other, which is still moi'e absurd, as it implies one roof
within another.

Cornices have been equally misplaced ; they indeed first ba-
nished the true genius of the Grecian architecture, by being
carried across the middle of walls between each story, as may
be seen in the Banqueting House. AMien carried along the
whole length of a building, they destroy all breadth and unity
of effect, except near the tops of the walls, where the eaves of
the roof may be supposed to come. Cornices are excellently
adapted for ornaments, or projections over windows : they have
an appearance of use, by serving to keep off the rain ; and by
increasing the shadow thrown upon the glass they add greatly
to variety and intricacy, without destroying unity. Pediments
in miniature, placed over windows are allowable, when the
number of these small cornices may require a contrast. As the
intention of both these pediments and cornices is to defend the
window from the rain and produce shade, they cannot with
any propriety be introduced under porticos or colonnades ; par-
ticularly when these are not higher than one story. When they
include two stories, however, it may be allowable to introduce
them over the lower windows ; as there they serve one of the
purposes for which they are used, viz. the production of shade,

92 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

which they could at no time do if placed near the top of the
space under the portico. That part of the entablature called
the frieze, when carried round windows, and terminated at top
by a cornice, has a good effect; it takes away from the
poverty, or too great simplicity, of angles, which always injure
the effect of elegant edifices. For this reason, it should be
introduced into all buildings above the rank of cottages, ex-
cept those of the gloomy sort, as jails, &c. Its excellent effect
in streets cannot be better displayed than in the Bank Build-
ings opposite the front of the Bank of England, and in some
parts of Prince's Street, Edinburgh. In all buildings that have
any pretensions to elegance, or any character uniting beauty
with use, naked angles, or, as a mechanic would express it,
plan finishing of corners, ought as much as possible to be
avoided, either by bold pilasters, projecting stones, or double
angles*. — Angles in recesses, in the external parts of edifices,
should not be made double, because that would clog them up
and give them a heavy appearance. But in all apartments
finished with pilasters or columns, or any similar projections, as
halls generally are, the angles should also be doubled, by plac-
ing in them either columns or parts of pilasters, as at the hall
of Harewood. In some varieties of Gothic architecture, a slen-

* The term double angles may be explained, by observing, that they appear
as if a square slice had been cut out of each prominent or projecting corner from
the top to the ground.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 93

der circular column has been placed in the angles of recesses,
which has a good effect in that style ; but in Grecian architec-
ture would be so inconsistent with fitness, that it m ould dis-
please, as may be seen in the otherwise handsome edifice of
Thrikleby Hall. It may be observed here, that the general
idea of doubling the angles of corners is equally applicable to
open courts and public squares ; and though this, as far as I
know, has never been done with the intention of producing
beauty, yet the very excellent efltect which it would have, may
be seen in Finsbury Square, London ; where the junction of
two streets at two of its angles shews nearly what I propose.

The next part that appears to me censurable in the irregular
Grecian style is the management of chimney tops. Nothing,
in an elegant building, can be more incongruous and vulgar
than the appearance of these among antique forms, and termi-
nated as they commonly are by brown or red earthen tubes.
This may be seen almost every where ; but two glaring in-
stances which occur to me at present are, Somerset House, and
the New College of Edinburgh. Nothing can be easier than
to give these parts forms which shall neither disgust by their
vulgarity, nor require assistance from earthen ware, or addi-
tional tubes of any kind, to facilitate the ascent of smoke.

The sky outline in our imitations of Grecian buildings is too

y4 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

little attended to. The style, indeed, is ill adapted to it for two
reasons ; first, because it was originally used only for temples,
where simplicity and grandeur prevailed in every part, but
especially in the outline ; and, secondly, because, as fires were
less necessary in Greece and Rome than in this country, they
had less opportunity of studying the effect of chimney tops in
their private buildings. The genius of the true Grecian style
does not admit of near so much variation of outline as the
Gothic ; for nothing destroys simplicity so much as an outline
varied by a number of small parts. Large masses, however,
may be introduced for this purpose, and with good effect, as
domes, or even square masses such as were used by Sir John
Vanburgh. The cubical towers, however, of that singular ar-
chitect, as at King's Weston and Buncombe, only deserve
praise for their general form and effect ; for, in their finishing,
the Grecian style is superseded by a coarse modern Gothic*.
Had that architect practised in the Gothic style, or rather had
he invented a distinct style of his own, he would have produced
wonderful effects ; but, unfortunately, most of the edifices
which he has executed, though they strike at a distance, from
the boldness and the irregularity of their outlines, are yet, when
minutely examined, so far Grecian as to excite a comparison
Avith that style ; vvhence their incongruities efface in a coa-

* Such as in the Queen's Palace, ^Vindso^.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 95

siderable degree the impression made by their general effect.
This is more obvious at Castle Howard than at Blenheim,
though it cannot fail to strike the minds of even common ob-
servers at both places. The simplicity and grandeur which
pervade the original Grecian style sufficiently shew that it is
not well adapted for private habitations, and particularly for
such as are used in this country, where every apartment re-
quires a fire-place, and consequently a chimney. It has been
introduced from the love of novelty, and not from a sense of
superior fitness; for the variety allowed in the Gothic style of
houses prevalent in this country admits of every accommoda-
tion within, and is improved in the outline and external effect
by every chimney top, tower, or deviation from regularity.
This may be seen by comparing old mansions built in this style
with houses built in the Grecian manner at the same period, or
even at this day. Thus Condover, Ingestry, and Goggr,
may be compared to Hopton House, Wentworth, and Beau-
mont Hall. Still, however, general rules do not apply univer-
sally ; for in Ilarewood Hall the character of the Grecian style
is preserved in the external appearance ; and in the internal
arrangement, convenience and elegance are united, without loss
of space.

The foregoing remarks refer to the Grecian style of building
in general. I may now proceed to notice some varieties of that

90' ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I,

style. These are distinguished by different degrees of propor-
tion, or apparent fitness. They are called orders of architec-
ture, and are divided into three sorts. The first is the Doric ;
which has massy plain columns, and few ornaments on the su-
perincumbent parts. The second is the Corinthian ; which has
more slender columns, ornamented both on the bases and capi-
tals, and also on the superincumbent parts. The third is the
Ionic ; which is a medium between these two extremes. Many
make a variety of the Doric, which they call Tuscan ; and
another variety of the Corinthian, called the Composite ; but
these are not materially different from the others.

The proportions of these three orders apply not only to the
column, but also to the general masses ; to the height and
breadth of all the openings, and to the projections of the cor-
nices. There are also particular kinds of bases and entabla-
tures adapted to each, that are of course always used in con-
nection with their proper order. Pedestals also have been
contrived for each of these orders ; but the idea of using them
is ridiculous in itself, and probably will not soon be revived.
In every thing except these pedestals, the orders of Grecian ar-
chitecture deserve to be studied, because their proportions are
naturally pleasing; and also because, from prejudice, habit,
and sympath}', they are become more agreeable to mankind
than any others.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 97

CHAPTER VI.

OF THE GOTHIC STYLE.
SECT, I. OF THE POINTED GOTHIC STYLE.

A VERY rational idea of the origin of this style may be formed^
by supposing the artist to have chosen from thick woods such
young trees as, from being crowded in their growth, had sprung
up into tall slender stems with few or no branches. When he
wanted a column, he did not fix on a large cylindrical tree, as
the Grecian artists are supposed to have done ; but collected a
number of these slender trunks, placed them together, and
fixed them by bandages. In this way he formed a column.
These columns were never placed in the open air to support an
entablature, as in the Grecian style ; but always in the internal
parts of the building to support the roof. For this purpose,
one bandage was fixed on these rods near the ground, and ano-
ther tied round them at a proper height. The rods were then
spread out in every direction ; and as two rows of columns
were always necessary, their tops, composed of these rods, were
spread out in the same manner. Their extremities, by intersect-

o

98 ARCHITECTURE. COOK 1.

ing each other in the middle space between the cokimns,
formed the smaller supports of the roof, and thus gave rise to
what we call the ribs and spandrils of this style of architecture.
A somewhat similar mode of procedure may be supposed to have
been adopted in forming the windows and, doors. First, the pro-
posed width being marked out, two clusters of poles were fixed
in the ground or wall, which constituted the sides. These were
preserved perpendicular to the proper height, and there all bent
in one cluster towards the center of the window, forming a pa-
rallelogram with a pointed top, exactly as we see both in the
forms and round mouldings of the Gothic doors and windows
of cathedrals. In the windows they proceeded further. As the
space was to be filled up in such a manner as to retain aper-
tures for the passage of light, or in order to contain the glass,
they parted the base of it into a convenient number of divi-
sions. In each of these they fixed a rod, or stem of a young
tree ; which they either carried straight up until it intersected
the pointed arch at top, or bent it, when at the height of the
perpendicular sides of the windows. In bending these poles,
they sometimes only made them intersect each other and form
angular compartments of one general fip-ure : but as they were
commonly smaller, and more easily managed than those of
the columns, they frequently indulged their fancy in bending
them, and produced either openings of different sizes, or imi-
tated known figures of leaves, or of some artificial contrivance.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 99

as the cross, the circle, the triangle, &c. This we may observe
in most cathedral windows.

It is not asserted, that this was the origin of the pointed
style of Grecian architecture ; it is merely mentioned to shew
the prevalence of uniformity in its parts : and in general it may
be observed, that there are none of these parts, nor any mould-
ings or subdivisions of tracery, but may be referred to circular
poles or stems of young trees ; and let me add farther, that
were there more intricacy or more contrasts in the columns,
their character Avould be materially injured by the consequent
harmony in place of simple variety ; the eye would be too
much fixed, and the mind prevented from conceiving with suf-
ficient facility the essential idea of roundness. From this, and
a number of other arguments which might be produced, the
theory which I have suggested may serve as a good general
guide, whether in design, or in guarding against innovation in
this style, under the idea of improvements in the general forms,
or in the composition of mouldings. Errors of the latter kind
are common ; an example of which must strike a critic in
Gothic architecture in the recent alterations of Hereford Cathe-
dral. In an altar-skreen in that of York also are introduced
Gothic battlements ! which have not the least connexion with
the internal finishing of cathedrals, especially when of so large
a size as is there used : it destroys all unity of effect, and pro-

100 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

duces such a violent contrast, as I should think would disgust
even ordinary observers.

The external appearance of a church in this style is conside-
rably different from the internal. It is characterized by but-
tresses*, either solid masses connected with the wall, or distinct
masses joined to the wall by segments of arches, and then called
flying buttresses. They are placed at regular distances from
each other, generally one between each window. They are
terminated b}'^ pinnacles, or small ornamented pyramids, which
have an excellent effect in varying the horizontal outline of the
roof. The general grand plan is that of a cross, and the gene-
ral appearance of one side of the building is oblong, with a
large projection near one end, which forms part of the arms of
the cross. A tower, or lantern, is usually added upon the part
where the arms of the cross intersect, and occasionally also at
one end. These towers are sometimes square, and terminated
by battlements ; at other times, conical, or pointed, and some-
times terminated by open arches in the form of the Roman tiara
or Crown, as in the cathedral church of Edinburgh and St. Ni-
cholas's in Newcastle. The buttresses, the lantern tower, and
the pointed windows externally, and the clustered columns,
pointed roof, and tracery internally, are sufficientcharacteristics

* Which are so well known as to need no description here.

PA«T Iir. ARCHITECTUllE. 101

of this style; and as an exact imitation of its general forms is
chiefly adapted to churches, they do not require a more minute
consideration here. I shall not quit this style, however, without
mentioning thatit is the most perfectwhich exists in Europe. The
beauty of fitness is so prevalent, that not one part appears super-
fluous. All the parts of the columns as they spread seem to co-
operate with each other in supporting the roof; and all the mul-
lions, or divisions of the windows, seem to unite in dividing it
into partitions of agreeable shape and conveniency*. Externally,
the buttresses appear to assist, and really do assist, in support-
ing the wall and the roof. By an examination into the mecha-
nical principles Avhich pervade the whole, this fitness is no less
apparent than real or necessary ; so much so, indeed, that not
one single buttress, and in some cases (as in the ribs of open

* That the chief source of the beauty of the spandrils of the roof is their fitness,
or their apparent co-operation and connexion with the column, cannot be better
illustrated, than by referring to the new Entrance Hall in Windsor Castle, where the
roof is richly covered with these parts ; but as they have little or no connexion with
the walls, either real or apparent, the whole seems heav}', and ready to sink down.
1 do not know whether or not I am singular in my opinion ; but when I first saw
it, about two years ago, it displeased me exceedingly ; and upon examining it
lately, I was convinced that the want of fitness was the sole cause of my displeasure.
This shews the great danger of not attending to the theory of design in architec-
ture. The truth is, that in practice, without a constant recurrence to the first prin-
ciples, artists even of the first repute are liable to err ; and in my opinion, the chief
errors both in Grecian and Gothic architecture have been produced Ijy trusting to
the eye and the pencil, without consulting the understanding. This practice na-
turally leads artists to attach a false value to parts, without sufficiently considering,
that their beauty, however great, will be highly injured, if their relation to a whole
be not also taken into consideration.

102 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

crowns on the tops of spires) not one single pinnacle, could be
taken away without injuring that part of the fabric. Whether
we regard the variety in the columns, and the intricacy of the
roof from the tracery, the leaves, and other ornaments, or con-
sider the noble perspectives of the middle and side aisles, we
must be constrained to say, that the general effect of a cathe-
dral in this style far surpasses that of any Grecian building in
producing that exhilarating sublimity which is so analogous to
the purpose for which they are erected. This may be felt by
comparing the effect of Westminster Abbey, or York Cathedral,
withSt. Paul's. Notwithstanding this, perhaps no human produc-
tions were ever more decried than edifices in this style. Such
abuse, however, is evidently from false prejudices; which have
at first probably arisen, jointly from the reformation in the
national religion, and the introduction of the Grecian style ;
and have been continued by the ignorance of writers of
different classes*.

* It is truly amusing to observe the remarks of some authors upon this style ; it
seems to have been the common allusion of literary men whenever they wanted to
convey to their readers the idea of deformity. It is no less provoking to observe
modern writers endeavouring to praise it, who yet seem either totally ignorant of
its beauties, or never to have seen the edifices which they recommend. Mr. Dalla-
way, in his Anecdotes of the Arts, mentions the abbey of Holyrood House as in the
pure Gothic style, and that of Roslin as nearly equal to Westminster Abbey ; when,^
in fact, it is almost tlie only Gothic chapel in Scotland that disgraces the architect.
Mr. Dallaway is equally erroneous when he speaks of Gloucester Cathedral, the
Banquetting Hou.se, &c. Indeed there is not a single remark on this subject ia
his whole work which merits confidence.

PART 111.

ARCHITECTURE. 103

SECT. II. OF THE SAXON GOTHIC STYLE.

This variety of the Gothic may be considered as a sort of
medium between the Grecian and pointed styles. The columns
here are circular, and have capitals as in Grecian buildings ;
but they are not tapered. They are placed in rows in churches,
similarly to the Gothic ; but in place of spandrils, or intersect-
ing arches, they are, most commonly, joined circularly. In
the Saxon Gothic these columns are never used detached in
the external parts of the building, and thence never support re-
o-ular entablatures or cornices, as in the Grecian style. The win-
dows are wide, circular at top, and placed between buttresses ;
theexternal appearance in other respects is not unlike the pointed
style, with which it is commonly mingled, as in the cathedral
of Durham, the abbey of Jedburgh, and others. The origin of
this architecture is of a more early date than that of the pointed
style ; and it seems highly probable, that in their endeavours to
ornament the former, they, after various attempts, produced
the latter. An indication of their progress in this may be seen
by examining the very old church at Dunbar, the abbey of
Dunfermline, part of thatof Holyrood House, then Kelso, Jed-
burgh, New Abbey, Glasgow, and, lastly, Melrose : or, in Eng-
land, as Mr. Milner has shewn, by viewing first the subterrane-

104 AIlCniTF-CTURE. BOOK I.

ous apartments of Winchester Cathedral, then the church of St.
Cross, next St. Mary's (both at or near Winchester), afterwards
Durham Cathedral, and, lastly, Westminster Abbey. Some pe-
culiarities which occurred in the transition from the one style
to the other deserve to be mentioned ; as they have not been
adopted in the pointed style, though they may frequently be
used in mixed buildings, for which this style is peculiarly cal-
culated. Among these are,

1st, Long slender undiminishing columns, often under, and
seldom above, six inches diameter ; placed sometimes in the
recess angles, at other times in the double angles made at pro-
minent corners, and often around columns, or upon piers, either
twisting round them, or carried up perpendicularly, and pa-
rallel to each other.

2dly, There is also a kind of pilaster in use, in some buildings
of this sort, as at Kelso, Jedburgh, &c. that may be introduced
into irregular buildings in this style with great advantage.

The general effect of the Saxon Gothic style is intermediate
between the pointed and -the Grecian. Its advantage over the
latter is, that it admits of columns smaller in proportion to their
height from their not being tapered ; hence there is a lightness
in the cathedral of Durham, which could not be effected in St..
Paul's, or in any cathedral strictly Grecian.

rART III. ARCHITECTURE. 105

SECT. III. OF THE IRREGULAR OR MIXED GOTHIC STYLE.

HAVI^•G noticed the characteristic marks of the two original
styles of Gothic architecture, I proceed to make some observa-
tions on the common style formed upon these, and used for
mansions. The compounds which may be formed from these two
styles are applicable to all kinds of public and private edifices,
and are capable of supplying every internal convenience,
luxury, or ornament. In towns or cities they may be raised of
any height, and made perfectly symmetrical. In the country
they may spread out in ev^ery direction, and be made either
high or low, uniform or varied, at pleasure. It is suited to
produce every expression, whether of elegance, grandeur, me-
lancholy, or picturesque beauty, and is equally applicable to
the palace and the cottage. It may produce expression by a
great variety of ways : thus the expression of grandeur may be
given by large masses, by the succession and uniformity of but-
tresses, or by the great height of towers ; and again each of
these styles of grandeur may be varied ; the masses may be
either high, cubical, or oblong ; the buttresses either solid or
Hying; the towers either round, square, or polygonal; so that,
in short, this style is capable of every variety of character and
beauty. With respect to the internal arrangement, it is equally:

106' ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

advantageous. The symmetry and regularity of the Grecian
style often occasions much loss of space, confines the size, and
renders it difficult to give sufficient light to the apartments.
If any error of that kind be produced in this style, the fault is
entirely in the architect. ]5ut though such be the properties of
this style, it does not follow that they have always been most
advantageously employed ; yet it may be here remarked, that
where ornament in the parts was not attempted, houses in this
style are generally more commodious and convenient within
(taking into view the tera in which they were built), and have
more unity of effi^ct externall}^ than those of the irregular
Grecian style. In the attempt at ornament, however, appa-
rent fitness has frequently been lost sight of, as in many of
Inigo Jones's buildings, where small colunms are placed against
the walls, and piled above each other, evidently for no other
purpose. This is evinced in the principal doorway of that
otherwise fine quadrangle Herriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, and
Tixall, near Stone in Staffordshire. When the artists did not
seek for an opportunity of displaying ornaments, but merely
added them to such parts as were necessary, a fine effect was
produced ; as in the college of Glasgow, where the rows of
windows placed in the eaves are terminated by ornamented tri-
angular pediments. But even this has been carried to excess ;
first, by increasing the dimensions of these pediments, and then
by loading them with heavy acroteria, as in several old houses in

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PART III. ARCHITFXTURE. 107

Edinburgh, and in some of the colleges of St. Andrew's. This
deviation from beauty, with most other errors in architecture,
shews the great danger of affecting conspicuous ornaments
which have no foundation in utility or fitness. Nevertheless, it
is the common mode employed by architects, and the chief re-
source which they have for making a house elegant, or suitable
to the grandeur of the proprietor. But had the nature and use
of style been attended to, this would have been done in the
most striking manner, and with much less expence ; as will ap-
pear evident if we apply it in the case of dress : if a lady going
to an assembly dress exactly in the fashion, she can only be
distinguished from others by the richness or elegance of her at-
tire ; but if she vary the style or disposition of the drapery, she
will be distinguished among others in a much more striking
manner ; and though in dressing for assemblies, this might not
be allowable in many cases, yet in buildings it is totally diffe-
rent; for each fashion in them continues at least an age.

The great advantages which are thus to be derived from the
irregular Gothic style make it proper to mention the charac-
teristics of a few of its varieties ; and first of

The Cathedral Style.

The general masses in this style are large, of considerable
length, and seldom interrupted by breaks or large projections.

108 ATICHITECTURE. BOOK I.

The roof is in general partly seen, and should be covered with
large slates, pavement stone, grey schist, or lead : small blue
slates in this style, and indeed in all large roofs, have a poor and
vulgar appearance. The chimnies are generally placed in rows
of angular columns often joined together at top, and known in
some places by the name of cannon chimnies. The windows
of the principal apartments are similar, in general design, to
those of churches. When pointed at top, as is commonly the
case, a buttress is placed between each. When square, and
even when pointed, this appendage is frequently, but rather
improperly, omitted. Sometimes a small tower is substituted
in the room of these buttresses. — [See Plate I. fig. 1.]

The Castle Style.

This term chiefly refers to the battlements ; for the original
and proper style of edifices built for defence belongs to military
architecture. The large masses are chiefly distinguished by
their height, and commonly varied by breaks or towers of dif-
ferent forms and heights. All these towers, as well as the
general masses, are terminated by battlements. The roof is
generally hidden, and the chimney tops formed into small
towers, or clusters of angular columns. — [See Plate I. fig. 2.]

A mixed style between this and the cathedral is frequently
used ; either by making the house entirely in that style, or by

PI.

Fu,l

Di'sijfii /or improveinff the ofi/i'mnuicf .-f.vi (7,/ Umi.)f

-Eination of aJLi„.cion.m ihe Towci-Sfyle aJapieii h> a AomanHc

Sihialion inthf immediak vin' of aim,, ornnu hnje .vlhcHon .

of cotnmort £,iitdirujs .

TP^^dn^MJ. /cu^

f"""'"<IMat/ii.il,eb)Img,^mM.„.X,i,i;^m„Ja,r„ut,rJU,».

PART III. ARCUITECTURB. 109

making the windows of the principal rooms larger, and more
church-like than the others.

Quadrangular Style.

The masses are large and simple; their ground-plan commonly
a quadrangle, or of the form of an H, or a quadrangle open
on one side. The roof is wholly seen, except when varied by
the triangular tops of windows, which are placed partly in the
roof and partly in the walls, and generally terminated by pedi-
ments, or triangular tops, as in Glasgow College, already men-
tioned. Those of the principal apartments frequently project
from the wall, forming internally small pentagonal recesses
or bays from the principal apartments. The chimnies are fre-
quently of clustered angular columns, but most commonly of
vulgar shapes.

The Tower Style.

The general characteristic of this style is, that high-roofed
towers prevail in the outline. These towers admit of great
variety ;

First, in the form ; which may be either round, square, or
polygonal.

110 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

Secondly, in the shape of the roof ; which may be either coni-
cal, circular, angular, bulged, or cyma (ogee) like.

Thirdly, in the terminating point of this roof; which may be
either a mere point, a round ball, a cross, an iron rod, or a spire
supporting gilded balls or other ornaments.

Fourthly, as to the projection of this roof over the walls, that
may be of different degrees, or may not project at all, as in
Herriot's Hospital ; but when it does not project, the parapet
should never be finished with battlements, as in Colzean
Castle ; it being evident that these can be of no use but when
flat roofs are made. Battlements, it is true, are in this age, of
no real use anywhere ; but their semblance of it should not be
wilfully done away in any case. The masses in this style are
generally rather high than broad, and may extend in every di-
rection as convenience shall require. The chimnies are some-
times totally concealed, and sometimes carried up singly to a
considerable height ; frequently two or three of these may be
joined together, and then they may be terminated by a pointed
top, or small iron spire, as are the towers. The windows are
generally narrow, and either square or pointed at top ; the
general rule ought to be, to finish them in a manner analogous
to the roofs of the towers, which would form a number of

m.3.

J?igl

£iei-aiion of a Soitse in a Stifle t>cctJi,tr to ScotLinJ
A I'o/nf/to/t ni tiie HiiihhinJs

Fig'L

ShvaHon ct a v-arietij of the Turret Stifle
common in the fieiphbourhood of£dinhiirgi\ .

./^.TiiVn, JAT

7ISj(n_tfuv. jai^-

J\ii-ii.tfi/ii Hay .*i^S<'6. by Jiit^nfrmaA JhirHSirj .trOnru iJiBn,\rarSoi' ■

p^jiT III. ARCHITECTURE. HI

pleasing varieties in the style.— [Plate II. contains txvo varieties
of this style.]

The Turret Style*

Is characterized by projecting turrets at most of the corners;
by very high roofs both on the turrets and principal masses ; by
attic windows, and windows also in the eaves, terminated by
triangular pediments. The windows in the turrets are few and
very small, generally only arrow holes. The ground-plan of
the whole is commonly in the form of an L. A square tower,
containing the staircase, is generally placed in the angle, car-
ried up nearly as high as the roof, and terminated by a rude
ballustrade enclosing a lead roof or bastion. This style pre-
vails chiefly in Scotland, as at Gogar, Coats, Saughton Hall,
&c. In several cases an I was added to the L, forming an open
square something like the quadrangular style, as at Dairy
Woodhouselee and Barnton.— [See Plate IIL]

A very useful style might be formed, by occasionally add-
ing to the tower or turret style columns ; either in the Saxon
form and style, or clustered ; and either placed in the angles of
windows, projections, or recesses, or in colonnades and porticos.
[See Plate IV. fig. I.]

* Of the picturesque effect of turrets all our novelists seem to have been fully
aware ; but their use or abuse should not rest solely on such representations.

112 AKCHITECTUUE. BOOK i.

New styles of considerable beauty may be formed by in-
venting new modes of finishing parapets, rejecting both bat-
tlements and ballustrades. Here, however, great care must be
taken, not to diverge too far from customary forms; for it is
not easy to get men to sympathize with innovations and new
parts that have no precedent in works already existing. An
example of this occurs in a plate of elevations given in
Book II. of this work.

A style both characteristic and oeconomical might be pro-
duced by attending chiefly to the distribution df the principal
masses and the chimney tops. The roof should generally be
concealed by a parapet terminated in any simple manner ; the
chimney tops should be mere plain masses of masonry. The
windows should generally be made large, in order that there
may be as few of them as possible. No false ones should be
attempted, nor any placed but where they are absolutely neces-
sary ; at the same time their general forms should be alike-.
The walls being thus perfectly plain, considerable expence
would be saved. To add intricacy and richness, train ivy and
other climbing shrubs on different parts where those beauties
are most desirable ; as chiefly along the top of the parapet ;
over the windows in place of labels, and upon the chimney tops.
This style would have a singular and very picturesque, or
perhaps romantic eftect. I have seen no example exactly con-

Pt. 71'-

r,g.\.

C>Uiv/ten trr a i/t't^ii^ t/i ^./4%'a ■'tjif //'f^'^ i^ytiarK- C>fat.

Fig. 2.

B.nmiba^oil/

PfMfjhn! Mm ^^ .■AV'", h. l.n^in.inMttrJf.Ktfx i Onru Jiibmjrtcirlt,'*' .

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 113

formabJe to my ideas of it; but Storton Castle, Downton, and
Foxley, come near it in several respects. The house being
built (which will be soon done, as little or no hewn masonry
would be necessary), the chief art will consist in training the
creepers to proper places, leaving frequently large spaces of the
wall quite naked in order to preserve breadth and contrast.
Plate IV. fig. 2, represents a building of this kind newly
finished, but without any creepers added to it.

To these species of style might be added a great number of
others equally characteristic ; but it is not necessary in a work
like the present. The ingenious reader will easily conceive,
from these, what is intended, and what can be done. Let me
only caution the architect to preserve harmony in every style
which he attempts; and indeed, in producing a new species of
style, he will frequently be more certain of escaping censure by
attending chiefly to variety.

114 ARCHITECTURE BOOK T.

CHAPTER VII.

OF STYLES COMPOSED BOTH OF GRECIAN AND GOTHIC

ARCHITECTURE.

Having now considered the different styles of Grecian and
Gothic architecture separately, a fcAv remarks must be made on
mixing and blending them in the same building.

SECTION I. OF MIXING TIIEM.

When the style of the general masses of a building is pure
Grecian, appendages in the Gothic style can never be admis-
sible, except on the supposition that the whole has been built
at different periods. Should this be the case, the general effect
produced may be good ; as the effect of time in producing
mosses and weatherstains will serve to harmonize what would
present too strong a contrast when new. It is affirmed by
some, that mixtures* of this kind have a good effect in Italy ;

* It cannot be doubted, that the first attempts of this nature must have been the
effect of necessity, and that they were afterwards imitated from a reverence to
antiquity.

PART ril. ARCHITECTURE. 115

the reason probably is, their being built at different times, or
the two styles being impure, as we see in many Italian designs,
and also in several houses in England. Allerton is partl}^ in the
Gothic and partly in the Grecian style ; Avhich happened from
some alterations that were begun several years ago and never
finished. Both the styles in that building are impure, and
would not have been strikingly incongruous even when first
built ; now the whole edifice is so covered with lichens, that it
presents one harmonious and singular mass ; which seen from
one view appears nearly in the Grecian style, and from another
nearly in the quadrangular Gothic manner.

SECT. It. OF BLENDING OR COMPOUNDING THE GRECIAN
AND GOTHIC IN THE SAME MASS.

To unite in the same mass forms so opposite as those which
characterise Grecian and Gothic architecture, may justly be
thought so ridiculous as never to have been attempted. Win-
dows, or openings, are the most striking parts in the walls of
buildings. They are all for the same use ; and we are led to
imagine, from the productions of nature, that they should in
the same building be all of the like figure. At any rate, we are
sure that when unifonnity of figure is deviated from, it is ex-

116 ARCHITECT UKK. BOOK I.

pressly for the purpose of producing variety. This being the
case, the mind is much more fastidious about these forms and
variations, than if their uses were less known or more diversi-
fied. If variety be produced by giving the central window of
a plain front, or those of the two extremities, a round top ; or if
there be projections, the windows in each of them may some-
times deviate from the central form, and assume perhaps the
Venetian shape, without offending. But if round topped or
Venetian shapes were alternately introduced among the com-
mon forms, the incongruity would at once be felt by every
spectator. Still, however, this is Grecian architecture. Imagine
the operation carried on further, and every second circular
topped window made pointed in the Gothic manner, and cer-
tainly nothing can be more ridiculously incongruous.

It is not meant to be insinuated, that this has actually been
done in every case; it is only intended to explain, to those who
have not reflected on harmony in buildings, how the mixtures
of Grecian and Gothic which we see in numbers of buildings
must affect men of taste. In some of these buildings the win-
dows are mixed much in the style mentioned above * ; in
others, the incongruities extend chiefly to the general masses.
Thus in some places the Grecian proportions have been given

* As in Airthrie Castle.

PART III. AIlCiJITECTURE. 117

to Gothic topped windows ; and Venetian windows have been
terminated and finished by mouldings and labels, in the Gothic
manner. All distinction between the mouldings of each have
been confounded ; and in the roof, domes, towers, and pedi-
ments, terminated by monkish crosses or gilded balls, and sur-
rounded by battlements or ballustrades, have been crowded
together, to the entire destruction of that principle which con-
stitutes the essential excellence of architecture — harmony.
Some of the best situations and finest scenery in Scotland were
some years ago disgraced by buildings of this kind ; and the
irrational admiration paid to the eminent artist who introduced
them has rendered this style so much the fashion in that coun-
try, as to exclude almost every other. Sooner or later, hoAv-
ever, those gentlemen who erect these productions will discover
their mistake ; though it will not be until so many have been
erected, as will make posterity regret the taste of their an-
cestors.

The artist who introduced this mode of architecture enjoyed
all the advantages of education, fortune, travel, and friends ;
and it is truly humbling to human nature, to think that he
should have so far deviated from good taste. Some errors of
architects are pardonable, as having been copied from those
productions of antiquity which ought always to be examined
with care, and which every one reveres. But this enov pro-

118 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

ceeds from ignorance of principles ; for who, knowing the dif-
ference between harmony and incongruity, would ever, have
proposed to unite in one object such a diversity of contrary
qualities ? Though it be possible for a person to overcome
the prejudices of mankind, by uniting similar qualities in one
view, M'hich we had ever been accustomed to see separate, and
which is no inconsiderable victory ; yet when these qualities
are of different kinds, and when, in addition to prejudices,
there are inherent principles of human nature adverse to the
union, it is folly and madness to attempt it. Had that most
respectable artist attended to this, he never would have pro-
duced Airthrie Castle, Malsley, or Colzean, nor any of his
other buildings in this style.

Tl is with no small reluctance that I make these remaiks
upon the practice of an artist, whose friends I respect both
for their rank and merits ; but the laws of taste and the amor
patricp require it. Such productions coming from a high au-
thority impose upon mankind, and diffuse their baneful influ-
ence among other artists. This, as already observed, it has
unfortunately effected in that country. In future, 1 hope that
either private gentlemen intending to build, or artists who pro-
pose to design in this style, Avill, before they proceed, reflect
upon the general principles of taste, and particularly upon fit-
ness, UNIFORMITY, VARIETY, and HARMONY.

TART III. ARCHITECTURE. 119

DIVISION II.

THE APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN TO THE
DIFFERENT SUBJECTS OF ARCHITECTURE.

CHAPTER I.

OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS.

We have now taken a general view of those fundamental prin-
ciples of architecture which, if understood, are sufficient to
guide an artist in every possible case. As a further illustration
of them, I proceed to make some remarks on their application
to some of the different subjects of architecture which most
generally come under the practice of a rural designer. All the
subjects of architecture may be included under the two general
divisions of public and private buildings. Public buildings
include churches, theatres, prisons, senate houses, hospitals,
bridges, &c. But, excepting churches and bridges, few of these
are built by country gentlemen, and therefore do not come
under notice in this work.

120 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

SECTION I. OP CHURCHES.

The expression of a church ought, in every case, to be subli-
mity ; and there are two ways in which this may be accom-
pUshed. 1st, A form should be fixed upon which is suited to
produce this emotion. And Sdly, The general masses of this
form should in no situation be altered, though their magnitude
may differ : the reason for preserving the form always the same
is, chiefly, that in some cases, where the sublime cannot be pro-
duced by magnitude, from the limited extent of the building,
the form, though of less size, may, from association of ideas,
produce this etfect. Taking a medium between the cathedrals
and the simplest Gothic churches, they may be said to contain
two parts: the body, which is generally an oblong mass, ex-
tending over the surface ; and the spire, which is either a
tapered mass placed upon its base, or a parallelogram placed
upon one end. Now these general characteristics of a church
should never be deviated from when sufficient ex pence can be
afforded ; and if simplicity in forming these parts be attended
to, a case can hardly occur where both the tower (or spire) and
body may not be erected. When this is not the case, churches
will dwindle into mere barns, as is the case Avith a number of
the country churches in Scotland and Wales ; or when it is over-

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 121

done, and new forms are introduced, it will convey the idea of
some other edifices; of a play-house perhaps, as does the church
of St. Chad's, Shrewsbury ; of manufactories, as do several meet-
ing-houses in London ; or it may present such a form as Avill
perplex most people, as St. George's Chapel, Edinbuigh, which
by its ornaments and singular form excites curiosity and totally
destroys the sublime.

Spires may be erected at much less expence than they com-
monly amount to, owing to the superfluous introduction of co-
lumns, cornices, and projections, in place of simplicity, which
should pervade them throughout. In London there are nume-
rous spires composed of parts taken from Grecian architecture,
and piled up at an immense expence. Let me ask the unpre-
judiced observer who has seen that of St. Andrew's, Edinburgh,
which, though after the Grecian manner, contains little or no
ornament, whether there be in London any one comparable to it.
There certainl}^ is not, though that of the New Church in the
Strand, which is among the best, must have required at least
twenty times the sum to erect it which such a one as I allude
to would cost.

, Landed proprietors ought to encourage the introduction of
spires into countiy villages, as one of the noblest ornaments of

R

122 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

rural scenery. They confer a degree of dignity on every thing
around ; their simplicity and boldness requires no exertion of
the mind to comprehend their form ; and their use is at once
perceived ; for still as they shoot up in the horizon, and meet
the eye of the traveller as he passes from village to village, they
convey pleasing information, and useful moral instruction.
They inform us, that we still continue in a civilized country,
and among men who live and think as we do ; they remind
us of our vows to friendship and love, of our duty to our
Creator and our neighbour, and of the final scene of man on
earth. "

SECT. II. OF BRIDGES.

Fitness and utility must prevail in this class of building ; any
attempt at combining ornament, and giving it the semblance
of use, is sure to be detected, and frequently will destroy
greater beauties. This is exemplified in the bridges of Black-
friars and Kelso. The power and ingenuity displayed in even
the rudest bridges occupy the mind and leave no room for at-
tending to mere ornaments. ^Vhen viewing large bridges, we
feel all the force of the power and wisdom displayed in their
execution ; a small one ever so tastefully ornamented, never can

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 123

supply the deficiency. In some romantic situations, such as
occur in Wales or Switzerland, the cross, a sublime emblem, has
been introduced above the keystone with good effect. Perhaps
niches may be introduced in some places ; but in general it will
be found the safest rule not to bestow designedly any ornament
whatever. Among some of the noblest bridges in this island is
that of Perth: it consists of thirteen large circular arches, sup-
ported by high slender piers ; the whole has no other ornament
than a plain Grecian cornice, which is carried across under the
parapet on a level with the surface of the road. The simpli-
city and elegant proportions of this bridge deserve particular
attention.

124 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

CHAPTER 11.

OF PRIVATE BUILDINGS.

Private buildings may be divided into, 1. Those of the la-
bouring poor and inferior tradesmen ; which may be included
under cottages singly, cottages collectively or villages, towns
and cities. 2. Those of the husbandmen. 3. Manufactories.
— A few observations shall be added under each of these
divisions.

section I. OF COTTAGES.

The wants of man in the lowest stage of society are compara-
tively few : they are only those of simple nature ; and nature,
always consistent with herself, affords obvious and simple
means of resource. The part acted by the cottager in the great
drama of life, though important Avhen viewed collectively, is
nevertheless, as to the operations of the individual, scarcely
discernible. The first and last time that we see him is in the

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 125

field or in the highway at hard labour ; when he is no longer
capable of toil, he retires under the shelter of his cottage, and
leaves the world as obscurely as he came into it.

But, notwithstanding these unavoidable circumstances, the
importance of the labouring poor to society is too well known
to be neglected in an age like the present. This is evident
from the exertions of societies and individuals to increase their
comforts. Humanity can never be more nobly employed. To
promote this view, and at the same time to correct the vague
and en'oneous ideas respecting ornamented cottages, either for
the poor or as rural retreats of the opulent, I shall extend the
remarks on this part of the subject to a length otherwise in-
compatible with the general plan of this work.

The simplicity of a cottager's establishment requires but a
few small apartments ; and as the whole is erected for necessary
use and convenience, every part is done in the simplest and
most economical manner. The size and number of the apart-
ments are first marked out on the ground : then the walls are
erected, of such materials as are most convenient, without much
consideration respecting their durability. The roof is put on
from similar motives, and under similar circumstances, and
immediately the cottager takes possession.

126 ARCHITECTURE, BOOK I.

As different countries, or separate parts of a country, furnish
different kinds of materials for erecting cottages, and as the
climate and other particulars would operate upon their form,
we may suppose that various forms of cottages exist in different
countries according to circumstances. In Great Britain, as far
as I have observed, these may be reduced to two distinct kinds,
the English and the Scotch ; from Avhich, either separately or
combined, all the other varieties appear to have arisen.

1. The English Cottage. — From the nature of this country, its
general levelness, its freedom from rocks or stones, and its com-
paratively mild climate, we have reason to suppose that the
Avails of the oldest structures of this kind were originally built
of clay, turf, or similar materials, strengthened by posts and
cross pieces of wood, with which also the country sp generally
abounded. The roof was considerably elevated ; as the higher
it was, the pressure upon the side walls was more perpendicu-
lar, and consequently less liable to derange the materials than
if it had been more lateral, which is the necessary consequence
of a flatter roof. This roof was also made to project consider-
ably over the wall, that the rain might be entirely throAvn off;
for it is evident, that it would have otherwise soon destroyed
the adhesive qualities of such crude materials : this projection
was likewise useful in keeping off the rain from the windows

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 127

and doors ; so that in general it served a double purpose.
Otten, however, Avindows were made in the lower part of the
gable ; and though the projection extended over that part also,
yet from the height of the eaves of the roof, the rain, in falling,
particularly in times of wind, might be thrown inwards upon
the window. To prevent this, a projection was made over it
for the express purpose of keeping off the same ; and as it was
known to be also advantageous in preserving the wall, it was
sometimes carried across the whole end or gable, as we see still
practised in several places. The chimnies in this style of cot-
tages were generally carried up singly at one or both ends of the
building, commonly in the outside of the wall, and generally of
a roundish shape, and terminated with a projecting coping to
throw otf the rain. The materials of the roof were principally
wood, covered either with straw, reeds, or slate stone. Some-
times garrets were formed under it, and consequently windows
were placed either in the end, in the flank or slope of the roof,
or both. The form of the windows was everywhere much
broader than high, both from the lowness of the side-wall, and
more suitable for giving light. This required a long cover at
top ; but as these were made of wood, it was no disadvantage ;
and besides they were frequently supported in the middle b}'
upright pieces, which served to divide them into compartments.
To this general form, which included every thing relating to
the personal accommodation of the cottager, he frequently.

128 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

when in possession of a cow or horse, added a small shed and
other hovels to one end, or to the side ; the methods of doing
which are too obvious and simple to require explanation. From
circumstances which it is unnecessary to recount, this kind of
cottage would in time be made two stories in height. In this
case, if the walls were still made of clay, the projections would
be continued, and also placed over the lower windows ; but as
brick or stone would be often used, when this form was
adopted, there would then be less reason for a projecting roof.
But, from the thinness of the walls, the windows would neces-
sarily be placed nearly even with their surface, and conse-
quently much exposed to the weather ; still, I sa}^ projections
over them became necessary, as well as over the doors. These
projections, as in the other case, would sometimes be made of
wood, and sometimes of slate or grey schistus ; sometimes car-
ried across the Avhole length of the side walls, and sometimes
no farther than over the windows.

Cottages of both these kinds, formed of clay and wood, may
be seen in many parts of Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, and
Herefordshire. In other counties the same form exists; but
the materials are either entirely bricks, or bricks with the wood
in place of clay, turf, or even stone above, as at Ambleside, and
several parts of Lancashire. — [See Plate V. fig. 1.]

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 129

2. The Scots Cottage. — The peculiar forms of these originated
from the abundance of stones, the comparative scarcity of
wood, and the severity of the climate. In them the walls Avere
built thick, in order that they might contribute to warmth, and
bear the weight of a flatter roof. The flat roof was preferred,
both because less of that scarce article wood was requisite, and
also because this form was less liable to be injured by the
winds, which always prevail in naked mountainous countries.
The walls in this style not being so liable to decay as in the
other, the projection of the roof was comparatively small. This
did not give occasion, however, to projections over the win-
dows, because the walls being thick, the glass frame was less
exposed to the weather by receding from the outer surface of
the wall. The form of these windows was narrow, in order
that a stone of no uncommon length might easily cover them
at top ; and this shape likewise better secured them from the
weather. Still, however, as these cottages required as much
light as the others, the windows were made proportionally
deep ; and this gave rise to a mode of framing and glazing dif-
ferent from the English; and hence also another mode of
opening the glass frames for admitting air. In these long nar-
row windows, it is done by having the glass cases divided hori-
zontally. In the broad low English windows, it is done by
dividing them perpendicularly. In the former case, the sashes
are placed in grooves, the upper one fixed and the lower one

s

130 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

loose : in the latter case, one or both of the frames have hinges,
and open either outwards or inwards. In the Scots cottage
windows, the glass is always in large square pieces fixed in
wood ; in the English, always in small square or rhomboidal
lozenges*, glazed in lead, and fixed in an iron frame.

The chimnies in this cottage were sometimes, and most ge-
nerally, carried up in the two end walls or gables ; but fre-
quently in the central wall which separated the two apart-
ments-f-. In this case, the roof was sloped on all sides in the
pavilion manner. The roof here, as in the other kind, was
covered with the most ready materials, generally thatch and
turf; in some places heath was used, as in many parts of the

* Why the lozenge or diamond form should have a preference to the square is
foreign to the present inquiry.

f There is a sort of cottage common in several parts of the north, in which the
chimney is a hoUow cone, or pyramid, formed of wood and clay, and suspended
from the gable ; the fire is made in an iron grate with open ribs on all sides, and,
placed under the middle of this projection, diffuses its heat on every side, while
the smoke ascends the wide cone or chimney. This plan has the advantage of allowing
a numerous family to sit around it, and originated from the practice of small far-
mers, who formerly used to live in their kitchens with their servants and the whole
family. This practice is still in use in several parts of England ; but it is given up
in Scotland, where the agriculture is more perfect, and the farmer a much more
enlightened and respectable member of society. This mode of constructing the
kitchen fire-place exists only in some old cottages. Modern famihes are seldom
or never so large as to render it necessary, and hence it deserves no particular
consideration in these pages.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 131

Highlands; in others, blue slate, as in Peebleshire ; greystone
slate, as in Kircudbright ; or red flagstone, as in most parts of
Dumfriesshire. In every case, the roof being flatter, light gar-
rets were inadmissible ; and of course Avindows were seldom
made in the gable ends or in the sides of the roof. — [See
Plate V. fig. 2.]

This cottage being peculiar to poor countries, as in those
rocks and stones most generally abound, the cottagers were sel-
dom blessed with a cow, or even pigs, and hence had no occa-
sion to add appendages, as in the other case. Fuel and most
other things were lodged under the principal roof. Happily,
in all the improving counties of the north, the practice of giv-
ing cows to all the farm servants is becoming general ; and the
pleasing appendages which they occasion begin to appear in
many of the counties south of Edinburgh. In most of the
northern and western counties, however, there still exists a pe-
culiar formality, or sense of imagined dignity, which manifests
itself upon every occasion, both in the physical and moral ac-
tions of the inhabitants. They are strict and formal in their
religion ; and so rigid in regard to symmetry, which, in a coun-
try so very irregular, it is natural to imagine will be the most
striking and generally perceived beauty, that rather than make
a cottage irregular by an exterior appendage (necessary for the
cow) they extend it in length, adding a gable and chimney

132 ARCIIlTECTliRE. BOOK I.

top ; thus making the external appearance of the cowhouse
and the lodging apartments exactly alike. Hence a house of
this kind presents a chimney at each end, and two doors placed
together in the middle. One of these doors is the entrance of
the cottager, the other that of his cow. I should not have
thought this circumstance worthy of notice, were it not that
some respectable improvers near Edinburgh are building a
number of stiff unconnected cottages of this kind for their la-
bourers, under the name of ornamental cottages. It must be
evident to every one, that whatever their form may be, they
can never be so clear, fresh, and wholesome, as if the cow-house
was made an appendage, with its door either in the end, or at
some distance from the door to the living apartments of the
peasant, — The Scots cottage, when increased in height so as to
contain two stories, has still more formality than the low kind,
from being of greater magnitude.

From these two styles have originated all the varieties in their
general construction and distribution. In general, we find the
two styles pretty distinct ; but in countries which contain ma-
terials suitable for both styles, as in the borders of Wales and
the north of England, or where the people from one county have
migrated to another, we find them mixed or blended in vari-
ous degrees. This is the case in Northumberland, Lancashire*
and some parts of Stirlingshire, as at Carron.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 133

SECT. II. OF ORNAMENTS IN COTTAGES.

Aftf.r this view of the general forms and different parts of
the cottage styles, as far as regards utility, I shall proceed to
make some remarks on the disposition of ornaments. The use
of cottages, however, is the chief source of their beauty ;
and from attending to this alone, arises that simplicity which
is frequently so pleasing both in the manners and dress of the
lowest class of society. But in regard to dress we generally
find, that no sooner has the pretty milk-maid been enabled to
cover her bosom with a shawl, or her hair with a straw bonnet,
than she wishes to adorn her neck with beads. So it is with
the labourer and his cottage ; it is no sooner erected, and he
comfortably lodged, than he thinks of something farther, and
begins to add ornaments. These, it is true, are more generally
confined to the internal parts of it, but are often applied also
to the external ; and especially when cottages are near the high-
way, or when they are collected together in villages, through
an ambition to excel in neatness and decorum.

In the English cottage of the original kind with the project-
ing roof, the first external ornament would be, to take chalk
and whitewash the clay walls, which would have a wonderful

134 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

effect in giving them a gay appearance. The next thing in this
style would be, the decorations of their little garden, and the
planting of roses, or some of the smaller fruits, against the pales
which inclose it. And now, proud of this little spot, he would
erect a seat close under the roof and at the side of the door, on
which he may sit with his children after the close of his labour,
and enjoy the general effect of the whole. — [See Plate V.
fig. 3.]

When the English cottage was made two stories high, the
chief difference in the style of ornament would be, that in place
of whitewashing the walls, he would plant fruit-trees or orna-
mental creepers of some sort against them, which he could not
do in the case where projecting roofs were adopted. — [See
Plate VI. fig. 1.]

The inhabitant of the other cottage, naturally of a less gay
disposition, is not profuse in whitewashing the external part of
his house ; he bestows a little of it however upon the edges of
his windows, to indicate that all is comfortable within. He
frequently places a seat near the cjoor, as in the other style ;
though the difference of the climate is adverse to this luxury,
and indeed the nature of the foreground, which would come im-
mediately under his eye, is not of an inviting kind to any of the
senses. Scotch cottages in a few situations, however, either

PART Iir. ARCHITECTURE. 135

from their vicinity to another style, or from accidental circum-
stances in the employment of the inhabitant, are decorated with
excellent effect; by training honeysuckles or ivy upon the
walls, and also by adding another ornament not very general
in the other st^de. This is a row of houseleek placed along the
fidge of the roof. In a few years it becomes highlj^ ornamen-
tal, and the stems of its flowers probably gave rise to a mode
of decorating the same part in professed ornamental cottages. —
[Plate V. fig. 4.] — Cottages decorated in this way may be seen
in several villages near Edinburgh ; but in their style there re-
mains ample room for the interference of gentlemen, who, with
little or no trouble or expence, might oblige their cottagers to
plant trees in their gardens, and train creeping shrubs upon
their walls ; which, with the removal of an appendage in front
peculiar to that countrij, and which shall be left unnamed, would
contribute much to the beauty of villages, and ultimately tend
to increase the health and comforts of the peasantry.

The ornaments mentioned are what would naturally be
added by the inhabitant himself, and what would long consti-
tute the sole d^orations of cottages. There is another class
which in a certain stage of the progress of society, the builder
would introduce : thus, as the houses of rich individuals, or the
churdies and cathedrals of rich bodies of men, became com-
mon, artisans to construct them would become more nume-

136 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

rous ; and as they could not always be employed in these great
buildings, they would frequently assist those whose occupation
was chiefly that of rearing buildings for the lower classes of man-
kind. This, from a principle of vanity inherent in man, would
lead them, even in these low buildings, to imitate in some de-
gree what they had been accustomed to in their greater works.
And as the vulgar, in imitating the manners or dress of the
rich, always attach themselves to the ornamental parts; so those
artists, disregarding the proportions of rooms, or the principles
of strength in walls or roofs, would copy such mouldings and
cornices as could be applied over their doors and windows.
Hence, in place of mere projections of wood or slates placed
over these parts to keep off the rain, Gothic labels of hewn-
stones would be substituted. Instead of plain round or square
chimney tops, they would erect those clustered angular stalks
which have to this day such an excellent effect in many places.
[See Plate VI. fig. 2.] — These imitations were carried so far,
that in many places the wood which supported the roof was
carved in all the parts exposed to view ; an excess of decoration
that would please all, in the tasteless age in which it was exe-
cuted, which is now pleasing from its age, but which we need
not fear seeing soon renewed, as men of abilities equal to such
work cannot be employed by the inhabitants of these buildings.
It is thus, that even in matters of taste, every evil works its own
remedy. In Scotland the imitation seldom went such a length,

0

I

M

i •• ^

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 137

except in the towns or villages adjoining cathedrals or monas-
teries ; and even in those places it seems, by the fatal influence
of general poverty, soon to have given way to the common
mode. Occasionally, however, after the introduction of orna-
ment, the gables were finished with hewn stone in successive
pieces like steps. A border or frame of stone became frequent
round the windows, and slates were more generally introduced
in the roofs. — [Plate VI. fig. 3.]

When Grecian architecture became fashionable, a few of its
ornaments were introduced into cottages, particularly in towns
and cities where stone was used, as in the suburbs of Edinburgh,
Glasgow, &c. But ere this time the great passion for fine
buildings that gave rise to our Gothic cathedrals was allayed ;
artists expert at carving on wood or stone became compara-
tively rare ; and the fashionable style of decorating cottages
seems to have been finally settled at nearly the same as that of
the present day.

SECT. in. OF THE FIRE-PLACES OF COTTAGES.

It is not necessary to make any observations on the internal
disposition of cottages. The best practical method for an ar-
chitect to adopt is, to take the remarks of county builders or

T

138 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

bailiffs, and to iuspect himself the general mode in use in the
particular part of the country in which they are to be erected.
He may then devise improvements and incorporate them with
the old plan ; for to alter the style of the internal disposition,
or indeed of any useful part, all at once, will not often be agree-
able, particularly to that class of mankind. The most impor-
tant improvements are such as relate to the construction of
fire-places, and the adoption of particular utensils for preparing
food. Having attended to and compared most things proposed
as improvements in these branches of cottage architecture, as
well as made a great many experiments myself on the nature
of heat*, I think tha^ I have formed some general conclusions
of considerable importance. Here I shall only advise the in-
troduction of a mode of constructing a fire-place which will be
found to throw out more heat from a given quantity of fuel
than perhaps any other hitherto proposed, however intricate
in their construction. It is so simple, and so similar to the
general form, that I should think no cottager could find any
objection to it.

Let A (Plate VI. fig. 4.) represent the ground plan of the
gable or end in which the fire-place is to be erected. B the

* Some of which, relating to hot-howses, are noticed in my treatise on that
subject.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 139

fire-place, or fuel chamber, built with stone or brick on three
sides, and open in front. C the ash pit, and D the floor of the
house. Then suppose fig. 6. a section of this gable and chim-
ney. E is the grate that contains the fuel, placed on a level
with the surface of the floor, which is represented by F. G the
solid Avail, or gable, which projects completely over the fire.
H the vent or funnel by which the smoke escapes.

The advantage of this plan is, that more heat is thrown out
into the apartment by a given quantity of fuel. This is
effected, 1st, By the lowncss of the fire-place ; 2dly, By the
projection over it, which makes the smoke ascend very slowly,
and thus gives it time to cool, or give out its heat into the
room. 3dly, By having the vent at H of proper dimensions ;
that is, such as will neither permit more nor less than the re-
quisite quantity of smoke and air to escape. I have generally
found in like cases, that its superficial contents should be equal
to that of the upper surface of the fuel chamber.

These circumstances occurred to me in the course of making
experiments for heating rooms (a branch of domestic economy,
which, notwithstanding the meritorious labours of Franklin
and Rumford, still affords an ample field for discovery and im-
provement) : and should they tend to benefit the labouring
poor, w hich I think they may in a remarkable degree, if pro-

140 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

perly adapted, I shall consider the time and expence which I
have bestowed upon the subject as having been well applied. At
present, I shall only remark, that the supposed improvements
in patent cast-metal grates, or in the fire-places of rooms, will
be found much inferior to what I have here announced ; ob-
serving only to make the fuel chamber rather broader than in
the figures to which I have referred, M-here it is made nearly of
'a square form, for the greater convenience in holding cooking
utensils.

The importance of rendering the labouring people more
comfortable by increasing the conveniencies of their habitations,
either in respect to the commodiousness and warmth of their
cottages, the dimensions of their gardens, or giving them caws
and such like advantages, appears great even at first sight : but
if by these, in conjunction with other means, such a spirit could
be aroused or excited in the English peasantry," as would make
them sensible of the disgrace of going to a workhouse, a na-
tional benefit would be effected, which posterity only could
duly appreciate. In the mean time, let me remind the
humane proprietors of both countries, that it is their duty oc-
casionally to look into the condition of this class of their de-
pendents. A visit to their dwellings would reanimate their
drooping spirits, strengthen their resolution^ or prompt them to
exertions : it would not occupy much time; would never be re-

PART III. ARCHlTECTiniE. 141

membered with regret ; nor would it be forgotten as a vacuum
in time in which no new ideas were acquired, nor any actioa
performed, that could aiford pleasure in the remembrance..

SECT. IV. OF IMPROVED AXD ORNAMENTAL COTTAGES.

From all that has been said it will appear, that I recommend
no particular form or mode of construction, either for gentle-
men to adopt when they erect houses for their labourers, or for
such as chuse to build for their own use, what is called an orna-
mented cottage. The general principles and forms of parts
which pervade the English style are what I particularly wish to
recommend wherever an ornamented cottage is to be produced
in either country. Where common use and neatness are the-
objects in view, an improvement upon the style of the country,
w^hatever that may be, wdll generally be best, and may easily
be effected everywhere by such as attend to the foregoing re-
marks. The materials in Scotland are ill suited to the English
style, if copied exactly ; for rubble work could not be formed
into Gothic chimnies without considerable expence; nor could
the windows with propriety be made low and broad, where they
are to be covered with stones, and where the frame is to be
constructed in the manner of the country. To place labels
over these windows would be inconsistent with economy and

142 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

use. The glass in them being alwaj's six or eight inches within
the level of the outer surface of the wall, sufficient shade is pro-
duced for beauty ; and so well is it sheltered, that wood, an
article much cheaper than lead, can be used for the glass frames ;
whereas were wood used for this purpose in the English style, it
would soon be rotted by exposure to the weather. Simplicity
in the design, and economy in the execution, are essential cha-
racteristics of every building in the cottage style : wherever
these are lost sight of, as has been the case in almost all orna-
mented cottages, and even labourers' houses, built by professed
architects, incongruity is a never-failing consequence. The two
styles described have been blended together, and the ornaments
of both bestowed with profusion. Thus we see projecting roofs,
and under them labels over windows which are sunk in the wall
as much as in the Scots style. In addition to this, we have
these walls covered (at least as high as creepers will grow under
the projection) with shrubs and trained plants. All this is use-
less and incongruous, and produces a degree of intricacy ap-
proaching to complexity, and totally incompatible with the
simplicity of a cottage.

I pass over the modes of colouring ornamental cottages, or
of imitating the effect of decay, so frequently practised in the
neighbourhood of London, as altogether beneath observation.
In some of them the architect is to blame ; in others, the taste

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 143

of the possessor is displayed ; which, as observed by Cooper in
his " Letters on Taste," may serve to give us some idea of his
mental energies.

SECT. V. OF VILLAGES.

Numerous circumstances have contributed to lead the labour-
ing class to build their cottages near each other. When agricul-
ture was the chief employment of man, he would voluntarily
adopt this mode from his natural love of society. When pro-
perty became known, men would be compelled to it from
various obvious causes which it is unnecessary to mention. It
is sufficient for my purpose to observe, that they possessed ori-
ginally a large quantity of ground, on which each might erect
his cottage as he chose. Every individual thus forming his
own plan, and often executing it himself, contributed to give
existence to that variety in the disposition of these buildings,
which we find in old villages, and which has been so justly ad-
mired by lovers of picturesque beauty.

In chusing out their given quantity of grounds, which we
may suppose to have been part of an extensive common, all
would agree in fixing upon some dry bank near a rivulet, if

144 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK 1.

such a spot could be found. In cold countries also, they
would take care that it should be sheltered from the north by
rising: grounds or woods. Hence the situation is another source
of picturesque beauty. And if we reflect on the garden be-
longing to each cottage, the fuel stack, the angular interstices
in the ground formed by the irregularity with which they were
placed ; the trees and bushes in these places, as well as the
rocks, stones, weeds, and broken ground, and finally the roads
to the different cottages, and the general road through the
whole village, forced to wind and turn in many difi'erent direc-
tions, we have a picturesque village; which, to render com-
plete, we have only to people with old men digging in the
garden, children in the interstices tending cows and asses,
women washing clothes near the brook, and children playing
up and down throughout the whole.

Artificial villages are formed in different manners

1st, By partitioning off a quantity of ground on each side of
a public road, and giving to each individual a quantity of
ground more or less as may suit him, allowing him to build his
house and lay out his garden as he pleases, but requiring a cer-
tain number of forest or larger fruit-trees to be grown round,
or in some part or parts of his division. This I imagine to be

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 145

the best mode, as giving least trouble to either party, and in
general securing variet}', and picturesque effect.

2d\y, To give each villager a certain quantity only, and bind
him to a particular form of house ; which will generally be
found a bad mode : or,

3dly, The proprietor building the houses at his own ex-
pence, and letting them out to the villagers, with the obli-
gation to preserve them in condition, under certain penal-
ties. This mode is a good one where cottage building is
not well understood, as in many parts of the highlands of
Scotland.

By attending to the idea of a natural village, and to that of
one built after either of the last mentioned methods, such a ge-
neral plan and situation might be fixed upon as would unite
beauty with utility. Unfortunately, however, most villages built
by proprietors are so stiff and formal as to be entirely destructive
of picturesque beauty, without exciting any idea sufficient to
compensate the want of it. As such villages contain cottages
generally two stories high, two families are obliged to lodge in
one house ; and this at once destroys the native liberty of the
cottager, and probably may introduce some of the corruptions

u

146 AKCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

of great towns in place of rustic innocence and simplicity*.
Such villages may please from their novelt}' when first erected ;
but they deserve praise in no other respect, however laudable
might be the intention of the proprietors in erecting them.

SECT. VI. OF TOWNS AND CITIES.

I MIGHT now proceed from villages to another modification
both of the forms and collections of the habitations of the
lower classes ; but these are foreign to my purpose. I shall,
however, make a it^v observations on the general eflfect and
management of towns and cities, because in some cases gentle-
men may have it in their power to promote their beauty or uti-

* Tlie evils resulting from this practice have not been sufficiently attended to.
WTienever a peasant can patiently suffer his neighbour to know his private penury,
and dependence, his native and honourable pride is extinguished, and he soon
contemplates the parish-relief, not as a voluntary charity, but as a right which he
claims from the community to prolong his indolent existence. In this state, the
facilities of unprofitable conversation but contribute to extenuate and sanction his
idlene>s, and the industrious respectability of his family sinks into the merited con-
tempt of its unworthy chief. Hence one of the primarj- sources of rustic depra-
vity : and it ought to be an indispensable rule with all proprietors, to prevent a too
great familiarity among their villagers, and to enable them to conceal as much as
possible their little domestic arrangements from the prying eye and flippant remark
of their more independent neighbours. It is, perhaps, in part owing to the greater
number of isolated houses, and the smaller number of villages in Britain, that the
peasantry of this ccjntry are found more virtuous than that of any other iu Europe.

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 147

lity ; though this is commonly left to men who, of all others,
are the most tasteless and extravagant.

Towns and cities may be ranged under the following deno-
minations : 1st, Commercial sea-port ; 2dly, Commercial in-
land ; 3dly, University towns ; 4thly, Situations for health,
as sea or inland bathing towns. These different names indicate
that each must have a distinct character. The first in regard
to utility must have good quays, warehouses, and a harbour or
river capable of containing numerous vessels. The second will
be remarkable for markets, good roads, large retail shops, and
manufactories. The third for fine buildings, as at Oxford,
Cambridge, St. Andrew's, &c. And the fourth for beautiful
streets and commodious lodgings. My remarks are intended
to apply to the two last kinds ; the two first being, as to gene-
ral arrangement, entirely and very properly guided by the
principle or necessity of utility.

1st, With regard to the direction of the streets, ornament
being considered as worth attending to in these towns ; those
which are principal may be made in winding directions, espe-
cially if any natural circumstance favour that idea, as a river,
inequalities of surface, the irregular side of a hill, or perhaps
some established road already existing. A most excellent ex-
ample of this kind of street may be seen at Oxford, and in

148 * ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

un inferior scale at Musselburgh and Preslonpans ; the latter
two being sea-port towns on a broken irregular shore. Some-
times different circumstances may first point out the propriety
of making them straight, as on a level plain of limited extent
which is to be covered with buildings. This is exemplified in
the new town of Edinburgh ; or on the side of a regularly
sloped hill, as in the new town of Glasgow, where the streets
run parallel to each other, and horizontally across the slope of
the hill. When the streets are straight, they may always be
varied by projections either of private houses or public edifices,
as in the High-street of Edinburgh, and Holborn, in London ;
and whatever may be the form of the street, its beauty will
always be heightened by the occurrences of such buildings as
present themselves to view in the High-street of Oxford.

In cases of straiaht streets crossing each other at rio;ht
anoles, where breaks mioht not be advisable on account of
what is now become ''general, sunk areas, porches should be
placed in front of each door, reaching from the wall of the
house to the pavement. The roofs of these porches should be
supported either by columns or solid walls of masonry, which
last would in general be more suitable with the houses of private
individuals in the middlino- classes, and would even have an
excellent effect in. the best houses and streets. Porches of this
kind should have a large door towards the street, and a window

PART III. ARCHITECTURE, 149

on each side ; and their floor within might either be level, which
is the most desirable, or it might be steps ascending to the inner
door. In large streets, such as Portland Place, or George's
Street, Edinburgh, the appearance of large porches in succes-
sion would have a grand effect. They would at the same time,
if well constructed, add to the warmth, and somewhat also to
the convenience of the houses.

2dly, The character and general magnitude of buildings in
towns ought to have some relation to the nature of the surface,
the climate, and the surrounding country. A better illustra-
tion of the good effect which this would have cannot be given,
than by referring to Edinburgh. There the old town, or origi-
nal city, is built upon a high ridge of rock surrounded by a
deep valley, formerly a large lake, and which on one side
separates it from a level plain. Upon this plain is now built
the new town, in regular streets and squares, the houses of
which are all in the Grecian style, and built of a most beautiful
yellow freestone. The old town, on the other hand, has only
one principal street, which is conducted in a crooked direction
along the top of the ridge, conuiiencing on a plain where is
built the Royal palace of Holyrood House, and after proceed-
ing a mile up this ridge tferminates abruptly with a large fort or
castle built upon a rock, which on three sides rises perpendicu-

150 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

larly from the valley or lake. The houses on each side of this
street are very high, but diminish as they descend toward the
vallies : they are all Gothic, or at least so irregular and mixed as
not in general to be denominated Grecian. They are black by
ag-e and smoke, and from the new town form a contrast which
is striking and pleasing. This characteristic irregularity in
form and disposition, and the black colour of the old town,
the beautiful symmetry and regularity of the new, the spacious
bridge thrown across the valley which connects them, and the
towering hills, and romantic scenery in the immediate vicinity
of the whole, renders it, as confessed by all travellers, the most
beautiful city in Europe.

It will be regretted, however, by men of taste, that the ma-
gistrates of this city have contributed so much to its deformity in
point of picturesque effect, that it will probably never regain its
former beauty. They have clogged up and greatly destroyed the
grand effect of the valley, by throwing a huge mound of earth
across it, upon which they intend to build a street. The fine
character and harmonious effect of the old buildings are much
injured by the introduction of huge deformities of masonry,
under the name of Grecian architecture. Many other absur-
dities they are accomplishing ; and it is probable they will
continue to operate until they destroy all that beautj' and

PART III. AHCHITECTUIIE. 151

character Avhich their own tasteless souls cannot feel, and which
they will not allow others to enjoy, in order to indulge the
vulgar vanity of displaying the power attached to their office.

SECT. VII. OF MANUFACTORIES.

Manufactories are of various sorts; as corn-mills, forges,
iron or carron works, cotton works, bleachfields, clothiers'
yards, &c. This class of buildings, in general, is highly inju-
rious to the beauty of rural scenery ; as, being mostly driven b}^
water, they are constantly placed in the most romantic parts of
rivers, as on the Esk in several places between Roslin and
the sea, on the Dove, at Matlock, and many other places.
Forges and iron works have generally the best effect, as at
Downton, Colebrookdale, Schawpark, and Carron, Corn mills
driven by water are universally pleasing, particularly in ro-
mantic scenery. At Southwic and Downton they may be seen
very picturesque ; and at Warwick castle, a wheel which drives
a corn-mill, seen from the windows of the principal apartments,
operates on the mind of a stranger like enchantment. Wind
machinery is sometimes pleasing at a distance, as at Yarmouth
and Newcastle ; but one great misfortune which attends this
class of mills is, that they cannot be grouped with trees. Com-

152 AUCIIITECTURE. BOOK I.

mills driven by water are what the rural designer may take the
greatest advantage of, as will be afterwards shewn in the
proper plane.

SECT. VIII. OF THE HABITATION OF THE HUSBANDMAN.

Ever since agriculture became a distinct profession, the ha-
bitations of farmers must have been different from those of the
other classes : 1st, As to situation ; they being almost always
solitary, and unconnected with either villages or towns : and
2dly, In having a number of houses or sheds for cattle, as well
as ricks of corn and hay, attached to them. These grouped
with a few trees, and connected with the surrounding fields by
hedge-row timber, or even by hedge-rows alone, must at all
times have a pleasing efltct.

In these cursory remarks, it would be unnecessary to inquire
into the original forms or progressive improvements in farm
buildings, or to notice the various modes of arrangement in
different parts of the island. There is scarcely a class of build-
ings in which there is less risk of erring ; for if the farmer be a
man of spirit who understands his business, he will be the best
contriver of his own ofln^ces ; and if he be not, the improve-

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 153

ments suggested by architects may make his farmery ornamen-
tal at a distance, but will never prove of any real use. The most
liberal and extensive farmeries are to be found in East Lothian
and Berwickshire, where there are both pasture and arable farms.
There the general plan of the offices is a square surrounded on
three sides by buildings ; the remaining one, which generally
fronts to the south, being inclosed with a wall only. At a
small distance from this wall is placed the farmer's dwelling-
house ; from which, while sitting in his parlour, he sees every
thing going on in the court and offices. On one side of the
square (generally the west) appears a large conical roof, which
contains the gin, or outer Avhecl of the thrashing machine.
Around this machine is the farm-j^ard, which shews a number
of conical and pointed ricks. The garden is commonly placed in
front, or on one side of the house, which completes the general
appearance ; unless a few trees or straggling buildings group in
with the rest, which is not often the case in these countries
where every thing gives way to utility.

Very different is the English farm yard. There the whole is
perfectly irregular ; the farmer's dwelling-house is grouped and
connected with the sheds and other offices. The large barn is
the prominent building. No thrashing machine appears. The
ricks are few, because the farm is generally of small extent,
and the ricks are made of a longer size than in the north.

X

154 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

But to counterbalance these disadvantages, at least to the man
of taste, the trees are most frequently large, numerous, and
luxuriant. The offices too are sometimes varied by pigeon-
houses and other tower-like appendages, which deserve atten-
tion where ornament is desired in this class of buildings.
This may frequently be the case where they are to be erected
on a residence; and often the best Avay of varying a dull
country scene from a mansion, is to erect picturesque farm
buildings.

By a practical examination of the useful and ornamental
properties of these two opposite styles, as, for example, of Ber-
wickshire and Shropshire, every intermediate variety may be
constructed. The one style naturally suggests ideas for pic-
turesque effect ; the other shews where visible effect ought to
give way to the necessary, or useful. The judicious contriver, if
he possess a practical knowledge of farming, will form a com-
bination uniting both qualities.

PAET III. ARCHITECTURE. 155

CHAPTER III.

OF THE HABITATIONS OF THE WEALTHY AND NOBLF..

These may be divided into two kinds; such as are built in
towns and cities, and such as are suited to the country. The
former require comparatively little consideration ; and as they
do not generally come under the practice of a rural designer,
the}' must pass here unnoticed. The latter includes a number
of styles and conveniencies suitable for all ranks, and combined
under various designations, from the ornamented cottage to
the baronial castle and royal palace. To enumerate the ge-
neral names of these varieties is easy ; but to detail the different
accommodations introduced into each would be tedious, and
could not be of half the service, either to the gentleman or ar-
chitect, that visiting and. examining a few of the best laid-out
houses will be. The artist will find many good and numerous
bad ground-platis in books ; from both of which he may derive
advantage, by imitating the excellencies of the one, and avoid-
ino; the errors of the other. But if he consult the situation in
which he is to build, he will seldom be able to transfer to it
any plan from a book or a house already executed. This mode

156 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I,

of copying, together with the idea of making buildings every-
where symmetrical, has been the chief source of most of those
deformed clumps of masonry which shock the feelings of the
tasteful traveller in all parts of the country.

The remarks which I propose to offer on this subject will be
included under the following heads :

1. On choosing a situation for a country house.

2. On adapting the style of the building.

3. On uniting the mansion with the grounds, by means of
the offices and other appendages.

4. Of uniting it by the offices.

5. Of uniting it by other architectural appendages, chiefly
ornamentaL

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 157

SECTION I. ON CHOOSING A SITUATION FOR A COUNTRY

HOUSE.

In attempting this, the following particulars must be attended
to : 1st, That it should be the most convenient with regard to
site and situation, as they relate to the adjacent country,
2dly, That it should be the most striking that the grounds
will afford ; and 3dly, That the views of the surrounding coun-
try from the house should be good.

1st, With regard to the relative conveniencies of a house, the
artist should have a perfect knowledge of what is wanted ; and
by applying every particular to the proposed spot, he will be
able to judge of the propriety of fixing on it, by discovering
whether some particulars are not wanting altogether, or others
wanted which cannot be easily obtained. Great assistance, in
some respects, may frequently be derived from houses already
built in the neighbourhood of the grounds under view ; particu-
larly as to the weather, permanency of springs or rivulets, state
of roads, markets, &c. : though these points and most others
can generally be ascertained with very little trouble.

loS . ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

2clly, The next thing is, to fix upon the most striking site;
which is of the utmost consequence to the etFect of the edifice.
Where the surface of the ground is gently varied, one of the
highest of the eminences should generally be chosen, as at
Leughieand Llanarth. If the surface be varied considerably, and
several hills are within the given range of ('hoice ; then, if these
hills slope gently, it may frequently be placed on one of their
sides, as at Mountwhanny and Prinknash; or, when they are
very steep, upon a gentle eminence near their base, as at North
Berwick and the Holme. In some cases, where a river passes
through the grounds, it may be placed on one of its banks, and
always at some part of these rendered interesting either by
rocks, as atCarphin and Airth ; or, where these do not abound,
by a bend of the river, as at Eglinton and Moccas. The mar-
gin of a lake may also be frequentl}^ chosen with good effect,
as at Luss and Leven ; or the rocky margin of the sea, as at
Weymss Castle, Barnbugle, and Rosyth.

A great variety of other situations, commonly to be found,
might be mentioned ; but these may serve to explain what is
meant by striking ones, as well as to shew the manner in which
they may be chosen. Few things deserve more attention than
this in making a place ; for should the house be improperly
placed at first, it is not only an enormous expence to remove
it ; but, supposing this done, every thing else about it is

PART III. AKCIIITECTURE. 159

deranged. Many are the advantages that result from placing
a house in a striking situation. One of these, and which is of
no small importance, is, that less cxpence is required in build-
ing ; because a simple edifice, in a remarkable situation, strikes
much more forcibly than the finest piece of architecture set
down in a mere field or plain space. This might be instanced
from hundreds of examples : I shall only mention two ; the
first is Hawthorndcn, built upon the summit of a prominent
rock on the banks of North Esk, which though composed of the
most vulgar shapes, forms a singularly picturesque scene ; the
second is Keddleston, one of the finest in the kingdom ; but
appearing as if placed in a flat grass field, it is so uninteresting,
that, except for the architecture, no one would ever think of
making a drawing of the scene.

Buildings in the country require much more attention, on
this account, than those in towns ; in the latter, they may be
rendered sufficiently striking by architectural decoration ; but
in the former, it is not the style of the building, so much as its
situation, and connexion with the surrounding scenery, that
renders it picturesque. It is mortifying, however, to see the
buildings that are every where erecting in spots undistinguished
in either of these respects. The side of a hill, it is true, is
sometimes chosen instead of the base of it; but even there a
miserable taste is often displayed in neglecting some spot natu-

l60 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

rally preferable to the rest. The happy art of chusing striking
situations seems lost since the days when our forefathers were
compelled for safety to build only on islands, isolated rocks, or
otherwise almost inaccessible places. It is a lamentable fact, that
in Scotland, where good and often romantic situations aie so
abundant that it might seem difficult to avoid them, and where
several architects of considerable merit have appeared, scarcely
one of these situations has been advantageously appropriated
for more than a century past.

3dly, The next requisite of a good situation is, that the views
toward the surrounding scenery be agreeable. The great art
of accomplishing this lies in disposing the apartments properly.
When symmetry is to prevail in the building, this cannot al-
ways be accomplished ; but when it is irregular, which, as for-
merly observed, should generally be the case in the country,
there can be little difficulty. By means of projections and re-
cesses, the principal apartments may easily be contrived so as
to comprehend all the chief views, and this in an appropriate
manner. The breakfasting room, for example, should front a
morning scene, and present somewhat of a prospect to invite to
exercise during the day : the drawing-room should be so dis-
posed as to shew the effects of the setting sun, &c. In every
view, some object should appear sufficiently striking to charac-
terize it; as a hill, a spire, &c. ; for unless this be the case, it

iPAllT III. ARCHITECTURE. l6l

will leave but a faint impression on the mind. The best way of
accomplishing all these things is, to contrive the disposition of
the apartments on the spot where it is proposed to build ; then
to mark out the whole, and leave it for some time ; being care-
ful, upon the review of it, to take advantage of the remarks of
such persons as may have been shewn it by the proprietor. Too
often, however, all these things are settled by the architect in his
study, independently either of the situation, or of the general
remarks of those who, though not artists, often judge better

than them in matters of taste, by speaking without prejudice
the feelings of the heart.

SECT. II. ON ADAPTING THE STYLE OF THE BUILDING.

To assist in this branch of the subject, we have the following
considerations to attend to :

1st, The general growth of trees in the proposed situation ;

2dly, The forms of particular trees which may be peculiar
to it ;

5dly, The general character of the surrounding scenery ;

4.thly, The colour of the rocks, and of the ground.

Y

16'2 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

1st, With respect to the natural growth of the more common
species of trees, we find that, whether single or in groups, they
deviate a little in general form, and in the delicacy of their
parts, according to the situation in which they are placed.
Thus, in exposed places they are generally broad and low, and
are more hardy, rough, and picturesque, than when covered
with young shoots, which are comparatively soft, fresh, and
beautiful. In rocky elevated situations, trees are much
broken, or divided into parts, and distant from one another,
but still appear firmly fixed to the spot ; these are hardier than
the others, and have much less softness and beauty. In low
fertile plains, trees are generally large and erect, extending
their branches on every side ; the foliage is fresh and luxuriant,
the general outline round, full, and flowing. If a tree be single
in this situation, the balance of the branches is better preserved
than in the former instance. In confined vallies between hills,
trees grow high and erect, seldom broad, or sending forth ex-
tensive horizontal branches : the growth is rapid ; the young
shoots and foliage are tender and delicate ; the trunk is com-
paratively slender, and the whole tree more elegant and more
capable of graceful motions than in any of the former situations.

These different circumstances in the growth of trees readily
suggest styles of building somewhat analogous in the general
magnitude, height, and finishing. In exposed rocky situations.

PART III.

ARCHITECTURE. l63

where trees grow low and irregular : irregular and low edifices
in the castle style may be built. In vallies, where they grow
high and elegant, houses in the tower style, which implies con-
siderable height, should generally be adopted. In extensive
rich plains, buildings in the Grecian, or at least in a more
massy and regular style than the others, should be chosen.
This mode is certainly deserving attention, were it for no other
reason than that the trees might group well with the building :
that, when full grown, they might neither be too large nor too
small ; that they might neither diminish it into insignificance,
nor leave it staring through trees, which, from want of due pro-
portion to it, appear as copse- wood. Many instances of both
these evils are to be seen in every part of the country.

Let it be observed, that this mode of fixing on the style
must be attended to, though trees be not growing on the situa-
tion at the time of building. The judicious and experienced
designer will examine the qualities of the soil and climate, and
will thereby be enabled to judge what forms and dimensions
certain kinds of trees will assume in the given situation. Neg-
lect of this, in the naked country of North Britain, has pro-
duced several houses so buried in wood, that they cannot be
seen until you are close upon them, and then they appear so
diminutive, compared with every thing around, that their gran-
deur of effect is almost totally destroyed. This is one power-

164 ARCHITECTURE. -'bOOKI..

fill argument why picturesque improvers should unite the pro-
fession of architects in so far as relates to buildings in the
country.

2dly, In respect to the forms of trees peculiar to the situa-
tion, most parts of the country will produce the common
trees, as oaks, elms, beeches, &c. But there are several places,
however, on which it may be desirable to build, where certain
species only will prosper so as to attain the magnitude of trees.
Many instances of this kind occur in hilly and maritime situa-
tions. They require the particular attention of the designer,
because the kinds of trees that generally suit them are so diffe-
rent in all respects from the common sorts, that if he were
erecting a building with a view to group it with oaks and
beeches, he might be grievously disappointed to find that no-
thing would grow near it but spirj larches, dark Scotch firs,
birches, mountain ash, or perhaps only ivy and elder. This
would lead to a long train of useful remarks for architects in
the northern part of the island ; but it is not of such general
interest as to justify any thing farther in this place.

3dly, The general character of the countr3\ — This deserves
attention as much as the trees, and ought to concur in deter-
mining the style of the building. It is a common idea, that
the works of art, and buildings in particular, ought to be

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. TfiS

strong contrasts to the works of nature. Thus, when the trees
are spiry, it is said that Grecian buildings, the masses of which
extend chiefly in breadth, ought to be adopted; and when
they are round, Gothic buildings, with towers and perpendicu-
lar lines, ought to be contrasted with them*. Upon similar
principles, in romantic scenery, fine edifices of exotic architec-
ture are introduced, with a view to contrast with the natural
irregularity and wildness of the scene. These ideas arise from
a superficial view of nature, and from not distinguishing be-
tween contrasts and oppositions. A little farther inquiry will
convince us, that contrasts so sudden as these are not to be
found in general nature. Accidental contrasts in weather, for
example, are sometimes striking, as in thunder and snow ; but
even then, they are preceded by prognostications which pre-
pare the mind for what is to follow. In ordinary weather, the
most powerful oppositions are united, but in a manner which
never occasions the smallest tendency to discord. Thus light
and darkness are opposites, which are united by nature in the
most harmonious manner, by the gradual appearance and de-
cline of the sun, and by the morning and evening twilight..
Strong contrasts, (either in forms or colours as in music), al-
ways produce discordant and disagreeable impressions on the
mind ; while harmony, which is divided from it by thin parti-
tions, excites those grateful sensations of pleasure which are.-

* See Repton's Observations on Landscape Gardening, &c.

166 ARCHITECTURE.

BOOK I.

much easier felt than described. When I see, therefore, the
architecture of St. Peter's transplanted to a romantic island
secluded from the rest of the world, or an outline of spiry
towers and pinnacles opposed to a straight line of hill or woody
scenery, I never feel such sensations. I am forcibly struck,
it is true ; but the emotion, though strong, is not pleasing : it
soon appears discord ; and discord, when prevalent, always
produces disgust.

4thly, The colour of the rocks, and the ground. — Not only
the general forms of the surface, but the colours of the soil and
the rocks, are worth attending to, as contributing considerably
to promote the principle of harmony. The tints of rocks,
stones, gravel, and the soil are generally the same in one part
of the country. Where they agree with the colour of the man-
sion, the effect must be singularly happy. This we may see
from the works of painters, and in many ancient baronial
castles, as well as cottages, in different parts of the country,
particularly in Argyleshire and Dumfriesshire. Brick houses,
when the brick has been made of an earth colour, have a good
effect. By mixing proper earths Avhen manufacturing them,
they could be made of any tinge to suit with all situations.
The effect of contrary colours may be seen in numerous houses
of red brick, or white Portland stone, in several counties near
London, which are both more or less incongruous among rural
scenery; and of white- washed buildings among the rocky

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. iGj

scener}^ of Cumberland and Westmoreland. There are two
cases only when the colour of* the stone, if faint, may be in a
great measure dispensed with, though different from the soil.
The first is, in a country where no rocks appear for some distance
around the edifice ; the other is, in towns where rocks may ap-
pear, but where it is more economical to use a species which,
though at a greater distance, or concealed from the eye under
ground, is yet easier wrought than the other. In small villages,
however, this is not allowable ; as may be exemplified, by re-
ferring to the bad effect of Matlock bath, built of white stone,
though placed among red rocks ; and the good effect of Cul-
ross, built of the yellow rock on which it is founded, and which
appears in large perpendicular masses at one end of the town.

Though the colours of edifices were made exactly the same
as the ground on which they stand, or the roads which lead to
them, the difference in the position of the materials, by reflect-
ing the light in opposite ways, will alwa3's make a sufficient
contrast between them. When the rock is red, black, or of any
dark colour, beautiful architecture (that is, either Grecian or
Gothic buildings, depending upon smoothness and gradation of
light and shade) should not be attempted. Nature here is sug-
gesting a variety, where the effect is produced by strong pro-
jections and bold parts, which particularly accord with the
principle of fitness and economy ; as dark coloured stones are

l65 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

generally too hard, coarse, and brittle, to admit easily of ele-
gant polishing or fine cornices, mouldings, or other smaller
ornaments. It is a common practice to whitewash most edifices
that are not built of brick or polished hewn stone. This is
done either with the view of adding beauty, or preserving the
walls; and often from both motives. The colour of the wash
or mortar is generally, if not always, made too glaring. It
must be remembered, that in mineral substances exposed to
the air, a pure colour, either white or yellow, is never seen.
Even chalk and marble, in that situation, in a short time ac-
quire a dusky hue ; and in their native quarries or precipices
are often so grey as with difficulty to be recognized for these
substances. Even the reddest rock never presents such a deep
colour as at the moment when it is cut, but is soon rendered of
a greyish or blueish hue by the weather. Hence, in white-
washing buildings, the same general idea should be adopted as
was recommended for choosing the colour of the stones ; with
this addition, that the aerial tint which, in using stone, is
only gained by time, may here be produced at once, by mixing
powdered charcoal, bistre, ashes, or similar substances, with the
prevailing colours. It may be remarked here, that in the internal
parts of buildings we admire the colours pure and true to
their kinds, without any mixture of aerial tint. This is because
such colouring is agreeable to nature. For the same reason,
we generally prefer light colours in the apartments of houses,

PART III.

ARCHITECTURE. 169

except in white and black. Tiic reason is, that most objects
of other colours externally have their internal parts lightest;
as in the greens, blues, and yellows of vegetables. White and
black objects, and sometimes red ones, are generally darker in-
ternally than on their outer surface. The two last, dark red
and black, are more rare in nature than the others ; and hence
we admit them more sparingly in internal finishing, or indeed
in ornament in general.

o^

In concluding this section, let me caution the reader against
carrying into the extreme these, or any other ideas which have
been suggested, in opposition to general practice. When the
expression of gaiety, or striking beauty, is desirable, no reasons
that I have suggested, from the colour of rocks or soil, are in-
tended to hinder the production of these characters, if in gene-
ral harmony with what surrounds them. One principle, taken
apart, and followed out in its fullest extent, Avill often prove
pernicious ; and the developement of such a principle in a book
is always liable to the wrong explanations of the captious and
opinionative. In practice, it is the combination of the whole
in the mind of the artist, and the full consideration of every
particular connected with the case, that must guide his judg-
ment upon every occasion. He will soon find, that thei'e are
many things that may be taken advantage of in architectural
painting, or poetry, which would ill accord with real execu-

z

170 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

tion ; and many fine speculations, even of practical men, that
cannot be introduced into practice without considerable dif-
ficulty.

SECT. II. OF UNITING THE MANSION WITH THE GROUNDS
BY MEANS OF THE OFFICES, OR OTHER APPENDAGES.

The immediate vicinity of the mansion is jointly the province
of ornamental gardening, picturesque improvement, and of ar-
chitecture. At present, what is called landscape gardening
occupies it wholly. That art is a professed attempt to restore
nature and landscape. Whether this is effected, is not the
business of the present inquiry. It is enough, in this place, to
know that it has been the aim of all her operations near the
mansion, where she has destroyed works of every kind profes-
sedly artificial, such as terraces, parapets, &c. An unprejudiced
observer of the works of nature, who has discovered the general
principles by which she unites her contrasts, and harmonizes
her compositions, will perceive the incongruity of placing ab-
ruptly, and without the least preparation or connexion, such a
strikingly artificial object as a piece of architecture among others
so obviously different in every respect. In nature, we never see
a hill or mountain rise abruptly from its base, but always sur-

PART 111. ARCHITECTURE. 171

rounded by lesser irregular hills, rocks, and detached stones.
Nor in the ocean do we ever see an island that is not connected
or grouped with smaller masses and scattered fragments thrown
around, appearing more or less above the water. In the vege-
table kingdom also, we seldom see her magnificent productions
rise alone ; thus a large tree in a natural state is always connected
by smaller ones, or shrubs, &c. with plants and grasses, all
which diverge from and group around it as their centre. Every
edifice should be placed amidst scenery on the same general
principles. One large mass sliould assume the principal part ;
and others, according to circumstances and the kind of edifice,
should be placed around it at different distances. On a nearer
approach, even appendages analogous to the small rocks in the
sea, the scattered stones round rocky hills, or the thorns or
brambles round large trees, should appear. This, let me ob-
serve, is a general principle applicable to every artificial pro-
duction, and in particular to every edifice. If we apply it in
the case of mansions, Ave shall find it accord in a pleasing man-
ner. The mansion itself, or some prominent part of it, may
form the principal mass ; the offices the secondary ones ; and
the last class, those balustrades, terraces, and such like archi-
tectural appendages, partly useful and partly produced on pur-
pose, as connecting masses. Let us first consider the larger
appendages, viz. the offices, and secondly such as are chiefly
ornamental.

372 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

SECT. III. OF UNITING A MANSION WITH THE SURROUND-
ING SCENERY BY MEANS OF THE OFFICES.

The offices of a complete country residence may be divided
into three kinds : 1st, The servants' apartments, coal cellar, &c.
immediately adjoining the mansion ; 2dly, The stables, gene-
rally near those ; and, 3dly, The farm offices, sometimes near,
but most frequently at a considerable distance. The whole,
according to the present fashion, are studiously concealed by
trees, and therefore can have no effect in accomplishing what
I propose. To bring them into view so as to form subordinate
masses to the mansion, care must be taken, 1st, Not to place
them upon a lower level than the mansion, but if possible on
rather more elevated ground. This may occasionally be ac-
complished on the sides of hills, when it would give a very
splendid effect to the whole. 2dly, In designing the offices, the
present poverty and formal simplicity should be avoided, by
carrying up parapets and towers, disguising the chimney tops,
and concealing the roofs. All this ought to be in due propor-
tion to the style of the mansion. If it be plain and simple, the
offices must be still more so. If rich and magnificent, the
offices should have a correspondent appearance. In every case,

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. • 173

the same style, beauty, and character, ought to pervade both ;
the degree only should be dift'erei't

The towers, projections, &c. raised in offices, whether of
farm buildings, stables, or such as adjoin the house, need never
be useless. They may serve as granaries, store-rooms, seed-
rooms, pigeon-houses, and often for sleeping apartments. The
chief extra expence attending this mode will be required to
raise the parapets and finishings, and to disguise the chimney
tops ; but as these will be finished in a style a degree inferior to
that of the mansion, the expence will also be less in proportion.
The expence attending this scheme, however, must be a very
trifling consideration to any one about to build, and what
no one would ever put in competition with the effect that
will be produced.

3dly, In grouping them with trees, attention must be paid
to conceal chiefly such parts as too plainly point out their use ;
not that they are meant to appear what they really are not, but
merely to disguise their vulgarity, and give them an air of dig-
nity and consequence analogous to the difference between the
servants and horses of a farmer and those of a gentleman.

Offices and appendages to a mansion, or any other building
about a place, ought always to be avowed, whatever may be

174 ARCHITECTURE. ROOK I.

its use. They can always be so disguised or improved as not
to convey disagreeable ideas, and often so as to form the hap-
piest combinations with the surrounding scenery. The misfor-
tune has been, that when buildings for common uses were orna-
mented, as it is called, nothing less was attempted than to
change their character : thus barns have been deformed so as
to appear like churches or ruins. Common dwelling-houses
have been changed to Gothic towers, or ruins of abbeys ; and
commonly with such a penuiy of taste, as would disgust of it-
self, though the deceit were allowable. But no disguise of this
kind ought ever to be attempted. Wretched indeed must that
man's genius be, who cannot elevate common objects by any
other way than making them appear what they are not. If,
instead of the common practice of either concealing all kinds
of offices and inferior buildings, or of disgracing them as is
sometimes done, the}"^ were elevated in a manner corresponding
with the mansion, the beauty of every place, and consequently
of the whole countr3% would be increased in a degree which,
though it may not be obvious to a superficial observer, will
never fail to make a lasting impression on the man of taste.
We have seen that every mansion has three classes of offices ;
now supposing each class to make an object in the general
scene, independently of lesser offices, there would be (to apply
arithmetic to taste) three times the present beauty in every
residence, and in the country in general. This is a motive which

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 175

will have its proper influence with men of taste ; but there is
another, which, in deference to certain persons, I would pre-
sent in connexion with it — it is economy ; not that a house will
cost less when this mode is adopted ; but by bringing all the
parts into view, a more splendid effect will be produced for
a given sum.

SECT. IV. OF UNITING THE MANSION WITH THE SURROUND-
ING COUNTRY BY MEANS OF ARCHITECTURAL APPEN-
DAGES, CHIEFLY ORNAMENTAL.

The great art in this branch of appendages Avill be, to give
them an appearance of fitness ; for as a house is useful as well
as ornamental, so should every thing belonging to it be. But
although the appendages under consideration are of less utility
than the others, their appearance will not displease even those
Avho are devoid of improved taste, unless they have been pre-
viously prejudiced against such things. Such indeed is the
excellence of harmonious combination, that although it cannot
force the approbation of the insensible, it will never of itself
excite their displeasure. In pursuing this subject, let us trace
it in two or three stages between the palace and the cottage.

176 ARCUITECTUIIE. BOOK I.

1st, In common labourers' cottages. — Here the appendages
of the first kind are the cowhouse, the shed : those of the se-
cond kind, the pales or rude wall which inclose the garden, the
seat close by the door, and in some instances stone troughs for
water, &c. These are all made for the purpose of utility by
the cottager ; but with the painter they are appendages which
serve to connect and harmonize the whole.

2dly, The ornamented cottage. — Here the first class of appen-
dages are not approached by the front of the dwelling-house ;
their doors do not appear open; but still they come in as
subordinate parts, grouped by trees and shrubs, and variously
concealed with honeysuckles and other creepers. In the se-
cond class the paling is made light and open ; its style is simple,
but yet it is enriched by roses ; and, in place of inclosing a plot
of cabbages from the depredations of straying cows, &c. it
now incloses a parterre from the bite of sheep, which we may
suppose are pastured in the paddock which contains the whole.
It may also be in a still smaller spot, as is most commonly the
case in the neighbourhood of towns or cities ; and then, in lieu
of the paling, is substituted a wall, which separates it from the
public road. In place of the rude wicket, the neat yet simple
gate is substituted. Sometimes it may happen, that a carriage
road is made to the front of the cottage ; at others, a footpath
only ; but still the same principle is applicable, and the same

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 177

idea is not frustrated ; for common cottages have frequently
cart roads which are carried close to their front.

3dly, Villas. — The lowest class of these must be supposed to
be visited by carriages ; consequently they have always a road
to their front, and generally a portico. Frequently too they
have an entrance front, and another called a garden front,
which looks into the pleasure ground. Thus we have two, and
often three fronts in villas, which chiefly require ornamental
appendages. These fronts are plainly divided into two parts —
those on the ornamented side of the house ; and those on the
useful or entrance side, which is generally less decorated than
the other.

On the park front, or useful side, then, we require a barrier to
keep off the cattle. A paling would be too mean. A wall raised
on the surface would exclude the view; but one partly built in
an excavation, in the manner of a sunk fence, carried up two
or three feet above the surface, and finished either with a balus-
trade if the mansion be in the Grecian style, or with battle-
ments if it be Gothic, or with a finish corresponding with the
finish of the parapets or other parts of the mansion. Across
this fence the road to the portico must pass, which will require
a gate, and consequently a bridge over the excavation. Piers
also will be requisite on which to hang the gate and parapets

A A

178 AllCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

on each side the bridge. Frequently another gate and bridge
will be required, by which the carriage may pass to the stables.
This is a farther source of architectural appendages. When the
wall and piers are partially covered with ivy or other shrubs,
and its termination, or union with some other fence, is con-
cealed by trees, the effect will be complete for the entrance
front of what we may term the first style of villas.

4tlily, But a house of greater magnificence will generally be
placed upon a site made, either naturally or by art, of more
consequence than the one mentioned. If the general surface be
flat, it may be built upon a raised platform. This will require
a gradual ascent in the carriage road, from the outer wall or
fence to the entrance. But, except where this road is made, the
ascent should be sudden, that the site of the house may be
more striking, and consequently its importance be heightened.
This may produce terraces, or a variety of other appendages, as
in Plate VII. fig. 1.

'&•

5thly, In addition to the above, a magnificent villa may have
a ran)part, as an ascent for carriages to the portico : and this
will form an interesting source of grandeur, use, and beauty.
Plate VII. fig. 2, was designed for a situation in a fertile
country near the sea. The entrance front, which is here given,
is to the north east, and of course admits of little ornament, as

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PART III. AllCHITECTURE. 179

the absence of the sun during the greater part of the day would
prevent it from having its full eftect. Symmetry is preserved-
in the offices, as in unison with the style and the ground, and
also in this case strictly connected with utility. The roof is
covered with large slate, and is shewn, not only as agreeable
to Grecian architecture, but also that it may catch and shew
light when the Avails of this front are under shade. The whole
unites great convenience, and will produce in its situation a
splendid general effect. These remarks will give some idea of
appendages which may be placed at the entrance or park
front of a mansion in a level or plain situation. Where an
irregular one occurs, an endless variety of similar appendages
or parts will most readily be suggested by the inequality of
the ground, the irregularity of the house, and other circum-
stances. See Plate VIII. which is intended to shew the effect
that such a house as fig. 2. Plate IV. will have, when adapted
to the ground, and when it has been erected four or five years,
so as to be varied by quick growing creepers. See also, Plates
XIV. XXVI. and XXVIII.

The kind of appendages which connect the garden or orna-
mental front are next to be taken notice of. As already ob-
served, these are professedly ornamental ; and consequently ob-
vious utility will be in a great degree dispensed with ; espe-
cially if the effect be good. If displeasing, however, we natu-

180 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

rally call in question the use of the parts which gave rise to it,
or of which it is composed.

1st, In the first or lowest style of villas, steps may descend
from the door of the garden front into a gravel walk, broad and
of a fine surface, and separated from the lawn by a parapet of
hewn stone six inches or a foot high ; upon which, at regular
distances, are placed stone flower-pots, or vases containing
plants or ornamental shrubs. The direction of this low orna-
mented parapet should bear a relation to the projections or
recesses in the ichnography of the mansion ; the extremities
should be concealed by shrubs, or any easy contrivance, such
as a seat, a few steps, or by nun>erous other ways.

2dly, In the next kind, in place of this low parapet may be
erected an elegant balustrade with antique urns placed at re-
gular distances ; flowering plants and shrubs may be planted
close by the balustrade on the lawn side, which will grow up
and intermingle Avith the balustrade, and twine round these
urns. In place of a broad gravel road, let it be neatly paved
with flagstone, on which may be set stone pots of plants in pa-
rallel rows, &c.

3dly, In addition to this plan, may be given jet-d'eaus or
fountains of different kinds, according to the situation, whether

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 181

cheerful, grand, or melancholy ; and they may be connected in
different ways with the paved walk and balustrade.

4thly, The last addition to these appendages may be statues;
which, in my opinion, should never be placed far distant from
the house, as is done in the French gardens, and in several
places in England, as at Castle Howard, Bramham Park, &c.
Artificial water-works should be used under the same regula-
tions, and not scattered up and down every where as at Chats-
worth and Studley, &c. But on both these subjects more will
be added in their proper places.

In order to give the clearest view of my ideas on this subject,
I have considered it in relation to two different fronts. But
there ought to be no limitation of either the number of fronts
or degree of ornament in them. Sometimes the entrance
front maybe the most highly ornamented ; at other times, only
one side of a building may be seen, the other may overhang a
precipice, &c. : in fact, there are innumerable ways in which
a mansion may appear, without coming under the two divisions
treated of. But these are sufficient to convey my general ideas
on the subject ; and if they are understood by the artist, he
will adopt schemes suitable to every situation and mansion,
whether in the Grecian or Gothic style, much better by viewing
them, than by any further detail.

182 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I.

The next way of uniting a mansion with the surrounding
scenery is by wood ; 1st, The general masses by large trees, of
forms different, but not totally opposite to those of the house,
&c. ; 2dly, The lesser appendages by shrubs and plants ; and,
Sdly, By creepers, ivy, &c. trained on different parts of the
masses, as well as on the appendages. But as planting is not
an operation of architecture, it does not come under our dis-
cussion here. — See Planting.

PART III.

ARCHITECTURE. 18S

DIVISION III,

OF EXECUTION AND FINISHING,

This is included under masonry, carpentry, plastering,
painting, glazing, &c. which are not necessarily connected
with my intention in this work. The most important points
to attend to in masonry are, the foundation, the quality of
the materials, and the formation of mortar. Mortar, as the prin-
ciples of chemistry and the practice of the best architects
shew, ought never to be soured or mellowed as is commonly
done, particularly in the North : See Dr. Anderson's Essays
on Limestone, Higgins's ditto, Irwin's (of Glasgow) works
on Chemistry, lately published ; and see also a Paper in the
Farmer's Magazine for 1805.

It only remains for me, in concluding these remarks on
Architecture, to reply to an objection sometimes, and with an
appearance of justice, made against the idea of those who lay
out grounds combining that profession with architecture ; be-

184 ARCHJTECTURt;. BOOK I.

cause, say the objectors, the division of arts and labour is the way
to perfection, and not their combination. My reply is, that rural
designers combine only the practice of one branch of it, viz. that
which relates to country buildings ; and even in them it is chiefly
confined to design ; the executive part must always be done by
a builder or inferior architect, and generally inspected by the
proper persons who are appointed for the purpose. In this
branch then the picturesque improver, or, as I rather choose to
call such, on account of his combining this profession, the de-
signer, does every thing that is done by architects. Small
buildings in the country, as cottages, farm buildings, &c. are
generally both designed and executed by the masons or
builders of the place ; and when their employer is poor, they
abide by utility, and seldom disgust if they do not gratify taste ;
but when they have the least power of bestowing ornament,
they are sure to present hideous productions, which I could
exemplify from every part of the island. City builders also near
London (where it is carried to the greatest length) erect the most
absurd combinations under the name of cottag-es. Architects
in the capital are laudably endeavouring to overcome this evil
by publishing. Hence some have gone to the remote parts of
the country, chosen the most vulgar and disgusting forms, and
published them with a view to correct the prevailing taste. Others
have not travelled so far, but chiefly in their closets have com-
bined all sorts of forms and parts of architecture, whether from

PART III. ARCHITECTURE. 185

castles or temples, under the idea of improving the taste in
cottao-es by introducing something classical. Neither of these
kinds of cottages, it is to be hoped, Avill ever become general.
True taste in this branch of architecture is to be formed, and
ever must be formed, from cottages already erected in the
county ; from considering their various forms and combinations,
and their origin ; and from being able to distinguish between
that wretched poverty of form which is the result of necessity,
and the more pleasing simplicity which is the result of content-
ment and sufficiency. This is neither to be accomplished by
partial views of the county, nor by the study of the five orders
and their combinations. This remark on cottages, and other
inferior rural buildings, is equally applicable to villas, castles,
and mansions; which, as being more striking objects, and
erected by such as can bestow more money, the mere architect
can indulge himself in drawing more lines, producing longer
elevations, and finer columns and rotundos ; but which, when
erected, only strike the discerning traveller with more force, and
raise his mind from feelings of displeasure to sentiments of dis-
gust. I do not hesitate to say, that this -will ever be the case,
until architects shall consider rural buildings, and those in towns,
as two distinct branches of their profession, and which ought to
be followed by different professors : and I add, that the profes-
sors of the rural style must cease to consider the buildings of

B B

186 ARCHITECTURE. BOOK I,

Greece and Rome as models of perfection*, and must study
equally with architecture the character of landscape, the nature
of its materials,and the principles of its composition. This points
out the necessity of what I propose, — the uniting the profession of
rural architect with picturesque improver; and at the same time,
to every candid mind, it will be a complete justification of the
innovation proposed ; which will, no doubt, be disputed and
rejected by a certain class of men. There are some architects,
however, with whom I have the pleasure of being acquainted,^
that justify these arguments both by their consent of opinion
and their example in practice.

* " The antique is to the architect, what nature is to the painter," says Sir
William Chambers ; and

" Learn for ancient rules a just esteem,
" To copy nature is to copy them,"
says Pope ; but both are equally wrong. A too great reverence for antiquity,
and dependence upon rules, have ever been the most fatal adversaries to improve-
ment. None of these can deserve attention, but such as have been derived from na-
ture ; which is still the same inexhaustible fund of knowledge and improvement.
Even rules derived from her laws should never be exclusively enforced, because
they always tend to shackle the mind ; but, to shut out nature, by imposing rules,
systems, or models, in her room, is .in the last degree unphilosophical and dan-
gerous. It is evident from the best ancient edifices, that they did not adhere
strictly to the same proportions of columns, though the moderns are constantly en-
deavouring to find out some of these proportions, as perfect standards. But such
is the natural propensity in man to establish rules and systems, that even in Gothic
architecture, the great siiperiority of which over Grecian is that it is unincumbered
with artificial regulations, and consequently admits all kinds of effects, a late writer
has endeavoured to discover proportions which he thinks may be applied to all the
English cathedrals ! ! But,

" Such formal coxcombs let us still defy ;

" And dare be pleased although we know not why."

187

BOOK L

PART IV.

AGmCULTURE.

INTRODUCTION.

Husbandry, the most ancient, useful, and agreeable of arts,
may be included under the following heads: 1st, Agriculture,
and the management of live stock ; 2dly, Planting ; and, 3dly,
Gardening : each of which admits of several subdivisions.
The principles of husbandry are derived from nature : either
by observation, or by experimental inquiry. Observation re-
lates chiefly to a knowledge of the three kingdoms of nature, as
they appear in their pristine, or uncultivated state. Experi-
mental inquiry relates to the effects of culture, or artificial
agency, on the subjects of these kingdoms, and to the mecha-
nical powers of the implements by which culture and other
purposes are effected.

188 AGRICULTURK. BOOK I.

The Vegetable Kingdom may be considered under the
four following subdivisions; viz, 1st, General economy; 2dly,
Classification and nomenclature ; Sdl}^ Natural properties ;
and, 4tlily, Uses.

1. The Economy and Laws of Vegetation. — This includes the
physiology of vegetables ; their structure and anatomy ; the
motion of the sap; their natural propagation; the formation of
their parts, their nourishment, &c. A knowledge of this branch
of botany is of the utmost importance in discovering the cause
and nature of diseases ; in promoting the growth, increasing the
natural longevity, or augmenting such essential parts of indivi-
dual vegetables as are particularly subservient to mankind.

2. The Classification or systematic An'angement of Vegetables,
and Nomenclature. — This has been effected in many different
Avays. Nearly all are agreed on the severifold divisions and
names of trees and shrubs, plants, grasses, ferns, mosses, fungi or
mushrooms, •eind fags or sea weeds. 'J'he system of Linnaeus is at
least the most useful hitherto proposed, and perhaps as com-
plete as the number of vegetables yet discovered will admit of.
Its arrangement of vegetables into twenty-four classes, and
each of these into orders, genera, species, and varieties, is gene-
rally adopted, and the Linnaean nomenclature almost univer-
sally followed ; it consequently deserves the particular study of

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 189

all who would acquire a knowledge of this kingdom of nature.
The use of this system of natural history is extensive ; it assists
the memory in recollecting the qualities of vegetables, both of
individuals and" of general classes ; it enables us to derive
advantages from the writings and discoveries of authors ; and, by
ascertaining to what link of the system a new or unknown plant
belongs, to communicate intelligibly our ideas to others.

3. The Properties of Vegetables. — By this is meant their place
of growth, their natural soil, exposure, climate, longevity, time
of flowering, &c. It is discovered by observation, and ought
to be recorded in all complete descriptions of vegetables. It
is of great utility to agriculturists, by enabling them to adopt
proper modes of cultivating useful plants, or destroying pernici-
ous ones, and also to discover the soils and plants reciprocally
adapted to each other. With respect to proper modes of cul-
ture, it directs the choice of suitable agents, as soil, situation,
climate, moisture, &c. It also shews the proper season of sow-
ing or planting, reaping and renewing the crop. With regaixl
to destroying pernicious vegetables or weeds, it teaches us, that
many plants die when cut down immediately before they come
into flower; that others are prevented from producing seed,
and thus rendered less pernicious by this practice ; that some
produce and scatter their seeds in a few days after they have
ceased flowering, as the hieraclum vulgaris and tussilagoforfara.

IPO AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

and consequently ought to be removed, if not previously, at
least immediately after the period when they come into flower;
that some vegetables send out their roots horizontally along the
surface, and are easily killed by being planted too deep in the
earth ; as the mentha, tanacetum, and couch-grass, or triticum
repens ; that some sorts are destroyed by rendering land firm
and close, as the common nettle ; and others, by rendering it
soft, as the common ragweed, or hieracium, &c. ; that good plants
are often produced by making land firm, as the poa trivialis ;
others by simply laying it dry, as the white clover, &c. &c.

With respect to discovering the nature of soils by the proper-
ties of plants, it can be done with greater certainty by this than
by any other branch of science. Growing crops may fre-
quently deceive ; but when the natural plants or weeds are
discovered, they are almost infallible indications of the nature
of the soil. Mr. Kent, in his hints on landed property, has
very judiciously mentioned several plants which indicate cer-
tain qualities of soil ; to which any person practically ac-
quainted with agriculture, and accustomed to make botanical
excursions in the fields, might add many others; for example,
in the genus plantago, the species lanceolata indicates a deep,
free, or sandy loam ; the p. major a firm good loam ; the p. co-
ronopus, linearis, maritima, arcnarious, gravelly, and poor
soils. The tussilago petasites near the margin of rivers is a sure

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 191

sign that they overflow their banks. The presence of the as-
phodelus palustris is generally a certain indication that the dro-
sera is near, which brings on a terrible disease in cattle, and
often turns their milk into blood in mossy soils. The water-
lily in pools among moss or peat commonly indicates marl, or
rich clay, &c. The different species of lichens upon stones
indicate their firm close texture; the bryums and jungermaniums
generally the contrary. The absence of all moss on stones
exposed to the weather, shews that they are oxydable, that
their surface crumbles off in the winter season, and consequently
that they are unfit for being used in buildings.

4. The Uses of Vegetables. — These are either for supporting
life, restoring health, furnishing food for animals, or being used
in the arts. With respect to medical and nutritive qualities,
that knowledge is acquired either by observing the daily food of
cattle; or the instinct of these or other inferior animals, which
often, when diseased, have recourse to certain plants that give
them relief — hence the names of dog-grass, cat-mint, &.c. ; or
by observing what effect is produced upon cattle by pastures in
which particular plants prevail. In this manner Linnaeus ob-
served what took place after harvest when cows were turned
upon the stubbles; and this fact is taken advantage of by such
as give parsley, mint, &c. to their cows on certain occasions ; or
it may be also derived from actual experiment upon animals.

192 AGRICULTURE, BOOK I.

or by chemical decomposition, &c. Our knowledge of the uses
of vegetables in the arts, whether in their juices or extracts, for
dyeing or tanning, salts for bleaching, or wood for implements or
architectural purposes, is acquired by various modes of compa-
rison, observation, and inference; but more particularly by ac-
tual experiment and researches, either chemical or mechanical.

The Animal Kingdom may be similarly divided with the
vegetable; viz. into 1st, The animal economy ; 2dly, The clas-
sification and nomenclature of animals; Sdl}^, Their natural pro-
perties; and, 4thly, Their uses, or subserviency to mankind.

1st, The animal economy includes physiology, anatomy pro-
per and comparative, digestion, circulation of the blood, gene-
ration, &c. Anatomy proper is a branch of knowledge with
which every one ought to be more or less acquainted, not onl}^
because it will enable him in many cases to guard against or al-
leviate accidents or diseases, and especially the present danger-
ous systems and practices of physicians ; but also as a source of
philosophical reflection, and sublime contemplation. Even a
very slight general knowledge of the human frame will 6xcite
our wonder and awe at the contrivance of the whole, and confirm
and establish the mind in the natural sentiment of Deity. Com-
parative anatomy, digestion, generation, I'tc. are of great impor-
tance in breeding, rearing, and fattening animals, as well as in

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 193

curing their diseases. It is a branch of natural history by no
means scientifically understood, especially by those practical
men who most stand in need of it. A good deal may be learned
with respect to the useful classes of inferior animals, by com-
paring what has been written on the subject, with the opinions
and practices of butchers, graziers, farriers, &c. But in regard
to destroying ravenous birds, and the various classes of perni-
cious insects and worms, (the bee and a few others excepted,)
we have yet much to learn. Unless nature should effect this
herself, by means of other animals, as she often does, we can
rarely do any thing that will prove directly destructive, or per-
manently useful in such cases. The science of entomology
affords a striking lesson to the moralist, and a wide field of ex-
periment and enquiry to the philosopher.

2dly, The Classification and Nomenclature of Animals. — The
classification most generally adopted is that ofLinna^us, by which
the animal kingdom is divided into six classes, and these into
orders, genera, species, &c. as in botany. The classification
and nomenclature adopted by naturalists in treating of animals
are of less importance to the husbandman than those of bo-
tany, as in general the animals with which he is concerned are
comparatively few, and those sufficiently well known in all ci-
vilized countries.

c c

iy4 AG RlCULlURJi. BOOK I.

3dly, I'lie luituial Properties of Animals. — Necessity, experi-
ence, and perhaps ambition, have contributed to make us ac-
quainted witli most of the animal race. Many of these, besides
being highly useful in husbandry, often evince an instinct which
may be of considerable use in picturesque improvement. Thus
in pasture abounding with ctntaurea cynapium, which cows and
siieep refuse, the horse eats it greedily. In those where the
common groundsill, or the perennial ragweed abounds, horses
and cows refuse it, but sheep devour it readily. The sonchus
oleraciiis and dandelion are passed untouched by all these; but
swine eat them voraciously. When grass has been watered
with salt, it will be greedily consumed by all graminivorous ani-
mals. Linnets make their nests chiefly in furze, and much
more readily in the Ulex euiopea, or Scotch furze, than in the
dwarf English whin. Their food is chiefly the seeds of the
plantago, or those of the annual polygonums ; which last plant
affords food to most kinds of singing-birds. The thrush lives
chiefly on the berries of the mountain ash; the goldfinch on
those of the thistle, &c. There is such an infinite number of
useful facts to be gathered from this branch of natural history,
that it were endless to retail them *.

4thly, Their Uses, or Subserviency to Mankind. — This know-
ledge is derived from experience in the first classes, and in the

* See Linnaeus, Buffon, Edwards, Pennant, Goldsmith, Berkenhout, &c.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 195

others from experimental inquiry. From these studies we derive
the knowledge of such animals as are subservient to man ; of
such as, though apparently useless, destroy others which would
do more harm ; as crows, magpies, and others, devour grubs and
worms; ducks and hens slugs and caterpillars, &c. We also
learn to rear the young of tender birds, or to feed others pro-
perly, by providing them with their peculiar food: thus we
give ant-eggs to young turkeys, worms to fish confined in ves-
sels, &c. Numberless useful facts might be added from such
an interesting study ; but these are suflScient in this place to
shew its importance.

The Mineral Kingdom may be considered, 1st, under
the vulgarly reputed elements of fire, water, earth, and air; and
2dly, under chemical decomposition and combination. Under
the first head, extensive and useful information may be ob-
tained respecting the application of heat, the uses of water, the
diversity of soils, stones, and metals ; and lastly, the weather.
Under the second head considerable information may be had
respecting manures — the process of vegetation, malting*, &c.

* The processof malting is purely vegetative, and consists merely in an artificial
method of bringing the vegetative principle of seeds into a state of germination.
This state is carried even to the length of placentation and radiation, when it is
found by experience, as yet very imperfect, that the greatest portion of the saccha-
rine matter of vegetables is then in a disengaged state, and fit to be converted into
ardent spirit. It is singular, that the specific temperature, or the entire process.

196 AGRICULTURF.. BOOK I.

though this science, in the confined sense of the word, has not
hitherto been of much real benefit to husbandry.

These three KiNGDOMsmay be considered in another point
of view, and that is in regard to mechanical powers. The
qualities and capacities of matter, by means of which mecha-
nical power is eft'ected, are its gravity, cohesion, extension, and
motion. The various powers of mechanism may be reduced to
the lever, and inclined plane. Upon the principle of the
former the steelyard is constructed; on the latter, the wedge,
screw, and cart-wheel. The application of these in hus-
bandry is as vai'ious and extensive as the diverse forms of its
machinery and implements ; from the spade, which is simply a
lever, and the plough, which operates chiefly on the principle
of the wedge, to the thrashing or grinding machine, which adds
to their powers the principle of the screw and the agency of
motion, and the cart-wheel, which acts as an inclined plane ac-
cording to its diameter and breadth.

The importance of husbandry in completing the usefulness
of a country residence must be sufficiently obvious. But the
neglect of this study by those who have assumed the profession

for converting grain into malt, has not yet suggested some new means of facilitating
the vegetation and final growth of those seeds, the product of which has long been
emphatically denominated the pabulum vit^.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 197

of laying-out grounds has been productive of the worst conse-
quences. By attending entirely to external show, or mere
perspective effect, in the production of landscapes (which may
look well enough on paper,) kitchen gardens have been placed
in unsuitable soils and situations formed upon bad principles.
The disposition of the other parts is equally unprofitable and
inconvenient, and the whole residence disordered from errone-
ous ideas of picturesque beauty. Farms also have been sub-
jected to the same inconveniency ; and extensive pasture fields,
lawns and parks, have been rendered unprofitable, useless, or
expensive to the owners, from neglect of the most simple and
obvious principles of agriculture, and often from neglect of the
common practices of farmers in improved counties. I scarcely
need advert to the evils which have arisen from planting on
the contracted principles of what is called landscape garden-
ing. Mr. Kent has justly remarked, that " Gentlemen are
apt to consider themselves as great planters, merely because
their habitations are surrounded with a thick margin, half the
trees of which will never be of any national use; while heaths,
moors, hills, and other uncultivated grounds, which might
enrich the owner and the public, by producing timber fit for
the navy or oi-her purposes, are left entirely neglected."

I shall mention another general evil which has resulted from
the neglect of the study both of the theory and practice of hus-
bandry, and which is perhaps greater than all the others : this

198 AGRICULTUKE, BOOK I.

is, that those unacquuinted xcitli such arts produce plans which
never can be executed. This is evident from the writings of se-
veral authors; and it explains the reason why few or none of
those shewy plans or views for altering and improving places
which some have published, have ever been executed ; or if
some have, it has always been in a different way from that re-
presented in the drawing. Let me not be thought uncandid
or severe in particularizing these things; they are mentioned,
first, with a view^ to justify gentlemen in disregarding the plans
of such professors ; and secondly, that those who propose follow-
ing the art may attend to this branch of it; both in theory, by
reading books, and studying nature; and in practice, by serving
apprenticeships to agriculture and gardening ; a practice which
is neither inconsistent with high birth, riches, nor politeness, as
some of the greatest men of this age have evidenced. I may
fuither add respecting the neglect of this study, that many
things are hence obliged to be left to the direction of garden-
ers, bailiflfs, or foresters, who, though frequently conversant in
their respective branches, yet generally and of necessity have
more or less contracted ideas, and in most cases are without
sufficient experience in regard to general design and contriv-
ance. Thus they often lead their employers into immense ex-
pences, which frequently end in total disappointment, and too
often in mischief and ruin*.

* A striking instance of this has just come under my notice. Since writing the
preceding page, I have been called above a hundred miles into the country by a

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 199

After this general introduction to husbandry, 1 proceed to
that branch of it which is the immediate subject of this part,
viz. Agriculture; and 1 shall do nothingmore than notice a few
particulars from the several parts of the science, chiefly to shew
their use in laying out the grounds of a residence. These 1
shall arrange as follows :

1. The improvement of the soil and surface. 2. The
improvement of the situation. 3. The culture of the vegeta-
bles used in agriculture. 4. Breeding, rearing, and fattening
of cattle, 5. The formation and management of farms.

friend of mine, who some years ago, by the advice of a gardener and nursery-man,
formed a large garden, and built an uncommon number of hot-houses; the whole
upon such a bad plan, and in such an improper situation, that they are a perfect
nuisance to his place ; which is otherwise by nature and artificial planting equally
surprising, j^raiid, and romantic. The garden walls, hot-houses, masonry, and
sheds are almost one entire ruin ; nearly every pane of the glass in the hot-houses
is broken, from bad glazing, and an erroneous conceited opinion of making the panes
overlap an inch over each other. The wood-work is twisted, and of four times the
requisite size and weight. The garden is in a low moist bottom between hills, and
consequently subject to chilly damps and mildews. The whole cost several thou-
.sand pounds ; and unless speedily improved will soon be a complete ruin.

20() AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL AND SURFACE.

Draining. — This is of three kinds. 1st, The draining of
springs, or water issuing from the bowels or internal strata of
the earth ; 2dly, The draining of lakes, bogs, fens, or morasses,
or water stagnated in hollows or among the surface strata; and
3dly, Surface, or Essex draining ; which is used for preventing,
certain soils from being over moist in times of rain, &c.

The draining of springs depends upon the knowledge of the
internal strata, or layers of soil, stone, or gravel, under the sur-
face. This may be obtained from observing the manner in
which the springs burst forth ; from the appearance when the
ground is broken to any depth, as in quarries, gravel-pits, banks
of rivers, &c. ; by digging pits, or by boring with the auger.
In the practice of this mode of draining, the general method
is, to intercept the springs, by cutting drains across declivities,
either of such a depth as to penetrate into or through the strata
containing the water ; or, when the drain cannot conveniently
be dug so deep, the same thing is accomplished by digging pits

J^ihluh^dMjjfii-jSoS byXi'n^nanJSir^.Seat trOmi.- I'l:.- •n(vtrrAiy>*'.

PAET IV AGRICULTUUK. '201

or boring holes ; both which are perfectly simple, and easily
understood and executed. The practice of boring and digging-
pits is sometimes made use of for carrying oft'water, by letting it
sink from the surface into lower strata (as well as for bringing it
forth into the cuts or drains) ; and this practice sometimes pro-
duces astonishing effects at very little expence. Much may be
done, however, and often very striking eifects are produced,
by cuts alone, without either boring or making pits : a consider-
able number of these have come under my notice in different
places ; I shall here mention one which occurred at Kersehall
some years ago. The two fields in Plate IX. are upon an
irregular hill or knoli, and contain nearly thirty acres. The
water which issued forth at AAA rendered them not worth
20 s. an acre'; and the drains there shewn were made at a
great expence to carry it oft", but without efl'ect. My father,
however, having paid a good deal of attention to this branch
of Georgics, on examining the substrata along witli me, caused
the drain B B to be cut, which in less than a month drained
both the fields, and the land is now worth 31. an acre. This
drain, when made, did not cost one-tenth part of the amount
of the others ; and the difference of preserving it in repair must
be comparatively nothing in this case ; as the others are mostly
on a loose bottom, and so small as easily to be choked up.
The sections C D and E F will, without any explanation, shew
the reason of this success ; w hich arose from the inclination of

D D

203 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

the strata towards the hollow B B, and from their termination
on the sides of the hill under impervious clay or loam. Errors,
similar to those adopted in the iirst drains cut in these fields^
are common every where, and occasion vast expence ; number-
less instances, both in England and Scotland, might be ad-
duced ; but let the above suffice to caution those who proceed to
this business, to devise a proper plan ere they attempt any part of
the work. Much might be said as to the practical operation of
this branch of draining ; such as the form of the drain, the cut-
ting, filling, covering, repairing, &c. but the whole of this part
of the volume is only calculated to contain a few general
hints chiefly respecting design.

The draining of lakes, bogs, morasses, or fens, is less expensive,
and often more simple, than the foregoing. It depends upon
finding a sufficient outlet for the main drain; from which
others are cut in proper directions, so as to lay the whole dry.
Much information may be obtained on this subject by travel-
ling through Lincolnshire and Ayrshire, and in those two coun-
ties by inspecting Avhat has been done by Sir Joseph Banks * at
Revesby Abbey, and J. Smith, Esq. at Swineridge Muir. No
species of draining pays so well as the draining of fens, marshes,

* Sir Joseph Banks has acquired land worth upwards of 60,000/. and will gain
much more.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 203

and lakes, which commonly turn out the most productive of
all soils. Morasses and peat bogs are of a different nature ;
they may commonly be drained at little expence ; and the
moment the operation is completed they begin to improve; the
growth of the sphagnum is checked; decay ensues; and, suppos-
ing nothing else to be done, in a few years grasses and other
vegetables appear upon the surface, which will in course of
time become clothed with tolerably good pasture.

Surface draining is the most simple of any ; being little more
than mechanical labour. It is known to every agriculturist,
and is performed with excellent effect in Essex and Peebles-
shire. In this last county it has been of immense service. — See
an excellent Survey of the Agriculture of Peeblesshire, by the
Rev. Charles Findlater.

Embaxking. — As this subject, so faras I know, has not been
treated by any author (for Dugdale's history of it contains no-
thing of the practice), and as I have had considerable practice
in designing embankments either for preserving or gaining land
from rivers or the sea, or for guarding the banks of rivers, I
shall extend these hints to a length that had been otherwise
unnecessary in a work like the present. I shall, therefore,
make some remarks under the followiug heads :

204 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

1. Of the general causes of the failure of embankments
already made.

2. Of the forms of the most secure natural shores and banks
of rivers, with the causes of their security.

3. Of the modes of imitating these forms b}' art, or of im-
proving upon them.

4. Of the preservation of embankments, or banks of rivers,
by erecting piers or projections to ward off the current.

5. Of the materials with which embankments are con-
structed.

6. Of the expence of making embankments.

7. Of the management of land gained from the sea.

8. Of the quantity of land which might be gained by embank-
ing, and preserved by constructing piers.

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PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 205

SECT. I. OF THE GENERAL CAUSES OF THE FAILURE OF
EMBANKMENTS ALREADY MADE.

The general causes of failure are two : the first concerns the
form of the embankment ; and the second the materials with
which it is constructed.

1. With respect io form. — Embankments are generally made
too narrow at the base, in proportion to their height; by which
means, the side next the sea is too upright (as is represented in
Plate X. fig. 2.) Hence, it is unable, in high tides, to with-
stand the weight of the sea ; which, it must be remembered,
presses laterally as well as downwards. Another very bad
consequence of this form is, that the tides, in ebbing or flow-
ing, act a longer time on one place, than if the slope were more
gradual ; and, consequently, they have a much greater ten-
dency to break or damage the surface of the bank. Most of
the embankments that have been constructed in England are
of this form, more or less varied, and the materials generally of
earth or turf. Bays, or creeks, are the most favourable situa-
tions for this kind : there, if they endure until the sea leaves
sand or mud against them, so as to form a gradual slope next

206 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

to it, (shewn by the dotted line a a, fig. 2.) they may answer
very well ; but in the situations where they are commonly
placed, the sea is very frequently making breaches in them,
which are with much difficulty filled up ; and if this work be
for a very short time neglected, the whole embankment will be
ruined.

2. As to the materials, it is of less consequence with what
the body of the embankment is constructed, provided those
used on the surface next the sea be of the proper kind, and
that the whole will contain water. Where the slope next
the sea is such as shewn in fig. 2., no material, that is not equal
in effect to close-jointed pavement, Avill be complete. Earth,
turf, sand, shells, gravel, or common causeway, are all liable to
be damaged by the beating of the tide. Causewaying is much
inferior to a good coat of gravel. Even though the slope were
considerable, still it does not resist the action of the sea. The
water enters at the crevices, sinks down among the stones,
loosens the clay or earth below, part of it is divided and car-
ried off every tide, vacuums are formed below, one small stone
sinks from the rest, a larger succeeds (which gives more room
for the operation to go on), some of the surface-stones follow,
and the sea, now rushing in with violence, soon displaces the
rest, and ruins the embankment. This is almost always the
case with heads thrown across rivers, or causewayed banks.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 207

made to preserve bold shores which are apt to be washed away or
undermined by the action of water ; for they have seldom been
properly built with mortar, and pointed with strong cement, or
built Avith hewn stone very neatly jointed, either of which are
sufficiently durable. Notwithstanding these general censures on
embankments, however, there are numerous instances in which
they have answered the purpose in the most satisfactory man-
ner. Those made of earth, in some places in England, are 100
feet broad, and only 12 or 14 feet high; and these have always
been proof against the tides. Some quays are built with mor-
tar* made from powdered unburnt limestone and coarse sand,
and pointed with puzzolana earth ; and these resist the sea like
solid rock. But the general errors which I have noticed, have
been sufficient to raise numberless objections against the com-
mon mode of making embankments, and have also deterred
many from attempting to gain land from the sea.

* A Avater cement, or mortar that hardens under water, has been formed, by
mixing four parts of blue clay, six of black oxyde of manganese, and nine of carbo-
nate of lime ; this mixture, after being submitted to a white heat, is mixed with sixty
parts of sand, and water sufficient to form it into mortar. At Dorking, Surrey,
is found the limestone used for the West-India and WappingDocks, which has been
considered as capable of forming the most durable mortar of any in this country.

208 AGRICULTURE. . BOOK I.

SECT. II. OF THE FORMS OF THE MOST SECURE NATURAL
SHORES AND BANKS OF RIVERS, WITH THE CAUSES OF
THEIR SECURITY.

In cxamiuing the sea-shore, or the banks of rivers, ue uni-
formly find, that the least liable to be, damaged are such as
have a gentle, easy slope from the bed of the sea or river to the
top of the shores (as Plate X. fig. 1. a.), or such as are com-
posed of solid perpendicular rocks (as fig. 5.) ; both of which
I shall consider separately.

1. The sloped banks, or inclined planes, on the sea- shore are
least liable to accident from the surge and high tides, when
they are covered with a coating of sand or gravel. Those on
rivers are best defended from extraordinary floods when thev
are uniformly covered with close pasture grass to the edge of
the water. The strength of these banks depends upon the
length of the slope ; their durability on the uniformity of its sur-
face, one part not being rougher or harder than another. — From
the length of the slope, the river, as it increases or decreases,
and the tides, as they ebb and flow, act but a short time on
one part of their surface. The greater the weight of water on
the bank, the more it is pressed down, and the firmer it is reii-

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 209

dered. From the uniformity of the surface the water acts with
the same power on one part as on another. Were a few stones
or bushes distributed on it, the water would form eddies round
them, each of which would soon become a large hole. If the
surface be harder in one place tlian another, a similar effect
will be produced.

2. Bold, perpendicular, rocky shores are always backed by
earth or other rocks (as represented in the section, fig. 5.) ; and
it is evident, that their strength consists in the resistance of this
accumulation of materials, not in their disposition, as in the
other kind. Their diirahiUty consists in the compactness and
uniform texture of the rocks on the side next the sea. If it be
full of clefts, or if some parts of it be of a softer nature than
others, the sea in time will enter these, and break down the
bank more or less, according to these circumstances. Instances
of this frequently occur, of which there is a recent example in the
land that perished by the sea in the Isle of Wight.

E E

210 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

SECT. Ill, OF THE MODES OF IMITATING THESE FORMS BY
ART, OR OF IMPROVING UPON THEM.

1. In many places on almost every sea-coast, we see shores of
the first kind (fig. 1. a.); and it will not be denied, that if a
trench were cut down behind one of them, as represented in
this figure by b, the bank or shore, though now detached as it
were from the land, would be equally strong and capable of
resisting the pressure of the sea as before. This being granted,
it follows, that if a bank or mound were moved and placed two
or three miles from shore, within the bed of the sea, as suppose
at c, it would be as strong as ever, and no more liable to be
broken down by the water, than when in its' former situation ;
and that, here, it Avill as completely guard the sea from the in-
termediate space of two or three miles, as it formerly preserved
it from the bottom of the trench b, of three or four feet wide.

2. Shores of the second kind, (fig. 5.) more or less perfect,
abound on most sea-coasts. The cause of their streno-th and
duration has been already noticed. They cannot be wholly
imitated with advantage ; but excellent hints may be taken
from them for defending bold, abrupt, broken shores composed
of earth, or of earth and rocks mixed. It will at once occur,

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 211

that building a perpendicular wall of good stone, against
broken abrupt shores, will make them nearly as strong and
durable as the natural ones, which are composed of perpendi-
cular, solid rock. A case of this kind occurred at SeaclifF,
near Edinburgh. (See fig. 4.)

Walls built thus are of great use in defending abrupt sea-
shores. They are not so generally applicable to rivers; be-
cause there, the water, in times of flood, requires room to
spread ; and this is the great use of sloping their banks ; — but
this mode, by confining it on every side, would only tend to
make it do more damage than before. There may be cases,
however, where it may be desirable to defend one part of the
banks of a river without sloping them, or to defend one bank
at the expence of that opposite ; and here it may be used with
propriety, — though piers properly made in such places are
often more complete, and always more economical. Between
these two kinds of banks, which are natural, art may contrive
one, which shall answer some of her purposes better than
either.

3. In place of collecting such a quantity of earth or other ma-
terials as will be necessary to form a bank similar to fig. 1. or 3.,
it may be more economical to make one such as fig. 6. ; the
side next the sea forming an angle with the base of 45 degrees.

212 AGRICULTUUK. BOOK I,

This will bear all the weight of water that can possibly be put
on it, equally well with fig. l.,only the action of the tides would
break the surface of the side next the sea, which we may con-
trive to prevent, by coating that side with the durable material
in the natural kind, fig. 5., or, in other words, paving it with
flasstone or bricks.

4. Between this and the first natural kind, a great variety
may be contrived, dificring only in the degree of inclination
towards the sea; that which has the greatest slope, as fig. 1.,
being coated over witii sand or gravel ; that which has the least
slope, as fig. 6., covered with pavement; and the interme-
diate slopes coated with materials between the two extremes,
as coarse gravel, chalkstone, brick or sand, as in fig. 7. It may
be observed of this embankment, that it is Avholly made of a
sandy loam, and placed upon soil of the same nature ; but as
this would not sufficiently contain the water, at least for some
years after it was built, an upright column of clay is carried up
the centre from the argillaceous substrata below. This column
is represented by a a in the section, fig. 7« ilie case occurred
at Edenside, near St. Andrew's.

In some very sandy shores, embankments may be made en-
tirely of wicker-work. Three or four rows of paling may be
made of ditferent heights, and the intervals between them filled

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 213

with furze, brushwood, or straw, &c. (fig. 8.) These materials would
retain the sand as the tide passed through ; and in a very short
time an embankment would be made of the form shewn in the
figure, which should then be planted with the elymus arena-
riiis to bind it. At extraordinary tides it would continue to
attract more, until at last it was raised above their reach. I
knoAV several places (Severn, Humber, Frith, &c.) where from
twenty to thirty thousand acres could be gained by this mode
in a few years ! !

Whatever kind of embankment is constructed, proper sluices
and tunnels, with valves next the sea, should be placed here and
there according to circumstances, to allow the water collected
within to pass off, and the sea to enter occasionally, either for
admitting the practice of warping or depositing sand, or mud, to
raise the surface of the land gained, or to flood the soil, in
order to produce salt, marsh. Sec. <Scc.

SECT. IV. THE PRESERVATION OF EMBANKMENTS OR BANKS
OF RIVERS BY ERECTING PIERS OR PROJECTIONS TO
WARD OFF THE CURRENT.

In nature, we see the great power of projecting points on the
sea or rivers ; either upon a great scale, as promontories de-
fending bays and inlets ; or upon a small scale, as rocks, roots

214 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

or stones, defending parts of the banks of rivers, by throwing
the current to the opposite side. This naturally leads us to the
idea of piers, which are of great use either in defending em-
bankments, or the margins of brooks or rivers. In the former
case, they may generally be made and coated over with the
same material as the embankment itself. In the latter they
should be made of stone decreasing every way as they project
outwards, as shewn in fig. 9- In both cases, hoAvever, they
may be composed of brushwood fastened to stakes with much
better effect. Frequently a simple fence of rude wicker-work,
(called in many places stakes and rice) three or four yards long,
will be sufficient. Stone embankments, unless made as shewn
in fig. 9-? often form eddies below them ; but fences of brush-
wood cannot operate in this manner. They have the same
mild effect in checking the rapidity of water, that a hedge has
in softening a current of air.

In the designing and disposition of piers or projections in
rivers, considerable reflection is requisite, to ascertain the proper
spot in which they should be placed, and the exact length which
they should project into the river : too great a projection en-
dangers the opposite bank, and may produce an eddy below
the pier, and a reverberation from the opposite bank, which
will do more harm than if no pier had been built. When the
pier is to be built of stone, which is necessary in rivers of rocky

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 215

bottoms, fig. 9. is the best shape, as it will scarcely produce
any eddy, and will have an effect almost as mild as one of
wicker-work. This pier was designed for and highly approved
by the Hon. Lord Sinclair of Herdmanston, to guard and pre-
serve a valuable court of stable offices from the river Tyne,
which was rapidly undermining them some years ago. It is
built of rubble masonry internally, ashler work externally, and
with mortar prepared in the proper manner.

Piers of wicker-work, which answer well, may be seen on the
river Jed near Crailing, and on the Almond nsar New Liston.

SECT. v. OF THE MATERIALS WITH WHICH EMBANKMENTS

ARE CONSTRUCTED.

The perpendicular kind of embankment, fig. 4., for defending
abrupt shores, as already mentioned, is simply a wall, which
may be good brick-work, rubble-work, or ashler. The mortar
used should be of the strongest kind ; or else, if built in the
common way, they should be pointed with puzzolana earth, or
Roman cement*. The sloped embankments may be made of

* Prepared by Parker and Co. London.

2l6 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

common earth, clay, mud, stones, or a mixture of these ; orany
materials which will form into a solid, compact mass. The
side next the sea, of such as fig. 3., which forms an angle of
twenty degrees, or any side forming an angle between that and
thirty-five degrees with the base, may be covered with sand,
sea-shells, or gravel, from the natural shores ; or stones may be
broken of uniform sizes, about three pounds w^eight each, and
used in the same way ; or, should neither of these be at hand
in sufficient quantity, it may be covered with mats of reeds,
straw or bark *, which require to be renewed frequently ; or, it
may be defended by a fence of brushwood placed upright all
along the bottom of the bank, and of the same height, which
tends to break the force of the waves ; oi' the whole face of the
bank might be covered with brushwood, either in bundles, or
as wicker-work, or neatly laid on and fixed down with long
poles and strong hooks. It might be causewayed with stones
and moss— or moss might be spread on the bank, and then
covered with wicker- Avork — or moss-f might be wrought into
the wicker-work, and then these mossy covers neatly laid on
and pinned down, which mode would last a very long time — or
by various other ways, some of which would require no atten-
tion, as gravel, stones, &c. — or by others that would require

* As is done in Holland.

t Plants of moss in their living state are meant here ; such as the sphagnum^
bi]yum, hj/pnuiH, &c. — not mere peat.

PART IV. AGRICULTUKE. 21?

constant attention and occasional renewal, as straw, mats,
brushwood, &c. The side next the sea, of such as fig. 6., which
forms an angle with the base of forty-five degrees ; and all the
variety of slopes or inclined planes between that, and those
where the inclination forms an angle of thirty-five degrees, may
be covered w'ith flag-stone*, jointed with cement made of clear
sand and powdered, unburnt limestone, puzzolana earth, or
Roman cement : or, if flagstone cannot be had, clay may be
found, and bricks of proper kinds may be made, and used in
the same manner as stone.

In those planes inclined between 40 and 45 degrees, it will
often be more economical to cover with stones about six or
eight pounds weight, laid on eighteen or twenty inches deep ;
or with a bed of moss of three inches, or peat-moss -f of six
inches thickness, laid on the bank, and then a covering of si-
milar stones of onl}' six or eight inches thick : or these stones
may be causewayed, or laid in strong clay, and their surface
jointed or plastered over with lime, or strong cement of any
kind that will harden ^ quickly, and endure the action of the
tides and the air, which will operate upon it alternately, «Scc.
Cases may occur where it will be most economical to cover the

* A case of this kind occurred at Tullyallan, the property of Lord Keith.
+ That kind called the flow-moss will answer best.
X See p. 207.

F F

218 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

side next the sea with wood, such as the larch (alone,) or any
other wood coated over with pitch and sharp sea-sand. Even
old sail-cloth or oil-cloth, pitched and sanded, and then neatly
laid on, will answer as completely as pavement during a cer-
tain time, although these materials will fail much sooner. Per-
haps in some cases it might be requisite to cover it with a me-
tallic substance, as sheet-lead, or tinned copper plates; or by
many other ways, at different rates .of expense, and diverse de-
grees of duration.

SECT. VI. OF THE EXPENSE OF MAKING EMBANKMENTS.

Although the expense of embanking is considerable, it is far
from being so great as is generally imagined. It is, however,
impossible to mention any specific sum for this purpose, un-
less certain data were given ; but, from the different calcula-
tions and estimates M'hich I have made for various places in
Great Britain*, I find that a dike of earth covered with gravel
or sand, such as fig. 1. Plate 10. would cost from threepence to
eightpence per cubic yard; — such as are of a more steep slope,
say from thirty-five to forty-five degrees, and covered with
pavement, from sixpence to one shilling per cubic yard; the

* Partly for my own information, and partly for proprietors, as Lord Keith, the
Earl of Selkirk, Earl of Galloway, &c.

PAIIT IV. AGRICULTURE. 219

kind, fig. 4., from ten pounds to twenty-five pounds, per rood
of thirty-two yards. The barrier recommended for soft grounds,
which, at first gaining from the sea, will not bear the weight of
a wall, that is the one composed of brushwood, or stake and
rice, will cost from sixpence to five shillings per lineal foot.

SECT. VII. OF THE MANAGEMEXT OF LAND GAINED FROM

THE SEA.

The principal difficulty that can occur in any situation will
be, to keep off the water of the rivulets or rivers that may come
frojn the surrounding lands, and to deliver to the sea the sur-
face water collected from the land gained; the next considera-
tion is to clear this land of surface incumbrances.

It will frequently happen, that the ground to be embanked
is intersected by a river. This is the most expensive and diffi-
cult case that can occur ; but it is only necessary to carry an
embankment along each side of it to the sea; and there, where
it intersects the other line of embankment, to place a flood-
gate*, which shall prevent the tide from entering, except when
it may be necessary to admit vessels, and which shall allow the

* Such a gate may be seen at Lynn, Norfolk.

220 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

water of the river to pass into the sea. Small rivulets and
springs can either be turned along the margin of the land
gained, and let out at one end of the embankment, where it
joins the land, or led the most convenient way to one or more
of the valves or flood-gates which it is necessary to make in all
embankments for excluding the water within. The water col-
lected on the surface of the land gained, will generally be let
off by the flood-gates or valves already mentioned ; but where
the embankment is extended into the water, this cannot be the
case, as the level of the sea will generally be above the level of
the land. In this instance, windmills for driving pumps must
be placed at proper distances, according to the particular case.
Perhaps, in general, one small windmill driving four pumps,
would be sufficient for draining 1000 acres. The expense of
such a pump-mill would not be above twenty or thirty pounds.
13y making a small embankment from two to four feet high
some distance within the larger one, all the water collected be-
tween that and the original shore would be accumulated; and
it might be led in a raised canal in the same level to a flood-
gate in the outer embankment. This would leave very little
water to be drawn up by the pump; and, in this way, though
20,000 acres were gained, one windmill only would be neces-
sary*. Often, and indeed in most cases, in place of a wind-

* As I proposed in the design, estimate, and report, given in for embanking 4000
acres in Wigton Bay.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 5^21

mill, the brooks, rivulets, or springs collected within might ea-
sily be made to turn a water-wheel, which would be more per-
manent and uniform than that turned by the wind. A bason
might also be constructed, so that the ebb and flow of the tide
would turn a draining-wheel; or a great many other methods
might be successfully adopted. Thus, in land gained from
the sea, there cannot be any difliculty in preserving it from
water, from whatever quarter it may come. When the land
to be gained is covered (more or less) with stones, these should
be put in flat-bottomed boats at low water; and Avhen the tide
floats them, they should be rowed to the proposed line of em-
bankment, and then dropt. This mode of conveyance Avill ge-
nerally be found the most economical with all the solid and
distant materials. When the ground is sandy or poor on the
surface, and argillaceous earth or rich loam below, it may be
trenched (with the plough) of such a depth, as to turn up the
good, and bury the bad soil*. If the soil be shallow, and even
rocky, it may still be rendered valuable. The most rocky
parts may be covered five or six inches with soil, and the whole
sown either with meadow grass, to be flooded with fresh, water,
and kept as meadow; or with other grasses, as the jitncus bul-
bositsf, &.C. and kept as salt marsh. When mud of a good
quality and considerable depth is gained, it may in some cases

* As might be done at Abcrlady, East Lothian.

t The grass that generally composes salt marsh pasture.

222 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I«

be desirable to summer-fallow it for one or more seasons after
it is embanked. At other times, it may be better to sow it

r

with rapeseed for the first season, and to summer-fallow it the
next, as preparatory to a corn crop, &c.

No kind of land can be gained from the sea but what is of
great value, in consequence of this peculiar circumstance, that
it can be flooded most generally by fresh water as well as by
the sea at all times. By flooding, the most barren sand or
rock, with only an inch or two of soil, will bear excellent pas-
ture. Indeed, much of the sand that is often reckoned barren
and useless, is mixed with broken shells, and, upon examina-
tion, will be found to contain three or four parts in ten of cal-
careous earth. Most of the large rocks within the salt water
mark are in a state of rapid decomposition, and so fragile on
the surface, as to be easily penetrated by the roots of grasses ;
more particularly after they have been exposed a year or two
to the action of the atmosphere. I do not here mean the large
detached stones that we often find within the water-mark;
these I suppose to be either buried in the ground, or boated off as
before mentioned ; but those continued rocks Avhich frequently
constitute the basis of the sea-shore for several leagues toge-
ther, and the surface of which is so completely oxydated and
sometimes decomposed, (in which state they are vulgarly called
rotten) that they will yield either an excellent manure for cer-

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 223

tain soils, ov are fit to support the vegetation of saline
plants in their actual condition.

SECT. VIII. OF THE QUANTITY OF LAND WHICH MIGHT 'BE
GAINED BY EMBANKING, AND PRESERVED BY CON-
STRUCTING PIERS.

With respect to the quantity of land which might be gained
from the sea or rivers, by embanking in the above way; I have
only to say to individual proprietors adjoining shore lands of
every description, that nothing more is necessary than to ob-
serve how far out the sea ebbs at ordinary tides; and they may
safely conclude that it is practicable to gain and preserve at
least half of that land which appears uncovered by the water
at that time, and that such land, when gained, will be of equal,
if not superior value, to the beS; parts of their estates. With
respect to the quantity that might be gained throughout the
whole island, I could not exactly say; but I think it cannot be
less than three millions of acres.

I have offered little, in the foregoing hints, respecting the
modes of defending the banks of rivers, or altering their

224 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

courses; but if the general principles noticed be properly ap-
plied, many great advantages will arise to proprietors. I
know some estates that lose, from the encroachments of rivers,
several acres annually ; which five or ten pounds, judiciously
and timely applied, would completely prevent. The advan-
tages that arise from placing proper flood-gates on the mouths
of rivers which the tide enters, are very great, as may be seen
in several places in England*. In embanking land from
rivers, one great advantage is, the deepening of their course,
by which vessels of a larger size than formerly may be admit-
ted to traffic in them. This is a well known fact, and of
considerable importance.

It may be observed, that as embankments are made here
and there on the borders of rivers and sea-shores, the inter-
vening spaces will thus become bays; and quantities of shells,
mud, sand, or gravel, will soon be deposited there by the tide;
so that these, however difficult to be embanked at first, will in
the course of years be as easy aS^natural ba3's and creeks are at
present. Thus, many rivers Avhich, in their present state, are
eight or ten miles wide at their junction or influx with the sea,
may, in the course of years, be only two or three furlongs.
Such embankments would not only be highly advantageous to
the landed proprietor, but also to the merchant and manufac-

* See Marshall's Management of Landed Property.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 225

turer, as many of our rivers might thereby become much more
easily navigable than they are at present, and those bars which
frequently obstruct their mouths ^'as the Severn and Avon near
Bristol) would by such means be entirely removed.

Warping, paring and burning, and clearing of
SURFACE INCUMBRANCES, come next in order in the list of
improvements. The first is derived from what we see takes
place in nature, where land is covered by muddy water, either
on the sea shore, or on the banks-of rivers. It is of great use,
and is successfully practised in Lincolnshire. Paring and
burning are seldom advisable ;^ clearing the surface of stones,
roots, bushes, &c. is easily understood.

Improving the composition of soils is held out by
agricultural chemists as of great importance; and although
their observations have not hitherto been of much consequence
to practical men ; yet the discoveries already made with re-
gard to the proper food of plants and vegetables must eventually
be of incalculable advantage, iii facilitating the increase of the
vegetable productions which support animal life.

Inclosing. This important branch of agriculture natu-
rally divides itself into, 1. The propriety and advantage of
inclosing. 2. The size of inclosures. 3. Their form. 4. The

G G

226 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

direction of the fences. 5. The kind of fence, and 6. Hedge-
toAv timber.

1st. With respect to the propriety and advantage of inclo-
sing either commons or private property, I shall advance no-
thing; it being pretty generally known to be of the first con-
sequence as to augmenting their value. There are, however,
some cases, as the large sheep -farms in Peebleshire, and most
parts of the Highlands of Scotland, where no other inclosure is
necessary than a ring fence or barrier round each farm. If any
inclosures aie necessary within this fence, it is only such as are
for admitting the cultivation of a few acres for the use of the
farmery, or for making some plantations for shelter.

2nd. The she or magnitude of inclosures depends on the
kind of husbandry to be followed, the nature of the soil, of the
surface, and of the climate. 1. In pasture farming, where the
object is breeding, the inclosures should generally be small;
where it is rearing, larger; and where it is fatting, largest. 2.
Each kind of soil should be as much as possible kept separate;
so as that every part of each field may be laboured and cropped
at the same time. 3. On a level surface the inclosures should
be largest, on a hilly one least; as the greater the number of
inclosures there are, the more the shelter is increased in severe
weather, moisture preserved in dry weather, and beauty pro-

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 227

duced at all seasons. In a severe climate, or one excessively
hot, inclosures should be more numerous than in moderate
temperatures — in order that in the former shelter, and in the
latter shade, may be produced.

3rd. The form of inclosures. The best form, where it can
be obtained, is that of a square, or parallelogram : when the lat-
ter, it should have the length from north to south. The nature
of the soil, and the variations of the surface, are the best guides
both as to the form and size of inclosures.

4th. The direction of the fences. In general, this should be
up the sides and directl}^ across the tops of eminences, which
greatly increases their apparent height. Sometimes, however,
it is preferable to carry them obliquely across, which is better
calculated for the direction of the rido-es, and for affording:
shelter and shade. In levels, or vallies, they have the best
effect, and are most useful, when parallel to the rising grounds,
when they intersect one another at right angles, and when each
inclosure is nearly a right square.

5th. The kind of fence. In meadows, these should be of
the unseen kind ; either ha ! ha's ! open water-cuts, or light
palings. In low fertile arable grounds, and all arable grounds
in mild exposures, they should be low hedges or walls. In

228 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

exposed and elevated grounds, the higher the fences so much
the better, both for effect and utihty. Ahnost every part of
the country has some fences pecuhar to it. By enquiring into
these, and contrasting them with those in other parts of the
countr}^, the best and most economical may easily be disco-
vered.

6th. Hedgerow timber. This is highly advantageous in cer-
tain soils and situations, and highly destructive, both of beauty
and use, in others; as I shall have occasion to observe under

PLANTING*.

SuELTERiNG EXPOSED GROUNDS. In fixing ou tlic proper
places for marking out plantations of this sort, considerable
reflection is requisite. It does not consist in fixing on the
highest spots, and in a regular distribution of the masses, as
some tell us; but in finding out where the current of wind
strikes most violently, either when first obstructed by the hills,
or after it has been reverberated ; which often points out decli-
vities, and lesser eminences, as proper places for planting upon ;
and directs us also to proportion the magnitude of the different
plantations, in a manner corresponding Avith these effects. A
knowledge of this may be obtained by examining the appear-

* See also, in confirmation of the same ideas, Mr. Kent's Hints on Landed
Property.

v*

PART IV. AGRICULTtJRE. 229

ances of such trees as are already there, by inspecting the
grounds in times of deep snows, and by consulting the oldest
native inhabitants, particularly shepherds, &c. In situations ex-
posed to the sea, where the shore is bold or irregular, as at Col-
zean, Gossford, and Dunglass, similar caution is necessary; but
where it is level, as atTynningham, Southwick, and Mersehead,
it is only necessary to plant along the margin of the shore..
This has been done at Mersehead and Tynninghain ; at the lat-
ter place with the greatest success, and at the formei" with a
very promising appearance. At Linkhouse I have lately made
considerable plantations on a low shore, which, though only
planted two years, look as well as on any other situation. The
trees, Avhen put in, should either be very young, or else the
fences should be of considerable height, so as to shelter them.
In low shores, most species of trees will succeed except the
Ikrch. In such as are bold and irregular, the ash, sycamore,,
sorbus, elder, &c. are the best. For other ])articulars respect-
ing the formation and management of such plantations, see;

PLANTING.

2J0 AGlliCLLTURE. BOOK I.

CHAFrER II.

Ol- THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SITUATION.

Road making maybe considered under the following heads:
1st, Direction; 'idly, Formation ; and, 3dly, ]\Ianagement.

1, The direction of roads in level countries is easy. On such
as are hilly it requires some attention, surveying, and levelling,
so as to find the shortest and least fatiguing line. There are
few or no countries, though ever so irregular, but will admit
between their hills or mountains roads nearly level, or at least
very gradual ascents and descents: were it otherwise, the val-
lies would be continually covered with water ; whereas we al-
wa^'s find some outlet or passage b}' means of which it easily
runs off. The most difficult cases are, when a road comes di-
rectl}' in front of a compact ridge of low hills, such as the Cots-
wold in Gloucestershire, or those between Thiiskand Helmsley,
called AVhitestone Cliff, in Yorkshire*. In such cases, the only
way is to make the road ascend in a zig-zag direction to the
lowest part of the summit. There is no particular advantage
in having the surface of a road exactly level during its wiiole

* Hills of this kind seldom occur, except in level countries, such as England.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 231

length; but, on the contrary, some bc;iefit results, to draught
cattle at least, from having a variation of surface to pass over,
as it varies the line of draught, and rests it alternately on dif-
ferent parts of the body. Something of this kind takes place
in walking, as every one accustomed to use this exercise in any
considerable degree must have experienced.

2. The formation of roads. The first requisite is to lay
them dry, by open drains at each side, which must be of a
depth and width proportionate to the road. When the latter
is narrow, and the drains deep, the pressure of carriages is apt
to cut the surface and derange the materials. The surface of
the road in level countries is generally made somewhat convex,
in order to throw oflf the rain; but in mountainous districts it is
perfectl}'^ level ; and in some places concave roads have been
adopted with considerable advantages.

3. The management of roads refers to cleaning and repairing
them. Excellent management does not consist so much in
doing a great deal, as in a constant attendance and repara-
tion of every little injury; by this means roads may be kept in
proper order for a great length of time, and at a small expence.

On CANAL MAKING I do not judgc it necessary to advance
any thing, as it is a branch of national improvement in which

AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

I have never had much experience. On the advantage of
erecting villages and cottages much might be said; but
I rather refer to what I have ah'eady advanced on this subject
under architecture.

CHAPTER III.

OF THE cultivation AND THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES
USED IN AGRICULTURE.

The CULTIVATION of the soil includes several things; the
chief of which are, 1st, Its pulverization or comminution ;
2dly, The destruction of weeds and insects ; 3dly, Manuring.

Of the difterent implements used for pulveriaation, the Nor-
folk wheel-plough seems the best for light soils, and the im-
proved Lothian swing plough the best for stiff soils and gene-
ral purposes : both are worked by two horses. Oxen seem the
most proper draught animals when a slow continued motion is
required ; horses when a quick or occasionally violent motion
is requisite. The amiable and diversified qualities of the horse,
however, will often, no doubt, preponderate over the real ad-

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 23S

vantages to be obtained by employing oxen. The Wynne har-
row * seems the best in almost every case. There are two distinct
kinds of spades ; one proper for sandy soils, and garden work ;
the other for stiff, cohesive soils, and for farm operations in
general. It is difficult to describe these two spades without a
drawing: practical men will understand the difference when it
is observed, that the mouth-plate of the one is solid through-
out, while that of the other has a considerable open space
under each tred. The former is used in the nurseries about
London and Edinburgh, and in most gardens ; the latter is
pretty extensively used in Renfrewshire, and in several parts of
Gloucestershire. Very great advantages result from employing
this last kind. Pulverization is jointly accomplished by the
weather, by the alternate operations of frost and mildness in
Avinter, and drought and rain in summer; by the shade from
vegetables, as the pea and bean tribe ; and in some degrees by
the roots of others, as the carrot and the clover. The advan-
tages of pulverization are, that it renders the earth more sus-
ceptible of the fertilizing influence of the external elements, as
heat, air, rain, &c. enlarges its capacity and facility of yielding
nutriment to the roots of vegetables, and facilitates the destruc-
tion of extraneous seeds, which preoccupy the nutritive prin-
ciples of the soil, instead of leaving them to support the cul-
tivated plant.

* See the Bath Society's Papers.
H H

t>2i AGRICULTURE, BOOK I,

2. The iir.si puciion of wekds. — Weeds may be divided
•into two classes ; those which spring up annually, and those
which are perennial. The former are destroyed in broadcast crops
orcorn,and in naked fallows, Sec. by harrowing when they appear
alive on the surface ; or in drilled crops by hoeing, either with
the hand or horse-hoe. The latter are chiefly destroyed by fal-
lowing, either partially, as in the preparation for potatoes, bar-
ley, turnips, &c. ; or completely, as in naked or summer fallows.
In this part of cultivation, much depends upon knowing the
nature of the weeds to be destroyed, and much upon our pre-
venting them from coming into seed. There are some seeds
which, although buried under ground for many years, do still
germinate where brought within a certain distance from the
surface ; such as avena communis (wild oats), the rhaphanis rapha-
nistiam, and r. vulgaris, which arc very common weeds. A
field that has been infested with these all the summer, will have
its surface covered with their seed at harvest; if the ground be
ploughed soon after, the seed will be preserved in the soil foryears;
but if it be allowed to remain until spring, and then gently har-
rowed, the whole will vegetate, and may easily be destroyed.
In this way all seeds of weeds could be rendered ineffectual ;
though it is not always consistent with the general management
of a farm, as it throws the labour behind, and prevents the land
from deriving the advantage of the winter's frosts, &c. One
field, however, managed in this manner each year, would soon

PAUT IV. AGRICULTURE. 235

clean a whole farm, and the future attention of a judicious hus-
bandman will ever take care to keep it so. The destruction of
insects, or pernicious animals, is also a duty incumbent on the
cultivator ; but in agriculture it is too trifling to demand con-
sideration here.

3. Manuring. — Manures may be divided into two kinds;
those which promote vegetation, by augmenting the quantity
of vegetable nourishment, as all vegetable and animal matters;
and those which promote it, by bringing what already exists
into action, or by communicating to the soil the power of seiz-
ing from the atmosphere, digesting, and gradually administer-
ing the nutritive principle to the plant, as lime, salts, gypsum,
and most mineral substances, do. The proper application of
putrescent manures is one of the most important, and at the
same time the most ciilical branches of cultivation. A given
quantity of manure inserted in the soil in a proper stage of pu-
trescency, when the soil is in the fittest state to receive it, when
it is no sooner distributed on the surface than it is covered, and
when the crop is soon after to be planted or sown, will produce
astonishing effects. Apply the same quantity either in a more
or less putrescent state, leaving it exposed to the atmosphere
for weeks, and covering it as long before the seed or plants-
are inserted, and it will produce comparatively no effect. The
qualities of putrescent manure are of such a fleeting nature^

236 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

that the utmost attention is requisite to collect them ; and,
when they are collected, to preserve them from returning to
their simple state, which is ultimately gaseous or aerial. This
subject fully considered will shew the immense importance of
not letting any vegetable substance, if possible to avoid it, be
dried in the sun ; but of collecting all organized bodies that can
be found, such as leaves, weeds, peat, moss, &c. and forming
them into composts with calcareous matters, and other putres-
cent manures, as practised and explained by Lord Meadow-
bank *, and recommended by the Highland Society. It also
shews the immense advantage of soiling with clover, tares, or
lucern, and the great benefit of the turnip husbandry. Cal-
careous and mineral manures are most successfully applied to
lands containing vegetable matter, either chiefly or almost en-
tirely, as peat soils ; in the body of the soil, as arable grounds ;
or on the surface, as old pasture lands. Lime is also used on
ferruginous soils, which it frequently improves, unless the iron
exist in very great proportions. Some mineral manures are
also of advantage from the salts which the}' contain ; as lime
and gypsum are supposed to be by some, and as salt and soot
are known to be by every ingenious agriculturist -f-.

* See also the Earl of Dundonald's Remarks on Chemistry and Agriculture.

f So convinced am I of the great benefit to be derived from strewing salt on the
surface of grounds, that I hesitate not to say, that if the tax were removed and far-
mers allowed to use it, double the quantity of pasture would be produced annually. —

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 237

Watering is a species of cultivation which will be noticed
under the culture of grasses, but which might also be very ad-
vantageously employed to all grain in the spring months.

Culture. — ^The culture of vegetables in farming divides itself
into, 1st, The different grains or corns ; 2dly, The different
grasses ; 3dly, Roots and leaves, or other herbage ; and,
4thly, Particular crops, as hops, madder, rape, &c.; or gar-
den vegetables, as onions, spinage, &c.

1. The different grains or corns are either cultivated in broad-
cast, or in drills. The former method is in most cases the best
with corns and grasses, especially on cohesive soils ; the latter
almost always the best method with roots, leaves, and indeed
all the others. The different corns are commonly sown by rota-
tion, one species succeeding another every year.

2. The grasses are either cultivated a number of years toge-
ther, as in pasture fields, meadows, and lucern, &c. ; or only two
or three, as in the case of sown hay crops. A knowledge of the

That this pasture would not only be equally good with that where no salt is used,
but much better and earlier, is evident from the effect of salt marshes. This subject
deserves the attention of the present enlightened administration ; and i-t may serve as
one instance to shew what thin partitions separate mankind from the most impor-
tant discoveries, and their application to the necessary arts of animal existence.
What immense- advantages might not result from it in years of scarcity !

238 AGRICULTUKE. BOOK I.

different grasses is of importance both in useful and ornamental
agriculture. Perennial rye-grass (hUium perenne) is the most
generally useful for good soil ; common meadow grass (poa tri-
vialis) the best for middling soils ; large meadow grass (poa pra~
tense) the best for rich meadows. Festuca fiutam, or floating
fescue, the best for middling meadows. The holciis htnatis the
best for mossy lands or bad meadows. The festuca avina, and
cynosurus cristatus, the best for sheep pastures. The juncus
palustris the best for salt marshes, &c.

In cultivating grasses three modes require to be mentioned,
which are of considerable importance : the first is top-dressing
with manure; which, when done early in spring, greatly aug-
ments the crop ; the second is irrigation, which is naturally sug-
gested by the effects of small brooks upon the sides of hills,
which run along their margins, and wherever they overflow are
sure to produce good grasses and white clover, except in a few
instances where the water is impregnated with mineral sub-
stances injurious to vegetation. Irrigation is a very simple, but.
most excellent practice. It may be performed by farmers in
all hilly and pasture countries with the greatest ease and at a
very little expence. In Herefordshire, Montgomeryshire, &c.
it is much practised, both with brooks, and in times of rain with
the water collected on the highwaj's. The pasture of fields so
managed is always much earlier than others.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 239

The third mode adopted in the cultivation of pasture lands
isfloodiiig, which diff'ers from irrigation only in this, that the
ground is covered or Hooded with the water, which remains
stagnated upon it for a considerable time ; whereas in irriga-
tion it runs constantly oft'. Flooding is derived from nature ;
for we see it take place when large rivers overflow their banks
for some time in the winter season, and leave after them a con-
siderable coat or layer of mud or slime which greatly enriches
the pasture. It is nearly allied to warping ; but differs from it
in this, that warping is used when the quantity of mud depo-
sited is so great as would bury the grass, and thence is chiefly
used in arable marshes or over salt grass, which being a species
of rush (juncus palustris) easily springs through it. Flooding
is of immense advantage * to mossy meadows, even though
the water be clear and not capable of depositing mud.

In the preparations for flooding ground, two things are re-
quisite : the first is, to lay it as level as possible, or to divide it
into different levels ; the second is, to convey the water to them
in a safe and judicious manner, so as not to interfere with the

* On the estates of Baldoun I had the honour of being employed to estimate the
advantages to be derived from draining, embanking, irrigating, and flooding ;
and the improvement virhich I conceived the mossy meadows were capable of from
flooding was not thought over-ratud at triple their present annual value.

240 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

cultivation of the surrounding fields. This part of the business
is sometimes critical in mossy or sandy ground. In a compre-
hensive scheme devised by me for flooding, at Linkhouse,
nearly 2000 acres of blown sand or downs near the sea, and
covered with little more than elymus arenarius, — the reservoir to
hold the water for this purpose, being built in sandy ground
(though tolerably well puddled), broke down as soon as it wa^
filled with water, and apparently defeated the whole scheme.
Fortunately, however, this took place when little more than
15/. had been expended. Soon after I found it equally
practicable, and not much more expensive, to turn off the
stream further from the ground, and lead it to different parts
in gutters, either made upon the surface, or in the most sandy
parts formed of wooden or baked-clay troughs or conductors.
When this has been accomplished a few years, it will render
ground which now rents at 13 s. an acre annually, worth 4/. 4s.
for the same period.

3. Roots, leaves, and other herbage, are commonly culti-
vated by the drill husbandry, and often serve the double pur-
pose of a crop and fallow. Their culture, though various, is
simple and easy.

4. Particular crops, or garden vegetables. — This class in-
cludes some very profitable crops, and a considerable diversity

PAllT IV. AGRICULTURE. 241

of culture ; generally inconsistent with the business of exten-
sive corn or pasture farmers, but well calculated for such as
have small farms in good soil, especially if near towns or cities.
The culture of garden vegetables in the fields deserves the par-
ticular attention of landed gentlemen ; as they may thereby
save much of the expence which is at present incurred in
kitchen gardening, and are besides sure of having sweeter ve-
getables. Indeed, those roots and plants which are reared in
gardens being always forced into luxuriance by manure, it
often imparts to them a particular flavour, or destroys their
natural one, as in the case of cabbages, potatoes, and turnips,
which are cultivated in that manner.

I I

242 AGRICULTURK. BOOK I.

CHAPTER IV.

OF BREEDING, REARIKG, AND FATTENING ANIMALS; AND
OF THEIR GENERAL MANAGEMENT.

This branch of rural economy, as observed in the Introduc-
tion, depends much upon a knowledge of several facts in natu-
ral history which will enable the judicious farmer to improve
upon general practice : being less connected with laying out
a residence than the others, a few remarks only shall be
oflfered.

I shall pass over the different modes of breeding (whether for
preserving the same race unadulterated, or for improving the
stock) and come to rearing ; which, whether it regards
beasts of labour or for the butcher, is of much importance.
Beasts of labour, with respect to food and shelter, should be
brought up hardy, by allowing them chiefly such food as is of
a coarse nature, and keeping them in such an exposed situation
as will accustom them in a considerable degree to the atmo-
sphere. In consequence of this mode of treatment, animals grow
to a much larger size, and become capable of enduring much

PAKT IV. AGRICULTURE. 24

O

more fatigue. Training is an important branch of rearing beasts
of labour. Much depends not only upon the knowledge, but also
upon the natural temper, of the person employed for this pur-
pose. We always observe, that horses, which have been long
under the care of the same servant, imbibe in a considerable
degree his temper and spirit. In horses, as in men, this temper
and manner, if impressed upon them at an early age, gene-
rally remain through life. Common labouring horses gene-
rally acquire all their bad practices while under the dominion
of those boys which in farmeries have the care of attending
them and other cattle while at pasture : whereas if this busi-
ness were committed to grown up persons of steadiness and
ingenuity, or, were these young persons better instructed and
more critically looked after, the advantages would certainly be
considerable. It would render an animal that is useful much
more so, and prevent many accidents which arise either from
bad education or inherent vicious habits*.

* It is impossible to mention the horse without regretting the cruelties which,
by the lower classes, arc every where and every day inflicted uj)on this noble ani-
mal, as well as upon asses, mules, and horned cattle. It is deeply to be re-
gretted, that there is not a suitable and effectual mode of punishing such offenders.
Even in London, where working horses are uncommonly sagacious and tractable,
it is shocking to see the unprovoked cruelties of draymen. In Edinburgli it is
much worse ; there the cart-horses are, besides this barbarity, generally overloaded,
always in bad condition, often covered with wounds, bruises, and putrefying
sores ; sometimes they are seen to drop down dead in the streets, and frequently
are starved to death in the stables of their inhuman proprietors !

2-44 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

Maii}^ of the above hints will apply to caftle reared for the
butcher ; as a good-tempered \vel\ trained animal always feeds
best. Small bones are in general most favourable for fatten-
ing, and are produced by a practice contrary to the above, viz.
by feeding with rich food when young. Tameness and gentle-
ness of temper, which are produced by kind treatment, are
highly favourable to the same purpose*.

The rearing of poultry, game, fish, rabbits, and bees, is
worthy of notice, and is useful in a country residence. Too
little attention is generally paid to nature in rearing game.
Pheasants or swans are not so easily reared under domestic
~ hens, as other birds are, such as the turkey, peacock, &c.
Much depends upon encouraging the former when allowed to go
wild, by giving them proper and abundant cover, and sowing
among it such herbs as they are particularly fond of; some of
these are cresses, chervil, parsley, thyme, &c. which also tend
to encourage and domesticate hares. Abundance of fearless
game about a residence adds a peculiar nobleness and appear-
ance of liberty (so to speak) which few things else can com-
municate.

The general management of fish-f- and beesj is commonly

* See Messrs. CuUey's excellent work on this subject.

t See Bradley's Husbandry, and Marshall's Kitchen Garden. J Bonar on Bees.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 245

understood. — For the construction of aviaries, poultry-houses,
fish-ponds, &c. see Part IX. Of the conveniencies pecu-
liar TO A RESIDENCE.

CHAPTER V.

OF THE SIZE, FORMATION, AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS.

The size of farms has occasioned considerable altercation
among agriculturists and speculators on political economy ;
some contending for their being small, others very large, and
others again for different sizes, limiting the largest to a given
number of acres. It is easy to see that all these schemes must be
equally wrong. It is one of the greatest blessings of this coun-
try, that there are farms to be had of all sizes, and of every di-
versity of yearly value ; by Mhich means the unlettered but in-
dustrious peasant may gradually ascend to wealth and indepen-
dence ; and at the same time the judicious agriculturist, who
possesses capital and information capable of enriching himself
and introducing improvements, has an opportunity of embark-
ing at once and of reimbursing himself for the sum laid out.
The consequence of parcelling out the country in large farms

246' AGKICULTUJ}!

BOOK I.

alone would tend to destroy liberty. The consequence of small
farms alone would occasion great variation of prices and occa-
sional dearths. These things will appear plain to every one
who chooses to reflect a little upon the subject. The general
conclusion which I draw is in favour of all sizes of farms; not
all sizes upon each estate, though something of this sort a pru-
dent landlord will attend to also ; but I wish, principally, all
sizes to be found in the country in general. Some countries
require to be laid out almost entirely in large farms, as sheep-
walks ; others in small ones, as wherever particular crops are
attended to, as hops, orchards, &c. In stiff and moist clayey
soils, as well as in very dry ones, large farms are highlj'- advan-
tageous, as giving the farmer a command of strength to en-
able him to work these soils at the proper seasons. In small
farms these soils seldom yield theirfull produce: the moist clay is
laboured when too wet, and the dry loam cannot always be over-
taken in time, particularly in the culture of turnips and barley ;
by which means it loses the sap or moisture, and thence the
crop either fails entirely or is materially injured. Middling
soils, that is, such as are free, deep, and of moderate moisture
and easily laboured, are in every case the best for small farms.
The proper way, upon the whole, with this as with many other
things in political economy, is to leave the business entirely to
itself.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 247

In the FORWATiox of farms, two things chiefly require
consideration : 1st. Their subdivision by fences ; and, 2dly,
The erection of proper buildings. I interfere not with their
subdivisions in regard to crops, that being sufficient! 3^ known
and followed by every intelligent farmer. With regard to sub-
divisions in general, the remarks offered under enclosing
may suffice also for this branch of formation. I shall only ob-
serve farther, that frequently' in arable farms, where the soil is
of great value, as in some parts of Mid and East Lothian, where
it lets from five to ten pounds an acre, the cheapest fences are
hurdles, either of pitched or tarred fir wood, oak, or young
larches. Hurdles also arc of great use in family farms, espe-
cially in uniting them Avith the park or lawn, and also in parti-
tioning off part of the park in order to join it with the country.
This will be explained in a subsequent part of the volume.
The farm designed for Barnbarrow is almost wholly subdivided
in this wa3% and will tend to unite it with the park in a beauti-
ful manner; and also to render the latter more valuable, by oc-
casionally bringing the whole, or at least the greater part of it,
under the plough for such a period as may be necessary to bring
the soil into excellent condition. The same thing has been exe-
cuted from my designs at Mountwhannie, which shews the excel-
lent effects that residences would have if laid out in this way. ^Ir.
Gillespie, the proprietor 01' this estate, saw at once the superiority

248 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

of this scheme over the mode of clumping and surrounding every
place with a belt, to the exclusion both of the family farm and
the country. Though this wretched taste prevails every Avhere
around him, and though he had already gone a certain length
in it himself, he with a great and liberal spirit instantly rejected
the remaining part of his plan, and adopted that which is here
recommended. At Hopton court ideas corresponding with this
principle were recommended in the design for laying out that
place as an ornamental farm of a particular kind, pasture and
orcharding being the chief products, I had the happiness of
seeing these plans fully approved of; and every part of them is
carrying gradually into execution, under the proprietor's own
general superintendence, with my occasional visits.

I proceed in the next place to give a few hints respecting
buildings for the different kinds of farms.

1. Arable farms. — The situation of the buildings should, if
possible, be near the market road, near the centre of the
grounds, and either on an eminence or open space, so as to
command wind, or near a brook, so as to obtain the advantage
of water for machinery. The large expensive barns erected in
England may generally be dispensed with, the extra cost of
these barns would be much better laid out on a thrashing

PART IV. AGRICULTURE. 249

machine, which is an acquisition of considerable importance to
arable farms*. Wheat, which is commonly kept in the barns
in England, would be much safer if preserved in stacks or ricks,
as in the northern parts of it, and in East Lothian and Berwick-
shire, where farming is at greater perfection than in any other
county.

2. Pasture farms. — The buildings are few in sheep farms, and
not numerous when the object of the farmer is rearing cattle or
horses. They should be placed in the most convenient situa-
tion as to roads and water.

3. Mixed kinds ; that is, pasture and aration together, or al-
ternately, such as where the convertible or Berwickshire husban-
dry is followed, require the same consideration as arable farms.

4. Family farms, or such as are made for the convenience of
a residence, are almost always of a mixed kind. The lawn near
the mansion aftbrds pasture for rearing sheep, the park for rear-
ing other cattle and horses, and sometimes for fattening them ;
at least it may alwa3's be partitioned off by hurdles for this pur-
pose. Small old grass parks or paddocks, which, according to

* For the best plan of a farmery for arable grounds, see the Farmer's Magazine,
which is conducted by one of the best wheat cultivators in the United Kingdom,
Robert Brown, Esq. ofMarkla.

K K

250 , AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

the way I propose for laying out a residence, ought to unite the
park with the farm or general country, form excellent pastures
for milch cows, breeding mares, &c. ; or for growing meadow
hay; and the arable farm supplies artificial hay, corns, roots,
leaves, garden vegetables, green food for soiling with, and every
thing else to be expected from a complete farm *. The buildings
on a farm of this kind require to be equally various and compre-
hensive with the purposes for whieh the farm is used. The
chief group of them, or what may properly be called the far-
mery, should be near, or at least of easy access from, the family
offices or livery stables ; at the same time contrived so as not
to interfere with the principal approaches to the mansion, nor
to shew from it the common operations in the yard. Field ope-
rations are of a different nature, and may frequently be shewn
from a mansion.) Such a farmery should be well connected

* I had an excellent opportunity of embodying my ideas on this subject, and on
every thing else respecting the formation of a complete and extensive residence, in
the treatise, estimates, designs, plans, and models given in to Sir Hew Hamilton
Dairy mple, Bart. I had the honour of seeing them fully approved of; and should
nothing occur to prevent their full execution, the natural advantages of the situa-
tion, and the good taste of the proprietor, will certainly make it one of the finest
places in the island. It will unite all the beauties of Mount Edgecumbe on one side,
and more than those of the woods and grounds of Hawkstone, within itself. The
practice of some would justify me in giving plates from these designs, without hint-
ing whether they were already executed or approved of, or not. But this and other
species of quackery I despise, not wishing my fame (if I may ever obtain any) to
depend upon ostentatious exhibitions on paper, but upon real execution, and
general good principles in my art.

PART IV. AGRICULTURE, 251

with all the parts of the farm, the park, the paddock, and the
public roads ; and should, if possible, be in a situation to take
the proper advantage of wind or water, &c. Besides the prin-

*

cipal group of houses, which, as mentioned under Architec-
ture, should be dignified or elevated in character, other sheds
and hovels for shelter of cattle, and hay-ricks, may be distri-
buted in different parts of the old pastures, which, besides their
utility, have an excellent effect as objects in rural scenery.

The management of farms includes a great variety of
objects. But as it is a branch in general better known by bai-
liff's than most others, and besides, as it does not come within
the province of a designer in laying out a residence, scarcely any
thing need be offered here. I shall just mention, that gentle-
men, in choosing bailiffs, should endeavour to obtain them as
much as possible from a soil and situation similar to their own,
but farmed in a more scientific and profitable manner : or they
should first ascertain what species of husbandry or management
will best suit their situation, what particular improvements
might be introduced, such as the drill husbandry, flooding, irri-
gation, cultivation of peat moss, &c, and then procure a person
from a part of the country where these practices are best per-
formed. AA'here such places are, is easil}^ learned, either from
any well-informed land valuator, or from the agricultural re-

252 AGRICULTURE. BOOK I.

ports of the diftbreut counties. I may observe however, upon
the whole, that the husbandry of Northumberland and Ber-
wickshhe is the most extensively useful, and that the best bailiffs
are commonly obtained from those countries. They have, in
general, acquired such an education and habit of observation
as, besides enabling them to transplant their own practices,
renders them capable of improving upon that of the country
in which they may be called upon to employ their talents.

253

BOOK I.

PART V.

USEFUL OR CULINARY GARDENING.

INTRODUCTION.

Horticulture may be subdivided into culinary or use-
ful gardening, including the production of fruits and vegeta-
bles for the kitchen; ornamental gardening, including the
production of vegetables for show, beauty, and amusement, as
parterres or flower gardens, or instruction, as in botanic garden-
ing; and, NURSERY gardening, which comprehends every
thing relating to propagating and rearing either trees, shrubs,
or plants.

Culinary gardening, the branch to be here considered, is se-
parated from Agriculture on the one hand, only by the differ-
ence in the implements used for cultivation; and from Orna-
mental and Nursery gardening on the other, by the difference

254 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

between the objects in view. All the operations of this mode of
cultivating the earth being manual, on a limited scale, and more
interesting to individuals, it is thence calculated to effect the
highest degree of vegetable produce from a given surface. Cu-
linary productions being more or less requisite for every state
of society, as well as for every family, are peculiarly so for the
wealthy and independent; and thus, in ages of general igno-
rance and barbarism, gardening might exist in considerable
perfection from the encouragement given to it by the chiefs or
nobles. Hence it has been generally better understood than
agriculture, and hence also agriculture has derived many of its
greatest improvements from gardening. The theory of garden-
ing, like every other branch of husbandry, is derived from the
study of nature; either simply, as from the observation of the
three kingdoms ; or abstractedly, from chemical or mechanical
experiments. Having made some remarks on these subjects in
the general introduction to husbandry, I shall, without farther
preamble, proceed to glance over some of the principal topics
in this branch of it: — without a full and practical knowledge
of which, I am well convinced, it is impossible for a de-
signer to understand the art of laying out a kitchen garden *.

* It may be observed here, that from the short remarks offered in this division of
the wori<, the practical and scientific reader will discern much better whether
the author understands husbandry, than if he had made a more copious treatise
on the subject. Here his business is to seize on the prominent features, and such
as chiefly refer to the desip;n of a garden or farm. Tiiis is both easily done and

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 235

The remarks oftered will be included under the following heads:
1. Of the cultivation of the soil. 2. Of the culture of herba-
ceous vegetables. 3. Of the culture of fruit trees and fruit
shrubs. 4. Of the culture of culinary exotics. 5. Of forcing
vegetables into a state of growth, so as to produce fruit at par-
ticular or unnatural seasons. 6. Of the construction of hot-
houses, hot-walls, pits, hot-beds, and mushroom-houses. 7. Of
the other buildings requisite for a kitchen garden. 8. Of the
formation of orchards ; and, 9- Of the general formation of a
garden.

easily discerned by those of practical knowledge. But this observation is made in
order to arouse the attention and excite the enquiry of those superficial readers,
who may think the whole of what I have advanced on this subject a mere compen-
dium from books, and which might have been written by any perswi without much
practical knowledge.

256 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.

Without making any remarks on draining, clearing of in-
cumbrances, or any of the first improvements of the soil, I
proceed to pulverization, which in horticulture is per-
formed chiefly by the spade, with the occasional assistance of
the mattock. On the surface, it is performed by the hoe and
the rake, as in destroying weeds, or in stirring the earth
about the roots of young vegetables. Pulverization is also
much promoted by frost, as in ground laid up in ridges ;
and by the alternate eft'ects of heat and rain, as in that
duo; or trenched durino- the summer months. In manuring
garden grounds, composts are preferable, or at least pu-
trescent manure in the last stage of decomposition; wiien
rank or new, it never fails to give a peculiar and disagree-
able taste both to the roots and leaves of culinary vegetables.
This every one must have experienced in early potatoes, or
such as are raised on what are called lazybeds. It is to be re-
gretted for the sake of agriculture, that kitchen gardens re-
(juire so large a proportion of manure. The scheme of culti-

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 257

vating most of the summer crops of greens and roots in the
fields, and of resting the soil, as to be afterwards proposed, it is
thought will tend to counteract this evil. In many places
where peat moss abounds, considerable advantage may be ob-
tained by mixing a quantity of that material with the stable
dung used for making up hotbeds.

Resting or refreshing garden soil is a species of culti-
vation which is performed two ways. The first is, by sowing
a certain portion every year with corn and grass seeds, letting
it remain under the last for three or more years, and then
breaking it up again. This is a very beneficial plan, and is
advantageously practised by most market-gardeners, who use
the corn or grass so raised for their cattle. In gentlemen's gar-
dens, care should be taken never to let the grass run to seed, as
is sometimes done in the market-garden; but in other respects
the general practice should be performed in the same manner.
By soAving and laying down a certain quantity annually, a si-
milar quantity may be broken up : this will consequently af-
ford so much fresh soil every year, upon which such crops as
answer best on new land, as onions, carrots, and indeed most
garden crops, may be raised.

The second mode was invented by Mr. Walter Nicol *, Avho

* Author of The Fwcing Gardener, £(c.
L L

258 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

may bo rankcil among the best culinary gardeners that Scot-
land ever produced. It is excellently adapted tor producing
the same effect as above, and should be used jointly with it; by
which means a large portion of fresh surface soil would every
year be obtained. As this practice is not much known in
England, I shall give the directions for performing it in Mr.
Nicol's own words. " Take three crops off the first surface,
then trench three spit deep, by^ which the bottom and top is
reversed, and the middle remains in the middle; take three
crops of this surface, and then trench two spit deep, by Avhich
the top becomes the middle and the middle the top; take also
three crops off this surface, and then trench three spit deep,
whereby that which was last the middle, and now the top, be-
comes the bottom ; and that Avhich is now the bottom, and was
the surface at first, now becomes surface again, after having
rested six years. Proceed in this manner alternately ; the one
time trenching two spit deep, and the other three; by Avhich
means the surface will always be changed, and will rest six
years and produce three. Hence will there always be new soil
on the garden for the production of wholesome vegetables; and
hence also Avill much less manure be required than when the
soil is shallow and the same surface constantly in crop."

Rotation is the species of cultivation next in importance.
In managing it, the vegetables cultivated should be divided

PART V. CULINARY GAKDENING. 259

into classes according to their respective natures, modes of cul-
ture, and duration. \V ith respect to natiires, they may be di-
vided into, 1. Such as have ramose roots, as the cabbage, cauli-
flower, brocoli, &c. 2. Such as have fusiform roots, as the car-
rot, beet, parsnip, &c. 3. Such as are squamose, as the onion,
leek, eschalot, &c. 4. Such as are fibrous, as the lettuce, en-
dive, &c. 5. Such as are tuberose, as the potatoe, Jerusalem
artichoke, &c. They may be also divided into such as partake
of two of these divisions, as the fusiform and fibrous, exemplified
in the bean, pea, kidney-bean, spinach, &c. &c. Some crops
require to be cultivated in large quantities, as pease, turnips,
onions ; others in small portions, as most salads and pot-herbs.
Some.require very rich soil, and generally manure previously
to planting or sowing, as celery, cauliflower, and leeks; others
require a tolerably rich soil, but are much injured b}^ manure
immediately previous to their insertion, as carrot, beet, and
most esculent roots of fusiform shapes. With respect to modes
of culture, culinary vegetables may be divided into, 1. Such as
are sown upon the surface broadcast, as onions, turnips, spi-
nach, &c. 2. Such as are sown or planted on the surface, but
in drills, as pease, beans, and potatoes. 3. Such as are placed
in hollow trenches, as celery, and sometimes artichokes. 4.
Such as are sown or raised on beds or ridges, as asparagus, sea-
cale, and frequently early crops of pease, &c. 5. Some recpiire

260 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

the soil to be often pulverized while growing, as potatoes, pease,
and most drill crops ; others admit of it but in a small degree,
as onions, leeks, carrots, &c. Some are occasionally and often
materially injured by it, as strawberries. With respect to
duration, some are sown and removed within three months,
as early crops of turnips, radishes, brassica plants, for removal,
&c. others continue double that time, as onions and po-
tatoes; others treble, as frequently brocoli, and cabbages;
some continue two seasons, as parsley, fennel, &c. ; others
for several years, as straAv berries, asparagus, artichokes, &c.
A judicious gardener, by studying the above, and other divi-
sions which might be made, will thence contrive a proper suc-
cession of crops: thus celery, by being planted in hollow
trenches, pulverizes the soil in a high degree ; by requiring a
considerable quantity of manure, it enriches it; both which
properties are necessary for the production of plants of large
ramose or fasiculate roots, which penetrate deep into the soil,
such as artichokes, scorzonera, asparagus, &c. Again, these
crops by remaining long on the soil aftbrd, when removed, an
excellent situation for such as are more transitory, as pease, po-
tatoes, &c. Every experienced gardener knows that it is of
the utmost importance to study a proper rotation of crops; for
the same thing happens in gardening as in agriculture, when-
ever two or three of the same kind, or of the same natures, fol-

PART V. CULINARY GAUDliNING. 26l

low each other, they never fail to degenerate both in quantity
and quality.

The destruction of weeds is performed upon the same
principles as in agriculture; the only difference is in the appli-
cation of labour, which here is always manual, and is either by
the spade, hoe, rake, weeding-iron, or by the hand. But in
gardening, if attention be paid to the fermenting of putrescent
manure, and spreading and exposing other composts before they
are used, and never letting any weeds perfect their seeds, there
will be comparatively little occasion for the operation. These
things, however, and particularly the preventing of weeds from
flowering, are too little attended to by most gardeners. It is
true that, after all, the birds and the wind will continue to dis-
tribute these enemies to cultivation; but their effects are as
nothing when compared with those of ill-fermented stable ma-
nure, and the seeds of such weeds as are produced in the
garden.

The destruction of vetxMTn is an important branch
of cultivation, that in gardening, as in agriculture, is not well
understood. Some are, after all that has been tried, best de-
stroyed by gathering with the hand as soon as they begin to
appear, as the caterpillar tribe; others by plentiful steaming,
dew, or Avatering, as tlie aphis; others by tobacco smoke, as

262 CirLINAUV GARDENING. BOOK 1.

the thripes; others by compositions of various kinds, such as
soap-suds and sulphur, Hme-water, &c. as the coccus, phalrena,
&c. Some are caught by artifice, as wasps, flies, mice, &c. ;
others are devoured by the introduction of other animals, as
the grub by the rook, the snail or worm by the duck or gull,
&c. Blight* is most probably produced by insects, or is rather
a collection of small insects ; sometimes it is removed by chang-
ing the situation of vegetables, and removing them to a more
open exposure; at other times by placing them in a n'lore invi-
gorating soil; and very commonly by placing them in a higher
situation. Honey-dew is an exudation from vegetables, which
frequently breeds an immense collection of small insects upon
their surface; a more invigorating soil is often a complete cure
for this malady, particularly where it attacks young trees.

Watering, in horticulture, is generally performed by the
hand, and either with the common Avatering pot, the syringe,
or the forcing engine. In many cases I think it possible
to accomplish it by a practice similar to irrigation, or by sub-
flooding. The last may be done by having a stratum of gravel

* According to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart, and some others, mildew or rust in wheat
is occasioned by a parasitic plant that insinuates itself into the pores of the straw,
and thereby prevents the grain from obtaining its proper noiiris'iment. Others
have supposed the yellowish red appearance on the straw of grain to l)e a mere ve-
getable tumour, occasioned by obstructed circulation, and the blight of the ear
only, to be produced by insects.

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 263

under the whole garden; ^vhich, by means of a trench sur-
rounding it (or, if upon a slope, at the upper side of it), might
be saturated with water, which would soon be absorbed by the
incumbent surface containing the vegetables under cultivation.
The first by having pipes, open cuts, or rather small wooden
troughs, which might conduct it upon the surface of every
quarter of the garden. There it might distribute itself in the
intervals between beds or drills, and over the general surface
of broadcast crops. The former method could be put in prac-
tice at any period of the summer or spring; the latter chiefly
in moist Aveather, or in the night season. Watering is bene-
ficial in three ways: first, in prompting or exciting vegetation,
as in new-sown seeds, or newly transplanted vegetables ; se-
condly, in promoting vegetation, as in watering crops or trees;
and thirdly, in destroying insects, as the aphis or red spider,
and some species of coccus, &c.

Pruning is a branch of cultivation highly requisite in hor-
ticulture, particularly in what regards the culture of trees and
shrubs. It is used either to promote, to retard, or to modify
growth. Pruning may be used either to promote the growth
of wood, leaves, or fruit, or to retard them. With respect to
the modification of trees and shrubs, it is applied to many
sorts to bring them into convenient shapes for being cultivated
with care; as to gooseberries, raspberries, shrubs in pots, &c.;

264 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

and to others, to make them accord with peculiar situations,
as often occurs in connexion with trainins; in the management
of wall-trees. These different objects of pruning are to be
effected from a general acquaintance with the vegetable eco-
nomy, and a particular knowledge of the individuals to be
pruned. With respect to general laws, the common effect of
pruning that part of trees above ground only, is to produce more
vigorous annual growths; and in respect to fruit, commonly a
smaller number, but those of greater magnitude. The common
effect of pruning the roots of trees only, is the contrary, and ge-
nerally causes them to produce smaller and less vigorous an-
nual shoots, but more fruit. Much pruning, either of the tops
or roots, makes them produce smaller and more numerous rami-
fications; which, as they are unable to run out to any great
distance in quest of food, either from the air or the earth, do
consequently form a spherical bush above ground, as may
be seen in pollards; and a globular mass of roots under it, as
may be seen by taking up any tree which has been frequently
removed. In general also, the extremities of shoots or branches
bent downwards, and the extremities of roots bent upwards,
check vegetation and tend to produce fruit; while an oppo-
site practice has contrary effects. With regard to individual
trees, there are some sorts which only produce their fruit from
the young wood of the preceding year, as the vine, the fig, and
the raspberry. There are others which produce them from two

PART V. * CULINARY GARDENING. 265

years shoots only, as the peach and nectarine. Others produce
them chiefly from shids, or spurs, as the apple, pear, and plum.
Some by both these modes, as the apricot and gooseberry.
Others almost entirely from studs and knotty joints, as the
red and white currants, &c. Some trees require most of their
young wood to be cut off", as the currant; others very little of
it, as the peach, and most pears; others are materially injured
by being much pruned, as the cherry, plum, and most stone
fruit. Some bear any degree of it, as the apple and several
kinds of pears.

Training by fixtures is properly a branch of pruning. It
is used for two purposes ; either to protect exotics or tender
fruit trees from the wind ; to improve their climate, by spread-
ing them regularl}^ upon a wall, or to support climbing or
trailing plants. The first method is generally performed either
by spreading tlie branches, horizontally and parallel to each
other, upon an upright rail, as in common espaliers, or by
spreading them upon a horizontal rail, as in table espaliers.
In some cases it is also done upon an inclined rail, or upon cir-
cular or basket ones. Training to improve the climate is
chiefly against a wall, and is either performed in the fan, or ho-
rizontal manner. The fan manner is calculated for soonest co-
vering the wall, and is also most proper for snch kinds as do
not abound in superfluous wood, as the cherry, peach, and

M M

266 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

apricot. The horizontal manner fills the wall more completely,
though it is longer in accomplishing it ; and is best calculated
for such as run much to wood, as do many pears and apples.
In training to support climbing plants, nature should be imi-
tated as nearly as possible. AVith such kinds as twine round
other trees or supports, or fasten themselves to walls, nothing
more is necessary, than to put these on similar objects within
their reach; but with others, which support themselves by clasp-
ers or tendrils, it is requisite to fasten them by art when these
tendrils fail. In nature, they fail commonly the second year; and
then the whole twining shrub or climber falls down, or hangs
by its last made tendrils in such a way that its shoots are bent,
twisted, or inclined in every direction. This is the case with
vines, passion-flowers, and many others, and readily suggests
the advantage of training these sorts in a twisted or serpentine
direction. Indeed, nothing can be more unnatural than to
train them erect, as is generally done where vines are planted
against the back walls of hot-houses. When trained upon a
trellis under the sloping glass, they are in a more natural
situation, and are more likely to send out shoots or to break
(as gardeners term it) at every joint; but still experience has
proved the immense advantage of training in a serpentine
direction in every situation. In many hot-houses in England,
and in the greater number in Scotland, nearly two-thirds
of the crop which might be produced annually are lost for

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 267

want of attention to tliis circumstance. It requires no argu-
ments to support a practice so evidently natural, and uni-
formly attended with such good effects whenever it has been
tried ; and as it can never do harm, every gardener ought to
adopt it*. Great advantage may be taken of the same prin-
ciple in training other trees; whenever the sap is constrained
by twisting a shoot or branch, it is sure at those places most
bent, or at the most angular parts of each curve, to send out
a shoot. This was taken advantage of, and is excellently
illustrated, by Mr. Hitt in his Treatise on Fruit Trees; and
had this and several other old treatises not been too much
neglected, the late ISL*. Forsyth's would not have been rendered
necessary.

In training trees, few gardeners understand or avail them-
selves of the advantages which might be taken from this gene-
ral law in the vegetable economy, that the extreme brandies
bent downward, or the extreme roots turned upwai'd and ex-
posed to the air, throw the tree more or less into fruit. I have
lately seen it done in two instances by accident, where the ef-
fect was astonishing. The first was at Tynningham, where
some pear-trees which never bore well, but grew vigorously, at-

* See Forsyth's Treatise on Fruit Trees.

^68 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

tallied the top of the wall, and were turned down upon the
other side. This has been done two or three years, and every
year those branches so turned down have borne immense quan-
tities of fruit, and the other parts of the tree have begun to bear
better. Were every other branch turned downward in this
manner, either by bringing them over to the other side of the
wall, or turning them downward upon the same side, the whole
tree would soon become fruitful. The second instance Avas at
Palatine House, where vines were grown in a pit, and trained
from the top of the back wall, under the sloping rafters, to the
lowest part of the front glass, and uniformly produced extra-
ordinary crops of grapes, with a less than usual quantity of
shoots. The good effects arising from the same principle may
be seen in most gardens in a greater or less degree, at the cor-
ners of walls or espaliers, or around doors or other openings.
Where .trees are trained upon houses, it may be very frequently
seen; the bends and twists, and downward training of the
shoots, occasioned by the doors and windows, chimnies and
projections, always producing this effect; and hence we often
find trees in these situations afford more fruit than those in gar-
dens. The excellent effects of cutting the roots of trees either
at some distance or near the chief stem, and also the effects of
cutting the stem itself, in order to throw them into fruit, have
been fully recorded by former writers on horticulture, and have

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 269

been recently practised with complete effect by an excellent
gardener at Woodhall.

Ablaqueation, or laying bare the roots of trees, is a species
of cultivation nearly allied to pruning, and has the same ten-
dency as the practice above mentioned*. I pass over many
important particulars in this department of cultivation, and
omit some branches altogether.

CHAPTER II.

OF THE CULTURE OF HERBACEOUS VEGETABLES.

These may be divided into three classes, viz. 1. The annual
or biennial; 2. The perennial; and, 3. Salads and pot-herbs.
The first class occupies the chief part of a garden ; the two
others occupy comparatively little space. To enlarge on the
modes of culture applicable to the individuals of each class
would in this place be improper, and indeed useless in a work
of this nature, where only such hints are oifered as may be in-

* See Miller's Dictionary, Evelyn's Kalendarium Hortense, &c.

270 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

teresting to gentlemen, or ma}^ tend to enlarge the ideas of the
naturalist or amateur in gardening. What I have here to remark
upon is, the important advantages to be obtained from culti-
vating the summer or late crops of the first class, annual and
biennial kitchen crops, in the fields. The advantages are, 1.
More wholesome and better flavoured vegetables, arising from
the freshness of the soil and the open exposure. 2. The ex-
pence attending their culture is less, it being performed by
agricultural implements, and consequently requiring little ma-
nual labour, and also less manure than in gardening. 3. Less
manure being necessary in the garden, consequentl}"^ more can
be spared for agricultural purposes. Manure used in agri-
culture doubles itself every year; whereas that used in gardens
makes scarcely any returns: the advantage therefore of em-
ploying as much of it as possible in agriculture is evident. 4.
The last advantage consists in reducing the quantity of land
destined for a garden ; which, when this practice is to be fol-
lowed, need never be so large as they commonly are.

The garden crops which may be best raised in the fields
are all or most of those which are not sown before the middle
of February in England, and the first of March in Scotland,
and which are removed before those periods in the next year.
Of this class are the principal crops of pease, beans, turnips.

PART V. CULI^fARY GARDENING. 271

carrots, parsnips, potatoes, onions, brocoli, and several others,
which will grow perfectly well in the field, and with the same
or similar culture as the turnip or potatoe husbandry. In all
well regulated home or family farms there is every year a cer-
tain portion of ground allotted for turnips, potatoes, or other
drill crops; now that allotment has only to be increased, and
part of it used for the culture of these garden vegetables.
When they were full grown, or when the turnips were to be
eaten oiF by sheep, or otherwise removed from the rest of
the field, that part of it under this culture could easily be
inclosed by hurdles, which would preserve every thing safe
during the winter. In spring it would no longer be neces-
sary, and then the hurdles or temporary fence might be
taken away, and the ground ploughed and sown with oats
or barley, and grass seeds, &c. according to the nature of the
rotation followed by the farmer.

272 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

CHAPTER III.

Ok' THE CULTURE OF FRUIT TREES. AND FRUIT SHRUBS.

This is one of the most comprehensive and difificult branches
of horticulture: it may be subdivided as follows; viz. 1. The
culture of wall fruits ; 2. The culture of espaliers ; 3. The cul-
ture of standards ; 4. The culture of the lesser fruits, or fruit
shrubs.

1. The culture of wall fruits. — The first object of at-
tention here is the construction, situation, and height of the
walls, and general dimensions of the borders ; but as these natu-
rally belong to the general formation of a garden, I shall pass
over it to the formation of the soil. With regard to depth: in
dry situations, it may be three feet for most kinds ; but in many
'cases two feet will be preferable; in such as are moist, eigh-
teen or twenty inches is most proper, the bottom being paved
or imbedded with a composition of loam and gravel, or rub-
bish of masonry, and forming a declivity southwards. The pro-
priety of a shallow border on moist soils, and indeed in general,
I have lately experienced in several striking cases, particularly

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 273

at Knowlesly ; and it agrees also with what Mr. Hitt recom-
mends and practised in making borders for fruit trees ; several
of which, when the subsoil was gravel or rock, were not above
one foot in depth ; and these he always found produced the
largest crops, and by much the best flavoured fruit. The qua-
lit}' of the soil must vary according to the kind of tree to be
planted. In general, it may be sufficient to observe here, that
pears, plums, and apples, require rather a strong loam ; cher-
ries, apricots, figs, and vines a lighter ; and peaches and nec-
tarines a kind of medium between them ; though, upon the
whole, daily experience proves that all these sorts will prosper
in the same soil, if other circumstances are favourable. In Dr.
Monro's garden, atSlateford cottage, excellent crops of grapes,
and indeed of most fruits, are produced from a strong clay ; and
in hundreds of places in Surrey equally good crops are pro-
duced from soils chiefly composed of sand and gravel. Apples
and plums seem to prosper best in argillaceous soil, as may be
observed both in the Clydsdale and Herefordshire orchards;
though there are some kinds that prosper much better in a
light one, as the paradise and oslin pippin and the drap-d'or
plum *.

* The finest flavoured fruit in Normandy is found on very light and even shal-
low soils, which are the kind indeed that most generally prevail throughout all that
province, as well as Picardy. Even the rich loam that covers the most fertile
plains on the banks of the Seine abounds in small gravel and sand. Both that soil

N N

274 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK 1.

The next object is the choice of proper kinds and good
plants from the nursery. Upon the different kinds a great va-
riety of opinions prevail. The kinds which generally prosper
best in England may be found in Mr. Forsyth's Treatise, and
those in Scotland in Mr. Nicol's. A good practice for gentle-
men who are unacquainted with a great variety, is to observe
those sorts which do best in the neighbouring gardens; and
also to attend to the opinions of the most eminent nurserymen,
who from their general sale of these trees, and intercourse with
practical gardeners, are always well acquainted with the kinds
most in repute. When the trees are planted, each may be
numbered so as to preserve the name of the kind. This num-
ber may either be marked on lead or copper and nailed to the
wall, painted on the wall, or registered by various other de-
vices. With respect to good plants, every gardener knows
the leading signs of health and vigour; viz. fullness, and well-
formed buds in the extremities of the shoots.

The next object in the culture of wall fruit is their general
management, Avhich is too extensive and common-place to ad-
mit of any remarks here.

and its products, however, are very inferior to those of Herefordshire, notwith-
standing what may have been erroneously said to the contrary. Tour in
France.

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 275

2. The culture op espaliers may be considered under
heads similar to those above. The remarks theie made are all
applicable here, except what relates to the depth of soil ; for
here several reasons concur to shew, that this ought in fewer
cases to be less than twenty inches or two feet deep. The co?i-
struction of espalier rails is perfectly simple ; they should be
fixed in masonry, and their parts under ground should either be
charred on the surface or pitched, unless the whole be made of
larch wood, in which case both pitch and paint are unneces-
sary. Espalier rails painted white have a harsh glaring effect
in gardens ; in all cases, therefore, they ought to be painted of
some quiet colour, as brown, grey, or green. They are gene-
rally placed parallel to the walks on one side, as on those walks
which surround the garden ; or on both ends, as on those which
cross through it. In both cases when the proper proportions
are adopted, they have an excellent effect, especially in the
cross walks.

3. The culture of standards. When these are placed
irregularly throughout the garden, which is seldom an advisa-
ble practice, nothing can be said respecting the soil, as they
must give way in that article to the general crops. But the
best way of using standards (under which I comprehend all
unfastened trees) is either in rows, as gooseberries commonly
are, along the borders ; — in quarters by themselves ;— or in

276 CULINAKV GAKDENINO. BOOK I.

orchards. Standards for borders in the kitchen garden should
always be kept low, in order that they may shade the crops on
each side as little as possible. But pcihaps the best way is to
have quarters for this kind of standards— to have them grafted
on paradise or quince stocks, by which means they come sooner
into fruit ; and by the time those in the orchard or on the Avails
are in a full bearing state, these quarters are fit to be thrown
out : and if requisite another quarter could be planted to suc-
ceed them. In this way, when a new garden was made, a tole-
rable supply of fruit might be had every year after the third ;
it being well known, that apples on paradise stocks, and pears
on quince stocks, will frequently bear the second year after
grafting, and very generally the third : and as those to be
planted in the quarters would be three or four years old before
they were removed from the nursery, they would commence
bearing immediately.

Standards for orchards ought geneially to be of the tall
or high kind, and always grafted upon crab stocks. — See

OllCIIARDS.

4. The cultivation of small fruits, as gooseberries,
currants, raspberries, &c. is commonly known. In the cultiva-
tion of red and white currants much depends upon pruning.
They should be allowed to produce only from studs ; and from

PAKT V. CULINARY GARDENING. 277

these, after the bush is four years old, the young wood should be
AvhoUy cut away every winter. This however is only applicable
to standard currants, where large fruit is wanted ; when cur-
rants are grown upon walls, and the object is to preserve
fruit upon the tree from the currant season till the middle of
winter, as is done in some places, the mode is to have the fruit
rather smaller, and to have the tree large, and so much covered
with fruit as to admit of few shoots. The former practice
is excellently carried on at Duddingston, and the latter at
Archerfield.

CHAPTER IV.

Of THE CULTURE OF CULINARY EXOTICS.

Among plants or fruits which in this country require artificial
climates, the pine first deserves attention. Much has been
written respecting its culture, and much still remains to be
done. The largest fruit and most uniform crop that I have
ever seen was at Kelham House *. The soil in which they are

* In the year 1802 Mr. Griffin the gardener cut twenty queen pines, which
weighed together eighty-seven pounds seven ounces : — in 1803, one weighing five
pounds three ounces ; — in July 1804, one of the New Providence kind weighing

278 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

grown is a stronger loam than is recommended by Speechly
and Nicol, or used by any gardener as far as my observation
has extended; from which, and several other particulars in
management which I observed when there, it is probable some
real improvement is effected in the culture of this excellent
fruit. But for this I beg to refer to the Treatise which Mr.
Griffin proposes to publish. — In the next chapter some farther
observations will occur.

The general culture of the vine* need not here occupy our at-

seven pounds two ounces ; — and in August ISOt, he cut one of the same kind
which weighed nine pounds three ounces : these being the first and only two plants
of the New Providence kind ever placed under his care." This is extracted from
the Prospectus of a Treatise which he proposes to publish on the Pine.

* It may be remarked here, that the general imperfection of English grapes is
their defect of saccliarine matter and want of sweetness. This is, perhaps, in part
owing to the humidity of the atmo.sphere, more than to its coldness ; as very sweet
grapes grow, and spiritons wines are made, in much colder and more northern
latitudes than a great part of England. A very obvious remedy for both cold and
moisture is the adoption of small glass covers, made with lateral openings in such
a manner that they might be placed over the grapes and branch of the vine in any
direction. Another reason why the fruit of English vines possesses considerable aci-
dity, is the general taste for large globular grapes, without regard so much to the
delicacy of their flavour, as the grandeur of their appearance. This species of
vine does not produce delicious grapes in the hottest climates, and consequently
ought not to be so generally cultivated in this. The grapes most abundant in sac-
charine matter are always small and round, as those of the currant grape . It must be
confessed indeed, tliat the more exposed the vine is to the most intense meridian
sun, so much the sweeter will be the grape, and the greater the quantity of saccha-
rine or spiritous juice that it will contahi.

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 279

tention (seeChap. III.) ; but some effects which maybe produced
by particular modes of culture, though they are perfectly sim-
ple, and result from laws in the vegetable economy well known
to every practical naturalist, may deserve to be mentioned.
The first is, that Avhen put into a hot and rather poor soil, as
lime rubbish, brick-bats, and stiff vegetable mould, the growth
will be limited, and the tendency to produce fruit greatly in-
creased *. Hence vines of this kind may be cultivated like
currant bushes, either in the open air, — under a frame or hand-
glass,— or in pots which may be forced in a hot-house or con-
servatory, or plalbed when in fruit in the drawing-room, &c.
A soil of an opposite kind, free, porous, and deep, such as
rough sand and light loam kept moist, will encourage the
growth of wood, and greatly lessen the tendency to produce
fruit. Hence the advantage which may be taken of this in
nursery gardening, where raising vines is an object, and hence
also the advantage which may be occasionally taken from it in
filling a large house Avith one plant. It is true, it would lessen
the production of fruit for a year or two at first ; but whenever
the house was -sufficiently covered with shoots, by removino-
part of the sand and free soil, adding some of a richer and more
hot nature, and giving less water, the whole tree may be thrown

* This every attentive observer must have seen in the fields, wiiether in the
growth and fruitfulaess of weeds, common crops, hawthorn hedges, or trees.

280 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

into any degree of fruitfulness. Let me add here, that these
two opposite effects of different soils afford excellent ideas for
improving the soil of borders, either in the open air or hot-
houses, and either with a view to make the trees produce more
wood or more fruit. It is particularly adapted for vines and
stone fruits ; for cutting the roots of these, and especiall}^ of
vmes, is generally less successful, and is always attended with
greater risk, than on other trees : of this I had lately a striking
proof, by the shameful conduct of a gardener when about to
leave his situation. Other particulars< respecting the culture,
training, pruning, and management of the vine might be men-
tioned, were it suitable to this work. In every topic or parti-
cular of vegetable culture there are numerous and important
effects which may be produced by the simplest means, if we
but advert to nature, from which the most important precepts
in this branch of knowledge are obtained. But it is long before
mankind, especially the practical part of them, can throw off
the shackles of habit and prejudice ; and thence any thing of a
remarkable nature which is produced in these arts is commonly
discovered or efiected by accident. It is then either told to the
world as a wonder or singularity — wrapt up under a dark re-
ceipt, like a quack medicine — or concealed, as an invaluable
secret until a suitable reward be offered to the inventor. So
contracted and imperfect are the general ideas of husbandry in
this island, that even public bodies of the first importance have

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 281

been imposed on by these quack cultivators, both by men bring-
ing forward practices recorded by old writers, and by others re-
commendins: thinors of no real use.

Melons and cucumbers next demand attention. — They
are generally grown upon hot-beds, or in pits, which will be
noticed in the next chapter. Considerable art and constant
attention are requisite to have them early. Much depends
upon the steadiness of temperature and kindly moisture of the
atmosphere in the bed, and much also upon the soil employed.
Considerable improvements might be made in the culture of
these fruits, by adopting in certain cases the same general prin-
ciples which have been noticed above in treating of the vine,
and particularly in late crops. In hot-houses, cucumbers may
be preserved in a bearing state during the whole winter, as is
practised at Knowlsely and several other places. The culture of
the passiflora quadrangularis, or apple bearing passion-
flower, is nearly that of the vine. The chief difference is, that it
requires to be preserved in a growing temperature during the
whole year. This is easily effected, by planting them in pine
stoves or hot-houses. One plant bears an immense quantity of
fruit ; and as these are of an agreeable taste and flavour, and
have a beautiful and uncommon appearance, one or two plants
will have a good effect if introduced into hot-houses. That
number, however, is abundantly sufficient for any family ; as it

o o

282 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

is still far inferior to the other exotic fruits that have been men-
tioned. They may be seen in great plenty at Harewood Hall,
and the botanic garden of Liverpool.

The CACTUS opuNTiA is said to produce a fruit little in-
ferior to the pine apple. It may easily be raised by a si-
milar culture, but with a greater degree of dry bottom heat. It
certainly demands a trial from the curious epicure. — See
Justice's British Gardener.

As ORANGES are generally cultivated for show, they are re-
ferred to ornamental gardening. The best directions will be
found in " The Retired Gardener," and the best fruit and trees
in this country may be seen in the garden at Woodhall. There,
every species of oranges, lemons, limes, shaddocks, &c. are cul-
tivated in a variety of ways ; and, with a degree of success,
hitherto unparalleled in this kingdom.

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 283

CHAPTER V.

OF FORCING VEGETABLES INTO A STATE OF GROWTH OR
FRUIT AT PARTICULAR OR UNNATURAL SEASONS.

This is effected either by operations upon the vegetable
when in its natural climate, upon the soil in which it grows, or
by removing it into an artificial climate.

1. Forcing, by operating upon the vegetable or
THE soil, is done in various ways, and from different known
facts in the economy of plants. The simplest mode of forcing
is by sowing or planting at an uncommon season ; that is,
either later or earlier than usual. The next is, by placing the
vegetable in a warm and dry or cold and moist situation, or in
a hot or cold soil * ; by which it either comes into perfection
later or earlier than if placed in the medium between these two
extremes. The essences of every vegetable are its flowers and
fruit ; and every individual species grows, or has a continual
tendency to grow, until it produce these in perfection. An-
nuals in general do this the same season in which they are sown ;

* See Chapter IV. — Vine.

284 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

perennials, the second or third season, and once every year after-
wards ; trees and shrubs frequently do not show flowers for seve-
ral years after they are sown; but when once they have begun,
they do so regularly every summer afterwards. Now by taking
proper advantage of these known facts, considerable effects
may be produced, both in the way of forcing vegetables, and
rendering them more useful. Thus, by preventing annuals from
coming into flower the first year, which can e^isily be done by
removals or cutting them over near the surface, they will live,
unless in too cold a climate, till next season ; and if the same
operation be performed on them the second year, they will live
for a third : and so on, sometimes for a number of years ; in al-
most every case for two, and often for three or four years. In
this way, by mowing tares or barley, two or three green crops
may be obtained in one season, and a very early one be pro-
duced the next. By the same means annual rye grass is made
to last two or three seasons ; and on good soils is frequently,
by being pastured afterwards, made perennial. In the kitchen
garden, plants of cabbage, savoys, greens, &c. which are an-
nuals, are frequently preserved the first season under one foot
high, and by being planted in autumn, or immediately before
winter, produce either a late crop that season, or a very early
one the next. Parsley also i\iay be made to last some years, by
being cut over before it begins to bloom, &c. In perennials
by cutting over the artichoke, sea-cale, or asparagus, early

PART y. CULINARY GARDENING. 285

in the season, a late autumnal or winter crop may be produced ;
and if we take all the blossoms from a strawberry-plant in
April, it will produce excellent fruit in November following.
In trees and shrubs, by depriving them of their leaves and
flowers in spring, or the beginning of summer, they will pro-
duce these at different periods, according to their nature, from
August to February ; and if protected from the inclemency of
the weather at these seasons, would produce fruit. This is easily
done with raspberries, currants, gooseberries, and strawberries,
as they come into fruit (as I have found on trial) in October
and November, and do therefore require little covering. But
with most other fruit trees the period is later ; and not only is
a covering requisite, but the tree is often so materially injured
as to be good for little during some years afterwards ; and
sometimes it dies altogether at the time.

Another method o^ forcing or producing fruits or vegetables
at uncommon seasons is by preservation. Thus currants, some
species of green gooseberries, cherries, &c. may be preserved
until Christmas, by being covered with mats or cloths, either
thrown over the bushes and borne up by them, or fixed on pro-
per frames made for the purpose. Roots are preserved in sand
or earth, as carrots, potatoes, &c. &c.

286 culinary gardening. book i.

3. Forcing, bv removing vegetables into an arti-
ficial CLIMATE, is performed by means of glass-houses, or
glass-cases, heated either by fuel fire, the heat of steam, or the
heat of putrefaction or fermentation. In every case, the great
art lies in imitating natural climates as to light, dew, rain, heat,
air, wind, &c. — For the modes of accomplishing this object,
see the next chapter.

CHAPTER VI.

OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF HOT-HOUSES, HOT-WALLS, PITS,
HOT-BEDS, AND MUSHROOM-HOUSES.

That the construction of hot-houses is very imperfectly un-
derstood among those who are generally employed to erect
them, will appear evident to any one who shall investigate the
subject in the slightest manner. Nor will this appear surpris-
ing, when we consider how very recently they have become
general in gentlemen's gardens. It is presumed that there were
few green-houses in England before Mr. Evelyn erected his con-

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 287

servatory at his seat near London. Now the same general
form was implicitly followed till within these few years past * :
not indeed exactly the same construction ; for certain iron
pipes, which Mr. Evelyn ingeniously, but rather unsuccessfully,
introduced for the purpose of supplying heated air, have been
rejected ; and this has been done evidently without that en-
quiry into their intended use, which was due to every scheme
devised by that great man. Mr. James Justice, of Crighton
near Edinburgh, erected the first pine-stove in Scotland ; and if
we observe the plan of this hot-house, as given in Justice's *
British Gardener, we shall observe little or no difference, either
in the principles of construction or extei'nal appearance, be-
tween it and those in general use at the present day.

With respect to books on hot-houses, there has never yet been
published any thing in the way of inquiry into the principles
of their construction and general management. Mr. Evelyn,
in describing his conservatory, gives two or three hints respect-
ing the properties and management of air which are deserving
of attention. But in the several books of designs that have
been published, not a sentence is to be found respecting the
principles, or even the properties, of the designs recommended.

* Of this any one may be convinced by examining his Kalendarium Hortense,
10th Edition.

<l

288 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

Indeed, these designs are impracticable, and such as could not
answer the purposes of horticulture: the natural consequence
that ever follows hot-houses designed by mere architects or
builders*. The plans given and recommended by Steel, Aber-
cromhy, Speechly, and others, answer better; but they contain
no deviation from general practice, to entitle them to claim the
merit of making improvements in their construction. Indeed, it
evidently appears, from the writings of these men, that they were
unable to think accurately on the subject. The same remarks are
applicable to the designs lately published by Mr. Nicol in his
Forcing Gardener ; but it is with pleasure I remark, that these
designs, though exactly upon the same principles with those
mentioned above, are perhaps upon the whale better adapted
for the purposes of forcing. To Dr. Anderson the public have
been indebted on many occasions ; and horticulturists are emi-
nently so, for the many ingenious hints contained in the ac-
count of his patent hot-house. This small volume is certainly
of more real importance than all the designs or books on the
subject that have preceded it. But though in some of the
warmest counties of England the Doctor's hot-house may per-
haps succeed for a year or two after it is erected, it is the humble
opinion of the author that it will never come into general use.

* For we have many of these, but very few qualified to assume the former

title.

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 289

In different parts of the island there are, and have long been,
peculiarities in the construction of some hot-houses, which, had
they been understood and attended to by planners, would long
ere now have made a material difference in the general design
and erection of these edifices. At Abercairnie, near Crieff in
Perthshire, heated air introduced by a vacuity around the fur-
nace has long been used to heat a peach-house. Now though
the manner in which this is effected is extremely simple, yet the
end is answered in a considerable degree, and a tolerable sav-
ing of fuel produced. I am also informed, that heated air was
in the same manner introduced into a hot-house in the neigh-
bourhood of Manchester near forty years ago ; and as it is pro-
bable that there may be some other cases in England which
have not yet come under my observation, it is likely, however
strange it may seem, that the practice may be traced as far
back as ]\Ir. Evelyn's time. I only mention this to shew how
very little men generally think upon what they hear or see, and
how prone they are to persevere in old common practice. This
improvement by heated air, having escaped the attention of
planners (who must have seen or heard of some of the instances
mentioned, but who evidently have not understood its nature)
would have been lost to the public had not a Mr. Stewart, gar-
dener at Woodlands, brought it boldly forward to public notice
in his patent hot-house. Mr. Stewart deserves much credit for
this ; and it is to be hoped he will find such a demand for his

p p

290 CULINARY GARDENING, BOOK I,

kind of patent hot-house as amply to recompense his talents and
industry.

Reflecting upon these various improvements, in connection
with a great number of experiments and observations made at
Dairy*, I conceived the plan recommended in my treatise on
hot-houses, for heating them ; and by thinking on the subject
in a free and unprejudiced manner, and studying the nature of
heat, I conceived the idea of an inner roofing, an invention of
immense use in their management. These improvements were
first tried experimentall}- upon an old hot-house in Broughton
Park Nursery, Edinburgh; where, although several things were
ill executed, still the effect was so astonishing, as to encourage
me to prosecute the ideas I had conceived. I have now, after
considerable practice in designing, and seeing them constructed,
fixed on improvements which appear to me much superior
to any adopted, or at present known in Great Britain. They
are perfectly simple and practicable, and will not only save
much fuel, but greatly lessen the risk of over-heating or over-
cooling the house, and will also require much less attendance

* Daln', in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, was then the property of John
Mawer, Esq. an eminent horticulturist and ground architect, who had at that time,
1 79 6, the most extensive range of hot-houses and steam apparatus in that part of the
country, as well as a very extensive practice in planting, building hot-houses,
forming gardens, and laying-out grounds. The author had the honour to be his
draughtsman and general superintendant for the three years previous to his death.

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 291

from the gardener, and none at all in the night season, as is
frequently the case with those in general use. In England
these improvements may be seen at Palatine House, Trigger
Hall, &c. In Wales, at Havod, Avhere ten large hot-houses are
altering according to the author's mode. In. Scotland, at Mr.
Smith's, Leith Walk, Broughton Park Nursery, Macheny, Glen-
fuir, and several other places. To rtiter fully into them in
this work is unnecessary ; but a few general hints are what the
nature of my purpose demands, and they shall therefore be
given as concisely as possible.

1. Hot-houses. The chief agents in vegetation, and which
demand attention in the construction of hot-houses, are heat,
soil, ah; light, water, and wind, or motion. Heat is generally
produced by fuel, which is consumed in a furnace, and the
heat and smoke conducted through the house in a flue or ho-
rizontal chimney. It has occasionally been done with steam,
either alone, or jointly with fire; but this is much too expen-
sive for general use; the only advantage which attends it is,
that a house at any distance from the boiler may be raised to
the same height as one close to it: an advantage of little use
in gardening, though in heating houses or rooms from a kitchen
range, &c. it might be of service. Heat may occasionally be
communicated by fcrmentible or putrescent matters, such as
dung, litter, leaves, moss, or other vegetables fit only for

29- CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I,

being changed into manure. In some cases, it may also be
generated by the sun, (as in Dr. Anderson's patent hot-houses,)
and preserved in proper compartments, though probably in
very few situations. All modes may occasionally be employed,
or taken advantage of, in particular circumstances; but that
by fuel, furnaces, and flues, is the only plan capable of being
put in general practice with advantage. The greatest difficulty
that occurs with heat is its management, so as to retain and
regulate its degree agreeably to the nature of the climate to be
imitated. It is retained partly by having the house made as
nearly air-tight as possible, and partly by an inner curtain in-
vented by the author, which is let down during night immedi-
ately under the glass, and which, by preventing the heated air
of the house from coming in contact with the glass, permits
only a very small quantity to escape. It is preserved at the
proper regulation chiefly by this curtain, which, as it retains the
proper temperature, does not require the heat to be greatly
raised at the beginning of night in order that it may not be too
low in the morning, as is the case in all hot-houses where a cur-
tain is not in use. For be it observed here, that though the
house be perfectly air-tight, yet as glass from its porous nature
is easily permeable by either heat or cold, and consequently as
heated air always ascends to the top of the house, it must be
continually given out to the atmosphere through the roof as
well as sides of every glass hot-house. And this is the sole

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 293

reason why hot-houses with glass on all sides are so difficult
to manage without this improvement.

Soil is obtained either by inclosing a portion of the ground
surface, and preparing it in a proper manner; or by placing
it in pots or boxes, which may be removed or altered at plea-
sure.

Air, it is almost unnecessary to observe, is inclosed, and can
be excluded, and fresh air admitted, either wholly or to mix
with it, by having apertures at different places, which may be
opened or shut at pleasure.

Light is admitted by constructing all or part of the roof, or
even the sides and the roof together, of glass frames.

Water as such, that is in its fluid state, is easily given to the
plants by pouring it on the ground only; as rain, it is given by
the syringe, or engine, or watering-pot; and as dew, by pour-
ing it upon hot masonry, such as the flues, by which it first
ascends as steam, and then descends, on parting with its calo-
ric, as dew.

Wind, which has two effects, that of putting the plants in
motion, and removing stagnated air, is produced by admitting a

294 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

current of external air. As this can only be done with propri-
ety when the external air is nearly of the same temperature as
that of the house, it is evident that vegetables grown in hot-
houses must be great part of the year without this invigorating
motion. I have attempted by several methods to produce a
motion of the air of the house alone, by means of ventilators
of different kinds, and which might produce wind, or a breeze,
to exotics at all seasons of the year. I have hitherto, however,
been unsuccessful, except in some particular houses where a
good deal of room could be obtained ; and then wind may be
produced by putting in motion several large boards, which
may be fastened on one side, by hinges, either to the back-
wall, front glass, or roof.

After these general remarks on culinary Jiot-houses, a few
observations shall be added on the particular kinds. These
arrange themselves into three classes: 1. Those for peaches,
nectarines, cherries, figs, &c. 2. Those for vines. 3. Those
for pines.

1. Those for jseac^es and similar trees, where the climate is
cold, are with propriety placed against walls, and formed of
glass on one side: but where it is moderate, as in most parts of
England, a house formed of glass on all sides, and with the
trees planted and allowed to grow irregularly as standards, will

ria.l.

s^yf/r/atY

/Yajf /'/ a xJ^i/ri- /erei u^ i eaf/ai-Uki t^O'/vni-if-^ y4'«'/ta.<-M>ny ,-<^^i- a. k^/i'^Am/h'mA'.

Fig.-Z.

fJ/€C,

Oj'ft i^?/f?<i -£/fn/;^ t^l!i^v&-.

jj^jidfni^

I^ilfuKAl U^ JJ iln^. h- L,'rf^irut/^ffufJt,JUej .tllrrru, J'jWu.'Ur Kir^

J'ART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 295

be found preferable and more beautiful; the most decisive
proofs of which I have given from facts which took place at
Dairy. See the Treatise on Hot-houses, page 186.

2. Those for viiies may be of any form, and large or small
according to the period at which they are intended to be brought
into fruit. A double roofed house, with an inner roofing, will
always be found most economical for a general crop. Vines
clothed with foliage, and enlivened by bunche£\ of fruit, are so
beautiful and accommodating, that they should be introduced
into every kind of glass-house in a greater or lesser degree.

3. Pi7ies are commonly grown at an immense expense, incur-
red chiefly by the tanner's bark and leaves, which require such
frequent renewals, and occasion so much labour in moving and
replacing the plants, &c. This, Avith the risk which always at-
tends heat added by fermentible substances, has discouraged
many from growing them. In the treatise already mentioned,
I have described and delineated a plan which would almost en-
tirely remove these objections. I am now happy in being able
to refer to a house constructed by me upon the exact princi-
ples, viz. the pinery at Prinknash ; I shall here only refer to
Plate 11. fig. 3, which is a section illustrative of the mode
adopted, and may serve to impress the plan upon the memory
of the reader, aa a aie the smoke flues; b the air flue; c a

296 CULIKARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

large vacuity of heated air; d the rubble stone vacuity; e walk
irr the centre; f earth in which the plants grow; g steam and
air tubes; h inner roofing; i surface of the ground, Sec. See
the pla7i, sections, and a full description in the " treatise."

2. Hot-walls. The formation of these consists of two
parts: the construction of the flues and furnace in the wall;
and the construction and contrivance of a covering of canvass,
or netting, to bo let down over the trees in severe weather, and
during night. The construction of the flues, so as to distribute
the heat equally over every part of the wall, is perfectly simple
and need not be insisted on. The fronts of these flues should
be made at least a brick thick to preserve that heat. The pro-
per furnace is that recommended* for hot-houses in connexion
with a damper; the great superiority of which in hot-Avalls I
experienced in a striking degree at Mr. Smith's hot-wall, Leith
Walk. In contriving the covering of Scotch gauze, or small
netting, small rafters must be fixed to the top of the wall, and
to the border, about three feet from the roots of the trees.
Along the lower ends of these rafters, the roller for containing
the covering must be fixed. By cords and pullies this cover-
ing can easily be draAvn up to the top of the wall, or rolled
down, as occasion may require. Wherever a hot-wall is con-

* Sold at Cooke's Foundry, Theobald's Road, Holborn, London; and the Edin-
burgh Foundry Company, Edinburgh.

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. iQf

structed, this covering should not be neglected, as is too fre-
quently the case; it being of very great importance in preserv-
ing the heat, and preventing chilly dews, frosts, &c.

3. Pits are constructed upon the same principles as hot-
houses. They are of great use in raising crops of culinary ex-
otics, as cucumbers, &c. ; in forcing common vegetables, as
asparagus ; in raising j'oung exotics, as pines and other
plants; or in producing grapes. For the general purposes for
which pits are constructed, I shall beg leave to recommend one
invented by me, and erected on a small scale at Glenfuir;
which, with only one fire, is capable of producing four different
temperatures at the same time; and, consequently, of forcing
all kinds of common vegetables, and growing vines, pines, and
melons, each in their proper climate, Avith one fire and little
trouble or expence. It will be found described and fully deli-
neated in the Treatise on Hot-houses; and some idea of its ap-
pearance may be formed from Plate XI. fig. 1., Avhich is a sur-
face plan of it : a represents the cover of the excavation con-
taining the furnace; b the air registers, Avhich assist in produc-
ing the different temperatures; c the air and steam tubes,
by which heated air is admitted from the rubble stone vacuity,
and steam produced by pouring in water, &c. Fig. 2. is a sec-
tion of this pit; which shews a the smoke flue; b the air flue;
c the chimney; d the supports of the rubble vacuity ; e the rubble

Q Q

598 CULIXARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

vacuity; f the earth and the phmts; g the inner roofing rolled
up; II the damper; i the furnace-hole; k the cover of the same;
L the surface of the ground, &c. The advantages that would
result from this pit, not only in producing earlier and better
crops than those in general use, but also in saving much time,
labour, and annual expence, bestowed on forcing-houses and
hotbeds of all kinds, Avhile they demand the attention of such
gentlemen as indulge in these luxuries, are also of importance
to the agriculturist. By substituting them for hotbeds (and
one of them, a hundred feet long, would surpass a dozen of
these) the disorderly appearance of dung and litter in a garden
would be avoided, and much stable manure saved, which could
be applied more advantageously to the reproduction of vege-
tables, by permitting it only to undergo the proper degree of
fermentation; for I may here observe, that after dung has been
nearly a twelvemonth in a hotbed, as every chemist knows and
many farmers have experienced, it loses a great proportion of
its nutritive qualities. But besides this advantage, there is
another of no small importance, and that is the formation of
composts with peat or other matters, as I have formerly men-
tioned under Agriculture. Though the plan given in Plate XL
fig. 1. and 2. be chiefly recommended for forcing common ve-
getables, and growing young pines, cucumbers, &c. yet by
avoiding the erection of any thing except the smoke and air
flues, and by placing a trellis about eighteen inches under the

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. . 299

glass, without any other expence, the quadruple compartments
Avill make four excellent vineries, which may be brought into
fruit at the same number of periods. Tlie general principle of
forming vineries in this manner will be found to answer equally
well with those raised above the surface and placed against
walls, and they may be executed in the first instance at much
less expence.

4. Hotbeds are commonly formed of stable manure; either
alone; mixed with bark, moss, or coal ashes; with bark or moss
in the centre only ; with brushwood and ashes in the centre ;
or with turf, sand, or ashes on the top under the earth, &c.
They are also occasionally formed of masonry, or brick-work,
and surrounded by dung, as in M'^Phail's mode of cultivating
the cucumber ; whose practice and hotbeds answer well for
early forcing, especially in England. This subject, however,
being more connected with tiie cultivation of a garden than
the formation or design of it, I shall leave it to gardeners, it
being generally their favourite business.

5. Mushroom-houses require little ingenuity. If placed in
a dry situation, they can seldom fail to answer. They may
easily be contrived so as to be forced into perfection at all sea-
sons. The erecting of houses on purpose for them, however,
is seldom requisite : an empty shed, barn, cottage, or cellar, are
generally the places in which they are raised.

300

CHAPTER VII.

OF OTHER BUILDINGS REQUISITE FOR A KITCHEN GARDEN.

Sheds for implements, flower pots, hotbed frames, glass-
sashes, or for working in during rain or stormy weather, are re-
quisite in every garden; they are generally placed behind the
hot-houses, and serve at the same time to contain the furnaces,
fuel, &c.

The seed room and fruit room should generally be erected
adjoining each other, and placed near the hot-houses; as should
also the gardener's house, and most other useful buildings.

Covered seats, ornamental rooms or retreats, may either
be made in different quarters of the garden, in the centre, in the
angles as at Aimsfield, or in the range of hot-houses, as at
Twickenham and several other places.

The particular design and construction of the useful garden
buildings are so well understood, that it would be absurd to add
any thing on the subject. The last class should be contrived
in conformation to the style of the garden, the place, and the
proprietor; and may be erected from designs as diverse as they

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 301

are numerous, and of every degree of elegance, from the bower
of honeysuckle, hops, or vines, twined upon bent poles, to the
Grecian porch or temple of the finest masonry. Great caution
is requisite, however, in admitting ornamental buildings into a
kitchen garden. Even in them, as in every thing else in the
garden, use should be the prevailing idea. But use and beauty
go hand in h&nd, and the most vulgar objects may be dignified
by the judicious introduction of elegance. A kitchen garden,
though unmixed with productions purely ornamental, is still a
pleasing scene, because full of utility and animation, and always
varying both from the practice of cultivation and the seasons.
It is, therefore, very generally resorted to at most times of
the year, and particularly early in spring. In our variable
climate, whenever walks are frequently used at that season,
there should be* covered seats, and these seats should corre-
spond with that whole of which they are conspicuous parts.

302 CULINARY GARDENIXO. BOOK I-

CHAPTER VIII.

OF THE FORMATION OF ORCHARDS.

Orchards, with regard to formation, may be divided into two
kinds : Family orchards, Avhich are a necessary appendage to
every good residence ; and farm or market orchards, which are
peculiar to certain counties, or the neighbourhood of great
cities. The soil of both kinds should be strong, and the situa-
tion sheltered, either naturally, or by means of forest planting.
Natural shelter is produced by the variations of the grounds
surface, and prevails chiefly between the high banks and holmes
of winding rivers, as the Wye, the Clyde, &c. ; or by woods al-
ready full grown. The exposure is likewise generally best in
these situations ; which arises both from the declivity and ex-
posure of the north banks to the sun, from the reflection of the
opposite banks, and the stillness of the atmosphere, which in
these situations is little affected by the wind. In forming fa-
mil}' orchards, whenever the side of a dell or river, or a natu-
rally sheltered declivity, occurs, it should be preferred. It is
too common a practice for gardeners to fix on level places, or
regular slopes, on account of their more garden-like appearance ;

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 303

and to attempt producing shelter by planting, which never can
be fully equal to that which is natural. It may be farther
added, in favour of the other situations, that the soil is gene-
rally of the best quality for fruit-trees. In most places diffe-
rent species* of fruit-trees may be advantageously introduced,
either in groups, or among other plantations in the park or
pleasure-ground ; and it is highly probable, that the improve-
ments in the form of the tree, and coloui' and quality of the
fruit, which will result from Mr. Knight's experiments and in-
quiries into this subject, will render these trees much more in-
teresting in such situations. Farm orchards are highly pro-
fitable for sending the fruit to market, as in Cl^'desdale ; and for

* It is extraordinary, that practical men have not more particularly recom-
mended the cultivation of mulberrj/ trees in this country, where they succeed so
well, and produce such excellent fruit. These trees ai-e not only of great impor-
tance as furnishing food to the silk-worm, the breeding and rearing of which might
become a delightful and profitable source of amusement to ladies during their resi-
dence in the country ; but they are also capable of being made of national utility
by the wine that could be made from the juiceof this fruit. Whoever understands
a little of the theory, and somewhat of the practice of making wine from grapes,
could make a very pure delicious wine from mulberries ; and if it be remembered,
on the one hand, what enormous sums of money are annually given for wines to a
country that will probably long be our rival and enemy under every form of govern-
ment ; and on the other, the various foreign matters, dangerous to the health, that
are used in the manufacture of artificial wines ; it is surely no less desirable than
patriotic to endeavour to raise a very salutary and highly delicious substitute en-
tirely of English growth. It is not an exaggerated calculation to say, that in the
course of a very few years half the consumption of the united kingdom might be
supplied witli mulberry wine ; and it has naturally most of tiiose qualities particularly
relished by Englishmen.

304 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

making cyder, as in Herefordshire, Worcestershire, &c. Where-
evcr they occur, they afford an excellent subject for a ferme
omee ; since no species of culture can be more beneficial and
profitable. An instance, which I flatter myself will prove this
in a few years, came under my practice at Hopton Court. I
have in several places in the course of practice introduced
fruit-trees in groups, sheltered hedgerows, and plantations^

CHAPTER IX,

OF THE GENERAL FORXvIATION OF A GARDEN,

The first and most essential requisite, in fixing on the situation
of a garden, is a good exposure. Soil and shelter may be
improved, and often entirely changed ; but exposure generally
remains for ever the same. The best exposure for a garden is
the south-east ; but in an extensive and complete garden, it
would be desirable to have part of it with a northern aspect,
to raise late crops. This can frequently be obtained, by fixing
either upon both sides of a gentle eminence, or the two oppo-
site sides of a hollow. If this hollow wind considerably, every

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 305

kind of exposure would be at once obtained, and generally in
connexion with shelter and a good soil.

The next requisite is shelter. Natural shelter has been
already treated of, in the preceding chapter: where that can-
not be had, and the garden can neither be placed in a natural
hollow nor in a wood, recourse must be had to planting. This
should be done on all sides of the garden, and near to, or distant
from it, according to circumstances. When the garden is on a
level, the nearest forest trees should not, generally, be closer to
the outer fruit wall than a hundred feet ; and on the south side
twenty or thirty more : but when it is on a .steep bank, they
may frequently approach within fifty or sixty. In most cases,
a deep sunk fence should be made between these trees and
the garden ground, to prevent the roots from too freely pas-
turing in the surface soil. If the trees are of the fir kind, which
make the best shelter, this will be particularly requisite. It is
a^ common and dangerous error, to place gardens in too low
situations, for the sake of present natural shelter; but hoar
frosts, mildews, and blights, seldom fail of being attendants.
A number of such gardens could be pointed out both in Eng-
land and Scotland.

The next requisite is situation ; which chiefly refers to its
connection with the rest of the place, and with water. It

R 11

306 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

should be, if possible, near to the family offices and livery
stables, and not far from the farm ; at the same time it ought
to be concealed from general view, and, if possible, so con-
trived as not to interfere with picturesque improvement; which
they frequently do when unguardedly set down. With respect
to water, it should in every case be so near, and in such abun-
dance, as that no scarcity of it for the common purposes of
watering may take place in the summer months. Frequently,
water may be used after the manner of irrigation, either by
making it pass under the garden through a poi'ous substratum,
or distributing it over its surface by means of troughs * and
pipes, as already mentioned f. Both ways are practicable
when water can be commanded : and where the surface is
either a uniform slope or level, the expence would be very
trifling, and the advantages certainly considerable. I have seen
a great number of gardens where it might be put in practice
with very little trouble, and perhaps none would be more im-
proved by it than the garden now forming at Luss.

The next requisite is proper soil ; which some will imagine
ought to have been placed before Situation. But the soil can

* These should be removed in winter, and in time of frost ; no water should touch
a garden in winter that can be kept off; even rain, if it were possible to prevent it,
should not fail on it; water produces col.l by its evaporation, and in the process
of congelation.

\ See Chapter I. — Cultivation.

PAB.T V, CULINARY GARDENING. 307

generally be altered at pleasure ; whereas situation, shelter, and
exposure, cannot. Shelter indeed may be improved in the course
of time, but frequently not during the life of the owner. Soil
however can, though Avith considerable expence, be altered in a
few months. The best general soil for a garden is a middling
loam ; which, in some parts, can be made of different degrees
of lightness, to suit different vegetables, by the addition of
sand; and in others, of different degrees of stiffness or cohesion,
by the addition of clays. The depth of garden soil in general,
where the bottom is dr}^ may be considerable, and not less
than three feet ; where the bottom is a moist clay, a less depth
will be requisite, especially if that clay be well drained ; but
if this cannot be accomplished, nor the expence of placing a
stratum of gravel above it incurred, then it should not be less
than four feet deep, in order to prevent the roots of herbaceous
vegetables from reaching it. For fruit trees such a soil would
be ruinous, without pavement at two and a half or three feet
under the surface. When the natural soil has to be removed,
and a new soil formed, regard should be had to the introduc-
tion of different kinds of earth ; and particular care taken to
form the fruit tree borders of proper depth and quality, and
with proper substrata.

After these remarks on choosing the site of a garden, I add a
few on its general yby-m and subdivisions.

308 CULINARY GARDENING.- BOOK I,

The/o;7rt, which is determined by the walls, is best calculated
for the general purposes of horticulture when it is that of a pa-
rallelogram. Though, if the production of wall fruit were the
prime object, an oval form, with its long diameter from east to
west, would be preferable ; as it would contain the smallest quan-
tity of Avail hid from the sun, and at the same time a consider-
able portion of it would be always exposed to the south. But as
all forms, except the square kind, derange the regulation of the
quarters, and consequently would be particularly troublesome
in digging and cropping, they are generally and very properly
disregarded, except in some kinds of flower gardens, where
fruits are cultivated upon the walls*. The outer inclosure or
boundary of a garden may either be a sunk fence and hedge,
or a sunk fence and low Avail. Between tliat and the garden
wall, a space of from forty to ninety feet should be reserved for
common crops in the north side of the garden, and for early
ones on the south. In several cases, a shrubbery may occupy
a part of this space toAvard the plantation, farming a phalanx
of varied vegetation, from the lowest shrub at the Avalk's edge,
to the tops of the forest trees. This aa^II make a very complete
shelter, and have an agreeable appearance at roost seasons.

* Frequently, however, when flower gardens which are to have fruit upon the
walls are formed, ignorance of culture, and want of ingenuity in the Designer, in-
duce him to be content with common forms, as in that mass of deformity called a
flower garden al Valleyfield, and also that at Douglass Castle.

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 309

Often, however, a single holly hedge upon the top of the sunk
fence may supply its place, and then a greater portion may be
allotted to the growth of kitchen vegetables, and the general
character of utility be better preserved. Sometimes it fortu-
nately happens, from the declivity of the ground to the south,
that the regularity of this outer inclosure can be broken, and a
large bay or recess made in the Avood, either to contain all the
hot-houses, hot-beds, &c. or to contain the hot-beds only.
Where this can be done, it is a great advantage ; but regard
must be had to the shadows Avhich a high north wall projects
in winter when the sun's rays are nearly horizontal.

Within this space or outer border is placed the fruit-tree
walls; and the space within these is subdivided into bor-
ders and quarters by walks, alleys, espaliers, rows of trees, and
hedges. Wall borders should, in general, be of the breadth
of the wall's height ; espalier borders the width of the walks,
or of the espalier, which ought to be in unison. When walls
or espaliers are very low however, the former perhaps under
ten, and the latter under three feet, this rule will not apply.
Quarters, if not so small themselves, should be subdivided into
spaces not more than a hundred feet broad ; their length does
not signify, as it can be, varied by rows of trees, bushes, or,
what is frequently preferable, the mode of cropping alone.
Walks, as to direction, should surround and cross the garden.

Q

10 CULINARY GARDENING. BOOK I.

always intersecting one another at right angles. This should
be done in such a manner, as to form a border on each side of
the \valls, and to form quarters of convenient size, &c. The
garden may be subdivided by walls similar to that which sur-
rounds it ; or by hedges, which produce better shelter. The
breadth of walks and the height of walls must depend upon the
extent of the whole. Walls should seldom be made loAver than
twelve or thirteen feet, and never need be made higher than
sixteen, except for hot-houses. Walks in kitchen gardens
should seldom be narrower than five feet, and very seldom
broader than fifteen ; ten or twelve feet is generally a proper
breadth for extensive gardens. Espaliers are commonly, and
very properly, placed parallel to the walks, both round and
across the whole garden. Rows of fruit-trees are placed
across it to produce shelter, or irregularly in the quarters, to
effect variety; but this last practice is seldom advisable.
Hedges are perhaps too little used in modern gardens. In
exposed places, they are much to be preferred to walls for sub-
divisions. Walls, in such situations, produce violent currents
and eddies of wind ; but hedges only soften and refine it as it
passes through them : besides, the beauty and grandeur of high
holly hedges, when contrasted with brick walls and the red
gravel of the walks, is certainly another recommendation which
ought to have some influence, though utility were out of the
question.

PART V. CULTNARY GARDENING. 311

Culinary hot-houses may be placed against the south side
of the north wall as usual ; or, if a convenient space can be
found, without the walls ; where the whole of the forcing-
houses, pits, and frames, may be placed together. AVhen this
is not the case, the pits and hot-beds should be placed in a
sunk area in one of the quarters of the garden, and not far dis-
tant from the hot-houses.

In a complete and magnificent residence, the kitchen gar-
den ought to be laid out at first, and managed ever afterwards,
with a view to the cultivation and production of culinary fruits
and vegetables only. No green-houses or plant stoves, flower-
borders, roses, or parterres, should be introduced ; but utility
should be predominant in every part. In many cases, even the
edgings of the walks should be made of strawberries*, parsley,
or other useful plants ; and in place of holly hedges, double
rows of espaliers or standard fruit-trees. In a complete resi-
dence, the flower-garden, green-house, and plant-stoves, should
be entirely by themselves. In a less magnificent residence,
however, they may be, or at least are commonly, intermingled;
and when the flowers and shrubs introduced in the borders are

* Strawberries always produce best in this sitLiation, though in most cases box
is preferable ; for what is gained by the fruit of the strawberries, is lost by the
extra labour of preserving tlie earth of the border from mixing with the gravel of
the walk.

312 CULINAUY GARDENING. BOOK L.

of commonly cultivated kinds, or annuals, utility is not much
frustrated, and the effect is not strikingly incongruous. But
when rare or uncommon sorts are introduced, they require such
careful and diversified culture, that the general use of garden
ground, and the pulverization of the soil for the growth of the
trees in the borders, cannot be sufficiently attended to ; and
with regard to beauty or taste, there is such a contrast between
the state and appearance of a wild plant grown only to amuse
the botanist, and the monstrosity of cabbages, turnips, fruits,
and even roses, lilies, and pinks, that in place of producing
variety or harmony, which moderate contrasts will do, it pro-
duces discord, and thence excites disgust.

There was once in this country a kind of gardens where
beauty, grandeur, and use, were mingled in a way at present
unknown, or nearly forgotten. In them terraces, green slopes,
ballustrades, stone steps, ponds, statues, arbours, high hedges,
and other architectural and aquatic decorations, were mingled
with fruit-trees, flowers, herbs, and culinary vegetables. The
union of so many different things was certainly in a high degree
unnatural; but it was so fully avowed, and was so completely
blended and harmonized by the appearance of great art in
every part of the garden, and by the immediate vicinity of the
house itself, that they must have produced a whole agreeable
to good principles ; and as pleasing to connoisseurs at the time,

PART V. CULINARY GARDENING. 313

by its contrast to the general appearance of the country, as the
ideas that we have of them and the fragments which still exist
are gratifying to us from their antiquity and rarity.

The cultivation and yearly management of a garden includes
a great variety of matter highly interesting and amusing to
those who take delight in a country life. It has occupied the
leisure hours and the pen of a Bacon, an Evelyn, a Temple,
and a Boyle, and therefore is not unworthy the attention of
their countrymen. There still remains much room for experi-
ment and observation, and much need of shewing the applica-
tion of those facts already known. It is astonishing to observe
what trifling evils are reckoned insurmountable, or are at-
tempted to be removed by unsuitable or totally inadequate
means. I have often seen, and daily see, great labour and
expence bestowed to render ground or trees fruitful, which, if
the simplest facts were adverted to, might be done much more
completely with scarcely any trouble.

8 s

314*

BOOK 1.
PART VI.

ORNAMENTAL GARDENING.

INTRODUCTION.

Ornamental gardening may be divided into three kinds; 1.
Parterre or flower gardening; 2, Botanic gardening; and, 3.
Shrubbery gardening, or the culture of flowering shrubs. In a
complete treatise these different heads should be discussed se-
parately ; here they need only be noticed together, and that in a
very cursory manner. The object of this kind of gardening is
chiefly ornament, taste, and amusement. To effect this pur-
pose, Ave have materials of different natures to be selected,
exhibited, arranged, disposed, or combined together. How
custom proceeds in this matter may easily be learned; but
what is truly proper can only be discovered by reflection, and
recurrence to the principles of good taste; which are as uni-
versal in their application, as the sources from which they are

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 315

drawn, the mind of man, and the elementary modifications
of matter are unlimited in the extent of their existence. It is
scarcely necessary to observe here, that the operations of cul-
tivation in this branch of gardening are performed after the
same manner, and on the same principles, as in the former
branch of it; the only difference being this, that here less gross
culture (so to speak) is necessary; for as the productions of orna-
mental gardening address themselves chiefly to the mind, which
being in this age and country more refined than the mere animal
sensations, is consequently more capable of relishing the beauty
and simplicity of nature. Some there are, however, so gross
in taste., as to prefer tulips and Dutch flower roots to ericas
and violets, and who are more delighted in a Dutch parterre
than in Dovedale or Arthur's seat. This perverted taste can
only be accounted for on the same principles, as some prefer
a country covered with dirty ruinous cottages, and inhabited
by gypsies and old starved peasants, to one where cleanliness,
comfort, and cultivation, are the prevailing ideas. All ex-
tremes of this sort are unphilosophical,.and totally opposite to
the principles of true taste. — The remarks which 1 after on this
subject are arranged as follows: 1. Of the materials of orna-
mental gardening. 2. Of the principles of selection and ar-
rangement. 3. Of the subjects of ornamental gardening.

316 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE MATERIALS OF ORNAMENTAL GARDENING.

These are lawn, gravel, soil, water, stones, flowers, shrubs, and
trees.

Lawn, or smooth turf, is a pleasing and extensively useful
material, and in many of the subjects of ornamental gardening
forms a conspicuous part. It is produced from grass seeds sown
on poor soil, or by turf brought from old pastures. It is pre-
served and much improved by rolling and mowing, and greatly
injured by worms, rich spots of soil, or manure. Walks are
frequently made of lawn, which have a good effect in some or-
namental scenes; but there should generally be others of gra-
vel, to have recourse to when these are moist or unpleasant.
In almost every case, where lawn is not fed by sheep, it should
not be formed of mere grasses ; which require continual mow-
ing, and present one dull, vapid, surface of uniform green.
They should be composed of primroses, violets, common and
garden daisy, camomile, graphallium, doicum, hieracium pilo-
sella, and especially white clover. Any three of these species,
•or the whole of them judiciously mixed, would form a varie-

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 317

gated carpet of gay flowers, from April to December, the effect
of which, compared to mown lawn, would be as gaiety to gloom,
or insipidity to expression — All the expence of mowing would
be avoided, and all the smoothness necessary for lawn pre-
served, in connexion with such a variety of roughnesses as
would give the whole a natural appearance. Lawns of this kind
exist in nature, and have occupied the pastoral poet. The
beauty they would add to artificial scenery is beyond descrip-
tion— the economy in yearly management by no means incon-
siderable.

Gravel and sand are useful materials for walks and paths.
As these are most generally used in mornings and evenings,
when the grass is moist with dew, and also after rain, when it
is a great luxury, unmolested by water or moisture, to observe
the face of nature, they should always be made of a firm and
dry material, and gravel is the best of this kind yet discovered.
Gravel walks in parterres and ornamental gardens should ge-
nerally be in free easy directions, and with neat determined
outlines. But there are exceptions to the former remark in
the case of parterres of bulbous roots, and those where particu-
lar shapes and figures are imitated.

Soil is not only of use for growing several of the materials,
but also by way of contrast and relieving them. Former ar-

318 ORNAMENTAL GAliUJiNlNG. BOOK I.

tists, taking advantage of this effect, have introduced different
coloured earths, which Lord Bacon justly reprobates as trifling.
The natural soil throughout is always preferable, and if taste-
fully varied by the green of vegetation will have a very harmo-
nious effect. Soil, with regard to its quality, should be poor
for most ornamental plants and shrubs: — various but chiefly
dry virgin pasture loam for most botanic plants:— mossy and
moist for ericas and most American and Cape plants, &c.

Water is introduced in parterres, shrubberies, and botanic
gardens, either in still ponds, drooping fountains, or jets-d'eau;
but as they are all artificial, no perfect models can be held
forth for imitation. Still, however, there are principles to
which we can ever have recourse, either in judging of or con-
triving all works of art. Contrast, in every modification of
matter, is capable of producing either incongruity, variet}', or
harmony, and consequently of effecting scenes which shall
disgust, please, or highly interest, the spectator. The appli-
cation of the principle of contrast to the formation of artificial
ponds and jets-d'eau might be advantageously treated of at
great length; but it would occupy more time than can be
spared in this work ; and is the less necessary for this reason,
that to those who understand the principled of taste, which I
have already endeavoured to lay down, it would be almost un-
necessary; and to others it would not carry conviction unless

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING, 319

reduced to practice. Jets-d'eau are not so much condemned
in this country as they were a few years ago; but they are
less understood in most places. Where they have been intro-
duced, as at Trentham, they are contemptible or misplaced.

Stones of singular shapes, or shells, &c. are used in parterre
gardening, in collections of what is called rock-work, on which
are inserted mountain plants. They are admissible in this way,
and sometimes have a good effect, especially when they sur-
round a pond in a parterre, as at King's Weston.

Flowering and botanic plants are the most extensive)}
used materials. They may be divided into, 1. Bulbous rooted
plants, far removed from their natural state; 2. Tender herba-
ceous plants; as pinks, auriculas, carnations, &c.; 3. Common
herbaceous kinds; 4. Annual flowers; 5. Bog or moss plants;
6. Botanic plants, or such as are cultivated for botanical
amusement. A few hints shall be offered on the culture of each
of these divisions.

1. Bulbous rooted plants require very particular manage-
ment; first to produce new varieties, and afterwards to pre-
serve them. The varieties are produced chiefly from seed, and
are improved, or broken, as florists term it, by the soil, &c. See
Justice's Flower Garden, Maddox's Directory, &c.

320 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

2. Tender herbaceous plants. To these nearly the same re-
marks apply. They are better deserving of culture than the
other, because less monstrous. Pinks, carnations, auriculas,
and polyanthuses, are singularly fine flowers in the eyes even
of the botanist.

3. Common herbaceous plants are easily propagated and cul-
tivated. They will grow in most soils, and are so various in
magnitude, form, mode of growth, time of flowering, colour of
the flower, &c. as to suit themselves to every situation which
can occur in those parts of a place devoted to ornamental gar-
dening. With respect to magnitude, some grow very large, as
the solidago*, rhubarb, &c.; others very small, as the common
thyme, daisy, &c. There is every variation between these two
extremes, as in the primula, diantlius, cherianthus, Valeriana, vicia,
&c. There are frequently all the varieties of magnitude in one
genus, as in aster, cardus, &c.; often most species of a genus are
ver}' large, as the rudbeckia; and frequently they are very
small, as the bellis and the hepatica. With respect to form, some
plants, when disengaged from others, assume a regular conical
shape, as the common larkspur; others an inverted cone, as
most asters, and plants bearing their floAvers in a corymbus.

* It is unnecessary to mention the particular species of those to which these cha-
racteristic distinctions are applied, as they will occur at once to every person in the
least acquainted with plants.

PART YI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 321

Some form a broad, flat, and apparently solid mass upon the sur-
face, as the ccrasthim, saxifraga. Sec; others a more loose, but
still a broad mass, as the troU'nis, convalaria, primula, &c. From
this solid mass some send out high flower stems, as the asphode-
lus; and others conceal these among the flowers, as the epiden-
dron. With respect to 7nodes of growth, some send out branches
from a principal stem like a tree, as the cordus; others send all
their stems from the root, as the mentha, &c. There is a me-
dium between these two extremes in \he astrantia ; and both
modes are united in the scandex. Some plants always creep
upon the surface, as the ajuga ; some constantly attach them-
selves to others by tendrils, as the pisum; some again attach
themselves by twining round other bodies, as the convolvulus,
&c. With respect to the flowers of plants, their form, colour,
and time of floAvering, are endless; and no discrimination ei-
ther in the characteristics of general form, or of the flowers, can'
be of much use to those who are not botanically and practi-
call}^ acquainted with them. Such will find their memory re-
freshed by the occasional use of Don's Hortus Cantabrigiensis,
and Stillingfleet's Catalogue of Flora.

4. Annual flowers are equally various Avith such as are her-
baceous or perennial. Their culture is well known. They are
highly beautiful, and peculiarly adapted for parterres or flower
gardens, as being removed every year.

T T

322 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

5. Bog or inoss plants and shrubs are a highly beautiful class,
requiring a particular soil, situation, and mode of culture:
hence, in ornamental gardening, they ought generally to be
placed by themselves, particularly the more rare kinds of them,
as the American and Cape tribes. The soil in which these
commonly grow best is a sandy moss of moderate moisture;
the situation low and well sheltered; the exposure generally to
the south, though many species will thrive well under the
shades of other trees, or exposed to the north. This is strik-
ingly exemplified in the beautiful undergrowths of rhododen-
drons and arbutus at Kenwood and Mount Edgecumbe, also
in the large American plants at Zion House, Croome, and se-
veral other places. Exotic bog and moss plants, as ericas,
diosmas, &c.; and indeed all exotics, though kept in green-
houses most part of the year, should always be in a northern
exposure Avhen placed in the open air, as is customary during
the summer months. This cool and sunless summer will make
their winter in the green-house, comparatively with what it
would otherwise be, light and agreeable.

6. Botanic plants and trees. This division includes all those
not comprehended in the former. The word plants is here taken
in its most extensive or general sense for all vegetables, except-
ing trees and shrubs; consequently all of these are included
from ?nonandria to palmar. Their natural soils, situations, Sec. are

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 323

almost as various as their names; but upon the whole the fol-
lowing kinds of soils and situations will grow most of them in
a botanic garden: 1. Virgin mountain earth dry; 2. Mossy
earth in a moist situation; 3. Half of each in a moist situa-
tion ; 4. Half of each dry ; 5. Moist clay and moss ; 6. Dry
gravel and sand; 7. A running brook, with a clear gravelly or
sandy bottom; 8. A stagnate brook or pond, with a muddy
bottom; 9- A rock work, with the stones large, and joined as
close as in causewaying or building, but without mortar; built
in the form of an irregular pyramid or cone, on all sides of
which certain species of mosses, ferns, &c. could be grown ; 10.
Trees alive and full grown, and also decayed for the growth of
mosses and funguses; 11. Part of the sea-shore, of which to
form proper places for most sorts of sea-plants; 12. Hot-
houses, &c. for exotics. This includes the chief requisites of a
complete botanic garden; but 1, 2 and 8 will nearly serve the
purposes of all the rest (excepting sea-plants) under the ma-
nagement of a j udicious gardener.

Shrubs form a class of materials no less interesting than
flowers. They require less care in cultivation, and their beau-
ties, consisting chiefly in the general form and appearance, are
less fleeting with the seasons, and more striking at a distance.
They may be divided into evergreens and deciduous kinds; and
each of these divisions into such sorts as are rarely seen, and

324 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. B^OOK I.

such as are generally cultivated. Evergreens may b"^ lorined
into many sub-divisions, according to their maguitudc, forms,
mode of growth, colour, &c. which are of every shade between
the ruscus, which is among the least, and the Bermudian juni-
per, which is nearly the largest — the cypress, which grows in
the form of a spire, to the daphne tarton raira, which forms a
globular tuft upon the surface — the hedera, which fastens it-
self to the wall, to the andromeda, or vinca, which recline them-
selves upon the surface — from the holly slightly tinged with
red, to the box of a golden yellow.

The deciduous sorts are capable of the same sub-division, and
are diversified in each of these particulars. Here they may be
divided into such as are cultivated chiefly for the beauty of
their flowers, as the rhododendron, erica, &c. — for the smell, as
the sweet briar, ahsinthides, ckriodendron, jasminum, &c. — for
both, as the rose. Cape jasmine, &:c. Others are cultivated
chiefly for the beauty of the leaves, as the acuha, variegated
holl}^ &c. — others for the fruit, as the mespihis pyracantha
and the orange; others for the beauty of the whole plant, as
the aristotelia, &c. but most for all of these properties together,
as the myrtle, lauristinus, I'durel, Sec.

Trees form the last natural material in ornamental garden-
ing; and though the use of them more properly belongs to the

PART vr. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 325

subject of planting, or picturesque improvement, yet they de-
serve to be noticed here, because a few of them are occasionally
introduced into parterres or botanic gardens, either for their
individual beauty, for shelter, shade, or some of the uses of pic-
turesque improvement. It is in the shrubbeiy, or those parts
of the pleasure grounds which contain flowers, shrubs, and
TREES — Avhich occupy considerable space, exhibit views of the
country, or of other parts of the ground, that ornamental gar-
dening and picturesque improvement blend themselves toge-
ther.

Statue?, urns, inscriptions, busts, monuments. Sec.
are materials which should be introduced with caution.
None of the others require so much taste and judgment to ma-
nage them with propriety. The introduction of statues^, ex-
cept among works of the most artificial kind, such as fine ar-
chitecture, is seldom or never allowable; for when they obtrude

* Perhaps there is no other mechanical effort of art so preposterous as naked
bronze-coloured human figures exposed in the open air, and surmounted with
lumps oi snow or ice. Decency and common sense equally loathe them, and good
taste flees their presence. As an apology for such insupportahle absur<licies, it is
alleged that they are of Grecian origin. This is an error : it is true, the Greeks,
■despairingof being able to execute figures with drapery, produced naked statues;
but these were always placed within their temples. 'Y\\QCxposure oi nakedness is a
comparatively modern corruption of the true Grecian taste, which ought not to be
thus abused. The Romans and modern Italians are the authors of this vulgar prac-
tice. In every case (except bathing scenes, which are properly private, and conse-
qu'^utly unfit for public representation) the introduction of nudit}^, whether in paint-
ing or sculpture, betrays bad taste and want of talents in the artist.

326" ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

themselves among natural beauties, they always disturb the
train of ideas which ought to be excited in the mind, and ge-
nerally destroy the character of the scenery. In the same way,
busts, urns, monuments, &c. in flower gardens, are quite mis-
placed; as any unprejudiced person, capable of attending to
his own mind, may feel in the flower garden at Nuneham, and
as reason and judgment may convince any one who under-
stands the principles of taste. The obvious intention of these
appendages is, to recal to mind the virtues, qualities, or ac-
tions, of those for whom they were erected: now this requires time,
seclusion, and undisturbed attention, which must either render
all the flowers and other decorations of the ornamental garden
of no effect; or, if they have effect, it can only be to interrupt
the train of ideas excited by the other. As the garden, and
the productions of nature, are what are intended to interest the
spectator, it is plain that the others should not be introduced.
This reasoning, while on the one hand it shews the absurdity
of such a practice, on the other directs that urns, monuments,
&c. should only be placed in solitary unfrequented places,
where the mind is naturally led to contemplate, and where the
remembrance of the virtues of great men, or the worth of rela-
tions now no more, afford proper subjects of contemplation. —
But even in places apparently solitary, or secluded, these have
been introduced in so affected or improper a manner, as to
furnish reason for the greatest caution in future.

PART VI. ORNAMF.NTAL GARDENING. 327

When, on viewing sublime productions of architecture, the
mind is rapt in wonder, astonishment, or awe, statues often
come in well, and increase and prolong the emotion; as in
contemplating the west front of St. Paul's Cathedral, York
Minster, or Westminster Abbey ; but they can seldom raise
the emotion of sublimity when they become principal in any
composition of architecture; as when they are employed as co-
lumns or for other useful purposes, as in the order of carya-
tides*; and of scenery, as when they are used among trees,
flowers, or shrubbery. If placed among scenery to be ad-
mired as works of art — as fine pieces of sculpture, they will
never sufficiently interest any but such contracted connoisseurs
as Avould not enjoy the other objects, and would much distract
the attention of men of true taste. Witness the bad effect
of the very excellent statues placed near to, and in, the green-
house at Shuckborough.

Inscriptions, merely as such, are in general despicable re-
sources, and only indicate conceit and want of mind. If the
inscription be apposite, we are much better pleased to feel or
recollect the coincidence on reading than to be told it by others;
if it be foreign, ox far fetched, it argues a gross defect in those
who placed it there, and serves to excite ridicule; if it be

* This is exemplified in Liverpool Exchange.

328 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

nierel}' a whim or fanc3% as Avhcre an urn or seat in a plea-
sure ground exhibits in large letters " To all friends round the
Wrekin," it is disgusting.

Buildings, being more conspicuous than either statues,
urns, or inscriptions, require to be introduced more sparingly,
and with greater caution. In mere garden or ornamented sce-
nery, they should seldom obtrude themselves by their magni-
tude or glaring colour; and they should rarely be erected but
for some obvi(>us purpose of utility. The chief use of such
buildings will be as covered seats, arches, or gateways, or hot-
houses; other larger and more conspicuous buildings are
treated of under picturesque improvement, or the conveniences
of a residence.

Covered seats are introduced of many forms, and under a
great variety of names, such as root-houses, heath-houses, moss-
houses, huts, bowers, caverns, caves, grottos, temples, mosques,
&c. besides plain covered seats either of wood or stone. The
imitation of temples or mosques, as they must generally be on
a small scale, is quite ridiculous. The propriety of introducing
the others depends entirely upon the character of the scene.
Light bowers formed of lattice-work, and covered with clim-
bers, are in general most suitable to parterres; grottoes to
American gardens, or aquatic scenes; plain covered seats suit

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 329

the general walks of the pleasure ground. Most of the
others may be introduced iu romantic, singular, wild, or melan-
choly places.

Arches or gateways in the scenery of the pleasure ground, be-
sides their utility when properly placed, are often picturesque
improvements, both by giving more /orce and strength of effect
to mere earth and vegetation ; and also by occasionally produc-
ing the charm of surprise, which, when unaffectedly introduced,
is sufficiently allowable. Thus in the transition from one scene
to another, an archway and close gate or door between them is
often necessary to complete the purpose of the separation
fence : now, though there be no difference in the kind • of
scenery on each side, yet on approaching the gate from either,
the extent of vision is gradually diminished, from considera-
ble width, length, and height, to the mere size of the gateway;
which, when opened the full extent, bursts upon the sight at
once. Quick and angular turns of walks have a similar effect,
and may often be advantageously introduced.

Hot-houses, in ornamental gardening, are chiefly of the green-
house or conservatory kind, and are more properly objects of
use than external beauty, though this also ought to be attended
to. 'They will naturally be considered in Chapter III.

u u

330 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

CHAPTER II.

OF THE PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT
IN ORNAMENTAL GARDENING.

The object of ornamental gardening is to exhibit beauties,
either sitigly or collectively. The first and most obvious purpose
of selecting si« le objects is to shew minute beauties, such as
flowers, or fruits. This is done by placing the plants or shrubs
which produce them in the most conspicuous situations, either
on lawn, pulverized earth, or in pots. The next thing which
would naturally strike gardeners in selecting beauties from
wild nature would be, to collect a number of them together;
this would be first none in rows, and afterwards in beds or
masses of various forms and dimensions. Originally, symmetry
and regularity wovdd be studied, as first perceived beauties;
but in time, as parterres or flower gardens of this sort became
more general, fancy would be exercised to produce novelty and
variety, and excite wonder and curiosity. Hence the origin of
fashion or style in this kind of gardening, both with regard to
different countries, and the same country at different periods.
To pursue the subject farther, however, in an historical way,
would not afford much instruction with regard to principles;

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 331

and I shall therefore observe, that the selection of single objects^
which may be called the lowest principle of ornamental gar-
dening, may either refer to trees, shrubs, or plants ; and of
these, either to the leaves, flowers, fruits, or to all of them
together.

The next purpose of ornamental gardening is, to shew beau-
ties collectively. This is accomplished either by arrange-
ment or grouping.

Arrangement may either be effected upon the principles
of botany, of culture, of general nature, or artificial borderings.
Botanical arrangement may be as various as the different sys-
tems which have been invented by botanists, whether natural
or artificial. This mode of arrangement is employed in botanic
gardens, or collections either of plants or trees. Arrangement
according to culture refers chiefly to such plants or trees as re-
quire a particular attention with regard to soil, climate, &c.
Thus all the bulbous-rooted flowers, tender herbaceous plants,
American plants and trees, and in some instances exotics, are
arranged according to this mode ; and particularly the first
class, which are always, when in a cultivated state, guided by
it, as in Dutch parterres, &c. The arrangement universal in
nature is what will be most pleasing to general admirers. Its
principles are peifectly simple ; being nothing more than this.

332 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

" that one kind of objects, beauties, or characters, always pre-
vails in one place ; and that when another succeeds, it is gene-
rally done in a gradual manner, the interval between them
being composed of characters or beauties irregularly blended
together." This is beautifully illustrated throughout all nature,
whether animal, vegetable, or mineral. It may be observed,
as I shall afterwards shew*, in the trees of natural forests, no
less than in the grasses and mosses which form a carpet upon
the surface ; and is intimately connected with a similar ar-
rangement which takes place in the soil, both with regard to
quality, variation of surface, and moisture. It is equally ob-
servable in the animal creation, from the several varieties of
man which inhabit difterent quarters of the globe, to the nu-
merous species of insects or reptiles, which have each their par-
ticular habitats in plants or trees, or particular kinds of sur-
faces and local climates. It has hitherto been totally neglected,
as most of nature's laws have been in this branch of science ;
while in its place is substituted, by custom and ignorance, a
mode of arrangement totally inconsistent with nature or good
taste ; I mean the vulgar mode of mixing different species to-
gether indiscriminately ; not only without the smallest regard
to connexion or difference of character, but in studied opposi-
tion to it. Thus, in green-houses, the common rule is, never

* See Planting.

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 333

to let two species be placed close together, but to distribute
each species equally throughout every part of the house. The
same rule is applied to flower gardens, shrubberies, and plant-
ing in general ; but any one capable of reflecting on the sub-
ject will perceive, that it is as opposite to the principles of good
taste, and as destitute of connexion, variety, or character, as
the order of words in a dictionary is to that of common conver-
sation, or the arrangement of colours on a painter's pallet-
board is to that of the rainbow.

This principle of arrangement is the most generally applica-
ble in ornamental gardening, Avhether we regard their general
distribution into lawn, flower, and shrubs ; or the smaller parts,
composed of flowers or shrubs only. Even a collection of
beauties, exhibited singly, may still be contrived agreeable to
this principle. Thus in a plot of finely varied auriculas each
minute variety may be kept by itself, and the same often
(though not always) in beds of tulips, hyacinths, and ranuncu-
luses. Artificial horderings, that is, flower borders along the
walks in gardens, or borders of flowers in papered rooms, or
indeed ornamental wreaths or borders of any kind, are formed
upon the principles of contrast and repetition. A small part of
that border, of a length more or less according with its breadth,
and the variety to be contained in it, is first formed b}' placing
together flowers of different forms and colours, so as to set off

334 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

one another to the greatest advantage, and thus form either a
varied or harmonious combination ; — then the same thing is re-
peated, generally without any variation*, ever afterwards,
which forms a continued series of the same harmonies. This
mode of arrangement is chiefly applicable to flower borders that
are carried along the walks of common kitchen gardens. It is well
practised by most gardeners, not only in planting the roses or
shrubs which they distribute regularly throughout the whole,
but also in placing the perennial plants ; and in spring, in
soAving the annuals, it is done in a most minute and accurate
manner. In some species of flower gardens, as in the culture
of tulips or other similar flowers, it may be applicable ; but it is
too trifling for being generally employed, and ought never to
appear in shrubberies, or any sort of extensive works. Being
of a simple nature, and easily comprehended by most gar-
deners, it has given rise, and is in fact nearly allied, to the er-
roneous arrangement reprobated vmder the preceding head : —
an arrangement Avhich has been followed, as far as can be
known, from the earliest ages ; butAvhich is not on that account
to be continued, when founded, as I trust 1 have satisfactorily
shewn, upon no just principles.

* In some Egyptian and Grecian borders of ornaments, perpetual variations
have been made, but not with a good effect j of which the unfrequcncy of the
practice may be a sufficient proof.

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 335

Grouping has been explained under Painting. It effects
variety, intricacy, and harmony, and may be applied either to
objects of the same kind in which the chief principle is con-
trast of the parts, or to objects of different kinds in which the
chief principle is disposition or contrast of different objects.
It is applicable to all the larger scenes of ornamental garden-
ing, in connexion with all the natural principles of arrange-
ment, except culture and bordering, where it would cause much
inconvenience in pulverizing the soil. Even there, however, it
may frequently be introduced with advantage and effect ; but
considerable judgment is requisite, to decide when ornamental
effect should give way to convenient culture. In shrubberies,
and scattered trees or shrubs, either alone or seen in connexion
with any of the other materials of ornamental gardening,
grouping is an indispensable requisite, and can never be omitted
without foregoing one of the greatest beauties in nature; one
which is universally prevalent in every variety of natural
scenery, which is instantly perceived, and so highly fascinating
to the man of taste, that no other beauty whatever can com-
pensate for its absence. It will be at once perceived, that the
beauty I mean is connexion ; which, according to the objects
connected, may either produce order, variety, intricacy, or
harmony. Unfortunately, however, it is a beauty not much, if
at all, perceived by gardeners, and is rather adverse to the
principles of cultivation, and that love of offspring inherent in

336 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

the mind, which makes a gardener so fond of the trees that he
has reared, as either to use every means to keep them isolated
from one another, so as they may properly enjoy all the agents
of vegetation, and become conspicuous single objects; or else,
from want of courage to extirpate individuals, to let the whole
grow up together until they destroy each other. The princi-
ples of natural effects, however, are universal in their applica-
tion, even with regard to utility. These principles, and also the
imitation of the effects produced by the extremes of their ope-
ration, will ever be the true criterion of beauty* in the arts of
taste, or in ornamental productions.

* This is equally true, both of the physical and moral world, — of men and
things ; variety and unity are attributes of perfection.

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 33T

CHAPTER III.

OF THE SUBJECTS OF ORNAMENTAL GARDENING.

These are, Parterres of different kinds ; Botanic Gardens ;
Hot-houses ; Conservatories, &c. Small Groups of Shrubs and
Flowers placed upon Lawn ; Shrubberies, and Pleasure-grounds.

1. Parterres. — ^The form, extent, and kinds of these are
various, from the general flower-garden to be met with in seve-
ral places of England, as at Nuneham, Beaumont Hall, &c.
to the remains of the antient French parterre, containing the
arms of the family cut out in box, divisions of sand and shell
work, and trees shaped into men and animals, as at Wentworth
Castle and Levens Park*.

In ornamental gardens or parterres of every kind, the soil
should be unmanured, and rather poor than otherwise ; but
the situation and exposure should be good, and the surface of
the ground beautifully varied. Their extent must be in propor-

* Laid out by King James the Villi's Gardener.
X X

)
338 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

tion to the place to which they belong. In general, they need
not be large. In almost every kind, a few trees and shrubs
should be introduced, to remove from the general view the ap-
pearance of insipidity, and to break it into separate scenes ;
one of which alone should be seen at a time, that the extent of
vision being circumscribed the spectator may thus be induced
to examine or admire the minute beauties of single objects or
small compositions. I may observe here, that where parterres are
intermingled with lawn, those disgusting lines of separation at
the edges of walks, or round groups and dug patches of flowers
or shrubs, which abound every where, should not be introduced ;
the gravel of the walk, and the earth at the edges of the dug
patches or groups, ought to be kept nearly on a level with the
grass on the lawn. Where much culture is requisite in the
groups, the line of separation should be delicate and graceful ;
and where this is not necessary, or not much attended to, both
the lines of the walk and the lines of the dug group or patch
should blend and harmonize, and, in a natural, easy manner,
glide insensibly into each other. — A few of the most remark-
able varieties of parterres shall be characterized below.

1. A general flower-garden, or parterre, should contain such a
variety of beautiful trees, shrubs, flowers, &c. as that a number
of each will be in perfection every month of the year, particu-

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 339

larlj in the summer season. They should be placed in irregu-
lar groups and thickets, of dift'erent sizes, gliding into one
another on smooth lawn, beautifully varied, and broken into
small, confined scenes, by trees and shrubs of the most elegant
sorts. Throughout the whole, smooth gravel walks should wind
in a graceful, easy manner. In such a garden, the green-
house and stoves for exotic plants and trees may be placed.
In summer, those which are reared in the green-house may
be dispersed throughout the garden ; and the pots being
sunk in the earth, the plants will appear as natives; or they
may be arranged in a situation by themselves, and retain
their own character; and, during this season, the house may
be filled with balsams, coxcombs, amaranths, and other ten-
der annuals. A few elegant seats, both covered and unco-
vered, may be introduced ; but no grottoes, urns, busts, nor
temples; which have all their proper places in ornamental
scenery, but which, as I have formerly remarked, are unsuita-
ble to this scene.

2. A winter garden should contain such trees, shrubs, plants,
&c. as are in perfection, or retain their verdure, during this
season ; such as most of the evergreen tribe ; and several
flowering plants, as aconite, Christmas-rose, &c. They should
be grouped and arranged in the natural manner, and a dry

340 ORNAMEXTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

gravel walk should be conducted throughout the whole. This
garden should be situated near the mansion, in order that it
may be conveniently and comfortably approached in the winter
months. In it the conservatory should be placed.

3. A spring garden should contain all those deciduous shrubs
and trees which blossom or put forth leaves the most early in
the spring, such as the almond, mezerion, fringe tree, &c. &c.
All the early-blowing flowers, both of the bulbous and fibrous-
rooted kinds, as the narcissus, crocus, iris, cowslip, auricula,
hepatica, Sec. The walks should be of gravel, and little or no
lawn should appear.

This garden may contain a house for heaths, auriculas, and
other early-flowering plants. It should be placed near the for-
mer one, and connected with it and the mansion by a comfort-
able gravel walk, that they may be approached at any season.
The soils of both should be light and dry, the situations well
exposed to the sun, and sheltered from the northern blast.

4. An autumn garden should contain such a collection of or-
namental plants and trees as are in perfection at this season ;
such as most annual flowers when late sown ; many herbaceous
plants, as aster, solldago, Sec; and several trees and shrubs

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 341

that continue long in perfection, as the honeysuckle, rose
acacia, &c.

5. A parterre of bulbous roots requires to he somewhat diffe-
rent, in form and design, from any of the above. The general
form ought to be regular. It may be a square, a circle, or
oval, divided into compartments, and each of these laid out
into beds of three or four feet broad. Here may be grown the
different varieties of tulips, hyacinths, ranunculuses, anemo-
nies, &c. each in their proper soil*. It may contain a stove
for the Jri'as Amaryllis, and similar exotic bulbs ; and near it
may be placed the auricula and carnation shed.

6. Gardens may also be made solely for the purpose of cul-
tivating any single family, genus, or species of plant or shrub,
as a garden of roses — of arinual flowers— of pinks and carnations
— of double flowering plants and trees — of variegated kinds only,
&c. : — or of ferns — of grasses — or of the vegetables, natives of
any particular country, as those of America, Siberia, the
Alps, &.C.

7- An ancient British flower-garden may be laid out agree-

* See Maddox's Florist's Directory.

342 ORNAMENTAL GARDEN INC BOOK I.

ably to the directions of Meagre's Designs, Hyll's Art of
Gardening, published 1596, and Switzer's Gentleman's Re-
creations.

8. Modern British flower-gardens are of two kinds ; 1. Those
laid out into beds fringed on the edge with box, pink, or gentian,
&c. as at Blenheim, Raith, and most places ; or, 2. Those laid
out into patches and clumps on lawn, as at Nuneham, Beau-
mont Hall, Eglinton, Colzean Castle, &c.

9. A Chinese garden, if desirable, may be formed from the
hints in Chambers's Dissertation on Oriental Gardening.

10. A Grecian garden. See Moore's Letters, Elian's Various
History, Athenseus, &c.

11. Roman and Italian gardens. See Cato De Re Rustica,
Virgil, Pliny's Epistles, 8cc.

12. A Dutch garden. See Haveneer Konst, by Johann Her-
man Knoop, published 1753.

13. French parterres and gardens. See Quintinius, James,
&c.

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 343

These scenes are not only pleasing or amusing in themselves,
but, when introduced in a pleasure-ground, by their contrast
with other scenes, and with one another, may add to the variety
and interest of that species of ornamental scenery.

A SMALL BOTANIC GARDEN, OR BOTANIC PARTERRE, may

contain a large collection of all, or several, of the different fami-
lies of vegetables, as an arboretum, frutecetum, harbarium, ar-
ranged either by the sexual or the natural systems of Linnaeus,
or by the natural system of Jussieu, or any other author. These
jnay be planted either in beds, as is commonly done when the
Linnrean system is followed, or in irregular masses when
any natural arrangement is adopted. A university botanic
garden does not come within the plan of this work. — See
Chapter I.

Hot-houses, in ornamental gardening, are of various kinds,
characterized by the modes in which the plants are grown, and
the different degrees of temperature employed in their culture.
The principles of their formation and management are the same
with those already mentioned under Useful Gardening,
and therefore do not require to be repeated here : all that is
necessary is, to offer a few hints on the different varieties re-
quired for ornamental purposes; these are. Stoves, Green-
houses, and Conservatories.

344 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I,

Stoves are of two kinds ; dry stoves, in which the plants
are grown in pots without being plunged in beds of earth or
bark ; and moist or pit stoves, in which the plants cultivated
are chiefly grown in pits ; or, beds of earth, or bark, the
individuals commonly inserted in pots, but sometimes merely
inserted in tlie soil. Dry stoves are kept of a temperature
in general between 56 and 70 degrees ; and moist stoves be-
tween 65 and 90 degrees. The most economical form is a
parallelogram, placed from east to west, of glass sashes on the
south side, roof, and ends, and masonry toward the north ;
but the most elegant and eligible for the plants is one placed
north and south, and of glass on all sides. Unless an inner
roofing is used, however, glass on all sides is precarious, espe-
cially in the northern parts of this island. Where the plants
are o-rown in pots and plunged in earth or bark, the pits are
made of considerable depth to admit of those materials, as in
the culture of pines ; but pits filled with earth, and treated in
the manner proposed by me for growing the pine, are at
first sight so decidedly preferable, both with regard to beauty
and economy, that no unprejudiced person, who understands
the plan proposed, Avill reject it for stove plants, though he
might even reckon it unfit for growing pines.

Green-houses. — To the general form of these the above
remarks are equally applicable ; and the particulars of their

PAKT VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 345

tioned. They ought to be made of different dimensions, ac-
cording to the kind of exotics to be cultivated. In disposing
the plants in the house, besides the general principles mentioned
in the preceding chapter, regard should be had to the placing
of minute beauties together, and as near the eye as is consistent
with elegance. Geraniums, myrtles, hydrangias, should never in-
terfere with ericas, hrunius, or diosmas, nor should either be
mixed with ixias, oxalis, or cyclamen, &c. A green-house may
generally appear as an object in the flower-garden, but should
always be well blended with vegetation. What will contribute
to this, and greatly heighten effect in entering it, is a small
porch or archway of lattice-work, continued a few yards from
each door. The spectator, on entering the green-house after
passing through this confined and shady passage, will conceive
it much loftier than it really is ; for now the mind, in place of
having a tendency to compare it with the open air, will compare
it Avith the low dark passage of the porch. Moveable green-
houses, as at Nuneham, where the plants during summer are
exposed on all sides to the sun, wind, and rain, are very
agreeable, and may easily be contrived. A large orangerie
after this plan would have an excellent effect in a regular
flower-garden. That at Nuneham is too formal and confined
for its situation, which is among beautifully varied ground,
winding walks, and numerous groups ; and is particularly dis-
cordant Avith the large trees which surround this garden, and

Y Y

S4)6 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. BOOK I.

materially injure it, by being so near its boundary, both in re-
spect to culture and effect.

Conservatories. — These are kept of various temperatures,
between that of the dry stove and the open air. They may be
constructed of any form, and placed either in a parterre, or ad-
joining to, and connected with, the mansion. In them may be
grown all kinds of green-house or dry stove plants, and fre-
quently fruit trees intermingled with them. In the Treatise on
Hot-houses, I have shewn a great variety of ways in which con-
servatories or green-houses may be heated from the fires requisite
for the house. I shall therefore not repeat any of them here, but
refer to Plate XII. fig. 1., which is a plan of a house with a large
conservatory and vinery, designed by me for a small place in the
immediate neighbourhood of London, where no prospect, or good
external views, can be obtained from the windows. The vinery
is heated by the fires of the kitchens, and a small dressing or
book-room. The conservatory by those of the drawing-room,
library, and dining-room. From all these three rooms agree-
able perspectives through the conservatory may be obtained,
even while sitting at table ; as the dotted lines in the plan serve
to shew*. In those parts of the conservatory farthest from the

* The central part of the principal building is intended to be carried up a consi-
derable height, as a tower ; the rest is to be two stories high, with parapets all
round, of such a height as to conceal the chimnies. As few windows as possible arc

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 347

fire places, the hardiest green-house plants may be grown ; and
in those nearest them, succulents, and even dry stove plants,
will thrive. Vines may also be trained up a few of the rafters,
and ornamental creepers or climbers on the rest. Standard
peaches, cherries, figs, &c. may be grown ; which, besides their
gay effect in spring, and the beauty of their fruits, which are al-
ways most numerous on these trees when grown as standards,
communicate also an umbrose appearance which is a great ac-
quisition to a conservatory. When these trees become of too
great magnitude, and when myrtles, mimosas, and other exotics,
are large enough to supply their place, they may then be taken
out or removed. And if a little fruit be still wanted, some of
these trees in pots can easily be introduced in spring, and taken
out as soon as the fruit is gathered. By paving the bottom of the
pits or beds in this consen^atory, and placing above the pave-
ment a stratum of gravel six inches in thickness, and above that
three inches o£ green moss, and then the soil, the whole house,
except the plants in pots (and these ought to be few), may be

to be shewn ; those of all the bed-rooms on the south side being to come down to the
floor, and lookingentirely into the conservatory, which will also derive heat from their
fire-places. The bed-rooms and dining-rooms may be wholly heated at any time
by opening the windows and admitting the air of the conservatory. The greater
part of the house externally is to be covered with ivy and other creepers, which will
give the whole a singular and romantic appearance, and distinguish it from the
tasteless cottages and villas which abound every where in tiie neighbourhood of
London, the productions of meagre fancy or whimsical novelty.

348 ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. COOK I.

watered in two minutes by pouring in water to this stratum by
a convenient tube contrived on purpose. It may be thought, as
some plants require less water than others, that thereby they
would be injured ; but this can easily be prevented by placing
such plants in a porous and non-retentive soil, by which means
they will absorb no more than whatig necessary and proper; at
thesame time any plants that mayrequire anextraordinary quan-
tity ought to be put in a retentive soil, and may further have a
little water given to them upon the surface ; for this mode is
not meant to supersede surface waterings entirely, except in
winter, when that practice generates damps. It is evident, that
a glass house of this kind, (heated by fires which at any rate re-
quire to be kept up,) with a porous substrata and imier roofingy
could be managed with very little trouble or expence. And as
a conservatory is one of the greatest luxuries both to a princi-
pal residence in the country, and a small villa or cottage near
town, perhaps it may tend to promote their more general in-
troduction.

Fig. 2. In this plate is a section that shews the exact manner
in which the heat is obtained from the kitchen fire-place : a a is
a wall of masonry ; h b two carron plates ; ccc the passage for
the air; which by being thus confined easily becomes heated, and
passes out by the holes in the board d, which serve to diverge
it regularly, and prevent any plants from being scorched by it.

i

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. 349

By pouring water upon the plate e, abundance of steam may
be produced, when requisite for the vines. The same kind of
plan is applicable to the fire-places of the family apartments,
only with a little more elegance in the curvature of the oarron
plate next the room, &c.

Small groups of shrubs and flowers, when placed
\ipon a lawn, should always be of very irregular shape ; when
upon gravel, this must depend upon circumstances. If in a
part where art is avowed and ought to prevail, then the more
artificial the form, so much the better ; but if merely a group
for dividing or varying a road, walk, or natural path at a dis-
tance from artificial scenes, then it should be as irregular as
those upon the lawn. In almost every case, whether these groups
are made regular, or irregular, they require to be cultivated for
some years afterwards. This, according to the present mode of
digging them, produces a harsh and disagreeable boundary line;
and the chief improvement which I propose in this branch of
ornamental gardening, independently of arrangement, grouping,
and connexion, which have been already treated of, is to de-
stroy as much as possible this line of separation. Nothing can
be easier done ; it being only requisite to keep the earth on
the margin of the group of the same level as the lawn or pas-
ture, and to let both blend harmoniously together. As all
groups of this kind are only dug during a certain time ; that

350 ORNAMENTAL GARDEKING.

is, until the shrubs are so large as to render culluie uuucces-
sary ; the pasture ought to be allowed gradually to encroach
among the shrubs and flowers, until at last it wholly cover the
surface. After this, the group becomes rough and picturesque ;
the flowers still continuing to grow among the shrubs will pro-
duce exactly what we see in natural groups ; with this elegant
difference, that in place of nettles, thistles, and such gross
weeds, which however are as good to the painter as the finest
flowers, we shall have narcissus, saxifrage, saponaria, &c. which
will be quite in character with the rest of the pleasure-ground,
and thrive well among pasture. In planting the shrubs in
these groups, the great art is to put them in irregularly ; for
though the outline of the ground to be cultivated must, even
under the best taste, be somewhat formal, yet the shrubs can
always be planted as irregularly as if no outline or form of
group existed. This, however, is a thing never done ; for Avhat-
ever be the form of the ground which is to be dug, the shrubs
arc regularly distributed over every part of it : — even when dig-
ging is no longer attended to, still none of the shrubs are
thinned out, but the whole left a formal, unconnected clump
of vegetation ; an appearance as different from the irregular
group thickets of nature, as a green hillock is from a rocky pre-
cipice. Groups, or rather masses of formal shapes, such as
ovals in front of small villas, or basket-work patches upon lawn

PART VI. ORNAMENTAL GARDENING. S51

in front of a mansion, must always have determinate outlines ;
because, being devoted chiefly to tender flowers and flowering
shrubs, they will always require to be cultivated. Their out-
lines may either be formed of elegant masonry, wood, basket-
work ; or flowers, as thrift, daisy, &;c. or often a broad margin
of turf, when surrounded by gravel. The general form of these
masses may be oval, circular, pentagonal, or fanciful, accord-
ing to pleasure ; and their surface may either be kept level
mth the lawn, or gradually raised from the margin to the
centre. But it may be observed, when raised in this way, that
the sides ought always to present a concave slope and not a
convex one, as they commonly do, and which has a very bad
effect in the public squares of London*. Basket groups often
have a very pretty effect when covered with moss, as may be
seen at Dalkeith. Others unconnected among themselves, and
of shapes rather unsuitable to the situation, may be seen at
Donnington. Though much has been said on the connexion of
groups in the preceding chapter, I must repeat that neither
those of irregular nor of regular shapes ought ever to be placed
but where they have a proper relation and union with what
surrounds them.

* See some farther remarks by the author on this subject, in the Literary Jour-
nal for January ISOi.

''iiiii

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1

THt GEHY CENT:r

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