teas wees hs es Saas % x Parr, ; ; / : ast te e ; ss ie Sree a ee toe at ae es a ste Me, eevee RG ene read @ LOHAN 00043 1198 a) ~ S ) : ‘- 7 4 sy! : \ ) on J ci Field Museum of Natural History ii LIBRARY i Chiragn > e ~ A EN \ ) ) j mite) y i — » by i Ney % ) ~~ *, ~ ] ’ = v j 4 na SOs 4 Py, aes, y p vant ee EB 2. “-_. “ g 2 ) & € 5 ) D , | | \ = } | I / ~ ‘y ‘ A OL Det ba Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2014 https://archive.org/details/tropicalagricul281907ceyl The Tropical Agriculturist AND Magazine of the Ceylon Agricultural Society. FOUNDED BY JOHN FERGUSON, C.M.G., 1881. EDITED BY J. CG. WILLIS, Sc.D., F.L.S., Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. Vol. XXVIII. Containing Numbers | to VE =danuary to June, 1907. 448349 A. M. & J. FERGUSON, COLOMBO, CEYLON. 1907. THE CEYLON BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Patron: SIR HENRY ARTHUR BLAKH, G.c.m.a., F.R.C.1. President: HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR. Vice-Presidents: Tur Hon. THE CoLONIAL SECRETARY. The Hon’ble the CotontaL TREASURER Mr. H. T. S. Warp, Director of Irrigation The Hon'ble Mr. Joun Ferauson, 0.M.c. Mr. W. Forsyte (Sabaragamuwa Province) The Hon’ble Mr. S. C. OBEYHSEKERE Mr. W..D. Grppon (Central Province) Sir Winu1aAm TwynaM, K,C.M.G. Mr. C. P. Haynry (Southern Province} Mr. Francis Brven | Dry. W. G. Rockwoop, M.D. Organising Vice-President: Dr. J. C. Wintuis. Members of the Board: Ex-Officio—Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils The Government Agents of Provinces The Controller, Experiment Station, Peradeniya The Government Entomologist The Government Mycologist The Director of the Museum The Director of Public. Instruction The Government Veterinary Surgeon The Superintendent of School Gardens The Conservator of Forests Nominated Members: Ween Trims , D. A. Gooneratne, Gate Mudaliyar Mr, B. Morison ,, BT. Doole. Gate Mudaliyar if i SHOR Pa Kastern Provinee. i fi, B. Denham, c.cs. Mr, Varitambi Kurunathapillai » Solomon Seneviratne, Atapattu Muda- » C. A. Lienard liyar and J.p. North-Western Province. Sir Solomon Dias Bandaranaike, kt.,c.m.a. My B, Scott Maha Diudaliyet S.'N. W. Hulugalle, Adigar ee ae SrgaN a IF J. Clovis de Silva ar wy AS anes » G. W Dodanwela ” . A. de suva a Ae Ne eh » #. L Daniel North-Central Province Central Province. coe Mr o ty C. ye : Dr. Valentine de 8. Duke res C. A Vale ¥ “i ; Mr. BR. E, Paranagama, R.M. ” aloopillai ‘ : AA 1s GW. Jayawardene, Mudaliyar and J.P. » Daniel Joseph AS eae O22 » W. Dunuwille, Disava ‘ Wirt CTE Province of Uva. » OC. Taldena, Rm, OP Mr. A. T. Rettie Northern Province, , James Duncan Mr. V. Casipillai Pyare lle) Hoseason, J.P. » VV. Vraspillai, Adigar and J.P. , ©. B, Katugaha, R.M. , K.U. Tampaiya, District Mudaliyar. Province of Sabaragamwuwa. Southern Province. Mr, A. N. Galbraith, c.c.s. Mr. C. G. Simmonds , Dan. J. Jayatileke » 4. R. Gooneratne, Gate Mudaliyar , J. H. Meedeniya, R,M, Seeretary : Mr, C. DRIEBERG, B.A., F.E.A.S. Editorials, INDEX. PaGsE, Lectures, Original Articles, etc :— Agricultural Society Progress Re- “port 48, 126, 19u, 256, 335 < iculture in Ceylon ee 327, 377 Blocking of Wet Rubber 53 Board of Agriculture, Ceylon 47, 125, 190, 254, 334 Botany, Lessons in Elementary 43, 299, 386 Caravonica Cotton, Report on Ceylon Grown 209 Ceylon Paddy in Demerara 366 Coconut Cultivation in yen 278 Coconuts he 1 Co-operation in Aericulture 26) Crop Rotation in Paddy Fields 196 Dry Grains Cultivated in Ceylou 22, 69 Entomological Notes 29, 181, 296 Experimental Rubber Tapping in Singapore Botanic Gardens 340 Fruit Cultivation in Ceylon ai 277 Lawns, their Making and Upkeep ... 33 Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture 42, 119, 178, wae 300, 384 Moulds and Rubber | La Pr 9 Non-Rubber Yielding Hevea... 344 Note on the system ~ of Cultivation in Arid Districts 370 Paddy Cultivation in Ceylon 146 Poison in Food Plants 161 Poultry Notes a ne 40 Rabies in the Dog : me 38 Ranawara Tea of “Ceylon 230 Rhea or Ramie 129 Rice Transplanting 196 Root Diseases of Tea 292, Rubber, Creosoting and Blocking Wet 16 “a in Congo . Free State a 13 ny Para, Distance and Inter- planting 2 Spiral Tapping Th irty Years. Ago... os 54 Satinwood, Chloroxylon Swietenia .. 26 Solanacese—a Useful Family Mis 381 Spiral Rubber Tapping Thirty Years Ago 54 Tobacco Manuring ‘Experiments, Ceylon 281 Transplanting in n Paddy Cultivation 145, 196 Work of Loca Agricultural Societies 339 Gums, Resins, Saps and Exudations :— Camphor Cultivation 204 fi a in Ceylon 205 RUBBER :— Burma, Cultivation Industry i in 345 Qaoutchoue Production and Bark Injury 342 bane Rubber in German Hast Africa 264 Ceylon Para Rubber, Dr. Esch on. ... 262 » Rubber, What? 8s Wrong with 342 Close Planting” vs. Wide P lanting of 4. Coagulation of Castilloa Rubber 135 Pace. Congo Free State, Rubber in se 13 Creosoting and Blocking Wet Rubber 16 Cultivation in German East Africa... 264. 3. Banzibar ... 263 Distance and Interplanting 2 Hixports of Mexico 56 Guayule Rubber, Analyses of 197 ef 5 Prospects 262 of Mexico 196 Gutta Percha Imports... 200 Hevea discolor, A non-rubber Yielder 344 7a Fruiting Seasons . ae 340 Industry in Ecuador 132 », Madagascar . 134 Latex Coag ulation and Reagents s 190 London Rubber Market 18, 60, 136, 201, 265, 348 Loranthus Rubber in 8. America ... 343 Market, London Rubber 18, 60, 136, 201, 265, 348, its in 1906, Review of Ke 57 Mistletoes in 8. gece, Rubber- Yielding : 343 Aol Ids and Rubber 9 Non-Rubber Yielding Hevea te 344 Para Rubber, Dr. Esch on Ceylon ... 262 Planters, Hints for Bos Z 14 Parthenium Argentatum, Guayule Rubber a 196 Production of India Rubber 130 Resins in Rubber 198 Rubber in Congo Free State 13 Mey i al Mexico 55 iy Panama 55 By Industry i in East. ‘Africa 263 .. Production in Proportion to Latex Yield 341 Spiral Tapping Thirty Years Ago 54 Soil Sterilisation in Rubber Planta- tions A 7 Tapping Results in Singapore Bo- tanic Gardens 340 Thinning out Rubber 4 Wet Rubber, Creosoting and Blocking 16 Oils and Fats :— African Oil Palm Cultivation : 351 Camphor Industry in Ceylon ; 64 Ori: Ae as 62 Ceara Rubber Seed Oil nite : 353 Citronella Oil .. 66 . Coconut Oil in American Market 354 Lemongrass Oil 67 Oil, Prepar ation of African Palm 352 Dyes and Tanning Substances :— Turmeric Cultivation and Uses 207 Fibres :— Agave Fibres, Report on Madras 269 uf Vera Cruz 269 a Wightii 271 Caravonica Cotton, Repor ton Ceylon 209 Cotton, Caravonica Vis COs INDEX ere 11 Pace. Fibre Extracting Machinery 212 Phormium Q17 ; Flax Cultivation New, Zealand (Phor- mium tenax) 213 Furcraea Fibres, Report 0 on Madras 269 Ps Gigantea (Mauritius Home) 271 Maguey Cultivation , 210 Mauritius Hemp : 271 Paper and Pulp Manufacture in Burma te 355 Philippine Fibres and Fibrous Sub- stances H 3 140 Ramie or Rhea in Tirhut 273 Rhea or Ramie 129 Sisal Hemp ee 270 <3 », Cultivation ... 210 Edible Products :— Arrowroot Industry 4 Re 364 Cacao, Criolo Budded on Forastero ... 360 e Trade, Review of the 359 Canning Fruit for Preserving 368 Cassava, Poison in 161 Chillie Peppers, Cultivation of 24 Coconut Cultivation in Southern Province, Ceylon 278 33 Manuring os 279, 280 NS ‘Trees per Acre... 280 ae Yield per Acre ... 280 Coffee Valorisation Scheme 361 Decay of Ripe Fruit, To Prevent 236 Dry Grains Cultivated in Ceylon 22 Formosa Oolong Teas 229 3 Tea Industry eal 228 Fruit Cultivation in Ceylon 277 » Decay, To Prevent epi 236 » Preserving a 367 Grains in Ceylon, Drye ns 69 Ground-nut Cultivation ... F 231 i »> Industry at Marseilles 235 35 H9 5 Sy pongioher 365 ie » or Pea-nut . y ee 150 Yields of 233 Hecleaka Tea Experiment Station . 72 Oolong Teas, Formosa... 229 Paddy Cultivation in Badulla, Ceylon 146 » in Demerara, Ceylon 366 Puspalum Dilatatum : An American Fodder-Grass ws ni 164 Pea-nut Cultivation a Hee 231 » or Ground-nut ... .. 86, 150 Poison in Food Plants ia 161 Prickly Pear as Fodder ... 167 Ranawara Tea of pages) 230 Rozelle 125 Sugar as Food, “Value of _ 363 Tea, Ceylon’s Import Duty on 148 “7 Consumption, Increase in oe 360 », China Se seh eee » Culturein Japan... 79 », Districts, Elevations of Ceylon 22 », Industry, Formosa ... 228 », in Heeleaka Experiment Station 72 Manufacture in Japan 79 Teas, Ceylon .... Ps 226 5, World’s Leading ts 1226, 234 Tobacco Manuring Experiments in Ceylon 281 obacvo Seed, Howto Save the Best 357 Transplanting i in Paddy Cultivation at Dikdeniya, Ceylon vin 148 Pace. Timbers :— Chloroxylon Swietenia or Satinwood 26 Satinwood, Chloroxylon Simeone, 26 Wood in Paper Making 91, 219 ; Products, Possibilities of 289 », Pulp-Making Patents 289 Plant Sanitation :— Entomology : Camphor, Boring-beetle on a 297 Castor Plant, Seale- bug on ae 297 Ceara Seeds, Worms in ... sie 29 Copra, Larvae in ae as 297 Entomological Notes 29, 181, 296 Insects, Importation of Beneficial ... 104 Mosquitoes, To Prevent Breeding of 297 Nettle Grubs (Vhosea), Cure for Palmyra Palms, Disease of Shot Hole Borer and Shade a 5, Lo Destroy = 182 Tea Aphis (Ceylonia theaecola) 29 », Nettle Grub on 29 >, Tortrix (Cupua coffearia) 29 White Ants (Calotermes militaris) on Tea 181 Mycology : Caprinia on Kickxia Rubber 296 Povria-hypolateritia Fungus on Tea... 293 Rosellinia Fungus on Tea i” 292 Tea Prunisgs, Burial of .. 295, 296 ,, Root Diseases 292 - 295 Ustulina Fungus on Tea 293 Scientific Agriculture :— Arid Districts, Cultivation in 370 Basic Slag, Value of : ws 184 Green Manuring, Progress in the Practice of ... 372 Humus in Agriculture, Importance of 298 Leguminous “Crops, Fertilising In- gredients in a 375 Manuring Cacao aie es 298 Horticulture :— | Garden Accessories 101 Mulching 185 Lawns, Making and Upkeep of 33 Roots, Growth and Formation of 35 Live Stock :— Apiculture : Apiculture in Ceylon 327, 377 Bee-keeping Appliances .. 5 329 Hive, To make a ae 327 »5 Frames, To make... 328 Poultry : Egg-Eating, Cure for... 4] Eggs in Water Glass, Preserving 824 Favus or Ringworm in Fowls 41 Feather Eating, Cure for Ry 41 Poultry, Diseases of Sea 40 ws Enteritis in ... nee 40 Ringwormin Poultry ... ee 4) Miscellaneous ‘ Cockroaches, and Remedies forthem 289 Dog, Rabies in the ane tag 3s Miscellaneous :— Agricultural Associations in India... 387 a4 Co-operation 303 in Institute, International 244 Lg (ia WE ha il Dee eS sea i a INDEX, iii Pace. PAGE. ; Heshede in Madras ... 169 1) ” their Work in the ’ anisation Society .. 243 United States 313 Agriculture i in eye Philippines 60 120 x and their Work 244 Literature of Economic Solanacez—A Useful Family 381 Botany and 42, 119, 178, 246, 300, 384 Village Agriculturists, Hints for 109 Recent Problems in... 175 Whitewash, A Useful _... 180 Agri- ‘hoticultural Show, Ambalangoda 43, Correspondence :— 123 Absorption of Nitrogen by Plants ... 332 ” ” »» Nuwara we Aloe Vera 189 Eliya 259, 325 Australian Magpie i in Ceylon 330 » Uva ve 926 Camphor Propagation from Seed 413 Betel Vine Essay Competition 334, 416 Canker in Para Rubber Trees 412 Botany and Agriculture Literature Gatavonion Cotton 124 of Economic 42, 119, 178, 246,300, 384 GamaaubaPalmitor Ceylon 413 Botany in the Public Schools and Oaehow “Nubee., as 187 on the Farm 13 Ceylon Papain 331 Botany, Lessons in Elementary 43, 299, 386 Ceylon Rubber, Suggestions for the Cattle Show, Ettaiyapuram : 50 Improvement of 41] Co-operative Agricultural Societies 302 Characteristic Plants of North Ceylon 186 ” Credit inCanada_—.. pee Fruit Trees along Public a ” » in India + 302 Planting... ae 414 os ” among Indian 259 Mud-kilavai, Uses of 330 g Ryots even Mulch aud Capillarity ay 254 ocieties Act .. a Paspalum Grass for Coconut Planta- Earth- -Eating i in India... aa 397 ane bs ce 415 Eggs in Water-glass, Preserving ... 324 Pepper Stem injsoason eee ) 45) 186 Hawaii, Trade of sie 178 Plants of North Ceylon, Charac-_ Irrigation of Black Cotton Soil... 301 pe atiG 44 Labour Emigration from Mexico... 310 Ramie (Rhea) Taduster ae i 187 Literature of Economic Botany and Roce Disersorak Ficcen 44 Agriculture 42, 119, 178, 246, 300, 384 Rozelle 195 Metice Management of Coolies in Rubber Tapping : Inverted V System 189 Malaya ee "$ $6.) 40S Satinwood, Durability of 415 Minuwangoda Fair se mes 49 A A SR Ror 331 School Garden Neto a a am Tephrosia as Green Manure 330 . and Children’s Current Literature :— Exhibitions of 321 Agricultural Progress in Coorg. 46 ¥ ns as Factor in Village’ Cotton-Growing Industry, B. Kol Improvement... 319 Africa, Report on ae 45 TMV END CMS) OF THE Agricultural Society of Ceylon. 1. The Society shall be called “Tum AGricutturaL Society or CEYLON.” 2, The business of the General Society shall be conducted through the Board of Agriculture of Ceylon. 3, The Board shall meet for despatch of business on the first Monday of each month at 9-30 p.m. Seven members shall form a quorum. 4, Notices of motions or questions shall be sent to the Secretary at least one week before the meeting of the Board. 5. All motions will require to be seconded and will be circulated before the Board meets. 6, A General Meeting of the Society may be called by the President at any time and may be held at any place to be fixed by him, 7. All Members of the Board will be nominated by the President. 8, Candidates for Membership of the Society must be proposed by a Member of the Board for the district in which the Candidate resides or owns landed property. 9. Members of the Society shall pay a subscription of Rs. 5 per annum, 10. Payment of the subscription in advance will entitle a Member to receive all publications of the Society. All subscriptions shall be paid to the Secretary of the Board. 11. Lists of Members will be published annually in the Government Gazette and in the Journal of the Society. 12. Local Societies may be formed with a Membership of not less than twelve Members. 13, Hach Local Society should be represented by a Secretary, through whom correspondence with the Board can be conducted. 14, All Local Societies will be registered at the Local Kachcheri and by the Secretary of the Board. 15. The Revenue Officers of the Province and District shall be ex-offictco Members of the Local Societies within the Province. 16. Local Societies are empowered to make their own rules. 17. All Local Societies will be entitled to receive all publications of the Society on payment of an individual subscription. 18. The funds of the Agricultural Society will be lodged in the Bank of Madras in the name of the Agricultural Society of Ceylon. The Secretary will be responsible for the accounts, and all cheques will be signed by him and the President or Vice-President of the Board of Agriculture 19, A statement of Expenditure incurred, &c., shall be tabled at each meeting of the Board. ». 20. All grants-in-aid of Local Societies or special experimant must be approved by the Board. 21. All accounts will be audited annually. —<—— - POLE Se Bal = TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST AND MAGAZINE OF THE CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Vou. XXVIII. : COLOMBO, JANUARY 16rtu, 1907. No. 1. Coconuts. The dearth of literature on the subject of coconuts is remarkable, and to what it is to be ascribedis hard to say. More has been written about rubber in a few years than about coconuts since the palm was evolved. True itis that there is a less attractive profit in view, but it is by no means so certain that in 15 or 20 years’ time the rubber will pay better than the nuts. The uses for the product of the one increase as rapidly as those for that of the other. Cultivation of the palm is conti- nually extending in Ceylon, Malaya, and other countries, but the consumption increases as rapidly, so that prices have not fallen, in fact have of late risenin a remarkable way. This absence of literature may be due to the fact that until comparatively lately the cultivation of this palm has been almost entirely in the hands of the villagers, or tothe fact that by long practice of the cultivation the natives of Ceylon had evolved a system of cultivation which has proved very fair as to results, and which has not yet met with much criticism or alteration ; or again, to the fact that scientific institutions, suchas Peradeniya, having only recently been established in the tropics, have not yet had time to do much in the study of a palm which takes so long to come into bearing. The new department of agriculture in the Philippines, however, has already turned out some useiul work. _ At the same time, it must be recongnised that the scientific treatment of the coconut is only in its infancy, and that we are as yet without really accurate knowledge of most branches of its cultivation and harvesting. What kind of nut, for instance, gives, for each kind of soil, the best results as to copra, oil, fibre, &c. ? How many really distinct varieties are there (opinions vary from 2 to 150)? To what extent will one variety pass into another with change of soil, cultivation, &c.? To what extent are the characters of any given nut due to selection, and what charac- - ters will remain fixed from generation to generation, and thus not deteriorate in the hands of villagers? To what extent can the qualities of any given race be improved by selection? Whatis the best distance apart to plant with different varieties in different soils? What is the manure for each kind of soil? each kind of nut? What is the best way of making copra of uniform quality, fibre, oil, &c.? And many other questions. We shall welcome any contributions upon any of these topics from writers with knowledge of the subject, 2 [Jan. 1907. GUMS, RESINS, SAPS, AND EXUDATIONS. Para Rubber; Distance and Interplanting. By HERBERT WRIGHT. On a previous occasion the subject of distance in planting, in connection with Hevea brasiliensis, was discussed, and acertain amount of interest has since been displayed in the subject. It appears necessary, however, to discuss this matter in detail, and to definitely state that Iam notin favour of close planting any more than I am in favour of the wide planting of Para rubber trees; any misconception is no doubt due to the brevity of my original remarks. In the original discussion the advantages and disadvantages of ‘close planting and thinning-out” were briefly given, and the pros and cons of other possible systems require to be dealt with. In the planting of Para rubber there are approximately five systems which may be mentioned :— 1. Close planting—permanent ; 2. Close planting and thinning-out; Wide planting—permanent ; Wide planting with catch and inter cr ops; Inter planting with herbaceous and arborescent plants. gue ge WHAT IS CLOSE PLANTING ? To define close planting is a difficult matter, and though actual figures may be quoted, they are subject to modification according to the physical and chemical properties of the soil, and the nature of the climate in which it is proposed to grow the plants. The term—close planting—admittedly implies the planting of the trees at a distance which is not sufficient to allow of the full development of all parts of the plants; the latter is determined by the natural vitality of the plants and the nature of the soil and climate. Medium-distance planting in a poor cabook soil, orin a washed outclay, above 2,500 feet in Ceylon, would be regarded as close planting in a rich alluvial soil in the low country of the same island. The trees should be planted at such a distance that they will | rapidly develop and take possession of the whole of the soil; their develop- ment is controlled by the amount of food which the soil supplies, and it is generally conceded that the better the soil, and more forcing the climate, the greater must be the distance allowed. A typical case is to be seen at the Experiment Station, Peradeniya, where some four-year old trees, all planted 15 feet apart, have overlapped their branches on the flat land, but on the upper part of the | hill the spread of the branches is hardly a yard on either side; by the time the latter have taken possession of the soil the former will require considerable thinning out. It has been argued that if the soil is poorer the trees should be planted at wider distances in order to allow a’ larger area from which the plants can obtain food; this is a contention that loses sightof the neceeely, of quickly placing the plants i in possession of all the soil, Disregarding the differences in quality of alluvial, cabook, swampy, forest, and chena land, from sea-level up to 3,000 feet in Ceylon, and the allowances to be made accordingly, it may be generally stated that on a soil similar to that at Pera- deniya, a distance of ten feet apart, or less, for trees of Hevea brasiliensis, may be designated as close planting, one of fifteen feet apartas medium distance, and one of twenty feet apart or over as wide planting. These distances are subject to modification according to local conditions, and are here given only to provide a basis for comparison, JAN. 1907.] 5 Saps and HKxudations. The advantages of close planting are that there is a larger number of trees ona given acreage; (2) the ground is better protected with the root and foliar systems, and consequently expenses in weeding are greatly checked, and soil loss thereby reduced; (8) the rubber can be harvested cheaper ; (4) the cultivation is essentially one of rubber trees which presumably have a higher value than other trees of economic importance, and the method of cultivation over all the soil becomes the same; (5) the inevitable proportion of poorly developed, stunted, and damaged trees is not as serious; (6) it iseasier to thin out a densely planted estate than to interplant a widely planted one. The disadvantages are (1) there may be considerable interference in the development of all parts of the plant and the resultant trees be dwarfed and lacking in vitality ; (2) thestems will tend to become thin, long, and spindly, and the thickness of tappable cortex (bark) reduced ; (8) diseases are given a greater certainty of originating and may spread more rapidly because the parts of the plant are nearer to one another or in more frequent contact. DISTANCE ACCORDING TO SIZE AND AGE. The cultivation of trees of Hevea brasiliensis ranks as unique in so far as it has to deal with a species which grows intoa tree of enormous size; the past and most of the present products, in Ceylon, cannot be compared with the latest arrival, for it overtops the tallest cacao and cinchona trees, and often equals the coconut palms, in height and frequently in breadth, age for age. * Trees less than thirty years old, which have never really been cultivated, have a height of 80 to 90 feet and a circumference of 80 to 109 inches; specimens planted 25 to 30 feet apart have been known to overlap their branches in about 20 years, and fifty years old trees in tropical America even exceed these huge dimensions- This is the outstanding difference between the cultivation of Para rubber trees and all other plants in Ceylon, and though it has been an easy matter, in the past, to settle the distance at which tea, cacao, cinchona, ete., should be planted, we are now confronted with a new set of conditions which may require different methods of cultivation. DISTANCE OF TAPPED TREES. There is another point which appears to have been overlooked in connection with this subject, and that is the retardation in growth which must follow regular paring or tapping. It is no exaggeration to say that most of the old trees in Ceylon were not systematically tapped until the last few years, and but few estates can point to acreages which have been regularly tapped, throughout successive years, from the time the old trees attained their minimum tappable size. When- ever cortical tissues are removed or mutilated, the energy of the plantis partly diverted to the production of new tissues in the affected area, for the time being the intimate connection between individual vital structures and that of the latter with cells which have less important functions, is interrupted ; such changes must effect the future development of the plants, especially when of repeated occurrence from the 4th, 5th or 6th year onwards. In the absence of any measur- able effects following the tapping of trees, one can only generalise and state that the sizes of trees so treated will probably be less than those of specimens which have never had their bark so excised and otherwise mutilated. Time will certainly prove the wisdom or error of planting Para rubber trees ten to fifteen feet apart, as most estates in Ceylon appear to be so planted. Systematic paring away of the bark of rubber trees will as assuredly change the habit,and ultimate dimensions of the mature trees,as hasthe constant plucking of the leaves of tea plants, and the peeling of the cinchona bark, Cums, Resins, 4 [JAN. 1907. ORIGINAL AND PERMANENT DISTANCE. It is taken for granted that the reader is familiar with the sizes of Para rubber plants from their first to their thirtieth year, in different soils and climates ; the question to discuss is whether the original should be the permanent distance. No one who has seen the uncultivated thirty-year-old trees at Henaratgoda can doubt that such specimens require, at the very least, a distance of thirty to forty feet, if they are to be allowed to continue in their growth and maintain a healthy constitution; what the required distance will be when they are 40 to 50 years old it would be unwise to predict. In striking contrast to this are the thin, tall stems of two to four year old trees, and the poor lateral spread of the foliage when they have just reached the tappable size. Between the first year of tapping and that represented by the old Henaratgoda trees, isa gap of 25 years —probably the equivalent of a longer period when the newly-bearing trees are regu- larly tapped, year in and year out. Iam of the opinion—though I may be wrong— that it is absolute folly to plant, ina clearing, Para rubber trees alone, at a distance which they will require when thirty years old; we are dealing with a species which does not, like cacao and similar plants, attain the greater part of its maximum size in the first six or seven years, but with one which continues to grow, year by year, and even when thirty years old, still keeps on growing and throwing its roots into new soil. Though Para rubber trees continue to grow in this manner, though the ultimate size to which they will attain can only be roughly guessed at from our scanty knowledge and experience, yet we know that when their stems are only 20 inches in circumference they yield marketable rubber in very satisfactory quantities. Four to six years is a long time to wait for the first returns, and froma commercial® standpoint the distance at which trees can be planted, without entailing undue interference in general development, and brought into bearing in their fourth year onwards, is the one to be decided. Of course, when the trees are widely planted they come into bearing as early as when closely planted, but there is no very great difference in the dimensions of trees planted at widely different distances, up totheir fourth year; the growth inthe first four years is not as conspicuous as in later years, and even in the richest soils there is a limit, notwithstanding statements to the contrary, to the root and foliar development of Para rubber plants just as there is to parts of other cultivated plants. The closer the trees are planted, within reasonable limits, the greater is the yield, per acre, in the first tapping year, a consideration not to be lost sight of in view of the wavering in the price paid for the raw rubber during the last ten years; in fact, it is the condition of the present market as compared to that of past years, wherein lies the main wish to possess a large number of trees of a tappable size as early as possible. It should be remembered that one tree which will give 11b. of rubber per year, now, is about equal to the value of one double its size which yielded 2 lb. of rubber in 1894; no one can dispute the desirahility of placing produce on the market while the price is high, If the principle here outlined, of allowing a definite area of soil according to the size and age of the tree is granted as being reasonable, our next point is to discuss how the distance can, with advantage, be gradually increased, It is obvious that an increased root area can only be given by the destruction or removal of trees already existing, a conclusion which brings forward the methods of procedure possible or advisable, when a Para rubber property is interplanted with trees of its own kind or with those of cacao, coffee, camphor, tea, Erythrinas and Albizzias, etc. CLOSE PLANTING AND THINNING-OUT. The possibility and method of thinning out rubber trees on a closely-planted estate was discussed in my original paper The great outstanding advantage of this / 2 JAN. 1907.] : 5 Saps and Hxudations. system is that a return is obtained by tapping only intermediate trees, and can be earried out with the definite idea of extracting every possible particle of rubber from such trees, and finally felling them and uprocting the stumps. But,as I have previously pointed out, it can only be recommended on the understanding that the estates will be thinned out after the fourth or fifth year and all root stumps extracted. The practicability of extracting rubber, valued at over 5s. per 1b., from trees having a circumference of 18 to 20 inches—that is in their 4th or 5th year—has been proved long ago, and is taking place to-day on some very prominent and valu- able estates; it is difficult to understand the reason for any statement to the contrary, in spite of what has and is still being done. An alternative method of obtaining rubber from such trees—by felling them and macerating the bark—has been suggested. At the present time this cannot be recommended, first because the yields thus obtained have been less than when the trees have been tapped standing; and, secondly, because the rubber obtained by maceration appears to suffer in quality owing to its being mixed with the sap of the cortical cells ; nevertheless, we know that rubber is thus obtained from other plants, and the results obtained justify further investigation. The objections which have been raised against thinning-out are briefly that (1) planters are not keen to thin out, fell and uproot the plants, (2) it is a very difficult matter to killa Para rubber tree by tapping, (8) there may be interference in the growth of the remaining plants, (4) diseases may be encouraged to flourish on the weak trees which are not removed. It is admitted that by some systems of tapping itis very difficult to killa Para rubber tree within a couple of years, but from observations made on trees which have been rapidly tapped on the paring and spiral system, very little doubt exists in my mind as to the results obtainable. On such trees the spiral system can be adopted, and at the end of twelve months the tree should be removed and the stumps extracted, The unwillingness of the planters to actually fell the trees so tapped is said to be encouraged by results obtained on some estates, where it is reputed that the total yield, per acre, appears to be approximately the same, no matter whether the trees are distanced ten or twenty feet apart; Ihave never seen any figures or authoritative reports which prove this. The interference in growth, in trees originally planted ten feet apart, will vary with the soil, climatic, and other conditions, but in the ease of unpruned Para rubber trees at Peradeniya, and others in relatively poor.soils in the low-country of Ceylon, I have previously explained that there is no very serious interference in either root or foliar development up tothe period specified. Occa- sional branches and roots will overlap, but not to any great extent except under very good conditions; the exhaustion of the surface soil may be partly balanced by the application of manures. If, however, the estate is not thinned out, considerable interruption in the radial growth of stem and root structures will undoubtedly occur, and it remains to be provedgwhether the trees on snack a property make up in number what they lack in size- The liability of weak and closely-planted trees to the attacks of fungi and insects has been raised as an objection against this system; the liability of the bark, exhausted of latex, to insect pests applies to that on any tapped tree, but in neither case would it be possible to completely extract the latex from such tissues except by killing them, a procedure not yet recommended. The liability to root rot would be largely overcome by extracting the stumps, as is recommended on the clearing itself; on the Yatipawa plantation where the roots of felled rubber trees were allowed to remainin the soiland decay, the remaining trees have recently been described as healthy ; perhaps this apparent immunity can be associated with SO ga ¢ 7 Gums, Resins, 6 (JAN. 1907. sgl the age of the felled and remaining trees, or with the difficulty with which the root rot fungus actually commences on Para rubber stumps. On most estates the root ungus is transmitted from the roots of trees other than rubber, which ramify in the soil and reach the rubber roots no matter how widely the latter may be planted. It has been questioned, in view of the fact that the roots of jak and cotton trees, etc., traverse a greater distance than that between any two rubber plants as at present planted, whether the difference in distance between Para rubber trees planted ten and fifteen or twenty feet apart appreciably affects the spread or distribution of the root fungus. It cannot be doubted that the closer the roots the greater is their liability to catch whatever fungus is in the soil, but as against such a disadvantage has to be set the advantage of the produce obtained even allowing that the roots are not removed but left to decay. If it can be proved that the excessive tapping of intermediate trees and the removal of their root stumps is calculated to aid in the spread of diseases, then the system here outlined must not bein any way encouraged, but until such has been established, the system deserves consideration. As matters stand at present, where most of the rubber has been closely planted, it will be necessary to adopt some process of thinning-out, if the Para rubber trees are to receive the soil and light which their gradually increasing size will demand. PERMANENT WIDE PLANTING. The third possible system is that of permanent wide planting, by which is meant that no thinning-out or intercrops of any kind shall be entertained and the trees be planted at a distance sufficient to last for the whole of their lives ; assuming that such trees will be tapped from the time they are 20 inches in circumference, a distance of twenty feet or over may perhaps be designated as wide planting. JAN. 1907. | 19 Saps antl Haxudations. Highland Est. (« 3 do very fine pale scored sheet. 5s 53d; 7 cases somewhat similar, 5s 54d; 7 cases darker, 5s 5{d; 8 cases palish thick crepe, 5s 32d; 4 cases darker, 5s 03d; 2 cases dark, 4s 113d; 6 cases darkish thick crepe, 4s 114d. Batu Unfor Est. 1 do fine palish to darkish sheet, 5s 53d; 3 cases somewhat similar, 5s53d; 1 case palish crepe, 5s 47d; 1 case darkish crepe, 5s 03d ; 2 cases darker, 5s. Beverlac 4 do palish pressed crepe, 4s 5;d. Pataling 6 do palish crepe, 5s 1d. T.H.C.B. 3 do palish and darkish crepe, 5s 3d. S.R. & Co, 1 do thick palish crepe, 5s 4d. M.C.1.3 (in dia- mond) C.D. 2 do dark biscuits, 5s4d; 1 case thick rejected biscuits, 4s 3d ; 1 case good palish scrap, 4s 5d. M.C.I. in (dia- mond) S.D. 4 do fine pale sheet, 5s 54d. L.E. (Muar in tri- | _ angle) Straits 30 do fine pressed block, 5s 94d ; 4 cases darkish crepe, 4s 11d. S.P.S. (in circle) 1 do palish to darkish scrap, 4s 33d S.P. (in circle) 1 do heated scrap, 4s; 1 case similar, 4s 34d; s J.H. 3 do darkish rejected sheet, 4s 6td; 7 cases palish scrap, 4s 6d ; 2 cases similar, 4s 4s; 1 case darkish pressed scrap and rejections, 4s 23d. S.P. (in circle) 1 do darkish crepe, 4s1ld; 1 case darker, 4s 94d. H.J.R. 4 do pressed block serap, 4s. Jebong 2 do darkish crepe, 4s 93d. Lonpon, December 7th, 1906.—At to-day’s auction, 289 packages of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 217 were sold. The total weight amounted to about 16} tons, Ceylon con- tributing over 4and Straits Settlements over 12. All good class plantation rubber was in strong demand. A small lot of biscuits from the Aberdeen estate realised 5s 8$d, the highest price made for this kind, and 5s 74d was obtained for a parcel from the Kumaradola estate., The best bid for fine crepe was 5s 73d, this being for a lot from the C.M.R.E. Co. The highest quotation for sheet was 5s 53d. Other kinds also passed at fairly firm rates, except for some inferior scrap, the demand for which was not so strong, and several parcels were withdrawn from sale, Plantation fine to-day 5s 74d, to 5s 83d, same period last year, 5s 11d to 6s 1d. Plantation scrap —2s 3d to4s 5d, same period last year, 3s 84d to5s5?d. Fine hard Para (South American) 5s 2d, same period last year, 5s 3d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation rubber, 217 packages at 5s 2?d per lb., against 301 packages at 5s 23d per lb. at last auction, Particulars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. Doranakande_ 1 case dark rejected sheet, 5s 33d; 6 cases good palish scrap, 485d; 8 cases dark cuttings, 4s 33d. Waharaka 2 do palish pressed scrap, 4s 3d. Rangbodde 1 do fine pale biscuits, 5s 73d. Ambatenne 1 do darker and inferior, 4s. Tallagalla 1 do pressed block scrap, 4s 5d. Warriapolla 8 do good palish biscuits, 5s 64d; 1 bag darker and inferior, ds 8id; 1 case palish pressed block scrap, 4s 6d; 1 bag somewhat similar, 4s 6d; 1 bag rejected biscuits, 4s 6d. Dolahena 2 do darkish cut sheet, 5s 33d; 1 case thick rejections, 4s; 1 bag cut block scrap, 4s 6d. Ambatenne 3 do inferior scrap, 2s 3d. Aberdeen 1 do good pale biscuits, 5s 85d; 2 cases somewhat similar, 5s 5d ; 1 case little inferior, 5s 5d; 1 case darkish pressed scrap, 4s 5fd. Gums, Resins, 20 [JAN. 1907. Kumbukkan 1 do rejections, 4s 13d. Kumaradola 2 do good palish biscuits, 5s 8d. Langsland 12 do good palish biscuits, 5s 64d; 1 case lump scrap, 4s 14d; 1 case darkish scrap and rejections, 4s 44d. Arapolakanda 9 do fine darkish biscuits, 5s 63d; 1 case fine palish biscuits, 5s 6d; 2 eases pressed block scrap, 4s 8d; 1 case black pressed block crepe, 4s 2d. Eulakande 1 do palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 43d ; 2 cases good pale biscuits, Ae os 77d; 1 case darkish pressed crepe, 4s 103d. R. (Sin diamond) R.4 do fine palish cut sheet, 5s 4d, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. C.M.R.H. Ltd. 4cases fine pale crepe, 5s 7id; 18 cases palish to darkish crepe, 5s 7id. R3 4 do good palish sheet, 5s 53d. Bila 1 do darkish sheet, 5s 44d. S.P. (in circle) 1 do large rejected biscuits, 5s 6d; 1 case palish sheet, 4s 6d. S.P.S. (in circle) 1 do darkish pressed serap, 4s 23d. S.P. (in circle) 1 do large palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 6d; 1 case dark crepe, 4s 3d. 4 do good palish sheet, 5s 5d; 2 cases darkish rejected sheet, a gad; 1 case good pressed scrap, 4s 4d; 2 cases inferior, s 8d. B.R.R. Co., Ltd. 20 do good palish scored sheet, 5s 53d to 5s 53d; 4 cases palish crepe, 5s 3d; 10 cases darker and inferior, 5s 14d; 2 cases dark, 4s 9d; 4 cases somewhat similar, 4s 92d. Sungei Krudda S.S.B.R. Co. Ltd. (in diamond) 3 do thick rejections, 4s 3d. V.R.C.O. Klang F.M.S. (in Estate mark) 23 do good small palish scored sheet, 5s 54d; 3 cases good palish pressed crepe, 5s 47d ; 9 cases darker, 4s 113d. S.R. Co., Ltd. 7 do fine small palish sheet, 5s 5d; 1 case palish pressed crepe, 5s 43d; 1 case darker, 5s 33d; 1 case somewhat similar, 4s 95d; 2 cases darkish pressed crepe, 4s 94d. K.P. Co. Ltd. 5 do palish cloudy sheet, 5s 44d; 2 cases palish pressed serap, 4s 3d; 4 cases small palish to darkish cut sheet, 5s 4d; lcase large palish biscuits and cut sheet, 5s 2i!d; 1 case palish pressed scrap, 4s 43d. do palish rejected sheet, 5s 14d. JAVA. K.M. (in diamond) P:R: Calorama E.H. (in (triangle 1 case serap, 3s. Lonpon, December 18th, 1906.—At to-day’s auction, 346 packages of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 300 were sold. The total weight amounted to about 23$ tons, Ceylon contributing over 9 and Straits Settlements over 144. In consequence of the near approach of the Christmas holidays, the auction was held to-day instead of on Friday the 2Ist inst There was good active competition, generally fully up to rates current last sale’ Medium to good scrap was in strong demand, and prices for this description showed a slightly upward tendency. Orepe, biscuits and sheet sold steadily. Some pale crepe from C.M.R.EH. Ltd. and Culloden brought 5s 8d per lb., and some fine Ceylon biscuits from Culloden realised 5s 7id per lb.,; the highest price, while 5s 62d was the top figure for sheet. Plantation fine to-day 5s6?d to5s 74d, same period last year, 6s O0jd to 6s Igd. Plantation scrap 1s 11d to 4s 5d, same period last year, 3s 4d to 5s 34d. Fine hard Para (South American) 5s 2d, same period last year, 5s 4?d. Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation rubber, 300 packages at 5s 3id per lb., against 217 packages at 5s 27d per lb. at las auction. Particulars and prices as follows :— ee Ris Wa) ener. JAN. 1907.] MARK, Ingoya Ellakande 1 Culloden 6 Kahagalla Katugastota Halgolle Maddagedara C.L. (in diamond) oo a a Taldua Warriapolla (8G) MARK. Highlands Estate 7 Jebong 5 V.R.C.O. Klang F. M.S. (in triangle) 4 d C.M.R.E. Ltd. 7 Beverlac 3 do do do do do do do do do cases good darkish scored sheet, 5s 5id; do oO - 1 bag lump scrap, 3s 10jd; 1 bag dark rejected biscuits, 4s 2 cases palish rejected biscuits, 4s 2}d. B.R.R. Co. Ltd. 20 do A.A.AS. do G.L.F.T. (in cross) 1 do Patalin 12 do L.E.B. C. 6 do L.E.U. C. 1 do A. 2 do TNs 2 do BAY, 2 do A. 38 do N.M. 1 do C. N.M. Teluk Batu 10 do S.P.S. (in circle) 1 do S.P, (in circle) 4 do 21 CEYLON. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. Saps and Hxudations. 2cases fine large palish biscuits, 5s 64d; 6 cases smaller, some- what similar, 5s 64; 1 case darkish pressed scrap, 4s 43d; 1 case somewhat similar, 4s 43d. fine pale and palish biscuits, 5s 7d; 1 case dark and slightly heated, 5s 64d; 1 case darkish pressed crepe, 5s. nice pale biscuits 5s 7d to 5s 7jd; 1 case fine pale pressed aie 5s 8d; 1 case little darker, 5s 6jd; 9 cases darkish, 5s 24d. paler, 4s 4d; 2 cases palish to darkish scrap, 4s 33d. palish pressed scrap. 4s 43d; 1 bag pale pressed serap, 4s 44d; 1 case darkish serap, 2s 11¢d. good palish scrap, 4s 43d; 1 case darker, 4s 14d; 1 bag rejections, 38s 11 id. darkish scrap, 4s 43d. darkish crepe, 5s 03d; 1 case black pressed crepe, 4s 63d 3cases darkish crepe, 4s 117d; 8 cases somewhat similar; 4s 113d; 2 cases darker, 4s 1lfd; 1 case pressed scrap, 4s 43d; 1 case pressed scrap and rejections, 4s 47d; 1 case darkish pressed scrap, 4s 47d; lcase pressed scrap and rejections, 4s 4/d; 2 cases dark lump scrap, 4s 03d; 1 bag pressed rejections, 4s 03d. s good palish to darkish biscuits, 5s_ 6d. fine pale and darkish biscuits, 5s 63d; 1 case pressed serap, 4s 5d, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. good palish ( s 6 cases palish to darkish crepe, 5s 25d; 2 cases somewhat similar, 5s 3d; eee 5s 25d; 4 cases dark, 4s 10d; 9 cases darkish, s 1l}d. fine large palish sheet, 5s 6jd; 1 case good palish crepe, 5s 34d; 1 case darker, 5s 1d. good dark pressed block, 5s 1jd; 2 cases somewhat similar, 5s lid; 1 case palish, 5s Ofd; 1 case somewhat similar, 5s Ord. 1 case dark, 5s 0jd; 16 cases palish scored sheet, 5s 6¢d ;4 cases palish pressed crepe, 5s 4d; 3 cases darker, 5s; lease dark, 4s 10d. fine pale crepe, 5s 8d; 14 cases good palish to darkish, 5s 73d; T cases dark, 5s Oid. palish scrap, 4s 44d; 1 case pale scrap, 4s 44d; 1 case cut sheet, 5s 33d; 1 case rejections, 4s 64d. good pale to darkish scored sheet, 5s 6d to 5s 64d; 8 cases good palish crepe, 5s 4d; 1 case fine pale crepe, 5s 8d; 12 cases darkish crepe, 5s 13d; 1 case dark crepe, 4s 92d; 3 cases somewhat similar, 4s 104d. i good darkish sheet, 5s 54d; 4 cases somewhat simi } darker, 4s 10;d. ~ BRC palish to darkish crepe, 4s 113d. palish to darkish crepe, 5s ljd. darkish crepe, 4s 94d. palish cut sheet. 5s 6d. do do 5s 6d. do do 5s 6d. do do 5s 6d. palish sheet, 5s 5d. 27d, dark sheet, 5s 5d; 2cases inferior, 5s 43d; 2 cas i pressed scrap, 4s 5d ; 1 bag dark pressed crepe, 4s. wan black pressed_block, 4s 23d; 1 case palish pressed block scrap, 4s 5d; 1 case rejected biscuits, 4s 44d. palish to darkish sheet, 5s 54d ; 3 cases darkish sheet, 5s 53d, 2 [JAN. 1907, . EDIBLE PRODUCTS. Notes on Some of the Dry Grains Cultivated in Ceylon. III, By J. F. Jowitv. Setaria glauca, Beauv., Kawalu, 8. Kaooloo, S., as given by Trimen does not appear to be the correct Sinhalese rendering for this grass; two educated Sinhalese when asked, knew it not, but recognised Kawalu, the name under which L received it from Hettimulla, near Kegalle. Ka = edible—Wal = grass, S. Tt does not appear to have a Tamil synonym. Setaria glauca, Beauv., is an erect grass with long, linear, flat leaves; the panicle 1—4 in., cylindric, dense flowered, the pedicels bearing the spikelets being involucelled by several rigid pale or reddish bristles, the teeth on which are erect or spreading. The seed is ovoid, pale, dorsally convex, closely transversely wrinkled, : Kawalu is a cosmopolitan weed and does not seem to be generally culti- vated ; received only as a cerial from Hettimulla, Province of Sabaragamuwa, though many plants of it came up in beds sowed with seeds of other cereals, chiefly in those of Amu, Paspalum scrobiculatum, seed of which was received from Jaffna. I also found it in a plot of mixed cereals, Maize, Tanahal and Kurakkan on the outskirts of Badulla in January last. I am told that it is not cultivated alone but unintentionally with Amu; it grows in abundance, the grain is collected and used for making a thick conjee. It flowers before Amu, hence the Sinhalese proverb, ‘‘ Amuwatta essera Kawalu poodinawa,” used in the event of a low caste man becoming more prosperous than one of better class. Kawalu being looked upon as a weed. Setaria italica, Beauv., cultivated in Ceylon under the names of Tanathanai, Tanakal, S., and Tinai or Tinai Chamai, T. The Maniagar of Delft reports that there are two varieties, a black and a red, I have not seen the oer It is known in Europe as Hungarian grass and Itallian Millet. Hackel says there are sixteen varieties which ‘‘may be divided into two main groups; large Millet, with long, usually irregular, nodding false spikes” (this is the variety under review) and ‘“‘Mohar” (Hungarian) with short, regular, upright spikes.” Setaria italica grows some three feet or more in biheiahits from a decumbent branching base, the leaves are broad and the panicle (false spike) contracted, 6 inches long and as thick as the thumb. The seed as sown, that is, the true seed ‘‘Caryopsis” enclosed in the flowering glume and palea, is oval, about 7; of an inch long, straw coloured, shin- ing, indistinctly marked by three veins on its dorsal or convex side and by two on its ventral or flattened side. It can be identified from any other grain, as pointed out by Hackel, by a smooth place at the base of the flowering glume, not shining, enclosed by two slight longitudinal swellings. Hackel says of it, ‘‘The culture of Setaria italica, Beauv., has its origin in prehistoric times. As early as 2,700 B.C. Hungarian grass formed one of the main cereals of,jthe Chinese, it was sown in early spring by the princes of the royal house themselves, just as the Emperor sowed rice}with his own hand. The culture extends JAN. 1907-] ees Edible Produels. back to an early date alsoin Egypt, and in the Lake Dwellings of the Stone Age it is found in such quantities that it must be regarded as the main bread supply of the prehistoric peoples.” Tanahal is said to delight ina light, elevated, dry soil, itis useful for making conjee or is madeinto ‘‘ Milk Rice.” It seems to be eaten as a luxury, not being grown in sufficient quantities for general use. Pennisetum typhoideum, Rich., Pull Paddy, or Pull Rice—Kani-pan-pillu, T., Polu, S., Trimen gives Kumba as the Tamil synonym for this cereal, and it is known by that name in the Madras Presidency. An annual, stem 8—6 feet, erect, simple or branched from the base, stout or slender, sometimes as thick as the middle finger, solid, (Trimen) leaf flat, broad, base rounded, hairy; sheath stem clasping, round; nodes very hairy, spikes 4x4 inches, (Trimen’s Flora 6—12 x 4—1$ inches) cylindric, a more open spike than in the above two grasses, erect, with a soft bottle brush appearance ; spikelets oblong, long stalked, anthers much exserted and their tips bearded. Involucral bristles minutely toothed or ciliate, the central ones plumose, colored; flowering glumes smooth shining, with three converging veins near the apex. The true seed readily separates from its envelopes (flowering glume and palea) is obovoid with large embryo and an oval bordered hylum, One of the distinctive differences between the wild forms of Setavswa and Penmsetum, is that in Setaria the spikelets fall at maturity, the bristles being persistent; in Pennisetum, the involucral bristles fall off with the spikelets at maturity ; the result of cultivation has, however, had the effect of rendering the bristles persistent in P. typhoideum. Hackel calls it Pearl Millet, and states that the original form and native country are unknown. Further, ‘ thisis an important agricultural grass in Central Africa. The fruit is used for Mush (‘“‘Kuskus”), It is also grown in Arabia Felix and the East Indies. Cultivated in the Southern United States for fodder.” Trimen says, ‘‘it is Bajri of the Hindoos and the Bull-rush Millet of the English,” Roxburgh states, ‘‘ The Hindoo farmer knows four other varieties of thi® species, all of which he cultivates.” Polu is used for making milk-rice or boiled with coconut milk into‘a conjee but is not considered of much account as no amount of boiling softens the grain, It is cultivated chiefly (so I am told) for the use of servants, but in times of scarcity of paddy and consequently enhanced value of the same, paddy is sold ane polu eaten. The Maniagar of Delft writes regarding this species: “It is not largely sown by the people, although it is admitted (contrary to the opinion expressed above) to be the best food of all dry grains. Antscarry not only this kind of grain to their nests but also other small grains of the Chamai species. It appears that the grains so stored in the nests all germinate with the first rains and each ant hole puts forth a cluster.” Hleusine coracana, Gaertn, Kurakkan, S., Nachert. T.—Of this cereal several varieties are distinguished according to time of sowing and the number of months they take to mature. I havereceived ‘‘2months”—‘‘4 months” kurakhan, any difference between the seeds of which I cannot distinguish. As stated in list, I have not seen the varieties known as 1. Codai or Karathu Cappe, T., Kalu Kurakhan, 8,, 2, Mari or Vellai Cappe; T., Ella Kurakhan, 8. 24 [Jan. 1907. Uodai, T., signifies dry months, Karathu, T., and Kalu, S. Black, this variety is grown in the dry months. Vellai, T., Ella, S. = white or whitish. Mari, the wife of Vin-rish-tee, the Sanscrit God of rain, is used as the equivalent for the rainy season, at which time this variety is cultivated. Eleusine corocana Gaertn, An annual, stem, 1—2 feet, (Roxburgh for India says 24 feet) tufted, erect, compressed, glabrous; leaves bifarious, linear-lanceo- late, flat, flaccid, very slightly hairy, base not contracted; sheath compressed ; ligule a ridge of hairs; spikes digitate, many, lower ones sometimes detached, ineurved or erect; rhachis flat, waved; spikelets sessile, crowded in two rows; empty glumes oblong-ovate, overlapping one another, acute or with a mucro, II. larger than I., margins membranous, keels scaberulous, flowering glumes similar to empty glumes but larger, all with bright green veins; seed free from its pericarp, brown or red, transversely wrinkled, The plant with incurved spikes is the typical species, those varieties with straight spikes are E£. stricta, Roxb, but now considered varieties of &. coracana. the only difference being inthe growth of the spikes. Kurakkan is cultivated throughout Ceylon, India, (in Mysore it is known as *‘ Ragi,” and forms the staple food of the rural population.) Hackel states that “in many parts of Africa it forms the principal food in spite of the bitter taste of the flour.” It is said to be the most prolific of cultivated grasses and yields good harvests from very poor soils. In Abyssinia and in Sikhim a kind of beer is prepared from the grain and is in general use by the natives, (Bentley.) The wild form Eleusine indica, Gaert, Belatana, S., is said to be a remedy for sprains in man or beast, pounded up with saffron and salt, slightly boiled and applied hot. (To be continued.) The Cultivation of Chillie Peppers. A correspondent desires information on the subject of chillie growing. We cannot do better than show what is being done in countries where chillie growing is a settled industry. The information is given in ‘‘ The Mexican Investor” :— How THE PLANTS ARE GRowN.—A hot bed is made by excavating about 16 inches deep ; fill in to within 4 inches of the top with damp stable manure, tramp- ing down very solidly. Spread about 4 inches of sandy loam over the manure. The seed issown quite thickly over the loam, and then about+4inch of loose sand soil placed evenly over it, and all kept damp. When the plants have two or three leaves, thin to 13 inches apart each way. The plants must be watered while in the hot bed by sprinkling. Great care should be taken to protect from frost. Soi, AND PREPARATION.—Rich sandy loam is the best forthe chillie pepper: It should be ploughed deeply, and be put ina state of thorough cultivation. Ridges should be made 3 feet apart, and the plants set 23 feet apart on the ridges. All plants must be on a water line, and to get this the ridges should be made, water run down the furrows, and the plants about two inches above the water-mark. This insures every plant receiving water when irrigated. Plant as soon as danger from frost is over. af Yq JAN. 1907.| 25 Edible Products. CULTIVATION.—F requent cultivation is necessary until the plants get too large to allow of a cultivator and horse passing between the rows. TIMBERS. Satinwood: Chloroxylon Swietenia, By G. D. TEMPLER. Satinwood is without question our most valuable forest tree in Ceylon after ebony. [t is very common in the forests along the whole of the Eastern coast of Ceylon, and attains a height of from 30 to 40 feet; with yellowish bark, fine drooping pinnate leaves with abundant, unequal bladed, small leaflets; small flowers of a creamy white colour; trunk, straight symmetrical ; bark soft, corky, about half an inch thick or more. The heartwood has a beautiful satin lustre, fragrant when seasoned, greenish white with a yellowish tinge or mottled yellow and feathered; close grained and heavy. Weighs about 56 lbs. to the cubic foot when seasoned. Has been com- pared to box-wood; not found suited for engraving but is excellent for turning ; used for agricultural implements aud for cart building. It makes beautiful furniture and picture frames. Itis imported to Nngland and utilized for cabinet work and backs of brushes. This tree is usually to be found at ar elevation below 800 feet, and is very plentifulin the Eastern Province, in the Puttalam district North-Central Province and the lower portion of the Northern Province. The height and size of the tree vary in many localities. It requires alight sandy soil with a good sub-soil drainage, It is also found on well drained rocky hills it there is not too much clay in the soil. Satinwood is essentially a shade avoiding tree, except perhaps in its infancy, when, like other trees belonging to the natural order of the Meliacezx, it prefers side shelter or low cover. It springs up readily in clearings, but it is also found along the sides of forest roads and jungle lines, or growing among bushes in old clearings abandoned by the chena cultivator. In this respect, it is a valuable reafforesting agent. It invariably springs up in old chenas if any.seed bearers are left in the proximity of the chena, and if carefully watched and not allowed to be choked by the prickly bushes, thorns and shrubs which grow up after a chena is abandoned, will re-establish itself by natural regeneration very quickly. In high forests, especially if the leaf canopy is notdense or if it is not high, satinwood seedlings germinate readily enough, but they require the aid cf man to develop into trees. This is probably one of the reasons why in Ceylon forests of a certain age, although large and medium sized trees are not uncommon, there isa remarkable absence of saplings and poles. Mr, Vincent in his report on Ceylon forests stated that the natural reproduction was poor, probably owing to the absence of saplings and poles. My short experience in the satin forests of the Kastern, Northern and North- Central Provinces has, however, led me to form the opinion that seedlings are very plentiful, and it only requires the help of man to induce them to form a good forest of saplings and young poles. Without that help, however, they invariably succumb and only an occasional seedling which has been fortunate enough to have got a little light let in through the canopy above, succeeds in forcing its way up and developing into a fine tree. . Satin seed ripens before the North-Hast Monsoon and it is very light.’ To either girdle or fell a certain number of trees to leeward of the seed bearers, so as to let in sufficient light for the seeds to germinate, seems to me to bea good treatment for developing the natural reproduction of satin. Care must be taken, however, not +o let in t00 much licht which would encourave the growth of rank grass and low bru! vid these would choke the young seedlings. A good example of the way in wines satin seedlings spring up when they get the chance is to be seen at Vavoniya in the Northern Province, where the open park line clearing between the railway tion and the rest-house is covered with young satin trees which have grown up \ -te Beige! Do la ional) Neale aati tials 55 ihebebal de ve ide MAL cate "Fan. 1907.) a7 Pimbera: GROWTH OF SATIN. Satinwood grows to.a large tree except in wind-swept areas near the sea where it attains only small dimensions, such as are to be found along the coast between Trincomalie and Mullaittivu. The crown is large. The bole, though it attains a girth of 8 or 9 feet, is usually comparatively short, rarely over 25 feet in height. This is probably due to the requirements of light by the tree which early forms branches, in order to develop a large crown. No reliable datais available as to the rate of growth of this tree, but girth measurements are taken yearly in certain sample plots, and ina few more years it will be possible to form some idea of the rate of growth from this information. Mr. Broun estimated, from what information he could procure, the following figures as the probable rate of growth of a satin tree :— Age of tree 18 inches in girth 20 years. do 3 feet do Ons do : 4’-6" AOE cosy do 5-0" Coed Zany. From these figures it would thus take 50 years fora tree 4’-6’ in girth to reach a circumference of 6 feet. ENEMIES TO THE SATIN TREE. _ Satinwood is very liable to attacks from insects. A large number of trees die from the attacks of larvae of a beetle, prohably a longicorn, which makes galleries between the bark and. the wood that not infrequently girdle the trees The young saplings are very liable to injury from stags, since these prefer them to any other trees for rubbing off the velvet from their horns, They are also very fond of the young coppice shoots from satin stumps. Satinwood does not appear’ to resist fire well, and after a fire has been through a satin forest, one usually finds the tree commencing to decay at the bottom of the bole. This isa very common occurrence in the Tamankaduwa district of the North-Central Province, where the fires are started by collectors of deer horns, who fire the grass so as to find the horns more easily, and also because the stags come out into these areas to eat the young grass and shed their horns there. THE TIMBER. The average weight is about 56 lbs. to a cubic foot for seasoned wood. It is therefore lighter than water. The wood is hard and strong and takes a beautiful polish and is extremely durable. The most valuable wood is that which is known in Ceylon as ‘“ Flowered Satin.” Some flowered satinwood logs sent down to Colombo from Vavoniya last year fetched Rs, 22 a cubic foot, It has not yet been ascertained what the figure in the wood, which is merely curly fibre is due to, and whether it is hereditary. It was found in some abundance in one of the forests of the Puttalam District, which was exposed to the full blast of the monsoons,—and wind may have something to do with it, —but again I find itis quite plenti‘ul around Anuradhapura, which is not exposed to strong winds, aud this looks as if it may be due more to the character of the soil than to exterior causes. There are two kinds of flower. One is streaky and the other curly flower. The latter is much the most beautiful and fetches a much higher price than the wood which contains only a streaky flower. The ordinary satinwood logs of 6 feet girth and over with straight boles, fetch from Rs. 3 to Rs. 4 a cubic foot in Colombo. The flowered wood is used a lot for veneering purposes, and I once saw % steamer which called in at Trincomalie from Calcutta with the whole of the dining saloon panelled with flowered satin veneer, Timbers. 28 | [JaN. 1907. The durability of the wood has been proved over and over again. A notable example being the old Peradeniya Bridge near Kandy which has just been pulled down, and which was constructed entirely of satin wood. Railway sleepers of this wood have been known to last for 80 years. It is also white-ant proof. The tree also yields a wood oil and a yellow dye, and the bark has a medicinal property. A gum exudes from the bark which might be used as a substitute for gum arabic. Iam indebted to Mr. Broun’s notes and Mr. F. Lewis’s book for some of the above information. Jan. 1907.] 29 PLANT SANITATION. pe Entomological Notes. By E. ERNEST GREEN. The ‘Tea Tortrix’ (Capua coffearia), which has been a serious pest in Mas- keliya for several years, is reported to have almost disappeared from that district. An oceasional caterpillar can be found, but the extensive fields of blighted bushes are no longer apparent. This relief is to be accounted for partly by recent inclement weather, but more particularly to the increase of the natural enemies of the insect, The small Ichneumonid fly, described on p. 194 of the Tropical Agriculturist Vol. XXV, No. 1, (July, 1905) is said to have been very busy in the infested fields. The Tortrix pest seems to have moved on to other localities. I have received reports of damage from the Hatton and Nawalapitiya districts. Living specimens of the parasite should be imported to these districts from Maskeliya, where it has apparently gained the mastery and will be in danger of dying out for want of food. An outbreak of the ‘ Morowak-korale Nettle-grub’ (Thosea recta) has occurred on an estate near Kandy, The caterpillars had completely defoliated the bushes over the infected area. As this pest has, on several occasions, proved a very troublesome one to check, strong measures were recommended, namely, the imme- diate pruning of the infested bushes and the destruction of the prunings by fire A belt of quicklime round the pruned area will help to keep the caterpillars from straying to the surrounding fields. A correspondent has sent me some young tea shoots thickly infested by the common tea aphis (Ceylonia theaecola, Buckton) and expresses some alarm at the prevalence of this insect on his tea. This isa pest of really little importance and requires no special treatment. It hasso many natural enemies thatit is always very rapidly checked. The specimens submitted were already badly parasitized, and I felt confident in predicting that within a week or ten days’ time there would be some difficulty in finding a single living insect in the fields now so strongly infested. The following letter, referring to the failure of Ceara seeds after planting, has been received from an Indian correspondent :—‘‘ I have to report that some Ceara rubber seed treated in the usual manner —namely, that of filing—was sown in boxes raised from the ground to prevent the incursion of insect pests. (3) Bitten animals should be put under observation and all destroyed if the dog that inflicted the bite was found to be rabid. (4) All stray dogs should be seized, and if not claimed in three days destroyed. Licensing and wearing of collars should be enforced. (5) At every Police Station in the Island a strong barred cage should be provided for the purpose of confining and observing suspected dogs. Note I.—A piece of the brain cleanly removed from the region of the ventricles about one ounce in weight may be sent in a wide mouthed bottle in pure glycerine for bacteriological examination. Note I/.—All persons bitten by a suspected rabid dog that has been destroyed so that observation is impossible should consult their medical adviser, and on his advice proceed to a Pasteur Institute for treatment at once. Poultry Notes. By G. W. SturGEss, Government Veterinary Surgeon. DISEASES OF POULTRY.—(Continued) inflammation of the Bowels (Enteritis).—As a separate disease simple in- flammation of the bowels is not common in poultry. It is commonly seen in connec- tion with other diseases especially those of an infective nature. Aggravated or neglected cases of diarrhoea may run on to enteritis and death. Irritant poisons also cause it. Contagious Inflammation of the Bowels (Contagious Enteritis).—This disease is described by Klein as a separate disease from fowl cholera which it closely resembles. It is due toa bacillus (B, gallinarum). The symptoms differenti- ating it from choleraare that the bird is not so sleeply and the feeces are yellowish, and not green or whitish as in cholera. The comb becomes livid and there is great thirst aud dullness. On post-mortem examination all the internal organs, are inflamed and engorged especially the spleen and liver. There is also abundant intestinal mucus which swarms with the bacilli. Itis very fatal and treatment of affected birds is almost useless. The period of incubation is 3 to 5 days and the’ duration of the disease 24 tc 86 hours. Itis principally spread by fouling of the ground and food by the feces of infected birds. As in cholera all efforts must be directed to suppression. Such remedies as Sanitas, camphor, cinnamon oil, carbolic acid, cyllin may be tried if desired in combination with brandy, linseed jelly, arrowroot, or starch. Usually outbreaks occur in overcrowded runs—however an infected bird may convey the disease to the best managed farm and cause great loss. The measures for suppression are the same as for fowl cholera and infective diseases generally. Affected birds must be isolated or destroyed and the body burned. Runs should be dug up and treated with quicklime. Fowl houses limewashed with hot wash in which some carbolic acid is mixed or tarred with hot gas tar. Utensils should be scalded and cleaned out. Food and pure water must be given to unaffected birds from clean vessels scalded after use each time. The best plan at the very start is to isolate all birds—sound and diseased—separately in small boxes some few feet apart or in fine weather the birds may be tethered by the leg to pegs a few feet apart. Any that die can be removed and burned and the place disinfected, and other birds are not infected by them. In this way in a few days the diseased birds can be picked out and the disease pretty effectually checked. A fresh run should be provided after isolation. ° bok eis Fa ¢ TAN. 1907.] 41 Live Stock. Favus or Ringworm.—This disease which is very common amongst poultry is -eaused by a parasite, a favus alophophyte, distinct from that of man and smaller mammalia. It is usually first noticed on thecomb or wattles. Small whitish grey patches form which gradually extend. The patches are covered by a scaly white crust which if removed lenves the skin sore. If neglected the disease spreads to the neck and body. There is a peculiar mouldy odour about birds badly affected. The disease causes debility and loss of condition, and in advanced cases death. The parasite can be easily seen under the microscope if a little of the crust is examined moistened with water containing a little acetic acid. Treatment.--Daily washing with carbolic soap (takirg care to protect the eyes) followed by washing with 1 in 1000 corrosive sublimate solution will probably cure ina few days. Acetic acid and water, turpentine and oil, Tinct. Iodine, sulphur, ereolin, or Stockholm tar may be tried if necessary. Feather Eating and Pecking Com — Occasionally fowls closely confined acquire the habit of plucking feathers from each and other until they are more or less bald, or pecking at the comb untila sore is formed. Sometimes vermin are the cause and these should be looked for and treated. It may be due to want of animal food or, as is thought by some fanciers, to want of salt and who say a little salted meat will cure the habit. Animal and vegetable food should be given. In the case of a sore comb the affected bird should be put in a cage by itself and treated until cured, Benzoated lard is about the best soothing and healing application. The guilty bird or birds should be discovered and removed from the run fora time. The beak may be filed away in such a manner as to prevent it quite closing at the tip making it impossible for the bird to hold a feather. Some people puta smallfeather through the nose for some days or put a solution of quassia on the parts pecked which on account of its bitter taste makes the habit disagreeable. A little vaseline or castor oil with a little eucalyptus oil added may be applied to the bare patches to promote the growth of new feathers. Egg Eating.—The habit of egg eating is sometimes acquired by poultry. Most owners have a favourite method of curing it such as putting china eggs for the culprit to peck at, cutting the beak, or by blowing an egg and filling it with mustard paste. Plenty of green food should be given and a supply of oyster shells provided as the habit may be due to the want of some particular elements in the food. A little animal food should also be given such as meat or blood. 42 [| JAN. +1907. sob ig hed a Literature of Economic Botany BA Agriculture. XII. By J. C. WILLIs. Food Crops (mise.)—Indian food grains and fodders (chemical composition) Agr. Ledger, M. & C. Series, 16. 1903. Nutritive Value of food used by Bhils. do Veg. Prod. Series 84, 1904. Analyses of Indian Potherbs do Edible root-crops of Ceylon. Agr. Mag. Jan. 1904 p. 57 West Indian Starches. W. Ind. Bull. V p.1. Poisonous Fodder plants and food grains from India and the Colonies. Imp. Inst. Bull. 1 1903 p. 112. Fruit.—Evaporation. Ind. Gardg, IV. Manuring &ec. Queens]. Ag. J], 1899 pp. 375, 565. Fruit culture. Rep. Farm, Inst. Ontario, 1898-9, p. 148. Preserving fruit. Queens}, A. J. Jan. 1900 p. 65. A new packing material for fruit (asbestos) Jamaica Bull. 7. 1900 p. 23. Doit on enlever une partie des racines des plantes dans les cultures tropicales Rev. C. Col. 1901 p, 362. A plea for Pomology in India by an expert. Ind. Gard. 15. 8. 01 p. 113 seq. Imperial Gardens for fruit tree dissemination throughout the ae Bonavia in T,A. Aug. 1901 p. 81. Pruning fruit trees. T.A. Sept. 1901 p. 155. Lungan pulp (Nephelium Longana) Kew Bull. 1899 p. 219. Fruit cultivation, Queensl. A.J. Dec. 1901, 548. Jamaica Fruit Trade. W. India Bull. II. 1901, 2638. Japanese Persimmon. Jamaica Bull. 8 1902 p. 26. Fruit growing on the Nilgiris. Ind. Gard. 3. 7. 02. p. 3. Packing and sale of fruit. Trin. Bull. 1902, 529. Fruits of the Malay Peninsula. Str. Bull. 1, 1902, 371. Guava jelly. do 519. A large Indian melon do 548, Local fruit preserves. do 588. Systematic pomology. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1903. 51. Grading and packing of fruit and vegetables. Journ. Board of Agr. X, 1908, 145. Obstpflanzen in Costarica. Tropenpfl. 7. 1903, 425. Cold storage of fruit. Agr. Gaz. N.S.W. Feb. 1904, 1138, Manures for Passion vines. GO nia 1256 Handling and packing of fruit. Jamaica Bull. 1904, 73. Melons Indian. Pl. and Gard. 8. 10. 04. 711. Cold Storage for Fruit. W.Ind. Bull. V. 117. The Avocado in Florida. U.S. Dpt. Agr. B.P.I. Bull. 61. Improved Fruit cases. Queensl. Agr. Jl. Dec. 1904, 726. The fruit industry at Birbados. W. Ind. Bull. Vi. 99. Budded Oranges. Agr. News V. 1906, 20. Fruiting of Bananas. do 7A La Banane Seche. Bull Jard. Col. May 1906, 381. New method ot keeping fruit by the use of formaline. Jamaica’ Bull. 1906, p, 154. A cheap canning outfit. Agr. News 1906, 303. The Engkala, a new fruit Str, Bull. 1906, 5. The fruit industry. Trop. Life Nov. 1905 p. 80, belie jteaedyle uid Ai allo PRIME Aa ew st ik al DR dd Dal Cn ae Jb wy ' 48 Miscellaneous. Lessons in Elementary Botany. VIII. By J. C. WILLIS. Animals in general mean insects, though there are flowers visited by bats, snails etc., and the little sun-birds of Ceylon are very regular visitors to many flowers. Insects have to be attracted tothe flowers—by honey, scent, bright colour, &e.,—if they are to be of any use as regular visitors, and any one may see witha little observation how many more insects go to the brightly coloured and scented flowers than to the inconspicuous non-scented ones. The longer the tube leading down to the base of the flower, where asa rule the honey, which forms a great attraction to insects, is secreted, the longer does the tongue of the insect need to be. Flowers like buttercups that stand almost flat open, are mainly visited by little flies that can simply lick off the exposed honey, while flowers like shoe-flowers with long tubes are mainly visited by insects with long tongues, like bees and butterflies. Itis found, also, that such insects are cleverer than those with short tongues. It was found, by observation in England, that 49 per cent of the short-tongued insects went to ‘‘ flat-open” flowers, while 95 per cent of the long tongued insects went to flowers with tubes. This shows how much cleverer they are. AMBALANGODA AGRI-HORTICULTURAL SHOW, ' REPORT ON LIVE STOCK SECTION. Cattle.—Out of sixteen classes prizes were only awarded in six. The Exhibits with the exception of one or two were poor. The Poultry were poor and not well shown. Exhibitors should learn to wash and clean and show their exhibits properly. There were a good many wild animals looking very miserable in small cages. Show Committees should exclude these classes from future catalogues. (Signed) G. W. STURGKSS, Government Veterinary Surgeon. REPORT ON FLOWERS, FRUITS, AND FOOD PRODUCTS. I have the honour toreport as follows on the sections which I have judged at the Ambalangoda Agri-Horticultural Show held on 20th and 2ist December 1906. Being the first show over held in the district the exhibits in general both in number and quantity might perhaps be considered as fairly creditable. Section 1. Class A. (Cut flowers and Plants in Pots).—There was a compara- tively large number of entries undei this Class, but the exhibits were considerably mixed up and the judges had to rely on the information of one of the officials as to the proper places and owners of the different articles. The piants in pots, though all small in size, were on the whole well grown, The cut flowers exhibits would have been much more effective and instructive if each kind had been separated, and labelled with the vernacular or English name, * Section 1 Class B (Fruits).—There were very good samples of oranges, pineapples and rupee mangoes, also excellent jak fruits of the ‘ waraka’ and ‘ wela’ varieties. No other fruits worth mentioning were represented. The scarcity and indifferent quality of the plantains shown can hardly be accounted for by the eeason, for these are in fruit practically all the year round, Miscellaneous. 44 _ (JAN. 1907: Section III Class A (Food Products).—The entries under this class e on the whole poor, the largest number of exhibits being the tea, paddy and country rice. The prize-winner of paddy showed a collection which he claimed to contain 72 varieties. There were no entries for “‘ Indian Corn” or ‘“ Fine Grains.” Class B. (New Products).—Groundnuts of good quality and Eri Cocoons were each represented by two lots; cotton and rubber by three lots each. The Gold Medal offered for the best rubber was easily won by a beautiful lot of sheet rubber shown by Mr, Northway. Special (decorations).—There werein all eight sheds but of these only one showed any striking decoration, all the rest being somewhat plainly got up. The first prize-winning shed was ornamented chiefly with plaited leaves of different colours, figures of animals, ete., being thus cleverly worked on the side of the building facing the entrance. The sheds winning the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th prizes were all similar in their get-up, being plainly decorated with moss studded with Alla7 manda and ‘ Shoe-flower.” (Signed) H, KF. MACMILLAN, Curator, Peradeniya Gardens. Correspondence. CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS OF NORTH CEYLON. DEAR Sir,-It is evident that Mr. Drieberg has recently been at Point Pedro. Mud-Kilaori and the tree Pannir (not Panir) are two of its most characteristic plants, and both thrive there better, I think, than any where else in the Peninsula. The Mud-Kilaori (mud-muil thorny) grows more or less everywhere in the Peninsula and Island, and is also to be found at Mannar and at Mullaithivu, but not inland in the Northern Province. A saudy soil with some admixture of clay seems to suit it best, combined with the Jaffna climate; but, strange to say, efforts to introduce it into the Eastern Provinee from Point Pedro have hitherto proved unsuccessful though, as it forms one of the best live fences there is, it is much to be desired that they should succeed. One was made by Mr. Jennet Brown in July-August 1904, but in this case the sticks were probably delayed too long en route, One would have thought that Batticaloa would suit it as well as Jaffna, Point Pedro and Mullaithivu do. Whether itis found at Trincomalee or not I do not know. This plant revels in a droughty climate. The sticks will grow without watering provided they are cut and planted at the right time of the year, which is May-August. At any other time, if the plants are lopped of branches, the parent plant dies out and the sticks as well. The sticks will not grow in wet weather. They are preserved until wanted for planting by putting them into the ground on end. The reason that there is no Sinhalese name for this plant and for the thornless variety is, no doubt, because they do not grow in any Sinhalese part of the Island. It is much to be hoped that another attempt may be made to introduce the Mud-hilaort into Batticaloa. The Society might assist. Mr. Drieberg asks why Trimen uses the termination drum instead of dron. Is he not merely using the Latinised form of the word ? January Ist. J. P. LEWIS. ROOT GROWTH OF HEVEA. Sir,—As the discussions following the lectures at the Rubber Exibition were in géncral as complete as the knowledge of the assembly permitted, readers of the December Tropical Agrioulturist may feel surprised that the question of the growth : i - LO eat Sit oie Jan. 1907.] 45 of roots of Hevea was allowed to end with the debateable statements on page It should, I think, be made clear that this statement was not made at the time of the lecture and that there was no reply to Mr. Bamber’s remarks. ‘“‘ My statement here” refers to the December “‘ 7.A.,” not to the lecture room. T. PETCH. PEPPER STEM DISEASE. Dear Sir,—Is there any known remedy for Indian stem disease in Pepper ? HILLER MACKAY. Pundaluoya, January 12th. . [The Mycologist at Peradeniya remarks :—‘*‘ No remedy has been found for the wilt disease of pepper which occurs in India, Cochin China, and Java, though it has been under investigation since about 1900. An experimental pepper farm has been opened in Malabar, and it is hoped that it will be possible to raise a resistant variety. The disease is attributed to eelworms in Java, but Dr. Butle! considers that it is caused by a nectria which lives in some of its stages in the soil: all agree that the roots of the vine are primarily affected. As it is likely to cause serious damage wherever it obtains a footing, all dying vines should be immediately burned, and the soil mixed with quicklime.”’— ED.] Current Literature, Report of the Cotton Growing Industry, British Central Africa Protectorate. —By S. Simpson, cotton expert, Zomba; Published at the Colonial Office :— This report includes a history of the cotton industry in British Central Africa ; and we learn that the native inhabitants grew and wove their own indigenous cotton in a primitive way when Dr. Livingstone pioneered there. Cotton growing in earnest has only been carried on during the last 8 years, its adoption among British planters was due to tie failure of coffee, previously the sole crop grown. The soil in the Protectorate varies greatiy from rich alluvial in the valleys and jake shores to red clay with saudy patches in the highlands, and a thin soil on the mountains. But, ‘the whole question of cotton growing” we read, “is one of climate, and itis on this pivot that everything turns.” Tables given show the rainfall in various parts of the country, and it is seen that the wet and the dry seasons are definitely defined ; this is in favour of cotton, asthe crop can ripen and be gathered in the dry period. Every encouragement has been given to encourage cotton growing among the natives, and in 1904 and 1905 twenty tons of seed each year were distributed free of charge. “Tt is essential to ensure success that the seed distributed should be of the best and grown under European supervision. If the seed produced in the native gardens is utilised for the production of next season’s crop, a good quality of native-grown cotton cannot be put on the market.’ This deterioration of seed and the necessity of seed selection, which is thus pointed out by Mr. Simpson, is just as necessary in Ceylon and has been emphatically pronounced as essential here by Dr. Willis, Labour in B, C. Africa is plentiful but not very efficient; and transport is a heavy item. Of late years quantities of Egyptian, American Upland and Sea Island seed have been imported. Of others, Gossypium peruvianum, Kidney cotton, was introduced about 12 years ago; G. Sherbaceum has long been cultivated by the natives; and UV. Barbadense was probably introduced by Arabs, Methods of cultivation are given, and the following estimate of cost of cultivation is of interest, 46 (Jay. 1907, COST OF CULTIVATION, ‘‘The following has been given asa reliable estimate of the cost per acre to grow cotton. All the items included have been taken from actual figures :— Clearing land, European supervision, cost of seed, sowing, and subsequent cultivation a ae a wes £1 10 0 Harvesting st aus 0 38 0 Ginning and baling a crop of ‘230 lbs... a 0 18 0 Freight, Blantyre to Liverpool, and insurance ... 0 14 4 Brokers, commission and discount : ee 0 380 Dock charges, porterage from wharf, &e. Nd OF e2RIG Interest on capital .. are Bae ste 0 38 0 £3 8 10 “Hor cultivation in subsequent years, the land will not have to be cleared, anda more thorough working of the soil can be given. The question of manuring will also come in for consideration, which will ensure a higher yield. ““Some may perhaps inquireas to how much capital is needed for one desirous of becoming a planter in this country. £2,000 would enable aman to geta good start, and the more thorough his previous agricultural experience the better he will find his way about. Especially so if his observations have been undertaken in tropical or sub-tropical countries, where the same or similar crops are cultivated. A good house and bodily comfort are absolute necessities. ** Little can be done the first year, but with such annual crops as cotton an immediate return results. With coffee three years must elapse before the first crop is harvested. Over one hundred Europeans are at Br cse ay engaged in agricultural pursuits in the country. ‘‘Land is cheap, varying in price from 5s. to1l0s. per acre. It may also be rented ona long lease at from 6d. to ls. per acre, with sometimes the option of purchase within a certain number of years.” An appendix ‘‘ A” deals with the importance and necessity of seed selection ; this was quoted in eaxtenso in the *‘ Tropical Agriculturist ” of August 1906, pp. 171— 178 and should be referred to. Appendix ‘‘B” deals with the insect pests of cotton and the remedies, and include the bollworm, (Heliothis Armiger), the Stainer (Dysdercus), green fly, (Aphidae), leaf miners, borers, surface caterpillars and locusts, and (Acridium).—1.K. AGRICULTURAL PROGRESS IN CoorG.—Report on the Administration of Coorg 1905—1906. This official publication contains certain remarks on the agricultural industries of the Province which are of interest. Coffee is the main planting product, and it is satisfactory to note that the industry has apparently found its level after years of deterioration; the year under review actually saw an increase in area under the cultivation, probably meaning that what is now under cultivation is the survival of the fittest, ail the bad land having been abandoned. Planters are on the qui vive for new products, and pepper, rubber, cardamons, fibre plants, cotton and oranges are being tried. Ceara (Manihot Glaziovii) rubber has been found todo welland is being extensively planted ; and experiments are being made with Para and Castilloa. Pepper is doing well and the cultivation is being constantly extended. Oranges, it is hoped will soon prove a most valuable crop. A South Coorg planter has recently told us that, given a much needed railway, the orange industry would prove a splendid thing. Caravonica cotton is under experiment and “ has proved decidedly successful. Hitherto it has developed ‘no disease and suffered from no specific enemy ; it istoo early, however, to prognosti} cate inthe matter.” Six co-operative credit societies have been established, with funds amounting to Rs. 9,083—.I. E. — Jan. 1907.] 47 Ceylon Board of Agriculture. ' The twenty-seventh meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held in the Council Chamber at 12 noon on Monday, 7th January, 1907. His Excellency the Governor presided. Others present were :—The Hon. Messrs. H. W. Brodhurst, C. T. D. Vigors, S. C. Obeyesekere, J. Ferguson c.m.c., W.M. Abdul Rahiman, Dr. J.C. Willis, Mr. L. W. Booth, Mr. EK. B. Denham, Mr. H..T. 8. Ward, the Maha Mudaliyar, Mr. G. W. Sturgess and the Secretary. Visitors :—Messrs. Joseph Whitehead and S. Weerackody, Mudaliyar. Business DONE. 1. The Minutes of the last two meetings were read and confirmed. 2. Progress Report No. XXVI was circulated. 3. The Secretary read a letter from the Hon. Mr. Francis Beven, regretting his inability to attend. g 4, Reports on the Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) Agri-Horticultural Show, held at Ambalangoda on December 20th, were laid on the table. 5. Letter from the Chairman of the Ceylon Chamber of Commerce, re supplying the Philadelphia Commercial Museum with specimens of various products exported from Ceylon and photographs illustrating them, was laid on the table. 6. Mr. S. Weerackody, Interpreter Mudaliyar of the Court of Requests, Colombo, read a paper on ‘‘ Experiments in Rotation of Crops and Cultivation of Paddy.” Dr. Willis followed and Mr. Weerackody replied. 7. The Secretary, read a letter from Mr. C. V. Brayne, Assistant Government Agent, and Chairman Mullaittive Agricultural Society, re establishing a Central Agency to deal with agricultural and garden produce from the Branch Societies with a view to their disposal in Colombo at regular intervals. A discussion followed, in which His Excellency the Governor, the Hon. Mr. J. Ferguson and Dr. Willis took part. The Secretary was instructed to write to the General Manager of the Railway in the matter of a reduction in the rates on cattle. Dr. Willis then proposed that a sub-committee be appointed to enquire into and arrange means for the co-operation of Local Agricultural Societies and arrange for the disposal of produce in Colombo. Dr. H. M. Fernando seconded the motion, which was carried and a sub-committee consisting of Hon. Mr. C. T. D, Vigors, Hon. Mr. J. Ferguson, Hon. Mr. S. C. Obeyesekere, Mr. L. W. Booth, the Maha Mudaliyar and the Chair- mah of the Municipal Council, was formed. 8. His Excellency announced with regret that Mr. Kelway Bamber, after full consideration, did not feel it expedient to accept the post of Secretary to the Board. The Meeting terminated at 1°15 p.m. Agricultural Society Progress Report. 1. Secretary.—Mr, A. N. Galbraith, C.c.s., Secretary to the Society, having been appointed to act as District Judge, Ratnapura, with effect from the 19th December, the duties of the Secretary are now being carried on by Mr. T. A. Carey, C.C.S., pending the appointment of a permanent Secretary. 2. Members.—The membership of the Society at date is 1,131. The following new members have joined the Society since its last meeting in December: —Gangaboda Pattu (Matara) Branch Society, Superintendent of Betworth Estate, Messrs. R. E Paranagama, F. EH. Pattison, P.G. Spence, Aitken, Spence & Co., T. Reid c.c.s., Willoughby Bullock, and the Hinidum Pattu Branch Society. le ee pa 48 [JAN. 1907 3. Local Branches.—The Badulla Branch so held its last meeting for the year on the 15th September, when Mr, D. H. Kotalawala, Muhandiram, read a paper on “ Paddy Cultivation and Transplantation,” At a meeting of the Kegalla Branch Mr. J. BR, Molligoda, Proctor, read a paper on ‘‘ Diseases of Plants.” A meeting of the Panadure Branch Society was held on the 19th December, when a large number of members and others was present. Mr. L. W. A. de Soysa, M.R.A.S., addressed the gathering on improved methods of agriculture, dealing mainly with the improvement of agriculture in Ceylon. The Secretary proposed to open a branch society at Horana, which was an agricultural centre. The Korale Mudaliyar expressed approval of the proposal and agreed to work the branch society under the guidance of the Panadure Branch. The Gangaboda Pattu (Galle) Branch proposes to establish a depé6t for bone dust at Baddegama for the benefit of the members, who are to receive the manure for their fields at cost price. The funds will be raised by members subscribing the necessary capital and manure distributed from the depot. By this means it is hoped to give the average cultivator a chance of buying manure cheaper and of a better quality than at present is available in the district. Vavuniya Branch: Forwarding Agency.—Following the native black cattle sent to Colombo by this Agency, a small consignment of eggs was forwarded by train. The prices realized for both cattle and eggs are reported very satisfactory. A letter on this subject from Mr. C. V. Brayne, Assistant Government Agent Mullaittivu, and Chairman of the Branch Society, will be discussed at to-day’s meeting. 4. Agricultural Shows.—The Agri-Horticultural Show at Ambalangoda, under the auspices of the Wellaboda Pattu (Galle) Agricultural Society, postponed from the 16th and 17th November, was opened by Their Hxcellencies the Governor and Lady Blake on the 20th December. Reports on the different sections judged by the Scientific Advisers of the Society are tabled for information, The following Shows have been fixed for 1907 :— Telijjawila ee March 15 Trincomalee (Mar ket Fair) . BS: April 2 Batticaloa Na fae Harly in the year Nuwara Eliya bes ns ih April 2 and 3 Uva is May (early) Wicliinads (Mar ket Fair ) Ha May Matale as aa ae June (early) Kandy ha ue August . im 5. foreign vegetable stare —The eae impor a by the Society are being | distributed to applicants for them. Applications have been received from almost every part of the Island. 6. Varieties o*Indian arecanuts.—Orders for varieties of Indian arecanuts have been sent to India. These arecanuts will be experimented with in the Badulla Veyangoda, Gampola, and Colombo Districts. 7. Tobacco.—The samples of tobacco grown in Batticaloa and Tamankaduwa have been reported upon by the firms referred to in Progress Report No. XXV. ' One firm reported that the tobacco was not suitable for curing for the foreign market; the other reported as follows:—“ The tobacco is suitable for making Jaffna cigars, for chewing, and for making snuff; it cannot by itself be used in making cigars similar to the Indian or Manila cigars, because it cannot be used as wrappers ; but it can be used mixed up with Indian or Borneo for the inside of the cigar, if covered with Sumatra or Manila leaf. The tobacco has a good flavour ; it cannot be used for pipe tobacco.” JAN. 1907.] 49 1. Kiushu puddy.—Mr. J. W. Eknelligoda, R.M., reports that three bushels of this paddy obtained by the Secretary of the Kuruwiti Korale Agricultural Society and planted in one of his fields, whieh withstood the recent floods, are doing well. 9. Garden syringes.—Mr. M. Suppramanian, one of the life members of the Society, has imported some syringes, price Rs. 4 each, which are recommended as very useful by the Superintendent of School Gardens, who says :—‘* They are strong and well made, and should do admirably for use in vegetable and betel gardens. Syringesof similar make have proved very useful in the Stock Garden and in school gardens to which they have been sent on loan.” The syringes are available at Mr. Suppramaniawm’s office. 10. Awards to school boys for good work in school gardens-—A sam of Rs. 212-50 out of the vote allowed in the Estimates of the Society for 1906 has been granted asin 1905 to the Director of Public Instruction to be distributed in awards to school boys for good work done in school gardens throughout the Island, ll. Bxperiment in potato growing in Ganetenna.—-Mr. S. Abeyaratna, Station Extension, Maradana, reports that he has successfully tried cultivating potatoes at Ganetenna. A report on the potatoes and as to whether the locality is suitable for this cultivation will be published later. 12. Agricultural and Industrial Exhibition and Cattle Show, Ettaiyapuram India.—M. R. Ry. S. R. Ramakrishna Aiyar Avergal, B.A., Dewan of Ettatyapuram, India ; has forwarded copies of notices, rules, and list of exhibits connected with the proposed Exhibition at Ettaiyapuram, which will include agricultural, industrial, and live stock exhibits. Copies of notices, &c,, have been distributed among the branch societies. 18. Castration of cattle, work by locally trained men.—The Chilaw Agricultural Society has ordeved six sets of implements used in castration of eattle and dressings sufficient for six men to carry on the work of castrating cattle. These will be distributed among the men trained as operators, No further work has been done by the Government Veterinary Surgeon’s Department since the last report. A full report on the work done by this Department during the year will be printed and issued shortly. 14. Publications.—A pamphlet ‘‘Hints on the growing of Vegetables,” by the Superintendent, School Gardens, is now ready and is being sent out to members. A Sinhalese translation is now in preparation and wiil be issued in due course. A leaflet on ‘‘West Indian Yams” (Jamaica) recently imported by the Society, prepared by Mr. C. Drieberg, Superintendent of School Gardens, was printed and issued to all members to whom the yams were supplied. Fifty copies of the “‘Sihala Samaya” containing translations of the proceedings of the last meeting of the Board of Agriculture, kindly sent by the Editor, have been distrbuted among the Branch Societies. T. A. CAREY. January 7, 1907. Secretary Ceylon Agricultural Society. NOTICE. It has been decided by the Local Agricultural Society at Minuwangoda to hold a fair in ‘‘ Elis Court” (Gansabawa garden) at Minuwangoda on every Saturday from 6a.m.to5 p.m. All persons concerned have the permission of the Society to make use of the “‘ Ellis Court” without any charges to expose for sale vegetables, fruits, mats, yams, pottery, silver, gold and brassware, iron work, rice. oils, ghee. butter, poe cinnamon, clothes and all commodities of trade. The persons attend- 50 (JAN. 1907. oem ing the fair from Colombo, Negombo and distant places have ample accommodation inthe Town where there are hotels and eating houses and easy Railway communi- cation from Henaratgoda and Veyangoda. The Society hopes that the cultivators, traders and manufacturers will take advantage of this offer as it will improve the cultivation and the industry of the district. The fair will commence on Saturday 26th June 1906. W. D. BANDARANAYAKH, Chairman. J. EK. De SILVA SURIYABANDARA, Vice-President. A. C. NAMASIVAY AM, Secretary. Minuwangoda, April 30th 1906. KTTAIYAPORAM SAMSTHANAM EXHIBITION AND CATTLE SHOW _ 1907. 1. The Zamindar of Ettaiyapuram proposes to hold, on the lith March 1907, an Agricultural and Industrial Exhibition and Cattle show at Kovilpatti Tinnevelly District. With a view to make it thoroughly successful and useful, it is further proposed to have lectures and demonstrations and to keep the exhibition open for a week and the show for 4 days. Although the original idea was only to hold it on a small scale, so as to improve and benefit the ryots of the Samsthanam, it is now resolved to enlarge it and make it available to the public in general. All articles of indigenous growth or manufacture and natural or agricultural products from all parts of India, Burma and Ceylon will ordinarily be admitted to the exhibition. Tools, implements and machinery of foreign manufacture used or likely to be used for starting or developing indigenous industries will be accepted, as also foreign products that may in the opinion of the Exhibition Authorities, serve as useful models for imitation. The Exhibition and Show are proposed to be held at Kovilpatti instead of at EHttaiyapuram, as Kovilpatti isa Railway Station with good water supply and other conveniences, and is also the site of a Government Agricultural Farm. Housing and boarding will be available at Kovilpatti for exhibitors and visitors, but each person mustmake his own arrangements. Efforts will be made to afford facilities to exhibitorsin the matter of conveying, arranging, advertising and removing their exhibits, and exhibitors will be permitted tu use the exhibition buildings for a week after the close of the exhibition for sale of their exhibits. Accommodation, fodder and water will be supplied gratis to cattle admitted to the Show. Arrangements will be made for holding a general Cattle Fair directly after the Cattle Show closes, to facilitate sales of exhibited cattle. Intending exhibitors should notice the date at which the Show is held and so cultivate their crop that the exhibits would be at their best at the time of the Show. Pure aud not mixed samples of seeds or grains, etc. should be exhibited. Thus, in the case of cotton, the exhibits should be pure samples of the kind, e. g. Uppam, Karunganni &c. To ensure this, exhibitors should take care to sow only pure seed in their fields. Pure seed can be got on application to the Superintendent Government Farm Kovilpatti and similar Government Farms. Prizes will be awarded as may be determinded by competent Judges appointed for the purpose, and every encourage- ment will be given to new efforts and experiments. Ifany tenant of the Httaiya- puram Hstate wins a prize, the value of the prize will be increased. The exhibition authorities will, on application, give passes to any assistants or servants who, in their opinion, are necessary for attendance at the stalls of any exhibitor. Gold, Silver, Nickel or Bronze medals, improved agricultural implements, money prizes or certificates of merit will be awarded to exhibits according to the decision of the judges. Exhibits are not to be removed by the Wh Cyited phen id Se aia, 2 oe JAN. 1807.] 51 exhibitors from the exhibition grounds during the exhibition, but must be removed within 7 days after the close of the exhibition, after which period they will be removed and kept at the risk and expense of the exhibitor. Any exhibit not claimed and removed by the exhibitor within a fortnight after the close of the exhibition will be sold, and the proceeds disposed of at the discretion of the exhibition authorities. Exhibits may be sold during the exhibition, but they shall not be removed till after the close of the exhibition. Exhibitors who are unable to attend in person or send their agents may arrange for the return of their goods on payment in advance of the estimated costs and charges. The Dewan of Ettaiyapuram may, in his discretion, cause or permit the removal of any exhibit from the exhibition grounds. The Dewan of Ettaiyapuram may alter or revoke or add tothe present rules, Due notice of every such change will be given. All who become exhibitors shall be held by so doing to signify their compliance with these rules and any other rules that may be issued from —° time to time. Admission into the exhibition grounds shall be only by tickets which will be sold at rates to be fixed later on. The exhibits will be arranged in suitable places by the exhibition authorities and the exhibitors are bound by such arrangements. N. 8.—AIl communications should be addressed to the Dewan of Kttaiyapuram. GROUPS AND CLASSES OF EXHIBITS.—A. AGRICULTURAL SECTION. 1. Agricultural umplements.—Ploughs ; Hoes, Harrows; Seed drills; Other Agricultural implements. 2. Cereals.—Paddy; Cholam; Kambu, Ragi, Samai, Tinai, Varagu, and other millets; Pulses, Gram, Dhall, Pease; Maize. 3. Industrial crops.—Sugar cane, a. Indigenous varieties. b. Foreign varie- ties. Cotton, Cotton seeds. a. Karunganni; 6. Uppam; c. other indigenous cottons, d. Foreign cottons. Kapas, ginned cotton and seed, and two plants should be shown in each case. Tobacco. a. Indigenous varieties; 6. Foreign. Oilseeds. a. Gingelly; b. Castor; ec. Iluppai; d. Ground nut; e. other seeds. Oils; Oil cakes; Senna; Coffee, Tea, Cardamom, and Arrowroot; Ginger, Saffron, Turmeric. Fibres, Sun hemp, (Sadambu), Plantain, Aloe, other Fibres. 4, Fruits, roots, and vegetables.—Tamarind; Plantains and Bananas Coconut ; other fruits.—Oranges, Limes, Mangoes, Pomegranates, Jack, Breadfruit and Arecanut; Roots. Vegetables :—e.g. Brinjals, Pumkins, Cucumber. 5. Sugars.—Jaggery ; Sugarcane Jaggery, (unrefined sugar from sugar cane) Refined sugars; Sugareandy, (Palmyra). 3. Dyes.—Roots; Leaves, barks; Earths &e. 7. Medicinal herbs, roots, and oils of well-known properties. 8. Manures, a collection thereof. 9, Dairy produce & eggs. 10. Machinery suitable for preparing agricultural produce for the market, é.g- Sugarcane press, Oil mill, Rice huller, cotton gin, plantain fibre extractor. &c. B. INDUSTRIAL SECTION. lil, Yarns & textile fabrics.—Cotton yarns; Flax and hemp, plantain &c. yarns; Cotton goods, a, for wearing apparel; b. Carpets, towels &c. ; Woollen goods ; a. for wearing apparel; 6. Blankets rugs &c.; Silk and lace goods ; Cloths from other fibres, 12. Ropes, mats & baskets.—Ropes; Coir mats; Grass mats; Rattan «nd bamboo mats, i nif Fa PN ayital ohcy Se Re le Tees CH Pata CPD) 4 ena 52 13. Leather, paper and horn.—Leather footgear. saddlery and harness = ren Kamalais and Kamalai trunks; Travelling trunks and leather bags; Paper; Horn — goods. 14. Pottery, porcelain.—Vessels—glazed and wunglazed; Bricks, tiles and rrigation pipes; Glass and porcelain. 15. Metal.—Brass, bronze, bellmetal, lead and copper vessels; Aluminium ware; Iron ware; cutlery &c. ; Locks ; Silver ware. 16. Articles manufactured from mica, graphite and other ores. 17. Chemical Industries.—Soaps, candles & matches: Inks and paints. 18. Furniture. 19. Kine Arts,—Carving; Painting and drawing: Neediework. Cc. CATTLE. 20. Bulls.—Bulls for breeding purposes with 6 to 8 teeth ; Bulls for breeding - purposes with 2 to 4 teeth; Bulls for breeding purposes with milk teeth. 21. Bullocks.—Plough bullocks, Draught bullocks, Trotting bullocks. A pair in each case tobe shown. The bullocks to be over 4 years old. 22. Cows and Heifers.—Milking cows 6 to 8 teeth, Milking cows 4 teeth, milking cows 2 teeth, Heifer. 23. Buffaloes.—Breeding buffaloes, plough buffaloes (a pair), milking buffaloes. 24. Sheep and Goats.—Rams, wool bearing sheep. other sheep, milking goats, other goats. 4 25. Ponies._-Taruvai ponies, Kangayan and other country ponies. 26. Special prizes for.—Kangayan trotting bulls, Kangayan cow, Nellore breeding bull, Nellore milking cow, Amratimahal trotting bull (pair), Kandakur (Nellore District) buffaloes (pair). SR. RAMAKRISHNAIY A, Dewan. Kttaiyapuram, l4th August 1906. ago: Wa ah TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST AND MAGAZINE OF THE CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Von. XXVIII. COLOMBO, . FEBRUARY 15rtx, 1907. No. 2. The Blocking of Wet Rubber. Some interest has been aroused by a circular published by the Peradeniya Department on this subject during January, and it has met with a considerable amount of criticism. The results were obviously of the crudest and most immature kind, and people seem to have expected finished results. The object of early publi- cation was to prevent planters from establishing large and expensive factories for drying and otherwise mechanically treating rubber until it was certain that such treatment was of real advantage. Even the one small shipment of wet block sent home seems to have disproved this, and attention must be again called to the fact that it was taken home personally by Mr. Brett, one of the judges at the recent Exhibition, who undertook to show it to leading manufacturers and others, and it was on the strength of his cable that the rubber was stronger, that it was considered worth while to publish results so early. It must be pointed out that it this treatment comes in, the expense of, and waste of time in, drying will disappear, besides that the rubber gets a higher price. The speedier return, as against the fact that alot of money lies idle in the drying rubber, must also be remembered. The important point is the proof that the retention of water in the rubber may be advantageous, It now remains, as pointed out in the circular, to determine what is the best percentage of water to leave, and how best to leave always the same percentage. 54 [FEB. 1907. " GUMS, RESINS, SAPS AND EXUDATIONS. | Spiral Tapping Thirty Years Ago. By Ivor ETHERINGTON. Various tapping methods have been tried during recent years in Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula, and in the former country especially the older small V system has given place as a rule to the herring-bone and the newer spiral tapping. It is not much more thana year agothat the modern spiral tapping was brought out in Ceylon, and much interest was taken in the new system, and doubt thrown in some quarters on the wonderful results in yield of rubber obtained by it. The method has now been given a fair trial; and it is generally acknowledged that of the systems tried up to the present it gives the most rapid yield, and does not apparently injure the tree if worked with due caution and if the bark be not unduly rapidly stripped from the trunk, although it may prove injurious to the tree if the cortex is removed too quickly. [tis of interest, however, and it will no doubt bea matter of surprise to many to learn that this new system of spiral tapping is in reality an old method resuscitated. It was, no doubt, an original method with the Ceylon planters who first started it some two years ago; and who gradually worked it out after considerable experimental work. But the spiral tapping was practised by the Indian rubber- collectors in the rubber regions of Nicaragua more than 30 years ago. The main source of Nicaragua rubber is the Castilloa elastica Cerv., and the following note on the method of tapping the trees was written over 20 years since. “The Nicaragua mode of tapping is as follows. The collector ascends the tree by climbers or a ladder as high as possible, and then commences a series of incisions with a sharp machete or axein one of two ways. One is to makea long vertical cut, with diagonal cuts running into it, as in Brazil. The other is by encircling the tree with spiral cuts at an angle of 45°; if the tree be large, two such spirals were made, either crossing or paralleled with each other. At the bottom of the trunk an iron spout is driven in and the milk is received into iron pails.” Here we find a description of spiral tapping almost exactly the same as practised on estates in Ceylon today, but apparently worked on a more drastic scale. The angle of the cut on the trunk is that generally made in Ceylon, but in Nicaragua high tapping is practised, the tapper using a ladder. In Ceylon little scoring of the trunk is done above 6 feet from the ground. The crossing of the cuts does not seem to be of much advantage and where the lines met there would probably be a waste caused by the latex running out of the channel and down the bark. Even the spout at the bottom of the spiral cut is the same as used in Ceylon today. In a circular 1899, by the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon, spiral tapping for Castilioa is briefly referred to as follows; ‘‘Other methods are to cut spiral groves round the tree for some distance up, or to make a main channel on one side of the stem with lateral cuts leading into it. These methods are almost sure to kill the tree.” Thisis the only reference to spiral tapping for any species of rubber tree that the writer has come across of recent date, and the system was unknown or forgotten when it was resuscitated in Ceylon a couple of years ago, This is another instance of the modern rubber planter in the Hast taking up the methods of working the industry which are practised in the wild rubber regions of the Western Hemisphere. In the November Tropical Agriculturist the Editor pointed out that plantation rubber could probably be improved by more closely imitating the Amazon methods of preparing the raw product. ey on ee oe Fes. 1907.] 55 Saps and Exudations: REPORT ON RUBBER IN PANAMA. British Consulate, Panama, October 5th, 1906. To THE Rt. Hon. SIR EDWARD GREY. Sir,—I have the honour to refer to Sir E. Gorst’s Circular Commercial of April 28th last (13423) instructing me to report in the course of the present year as full information as possible respecting the position of the rubber industry in the Republic of Panama, the extent of the cultivation of rubber, the prospects of a supply of raw rubber, and a comparative statement as to the exports of cultivated and of wild rubber. The botanical name of the rubber producing tree in this Republic is Castilloa elastica, is indigenous and grows wild along both coasts from sea level to altitudes of two thousand feet. No statistics are available,and therefore it is impossible to furnish data respecting the number of wild trees, but the production of raw rubber from this source is more likely to decrease than to increase in the near future owing to the ruthless cutting down of the trees in order to obtain the latex, in fact, to such an extent has this been done, the wild rubber tree is nearly extinct in some districts. In Chucunaque, a region of the Darien which has not yet been explored on account of hostile Indians, it is claimed that forests of the Castilloa elastica are as common as forests of other trees and that some of them are of enormous size; but all attempts of the rubber hunters to penetrate the territory inhabited by the Indians have so far met with failure. There are approximately six hundred thousand Castilloa elastica plants under cultivation in the entire Republic, some of them already six years old, which are not enough to increase the supply of raw rubber to any extent in the near future, It is estimated that after eight years growth, each of the cultivated trees will give from five to six pounds weight of juice the first year they are tapped, which amount is equivalent to two and a half pounds of pure rubber. The quantity of wild rubber exported from the whole republic in 1906 amounted to 214,750 pounds in weight and all of it went tothe United States of America, except 79 pounds sent to Europe. (Sgd.) C, MALLET, REPORT ON RUBBER IN MEXICO. Consulate of Mexico, October 15th, 1906, To THE RicHTt Hon. Sir Epwarp GREY, BARt,, Etc. S1r,— With reference to Sir Eldon Gorst’s Commercial Circular (13423) of April the 28th last, I now have the honour to enclose a Memorandum on the Rubber Industry in Mexico, : There are no means of ascertaining the relative exports of cultivated and wild rubber. The Rubber Industry of Mexico has been the subject of much discussion in the United States owing to the adverse reports made by United States Consuls-General Barlow and Parsons. I take this opportunity of forwarding asample of Rubber made from the Guayule plant, which I owe to the courtesy of Mr Adolf Marx, and to which I have referred in a recent letter tothe Principal of the Commercial Intelligence Branch of the Board of Trade, (Sd.) LUCIEN J. JEROME, H.M.’s Consul, Gums, Resins, : 56 (Fes. 1907. MEMORANDUM ON RUBBER INDUSTRY IN MEXICO. I. Position OF RUBBER INDUSTRY.—The Rubber Industry of Mexico can be described as being in its infancy. Nearly all, if not all, the Rubber produced in Mexico is from wild plants, the Castilloa elastica chiefly. The Castilloa elastica is found in the states of Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Vera Cruz, and in parts of Mizhoacan, Guerrero, Tamaulipas, and San Luis Potosi. Several attempts, more especially in Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Chiapas and Tabasco have been made to cultivate Rubber Trees, but so far as Iam aware none have yet proved commercially successful. Unfortunately many plantations of Rubber were made use of by fraudulently disposed persons to obtain money from greedy but credulous investors, chiefly in the United States. II, It is quite impossible to estimate the extent of land which has been planted with rubber trees, no data of a reliable nature is to be obtained. There is no Government Department of Agriculture. III. Of recent years, a substance closely resembling Rubber is being made from a plant known in Northern Mexico as ‘‘Guayule.” There are factories for the manufacture of this substance at Torreson, inthe state of Coahuila; at San Luis Potosi and at Jimulco in Zacatecas and at other places in Northern Mexico. The Guayule plant which used to grow on otherwise worthless land is now being extensively cultivated in the Northern states of this republic, so that when the estates now being cultivated with the Castilloa elastica yield rubber in commercial quantities, it can be reasonably supposed that there will be a continous and slowly increasing yield of rubber from Mexico. IV. Sraristics.—No distinction is made in Export statistics hetweon wild and cultivated rubber. The Mexican Fiscal Year commences on July Ist and ends on the following June 30th. Fiscal Year 1902—1903. Country to which Quantity Value exported. Kilogrammes. Pesos. Germany .. eee Mee 17,469°700 eae 34,155°40 Columbia .. Ae bc 456°000 iN 535°00 United States ee yas 152,222°000 Ae 283,839°20 France _... oh ass 24,348°409 es 55,763°00 Holland... th AMS 861°000 ws 700-00 United Kingdom a A 29-000 oe 20°00 Klgs... 194,886°109 § 325,012°60 Fiscal Year 1903—1904. - Germany ... hae a 48,364°000 _... 69,808°00 Columbia ... aye we 2,028°000 ae 8,271°00 Spain fo a, Coe 99000 Re 160°00 United States a wg 245,083 °500 uh 416,481°60 France _... Ree ibs 11, °596"000 ued 29, 406°00 United Kingdom ei “Me "549-000 aes : 1,140: 00 Guatemala ae Rap 84:000 ae 175°00 British Honduras ne sat 241°000 if, 275:00 Panama ... bey we, 28'000 us 100°00 308,072°500 $ 520,766°60 Fiscal Year 1904—1905. United States i nie 362,710°098 Ab 565,575°49 Germany ... ae At 117% 439°690 a 118, 423-00) France... Ae ane 10,349:000 Oa 28,254" 00 Spain Aa Kis x 616°000 A 1,200:00 Panama... a w. , _9,989-000 ae 9,036°80 United Kingdom ei ea 92000... 350°00 Italy Aan sat oy; 3808°000 ans 98500 Klgs... 497,503°788 $ 718,824:29 (Sd,) LUCIEN J JEROME. parent Saps and Exudations. ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE INDIA RUBBER MARKET 1906. By S. Ficcis & Co. © PLANTATION RUBBER GROWN IN CEYLON AND BRITISH MALAYA. The rapid increase of supply has been beyond expectation—probahly 160 tons Ceylon and 350 tons Malay, against in 1905—70 tons Ceylon and 75 tons Malay. The preparation and quality, as a whole, has been excellent and suitable to manu- facturers, who have paid high prices for fine lots of nice colour and transparency when clean and resilient. Planters have also done wisely in making the greater part of the scrap into washed pressed crepe, resulting in higher average prices than was realized for the scrap. The fine pale crepe is much liked. From Ceylon the greater. part has still been in ‘‘ biscuit” form, but we had alittle sheet. From the Straits (Malaya) the greater part has been in sheet, rolled and clean, but some rather dark and mouldy of dull colour, probably from having been packed damp; we had some nice lots of crepe. If it is decided to ship much in the form of pressed block or slab, we suggest blocks of not exceeding 3 inch thickness, and about a foot long, and expect the manufacturers will prefer the block not to exceed 10 pounds, and the cases in which it is packed of about 1 cwt, each. ‘‘ Worm” rubber has only come in very small quantities, and is liked when clear and bright. The exhibition held in Ceylon in September was most interesting and useful, and plantation rubber of all descriptions was nicely shewn. We contributed a case of specimens of most varieties of rubber, and presented it to the Government _ of Ceylon for their Museum. No doubt planters learnt much from it, but we do not believe that we can indicate from Europe much improvement in the mode of preparation or cultivation of rubber, beyond the general advice we have repeatedly given to :— Pack it in good dry condition (excess of resin much objected to.) Into strong cases of lewt, to 2 cwt. each. No paper, Fuller’s earth, etc. to be used. Keeping different qualities and colours separate, and not to mix immature rubber with older ; to pick out and send separately dirty barky pieces: To smoke the rubber when convenient, because “smoking” appears to increase its resiliency, but keep it as clear and yellow as possible, Our London charges are very small. Brokerage } per cent. All samples are paid for, and the only deduction is—Discount 23 per cent. Draft (on all rubber) percent. Planters get these back in the higher prices obtained. As we anticipated in our last annual issue, the extra price of plantation fine.compared with Para fine has diminished with the larger supply of plantation, and may be expected to more nearly approach the fine Para price when supplies of former get much larger. So far, plantation has not gone into consumption for the larger uses of rubber, manufacturers having refused to pay a premium for it except for special purposes, mainly solution;no doubt when supply increases, manu- facturers will use it for their larger trades. Rambong has been in small supply and sold well. Castilloa and Ceara in only small quantities, sold well; some fine realised high prices. Last January fine sheet and biscuit plantation realised 6s 1d to 6s 12d, crepe dark to good 5s 7{d to 6s 17d, scrap 4s 11d to 5s 4d, scrap dark and dirty 3s 4}d to 3s 6d. In March 6s 3d to 6s 34d was paid for fine, and 5s 5d clean scrap. In June, fine sheet and biscuit declined to 5s 9d to5s 94d, pressed block scrap 3s 6d to4s; and subsequently values fell to our closing sales of fine ats 5d to 5s 74d, but the washed crepe much higher, good pale 5s 6d to 5s 8d, brown and dark 4s 9d. Prices fluctuated this year with Amazon (Para) rubber. 58 (Fes. 1907. The world’s supply of rubber in 1906 we estimate nearly 65,000 tons, and consumption almost as much. Planting has greatly increased and will produce much more in the near future. We estimate planted and planting, (but some mixed with tea and cocoa and coffee). ; Ceylon ise on 100,000 acres Malavat Malacea, Sumatra, &e. ye: 90, % Borneo : ae a a 12,000 ,, Java Soares 20, 000 39 Mexico has some fae ge PInntaionel aise Nicargua and Honduras, and some in Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru. India has begun, say 10 to 20,000 acres planting, Burmah and Mergui begining: the Phillipines, Samoa, Hawaii and other Pacific Isles, and Seychelles and West Coast Africa will add to the supply; also the West Indies. In the Congo and German West Africa plantations are in progress. We repeat our caution to plant, where practicable, Hevea Braziliensis as hard clean rubber sells best. The supply from the Amazonas (Brazil) shows no sign of reduction ; Brazil exported 38,000 tons. Stimlus is given tothe production of other rubbers in Brazil, such as Manicoba, etc., by various companies working with large capital, and supplies this year have considerably increased. Large quantities of Guayule from Mexico have been disposed of in America and Europe. English manufacturers have as yet scarcely used it, not being attracted by it, but are making further experiments. There has been a sustained demand throughout the year, and manufacturers have been busy. Motor vehicles of all descriptions have largely increased tyre makers’ demands. The world’s supply of nearly 65,000 tons has probably nearly all gone into consumption. But the bull movement of the first four months was not successful, We close with a decline for the 12 months on‘fine grades of Para, Bolivian and Peru of 2d per lb., but a penny advance on scrappy negrohead owing to scarcity, and on Caucho ball (which has been in great demand for “‘tyres” and has been “oversold” the last few months) a rise of 5d per lb., following the advance of 6d in 1905. The supply of mediums has rather increased, but not from West Coast Africa, which totals about 17,200 tons, against 17,500 tons in 1905. Visible Supply Ist January, 1907. See below for complete Statistics. 1907. 1906. 1905. 1904. 1903. Of Para and Peruvian tes tons 2,162 2,874 2,666 3,262 8,365 Including America ... >, 1,160 1,600 1,830 1,480 1,365 Brazil and Bo a (from the Amazonas tons 34,520 34,420 30,3885 3l, Including Peruvian and Caucho : ‘ sad via Iquitos and Manaos ... sy 03200) 6,100 4,390 4,050 The fine has been generally em selected and should be cut and carefully sorted before shipment. The Caucho ball has been good and slab fair. Bolivia has sent larger supplies, but of Mollendo rather less. Venezuela via the Orinoco increased and sold high. Ceara and Manicoha increased and sold cheaper, especially poor quality of the latter (Plantation down to 4s 1d). Of Pernambuco and Assare small lots sold well. Mangabeira increased and of nicer quality. Mattogrosso prices declined for virgin about 3d. Central America and Mexico supplies do not increase and prices of good Colombian, Ecudaor, Nicaragua, show an advance ot 4d per lb. (in sympathy with the rise of Caucho ball from the Amazonas). Plan- tation lots from the Cauca, Carthagena, and Tumaco have brought good prices; much above any previous year. 1906. 1905. 1904. 1903. West Coast African .... (total) 17,200 tons 17,500 tons 18,000 tons 15,000 tons including Benguela end Mossa- medes ay 1,450 ,, 1,650 ,, 1,600 ,, 1,450 ,, Loanda 700" p55 Di o85 950 4, 980 ,, nee. French ‘Gases and Soudan 3% (dearer) ete coe 5,900 99 5,650 a5 5,800 f 34 5,600 2a HY : a ht yi — #pp. 1907.] 39 Saps and Hxudations. The quality has been good, and nice qualities have brought higher prices. Niger, Gold Coast, Accra, Lagos, etc., sold readily. Cameroons, Sierra Leone, Gaboon and Conakry in great demand and higher. French Congo and Soudan mostly from Senegal via Bordeaux sold well, and quality liked. 1,300 tons in 1906, 1,250 tons in 1905, and 1,200 tons in 1904. Liverpool imports W.C.A, 4,770 tons in 1906, against 4,700 tons in 1905, and 5,080 tons in 1904. East Coast AFRICAN.—Zanzibar. &c., increased and prices are again 2d higher; also Nyassaland and Mombassa more. Lamu again higher. Uganda of nice dry quality sold well—pears 4s. Plantation sheet 4s 11d to 5s. Madagascar sent greatly increased quantities, and fine cured clean biscuits, &c., realized very high prices, soft and common no dearer, Niggers have been poor quality and sold slowly and cheap—a few nice lots realized high prices, 2s to 2s 3d. Rangoon— moderate supplies sold higher. Assam—prices close 2d lower. Penang decreased, and has sold without much change throughout the year. Mixed lots very difficult to sell. Java sent odd small parcéels, but is begining ‘*‘ to plant” largely. We had more Borneo.which sold dearer ; also Tonkin and French Cochin China good quality in good condition up to és ld. Searcely any from New Guinea. Pontianak sold largely at about previous years value. Balata was in much reduced supply, consequently the price gradually advanced, fine sheet closing 2s 23d to 2s 3d, block 1s 8d to Is 83d. Gutta Percha still slow of sale at moderate prices for all but the finer qualities, which are scarce. Most of the business done has been in reboiled at about 5d. REVIEW OF PARA PRICES FOR 1906. The year opened with a quiet market, and sales of fine hard at 5s 44d, soft 5s 4d, negrohead scrappy 4s, Cameta 3s 3d, Island 3s 3d, Caucho ball spot 3s 10d, With few sellers and a powerful bull movement here and in America, hard fine advanced by March to 5s 6d, and soft 5s 4d; ball was then 3s 84d to 3s 9d, scrappy 8s lld. Cameta 3s 23d. Island 8s 14d. The market became dull. and declined till July, which was about the lowest of the year—fine hard to 5s 1d soft 5s 0}. Cameta negrohead 3s Ojd. Island 2s 9d. Prices rallie a little during the succeeding months and in October hard fine was 5s 3d s 4- 1id, scrappy 4s l$d, ball 4s 14d. Cameta 3s 04d, Island negrohead 3s. In Noveinber hard jfine declined to 5s 13d and soft to 4s 113d (the lowest point of the year), but ball was dearer at 4s 3d, and negroheads steady. Closing prices of fine hard 5s 23d. Soft 5s 03d, scrappy negrohead 4s Od, - Cameta 3s 13d, Island 8s; Caucho ball, spot 4s 3d, February-March 4s. There was but little speculation throughout the year. INDIA RUBBER STATISTICS FOR 1906. Total Imports &c., of all sorts were :— ENGLAND. STOCK. LONDON. — STOCK. Imports. DELIVERIES. 31st Dec. IMPORTS. DELIVERIES, 31st Dec. 1906 21,269 21,162 1,669 tons 1906 2,604 2,444 691 tons 1905 21,700 21,410 ES O2ie os 1905 2,126 2,003 bolives 1904 19,883 20,035 PAA ie 1904 1,932 1,770 408 ,, 1903 19,464 19,626 1,424 ,, 1903 1,289 1,278 246 ,, 1902 16,932 18,118 1,586 ,, 1902 826 «1,18 =; 280 —» IMPORTS. DELIVERIES. STOCKS, 31st Dec. PRICES, 31st. December. Para, | Peru, | Para, | Peru, | Para, | Peru, Fine Bae Pech Cauc Manaos,} Caucho, | Manaos,| Caucho./ Manaos,| Caucho, Para. Saioy! ae ae Ball. 1906...) 8728 | 3435 | go24 | 3471 | 377 | 25 (1906...) 5/23 | 402 | 3 | 4/3 1905...; 10156 | 3328 | 9760 | 3336 578 61 1905...) 5/5 4/ 3/34 3/104 1904...) 8568 | 2584 | 8088 | 2545 177 69 |1904...) 5/1 3/10 2/84 3/4 1908...| 10630 | 2216 | 10978 | 2230 547 30/1908...) 3/11 3/34 2/4 3/34 1902...| 10296 | 1442 | 10700 | 1572 895 44 |1902...| 3/9 3/03 2/6 3/1 Gums, Resins, 60 1906. 1905. 1904. 1903. 1902. Imports of other Rubber besides Para and } Peruvian to England. 9,106 8,216 8,781 6,618 5,194 Deliveries do do do... 8,767 8,314 8,552 6,418 5,841 Stock 31st December do do do... 1,267 928 1,026 847 647 j hae Zanzibar Manicoba i : pesnon and |Mada-| Ceara, |Matto-| W.C. | Mol- | Plantation 1906. a Bonar. Borneo. | yrozam- dacranl P’nam As-|grosso.|African.| lendo. mi & or bique. sare &c. ai he Imports... 288 | 345 | 261 | 147 | 346 | 1540 | 172 | 4880 | 204] 461 Deliveries...) 221 484 267 127 235 1838 192 | 4877 | 209 411 Stock 31st Dec} 122 142 57 29 136 370 10 | 317 4 71 Imports 1905 271 629 251 69 113 1662 226 4789 183 70 75 do 1904 164 599 121 197 159 1913 191 5144 244 INDIA RUBBER MARKET. Lonpon, January 4th.—At to-day’s auction, 357 packages of Ceylon and Malaya plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 292 were sold. The total weight amounted to over 21 tons, Ceylon contributing over 83. and Malaya over 12}. This was the first sale held since 18th December. The market opened with good demand for all descriptions, fine pale crepe again being keenly competed for and fetching the highest price, viz., 5s. 93d. per lb. For fine biscuits and sheet, prices generally paid were in the neighbourhood of 5s. 7d. A large parcel of fine Malaya block rubber from Lanadron Estate weighing over 2 tons was offered, but withdrawn for private treaty. A fine lot of Rambong crepe realised 5s. 0jd. Plan- tation fine to-day.—5s. 7d. to 5s. 94d., same period last year, 6s. to 6s. 2d. Plantation scrap.—4s. 4d. to 4s. 54d., same period last year, 3s, 6d. to5s.4d. Fine hard Para (South American).—5s. 24d., same period last year, 5s. 44d, Average price of Ceylon and Straits Settlements plantation rubber 292 packages at 5s. 34d per lb., against 300 packages at 5s. 3}d. per lb. at last auction. particulars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. MARK, QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. O.B.E.C. (in dia- mond) _ dcases good darkish sheet, 5s 63d; 1 case fine pale ditto, 5s 62d ; 1 case pressed scrappy sheet, 4s 53d. Arapolakande 8 do good dare biscuits, 5s 63d; 2 cases darkish pressed scrap, 4s 4d. Culloden 8 do good large pale biscuits, 5s 7di; 3 cases fine very pale pressed crepe, 5s 93d; 7 cases good darkish crepe, 5s 23d; 4 cases dark pressed crepe, 4s 97d. Eilakand2 1 do dull palish biscuits, 4s 7d; 1 case darkish pressed crepe, 5s 2d ; 1 case black pressed crepe, 4s 6d. Heatherley 4 do ane, pale biscuits, 5s 77d ; 4 cases fine palish pressed crepe s : Nikakotua 1 do good large palish biscuits, 5s 64d. Ingoya 1 do fine blocked biscuits, 5s 6d. Nikakotua 8 do good palish and darkish sheet, 5s 63d, G.U.L.A, (in dia- mond) 4 do good Baris and darkish sheet, 5s 7d; 2 cases rejections, s ‘ Kumbukkan 1 do palish biscuits, 5s. 7d. Duckwari 1 bag thick pressed rejections, 3s 11d; 1 case pressed scrap, 4s 1d. C.L, (in dia- mond) 15 do good ‘darkish crepe, 4s 113d; 3 cases darkish crepe, 5s; 2 cases cuttings, 4s 7d; 1 case pressed scrap, 4s 54d; 1 case superior, 4s 27d ; 1 case crap, 4s 42d, Kipitagalla 1 do cuttings, 4s 54d. (Fen. 1907. 4 _ Fes. 1907.) Tallagalla Sunnycroft Gonakelle Balakadua Imboolpitiya W aharaka Ayr Dovanakande Taldua Ambatenne Glanrhos MARK. P.S.E. S. (in diamond) S.R. .S.B. P.R K.B. & Co. (in triangle) ee ee A (J) Or CO 61 Saps and Hxeudations. good dark biseuits, 5s 7d; 2 cases dark pressed scrap, 4s 54d. fine pale biscuits, 5s 7d. fine palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 7id ; 1 case good pressed scrap, 4s 54d ; 1 case pieces, 4s 5d. fine: pale biscuits, 5s 7id; 3 cases good darkish pressed crepe, 4s 113d. biscuits and sheet, 5s 6d; 1 bag serap, 4s 43d. ’ good darkish biscuits, 5s 7¢d ; 2 cases inferior scrap, 4s 44d. 1 box fine large biscuits, 5s 74d. good large dark biscuits, 5s 7id; 8 cases palish scrap, 4s 53d ; 1 case pieces, 4s 5d. palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 7dt. fine palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 7d; 1 case darker, 5s 7d. good palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 6d; 1 case darkish and dark crepe, 5s 05d; 5 cases darkish crepe, 5s; 2 cases good darkish sheet, 5s 6d; 1 case similar, 5s 6id. STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB, good palish sheet, 5s 67d; 5 cases darkish crepe, 4s 103d. pressed scrap, 4s 53d. good large palish sheet, 5s 67d ; 8 cases scrap, 4s 5d ; 3 cases rejections, 4s 6d to 4s 63d. 11 boxes fine palish sheet, 5s 7d ; 1 box darker, 5s 6d; 1 box serap, 4s 38d; 1 box rejections, 3s 11d; 2 boxes cut sheet, 5s 54d ; 1 bag scrap and rejections, 4s. Batu Unjor Estate Scasesfine palish scored sheet, 5s 73d; 2 cases darker, 5s 7d; 2 Shelford F. (S.) RB. Co. Ltd. P. R. P. & R. L. E. (Muar in tri- angle) Straits G.B. (in dia- mond) K.K. _B.S. Bila S.P. (in circle) 1 Guthrie & Co., Ltd. 28 Sungei Krudda 1 do do do do do do do do do do do cases palish to darkish crepe. 5s 4d ; 1 case darkish crepe, 5s 14d ; 3cases good darkish crepe, 5s 3d. good darkish sheet, 5s4d; 2 cases darkish crepe, 5s 04d; Meee crepe, 4s 9fd; 1 case good darkish crepe, S LUSa. fine palish to darkish sheet, 5s 63d ; 2 cases good greyish, 5s 03d; 1 bag pale sheet, 5s 6d; i case dark block, 4s 1d. fine pale crepe, 5s 87d; 3 cases palish scrap crepe, 5s 44d ; 4 cases darker, 5s. Odd. fine Rambong crepe, 5s 0td; 2 cases darker, 5s. 03d. 1 case red crepe, 4s 6td. block crepe, 4s 6td. fine pale crepe, 5s 95d ; 10 cases dark crepe, 5s 04d. fine pale sheet, 5s 77d to 5s 73d; 1 case good ball scrap, sheet, etc., 4s 54d. fine large darkish sheet, 5s, 73d; 2 cases paler, 5s 71d; 4 cases scrap, 4s 55d; 1 case darker, 4s. 53d. } good palish sheet, 5s 7d; 2cases good palish sheet and biscuits, 5s 73d ; 3 cases somewhat similar, 5s 77d; 3 casos good pale sheet, 5s 73d. fine cases pale crepe, 5s 83d to 5s 87d ; 3 cases darker, 5s 7d. palish scrap, 4s 53d; 4 cases darkish, 4s 42d, 62 (Fee, 1907. OILS AND FATS. CAMPHOR OIL. The scarcity of this oil has increased in a marked degree since we published our last Report, so that it is necessary to regard its future with serious apprehension. The deliveries of red Camphor oil in Formosa are said to have been so unimportant in the last few months, that the demands of the Direction of the Monopoly could hardly be satisfied,—much less even a moderate quantity becomes available for export. For white oil the demand was so brisk from the Japanese industry (which in the course of time has also been able to make use of this article for their purposes), that the export of any quantities worth mentioning was out of the question’ Whatever quantity of these two sorts was shipped to Europe and the United States in the course of the last few months, originates therefore from unexpired contracts. The value of the camphor oil shipped from Japan in the first six months of this year amounted only to 71,102 yen, in spite of the much higher prices, against 131,007 yen in the same period of last year. The following summary which has been taken from the Reports of the British Foreign Office (Ann. Series. No 38675) gives further information on the export of camphor to the individual principal consuming countries in the last three years. The value of the total shipments has fallen off in that time by nearly £100.000, in spite of the higher market. India. France. Germany. U. States. U. Kingdom, Total. & £& £& £& £ & 1905 ies 53,000 58,000 12,000 100,000 26,000 262,000 1904 “is 82,000 71,000 15,000 128.000 8,000 323,000 1903 ... 61,000 37,000 68,000 117,000 50,000 361,154 The deficiency inthe Formosa productiou appears to be chiefly due to the indiscriminate cutting-down of the trees which has taken place there during the jast few years, and which must have caused considerable damage tothe camphor- forests. This seems to be borne out by a proclamation issued in June of this year by the Governor General of Formosa, General Sakuma, in which the peasants were strongly urged to devote their attention more to the production, and to improve and extend as much as possible by new cultivation the plantations which had greatly suffered from the system of irrational exploitation hitherto in vogue. The proclamation also mentions that new cultivations covering an area of 1,500 ko (lL ko = about 2} acres) have been commenced, and that it was intended to extend these, provided the Government received the necessary support from the peasants. How much time will elapse before these new forests are productive, and whether the call on the peasants will meet at all with a sympathetic response, it is of course at present impossible to say. The following translation of an article which appeared in ihe “Taiwan Nichi Nichi Shimpo” (Formosa Daily News) of the lst of February and was forwarded by the British Consul at Tamsui, may be of interest to persons dealing in camphor. The previous prices, which have now been increased, were as follows (per picul = 138 } Ib.) :-— Crystalised camphor. District. > |Camphor oil. Ist grade. | 2ndgrade. | 8rd grade. Gilar Shinko, Toyen, Shin- Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen chik i, Bioritsu, Haichy, Nanto, Moroni ans iB ro 30,00 27,00 24,30 15,0C Kagi Bas ae fe 31,00 28,00 25,30 15,50 Taito ie a a 32,70 29,70 27,00 16,30 ps as dies foe. 1007], 68 Oils and Fars: There was great shortage in the production last year, and as the more easily accessible trees have nearly all been cut down, and the head-hunters still continue to make attacks on unprotected workers who advance too far into the camphor-forests, the Monopoly Bureau thought it advisable to stimulate producers and give them better protection against the savages. cre th The Monopoly Bureau and their selling agents, Messrs, Samuel, Samuel & Co., have not disclosed whether any difference has been made in the price at which the camphor is handed over to them. The camphor oil is all sent to the refineries in Japan, where about 49% of camphor if extracted from it. A sketch-map accom- panied this despitch, showing. the Formosa districts mentioned herein. Hitherto, with the exception of what comes from distant places, like Taito and Kagi, the Government have bought camphor and camphor oil at the same price although from different places, with the result that producers have gained or lost according to the circumstances and locality of production and in some districts the camphor worker has obtained practically no profits at all. The Government, therefore, have now taken this matter into consideration and have decided to alter the purchase-price in accordance with the conditions prevailing in each one of the various producing districts throughout the Island ; this has resulted in an increase all round on previous prices, and the following table shows the increase in the present compared with the former prices for camphor and camphor oil. DELIVERED AT TAIHOKU PER PICUL (133 1/3 LBs). Camphor : same for Ist, 2nd and 3rd grades. Camphor oil. Gilan increase of yen 2/0 4) 3,40 | Inecrea E f } Sino (part) eee. 2 Se nonis oo or nt OB » Other part ,, ... Bo 2,70 af a ae a 1,10 Toyen (1 part) epee. me 0,50 | No alteration a) Ouner parb ots. .. 9,10 | Increase of yen oe bea 1,20 Shin-chiku _... ims. Bie 16,60 a _ 3,10 Byontsa jake ne 2,30 ‘ i a ae 40100 Taichu (1 part) ,, ... emer 3.10 i - 20 » Other part ,, ... 1 60 is ie a 220160 Nauto Mik at vie 4 1860 a ‘ ‘i is O60 Toroku (1 part) ‘pees ate 1,20 As (: “i va 0,30 ,. Other part ;, ... ee TBO i i os Sy 0150 Kagi hE ee nT 450 “ e A ve S200 Taito see Stfss0d6 ne 1,20 5 ca A, tvs 0,40 The largest increase amongst the above is that for Shinchiku, which shows camphor (yen) 6,60 and camphur oil (yen) 3,10, the difference in the increase for districts varies in accordance with the richness of the material, the cost of transport, the accessibility of the camphor forests, the cost of labour and the cost of living, ete. so as to allow of fair profits being obtained even in districts where very small quantities are produced. This result had previously not been obtained and it is therefore expected that even abandoned camphor districts will now once more be worked upon and that the total camphor production will be increased and the trees be handled more carefully. Furthermore, as a natural consequence of the increase in the purchasing price, the Monopoly Bureau will alter the selling price at which it hands over the camphor to Messers. Samuel, Samuel & Co., the selling agents, and from the 10th instant the price will be increased, so that the price at which Messrs, Samuel, & Co, sell abroad will also necessarily become higher, but it is expected that an increase in Samuel, Samuel & Co’s. selling price will have very much effect on the market, The reason for this is that hitherto the selling agents rete an y Sh , Pee Oils and Fats. curd 524 (Fes. 1907, have sold what they have bought from the Bureau within the fixed limits, taking a certain percentage as commission, and that whereas the World’s demand for camphor is nine or ten million pounds, the supply from Japan and Formosa is only 6 or 7 million pounds, so that as soon as the camphor leaves the selling agents’ hands, it jumps up in price, and the difference between the market and Messers. Samuel, Samuel’s selling price is very great. Any way the increase in the Government’s buying and selling prices will probably result in large profits for the camphor industry.” With regard to the camphor producing districts of other countries, it is to be regretted that for the present no relief of ‘the existing scarcity can be expected from that side. A report from the U. S. Consul in Amoy says that the camphor monopoly granted in 1903 to a Japanese Company for the Chinese province Fokien has been cancelled by the Government, after payment of a not inconsiderable indemnity, but that the Japaneseeven under the new conditions still control the production, and, as our own informants tell us, pay any price in order to secure every consignment. THE INDUSTRY IN CEYLON. The camphor production in Ceylon is unfortunately still in a very bad way, and although much attention has now for several years been given to this new cultivation, it has not yet been possible to produce actually more than about 1,000 kilos. If it is taken into consideration that more than 100 acres are planted : with camphor-trees, the result must be called unsatisfactory. The principal diffi- culty lies in the lack of experience of the planters in the distillation, and it is believed that the Japanese and Chinese make use of special technical artifices to secure a paying yield. It is said that the plantations will be extended further and it is hoped that the energy of Mr. Kelway Bamber, the Government chemist at Peradeniya, will succeed in overcoming the existing difficulties, and showing | the planters a remunerative method of manufacture. The present high prices of camphor are naturally very tempting, and it remains an open question whether the cultivation can still pay, if some day the camphor market returns to a normal level. According to a report from the German Consul at Bombay, the Government, on the suggestion of the local Chamber of Commerce, has the intention of making experiments in the planting of camphor-trees in the Bombay district, and we hope on a later occasion to be able to return to the results of these experiments, The climatic conditions on the Indian coast agree approximately with those of Formosa, and in our opinion the prospects are therefore favourable. M. Kimberlin reports in the ‘American Druggist and Pharmaceutical Record” (according toan article in the ‘‘Tropenpflanzer”’) on experiments in the cultivation of camphor-trees in California :— Camphor-trees have been found near Lake Shabot in the mountains situated sideways of Berkeley in Almeda county, Cal. ; most of these trees are 20 to 35 years old, as can be ascertained from the annual rings, They belong to the species Cinamom camphora, from which the official camphor is obtained. They are over 25 feet high ; the trees have a large number of branches, a smooth bark, and green, broad, thick leaves pointed at both ends. The freshly peeled bark has an odour, like sassafras. The trees grow ina heavy soil, have tapering trunks, with numerous roots which supply abundant nourishment to the tree. When the leaves are rubbed they emit a camphoraceous odour, which is also apparent in all the other parts of the tree. The wood leaves and branches burn very readily, owing to their camphor-content. The camphor contained in them belongs to the class of general camphors eet) and is reckoned among the ketones. : 4 i i ¥ ; ne Fup. 1907.) 65 Oils and Fats. ® \ ped 0.5 Gai ea Salle ih ha ace Same Experiments made with the wood of these Californian camphor-trees, when it was distilled with a little water, on condensation of the vapours, actually resulted in a yield of camphor. The leaves contained about 0‘15% camphor of great purity, purer than Japanese or Chinese camphor which must first be purified by refining. The camphor obtained by heating the wood of the Californian camphor- trees toa higher temperature, was not so pure as the product distilled from the leaves and branches. Camphor-trees were planted by the Department of Agriculture in many places, and have grown up to fine, tall, green trees ; they are more weather- resisting than orange trees, for which they served to afford shade. Camphor-trees thrive in the climate of the coast, to the North of Charleston, in South Carolina, and along the Californian coast. It will be left to a later age to derive profit from the ecamphor-trees planted, as considerable quantities (annually about 6000) are planted out from the nurseries in suitable districts; but further experiments must show ' whether the leaves, branches, roots, or the wood of the trunk yield the best cam- phor, and what will be the best camphor, and what will be the most suitable season, the best method of distillation, etc. On the occasion of the 6th International Congress for Applied Chemistry at Rome, Giglioli pointed out, ina paper on Italian camphor, that the camphor-tree thrives in almost every district of Italy, except in the neighbourhood of the Alps, and that it would therefore appear desirable to promote the cultivation of this tree in Italy, the more so as it does not make a large demand on the soil. According to experiments made the leaves of the tree are said to yield on the average about 1% camphor, whilst the wood, which moreover lends itself exceptionally well for the manufacture of furniture, contains about 0° 1% camphor of inferior quality. We have on several occasions, when discussing the camphor industry in our Reports, also referred ina more or less detailed manner to the cultivation of the camphor-tree*), and for this reason we wish to call attention to a most interesting article which deals with the observations made by C. Crevostt) with regard to the ‘ cultivation of the camphor-tree in Indo-China. In Tonquin, Kwang-Tcheou-Wan, and especially in Annam the cultivation of the camphor-tree justifies the most sanguine expectations. Various samples distilled by Aufray, the Director of the Tonquin laboratory, gave the following results as compared with Japan camphor (camphor oil+camphor) ;— Kwang Japan. Tonquin, Tcheou-Wan. Ordinary branches ee 3.70 per cent. ... 3.90 per cent. ... 3.25 per cent Lower portion of trunk... 4,23 do wa 2.70 do ars 3.55 do Roots... FS a 4.46 do i 4.60 do at 3.55 do Contrary to the camphor-treesin Japan and in Kwang Tcheou-Wan, those in Tonquin always give a larger yield from the branches and roots than from the trunk. The yield mentioned in the table is, however, exceptionally very small, as the sample was taken from a hollow tree of very medium quality. The information given by Crevost dates already from the spring of 1904, and it may therefore be assumed that the experiments have since been extended. The solution of this question is too important to be neglected, and we hope to be able to return to the subject in our next Report. From the Imperial Biologico-Agricultural Exprimental Station Amani ir German East Africa, we recently received a camphor oil which had been obtained in a yield of not quite 1% by distillation of the leaves and branches of camphor-trees, a nn i A tla lence *Reports October 1901, 13; October 1904, 15; April 1906, ii, {Journal d’Agriculture Tropicale 6 (1906), 105, Oils and Fats. 66 [Fep. 1907. respectively 2} and 1} years old. The oil sent to us was a filtrate of the original oil which separated off camphor spontaneously, and had the following properties: oO do 0°9236 ; a +39 20; soluble in 0°25 vol. 90 per cent. and in 10 vol. 80 per cent. 5 alcohol. The colour was golden yellow, and the odour differed considerably from that of ordinary camphor oil. When cooled, the oil congealed into a solid mass. By means of 4% sodaliquor, traces of a phenol were obtained which had an odour like carvacrol, but could not be identified further. Eugenol which, as is well known, is present in the ordinary camphor oil usually obtained from the wood of the roots and the trunk, could not be detected. Neither did the oil contain alcohol (borneol) in any appreciable quantity ; we found the acetylation number 14°5. the camphor-content of the oil as received by us was 75%. It also differed from Japan oil by the absence of safrol. We attempted to detect this constituent by treating the oil several times with hydroxylamine in order to remove the camphor, and fractionating in vacuo the unchanged portion of the oil which had distilled over with the water vapour. But not one of the fractions boiling between 50° and 110° (7 to 8 mm. pressure) had even a remote odour of safrol. This difference in the composition of the two camphor oils in question may be due to this, that in the distillation of the oils the parts of the plant used were not the same.—Report of Schimmel & Co., Nov. 1906. CITRONELLA OIL. The position of this important article can be judged only with difficulty, as reports on the conditions in the producing districts have lately been very scarce, and one has chiefly to depend on conjectures. It may be taken as a fact that all the oil shipped before the bursting of the monsoon, i. e. in October and November, will be absorbed by existing contracts; the unimportant quantities which arrive during the monsoon are too small to have any effect whatever on the market, and as the pro- duction in December and January is generally much smaller than the result of the July-September harvest, it is probable that speculative sales made in the meantime will not allow the market to become quiet. The figures of the export from Ceylon up to 20th August are :— fin 1905, 855,615 Ibs, in 1906, 694,267 lbs. against (in 1904, 768,660 ” The shortage of about 160,000 lbs. as compared with 1905 may therefore be the principal cause of the present firm state of the market, for the demand of the soap- industry is decidedly increasing, the more so as spike and lavender oils have long since become too expensive for cheap soap. If, therefore, the shortage in the export increases towards the end of the year, there can be no doubt that in 1907 the prices will be considerably higher still. ) We have at our disposal stocks of considerable quatities, propotionate to our sales of this article, and would ask buyers of large quantities to apply our special quotations when in the market. We were recently compelled to raise the price of the Java quality which is in great request, especially from the side of the manufacturers of better-class soaps, as the producer under the existing condition appeared not to make any profit out of it. The shipments during the last few months were also far from plentiful, and we are anxiously looking forward to the receipt of further new explaining the causes of this regretable shortage, According to a paper by Wright endeavours are made to render the citronella industry more remunerative by using the grass from which the oil has been removed as raw material for the manufacture of paper, for which purpose it is said to be very suitable. a se ar ; FER, 1907.) 67 Oils and Fats. We need not enter more fully into the further details given by Wright on valuation and judging of citronella oil, as these appear to be chiefly based upon the work of Sage, with which we have already dealt in our last Report. We also consider that the content of geraniol represents the principal factor in judging the value of citronella oil; but Schimmel’s test, carried out by itself, will, according to our experience, always give useful data fora rapid test of the quality of a citronella oil. Report of Schimmel & Co. November 1906. LEMONGRASS OIL. As already predicted in our April Report, a reaction has at last come in the price of this article, and the market has dropped from 83d. per oz. in April to 3d. peroz. It is to be hoped that the remunerative prices of last year have not induced the planters to extend their plantations too much, for in such case they would undoubtedly suffer a very severe disappointment. Although the oil of Backhousia citriodora, with an aldehyde-content of about 98%, consisting chiefly of citral, has not yet been shipped in large parcels, it can (as we hear from an absolutely reliable source) be supplied in such quantities, and in spite of the high wages in Australia, in case of need at such a low price, that lemon grass oil, even at a price of 3d. to 4d. per oz., can no longer come under consideration for the manufacture of citral. We think it well, however, to point out to the Australian optimists that the citral manufacture is by no means exclusively dependent upon lemongrass oil and Backhousia oil, but that other cheap raw material has also to be taken into account. The shipments from Cochin during last season, i. e- from Ist J uly 1905 to 30th June 1906, amounted to :— 190} cases to London 100 bE », Havre 200 A » Marseilles 2181/3 ,, » Hamburg 3803 ” 9 New York 1230 1/12 ,, » Asiatic ports (Bombay and possibly — — — subsequently Europe) Total 2269 5/12 cases. For the sake of comparison, we quote here again the shipments of the last few years :— 1904-1905 18814 cases 1903-1904 22223 1902-1903 2806 Through the kindness of Mr. P. Bussy we received a sample of lemongrass oil which had been distilled in the Government laboratory at Saigon (Cochin China). It a 0) tt) 99 had the following properties : do 0,8917; D-010; aldehyde-content about 82% ; in- soluable in 10 vol. 70 per cent. alcohol; soluble in 0,9 vol. 80 per cent. aleohol, when more solvent is added soon strong turbidity ; with 90 per cent. alcohol it forms at first a clear solution, but when more than1,5 vol. are added, cloudiness occurs, According to these results the oil behaves like the West-Indian and African lemon- grass oils, which we have repeatedly referred to in our Reports*). Owing to the deficient solubility, the oil has a lower commercial value than tha ordinary East Indian lemongrass oil.— Report of Schimmel & Co, November 1906. *) Comp. Report April 1906: 44: also October 1902 50 ; April 1903, 23, 49 ; October 1903, 46 ; October 904, 53; April 1904, 84. 68 FIBRES, CARAVONICA COTTON, Many references have been made in agricultural and other papers to the remarkable qualities claimed for the Caravonica cotton. The following statement in regard to it was made in the Annual Report of the Queensland Acclimatization Society for the year ended March 31st, 1905 :— During last year considerable attention has been attracted to certain varieties of cotton in the Cairns district, and ramed Caravonica. The society has received seed and lint of this cotton, one considerable parcel having been handed direct to the writer by Sir Herbert Chermside, in the original package as sent to him by Mr, Thomatis, who has enthusiatically taken up the question of this supposed new variety. Most careful comparision has been made in various ways with this variety with rather disappointing results. In appearance, little, if any, difference can be perceived between it and other cottons well known in the States. The overseer has grown it alongside the plants which it resembles, and can discover no variation. A rather poor yield of this variety may be a circumstance that would disappear with the planting of seed from plants grown under local conditions, The overseer has examined the Caravonica variety as grown in the North, and neither he nor Mr. Jones, who has also been comparing this variety with other well-known sorts, can detect any superiority. To all intents it is one of the Egyptian type,—Agricultural News (West Indies.) Nov. 1906. “Ber. 1907.) , Er aneo EDIBLE PRODUCTS. Dry Grains in Ceylon, [V. By J. F. JowitTtT. Zea Mays L. Muttu Cholam. T. Muttu=Pearl, Cholam see below. Bada Trungu 8S. Bada=belly, alluding to the “Cob” being enclosed in spathaceous leaves— Trungu= W heat. Classed by natives with Andropogon Sorghum, owing to the general growth of the two species being similar, though the inflorescence is very different—Mr. Herbert Wright has written fully about this species in Voi. III No.5 Circular and Agricultural Journal of the R. B. G., Ceylon. Andropogon Sorghum, Brot., Sorghum Vulgare, Pers., Holcus Sorghum, Linn., Arisi Cholam. T. Karal Irungus. Kaka or Karum Cholam, T. Kalu Irungu S. Shada, T. are all varieties of one and the same species A Sorghum, Brot. known also as the Indian or Great Millet; Guinea Corn; Turkish Millet; Sorgho; Imphee; Kaffir Corn; Congo Millet; Jerusalem Corn; Broom; Milo Maize; etc., itis the Juar of India, and each variety has a special vernacular name. Sir George Watt, on the authority of Sir Walter Elliot whom he characterises asa “ botanist and linguist of no mean order” says, ‘‘the Tamil for the plant, Cholam was in all probability derived from the fact that it was the chief grain of the Chula country,” mentioned by Mr. P. Arunachalam in Sketches of Ceylon History as being in South India. Arisi=rice; though ‘‘arisi is a generic Tamil word applied to the cleaned grain of any cereal when ready for consumption.” “*It appears to be used in Ceylon as the specific name of a variety with very loose, nodding panicles. Trungu seems to have been a name of purely Tamil use in early times. ‘It is now used in a restricted sense for a particular group of varieties which are characterised by avery lax inflorescence, and by the grain being almost entirely covered by the closely adhering glumes.”* I am told that Irungu signifies wheat Karal= panicle or spike of grass Kaka, T,=crow-like, referring to the colour of the grain, Karum, T. Kalu, S.=Black. Shada, T. this name was given me by one of my coolies as the name of a variety witha very compact head, which I have since identi- fied as Sen (red) Cholam, from Salem. Shada literally is applied to the matted locks on the head of a cooly who is under a vowand has dedicated his hair to some god; it is an instance of the same variety being known by natives under different names. Very little reliance can be placed on the native names for grasses, is my experience, the same name being applied to different species in different localities. Andropogon Sorghun Brot. is accepted by most botanists asa cultivated form of A Halepensis Brot. which I have myself collected in a wild state in Uva. In connection with this wild form, Mr. I. H. Burkili (Reporter on Economie Products in India), wrote in 1902. ‘‘Its flowers are arranged in a very loose inflorescence and the little grains ave soon lost at ripeness, by the breaking of tne flower stalk below them. Tocultivate and select till the stalk became firm, to make the grains largerand larger, and to mass them into a solid head, have been the objects of generations of cultivators and have been attained :—in the case of the first object, so that no cultivated juars drop their seed by the breaking of the flower stalk ; in the case of the second, so that the largest grains seen from India ave } inch long and 3/16 inch broad; and in the case of the third object so that the best varieties carry the flowers densely packed, and produce a club-shaped head of seed, 10 BS Tit igve: . Nok We find the chief stages of the evolutionary process represented in the great fe? variety of cultivated forms. There are forms witha light feathery inflorescence very like the wild baru (Andropogon Halepensis) except that the grain is larger and the flower stalk does not break at maturity, and from these forms we get a progres- sive series in which the grain grows longer until it overtops the chaff, and the flower stalk grows shorter until the flowers are aggregated—it is claimed for the more primitive forms of juar that birds cannot perch on the heads and peck off the grains ; aud therefore the people who cultivate little patches in the forest find them more profitable.’t This was not the experience of a cangany cf mine who had a small patch of . arist cholam in is garden, the birdsand rats got all the grain although he had strings and rags put up toscare them away. When it is considered that in the Bombay Presidency alone over 250 races | of the plant are recongnisedf, (in the Bengal Presidency it does not seem to be cultivated to any extent) and that 63 named varieties are given for Madras“, the difficulty of classifying the varieties of Sorghum will be admitted. In 1902 Mr. I. H. Burkill made a tentative classfication and arranged the Sorghums in 8 groups and 22 varieties with sub-varisties, this classification is froma | botanical point of view. Edible Products. a0)" [Fus. Taking Mr. Burkill’s classification as a basis but not closely adhering to it, M. R. Ry. C, K. Subra Rao, Rao Bahadur, Sub-Assistant Director of Agriculture, Madras, has furnished a tenative classification of the Madras varieties which he considers better adapted for agriculturists. The varieties are differentiated, by (1) Colour of the glumes, of the seed coat. or of the hilum of the grain. (2) Theseason at which the variety is sown. (3) Duration of the growth, though this is not a fixed character, for the result of sowing certain varieties considerably later than usual is to shorten the “ period of growth. (4) The character of the inflorescence; that is, whether it be open close, or bent over, the arrangement of the seed thereon; and whether the grain (glumeIV) is awned or not. (5) The number of nodes or leaves. (6) The flavour of the straw or grain. Andropogon Sorghum Bret. described from a specimen of Kaka Cholam grown in Craig Garden (5,200 feet) gathered 9th September 1906, the seed having been sown on Ith April 1906, Perennial, stem 7 feet or more, (Sir George Watt says of the species generally, in India a height of even 12 to 15 feet would be nothing extraordinary) Stout, from the underground portion many suckers are sent up, nodes glabrous; leaf 19-27 inches 13-2 inches, tapering to an acute tip and down- wards to a narrowed round base, flat, glabrous, margins minutely serrulate, midrib broad, white above; sheath, mouth auricled, smooth, almost as long as, or much ' shorter than the internodes; ligule short, membranous, ciliate. As regards vege- tative character this description generally holds good for the varieties cultivated in Ceylon. The panicles and glumes vary. Kaka Cholam, panicle erect, pyramidal, rhachis stout, 4 sided, grooved, smooth, branches slender, whorled and alternate, angled, scaberulous, branchlests filiform, scaberulous; spikes up to 1 inch, decompound, of 4 or more pairs of spikelets, sessile spikelet glumes 1 II subequal, oval, with niembranous acuminate tips, yellow, turning red and finally black, glume IV with short awn or 0 in its sinus, / ‘ Fre. 1907.] 71 : Raible Products, Arisi Cholam, pavicle very loose, bent over, drooping, pedicles 1-24 inch long; very hairy at base of spikelets, glumes gaping when ripe, but subequal or if anything longer than ripe seed; grain globular, ovate, pearly white, with large oval bordered embryo, glume [IV short awned. This is probably what is known in Trichinopoly as Pal or Vell irungu. Karal irungu, from tea makevr’s garden, Craig, (4,500 feet) panicle pyramidal, loose, erect, pedicels long; glume I of sessile spikelet, broad ovate, yellow or later reddish, with green marginal veins at its acute tip, very hairy, especially on margins which overlap glume II. Glume II lanceolate, acuminate, smooth, 4 veined at apex with connecting veins between the longitudinal ones, IIIT hyaline, ciliate, IV ovate, ciliate, with short bent awn, lodicules ciliate; grain white. This is closely allied to Arisi Cholam but not identical, they both are very little removed from the wild representative. I am told that a variety cultivated under the same name in Udu Nuwara has a much larger white grain. Sen Cholam panicle very compact, oblong ovate, 4%2? inches flattened at the top. Seed orange red, oval, when ripe the glumes do not reach higher than half away up the grain, and at this point there is a horizontal line evidently due to cleavage by the ripening grain, the glumes being otten split above, veins prominent in lower half, Burkill’s mediocris sub var Ruber ? Uses. Boiled and eaten as Conjee, Tamils make it into flour and boil until it becomes a thick paste, known as “ Chola Hale or Cool” amongst the Sinhalese Karal Irungu is roasted until the grain bursts and swells, becoming soft and floury, it is mixed with honey and eaten as a sweet, known in Seven Korles and Low Country as ‘‘ Kordiyal”; it is also given to invalids being considered easy of digestion. Itis alsomade up ina similar way as above but with jaggery and pepper and given by chiefs and headmen to their employés as tiffin, known in Udu Nuwara and Four Korles as “‘ Pore-Aggala.” In Ceylon the flour does not seem to be made into bread but in India many varieties are used for this purpose. Bread made from the yellow grain is regarded as the best, that made from the white being hard and tasteless. Other forms of which there are twelve are not allowed to mature but are baked in hot ashes and eaten green, when the grain is tender and in the ear. Other uses. Many varieties have sugar-yielding stems and it is a curious fact that a sugar-yielding form may, when carried from one country to another, become a grain or fodder form. The thicker and drier stems are used as fuel, in Southern Europe and Americaa special form of the plant known to botanists as Var. Technicus is specially grown in order that (after the removal of the grain) the rigid, strong, much branched fruiting shoots may be employed as natural brooms, and special qualities for small hand brushes or Whisks. Hackel writes, from the fruit the Caffirs make “‘ Tialva” and the Negroes ‘“‘ Merisa” alcholic drinks. The fruiting glumes contain useful coloring matters. As Fodder. Many of the varieties are cultivated in India exclusively for fodder in which case they will asa rule be sown out of the season appropriate to their growth as a grain crop, with a view to preventing the seed maturing. It is held in such esteem that there is a proverb current in the Tamil country ‘“‘Shola payer mayentha nadukku Shorka lokam vanduma. Does a bullock which has grazed on a cholam crop wish for Heaven? Fs. 1907 4 iil Miscellaneous. é 2. Toaid them by a wise and prudent system of credit in the shape of loans and advances, the proposed employment whereof must be communicated to th association, be approved by it, and be in accordance with the spirit in which it is founded ; 3 3. To enable persons devoid of fortune but who are industrious, honest and laborious, to form part of the association by granting them facilities for paying up their shares in the capital stock by means of very small weekly instalments ; 4, Tosecure the practice of the Christian and social virtues that mark the good citizen, the honest, the laborious and honourable worker, by exacting above all moral warranties of highest order from the shareholders who borrow from the association ; 5. To combat usury by means of co-operation and mutual assistance by providing all who are deserving of the same, through their fondness for work, their skill and the integrity of their conduct, with the moneys they require for carrying on their business or occupation, and which they cannot obtain from existing finan- cial institutions owing to the insufficiency of the present system; thereby making them independent of lenders who levy exhorbitant commission or interest, or of those who impose too onerous conditions in connection with credit ; 6. To foster the spirit of enterprise and promote local works, whether of an industrial or agricultural character, by the prudent use of the savings effected with in the district covered by the association’s operations ; 7. Tospread amongst its members a practical knowledge of the elementary principles of economic science and to teach them respect for their engagements established by their signatures, as also the advantages inevitably derived by those who faithfully fulfil the obligations they have undertaken ; 8. Tocreate and foster mutual confidence between shareholders by means of economic relations based on the security of warranties of a high character, in as much as they are founded in a very great measure, on morality, honesty, order, love of work and prudence ; 9, To gradually procure them—by persevering efforts towards securing economy and consequently a just measure of credit—that economic independence which inspires and fosters the feelings of personal diginity and convinces one of the need of relying above all upon oneself to improve one’s position and raise oneself in the social scale. OPERATIONS OF THE LEVIS SOCIETY. The objects of the society are sufficient to indicate the nature of its primary functions. Inthe first place it encourages savings by the formation of a capital made up of shares which are small in amount payable in weekly or monthly instal- ments, and on the basis of which the division of the year’s profits is made. Secondly, it receives from its members deposits of any amount of not less than5 cents, on which interest is allowed ; and, thirdly, it grants loans, makes discounts and advances to members on their own signature and the personal security of other members of the society. The society is restricted in its operations to doing business with its members only, and the membership is restricted to a certain area. SHARES AND SHAREHOLDING. To become a shareholder and thereby a member ‘of the society, persons desiring to become such must be accepted by the society in the first instance. Appli- cations for allotment of stock are required to be submitted to a council of adminis- tration appointed at a general meeting of members of the society, which council may require every application to be seconded by two shareholders. Every shareholder must be reputed as of good habits, sober and punctualin payments, Hither men Miscellaneous. 112 (Fes. 1907. or women may become shareholders, but female shareholders are not allowed to hold office. Shareholders are liable for the debts of the society only to the amout of their shares, and each share entitles the holder to a proportion of the yearly profits. The shares are of the value of $5. each, and amounts may be paid in weekly or monthly instalments, and until the full amount of the share has been paid off, the holder is not entitled to participate in profits. A fee of 10 cents is charged as an entrance tax on each share subscribed for. Any shareholder may cease to belong to the society and withdraw the instal- ments he has paid on the shares subscribed by him by giving a written notice of thirty days to the council of administration, and a member may be expelled if he becomes bankrupt or insolvent or his property is liquidated judicially because of refusal to pay his debts, or failure punctually to fulfil obligations he has undertaken towards the society or has in other ways attempted to abuse the privileges of the society or deceive its officers. Installments paid by a shareholder up to his explusion are repaid him, minus the interest for the current year and entrance fees. The quality of shareholditg is forfeited by resignation, by death, explusion. or for any cause which would have prevented a shareholder’s admission to the society. DEPOSITS. Savings deposits of as small an amount as 5 cents may be made, and may be received, repayable on demand, or after notice, ata specitied date. Interest on savings deposits of all kind is fixed by the council of administration, which has authority to adopt special measures in connection with savings deposits and deposits payable ata specified date, by allowing a higher rate of interest on the latter, according to the length of the period at which they are repayable. Every shareholder making a deposit is givena pass-book. Therate of interest on the savings deposits is fixed by the board of management and is posted up in the office. It is paid and capitalized at the end of each year. The society receives deposits to afford facilities to its share- holders for the payment of their rent, contributions to mutual benefit societies, life and fire insurance premiums, &c., which deposits are repayable only at the date specified by the shareholder in opening his account. LOANS AND ADVANCES. The society may make loans or advances on simple notes or acknowledge, ments, but only such loans and advances as can yield a profit or a saving for the beneficiary are allowed. All applications for loans or advances are forwarded to the manager, who is obliged to submit the applications to a committee on credit and management, which committee decides whether the application is to be granted or refused, and all decisions of the committee with regard to applications must be adopted unanimously. Members of this committee are not allowed to borrow from the society nor become security for any loan or advance. In the event of a refusal by the committee on credit and management to grant a loan or advance, the in- terested shareholder may appeal to the council of administration, who, after hearing the members of the committee as well as the shareholder, give their decision accord- ing to the majority of the votes. The council of administration determines the rate of commision and interest to be charged, as well as the duration of loans and advances. Small loans and advances are always to receive preference over large ones, when the security for repayment is equal. It is generally agreed that the repayment of loans and advances shall be by instalments which are as far as possible, of equal amounts and are- payable weekly, fortnightly cr otherwise as agreed upon. These instalments as paid are entered as deposits which bear interest at the rate provided ; or as instalments are paid in, the interest charged on the loan is reduced in proportion to the amount of the loan paid ‘Fer. 1907.] 113 Miscellaneous. up. For example, a man borrowing $100 for five months, repayable in monthly instalments of $20 each, will receive interest on the first instalment paid in for four months, on the second instalment for three months, &c., in each case the instalment paid in on account of loan being treated as if it were anew deposit. Orsupposing the loan to have been made subject to the right of repayment in two instalments, at any or specified dates, the interest on part of the loan to the extent of the amount covered by the instalment would terminate with its payment, and the interest of the balance with the payment of the second instalment. As a rule, the loans and advances are secured by the signature of two solvent sureties who must be shareholders, but in addition to these signatures the committee of credit and management is obliged to inquire carefully into the personal financial standing and condition of the borrower, and ascertain whether reasonable confidence may be placed in his promptness to repay the loan. Above all, they are obliged to Obtain accurate information with regard to the honour, the spirit of order, activity, honesty and ability of the borrower, and the latter is always bound to state in his application for credit the use he intends to make of the moneys asked for. The society may open credits on current accounts, with or without security, but the autuont due isnot at any time allowed to exceed $100. ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT. The affairs and management of the society are under the direction of a council of administration, a committee of credit and management and a committee of supervision, whose powers and action are determined by the shareholders as a whole, in general meeting assembled. To preserve the democratic nature of the institution, and to further success- fully its main objects, two principles have been regarded throughout as fundamental. In the first place, the number of shares to be acquired by any one person is limited by the general meeting of shareholders, and in the second place, in the management and direction of affairs, the votes have been on the basis of membership rather than on the basis of the number of shares held—one associate, one vote. In this way the controlling interest of all the members has been made dominant over an otherwise possible cumulative interest of a few. Another fundamental principle is the local control, no branch system being admitted. THE GENERAL MEETING. A general meeting of shareholders is held annually, and where occasion demands, extraordinary general meetings may be called. Atthe general meeting the officers of the society and the members of the various committees are elected, No shareholder is allowed more than one vote, whatever may be the number of shares he owns, and no one can vote unless he has beena shareholder for at least three months, and is in good standing with the association. Decisions are adopted by the majority of the votes. ‘The general meeting receives the reports of the council of administration and the committees of credit and management and the committee of supervision, which reports it examines, approves or rejects. It deter- mines, subject to the provisions of the by-laws of the society, the dividends to be paid, and the maximum of advance to be given to a single shareholder. THE CouNCcIL oF ADMINISTRATION. The council of administration consists of nine members chosen from amongst the shareholders by the general meeting. Its members are known as directors, and are elected for three years, three members retiring at the expiration of each year. The council thus elezted chooses a president, vice-president and secretary, who are likewise the president, vice-president, and secretary of the society. This M iscellaneous. 114 | [Frs. council meets at least twice a month and as often as may be necessary in the interest of the society. Its powers are most extensive, including the admission and refusal of admission of shareholders, the expulsion of members, the filling of vacancies in the council and the several committees, the appointment and removal of employees, together with the fixation of their duties, salaries &c.,; the making of agreements and regulating of transfers and withdrawal of shares, the making out of balance sheets and dividends to be paid, the manner in which moneys, reserve, provident and other funds are to be employed, and generally, the taking of all measures that may be deemed advisable in the interests of the society. They also appoint and remove the manager of the society and determine the expense of management. They may borrow money on the credit of the society from one or more shareholders to meet applications for loans and advances when the available funds are insufficient. To the same end they may rediscount securities on hand, though their power to borrow for this purpose is restricted to $300, except by special authorization from the general meeting of shareholders, and their power to rediscount, to $500, without the same authorization. They determine the rate of interest to be allowed on savings deposits and the conditions connected with the calculation and payment thereof ; also fix the rate of commission and interest on loans and advances, and determine the duration of the latter and of conditions respecting renewals. The members of the council of the society incur no personal or joint liability in connection with the operations of the society. They are responsible solely for the execution of their duties. THE MANAGER. The management is entrusted to asalaried official called the manager, who represents the society, under theimmediate supervision of the council of adminis- tration. He has full control over the staff and proposes the appointment or suspension and dismissal of employees to the council of administration, who decide finally. The manager, under the superintendence of the committee of credit and management draws up daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly, statements of the society, and submits a general report of its operations, the statements show the position of affairs from the beginning of the year to date, and are placed at the disposal of the shareholders by being posted in the office or otherwise. The manager, moreover; makes an inventory at the end of each fiscal year, and this, witha report showing the exact position of the society’s affairs communicated to the annual meeting. THE COMMITTEE OF CREDIT MANAGEMENT. . Tho president and other shareholders chosen for the purpose at the general meeting, constitute a committee of credit and management, the shareholders so appointed not being allowed to belong to the council of administration or to another committee. Their term of office is two years, one half retiring each year. No transaction in connection with the loan or advances can be made by the society without the previous approval of the committee of credit and management, and its decision must be unanimously adopted by the members present—the presence of three members, at least, being required to render decisions valid. They cannot borrow from the society. Should their decision not be unanimous in any matter, it is brought before the council of the society, whose decision is final. The services of the officers and various members comprising the council of administration, the committee of credit and management and the committee of supervision, who are charged with the administration of the operations of the society are gratuitous. They are, however, entitled to travelling expenses when necessary, as well as expenses necessitated by the performance of special duties entrusted to them. A ~ . Fp. 1907. | 115 Miscellaneous. THE COMMITTEE OF SUPERVISION. The general meeting selects yearly from amongst the shareholders, three members who constitute a committee of supervision. This committee watches over all the operations of the society and frequently checks the cash, investments and securities ; sees to the carrying out of the bylaws and regulations and decisions of the committee of credit and direction, especially as regards loans, renewals and advances. They must ascertain frequently and atleast once a month, the exact value of the securities in hand, and have the right to examine.and audit all the books of the society. Where urgency demands it, they have power to suspend officers and to eall a general meeting of the shareholders. The members of this committee must be chosen from amongst the share- holders, other than those who are upon other committees, and are not allowed to borrow from the society. They must meet at least once every month and draw up aminute of their checking and auditing and submit a written report to every annual general meeting. FUNDS AND RESOURCES OF THE SOCIETY. In carrying on its business the society has, by way of funds and resources :— (1) The entrance fees paid by each shareholder, which amounts to 10 cents per share; (2) The capital represented by the shares subscribed and paid up by the shareholders (shares being of the value of $5 each) ; (3) The reserve fund, the provident fund, and such other funds as may be established ; (4) Instalments paid on shares not yet fully paid; (5) The moneys at any time deposited by shareholders, and the resources obtained by temporary Icans or by rediscounts. A reserve fund is established to secure the soundness of the institution, and to have ample security for deposists made, This fund is made up from (1) The entrance fee of ten cents on each share; (2) Anassessment of 25 percent of the net profits of the year until the fund amounts to at least double the maximum obtained by the paid up capital at any time. (3) The interest on investments effected with the resources pertaining to such fund ; (4) The amounts received from the subsequent payment of debts written off as loss on a previous year’s account. This fund so established remains the exclusive property of the society which is obliged by its constitution not to adopt any decision calculated to weaken the fund so established. The resources of this fund are laid out and invested at the discretion of the council of administration to the best advantage for the interests of the society. As it is established chiefly for the securing of deposits and for assuring a proper working of the society, it is affected only by extraordinary losses extending beyond other resources at the disposal of the society. A provident fund is established to cover extraordinary losses resulting from the operations of the society. It is constituted by means of an assessment of 5 per cent. on the net profits of the year until the fund is equal to at least one-half of the paid up capital. Speculation by the society in stocks and all hazardous operations are forma ly prohibited. j Ove a Miscellaneous. 116 bP ae. 1907. PROFITS. After providing for all the costs of management and for losses, the net yearly profits are divided as follows :— (1) Twenty-five (25) per cent. to the reserve fund; (subject to previous provision.) (2) Five (5) per cent. to the provident fund. (3) Five (5) per cent to local benevolent or charitable works. (4) Four (4) per cent. in the discretion of the council of administration as additional remuneration to the salaried employees of the association as a reward for good conduct in the performance of their duties. The balance is divided amongst the shareholders in proportion to the period and amount of paid up shares. This amount is not to exceed 8 per cent. until the reserve fund reaches double the maximum attained by the capital at any time. FINANCIAL SITUATION OF LEVIS SOCIETY. To show the practical working and financial conditon of ‘‘ La Caisse Populaire de Lévis,” a statement may be given of the situation of this institution as it stood on February 14 of the present year. On that date the amount of paid up subscribed capital was $24,584°62 ; the amount of savings deposits, $5,529°70 ; amount of interest still to be paid on savings unpaid, $34'81; amount of dividends unpaid, $408'20, making in all a total of $30,557°33. The amount paid as entrance fees on shares subscribed from December 1 to February 14, 1905, amounted to $40°90. The reserve fund amounted to $1,306°76, the provident fund to $130°05, these together with a surplus of $236:42, making a grand total in addition to the capital of $1,714:13 for the protection of deposits etc., The profits from December 1, 1904, to February 14, 1905, amounted to #208 ‘09. The grand total of liabilities on February 14 was, therefore, $382,567°55 Of the assets of the society there were loans to the amount of $25,631°18, general expenses $15°50, cash in hand $6,920'87, the whole making a grand total of $82,567 °55, As shown in the monthly statement of the manager of the society these amounts appear as follows :— FINANCIAL STATEMENT OF THE ‘‘CAISSE POPULAIRE DE LEVIS” ON FEBRUARY 14, 1905. Assets. Loans... He Aa bap 2h oa $25,631°18 General expenses . Aes oe ane ans 15'50 Cash on hand ae ca ws Hee ue 6,920°87 32,567°55 LIABILITIES, 2s Paid up capital ... ae Be ve Ae $24,584-62 Deposits ris sh we BE a; "529-70 Interest upon deposits ae 360 a be 34°81 Dividends (unpaid)... a: a He See 408°20 Total liabilities ats 30,557°33 Entrance fees i, is 40°90) 6 ee ne ce — Reserve fund Pee ie 1,3806°76 Provident fund _... nae 130°05 Surplus ... a ys 236°42 Profits- +... Ae ae 468 te sone me LTA AS 29609 32,567 '55 Certified correct, BRINE: Lévis, February 15th, 1905. (Signed) ALPHONSE DESJARDINS, President Manager, ——— Fer. 1907. | W7 Miscellaneous, BUSINESS DONE BY LEVIS SOCIETY. The following figures will show the amount of business done by the society from the time of its establishment in December, 1900, up to February 14th, 1905. The total amount received on account of capital subscribed has amounted to $29,943:10. Comparing this amount with the total amount of paid up capital on hand on February 14th, it would appear that since the commencement of the society, $5,538'48 has been reimbursed to shareholders who for different reasons desired to withdraw their shares. The total amount paid on account of entrance fees (being 10 cents per share on shares subscribed) was $693°90, which would indicate that in all 6,939 shares have been subscribed. The total amount received in profits on account of loans, ete., has been $3,326°50. This amount, added to the amount on account of entrance fees, makes a total of $4,020°40, which total has been divided as follows :— To the reserve fund oy ee ar a $1,306°76 To the provident fund — 140 [Marcu 1907. FIBRES. PHILIPPINE FIBRES AND FIBROUS SUBSTANCES: THEIR SUITABILITY FOR PAPER MAKING: RAW MATERIALS FOR PAPER MAKING. From the earliest Egyptian papyrus to the paper of to-day, the pre- dominant characteristic of this material is that it consists of the enduring portions of vegetable growth known as cellulose, although animal and mineral fibres such as wool, silk, and abestos are occasionally employed. The art of modern paper-making consists of uniting or felting together any fibrous material soas to form a continous sheet. Linen or cotton rags are no longer exclusively employed ; indeed these substances at present constitute but a small fraction of the raw material of the paper-making industry. Any vegetable matter possessing sufficient fibrous structure can be utilized.* Notwithstanding the great variety of available cheap materials, rags of various kinds continued to form the chief substances for paper making both in Europe and America, until the middle of the nineteenth century, at which time they ceased to be obtainable in sufficient quantities to supply the demand and paper makers began to search elsewhere fora cheaper and more inexhaustible material for their rapidly growing industry. In 1854 wood-pulp was first used in the United States, and three years later Mr. G. Thomas Routledge introduced esparto grass into England. The simultaneous introduction of wood and grass furnished the first impor. tant sources of raw material for paper making and provided the first evidence that perennial grasses are suitable for making stock.t It is interesting to note the direction which search for suitable paper material was taking when the adaptability of wood for this purpose was first discovered and also to predict the lines of future enquiry when woood no longer meets the demand. When, in 1861, all import duties in Great Britain were repealed, the resulting establishment of a vast number of weekly and daily papers and journals created so great a demand for paper and paper pulp that manufacturers were forced to supplement the imported Spanish and North African esparto grass with the cereal straws. but even these proved insufficient to meet the requirements and, as the prosperty of English paper mills appeared at a stake, the demand seemed justified that the Indian bamboo forests be thrown open to private enterprise; accordingly, Mr. Thomas Routledge, a prominent paper manufacturer of Sutherland to whom the introduction of esparto is due, sent investigators to India to study the problem in that country. However, about this time the manufacture of paper stock from spruce timber had been developed on the Continent, particularly in Germany and Sweden, and supplies of this new material from those countries brought the much« needed relief; nevertheless, experiments were carried far enough to demonstrate that bamboo fibre is much superior to spruce for paper stock and there seems but little doubt that the bamboo-paper question will eventually be reopened. In America the evolution of raw material for paper making followed somewhat different lines. The transition from rags to wood was direct and was later followed by the use of straw in those regions far removed from spruce forests. No recourse to perennial grasses or bamboo has thus been necessary. *In order to give some idea of the variety of materials from which paper can be and has been prepared, we may cite a book published in 1765 at Regen sburg, Germany, by Jacob Schaeffer, the paper of which was made from about sixty different sources, among which the following are curious and interestin examples: Sawdust, hop vines, hornets’ nests, pea straw, cabbage stumps, moss, and thistle stalks,” Thorpe! Dictionary Applied Chemistry, 8,105. + AS fibres and cotton flax in the form of cotton and linen rags have already undergone purification ard have been subjected to processes of manufacture, they can not, strictly speaking, be considered as raw qaaterials c Marcr 1907. 141 Fibres. For half a century wood-pulp has met the rapidly increasing demand for paper stock. However, we are now confronted with the fact that the supply of this material will soon be exhausted, so that we are afforded a curious example of the manner in which the development of an industry sometimes brings one back to the conditions of the beginning, although the new point reached, owing to the persis- tence of the scientific enquiry which was undertaken regardless of an utter lack of apparent practical benefit, ison a much higher plane. Until wood-pulp had been proven to be suitable for paper stock, the world’s supply of fibrous material was divided between the textile and paper industries, one being complementary to the other. Such vegetable fibres as cotton, hemp, jute, flax, and abaca are eminently suited for the manufacture of paper, but their primary value for textiles and cordage excluded their use in the raw state for paper and, therefore, the paper makers obtained their material largely from the refuse of these industries. Good cotton and linen rags have become the luxury in the paper-making world. They are only indulged in now for making the best class of stationary, and by fortunate coincidence, this is about the only use to which they can be put. At first glance, wood might be considered too valuable for other purposes, but fortu- nately, those varieties which find most favour for the making of paper pulp are considered rather worthless for the many other uses for which wood is usually employed; furthermore, the demands of the spinner and cordage maker need to be considered. Twenty or twenty-five years ago statements ‘‘ that there is not the slightest ground for believing the supply of this raw material would ever fail” were common in regard to wood as a material for paper making. The marvelous growth of the paper industry of the last two decades was not then foreseen nor were the many other uses for wood-pulp, which modern advances in the industrial world have brought about, taken into account. P. H. Clutterbuck, referring to the numberless uses of wood-pulp, writes: * ** Printing paper alone eats an enormous hole in our natural forests yearly and the future requirements can only be conjectured. The huge procession of railway cars all over the country run, to some extent, on paper wheels; carpenters are begining to use boards of paper, handsomely veined, requiring no planing, twice as durable as the wooden variety and costing only half the money. The builder is introducing paper bricks, showily enameled, which will not burn and possess many advantages over those of clay. The ship-builder introduces masts and spars of the same substance, which is likewise used for telegraph and telephone and flagstaffs. These are not fanciful experiments but serious procedures, justified by superior durability of the articles so produced. This same quality is claimed for the paper horse shoe recently invented and so extensively used.” Already, paper manufacturers in the United States are looking for new sources of supply for raw material. A recent report of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculturet recommends that investigations be made on the suitability of new raw materials for paper and paper pulp. 5 ‘Our well-known pulp woods are being used up faster than they are growing and as a consequence the demand for new material has led to efforts to utilize many waste products among which bagasse or sugarcane refuse, cornstalks, southern pine waste, rice straw, and hemp stalks present exceeding promising fields.” The United States Government recently has established a laboratory at Washington for investigations along these lines, and this fact emphasizes the im- portance which the question is assuming. faite *P.H Clutterbuck: Indian Forester (1899), 25,231, 4U. S, Department Agrl,; Zhe Repert of the Chemist (1904), a ee ee rin ee \ \ FE Ne ee ore oe - ; ; 142 [MarcH 1907, PuLP AND PAPER MAKING. During the nineteenth century there were remarkable changes and improve- ments in the methods employed for converting paper stock into paper pulp and paper. These advances have been due to two causes—one, the revolution in the nature and supply of the raw material itself, and the other, the increased demand for the finished product. The method of preparation of paper pulp or half-stuff has thus far largely been dependent upon the nature of the material treated, where as the making of the pulp into finished paper in sufficient quantities to meet the marvelous growth of the industry has caused the laborious hand process to be superseded by the huge automatic machines of the present time. However, the principles involved in the making of paper remain unaltered, regardless whether the material is removed from a vat with a small hand sieve and turned out a single sheet at a time or is allowed to flow on to an endless wirecloth web under heavy rolls and over the steam-heated drying cylinders of a Fourdrinier machine. Generally speaking, the purpose is just the opposite of that which obtains in the isolation of fibres for the textile and cordage industries ; instead of so treating the fibrous substance as to preserve the fibre bundles or filaments in their greatest length, it is necessary, by some mechanical or chemical means, to convert them to the invidual fibres or cells of which the filaments are composed. There are five distinct steps in the preparation of paper pulp from any vegetable material. Two of these are entirely mechanical, whereas the remainder are of a distinctly chemical nature. Arranged in their order of procedure, they are: 1. Cleaning.—A purely mechanical process which consists in removing all foreign matter such as sand, dirt, weeds, chaff. etc., either by hand or machinery. , 2. Boiling or digesting.—This results in eliminating the soluble plant con- stituents and incrusting matter by chemical means. 38. Bleaching consists in further chemically purifying the resistant cellulose by removing adhering coloring matter. 4. Beating or refining.—This procedure mechanically disintegrates the pulpy mass of fibres into fragments of requisite length. od 5. Loading, sizing, and coloring so modify the bleached and beaten pulp by the addition of mineral or animal substances, that a non-porous resistant of the required shade is given to the finished product. BOILING OR DIGESTING. At the present time there are two main groups of processes in general use for the isolation of paper cellulose, namely, the alkaline and acid treatment. The first and older methods depend upon the action of solutions of caustic soda, soda ash, caustic lime, or mixtures of these chemicals, under varying conditions of strength of solution, pressure, and{ duration of digestion.* Therefore it is evident that in valuing an unknown material for use as paper stock these differences need carefully to be considered, The second method for the resolution of raw fibres is of com. paratively recent origin and consists in cooking then under strong pressure with sulphurous acid, either free or combined with soda, lime, or magnesia in the form of the bisulphites of these bases. The development of this process has been slow, owing to the many mechanical difficulties involved, the strong chemicals employed attacking and soon rendering the digesters worthless. However, within recent years resistant digester linings have been invented and now this process is established as the leading method for the preparation of chemical wood-pulp. Comparatively little has’been done to show its adaptability to materials other than wood, but the * Esparto grass is invariably subjected to the alkaline method of treatment, but the pressures earried vary from 5 to 50 pounds, the time of digestion from one to six and one-half hours, and the strength ef the caustic liquor from 10 to 20 per cent, calculated upon the gross weight of the material, Marcu 1907. | 143 Fibres. ay i i i Y i process has so many features of superiority over the alkaline one that {its appli- cation in the treatment of various other materials will be considered in a subsequent paper when work on the value of Philippine woods for paper stock will be reviewed.* Bleaching of paper pulp.—All fibres do not act alike with bleaching agents. Jute, for example, does not bleach white by any known method which does not also seriously injure the fibre while other substances require varying proportions of bleach liquor and special conditions of treatment to secure satisfactory results. Therefore, it isimportant to subject new, raw materials to quantitative bleach operations in order to determine the right method of procedure and the amount of bleaching powder required. The loading, sizing and coloring, of paper are not materially affected by the source from which the pulp is derived and need only concern us here with respects to the kinds of chemicals in general use for these purposes and the possibilities of obtaining them in the local market. This question of chemicals for this and the other steps in the process of pulp manufacture is an important one and will be throughly discussed in a later number of this journal. VEGETABLE FIBRES. Botanical classification.— Fibre-producing plants are included in two great divisions of the vegetable kingdom—i.e., Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The most evident characteristic of these two great divisions of plants is found in the arrangement of the leaf veins. Dicotyledonous plants are characterized by netted- veined leaves, whereas the monocotyeldonous ones may usually be identified by leaves with parallel veins. The chief fibre-yielding families of the first division are: Linaceew: Flax family ; example, flax. Malvcee ; example, cotton. Tiliacee ; example, jute. Urticacee or nettle family ; example, hemp, Moracece ; example, mulberry. Of the second division the Graminee or Grass family, Liliacee, Palme, or Palm family, and Musacece or Plantain family are the more important orders, of fibre producers. While a number of netted-veined fibrous plants such as ramie and jute are distinctly tropical in habitat, only afew unimportant species are found in the Philippines and hence it appears that families of Monocotyledons are the on] ones represented by plants of commercial importance in these islands, m Structural classification.—With the exception of fibres like cotton kapok etc., which are unicellular seed hairs and termed surface fibres, practicall y all Aes may structurally be classified according to the two main groups of families from which they are derived. The dicotyledonous plants produce the so-called bast fibres contained in the inner fibrous bark of stems and twigs, while on the other hand the’ commercial fibres of monocotyledonous plants are generally found distributed throughout the entire stem, where they form the frame work which gives rigidity and toughness to the plant structure, and hence they are termed structural fibres Such fibres occur in the sheathing leafstalks of plantains, in the fleshy leaves of maguey and pineapple, and in the leaves and stalks of palms and grasses. * «On account cf the considerable proportion of silica present in straw, i . . . . t h assumed that this material would not easily lend itself to treatment by the auivhite erat ae Poon experience has, however, shown that this is not the case, and this process has recently been Ganen the preparation of straw pulp with excellent results,” Griffin & Little: Chem, of Paper Making, ae id oe ae Fibres. 144 Marca 1967. Economic Classification. A diseriptive catalogue of the useful fibre plants of the world by C. R. Dodget enumerates over one thousand species, the important of which are fully described and treated from the botanical, structural, and indus- trial stand points. His classification of fibre plants based on their uses is both so simple and natural that we incorporate its main features, at thesame time drawing on local fibre plants for illustrating the numerous divisions of the scheme: A Spining fibres. 1. Fabric fibres ; pineapple, abaca, ramie, etc. 2. Netting fibres; palms. rattans, bamboo. 3. Cordage fibres ; abaca. maguey, bamboo, rattan. B. Tie material (rough twisted). Palms, rattans, bamboos, grasses. ©. Natural textiles. Fibrous sheaths of palms. D. Brush fibres. Palm fibres, bamboo. E. Plaiting and rough weaving fibres. 1. Articles for attire; hats, sandals, ete. Abaca, palms, bamboo. 2. Mats and mattings; also thatch materials. Grasses, bamboos, palms, ete., FB. Forms of filling. Kapok, straw, grasses. G. Paper material. 1. Textile papers. All waste from A, including old rope. 2. Bast papers. 2 3. Palm papers. From the fibrous material of palms and similar monocoty- ledonous plants, including rattans. 4. Bamboo and grass papers. This includes all material from graminaceous plants, including bamboos, cereal straws, and true grasses. <4 5. Wood-pulp papers. Philippine suft woods, (Lauan Shorea), Cupang (Parkia), Grewia, etc. It will be seen from this scheme of classification and from the native plants selected tu examplify each division of use, first, that a comparatively small number of plants supply fibre for all the present requirements ; forinstance, plantains, grasses, bamboo, rattan, and palm fibre are made into fabrics, fish nets, hats, baskets, mats, twine, rope, thatch, brushes, and brooms; second, that those plants which find such general use are without exception monocotyledons and their fibres are of the class termed structural; third, that with the exception of maguey and pineapple they are either plantains, grasses or palms ; fourth, that, leaving out of consideration native woods asa possible source of paper stock, the available supply of material for any future paper industry in the Philippines musu come from one or more of these three sources. t,—Philippine Journal of Science. Vol. 1 No. 5 June, 1906 ® Report No. 9, U.S. Department of Agriculture. + Maguey culture is rapidly increasing in northern Luzon, and the waste from the stripping of the plant may become an important factor in paper making. ee - MARCH 1907. | 145 EDIBLE PRODUCTS. The Result of Transplanting in Paddy Cultivation at Dikdeniya, Hanwella. By G. KE. AMARASEKERA The leaflets issued in July 1906 by the Superintendent of Government Sehool Gardens, re transplanting in paddy cultivation, were just in time to be distributed amongst the paddy cultivators here, for the Maha season had just commenced. 1 got down about 250 leaflets and distributed them amongst the goiyas in this district, besides those I sent to the village headmen requesting them to instruct the villagers of the usefulness of this practice. Though every man saw and acknowledged the usefulness of transplanting, yet no one cared to give ita trial: I therefore thought of taking the lead. Having selected a paddy field of about two pelas sowing extent (about 1; acre) [ had a good tier prepared tor a nursery in which I put in one measure of mada elvi and another measure of mavi, on the 28th of July last. Whilst the plants were coming up, the rest of the field was well tilled and irrigated. On the 380th of August 87,300 seedlings were transplanted at 9’x9". A severe drought which prevailed for about a month immediately after planting parched up nearly 5,000 seedlings that were on hard soil. The rest grew up very well throwing out from 15 to 30 shoots each. The crop was gathered with very good results. The two measures yielding 2 amunams, 38 pelas, and 4 lahas or 456 measures. chthihea a eal cul Delt ad ‘cals ry ; Pie F ! Marcu 1907 Ai 157 Edible Products. readily understood, perhaps, when it is explained that Chinde receives the entire trade of the extensive Zambezi valley, and, similarly, all the articles of import received, not only from Zambezi, but from the vast countries to the north and west» are shipped from Chinde. It will, therefore, be seen that the amount of ground- nuts exported from the two places is very large. Moreover, there has been established at Quilimane during the past year an extensive soap and oil manufactory, which possess certain profitable monopolies for the manufacture of those two articles in the province and elsewhere. As these goods are manufactured entirely from ground-nuts and other locally produced oil seeds. it follows that a considerable quantity is used in this way. If we werein a position to add to the quantity of of ground-nuts actually exported from Quilimane and Chinde the number of tons used locally in the soap and oil manufactory, the amount of this produce collected in the district, with that shipped from the Zambezi, would doubtless reach an astound- ing total. On the table which follows it will be noted that the increase in the exports of ground-nuts, in-:1898 is considerable, and this is more remarkable when it is understood that the natives in the northern portion of the province have often great difficulty in reaching the coast with their produce by reason of the terror inspired by the marauding tribes by which the country is infested. I am informed that a large quantity both of rubber and ground-nuts is annually lost to commerce, the natives being surprised in the act of conveying it to the coast and put to flight, while the result of their labours for, it may be, many months is left rotting on the ground. ‘* As I have previously endeavoured to explain, the ground-nuts are collected entirely without supervision, and in quite a haphazard way, and sold to the exporter on the coast. From what I have been enabled to glean very few find their way to the United Kingdom, the bulk going to Hamburg and Rotterdam, whilst a certain quantity are despatched to Marseilles.” Return of Ground-nuts exported from below-mentioned Ports in 1897 and 1898. ee 1897. 1898. Ports. Tons. Value. Tons. Value. sep S: d, &, s d Ibo... brid SH 55 742 10 30 85 1,147 105 G0 Mozambique -|' 2,065 27,877 10 3600 | 5,190 | 70,065 0 0 Quilimane ... eee. 410 33,345 One 6,397 | 86,359 10" .0 Chinde (approximate),..| 2,000 27,000 0 0 4,500 | 60,750 0 0 Motal- \ 3. ...| 6,590 88,965 OWEEO 16,172 | 218,822 0 O ‘Total Export during 1897 .... 6,590] 88965 0 0 Increase during 1898 »».| 9,582 | 129,857 0 0 Like the Indian trade, that of the Argentine Repulic, never very large has fallen since 1891; a table of the importations of Europe thence may be seen in Semler’s Tropische Agricultur (ed. 2, II,, p. 461). Lastly, a word about China. China, as stated above, an early home of Arachis in Asia, still grows large quantities, especially in the Yangtze-Kiang valley. Chief of all as a port of shipment, not only of nuts, but of oil, is Chinkiang at the mouth of this river, and a large proportion of the exports find its way to Hongkong Edible Products. 158 [Marcu 1907. thence to be shipped to other countries. Shanghai, too, in the same region sends a considerable quantity of oil to Hongkong, as also Cheffo in the north, and Pakhoi in the south. In the extreme north Tiensin has a large trade in nuts, but for the most part internal. Besides Hongkong, Swatow, Lungchowand Cheffo export nuts and oil from China to foreign countries, but in small measure, and the effect on the European market remains very small. DEMAND AND PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. Atter the Civil War there sprang up in the cilies and towns of the Northern United States a liking for roast ground-nuts, which are sold in the streets at every corner. The soldiers of the Northern army brought back the taste for them as a result of their occupation of the South (Annual Report, U.S. Depart. Agriculture, 1868, p. 220). Both armies had occupied Virginia in turn, where the farmers all grew small patches for their own use. Reference to the monthly reports issued by the United States Department of Agriculture enables us to follow the growth of the demand. In those for 1869 we learn that in Virginia tobacco land which did not pay was being put to the new use of growing pea-nuts. In those for 1870 an account of the North Carolina crop is given showing its extension. In 1871 (see Reports of that year, p. 494) the crop of Viriginia had reached 225,450 bushels, in 1874 (Reports for 1875, p. 512) it had reached 382,610 bushels, and in 1882 (Jones The Pea-nut Plant, New York, 1896, p. 66) it reached 1,250,000 bushels. Other States meanwhile were growing pea-nuts, and Tenessee, in which it was extending in 1872 (see Reports, p. 488) produced in 1862 460,000 bushels, while North Carolina raised in the same year 140,000 bushels. The heavy demand and insufficient production within the United States fostered a trade between Africa and New York. &c., which the increase of internal cultivation, as shown above, and a tax on all nuts imported from Africa ultimately more or less arrested. Statistics derived from the Year Book of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1897, p. 340. demonstrate the decrease. Average Annual Import of Pea-nuts and other Ground-nuts into the United States, by decades. Years. | Quantity. | Value. lb. | $ 1865-1870 6,522,844 | 184,564°49 1871-1880 ne ee 1,849,645 | 46,662" 16 1881-1890 ee ie 170,508 | 3,314°24 1891-1897 see 149,672 | 2,655°13 | Shelled pea-nuts being excluded from the preceding table, that which follows from the same source supplements it. Average Annual Import of Shelled Po: nuts and other Ground-nuts into the United States, by decades. SS SS IE FL I IT IE TE ET ET TIT I A EI TIE OEE LATION Years. Quantity. Value. lb. $ 1865-1870 ae des 391,006 138,713°89 1871-1880 ah He 875,342 14,974°95 1881-1890 cee Ane 54,960 2223 OF, 1891-1897 Are aut 21,658 2,623°09 PS ie E MarcH 1907.] 159 Edible Products. The imports of decorticated nuts in 1897 were only 1,000 lbs. of ground-nuts in the shell, 188,102 Ibs. The exclusion of foreign nuts is well shown by the above figures, which may be taken in conjunction with the statements that in years of low prices the cost of transport precluded the importation of African nuts (Journ. Applied Science, 1881, p. 81), and that in 1894, owing to the tax, nuts sent from Africa met with no market (U.S. Consular Reports, Oct., 1894. p. 240). EXPRESSION OF THE OIL IN EUROPE. The oil is expressed from the seeds in the following manner, as described by Dr. P. Uhblitzch (Die ‘fandwirtschaftlichen Versuchs-stationen, Xli., 1892, p. 400) :—‘‘ When by means of brushing the pods the unshelled nuts have been cleaned, they are broken between rollers and passed on to a fan which winnows out the light pieces of husk. When the seeds are sufficiently broken they are packed into a cylinder in thin layers, each layer separated by a cloth of horsehair. The first pressing is but slight the resulting cakes are very flat, loose, and easily broken. The cakes are then broken and ground up finely ina mortar, sprinkled with water and mixed with any meal which passed through the holes in the cylinder at the first pressing. Then follows the second pressing. Mills which make only table oil express twice in the cold, or on the second occasion in very slight heat ; but usually the nuts are pressed three times. ‘* The first expression in the cold gives an almost colourless oil with agreeable taste and smell, which serves as pure table oil, and is used for making oleo-margarine ; the second yields a ‘‘ sweet oil,” and the product is also used for burning ; the third expression, made with heat, gives an oil—rabat oil—of a yellow colour and hardly agreeable taste and smell, which is used in soap-boiling. ‘‘ By these different press- ings 30-40 per cent. of the oil is removed in something like the following proportions :— ;, lst expression, 16-18 per cent. of a fine table oil. 5, 2ud ie 7-8 A of a table oil or illuminating oil. 5 ord HA 7-8 * of an indifferent oil. “‘ The oil cake left contains about 7°5 per cent.” Such is the result of expression carried on at the mills of Hamburg, Berlin, Marseilles, Rouen, &c. According to Houzé, the nuts in Spain, when pressed as soon as gathered, often give 60 per cent. ; in Italy 50 per cent. is obtained, in India, 43 per cent., in Senegal, 30-33 per cent., and at Pondicherry, 37 per cent. The bags used in the process are made of horse hair or wool. The cake varies in shape according to the machinery used. Those made in Riga are twice as long as those made in West and South Germany. When it is intended to devote the whole of the oil to soap boiling chemical means are used in its extraction—carbon bisulphide, petroleum-ether, benzene or canadol. The use of such substances as carbon bisulp- hide obviously leaves the cake unfit for food. THE INDIAN OIL MILL. The Indian oil mill;was described by Subba Rao in the Bulletin of the Depart- ment of Land Records and Agriculture, Madras, (p. 283 no. 28, 1893) in the following way :— ‘The oil is expressed locally in native mills of the ordinary rotary pestle-and- mortar pattern. The chief centres of this trade are Valavanur (700 mills), Panruti (200 mills), and, Pondicherry (200 mills). A single charge fora millis from 15 to18 Madras measures of seed (about 15-18 lbs.), which must be first thoroughly dried. During the pressing water is added to the seed in small quantities. After working for about half-an-hour, oil begins to collect and the kernels to cake. The cake is then loosened with a crow bar, and about } lb. of old ground-nut cake dust is mixed with the mass, and work is then resumed, In 45 minutes from the commencement of Edible Products. 160 [MarcH 1907. the work about three measures of oil are ladled out of the mill. The cake is then again loosened from the sides of the mill and the crushing continued. About five minutes afterwards a strip of cloth is dipped in the mill and the oil absorbed is squeez2d into the pot. In this minner abouta measure of oil is taken out. There- after the oilis taken up ona brush or a buuch of fowl’s feathers and squeezed out into the pot. The cake is then again loosened and broken up. About an hour after commencing the work, the oil collected in the lower cavity is removed by a strip of cloth fastened to an iron rod about 2 feet long, whieh is dipped into it. In this manner another measure of oilis removed. Then another handful of ground-nut cake dust is added to prevent the adhesion of the cake to the pestle. After about one hour and a quarter a torch at the end of an iron rod is lit and moved slowly all round close to the cake while the mill is working. For about 10 to 15 minutes the cake is thus heated. the object being to inerease the out-turn of oil. Tnan hour and ahalf the work is overand the cake is dug out and put by. The last of the oil (about 3/4 measure) in taken out. In North Arcot and Chingleput districts the use of the torch in connection with the work of the oil mill is unknown. The out-turn of the oil is about 25 per cent. by measure, or 33 to 37 per cent. by weight of the kernels crushed. The oilmongers are paid for crushing the seed Rs. 7 or Rs. 8 per candy of oil delivered to the merchants.” OIL-EXPRESSION ELSEWHERE. In China, Java, and Japan, a certain amount of oil-expression isdone. No one, it seems, has described the Chinese mill used for the purpose, but presumably it is the same as that used for expressing other oils. In Java the seeds are dried in the sun before being passed into the press. The method of obtaining the oil in Angola is thus described (Monterio, Angola and the River Congo, I., p. 132) :—* The nuts are first pounded into a mass ina wooden mortar; a handful of this is then taken between the palms of the hands, and an attendant pours a small quantity of hot water on it, and on squeezing the hands tightly together the oil and water run out. Since the great demand for, and trade in the ground-nut, but little oil is prepared by the natjves, as they find it more advantageous to sell the nuts than to extract the oil from by the wasteful process I have just described.” OIL-CAKE. After the expression of the oil a rich cake remains. This has been extensively used as an animal food, and when more or less free from fragments of shells and adulterants such as the starchless crushed seeds of the poppy—the commonest admixture—is of high nutritive value, Naturally the composition of the cake varies considerably according to the degree of completeness in which the oil has been removed, Subjoined are five analyses given, drawn from various sources ; in the sixth colum is tbe mean of seven closely similar analyses given by Dr. Uhlitzch(1. ¢., p. 418). e's tis ns ~ae || Se run: Ao 3S ts JOles = 2 No Sa So sell Oh rs Sad san ins) a ay sYe= ie) Em SA 0 Zid) 38 SS Onn 2 Sy nes om Oo 2q kang net we te) a0 8 Sa s Soka) (Seleue Ler) OU-s sa8 Su LS es Ewe] ALtsqg! 3 Q&qga SF av 37 yhso iS) 2 sro S o Sa. SS n “Ss. 3 ores s ° SMe re oO Qege [3s8| BH (Oss | ses Sis So4 wg OF Ss} eo TF |Qo8 SA'S ARES @ . Ay v alin “AH w Ms See Jy a wes a How | 28 One [ura el as ; na Os alias! Se 8 9369 BPS Be | S.s 2) | SS ol eles gl see BeSa| SE [sks | BSa | Bes |SBSa 6865| £9 | S88 | S80 | 88a | asso VAS faytes || a ae die || EES oY Ls ani sees Water ... Ee ve ...| 6°54 96 810 958 | 1010 83:6 Oil oe Meal) Leal 11°8 7°26 740 9-16 TA Nitrogenous Matter ...| 47°26 81:9 | 47°81 42°81 48-55 48:1 Starch and digestible fibre ...| 19°06 37:8) 4) 25:02) 27-63 seis 23°5 Indigestible fibre ...| 3°90 4:2 4°86 787 4:73 5:1 ENGhiapieee B05 oe Beda tok 46 6-95 4-71 4°93 5-9 yh ‘Marcu 1907.] 161 Edible Products. All these agree in allowing an extreme richness to the cake, and this is borne out by experiments in stock feeding which need not be detailed. Subba Rao (1. e., p. 283) tells us of the use of cake for human food when famine presses in India; Handy speaks of its use in the Southern States between 1861 and 1865 (1. c., p. 21). Of further interest are the attempts to use it in the same way in Europe. The first advocate was Dr. Muters whose analysis is quoted above ; a second is Dr. Nérdlinger. Both avail themselves of the removal of much of the oil to obtain a highly nitrogenous and nutritous food, not over-rich in one of the elements of a balanced diet. Dr. Noérdlinger’s preparations are made by the Rademann Food Product Factory and take four forms :— Pea-nut grits (Erdnussgriitze), Pea-nut Hour (Krdnussmeh]). Pea-nut biscuits. Diabetic chocolate biscuits. The first is a coarse meal, the second a flour, both giving on analysis the following :— Water ane aes iN 4'8 Protein substances .. ae WF 48:5 Oil boy nee 1e3 22:0 Carbohydrates He thse 17°9 The first kind of biscuits is composed of the pea-nut flour with the addition of a starchy flour, which raises considerably the percentage of the carbohydrate elements, while the second kind, in which starchy stuffs are a disadvantage, is com- posed of the pea-nut flour with no considerable admixture. For some time the Soja bean has been employed as a dietetic for those suffering from diabetes, and Dr. Nordlinger points out that Arachis, besides being very much cheaper, has, after the extraction of the oil, a greater percentage of nitrogenous food and not much less fatty food. Since 1893 these products have been in the market. They have further been the subject of experiments under Dr. Fiihrbringer in a hospital in Berlin, where, it is reported. most of the patients, who were suffering from the usual variety of complaints to be met with in a public hospital, willingly ate pea-nut soup offered to them. Also the experiment of supplying them in the army rations has been tried. It is worth noting in passing that Dr. Nordlinger’s analysis—the first of the series given—shows a richer cake by far than is usual. It cannot be denied that on chemical investigation the feeding value compared with the cost is immense. The great question is in the palatability of the products offered. Poison in Food Plants, Especially Cassava, By T. B. PoHATH-KEHELPANNALA. The occasional development of poisonous properties in many plants used for food, frequently attended by fatal results, isa great hindrance to their more exten- sive cultivation. In the case of Manioca, especially, the prejudice isso strong that in the Kandyan districts very little is grown ; whereas the Cassava, if a wider know- ledge of its cultivation and cooking existed, might be produced in enormous quanti- ties. It is hoped that the following notes on this and other food-stuffs may be of some service :— CASSAVA. This plant (Manihot utilissima) appears to have been first brought to Ceylon from South America by the Portuguese, and was later introduced to the Kandyan districts by the Caffirs of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment, There are some four var ieties at present grown: 22 ae eS ae s Edible Products. 162 [MARCH 1907. (a) A small kind producing yellow tubers, this is called “ butter Manioca,” on account of its sweet flavour; its stems are short and twisted. (b) “Rata” Manioca: literally, the imported or foreign kind, the stem is of a light pinkish colour. (c) Ratu or Red Manioca, the petioles are of a bright red. (d) ‘* Wal’ or “ Sudu” Manioca (wild or white) manioca, the barkand leaf- stalks are dull green. Of these, the last, which grows toa much greater height than the others, is generally avoided as being poisonous; its yams are whiter and larger than the others. The Kandyans usually call this variety ‘“‘ Mat Manioca,” on account of its intoxicating properties. This is the kind that chiefly serves as sticks for live fences. The question of the cultivation of Cassava in Ceylon has been ably dealt with by the Hon. Mr. J. P. Lewis, ¢.c.s., in a paper published by the Ceylon Agricultural Society. The paper mainly treats of the subject from a Jaffna point of view. Amongst the Kandyans there is no systematic cultivation of the plant, and it is grown only on a small scale in their home gardens or chena lands. CASSAVA AS A FOOD-STUFF. The Kandyans usually eat the yams boiled or converted into curry. The low-country Sinhalese, who grow the plant on a more extensive scale, besides cooking the yams in this way, cut them into slices and, after drying in the sun, pound them into flour, which is used for cakes, conjee, etc, ; owing to its starchy properties, it forms a palatable and nutritious diet. The leaves make a good dry curry and the rind is made into cakes and fried. In some parts of South America, Cassava forms the staple food of the popu- lation, and large quantities are used for feeding cattle. In Africa and the West Indies it is largely used for making a sort of bread, and the yams are baked and eaten like potatoes. In some parts of South America an extract prepared from the core of one species of Cassava is said to form the basis of the table sauces so largely manu- factured in England. Tapioca obtained by scraping the starchy tubers, was, it is said, an important article of food among the Caribs, when they were first discovered by Europeans: they call it “* Yuca.” In Brazil and other countries where the culti- vation is very extensive, tapioca forms a very important article of export, and it has recently been reported that in the Malay States a large proportion of the crop is used in the manufacture of a spirit which is extensively used to adulterate Scotch whisky. It would be interesting to learn whether the Cassava yams in these countries develop poisonous properties as in Ceylon. POISONOUS CHARACTERISTICS : PRECAUTIONS, The eating of Cassava is very frequently attended by symptoms of violent poisoning, often ending fatally. At Gampola, lately, a Moorish woman purchased some manioca tubers at the Local Board market and cooked them tor the evening meal. Soon afterwards she fainted and began to vomit and purge in quick success- ion, and died the same night. The other members of the household also exhibited the same symptoms, but gradually rallied. Some of the villagers of Keerapone (a suburb of Gampola) who also partook of the ill-fated food, suffered in a similar manner, but recovered under native treatment. Quite recently a case occurred on a tea estate close by : the parents left on a pilgrimage to Alutnuwara (Kegalle District) leaving their elder boy and two little ones at home. Unfortunately the children ate manioca yams foi dinner. On their return, the following day, the parents were struck with horror at finding all three children dead. Not long ago, at Lunugama, a village in Udunuwara, a boy died of eating a dry curry of manioca leaves. Fatal- ities of this nature may be mentioned by scores; hardly a year passes without ; some casualties of this description being reported, anda large number of cases are, j of course, unrecorded. ae. eel x ape Marca 1907. ] t 163 Edible Products, There is a general belief that Cassava yams are rendered especially dangerous when the venomous snakes—the Tic Polonga or the Naya (Cobra)—resorts to the plants. It happens in this way. The Cassava is an underground stem, but the tubers in the course of development spring to the surface, and the earth cracks above them. The reptiles bite the surface tubers in their movements. The leaves of such snake-attacked plants are distinguished bv their curls at the apex, as in the Niyagala (Gloriosa superba). When these yams are boiled, the water assumes a reddish hue; such yams should be rejected. The Cassava tubers have two pericaps, the exterior one being a thin succulent skin, and the other, a creamy white, strong rind sheathing the tuber. Both these are poisonous, and should be removed before boiling for food. There is another fibrous midrib in the core of the tubers called the ‘‘ Naratiya.” This is alsodangerous and should be thrown away. The yams Of all the varieties should be dug before the plants blossom. ‘The boiled yams should be eaten immediately after cooking and should never be taken onan empty stomach. It is never advisable to eat Cassava alone for dinner without a mixed diet, nor should the yams be kept long after being dug up; afungus soon develops on any part that is cut, broken or bruised. The poison is known tobe prussic or hydracanic acid. In Manioc cultivation, sometimes the portion towards the roots of the cuttings get mixed up, and instead of the root end, the upper portion is planted in the hole. The poison is also attributed to this accidental method of planting, which is described as “Agamula maruvenava.” Cattle-trespasses on Manioc plantations tends to make the tubers hardened and render them very indigestible. As a precautionary measure, the villagers, when boiling Cassava, invariably add the leaves of the Murunga, (Moringa pterygosperma), Tora, pepper (piper nigrum) or guava with or without a mixture of turmeric or the green fruits of the Papaw. This has been tried and found to be very efficacious, as the poisonous effects are entirely dispelled. by this means. To test the existence of poison, sometimes a silver ring iscast into the pot, and should it get blackened, it is an indication of the existence of the noxious substance. Itappears the Tamils also put a copper coin into the water with Tora or Murunga leaves to counteract the poison. Some Kandyans smear over the tubers with chunam during boiling. This is also considered a good antidote for suppressing the mischievous effects. In every case, however, the yams should be thoroughly boiled and the water drained off. An additional pre- ventative is to boil the Cassavain coconut milk with adilution of salt. SYMPTOMS AND REMEDIES. Persons of a bilious temperament are the most liable to be attacked, Cases have been recorded of persons who have partaken of the same Cassava tubers in common, some have died of the effects, a few recovered, while others have suffered no ill-effects whatever. THE OPERATION OF THE POISON ON THE SUFFERERS. Sufferers first produce symptoms of a heavy intoxication or giddiness, followed by excessive vomiting and purging. The bodies turn icy cold. The patients become wholly unconscious and fall down fainting. Medical aid should be sought at the first indication of the illness; it is often difficult to bring a victim round when the illness has gained ground and the man is in a state of collapse. Aud if time is lost, recovery is often impossible. The illness is of such a short duration, that the sufferer of last evening is a corpse this morning, THE COMMON NATIVE REMEDIES Mor Manioca poisoning consist of a decoction of the leaves of the Pera (guava) or Hvariya, or an extract of the green fruits of the Kabarang4; Kitul or Palmyrah jaggery dissolved in lime juice, coconut-milk mixed with Kitul (pent, o ‘Sige Lhe Edible Products. 164 {Marcu 1907. treacle, the juice of the ash-pumpkin or the leaves of the Batala (sweet-potatoes). Besides these, there are other effective decoctions and stimulating ointments used, which any Kandyan village doctor of ordinary intelligence would prescribe on reference. OTHER PLANTS OCCASIONALLY POISONOUS. Beside the Cassava, there are many other food-stuffs which also produce a poisonous or morbid effect upon life, always preceded by a sensation of intoxication. These cases occasionally result in a fatal termination. Of the Cycads (Cycas cir- cinalis) the flowering species, known as ‘‘ Mal madw” is unwholesome, while the Gedi madu, the fruit-bearing variety, is relished asa palatable dish. The ‘‘ Madu” should be boiled in rice-dissolved water (Halpan-Watura). Patients suffering from piles take it with great advantage. Among the following kinds of grains and cereals, thereare both good and noxious variefies of each kind. They beara very close resemblance to each other, so that their selection depends upon the proper exercise of the judgment of the eaters. Very frequently on the spur of the moment, the bad kind is chosen and the result is disastrous. In Honda (a creeping plant that clings to trees by means of tendrils ; Modecca tuberosa), the variety called Potu-honda is decidedly poisonous, and the Kekiri-honda is the eatable variety. Last year, two Kandyan boys of Unambuwa, a village near Gampola, died of eating Potu-honda fruits. The best efforts of the local District Medical Officer were of no avail. The variety of Amu. known as Bada Amu, the kind of Bimmal (mushroom) known as Puwakbada, Nai, and Polon Bimmal, the Vel Avara* (sabre-podded beans), Potu Dambala, Datuk Dambala, and El Dambala being the good varieties; Wadura Mé, Karal Batata, the Ginitilla, Kandu Miyana, etc., all afflict the eaters with distress, frequently terminating in pre- mature deaths. At Polwatte Pansala, Gampola, several priests suffered from eating the bad variety of Bimmal, and at Galaha estate a cooly died of eating Wadura Me. Only the other day at Sinhapitiya a man was cut off in his early youth by having very injudiciously eaten some Potu Dambala pods. It is a known fact that venomous snakes also infest some of these plants, as Amu, Madu, &e. A scientific analysis of the food stuffs: found risky for human consumption would be an interesting and useful research, And the publication of such results embodying the necessary hints as to cultivation would very considerably reduce cases of accidental poisoning to a minimum, and lead to the extended cultivation of many neglected food-plants among the Kandyan population. [In the West Indies, where Cassava is more universally cultivated than in Ceylon, the tubers are nearly all of the poisonous kind, which is considered to give a better return, but instead of being eaten as yams, they are grated up small, and hung in a bag made of woven palm leaves, with a heavy weight at the end. This squeezes most of the juice out, the rest being easily dissipated by heat. The juice is boiled down, and becomes non-poisonous, forming a useful antiseptic known as cassareep, which may be used for preserving meat, &c.—ED. ‘‘ T.A.”] re ee ee I.—PASPALUM DILATATUM: AN AMERICAN FODDER-GRASS, Paspalum dilatatum, Poir., commonly known as ‘‘Hairy-flowered Pas- j palum,” ‘Large water-grass,” and, in Victoria, as ‘‘ Leichardt grass,” is indigenous in Brasil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. According to Doell (Flora F brasiliensis) the plant has also been collected in Chile, but it is improbable that it is native on that side of the Andes. It is widely distributed in the Gulf States of ee * «Gas Ayara” is the edible variety, otal he ARE oh Gees aie aL Marcu 1907.) 165 Edible Products. North America, and is said to be one of the commonest species in the prairie region of Louisana. It is found along ditch-sides and in other wet places in Tennessee and the littoral States from South-eastern Virginia to Florida, and westwards to Texas. Throughout this region, in which itis probably naturalised, it isa highly valued fodder-plant, and is widely planted in favourable situations. Introduced into Australia by Baron F. von Mueller, its cultivation was commenced in the Richmond River district, New South Wales, in 1892. Thence it has spread to Queensland, Victoria, and Western Australia, and is now regarded as one of the best fodder- grasses in the country. From the Wollongbar Experimental Farm (Richmond River) seeds were sent to India, and the grass has been grown, with but moderate success, in the fuel and fodder reserves at Nagpur, though it promises to do wellin the plains of the Central Provinces. The Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India report (Annual Report, 1900) that it grows vigorously at Mussoorie, in spite of ‘intense cold.” The roots of a clump grown there measured over 3 feet in length. Inthe Annual Report of the Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, for 1900-1901, occurs the tollowing statement :— “The use as a fodder-grass of Paspalum dilatatum a native of America, which has proved very valuable in Australia owing to its drought-resisting qualities, has led to its introduction to India on as large a scale as possible. Finding that very | little seed could be spared by Australian correspondents of the Garden, the assistance of the Agrostologist to the Department of Agriculture of the United States was invoked. Thanks to the kind help of that officer, a large supply of the seed of this grass was obtained from America, and has been freely distributed throughout India.” The attention of South African agriculturists has recently been directed to the valuable properties of Paspalum dilatatum asa fodder-grass. A few plants were found at Newcastle (Natal) by Mr. J. Medley Wood in 1897, though when or through what channel introduced is not known, It is now found to be fairly abundant in the neighbourhood of Neweastle, and, in all probability, numerous patches occur in various parts of the Colony. In New Zealand it has been in cultivation since 1896, at the Momohaki Experimental Station, where it has produced a yield of grass equal to 9 tons anacre. Itis, however, killed by the cold of the New Zealand winter. The plant is found also, as a weed or escape, in Porto Rico, Mauritius, and the Straits Settlements. This grass is a coarse leafy perennial with a tendency to grow in clumps; it attains a height of 2 feet and over—in favourable situations even reaching 6 feet. It thrives best upon rich moist land, and grows very luxuriantly in black alluvial soils. It is said to succeed also in sandy soils, even when a considerable proportion of salt is present. Being a very deep-rooted grass it has a remarkable capacity for with- standing conditions of drought. In Western Australia it flourishes in poor mountain soils. When once established it withstands frosts, if not continuous, and, in Victoria is successfully cultivated up to an elevation of 2,000feet. It is, in fact, admirably suited for cultivation in tropical and sub-tropical climates. asa permanent pasture grass, Paspalum dilatatum holds a high position among tropical grasses. Notwithstanding its luxuriant habit, its tissues are soft and succulent, and contain only a normal proportion of woody cells. Thereis ‘no part of it, from the crown to the head, that stock will not eat.” When well-established it endures long periods of drought without injury. It starts its new growth early in the spring, and continues to grow vigorously untillateautumn. It thus affords excellent late summer and autumn feed. Its permanence on suitable soil is undoubt- ed, for at Wollongbar, after four years’ grazing, ‘‘the paddocks are still improving and giving an increased quantity of feed.” (H, M. Williams, in N.S, W. Agriculturat Z Edible Products. 166 [MarcH 1907. Gazette, 1898.) Excellent results are obtained by using Paspalum dilatatum as a constituent of a mixed pasture, which contains also Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) or other grass which makes growth in the winter, at which time the Paspalum is at its worst. The pasture should be allowed to seed during the second year, that the Paspalum may distribute its seed, as it spreads very slowly from the roots. For dairying purposes, Paspalum is of great value, as it has great milk-producing properties. For hay, this grass is rather coarse, and usually has a bad colour when dry. Itis, however, of excellent quality, and the yieldis very large. A sample grown on the Wollongbar Experimental Farm gave the following results on analyses (F. B. Guthrie, in N. S. W. Agricultural Gazette, 1897 :— Moisture oe ade 10°55 Albuminoids _... Pepe { aaa re Or Vis oe Digestible fibre... w. 29°96 ; i Woody fibre .. a 27°95 Ae : soluble Mee ee 4°32 Ash... sae as 6°37 \ insoluble Ms a 2°05 Amide compounds) 1486 { total nitrogen ae 2°66 Chlorophyll, &c. on amide nitrogen He 101 100°00 This analysis compares very favourably with that of ordinary English hay, and shows a larger proportion of digestible and nourishing material. In deeply worked rich soils at least three crops may be obtained per annum when the plant is well established. On the Richmond River (N.S. W.) Goverment Farm, in one year, 14 tons per acre were obtained on the first cutting, 8 to 10 on the second, after which a third crop of 6 to 7 tons was gathered, making a total yield of 28 to 31 tons per acre. An analysis of a sample of the crop grown on good cultivated land on the creek flats of the Queensland Agricultural College, and cut on April 22nd, 1901, compares rather unfavourably with the foregoing. The yield of grass in this crop was 10°525 tons per acre, and of hay (air dried grass), 2°858 tons per acre. The analysis of the hay yielded the following figures (J. C. Brunnich, F.c.s., in Queens- land Agricultural Journal, 1901, pp. 245, 246) :— Moisture sue as 10°72 Albuminoids ... 28 4°81 | eae He Co Me Digestible fibre... Bee 26°97 Woody fibre... Oa 34°45 fete ; soluble at “BA 6°06 Ash ... “ - - 10T) insoluble... i Gpeas Amide compounds, \ w-o1 J total nitrogen See 0°882 Chlorophyll, fat, &c.,J°** “"" \ amidenitrogen ioe 0-112 100°00 There is a remarkable difference in nitrogen yield between this sample and that analysed by Mr. Guthrie. The apparent inferiority of this crop is attributed by Mr. Brunnich to the facts that the grass was over-ripe When cut, and had been grown in exceptionally dry weather, and on a larger scale than the Wollongbar sample. From the time that the first seeds in each spike are mature, the ripening of the whole spike occupies about three weeks. Inconsequence, the harvesting of the seeds isa matter of some difficulty. Those collected during the first few days of ripening are of better quality than those shed later, for a much larger proportion of them are mature, and will germinate. To produce a good pasture on well-prepared aS age :. MARCH 1907. | 167 Edible Products. land, 5 to 8 lbs. of seed per acre is recommended as being sufficient. The plant should be allowed to shed its seed until the growth is established. The best time for sowing is in the beginning of the warm season, just before the rains are expected. Under favourable conditions the seeds germinate in 18 to 21 days. For quick results, and also on account of the difficulty of obtaining reliable seed, the planting of ‘*poots” is recommended, particularly when a mixed pasture is being formed. At Wollongbar the ‘‘ roots” are planted 4 or 5 feet apart, each way, and the ordinary grass or clover seeds are afterwards sown in their proper seasons.—Kew Bulletin, No. 1, 1902. [This grass is now a very common fodder grass up-country in Ceylon.—Ep. 7.A.] THE USE OF PRICKLY PEAR AS FODDER. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (Bureau of Plant Industry, No. 74) the use of prickly as fodder is, in the arid and semi-arid regions of the United States, not only resorted to in seasons of drought but, along with other dry foods, finds a place all the year round in the forage list of many stock-keepers. No definite feeding tests have yet been reported from that country, but the expe- rience of practical men invariably point out its utility in times of scarcity. 2. In India, however, much certainty exists. During the famine of 1877, a great deal was made of this plant, and in many cases depots were established where the ryots’ cattle were, sometimes forcibly, fed on chopped cactus. The results in many cases were extremely satisfactory, though the native cultivators could not, except in rare cases, be induced to feed it of their own accord, fearing the loss of their cattle from diarrhcea or dysentry. Since then occasional reports have been issued in a more or less favourable spirit of its value as fodder. 3. Certainly from its analysis one would not be led to expect as much as is sometimes claimed for it. The following analysis is by Mr. Hopper, and was carried out in connection with some feeding experiments at Poona and Nagpur in 1903 :— Water ... vee Pe el one 16:96 Organic matter ... no a “ee 60°64 Ash aie bus 22°40 This sample had been sun-dried for four days and had lost 80 per cent. by weight of moisture. 4. Two sets of feeding experiments have been carried out, both by the Bombay Agricultural Department. They are curiously at variance, In 1892 Mr. Mollison fed three cattle ranging in age from 18 months to two years for a period of a month on a diet consisting of 15 lbs. of pear and 4 Ibs. of hay per day. At the end of 82 days, the animals were in a thriving condition and had increased in weight. Shortly before this the experiment was tried of feeding prickly pear to pampered milch cattle which resulted in complete failure. The animals had to be starved before they would touch it, and the experiment involved so much cruelty that it was discontinued, though the experiment was held to have proved that even these animals by severe stinting could have been kept alive. 5. On the other hand Mr. Mehta, believing that Mr. Mollison had not tried _for a sufficiently long period, fed prickly pear to three small cattle of the local Deccan breed for nearly five months. Much trouble seems to have been experienced in getting the bullock to eat it at first, but they eventually came to consume 15 lbs. per diem. 5 libs. hay was added after a fortnight when the consumption of pear fell off at once. Finally in such a poor condition had the bullocks got that 1 1b. oil-cake was given, along with which they consumed 25 lbs. pear. No improvement could be seen, and the experiment was stopped as its continuance would have killed the beasts. Rabe kil ife Medica) a wallin! | ; fal Hadibte Products. 168 [Marc#H 1907. 6, As regards the preparation of the prickly pear for fodder, the method adopted in India has generally been to remove the thorns by means of tongs, some- what like sugar tongs, by which means the complete group of thorns, bristles and adjacent woody tissue may be pinched out together. The leaves may them be wiped, though this is not universal, or dipped in water to wash off small adherent bristles and sliced into fingers. Another very common practice especially in America is to burn the leaves slightly when the distal end of the thorn will be destroyed and the cactus may then be fed to cattle direct. In this connection American experience seems to show that over-toasted leaves induce Jaxity of the bowels, and this may be a partial explanation of the poor results of Mr. Mehta’s experiment. In Mr. Mollison’s the pear was merely cleaned and sliced, no heat being applied. Other methods are steaming or boiling the plant whereby the thorns become as softened as to be almost innocuous. Machines are in vogue in America for pulping the whole plant, reducing it to such a fine state that the thorns are rendered harmless. The introduction of cactus into the diet should be very gradual, and it will, in most eases, be found necessary at first to sprinkle a little salt and bran or gram flour or cholam flour over it to induce the animals to touch it. 7. There seems to be no reason then save the prejudice of the ryot why cactus in some form should not forma valuable adjunct to the fodder resources of the country. That in normal times it will ever be largely used seems unlikely since if it is really an economical fodder, the thrifty cultivator would probably have used it long since ; but it may certainly be looked upon as a most valuable auxiliary food in times of distress.—[Bulletin No. 4, Central Agricultural Committee, Madras.) [The prickly pear is very common on the North coast of Ceylon, and in places inland.—Ep, ‘‘ 7.A.”] Marcon 1907. | 169 | MISGELLANEOUS. AGRICULTURAL METHODS IN MADRAS. That agricultural enquiry should precede efforts at agricultural improve- mentis asound maxim. By agricultural enquiry, knowledge is obtained of not only where defect lies in the ryots’ agricultural practices, which is half way to remedy, but also of the numerous good points in their practices which have won the admiration of famous Huropean agricultural experts, and which, being still confined to but small parts of the country by no other cause than custom, should, by every means, be diffused as widely as possible at an early date. The excellence of the agricultural system in some, as compared with other, parts of the country may, in many cases, be accounted for by differences of soil, climate, ete., over which man has little control.. For instance, the ryots of the Godavari delta, which for the most part enjoys better natural drainage, are on that account able to grow sugarcane, plantains, coconuts, etc., unlike their brethren of the Kistna delta. But soil and climate have nothing to do with some questions, Thus, why should not the Coimbatore ryot, with the aid of one pair of bullocks sow by the gorru, or bamboo seed-drill, at least three and a half acres of land ina day with, say, cholam, using not more than five Madras measures for that area, and cover in theseed with the guntika with another pair of bullocks, instead of doing what he does now, that is broadcasting about twenty Madras measures over the same area and employing six pairs of bullocks for covering in the seed in a day. Similarly, the threshing stone roller which has proved very economical and is in general use in the Deccan districts except Bellary (viz., Kurnool, Anantapur and Cuddapah) might be introduced in all parts of the country, independently of the conditions of soil and climate. It is worth while to note how such implements, tools, and methods happened to come into use in the varticular parts of the country to which they are yet confined ; what opportunities the people of other parts have had for knowing those things, and what influences have prevented the material extension of their use. The Reddis, Naidus, etc., known in the Tamil country by the generic name vadugars (literally Northerners) are the descendants of people who migrated into the Southern districts from the Telugu country centuries ago. The ancestral immi- grants appear to have been warriors. Consequently, when they settled into peaceful occupations on the advent of peace to the country, like the Ironsides of Cromwell, they had forgotten all about the arts in their original home. There isa tradition among the Reddis of Perambalore that their ancestors came from the neighbourhood of the Malikarjuna Paruatum or the famous Srisailam Hill in the Naidikotur taluk. Nobody in Perambalur, I observed, knew the whereabouts of the hill: The economical implements and tocls used in the Nandikotkur taluk, in the neighbourhood of the hill, are well adapted for use in the black cotton soil which prevails in the Perambalur taluk. And yet the only implement which at all betokens the immgrations of the ancestors of the Perambalur Reddis from the country of the gorruis the korru parambu, or a sort of wooden rake which, strange to say, is still kuown by the name gorru in Samvatsaragudem and other villages in the neighbourhood of Nidadavolu, where the system of dry culti- vation is rather ofa primitive type, and which is commonly used in the ceded districts under the names pandluanu, ete. Another circumstance which indicates the immigration above referred to is the fact of the Reddis, Naidus, etc., occupying the major portion of the black cotton soil of the Tamil country. As will be shown by further instances, there is a 23 Miscellaneous. 170 [MARCH 1907. strange affinity between the Telugu cultivators and black cotton soi], so much so, that if a census were taken of the owners of such soil in the Tamil districts of Coimbatore, Trichinopolly, Madura and Tinnevelly, 90 per cent. would, no doubt, prove to be vadugars or the descendants of Teluguimmigrants. The black soil having been at most the only class of soil with which those who migrated to the Tamil country had been familiar (the other classes of soils having apparently been brought under cultivation in later times under pressure of population), the immi- grants or their descendants occupied the black soils in the South to the almost utter exclusion of the Tamilians, who cared, and do now care, chiefly for wet cultivation, which is dignified with the name nunsei (literally ‘‘ good cultivation), dry cultivation being called punsei, or “ trival cultivation.” As a counterpart to the vaduyars occupying the bulk of the black cotton soil in the South, I saw a large number of dakshanudulu (Southerners) attracted from Tanjore and other Tamil districts to their favourite wet cultivation, for which there was much scope under the Kurnool. Cuddapah canal, the water-supply from which had been rejected by the local ryots, though the migration from the South stopped on account of malaria and other unfavourable conditions. So great indeed is the attachment of the vadgan to the black cotton soil that the Tamilians mock him by saying that, when God offered paradise to the vadgan, the latter hesitated by enquiring whether there was black cotton soil there. It isa great pity that the original immigrants from the Telugu into the Tamil country had not stuck as fondly to the implements and tools parti- cularly designed for black cotton soil as they did to the soil itself of that kind. The influence of a comparatively recent immigration from the Telugu into the Tamil country, in connection with the introduction of the economical agri- cultural implements and tools of the former country, may now be noticed. During the Guntur Famine of 1833, a number of Telugu Christian ryots left Phiringipuram and migrated into the Chingleput district, where the then Collector, Mr. Place, granted them land near Sriperumbudur. From this centre they gradually spread in the Conjeeveram, Trivellur, Madurantakam and other taluks of the district. If one finds a stiff clay soil cultivated with cholam in those parts; one may be nearly certain that the cuitivation is by one of the Telugu colonists. For instance, in Badalur and certain other villages on the banks of the Kallar, in the Madurantakam taluk, the cultivators of cholam on the stiff soils there were found about twelve years ago to be all descendants of the immigrants from Phiringipuram, Nothing has struck me as more singular inall my travels than the strange affinity which the immi- grants from the North have for the black and other stiff soils capable of producing cholam and cotton. The immigrants from Phiringipuram being an agricultural people (unlike the original vadugars), brought with them the gorru, the guntika, the dante, called in the Cuddapah and Kurnool! districts metla guntika and different from what is called by the same nameinthe Bellary district, and also the gidda, padda, pisa, and palapu varieties of jonna (great millet) still grown in the Guntur district. They were led by force of custom to cultivate the same sort of land (other kinds of lands have now been taken up) with the same crops (except cotton, which on account of the climatic difference proved a failure), with the same implements with which they were familiar in their original home. That the various kinds of implements are really more economical for their respective specific kinds of work, viz., preparation of the soil for sowing, sowing seed, covering seed after sowing, and bullock hoeing, than the poor country plough which has to perform all the different functions just referred to, being the Tamil ryot’s all in all—is evidenced by the fact of the Tamil neighbours of the immigrants (who had stood gaping atthe curious implements, slowly adopting them at last, especially the gorrw together with the name, calling it gorru kalappai. The force of custom is again manifest in the fact that the gorru kalappai of the Chingleput district is used, not so much in connection pape pba \a eee! fot MS he ei, od cn eh VN F rs + on os aig heal wv ¥ Marcu 1907.) 171 Miscellaneous. with dry cultivation as for sowing paddy, and has been modified for the purpose by the ingenuity of the Tamil ryot. Those who travel between Egmore and Tindivanam on the South Indian Railway may occasionaily see paddy sown beautifully in lines with the gorru kalappai. The Telugu ryot’s own modification of the gorru in the Deccan districts for sowing paddy is not so ingenious as that of the Tamilian who borrowed the idea of the drill from the former. For instance, the kurigi nellu or the bailu nellu (dry paddy) of Kosgi is sown by a comparatively clumsy and _ inefficient drill. There are people who say :—‘‘ Only convince the ryot thata given implement is really advantageous, and heis sure to adopt it at once.” In the first place, the ryot is not open toconviction. Heis too lethargic to take the pains to properly compare things. Otherwise the gorru and the guntika, which have been within the view of the Sriperumbudur ryot for more than seven decades, would have been adopted by thousands. It is no more easy to convince the ryot than to teach swimming to a man who cannot be induced to plunge into water, or to awake a man who only pretends to be asleep. The threshing stone roller which has proved so advantageous for threshing jonna (the great millet) in the Cuddapah, Anantapur and Kurnool districts has not, during the three decades after its invention by the ryots themselves, found its way into the Bellary district, excepting its adoption by the Reddi of Molagavalli; nor has the heavy cotton soil plough, which is being used by thousands in the Bellary, Alur and Adoni taluks, found its away into the other districts (excepting the Uravakonda division) for use in similar soils. About ten years ago a plough of the kind was seen rusting under an old tree in acertain village in the Kurnool district. The owner, an educated ryot, who had given up quill- driving in favour of plough-driving, promised to bring it into regular use if shown how to work it. This wasdone. The advantages of the plough were so well under- stood by the man that he himself explained them to the spectators. But the plough was taken back to its place under the tree, ana there I saw it five years afterwards in fatal communion with the oxygen of the air as before. I daresay that the man was really convinced of the advantages of the implement, let alone his own ad- mission. Apathy accounts for its disuse. It is well known that the women belonging to certain classes in Madura and Tinnevelly disfigure their faces by enlarging the holes in the lobes of their ears to such a degree, by putting on numerous heavy iron rings during their girlhood, that the loves often touch the shoulders and sometimes descend below them. Many a young woman is no doubt convinced how hideous it is. But does conviction avail against custom? Itis not all that will at once follow the example of a young woman in Koilpattu, who recently heriocally cured the hideousness of. her ears by submitting to a surgical operation, so as to reduce the holes in her ear-lobes to nor- mal dimensions and adapt them for the wear of diamond earrings so as to make her agreeable beyond recognition. Asin ordinary life, so in agriculture, custom has a very tenacious hold on people and is inimical to the introduction of reforms. If one enters a ryot’s house in any of the Tamil districts, he sees that all- sufficient plough, and he may see, besides, mamuti, the kalaikaltu, or small hand- hoe, and the old fashioned sickle. In the Deccan districts, on the other hand, a large part of a Reddi’s house is set apart for his koramutti, or collection of imple- ments and tools. One can see there not only the plough, the guntika, the bamboo seed-drill, a papatam, or bullock hoe, and other draught implements, but also specific kinds of each such class of implements suited to specific kinds of work, such as the ontala, rentala, and pedda medakas (ploughs), pedda (heavy), chinna (small), bara, (long), mirapa (for chillies), patti (for cotton, etc.) guntikas (for scufile), chinna gorru, bara gorru and vther kinds of seed-drill with seed-cups (zadigam) of different kinds for sowing the seeds of different crops such as the wad a ON A ee y ¥ a y Miscellaneous. 172 (Marcu 1907. great millet, cotton, Bengal gram, etc. ; metla guntika (bullock hoe with rectangular shares), dante, pilla guntika, wta or ust gorru, and other sorts of bullock hoes ; the threshing stone roller, and various tools worth immediate adoption by the Tamil ryot, such as the acchu kattu dante (an efficient time and labour-saving wooden mamuti with a long handle for laying out irrigation plots); kurchige and ullari for weeding young crops, improved forms of reaping knives, ete. The implements and tools above referred to are for the most part used not only in the Telugu, but also ina large part of the Canarese country in this Presi- dency (the Western and Southern parts of Bellary, the Kollegal Taluk, and part of South Canara), the Mysore State, the Canarese and Marata country in the Bombay Presidency, and many other parts of Northern India where dry cultivation prevails, including parts of Punjab. It was in the Punjab, if 1 recollect right, that Sir James Caird, the Famine Commissioner of 1876-78, and one of the greatest agricultural authorities in England, was simply beside himself with admiration at the simplicity, efficiency, and cheapness of the bamboo drill, the offspring of the country plough costing rupees which may be counted on the fingers of one hand as compared with Garret’s, Bird’s and other seed drills invented by Jethro Tull, on the principal of the piano, costing several hundred rupees and doing scarcely more or better work in a given time. The gorru, guntika, ete., are probably an Aryan invention adopted by the undivided Dravidian stock of Telugu and Canarese people after the separation of the Tamilians and the Malayalese. Reference may be made on this point toa certain Bulletin of the Madras Agricultural Department, price one rupee. It is strange that the gorru guntika, ete., should have been in use from time immemorial in the Kollegal taluk of the Coimbatore districts without being taken the slightest notice of by people who have gone there from other parts of the district, and seen them at work. Being a Coimbatorean, I had opportunities to enquire of many a ryot who had gone to Kollegal what he thought of the kurige (Canarese term for the bamboo seed drill). What one of the men who had returned from Kollegal, to a village near Tudiyalur, said, shows the general implement was as much a desacharam (custom of the country) as the smoking of the cigars by the Brahmins of the Northern country, and he cared no more to enquire the merits of that imple- ment than about the benefits which might accrue to the Southern Brahmins from smoking cigars. The question may arise as to whether the cultivators of the arid black cotton soil tract who manifestly invented the gorru guntika, ete., are, as a class naturally more intelligent than the people of Tanjore, etc., where the plough alone, as said above, performs multifarious functions. It is a well established fact that an organ of the animal economy, or an instrument for physical work, which is designed to perform any of several kinds of work cannot so well perform any of those kinds of work as an organ or instrument specially for doing one specific kind, of work alone. The various economical implements of husbandry came to be invented by the cultivator of the black cotton soil tract who had to contend against scantiness of rainfall, absence of irrigation and other difficulties, adversity having its uses, and necessity being the mother of invention. It is the Tanjorean’s boast that he has scarcely anything to do except to kick the field bund aside and let in water to raise a bumper crop of paddy. But the Tanjorean, his cattle and his plough, when placed by the side of the Deccan Reddi and his corresponding chattels, looks as dimunitive as would the Pigmies of Africa standing side by side with the Patagonians: That wet cultivation engenders perfunctionary habits of cultivation has been the opinions ef agricultural observers like the late Mr. W. Ry Robertson, wy! sls are Marctt 1907.) ; 173 Miscellaneous, In no part of the Presidency have I come across such wretched patterns of plough, piccotah, and in short a more backward system of husbandry in many respects, that in the Ganjam district, which, as its very name implies, is a rice growing country, being blessed with comparatively abundant rainfall. The body of the Ganjam plough has a very broad and flat surface, both above and below, and its work may very appropriately be called ‘‘scratching” in comparison with the work of ploughs elsewhere. For some reason, the plough of South Canara, which is also a rice-growing country, happens to be quite the reverse of the Ganjam plough and seems to be of a superior pattern to that used anywhere, being hollow at the bottom, like the English plough, and perfectly wedgeshaped in front, so as to reduce the friction to a minimum, It is a crude veritable double mould board plough. From what has been written above, it will be manifest that the agriculture of the country might be very materially, readily, and surely improved by diffusion, as it were, of the present localised superior methods pending successful results at experimental farms and the importation of exotic methods which may be univer- sally applicable.—Central Agricultural Committee Madras Bulletin, No. 3. [These suggestions are worth consideration by those who have to do with agriculture in Ceylon, more especially in the North.—Eb. ‘ 7.A,”] BOTANY IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND ON THE FARM. By Proressor J. B.S. NORTON. There are many persons, young and old, who have adesire for increased knowledge, and have a natural taste for work in natural science, but who cannot leave their work for a course at College. To such persons there may be no more delightful or instructive pursuit than study and observation at odd moments of the mineral, plants and animal objects found on the farm, or even city lots, and their relations to one another. And there is no better way to develop the child’s mind in a sane and healthful way than by such exercises reasonably directed. Many persons while hindered by sickness, or otherwise, from doing harder work, could make life enjoyable and useful by such pursuits indoors or outdoors. This Committee can prob- ably do no better work than to encourage such studies of the vegetable life of the farms, gardens and yards of the State. Moreover, such work by individuals without technical training may bring new ideas to the professional scientist, who, too often, gets into scholastic ruts. Public school teachers could direct their pupils in such work, and some time is now being devoted to elementary natural science in many schools. If the pupil’s attention could be attracted to roadside plants in coming and going from school, as wellasin the meagre time that can be devoted tothat work in school hours, much will be gained. In such work the first thing to be borne in mind, by teachers as wellas pupils, is that plants are living things which feed, respire, move, and in the most fundamental life relations differ but little from animals. This attitude of mind makes them seem much more worthy of attention, although the supporting evidence of such a view is not so readily apparent as with animals without som® investigation. And here I would say that the little things should not be neglected. The mosses, lichens, mushrooms, even the green water ecum, areas interesting, not to say beautiful, as larger plants like oaks and apple trees; the weeds on city lots and in back yards offer material for almost every line of botanical work the city teacher needs to take up, and the life process going on and the variety of plant structures to be found under the snow or underground in winter, are only somewhat less varied, but more interesting because less known than the above ground vegetation Miscellaneous. 174 [MarcH 1907. Several lines of observation of plants could be taken up. One of the first thought of would probably be a consideration of the different kinds of plants to be found ona farm, a city lot or close to a certain strip of road, or if taken up by several persons, the flora of a whole town, district or community. The names can be learned from the teacher or other persons who may have some knowledge of them, or possibly from a manual. A more correct method would be to send specimens of flowers, seed vessels and leaves of the unknown kinds to a professional botanist. In connection with this work, a herbarium or collection of dried specimens could be made in which the plants observed could be preserved for comparison with others aud arranged according to their resemblances. The young student would soon learn to pick out representatives of many of the natural families of plants like grasses, legumes, composites, etc. It is a very simple matter to make such acollection by pressing the specimens, which should consist of whole plants, if small enough, or at least contain all the characteristic parts between several thicknesses of newspaper, which should be placed in a pile under a heavy weight, and changed daily until the plants are dry. With each specimen should be kept notes of all that is known about the plant, where it came from, when collected, the comor of the flowers, its abundance or rarity, what kinds of plants grow with it, whether stock eat it or itis useful in any way, or a weed or poisonous; the kind of soil grown in, the insects found on it or anything interesting in its structure or method of life. This collection of plants or notes would furnish a basis for all other botanical observations and studies, and it is hard to do connected work of other kinds with plants, without some knowledge of the species and without some kind of names by which to designate them. Then, too, the acquiring of the names of the plants (common as wellas Latin) finds a more proper place in the elementary schools than in the higher institutions, where botany is naturally concerned chiefly with the more important problems of morphology and physiology. These two branches just mentioned should, by no means, be neglected in the work of which this report treats, since they are vitally connected with the practical operations of farm and garden. Many of the common life functions of our cultivated plants, and the structures and the arrangements of roots, stems, wood, bark, leaves, flowers, etc., for the performance of these functions can be delightfully unfolded to young minds by many simple observations or experiments; the planning of which to avoid possible sources of error in conclusions will give excellent mental training. Some of the advanced problems relating to the manner in which crops live and supply the products desired by man, are of course more complicated and their solution vastly more important than those of the higher mathematics taught for mental training in colleges and universities, but many are simple enough to interest the youngest. A few examples may be mentioned to begin with. Can plants move? Watch a sunflower bud at intervals from morning to night. Observe the manner in which clover leaves close at night. Such obser- vations will also indicate that plants are sensitive to light and other forces and conditions. How do the leaves act? Test by removing one-half of the leaves from some potato plants, all from others, none from some. What difference in the potatoes produced? How ean it be shown that this is not due to wounding or other cause rather than loss of leaves ? Does cold weather or moisture injure seed corn? Try by keeping some over winter in wet, cold, dry and warm places, Cuta ring of bark off growing branches of different kinds of treeseach month, and note the effect next year, as compared with uninjured ones on the same tree. Germinate some garden seeds of different kinds between moist cloths or paper, and watch the process of development and the new organs formed as well as the changes of those already in the seed, Y a, eee Ts ig Sas SES i 1 Marce# 1907. | 175 Miscellanecus. An interesting and very valuable line of observation would be the study of kinds of plants found on various parts of the farm, and the differences in the soil composition, state of cultivation, water content, etc., which are found with the various associations of plant? The development of forests from cultivated land eould be followed up for several years, noticing first the appearance of annual] weeds, then perennial weeds and grasses followed by shrubs, next pine and cedars, and these possibly followed by othe trees, springing up under the evergreens, Another good ecological problem would be an examination of different orchard varieties with reference to their power to set fruit without the help of insects. Considerable could be learned by tying bags of fine netting over the buds before they open, to prevent the access of insects, leaving them on until the flowers are gone. A collection of notes on the local uses of wild plants would be highly desirable.— Maryland Agricultural Hxperinent Station Bulletin, No. 59, June, 1904. RECENT PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURE. WHat A UNIVERSITY FARM IS FOR. Liberty Hyde Bailey, Professor of Agriculture in Cornell University delivered a lecture for the University of California in August, 1905, on “ Present Problems in Agriculture.” That portion of the lecture which dealt with the question of the purposes of a University Farm is here printed as a contribution to a question of pressing public interest. The Agricultural College idea is by no means new; it is at least two hundred yearsold. In thiscountry the Agricultural College, as an established fact. originated about fifty years ago. Year after next will be celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the Agricultural College, near Lansing, Michigan. The first agricultural colleges were established as a protest against the older kind of education that did not put men into touch with real affairs. The Land Grant Act of 1862 marks oneof the greatest epochs in the history of education ; itis the Magna Charta of Education. Its purpose was to give instruction in those subjects and affairs which have to do with real life. And, whatare they? They are largely agriculture and the mechanical arts. As these agricultural colleges were largely a protest against the older education, it was perfectly natural that at first they should be separate institutions. About one-half of the agricultural colleges of the Union are separate from the universities proper. They are doing good work, and I am saying nothing what- ever derogatory tothem. Thereare some reasons still given for having separate agricultural colleges, It is said that other courses will attract the young men from the farm. Now, if the agricultural college can’t hold the young men it ought to lose them; the time is past when we shall put blinders on the young men. Again, it is that the farm boy will be looked down on, butstudents will not look down upon him if his work is of equally high grade as that pursued in other courses, Sometimes the agricultural college is wanted ina separate locality to satisfy local pride. A locality wants to have an agricultural college and offers inducements to get it. This does not consider the merits of the case in some cases, a broom factory might be just as satisfying to the community. The university idea is coming to be a unifying dea in the community, and all university work should be kept together. The time is past when the agricultural college should be torn out of the university and be set off by itself. The agricultural college is founded on the conception that education must relate itself to life. Important corollaries follow. In the first place, agricultural education should not necessarily be bound by academic methods. The teaching work in a college really divides itself into two parts, (a) the true college work, leading to Oe ETD eee a ee Miscellaneous. 176 [MARCH 1907. a Bachelor’s degree; (b) postgraduate work, leading to two degrees, the first of these being the Master’s degree, which should be given for experimental and investiga- tional work, the work involved and in the collection and accumulation of facts, ete.. and the Doctov’s degree, which should be given for a philosophical consideration of the facts and the collections of data. Two great enterprises have now come into the college—the experiment station — and university extension. They are not university work in the old academic sense, The extension enterprises ‘form the best illustrations of the leader ship the university has now acquired in public affairs. The university is required to do university extension work, and it goes beyond the academic ideals. Agricultural education also rests upon a large and quickened idea of the laboratory methods into every school in the country ; the kindergarten, manual training, the school garden, and science work—all mean the laboratory method. And now we also introduce the affairs of every-day life into the schools. All laboratories are pedagogically valuable in pro- portion as they are in vital connection with theoretical instruction. No school, whether in California or elsewhere, from the primary school to the university is a good school unless it has laboratory work. The effort is now being made to introduce into every high school in New York a year’s work in biology for the first year. All this brings up the whole question of the university farm. The college or university farm developed with the Land Grant Act. In its history it has gone through several phases. It was first conceived of largely asa model farm, and of course the model farms became the laughing stock of the farmers of the state: and they will always be. If they are model farms they have little pedagogical use. One farm cannot be a pattern farm for all conditions. There are thousands of model farms. Model farms are good farmers’ farms. The state cannot afford to go into the model farm business in connection with university work. In the second place, the farms came to be used merely to illustrate farm practices. In the old days we had museums in our colleges, and persons could go and exclaim as they saw the wonders. We still need museums, but we also have collections with which to work. Itis not enough that students merely see things growing or see different breeds of animals. They must come nearer than merely to look’; they must use and handle. ? Again, college farms were sometimes run with the idea of making a profit ; but you cannot run a farm ?with profit withstudent labor. If the state is to make money out of afarm, then it must not be used for teaching purposes, but must be conceived of as an out-and-out business enterprise. In the next place, there was an idea that these farms ought to represent the commonwealth—that a farm should be ‘“‘typical” of the state. It isa mighty poor state that can be typified in one farm. If the state wants a typical farm let it have it, but do not burden the University with it. Put it in charge of a Chamber of Commerce or other advertising organization. Anybody can farm typical land. Then there was a long period of years when the college was used very little or even not at all. Not knowing just what to do with them, many of them have been allowed to drift. Then there came the passage of the Hatch Act in 1887, which established the experiment stations ; and this afforded a means of utilizing the college farm. There are a good many of our institutions which are now carrying farm lands as experi- ment stations. Of course we should have farms for research. There are two kinds of research work on farms. One kind of research is in farm practice; the other is research in the fundamental physical, chemical, and physiological, PO which must be done on some farm directly under control. MaArRcH 1907. | Lea . Miscellaneous. Now we have come to the final and proper stage,—the farm must then be a laboratory. Thus primarily it must bea laboratory enterprise, and the pattern and model idea are only incidental and secondary. If your people do not believe in this idea, then you must educate your people. A college farm is not primarily for the purpose of growing model or perfect crops. I should rather have the oppor- tunity to teach one student by means of a farm than to show one hundred persons a field of perfect pumpkins, If we study plowing in the class room, we must also study it in the field, even if we destroy a crop. We must determine and test the relation of plowing to moisture, veration, microbic life, and many other questions. It is more important that aman learn how and why to plow than itis for the college farm to grow a crop of wheat. Even ifI tore up the drainage ona farm in order to teach it, Iwont be able todo it. The botanist pulls up the plant tostudyit. In learning how to grow potatoes one should pull them up to study the root system. Not long ago 1 was asked how deep potatoes should be planted in a certain soil. Tasked, ‘‘How many of you know whether the tubers form above or below the feeding roots.” Four or five guessed, but no one knew. But on that fact depends much of the success in planting potatoes. If your students want to see a model orchard, they have a thousand of them in California. We want such an establishment as will allow us to drive our cattle right into the class-room. Weare thisday building a class-room at Cornell which will hold stock, and which has seats for the students on the sides. They will study real live cattle, not pictures and models. The young men study those cows and find out why they are good and bad cows. They examine their conformation, ete. These cows are just as much laboratory material as the plants of the botanist or the chemicals of the chemist. Next week, if we should study the question of beef cattle, they are brought into the building and the students study them just the same way your students study stratification of rocks. Ten acres of land to use when I want it, and as I want it, is worth more pedagogically than a thousand acres to look at. The value of a university farm from a university man’s point of view consists in its usefulness asa means of teaching. If you do not want to callit a farm, call it land. The better it is as a farm, the better it ought also to beas a laboratory ; but the laboratory utilization of it should always come first. If you are not using farms as a means of training men you are not using them for university purposes. A director of an agricultural college said some years ago when a visitor complained that he didn’t consider the college farm to be a model farm, “I would rather have a good man with a flower pot ina window than have a poor man witha thousand acres of land.” A university farm justified from the university or pedagogical point of view must be made a true laboratory to collate and articulate with the theoretical instruction, otherwise the future will not justify your possession of it.—California Agricultural Experimental Station Circular, Miscellaneous: 178 [MarcH 1907. Literature of Economic Botany and Agriculture. XIV. J. C. WILLIs. Guizotia.—Niger-seed oil. Ind. Agr. Sept. 1905, p. 274. Gums,—Ceylon gums and resins. Ceylon Forester. IV. 1898 p. 6. Gum Guiacum, &c., see B,C. Beih. IX. 1900 pp. 154. 155. Acacia gums. Notizbl. Berlin. II. Aug. 1898. p. 176. Macaranga Roxburghii. Agr. Ledger. V.P. Ser. 56. Pial or Peal gum: do 58. Boswellia serrata : do 59. Bauhinia retusa : do 60. Jingan gum (Odina Wodier) do 62. Boequillon on gums. Just’s Jahresb. 1899 I]. 7. Lewton on classification of gums. Just’s Jahresb. 48. Gum tragasol. Chem. & Drug. 1901. p. 1027. Gummi von Acacia detinens. Tropenpfl. June 1901. Note sur une gomme de Madagascar. Rev. d. Cult. Col. Sept. 1901. p. 184. Gomme Arabique: les recents travaux allemands. Journ d’ Agri. trop. I. 46, Chicle gum (Achras Sapota). Chem. & Drug. Mar. 1902. p. 410. Kinige Mittheilungen iiber Kordofan u.a. Gummi-arten. Tropenpfl. 1908 p. 231. The Chicle industry of Mindanao. 7'.A. June 1903 p, 809. Indian Acacia gums. 7.A. Nov. 1903 p. 303. The commercial uses of the Indian Acacias. Imp. Inst. Bull. I. 1903 p. 91. THE TRADE OF HAWAII. Statistics have recently been published by the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Commerce and Labor, showing the trade returns between Hawaii and the United States mainland for the twelve months ending June, 1906, as com- pared with the previous fiscal year. A careful analysis of the returns show that during the year just ended, encouraging progress has been made, chiefly in what are known as our diversified industries. The shipments to Hawaii from San Francisco, New York and Los Angeles in each case decreased during the year in question, while Puget Sound increased its shipments from $738,380 to $1,266,367. With regard to Hawaiian exports to the mainland our staple product only amounted to $23,840,803 as against $83,946,036 in the previous year, leaving the enormous deficit of $10,105,288. It is, however, gratifying to learn that our exportation of refined sugar increased by over half a millon dollars during the same period. The refining of sugar in Hawaii is confined to one plantation and is among one of the newest of our industries. The increase in this direction may therefore be regarded as of special importance. Exportation of honey and bees-wax increased to the extent of $46,450, coffee increased $74,976, canned fruits increased $85,706, hides and skins $42.383, leather $14,592, tallow $7,046, rubber $1,028. and rice $141,598. The increase in canned fruits is chiefly attributable to the development of the pineapple industry, and this item wili no doubt continue to develop with marked strides for many years. The export of rubber will, in a very short time, figure con- spicuously in the return and will probably form one of our most valuable assets. The production of leather, another of our new industries, has also materially increased, and promises to still further develop. While the sales of Hawaiian rice ees ANTE Je es é " = . be ue N Marca 1907 J 179 Miscellancous. . on the coast have about doubled during the last fiscal year, the figures are not to be relied upon as a true criterion of the condition of this industry. This commodity figures largely in the importations from the coast, and the statistics at hand do not show the importation of rice from Japan. The consumption of Japanese rice in these islands is very large and would throw an interesting light on the question. There is no doubt, however, that the Hawaiian rice industry has improved its condition materially during the last year. The coffee growers and bee-keepers are to be congratulated on the excellent progress they have achieved in their departments. Among the exports which have lost ground in the last fiscal year, sugar has already been referred to. Fibre has, we regret, diminished to the extent of $982. This is surprising in view of the excellent quality of Hawaiian grown sisal, and we hope in another year to see the old figures again attained. At present there is only one plantation exclusively engaged in sisal production, but there are several smaller growers who will nodoubt be soon marketing their produce which will help to redeem the situation. Another item, akin in nature to fibre and which has also depreciated in the amount of its export, is that designated as “straw and palm leaf manutactures.” Although the value of these for 1905 was insignificant, viz., $747, yet this could not be maintained last year and fell to $559. During the same period our importation of straw and palm leaf manufactures increased $7,864 in value and made the imposing total of $28,864. There seems to be a good field indicated here for the establishment of a factory for the manufacture of articles made from palm-leaf, straw and similar products. Of imports from the mainland during the past two years, the following items are quoted as affecting more nearly the question of our home industries :— Articles. 1905. 1906, Breadstuffs, animal feed, etc. Ape ae 202,337 243,588 Cocoa, etc. Nea Ai a ny, 9.541 10,788 Coffee Bate ee eat Ae 13,481 11,029 Eggs ye be ats 14,925 12,995 Renihe and Nuts.. Ae A Ai 147,300 138,495 Hay 143, 420 182,128 Provisions comprising Meat and Dair y Pr oduce 524,372 587,334 Rice ; a jhe 303, 029 164.863 Salt A Ye 7,104 6,034 Tobacco, manufactures of... A ue 528,370 494,818 Vinegar ae a eo wes 5,241 5,886 While Hawaii will never be able to exclude certain commodities from her list of imports, a full development of her agricultural resources should materially diminish some of the above totals. This appears particularly true of the items enumerated aboveas Ovocoa, Coffee, Hggs and Vinegar. Although certain proprietory brands of cocoa may be preferred and probably account for the value of this import, there appears to be little reason why this article is not grown here and does not even figure on our exports. The production of vinegar from bananas and other articles is a profitable operation and should repay experiment. The large importations under fruits and nuts would seem unnecessary in a country whose climate and soilis particularly adapted to fruit culture. Although much of the imported California fruit, such as apples, pears and plums could not be produced here, yet the islands should not depend upon other countries for their orange supply. The paucity of Hawaiian grown oranges in the market is remarkable in view of their excellent quality. The interest which is now being diverted to Hawaiian grown tobacco, makes the value of the importations of this article note- worthy, With an annual local consumption of half a million dollars worth of [Marcu 1907, Miscellaneous. 180 tobacco, growers of the local leaf should find a home market for their produce to the value of at least one hundered thousand dollars. A valuable export trade would no doubt also attend the production of a cigar possessing superior and characteristic qualities. Taken asa whole the statistics which are to hand show a marked develop- ment of our island industries and indicate that in the near future a greatly increased production will be attained. With sisal and canned fruits already taking a place among our exports, and with rubber, tobacco and fresh fruits promising to establish themselves ir the near future, the material prosperity of an increasing number of small producers will be advanced to the immense benefit of the Territory. The report of the British Consul at San Juan, Porto Rico, upon the trade and industry of the island during the past year, has recently been issued. The most important development of the year has been made in the sugar industry which has been stimulated by the free market of the United States. Much capital is being attracted and many new plantations are in process of construction. The average sugar production is about two tons per acre, which could be greatly increased by fertilization and modern methods of cultivation and extraction. The total value of sugar exported, including molasses, was valued at $18,433,000, an increase of nearly four million dollars. About 7,000 acres are devoted to citrus cultivation, seventy per cent. of which is planted in oranges, twenty-five with grape fruit and five with lemons. Few of the citrus plantations have arrived at full yield, but the fruit is of good quality and has obtained high prices in New York. The freight on a box of oranges to New York is about 28 cents, as compared with 72 cents from Florida and 98 from California. Cuba pays 35 cents freight in addition to 56 cents duty per box. The tobacco industry is rapidly improving the quality of its production. The main crop is exported as cigars to the United States and the inferior grades as raw tobacco to Germany and the Netherlands. The coffee production showed little advance on last year’s depression. Before the great hurricane in 1899 coffee was the principal product of Porto Rico. In 1896 the crop was valued at nearly eight million dollars, while in 1905 it amounted to approximately two millions. Canning factories are working successfully in two parts of the island, and more will be erected as soon as a good supply of fruit is assured.—The Huwaiian Forester and Agriculturist. A WHITEWASH THAT WILL NOT RUB OFF. A first-class whitewash is made by dissolving 2 lb. of ordinary glue in 7 pints of water, and when all is dissolved, adding 6 oz, of bichromate of potassium, dissolved in a pint of hot water. Stir the mixture up well and then add sufficient whiting to make it up to the usual consistency. and apply with a brush in the ordinary manner as quickly as possible. This dries ina very short time, and by the action of light becomes converted into a perfectly insoluble waterproof substance, which does not wash off even with hot water, and at the same time does not give rise to mould growth, as whitewash made up with size often does. It may be coloured to any desired shade by the use of a trace of any aniline dye or powdered colouring, while by the addition of a small proportion of calcic sulphite its antiseptic power is much increased.—Queensland Agricultural Journal. \ Fic. 3, Larva. TERMES MILITARIS. 4, WoRKER. 5, SOLDIER. 6, ADULT FEMALE. (All Magnified 6 Diameters. ) From Original Drawings by E. E. Green. MarcH 1907.] 131 PLANT SANITATION. Entomological Notes, By KE. ERNEST GREEN. (1llustrated.) A species of ‘White Ant’ (Calotermes militaris, Desneaux) that attacks and hollows out the stems of living tea bushes has been known for some years. It occurs sporadically in most of the tea districts, independently of elevation, Its life history has hitherto been a complete mystery, no definite nest or abnormally developed breeding females having been observed. Recent investigations in the Lindula district have now enabled me to solve the puzzle. On the estate in question the pest has been known for some years, but no attempt to eradicate it was made until last year. It has consequently spread considerably. In some instances whole patches of tea trees have had to be eradicated, Usually, some two or three trees only areaffected atone spot. Hxamination of a number of affected trees showed that the main stem and roots, together with the larger branches, are completely hollowed out, the stem being frequently merely a hollow shell (see fig 1). In spite of this extensive damage the bushes continue to flush well and show no external signs of injury (see fig 2). Only the heart wood is devoured, the sap wood remaining intact and carrying on the functions of the plant. The devoured tissues are replaced by earthy matter into which adventitious roots are thrown out—apparently from the inner walls—and evidently obtain much nourishment from the earthy matter. In digging out the infested trees no signs of extension of the galleries were observed, and no insects were found in the excavated soil. It appears from this that each colony is self-contained in the individual tree, and extends its depredations only when that tree is fully occupied. On splitting open the infested stems and branches, insects in all stages could be found, but no eggs. There were larvae (fig 3)—quite small up to fully grown, full grown workers (fig 4) and soldiers (fig 5), and a few wingless adults (fig 6) of the same size as the workers, but distinguished by their uniform reddish colour and more chitinous integument. The larve are translucent white ; the workers creamy white with darker cloudy markings on the abdomen; the soldiers with large reddish heads and prominent falcate mandibles, No eggs were observed ; and nothing resembling a differentiated queen. Nor were there any indications of special brood cells or honey-combed nest. On subsequently dissecting some of the adult insects, their bodies were found to contain well-developed ova—of a very much larger size than those deposited by the specialized queens of other species. I gather, from these observations, that the life history of this species is very distinct from that of the common mound-building termite; that no specialized breeding queens are produced; but that the ordinary adults (which are never very numerous in one colony) are apterous and remain in the nest in which they are raised, and carry on the brood in situ. It is possible that living larve (instead of eggs) may be produced, but the evidence onthis point is inconclusive. Hach colony is therefore self-contained, and the removal and destruction of the tree should destroy the complete colony. The presence of the pest can seldom be recognized until the bush has been pruned, when sections of the galleries are exposed. In recently attacked bushes, only collar pruning can disclose the infection, as the insects apparently effect their entrance through the roots, working up first into the stem and later into the branches. Seeing that infected trees are still able to carry on their functions and to yield (apparently) as much crop as sound trees, it seems a pity to have to eradicate them if some means could be employed to destroy the insects in situ and so to prevent VQ =o? ee ST ae Plant Sanitation. 182 ' [MarcH 1907. i ‘Z the extension of theinjury to the surrounding trees. With this view I experimented with the patent ‘Ant Exterminator’ recently received from South Africa. This machine pumps a deadly gas (generated from sulphur and arsenic) through the galleries, andhas been found most effective in the destruction of the ordinary mound-building termites. The nozzle of the machine was inserted first into the exposed galleries in one of the branches, and afterwards into a hole drilled through the stem into the main cavity. But the ventilation was insufficient, owing to the blocking of the cavities with earthy matter, and it was found impossible to force the fumes through the system of galleries. Other plants were collar pruned, and small quantities of vaporite placed in the cavity which was then plugged with clay. The results of this latter experiment will not be available for some weeks. In a former number of this Magazine (Nov. 1906, p. 396) reference was made to a novel method of destroying the shot-hole borer wm situ, by scorching the bushes immediately after pruning. The inventor of this method is Mr. C. W. R. Tyler, of Sanquhar Estate, in the Gampola district. I have now had an opportunity of seeing the work in progress, and am very favorably impressed with the results. The fol- lowing notes were made on the spot :— Gangs of women and children are supplied with torches made of dried coco- nut leaves. They pass the fiaming torches round each bush, beneath the branches, holding them there long enough for the heat to penetrate the wood. On splitting open the branches, the insects—both young and adult—are found to be quite dead. I was able to satisfy myself of this result in the smaller (‘ pencil’) branches. The older branches, though previously badly infested, were now deserted by the insects, soit was impossible to determine here whether the treatment would be equally effective in these thicker branches. Il was shown a field that had been treated in this way when pruned in August of last year. The treatment was said to have been applied very severely, and not a single surviving insect could then be found. A good many of the smaller branches had been killed, but fresh healthy shoots were in every case being thrown up from the lower parts of the bushes, promising a rapid recovery: This system seems to me to be preferable to collar pruning as—while ridding the plant of the pest—it affords a more rapid recovery. It should be understood that, to be of permanent value, the treatment must be carried out systematically over the whole of the affected area. Otherwise re-infection from surrounding fields will occur sooner or later. In the meantime, it has the advantage of bringing the plant into a condition that enables it more successfully to resist the attacks of the borer. That nature can and does repair the injury under favourable conditions was abundantly evident on this estate. On splitting open the more healthy free growing branches, the entrance holes were repeatedly found to be plugged by an ingrowth from the cambial tissues. The cost of the treatment is largely influenced by the cost of the torches. On this estate the dried coconut fronds had to be bought in Kandy (some 13 miles distant,) and transported by railand cart to the estate. Each torch costs, on the estate, approximately two cents, and is exhausted after the treatment of eight bushes. was awarded to Mrs. W. O. Garth of the Darlington Gardens. Most of the grounds were well stocked with vegetables in all stages of growth, and the plot of land recently opened had an excellent crop of Cabbages and Cauliflowers. It would be well worth the while of the owners to use separate tools on this land and take other precautions to prevent the introduction of ‘‘ Club root,” which otherwise would rapidly spread and make a valuable piece of land almost useless for the cultivation of Crucifers. The second prize was awarded to P. D. M. Silva of Bambrakelly, but his garden showed want of cultivation, and, though told about it last year, little seems to have been done to keep in check the ‘‘ Cabbage fly ” by the use of Tobacco water. There was oneentry for the ‘‘ best Nursery Flower Garden,” but no prize was awarded. Mrs James Hill again carried off the prize for the ‘‘ best cropped and cultivated Private Vegetable Garden,” Great credit is due to her for the excellent condition it was in, and the systematic way in which it was cropped. It was encouraging to find that there were seven entries for the ‘‘ best Private Flower Garden.” Lady Bois was awarded first prize, and Mrs. James Hill second. In the former’s garden everything wasin good order and the flowers were _at their best, Phloxes and Verbenas being especially fine. Mrs. Hill’s garden was exceedingly pretty, but hardly as good as Jast year. Mrs. Loos of Rossye Lodge was highly commended for her garden, which contained a profusion of bloom. Class 6.—CuT FLOWERS,— Considering the severe frosts experienced during February, and the heavy rains of the following month, this class all round was excellent, and far superior to what anyone expected: in fact, though the quantity was perhaps less, the quality showed a decided improvement over last year. Special mention should be made of Mr. Neill G. Campbell’s fine roses, which carried off five prizes out of the seven offered, and the Silver Cup presented by Mr. T. C. Huxley tor the ‘“‘ best grown and most meritorious exhibit of any one variety of one flower.” Also Mr. N. C. Rolt’s collection of Cut Flowers, which was again awarded the Silver Cup presented by Mr, C. J. Bayley; it was a fine well-grown lot, and his African Marigolds were quite the finest yet seen in Ceylon. The staging this year was much better, and the flowers were seen to more advantage. Mr. C. J. Bayley’s Violets and Camellias were very fine. Several of the sections in this Class did not fill, which isa pity, as from the gardens judged some very fine exhibits could have been sent. A large exhibit ‘‘not for competition” ‘covering over 125 square feet was sent from the Hakgala, Nuwara Eliya, and Queen’s ‘Cottage Gardens, and was much admired. GENERAL.—Taken all round there was much improvement this year except in the “ Pot Plants” Classes. One or two additions and alterations should be made in the Catalogue for the next Show, and I think it would be well to add to the regu- lations to enable, amongst other things, the exhibitors to know exactly what to send, and all the Judges to act on the same lines etc. J. K. NOCK, Curator, Hakgala Gardens, Miscellaneous. : 326 [May 1907. REPORT ON CrASss II: FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES. Class IT (‘Garden Perennials in Pots”).—Exhibits in this class were very scanty, though the articles displayed were on the whole of very fair merit. But these must not by any means be taken as examples of the best that can be grown up-country. It may be assumed that the paucity of exhibits is in this and similar cases largely due to difficulties of transport, and also to the fact that the owners do not feel inclined to risk their most valuable plants. With flowers and vegetables, however, it is different, and consequently there has been an excellent show of these. In Class 2, only two indifferent lots of Geraniums of any kind were shown, which is proof of the above assertion. There were no exhibits of Pelargoniums, Cyclamen, Chrysanthemums, Azalea, Achimenes or -Cactus, and but one Fuchsia, one lot each of Begonia, Gloxinia, and Freesia. Certain other awards offered, the meaning of which was not clear, were not competed for. The feature of the Show as regards up-country productions were the English vegetables and flowers, Samples of Knol-kohl, Leeks, Parsnips, Carrots, Cabbages, Celery, Cauliflower, and Beet were shown which would compare well with those seen at shows in England. A dish of excellent Asparagus, rarely grown successfully in Ceylon, was exhibited by Mr. Thos. Farr of Bogawantalawa. It was noteworthy that not a single sample of the ‘‘Jerusalem artichoke” was staged. The failure of this excellent vegetable up-country is in striking contrast with the almost wild state in which its ally the ‘t Globe artichoke” may be seen growing in up-country gardens. H. F. MACMILLAN, Curator, Royal Botan Gardens, Peradeniya. REPORT ON THE UVA AGRICULTURAL SHOW. APRIL 26TH AND 27TH. EstTatre PRopucts AT BADULLA. Very little was shown under this head. The cotton was mostly short-stapled, bat there was one good exhibit of Sea Islands. The tea was good, but rubber was only shown by one or two estates; the winning biscuits were excellent. JOHN C. WILLIS. LIVE STOCK SECTION. I have the honour to report that I was present at the Badulla Agricultural Show on the 26th and 27th April, and helped in the judging of Live Stock. The exhibition of cattle was fairly satisfactory, particularly with regard to native cattle, with the exception of milch cows. It is highly desirable that the breeding and rearing of native milch cows should be encouraged, as these are scarce in the Sinhalese districts of the Island. The gold medal for the best bull was won by an English Shorthorn stud bull belonging to Mr. Beattie. Almost all the prizes offered for Live Stock were well competed for, and all the prizes except two (viz. No. 11 offered for the best pair of cart bulls, and No. 16 for the best boar or sow) were awarded. Seven special prizes were offered for live stock, two by the Ceylon Agricultural Society for the best native bull and cow, one by the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, for the best-cared for native bull, one by the Poultry Club for the best pou and the other three by private individuals, viz., Mrs. J. B. Cotton Mrs. S. H, Pearless and Mrs. J. Duncan, for the milch cow and the best fowls and ducks respectively. It is worthy of note that almost all these special prizes were restricted for competition by villagers reziding in Uva. I would recommend that a prize be offered in future shows for the best pair of native cart bullocks castrated at a demonstration held in the Province. The ponies, of which there were six exhibited, showed that with a little more care and attention a good strain of country ponies can be bred in the Province. The exhibition of poultry was quite satisfactory, considering the fact that it was done independently of the efforts of any Poultry Club. wien Gee Colombo, Ist May, 1907, Acting Veterinary Surgeon. May 1907] 827 LIVE STOCK. Apiculture in Ceylon. By AN AMATEUR. There is as much difference between the terms apiculture and bee-keeping as between horticulture and gardening. Weare all of us gardeners; but very few are horticulturists. Anditis in the hope that I may induce afew bee-keepers to join the ranks of apiculturists that I write this. The bee-keeper merely keeps bees and robs them for the sake of their honey—of which he gets very little. The apicul- turist, by adopting scientific methods, looks after the welfare of his stock, and, with far less trouble to himself, and without injuring the bees, secures probably ten times the amount of honey. And in addition to this, he has the pleasure of studying some wonderful facts of natural history. I think there are three reasons why people do not goin more widely for apiculture. They fear the danger of being stung; they imagine the science to entail a great amount of trouble; and they think it must be an expensive hobby. Well, let me take these objections in their order. If a strong hive of bees made up its mind to attack its owner ina body, he would most likely be killed. In the same way, I would point out that, if you meet a rogue elephant at close quarters in a narrow jungle path, you will probably be killed ; but this does not prevent you from walking along a jungle path whenever you are so disposed! And yet, no small number of persons have been killed by rogue elephants, whereas no bee-keeper has yet been killed by his bees. The fact is, bees do not sting unless they are forced to—for the simple reason that, if they do, they die. You will, of course, if you keep bees, inevitably be stung now and then by an odd bee here and there; but the blood very soon becomes so inured to the poison, that you no longer feel any ill-effects beyond the prick. As tothe trouble involved in scientific apiculture, it depends on oneself, If bees are kept ina ‘‘ chatty,” there is, of course, nothing that one can do to help them on. Butif a substantial crop of honey is looked for from a trame-hive, then the bees must be examined and fed now and then. But onthe other hand, do not overdo it. Bees have been known to kill their own queen out of sheer anger (apparently) at being messed about too frequently. It is sufficient for a novice if he examines all the frames of each of his hives once a week. He can then see if the queen is alive, and whether she is laying properly; and he can guard against the wax-moth. And finally, as to expense. A frame-hive naturally costs more than a ‘chatty ”; but its yield in honey is more than proportionately greater. And in order to save you the expense of getting a hive shipped to you from abroad, I will proceed to give you instructions for constructing one yourself. THe Hivk. (Mig. 2.) Take some old packing-cases of half-inch deal and pull them to pieces. Make four boards, two of them 183 in. by 8} in,, and the other two 12} in. by 8} in, and nail them together to form the sides of a box, being careful that the top edges of the boards lie flush, and that the ends of the two shorter ones overlie the ends of the twolonger. If you have done this properly, you will now find that the internal dimensions of your box are 18% in. by 114 in, by 8} in, Live Stock. 328 | (May 1907. Make a second box in the same manner, the boards being two of them 212 in. by 11} in., and the other two 15} in. by 114 in., again making the ends of the shorter boards overlie the ends of the longer. Place the first box inside the second, and you will find you have a space all round between the walls of one inch, while the outer box is higher than the inner. Now raise the edge of the inner box (by placing bricks or boards beneath it) until it comes level with the edge of the outer. Prepare two strips of halt-inch wood 222 in. by 2in., and a third strip 14} in. by 2 in,, and with these cover the space between the walls along the two longer sides and one shorter side, nailing the strips in place ; and over the other shorter side tack a strip of tin or zinc 2 in. wide. Your two boxes are now firmly joined together; and if you turn them the other way up, you will find the outer rises 2}in. above the top of the inner, and you have an entrance-hole for the bees along one of the shorter sides. Thisis the body-box. The floor must now be made—a board 25 in. by 15} in., and though not necessary, it is a good thing to attach legs to it. But on no account must you nail the floor-board to the body-box. If you care to make things thoroughly finished, you can nail a small plinth round the three sides of the body-box (but not, of course, along the front side where the entrance-hole is) its upper edge bevelled and its outer edge hanging slightly below the level of the bottom of the box. Fig. 1 will give you a rough idea of what I mean. This plinth serves the double purpose of keeping the box in place on the floor-board and preventing rain from driving in between floor-board and body-box. Now make the lift or riser. This is another box without top or bottom (and with single walls) of the same size as the outer body-box. Fixa plinth round its four sides, and you will find that it sits easily on top of the body-box. And, lastly, make a roof of some sort, either gabled or flat; but if flat, it should, when in position, slope slightly from front to back, so as to carry off the rain, Tack a sheet of tin or zine (such as is used for lining packing-cases) over it, and paint the outside of everything white—two or three coats. Your hive. is now complete. ; FRAMES. (Fig. 3.) Unless you are handy at accurate joining-work, I would recommend that these be procured from one of the Industrial Schools in the Island. The size is as follows (outside measurements) :— Top bar BS. ss 19” long, Frame proper... ee TR KY OH? or, to give details, Top bar ae si lO.” XW heey Side bars Ags te MEME OR) OX cae, XE Bottom bar Ae seeped Tg XR | Xie The above measurements will be found to give serviceable strength without : making theframe clumsy, and the frames will take the W. B. C. metal-ends to which I shall refer. The top bar should, of course, project over the side bars §’ at either end; and care must be taken that the frames proper are dead rectangles without any sagging. You will also require two dummy-boards for each hive. These are plain boards 183’ x 9)” with a top bar the same as on the frames. These are used for the purpose of contracting the size of your hive in case your bees are not able to spread themselves over the eight frames that your hive willcontain. And finally, you want am MAy 1907.] 329 Live Stock. “ quilts” with which to cover over the tops of the frames. Two or three thicknesses of flannel will be found as good as anything—about 19” x 10’, These serve to keep the body-box warm and dry, and enable the apiculturist to uncover as many or as few frames ata time as he desires, which naturally facilitates manipulation. If the bottom quilt have around hole cut in the middle, it will be found useful in case it be desired to place a feeder there to work up a weak stock into a strong. alighting board. Fig. I. Fig. II. Plinth (on large scale). Hive complete. \ \\ SS Fig, III. Fig. LV. Frame, Smoker. Your hive is now ready for the reception of the bees, But before going on to deal with them, I will give you a list of cheap appliances that you will fird useful, APPLIANCES. If you get the following from England in one consignment, they can come by parcel post for one or two shillings :— Feeder (1/6 to 2/9).—I would suggest a Wilke’s Convertible at 2/9 as the most useful. Smoker (1/6 to 4/6).—Get one that blows real smoke. Do not be put off with machines that puff the vapour of chemicals into the hive. A Clark’s Cold Blast at 3/6 or a Bingham at 4/6 are good. Foundation.—One pound. costing 2/, is ample to begin on. Order Natural- based brood foundation. W. B. C. Metal Ends.—These are used for fitting over the projecting ends of the frames (but not the dummy-boards), so as to give accurate spacing between the frames, For European bees one should be placed at each end of every frame; but for the native Mee-Messa, they should be placed on every alternate frame, 330 [May 1907. | Veil.—Can be made of of mosquito-netting, dyed black. If left white, the reflection of the light on the white threads dazzles the eyes. It should go over the hat.and the other end be tucked inside the coat. Gloves should not be worn. They only make you clumsy, and if one bee stings, they hold the scent of the poison, which infuriates the others. If, however, it is judged advisable to wear them for some special operation, an ordinary pair can be used, and the sleeves tied round the wrists with a piece of string to make every- thing bee-tight. (To be continued.) Correspondence, “THE AUSTRALIAN MAGPIE IN CEYLON. A RECENT INTRODUCTION, S1r,—Having turned loose the Australian Magpies I imported last year, may I appeal, through your paper, to the various branch Agricultural Societies in Ceylon to notify the headmen and others in their districts that these birds shall not be molested in any way. At present they are keeping about in this part; but I expect when the S. W. Monsoon breaks, they will move down into Uva. The birds are easily recognizable, being rather smaller than the Ceylon Crow with plumage of black and white—or rather, black and silver. They have two notes—a harsh caw and a plaintive and melodious warble. The latter note may be heard almost any sunny morning by persons passing this house. As these birds are extremely helpful to agriculture, devouring insect pests in great quantities, it will be useful if anyone, noticing their presence in other parts of Ceylon, will inform the Agricultural Society as to date and locality. Then, if we find that they are increasing, we can import and turn loose a further con- signment. They will not eat vegetable food in any form ; so that, if seen hopping about in gardens, they should not be driven away, as they will be clearing the garden of grubs. In view of this, I trust everyone will recognize that itis to his personal advantage to protect them in every way. lam, &c. H. CAMPBELL. Yalta, Nuwara Eliya, 25th March, 1907. TEPHROSIA AS A GREEN MANURE. DEAR Sir,—The weed Tephrosia purpurea, Sinhalese pila, Tamil (N, P.) Kaviléy, is considered by the people of the Jaffna Peninsula to be an excellent green manure for tobacco. I am asked by one of them whether it would not do for tea as well. It is a very common weed, and one of its peculiarities is that it grows in the moist as wellas in the dry regions. But in the former no use appears to be made of it as manure, whereas in Jaffna it isin great demand for this purpose. J. P. LEWIS. Kandy, 23rd March, 1907. [It is one of the Leguminosae, and so will add nitrogen like Crotalaria.—Eb.] USES OF “MUD-KILAVAL.” DEAR Sir,—To mention one more use of the Mud-kilavai (Balsomodendrum Berryi), I have seen carved figures representing different Tamil types or castes made out of the wood, which is apparently fitted for this sort of work. They were sent to the St. Louis Exhibition. J. P. LEWIS, Kandy, 28rd March, 1907. a MAy 1907. ] 331 Correspondence. CEYLON PAPAIN, Sir,—In view of numerous enquiries received with reference to the market value of this preparation from the papaw tree (Carica papaya), the following report from Prof. Dunstan on samples submitted last year by me will be of interest. It may be inferred, however, trom the fact that a local firm is buying a con- siderable quantity every month at a price somewhat over five shillings, that there are other good markets in the world outside England. (Report referred to dated 27th July, 1906, annexed.) C. DRIEBERG, Colombo, 4th April, 1907. Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. (Copy of Report referred to.) Imperial Institute, London 8S. W., 27th July, 1906. Sir,—The two samples of Ceylon Papaw (papain) which were forwarded. to the Imperial Institute with your letter No. 2055 of the 28rd of May last have been submitted to brokers for valuation, and I now forward the following information regarding them. The brokers reported that the probable value of both samples (powdered and granulated) is about 5s per pound, but added that the demand for this material is very limited, They recommend that not more than 50 pounds should be shipped at one time. Papain is regularly offered on the London market, but the sales are not large. On the 22nd July, 1905, a parcel realised the price of 8s 6d per pound, but since that date thereis no record of any public sale. The material has not come into extensive use as a medicinal agent. I am, Sir, Your Obedient Servant, (Signed) WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN. The Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. SNAKE-BITE CURES. DEAR Sir,—Mr. W. A. de Silva, Veterinary Surgeon, Colombo Municipality, has communicated to me his success in the treatment of snake bite in the dog with the root of the papaw tree (Carica papaya), the application of the drug being external. It is worth remembering this as likely to prove useful in'an emergency. In this connection I should like to draw attention to Sir Lauder Brunton’s simple method of destroying snake venom by means of permanganate of potash after scarification of the wound. ‘To facilitate the treatment and place it within the means of all, chemists are now selling cartons, small enough to be carried in the waist-coat pocket, containing both permanganate and a little scarifying instrument. I purchased some ata big firm of druggists in Calcutta for eight annas (50 cents) each, and they could probably be had much cheaper if ordered in quantity from the makers. These cartons should he available at cost price at all Government Dispensaries. Yours truly, C. DRIEBERG, Colombo, 9th March, 1907, Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society. es site, b ae Correspondence. 332 [May I907, THE ABSORPTION OF NITROGEN BY PLANTS. DEAR, Sir,—I enclose a cutting from an Aberdeen paper re “ Absorption of Nitrogen by Plants,” which may interest some of your readers, in view of the recent correspondence there was on the subject, in the local papers. Mr, Trail is the Professor of Botany in Aberdeen University. Yours faithfully, J. M. URQUHART. (Hxtract from the Aberdeen Free Press.) IT recognise Mr. Jamieson’s right to hold his own beliefs as to the mode of absorption of nitrogen from the atmosphere, and I respect the sincerity with which he works, and the courage that he shows in upholding what he believes to be true, against what he considers to be of the prejudice that approaches persecution in the refusal todo honour to a prophet in his own country. I have examined carefully the evidence he has put forward in support of his views, and have formed my own conclusions on it ; but I have not felt called on to make a statement of these conclusions, apart from the bearing on my work asa teacher. But the reticence that was permissible from unwillingness to appear to prejudice Mr. Jamieson’s investigations, and from feeling the uselessness of controversy on a subject in which the evidence on each side can be of interest to only the few to whom study has made it more or less familiar, can no longer be maintained when Mr. Jamieson claims me as a convert to his views, evenin part. I donot doubt his belief that I am so; but it is only an example of the very slight grounds on which he is able to arriveata conclusion favourable to his views. That belief rests on an absolute misunder- standing alike of what I said and of the problem that he is seeking to solve. With reference to his argument that a tree, after growing many years in a soil, left that soil not impoverished in nitrogen to a degree comparable with the nitrogen present in the tree, and that the plant itself must have drawn the excess directly from the atmosphere, I suggested that the argument was not conclusive. It did not take account of what I believe is admitted by everyone acquainted with the work of recent years on the microscopic organisms in the soil, namely, that by their action compounds of nitrogen are being constantly added to the soil, and brought within reach of the roots of green plants. It is generally held that plants do obtain nitrogen from the air in this way ; but this is absolutely distinct from Mr. Jamieson’s claim that he has proved that green plants absorb it directly from the atmosphere, and that the young hairs are the organs of absorption. On this point, I think, after the most careful and unbiassed examination of the evidence that I could make, that he has failed to prove his case, and that he has so completely misunderstood the structures examined by him as to make impossible a true interpretation of their functions. In what follows I shall look at and discuss his evidence only as a botanist, accustomed to the use of the microscope and of the tests employed, and familiarised by years of study with the structures of plants, and with the contents of the cells from their earliest to their mature stages, and also with the conditions under which plants grow, as learned by much time spent in studying them in their natural homes, Turning to the mode of absorption of nitrogen that Mr. Jamieson claims to have discovered, it consists, so far as I can follow his descriptions and figures in the ‘absorption of the nitrogen at the tips of the young hairs in cells which contain chlorophyll or the substance that gives the green colour to plants. This absorption, he supposes, leads to the production of nitrogenous compounds, which are carried down into the leaves at first in a fluid state by narrow tubes, or rather by a cylinder around the space ; and afterwards the more solid material passes down the centre of May 1907] 335 Correspondence. the hair. He ascertained the presence of these nitrogenous compounds by the use of iodine asa test, confirmed by other tests. There is no question as to existence of nitrogenous substance in the young cells everywhere, since the living substance (protoplasm) of a plant, like that of an animal, is present in every living cell and suitable tests will show its presence; but that does not warrant the assumption that its presence proves the absorption of nitrogen from the atmosphere, and the formation of nitrogenous compounds in those cells. Nov is chlorophyll found in the young hairs, as Mr. Jamieson believes it to be. Such colouring matters as occur (as his figures represent them in certain hairs) diffused in the fluid contents of cells are quite distinct from chlorophyll; which in «ll flowering plants is always confined to certain sharply defined biscuit-shaped little pieces of protoplasm (chlorophyll-bodies or chloroplasts), imbedded in the colourless protoplasm of the cells that form the green tissues of leaves and other parts. Coming now to the supposed channels by which the more fluid compounds pass down into the inner tissues, a careful study of Mr. Jautieson’s drawings and explan- ations shows that the channels are neither more nor less than the cell walls, which assume a yellow colour with iodine, but are not hollow. One hardly thinks of the sides of a bucket as affording channels for the transference of the fluid it contains. As for the passage of the more solid materials down the central space of a hair made of a row of cells, the cell-walls that cross that space would seem to make the trans- ference of solids somewhat difficult. I admit that I have found it difficult to under- stand some of the figures, for they differ from anything that [have seen in the examples of the same species examined by myself; but one figure bearing the explanation that it shows the channels that carry the fluid down from a hair to distribute it among the cells below the epidermal layer, appears to me to represent clearly by the channels the walls of palisade-cells, and by its so-called “ cells” the chlorophyll-bodies lying in characteristic fashion, not touching one another, but in fact embedded among the colourless protoplasm within the palisade-cells. I have to apologise for occupying so much of your space, and for the technical character of so much of the above, but it seems due to Mr. Jamieson to give reasons (though by no means all) for not agreeing with his assertion that ‘the mode of absorption was considered to have been demonstrated last year,” or with the view that to acc2pt the fixation of nitrogen by low organisms in the soil and on its surface ‘constitutes acquiescence in the main point’ that he claims to have proved. The assumed mode of absorption, so far from being demonstrated, seems to me to rest on errors both of observation and of interpretation so fundamental that they vitiate his conclusions as tothe tunctions of the parts in question. Iam not, therefore, disposed to throw aside beliefs based on work of those whose methods I have been able to test, and have not found wanting in favour of Mr. Jamieson’s views, however . much I may respect his sincerity, energy, and determination. I should have left him to persevere without any such criticism of his views as this, had he not claimed meas accepting them. I hold there is much to be explained in the laws of life and nutrition of plants as well as of animals; that only ignorance can presume to dogmatise or to refuse to examine honest work on its own merits; but that itis incumbent on everyone who brings forward views opposed to those generally accepted as the result of honest and competent investigation to test the new views most carefully with full understanding of and experience in the best methods of investigation. Thereis no desire so far as ever 1 have seen, to refuse new viewsa fair hearing, but if they claim to prove the falsehood of those already held they must themselves be fit to stand the severest tests of inquiry and criticism. To say that Mr. Jamieson’s appear not tostand these tests is not to commit oneself to the assertion that the relation of the atmosphere to plant life is yet fully understood. That relation is deserving of close and continued investigation.—I am, ete., re JAMES W. H. TRAIL. wy 354 [May 1907. AN ESSAY ON THE BETEL VINE. | Its CULTIVATION AND DISEASES. Mr. M. H. Mirando, Hon. Secretary of the Negombo Branch Agricultural Society, and Muhandiram of Alut Kuru Korale North, has offered a gold medal through the Parent Society for the best essay in English, Sinhalese or Tamil, dealing with the cultivation of the betel vine--soil, planting, manuring, pests and diseases— their prevention and cure—with a view to obtaining the experience of cultivators and others conversant with the subject. The Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, is prepared to receive essays till the end of June. Itis expected that the Government Mycologist will shortly issue a leaflet dealing with the subject of betel disease, and the exhaustive information which it is hoped to get together through this competition wili probably prove of value in the preparation of the leaflet. In view of the great risks to which so remunerative an industry as betel cultivation is exposed, and the heavy loss occasioned by the disease or diseases affecting the vine, the offer made by Mr. Mirando is one which the Society is only too glad to accept in the interests of the numerous small cultivators who make a living out of betel growing, and it is to be hoped that with the assistance of the liberal donor of the prize and the technical advice of the Government expertin plant diseases, it will be found possible to carry on the cultivation with less uncertain prospects than at present. Minutes of the Board of Agriculture. The thirty-first meeting of the Board of Agriculture was held at the Council Chamber at noon on Monday the 6th May, 1907. His Excellency the Governor presided. The others present were :—The Hon. Mr. H. W. Brodhurst, the Hon. Mr. H.L. Crawtord, the Hon. Mr. P. Arunachalam, Mr. J. Harward, Dr. J. C. Willis, Mr. E. B. Denham, Mr. Francis Beven, Mr. E..'T. Hoole, and the Secretary. Visitor :—M. Suppramanian. Business DONE. 1. The Minutes of the Meeting held on April Sth, 1907 were read and confirmed. 2. The Progress Report (No. XXX) was presented and taken as read. 3. The Report on the Southern tour made by the Organising Vice-President and the Secretary, printed in circular form, was laid on the table. Dr. Willis, at the request of His Excellency, supplemented his minute on the report by some further remarks on the respective functions of town and village Agricultural Societies. 4: Reports by Mr. J. K. Nock and Mr. H. F. Macmillan on the Nuwara Eliya Show, and by Dr. Willis, Mr. Nock and Mr. Hoole on the Badulla Show were tabled, 5. The Secretary read a paper entitled ‘‘ A note on the new system of culti- vation in arid districts.” Dr. Willis emphasied the necessity for cultivation, in the true serse of the term, as the only means of conserving moisture in dry districts. His Excellency the Governor also commented on the paper, remarking on the importance of the points raised. 6. Dr. Willis then addressed the meeting on the subject of a Rotation of Crops suitable to Ceylon. His Excellency in the course of his remarks suggested the possibility of improving the method of cultivation in vogue on high lands, by allowing Crown land to the poorer villagers on reasonable terms, to be cultivated according to a rational system of rotation. May 1907.) 335 Agricultural Society Progress Report. No. XXX, Membership.—Since the last meeting the following {members have joined the Society :—W. M. Wade Gery, W. L. Fernando, W. G. Fernando, W. Elaris Fernando, W. Timothy Fernando, and G. E. Bewley. The following Branch Societies have been established and will shortly be affiliated to the Parent Society :—Wanni hat- pattu, Ambalanwatta. Branch Societies.—Mr. N. Wickremeratne, Agricultural Instructor, who lately visited Ambalangoda to investigate the causes of reported failure on a rubber plant- ation there took the opportunity to convene a meeting at Ambalanwatta, with the aid of Mr. H. Napier Dias, planter, on the 19th April, when a committee was formed to carry out details in regard to the formation of a Branch Society at Ambalan- watta, a district close to Galle. Mr. Napier Dias acts as Secretary pro tem. Ata meeting of the Wannit Hatpattu Branch, held on the 12th January, a resolution was adopted to the effect that tobacco cultivation be taken up on a large scale so as tomakeit the staple product of the pattu; it was also agreed that influential members of the Branch Society should make every effort to give cotton cultivation a fair trial in order to find out the suitability of the crop to the district, and whether it could be remuneratively grown. The Katana Branch held a meeting on the 5th April, at which it was decided to hold an Agri-Horticultural Show in November next. As the Katana district proper isof limited extent, it was agreed to add Otara West and Godakaha Vidane divisions to the area from which exhibits will be drawn. A suggestion has been made by the Secretary of the Negombo Society that the Katana and Negombo branches should be amalgamated, but the matter has not yet come before a meeting. The Trincomaiee Society held a Market Fair on the 2nd April which was a great success. The Organizing Vice-President and the Secretary met the members of the Batticaloaand Badulla Branch Societies on their recent visit in connection with the cyclonic disaster in the Eastern Province. At a meeting convened by the local Secretary at Batticaloa on the 22nd April, the Chairman (Mr. Hopkins, Government Agent) presided, and there was a fair attendance. Addresses were given both by the Organizing Vice-President and the Secretary. There seemed to be a general wish that an experimental garden should be established in Batticaloa, and the matter will be taken up before long. The Agri-Horticultural Show at Badulla was well organized, and all exhibit- ing sections were well filled. It was formally opened by His Excellency the Governor at4p.m.on the 26th April and continued on the 27th. The Society offered two prizes of Rs. 25 each for the best native bull and best native cow. Dr. Willisaddressed a gathering on the Show grounds on the 27th April. The Organizing Vice-President and the Secretary intend starting on a tour of inspection in the Northern Province. Opportunity will be taken during the visit to convene meetings of Branch Societies at Jaffna, Mullaittivu, Vavuniya, Anurad- hapura, Kurunegala, and Kegalla. The Central Agency.—It has been decided to hold an experimental sale of produce in Colombo on the 28th instant anda sale of cattle on the 3lst, Mr. A. Y. Daniel acting as agent in Colombo. The sale of produce will probably be held ona spot close to the Municipal Market in the Price Park. The sale will include any kind of produce sent by Branch Societies and members who desire to try the Colombe market: 336 [May 1907. Reperiments at Maha-Iluppalama Hxperimental Garden.—The Superin- tendent reported in January that 14 plantain trees of different varieties and 69 fruit trees of various sorts are established. One-fifth of an acreis under chillies and half an acre under cholam (Sorghum), 17 acres under rubber, and 50 under cotton. Tobacco is inthe nursery, and 5 acres of land are ready for planting as soon as the time arrives. Cotton.—Messrs. Geo. H. Brown & Co., Liverpool, writing to the Hon. Mr, Crawtord on the 2Ist March, say :—“ You will remember our writing to you early in the year about some samples of Ceylon cotton sent to us by the Ceylon Agricultural Society. We remarked on the cleanliness and bloom of the cotton shown in the samples, and pointed out that the value of the cotton in bulk (which we placed roughly at 9d. per lb.) would depend on its equality to sample, and that for trade purposes evenress of quality was of the first importance. The other day Mr. Ob Ween showed a sample of a consignment of four bales (from Ceylon). Thefour bales were of four different qualities varying in value by pence per pound, and not one recognizable as the same cotton as that shown by the Ceylon Agricultural Society’s samples in our possession. It is obvious that care will have to be taken to produce a more even quality in bulk before a variety of cotton new to the market can obtain a footing here.” Mr. M. Suppramanian, broker, Colombo, announces me that he is prepared to purchase any quantity of spinning cotton and silk cocoons from one pound upward. Sisal Hemp.—The Government Agent, Northern Province, writing on the 3rd April, reports :—‘‘ 150 plants were planted at Iratperiyakulam in Vavuniya South. Owing to the rocky nature of the ground they were planted irregularly, 8 and 6 feet apart, in a plot of ground 40 yards by 20 yards. These plants have done well sofar. 150 plants were planted at Kanagarayankulam and Panikkankulam in the Vavuniya North division. Of these only 53 survived, 35 at Kanagarayankulam and 18 at Panikkankulam. These plants were planted 8 feet apart in an area of about one-eighth of an acre. They are doing well. 380 plants were planted in Delft in a plot of ground 2 lachams in extent (one-eighth acre), They were planted in manured holes 8 feet apart, They are doing well. The plants were obtained from the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, and were six to eight months old, some perhaps ten months, when planted.” Rubber Cultivation at Ambalangoda.—Mr. D. F. de Silva Jayawardena of Ambalangoda reported the failure of rubber plants in his Nagaskele estate, one and a half mile inland from sea at Ambalangoda. An Agricultural Instructor was sent down to investigate the cause and secure specimens of affected plants and also of soil for purposes of analysis. The matter is in the hands of the Botanic Department. Sapodilla Seed from Banyalore.—A small supply of sapodilla seed has been received from Bangalore, and is now available to Provincial Road Committees for planting in the resthouse premises. The cost is 80 cents per dozen, Bellary Onion.—Seeds of this onion have been received from India. A few half-ounce packets at 80 cents each are still available. Applications should be sent in at once. Nepaul Chilli.—it is proposed to import a small quantity of this variety, inquiries for which have been received. Assential Oils —Mr. B. Samaraweera of Weligama has submitted an elas berate scheme for experiments under this head. The matter is under consideration, May 1907] 337 Ceylon Rice in the West Indies.—A report has been received from Demerara on the results of experiments made with Ceylon varieties of paddy. This will be published in the Society’s Magazine for general information ; but it is to be gathered from the report that none of the varieties imported can be recommended a; substitutes for local varieties. Kiushu Paddy.—The Ratemahatmaya of Walapane reports that he was successful in getting seven bushels of paddy from half a bushel sown. The Rate- mahatmayas of Uda Hewaheta and Kotmale, and President of Village Tribunal, Uda Hewaheta, report failure in their districts, and they seem to think that the local conditions are not suitable for this variety. A piculture.—Mr. M. Shanks, writing on the 8th April, says :—‘‘ The honey is just beginning to come in. I have one hive on scales; yesterday I sat down beside it and watched the weight going up; from 8 a.m. till noon they gathered exactly one pound. I have other hives doing better, but they are not on scales,” Castration of Cattle.—The Acting Government Veterinary Surgeon reports : —‘T have the honour to inform you that five demonstrations were given during March and the latter part of February last, at which 48 head of cattle belonging to 38 owners were operated upon, and three men trained. Two of these demon- strations were held in Kegalla in the Province of Sabaragamuwa, where 14 head of cattle were operated upon ; 2 were held in Nuwara Eliya District, 20 cattle operated upon; 1 in Wellawaya, 14 cattle operated upon. Demonstrations have been arranged for in the North-Western, Northern, Sabaragamuwa, North-Central, and Southern Provinces. An extensive programme for castration of cattle, both by Stock Inspectors and the locally trained men, has been drawn out for the North- Western Province.” The total number of cattle operated upon this year up to end of April is 56 belonging to 40 owners, and three men have been trained. Publications.—Mr. A. HK. Rajapakse, Mudaliyar, Katunayaka, has subscribed for 25 copies of the ‘“‘Govikam Sangarawa,” to be distributed among the villagers Fertilizers for Haperimental Purposes.—The artificial fertilizers distributed by Messrs. Freudenberg & Co. among members of the Society for experimenta purposes during last year amounted to75 cwts. representing a cost of Rs. 296.18. The fertilizers were given by the firm free of charge. Agricultural Shows.—The following are the fixtures under this head :— Telijjawila Be ec Hee a May 15 and 16 Welimada sos nee ac ans May Matale ah vee Ae ine June 21 and 22 Colombo is £4 3 oy June Kegalla a $3 ame te June 28 and 29 Dumbara ae ne nee ar August Katana Ox ay eee ses November Mullaittivu —... a Ae ees Kmpire Day C. DRIEBERG} May 6th, 1907. Secretary, Ceylon Agricuttural Society ek A eae Jiri the Aon ch GEL a TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST AND MAGAZINE OF THE CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Vou. XXVIII. COLOMBO, JUNE 16rtz, . 1907. No. G. The Work of Local Agricultural Societies. So far as we have yet seen, these societies resolve themselves into two classes--those in towns of some size, such as Galle, Kalutara, or Batticaloa, and those in village districts. Those in the large towns frequently consist entirely or almost entirely not of practical agriculturists, but of lawyers, traders, and others —men whose interest in agriculture is usually indirect, but whoare, generally speaking, possessed of more, and more available, money than the genuine agriculturists. The village societies, e.g., those of Telijjawila, Welimada, or Baddegama, on the other hand, consist more of practical field agriculturists. Now it is obvious that societies of these two kinds should undertake different kinds of work. It will be idle for a town society of the class indicated to work at the best kinds of paddy to grow, or at the way to manure betel pepper, while it will be almost equally idle for the village society to take up any such questions as co-operation, which, in this country, requires outside funds at least to begin with. The society in any one place should concern itself with questions likely to be of advantage in that place, and while a village society should stick more to experi- mental gardens, rotation of crops, trial of new products, and such questions, a town society might with advantage attend more to the necessary preliminaries to success- ful agriculture, such as co-operation in all its forms (seed supply, manure supply, sale of produce, and so on), road inaking, markets, education, and so on. We shall return to this question again. 340 [JUNE 1907. GUMS, RESINS, SAPS, AND EXUDATIONS. Experimental Rubber Tapping in Singapore Botanic Gardens. By Ivor ETHERINGTON. As we are at present only in the first stages of rubber cultivation and have been working more or less in the dark, with but what is really only rudimentary knowledge of the subject, the results of carefully conducted experiments continued over a fair period of time must be regarded as of the greatest importance. Various experiments have been carried out during the last few years in Ceylon and Malaya to determine, among other problems confronting the rubber planter, the most satis- factory and economic methods of tapping, and the effect of tapping upon the trees, upon the quality and flow of the latex,and upon the rubber produced. We must give first place in these experiments to the work carried out at the Singapore Botanic Gardens by Messrs. H. N. Ridley and R. Derry. Their experiments, through the length of their duration, the care with which they have been carried out, and the excellence and comprehensiveness of their results, at present hold premier place; and we must congratulate the Director of the Singapore Gardens on the work initiated by him and carried out under his directions. Last year the first annual report on the experiments was of much interest, but this year the results are of far more importance, after a second year’s con- tinuous work. i FRUITING OF Heveu Brasiliensis. Before dealing with the results we will refer to some remarks in the report on the fruit periodicity of the Para rubber tree, which has a bearing on the tapp- ing results. We note that there is a considerable difference between the trees in the Singapore Botanic Gardens and the average mature trees in Ceylon. In the Straits the trees may bear fruit in any month of the year; although there is a considerable range in the crops and the period of heaviest yield is July—October, with another heavy yield in the month of March. The following table shows the total number of seeds collected in each month for the past nine years in the Singapore Gardens :— January a 32,924 July ate Ree 29,650 February ae 55,800 August .. te 79,600 March ... .- 148,050 September .. 324,515 April... et 56,314 October... ... 291,486 May i) ov... ae 28,097 November is 85,870 June... ae 28,700 December ate 35,807 This agrees more or less with Ceylon; for here we have the main—we may say, the only—fruiting period in the Autumn. The Uva Province is the only dis- trict in Ceylon where we know there is a special Spring fruit period, February— April, corresponding to the Singapore one. But we should be glad to hear from planters in various districts on this point. Variability of seasons seems to affect the fruit yield and the floral activity in the varying seasons. The best crop month in Spring is March, which over a period of 9 years stands third in the annual returns, and varies from nil return in 1905, and only 50 seeds in 1902, to 48,050 seeds in 1901. A similar variation may be observed in the autumn crop for August, which out of a total of 79,600 seeds for 9 completed years produced no less than 60,850 seeds during that month in 1905. An interesting tabulation of the two seed crops and the average year’s rainfall over 9 years, tends to prove that, (1) while there are two seasons when flowers and fruits may occur in some years within the period of a year, there is By: Sune 1907.] 341 Saps and Exudations. never more than one heavy crop; (II) that the Autumn is the more uniform crop of the two, as the Spring has only exceeded the Autumn crop twice in 10 years; and (IID that the Autumn fruit periodicity represents the true normal condition of the tree. FRUIT PERIODS IN BRAZIL. Mr. Ridley does not consider that there are any signs to indicate that Hevea brasiliensis in Malaya dilfers in its characteristics from the indigenous trees in the Amazons; or that it is in astate of transition in the Hast. He quotes Mr. Consul Temple, and Ule regarding the flowering periods in Brazil; the latter authority says the flowering season is July-August, the fruits falling in January-February, and this would agree with a statement ina recent letter to us from Mr. H. A. Wickham regarding his collecting of the seeds in Brazil which produced the original plants in the East. THE RESULTS OF TAPPING. We now come to the tapping experiments themselves. These are admirably arranged and tabulated in the report; but we cannot refer to them here at at all in detail for want of space. We refer to the general conclusions drawn. Full details of the trees, girths, methods and periods of tapping, yields in latex and caoutchoue, etc., are given for each experiment. For instance, we note, in experiment IV., during 1906, groups of 40 trees were tapped, mornings only, on single and full herring-bone methods during 25 days. In 2 groups of single cuts 1,216, and 1,823 fluid oz. of latex were obtained; in the full herring bones, 1,708, 2,816 and 3,385 oz, latex were obtained, giving a total for the 5 groups of 154 1b. dry rubber. The trees averaged 37? inches and 38} inches. There was a period of rest of 4months given the trees, and the average gross yield per tree was 2 lb. 43 oz. In experiment VI, herring-bone tapping, daily tapping shewed a better result than alternate days. TWO TAPPINGS A YEAR. The result of a year’s working “ clearly shows that morning are better than evening tappings, the trees can be tapped twice within the period of a year but the interval of rest should not be less than 5 months; that the dormant months December, January, February yield a smaller percentage of caoutchoue, and that the best season for tapping is from April to November. We have not found any advantage in respect of yield by the spiral over the herring-bone, and considering the small advantage of the double over the single incisions we think the single cut with small trees would best economise the bark,” These authorities have come tothe conclusion that the Para rubber tree responds to shock, and that the tapping instrument capable of making the cleanest and quickest incision is the ideal one. RUBBER PRODUCTION IN PROPORTION TO YIELD OF LATEX. An important result of the experiments is that concerning the production of caoutchouc in proportion to the yield of latex. A falling off in the proportion of caoutchoue to latex in Ceylon trees has already been notified. The latex in the bark is quickly renewed after a period of tapping but the production of rubber is very much slower. Ina trial of spiral tapping on a tree girthing 112 inches, from the first period tapping 531 fluid oz. of latex (half added water, or 2654 oz. pure latex) was obtained giving 9 lb. rubber ; from the second period tapping, one month later, 433 oz. latex gave only 4 lb. 15 oz. rubber—a remarkable difference. This phenomenon is one which cannot be overlooked. It has already been observed in Ceylon, and at the Ceylon Rubber Exhibition (September, 1906) Mr, Kelway Bamber, Ceylon Government Analytical Chemist, brought the matter up in Gums, Resins, 342 (JUNE 1907. discussion. ‘I noticed in working at rubber lately that in the first latex,” he said, “the latex contained 32 per cent of rubber, that is to say that for 3 1b. of latex there was one 1 lb. of rubber; but in all the latex sent to merecently, and from what I hear from planters, the latex does not now equal that proportion, and the caoutchouc has in some instances gone down to 15 per cent. or less. It seems to me the laticiferous tubes are refilled very rapidly, and the actual flow of water into the tubes also is fairly rapid, but there is apparently a slight want of power of formation of actual rubberin the latex, and this I think, must be carefully watched in the future. The yield of the trees certainly has not fallen off; but it must mean that there isa much larger proportion of soft laticiferous tissue and larger secretion of moisture which may possibly render the trees more liable to attacks from insects. There is no knowing how this power of the actual formation of the caoutchoue in the latex may fall off.” Mr. Ridley’s remarks on the subject of much interest. He states: ‘:Itis of the greatest importance to the cultivator in tapping to avoid tapping at the wrong season when he is very liable to interfere with the special physiological processes in the tree then performing their functions. The bark of the tree does not recover as well from wounds during the resting period between December and March, nor does it appear that the return of caoutchouc is as good. Too frequent or prolonged tapping is not only injurious but produces a latex very inferior in its rubber- producing qualities. This can only be due to actual bark injury.” CAOUTCHOUC PRODUCTION AND BARK INJURY. ** Although in over-tapping latex is renewed in the bark quickly, caoutchouc takes much longer to produce, though it does not seem in the worst cases ever to be entirely absent from the latex. The caoutchouc seems undoubtedly to be directly or indirectly produced from the roots, but as the only injury tothe tree in tapping is caused to the bark of the trunk, it seems clear that it is the bark injury only which reduces the amount of caoutchouc in the latex, for it does not seem probable that the roots can be affected by the bark injury.” } Mr. Ridley is very insistent on the point of the ratio of rubber to latex, and he concludes a most interesting and important report—to which we have not done full justice in this notice—in the following paragraph :— ‘It cannot be too strongly pointed out that too frequent or prolonged tapping is injurious and only produces inferior rubber. Kven so recently as the Ceylon Exhibition the discussions show that planters were quite satisfied with prospective rubber crops as judged by the copious flow of latex, not appreciating the fact that it is the quantity or ratio of caoutchouc to latex that alone constitutes the real crop and rich harvest. It will be remembered that in Brazil rubber trees are only tapped for one period of the year; doubtless owing to the country being flooded. The longer interval of rest may represent well matured or well oxidised caoutchouc and partly explain the preference for Brazilian rubber.” WHAT'S WRONG WITH CEYLON RUBBER? A rubber manufacturer in Montreal (Canada), Mr. A. D. Thornton, writes as follows to the Editor of “‘Vhe India Rubber World”: ls it not time that some one veiced a protest regarding Ceylon rubber? As one who has followed this commodity rather closely, and as one of the earliest users, I woud like to impart to your valuable journal my reasons for asking the above question. When we first received samples of Ceylon rubber we were certainly struck by its beautiful appearance, its cleanliness, and so on. We found its tensile strength quite up toany Para; for the purpose of making cement it was unequalled, becatise it had a swell that figured up at least 7 per cent better than Para. June 1907.] 343 Saps and Exudations. But withal we moved slowly ; we watched it; and finally satisfied ourselves that here was a rubber made scientifically and by men of brains, and not by natives, who forced us to buy 20 to 40 per cent of dirt and water. And so we started to use it in fair quantities. The goods looked nice and clean, and we congratulated ourselves.. And now what has happened ? Its uniformity has all gone, it comes in all shapes and in all shades, its tensile strength is lower than the Africans, it won’t cure, some of it is soft, some of itis hard. What have our friends in Ceylon been doing? Experimenting? If so, back to first stages ; they are off the tracks. We madea large batch of cement with it recently and the swell was not more than 25 percent of what it was formerly, and should be. Then again, we find variations in the same case. Why mix it? Placing some weak rubber with the 200d won’t do any good; it only spoils the whole lot. For the sake of the Ceylon rubber industry it is to be hoped that growers will come to their senses and stop fooling before it is too late. The fact thatja sample of Ceylon rubber looks good does not prove that it is good. We know that to our cost; all users know it. If the growers plead ignorance of what is required by the manufacturers, let them import a practical man from some manufacturing country. Ceylon Rubber should be just as reliable as upriver fine Para ; why isn’t it? [This voices a criticism which is being fairly commonly made on East Indian rubbers. Is is fatal to mix qualities. Biscuits and dry sheet, it is now beginning to be realised, though we pointed it out years ago, are practically used for solution only, and there will bea lamentable set-back to rubber growing unless the new ** wet-block” proves good for fine work. It seems to be about as good as fine Para, and it is in that direction that hope lies.—Eb. ‘* T. A.”} RUBBER YIELDING MISTLETOES IN SOUTH AMERICA. The following notes on rubber yielding mistletoes of South America are translated from ‘‘ Tropenpflanzer, for November, 1905. Two or more mistletoes of tropical South America have fruits in which the usual viscin around the seed is replaced by a thick layer of sticky caoutchouc emulsion, which serves the same purpose as viscin in the transport of the seeds by birds. This rubber is not contained in latex tubes, and coagulates spontaneously when the fruits are dried. The large fruited mistletoe is Loranthus syringaefolius. It grows in tropical Brazil, British Guiana, and Venezuela. In the last-named country the fruit ripens in the last three months of the year. The fresh fruits are 3 inch long and j inch broad, In Venezuela it is parasitic on the Ingas, used as shade trees for coffee. These coffee plantations are often at 3,000 feet elevation and this mistletoe has been met with up to 4,600 feet elevation. Its seeds, are transported by avery shy, large, wild dove, and so it is not met with near habitations. The Director of the Venezuela railway obtained 1:7 lb. of rubber from 8 lb, of dry fruit, and considered that a yield of 15 per cent. of pure rubber can confidently be reckoned upon. An analysis of dry fruits in Berlin gave 15°02 per cent, of pure caoutchouc which vulcanised well and 11°35 of resin. In June 1905, rubber from this mistletoe was priced at trom 3s. 2d. to 8s. 6d. per 1b. Some trees covered with the mistletoe have produced 2 cwt. of dry fruits in one season. To obtain the rubber, the dry fruits are crushed with mills or stamps, and the fibre, etc., washed away from the lumps of rubber. The unripe fruits may also be crushed between rollers, washed on sieves, and the rubber emulsion in the liquid coagulated by boiling. Loranthus marginatus also contains rubber. Another rubber-bearing mistletoe Gums, Resins, 344 [June 1907, is Loranthus theobromae, which is found in the region of the Amazon, in British Guiana, and Venezuela. Itis a very common parasite, and grows on Inga, mango and especially on cacao and coffee. It has clasping air-roots. Unripe fruits awe 5 to 10 per cent. of pure rubber, which would mean about twice this percentage fromthe dry fruits. Itis intended to propagate this mistletoe in Venezuela on abandoned cacao and coffee plantations. One coffee plantation already produces four times as much mistletoe berries as coffee from the natural spread of the parasite. It is reckoned that several thousaud tons of wild mistletoe rubber may be obtained in the next few years from Guiana, Venezuela, and Brazil. These parasites can easily be planted on shade trees, etc., by leaving ripe fruits for two weeks in the shade, and then placing them in cuts in the bark of the host plants. The smaller mistletoe, L. theobromae, only needs for propagation that a piece of stem, with sucking roots, shouid be stied to a branch of the host plant. A Non-Rubber Yielding Hevea. By Ivor ETHERINGTON. It is a generally conceded fact that the latex of other trees than Hevea brasiliensis is often employed by the rubber collectors in Brazil to increase the bulk of the products. One authority mentions J/Zimusops elata (the Macandaruba tree). The adulteration of Para rubber by this latex, it is stated, “might account for the great differences that have been occasionally observed in the behaviour of Para rubber in certain stages of manufacture, the coagulated juice of the Mimusops genus resembling gutta percha rather than caoutchouec.” Sapium aucuparium is also said to be largely used as an adulterant. The latest addition to cur information on this subject is a contribution to ‘Journal d’ Agriculture Tropicale” by Monsieur O. Labroy, who has been doing fruitful botanical research work at Manaos (Brazil), the centre of the rubber industry, for a year. Labroy ‘states that the latex of Hevea discolor, Muell. Arg,, cannot be coagulated to give rubber, but that it is used to adulterate latex from good rubber trees. Of this Hevea he says: ‘‘ Prolonged observation of these trees have shown me that they are incapable of yielding a product of any value. Some of them, tapped at different times, have only given a small quantity of uncoagulatable latex. Repeated tapping of young specimens (5 to 7 years of age) and others of mature age (trunks measuring 39 to 58inches in girth), growing on the banks of quiet rivers where only they appear to flourish, gave the same negative results. These proofs notwithstanding, I showed the Heveas in question to two men well versed in rubber exploitation from the lower Rio-Negro; they did not hesitate to assure me that they were only ‘seringueira barriguda’; that is to say of no interest from the point of view of latex yield. They had, however, seen them used in Rio Madeira for adulterating the latex of good rubber trees.” Labroy seems to be a little doubtful as to whether the trees he found in the Manaos district were the real Hevea discolor, found by Martius and Spruce in the same region, and by Ule in the middle Rio-Negro. Botanically the trees are the same; the only difference being in the size and height of the tree and the dimensions of the leaf. Those under observation at Manaos were 33 to 48 feet in height, a straight trunk bare of branches for 18 to 24 feet from.the ground; th main branches being little ramified and rather spreading, “Tt should be noted,” he says, ‘“‘ that the fruit and seeds are exactly alike as possible to those in the illustration given by M. Jumelle in his lecture ‘Les Plantes a caoutchouc et a gutta,’ from specimens of ‘seringa barriguda’ brought from the JUNE 1907. ] 345 Saps and Rxudations. Madeira by M. Bonnechaux. On the contrary, they differ from the drawing Hemsley has given of the fruit of Hevea discolor. At least in the apex which is rather rounded instead of conical.” He adds that at Manaos Hevea discolor always grows in the alluvial soil of slowly flowing rivers, and their seeds falling in great numbers into the water are often collected to serve as bait for the fishermen of Rio-Negro and Solimoes. “*T have collected a large number of these seeds to plant in the rubber gardens of Manaos ; but my attempts remain unsuccessful in spite of care taken in selecting the best seeds. Those [ sent to the Natural History Museum in Paris, gathered from the tree before the bursting of the fruit, have not given better results.” Mr. J. Huber, the eminent authority on the genus Hevea, botanist at the Goeldi Museum at Para, is also inclined to the belief that Hevea discolor does not produce rubber. RUBBER CULTIVATION IN BURMA. The cultivation of rubber in Burma has been in progress for some years past. Not only have the Government, with most commendable zeal for the cause, long since led in this very desirable direction, but private companies and even individuals, have recently gone in for rubber-planting on a large scale. Besides the fifty-seven acres of mature rubber (Hevea) only forming the plantation known as the Mergui Experimental Plantation, now more than 30 years old, the Government of Burma have a large and annually increasing area of plantations of rubber on the island of Mergui. These plantations, which vary in age from one to seven years, are situated in the veserve forest that skirts the feet of the hills of the Sandawut Range. Although an extensive area had also been reserved for rubber planting on the great alluvial flat to the foot of the Kappatoung range on King Island, anda portion been casually planed out at the time, nothing now remains of the experiment. This is a matter for regret, because nowhere in the Oriental tropics are the physical conditions ordinarily speaking more favourable for the cultivation of the Hevea brasiliensis than on King Island and its vicinity. The new plantations on Mergui, considering that work on them was begun more than seven years ago, and that a sum of nearly Rs. 3 lakhs has been spent upon them in that time, are in an unsatisfactory state. Indeed, their present condition is such as will not admit of their public exhibition for the purpose of the demon- stration of Hevea cultivation. And yet this was one of the chiet objects aimed at by the Government in their formation. Lt is asserted that about 3,000,000 plants have been put out on these estates, but, excepting the comparatively limited number of well-grown saplings that follow the courses of the streams which intersect the areas, few are worthy of much account. Future work, particularly if conducted on careful, sytematic and scientific lines, might do much to improve their health and vigour. Fungoid diseases, browsing by deer, and climatic conditions of exceptional inclemency,—these are among the adverse causes which are alleged to have prevent- ed better results being obtained. In the first of these allegations there appears to be some truth, a species of blister, like Peridermium, being known to be des- tructive both to the nurseries and older crops; but that browsing by animals such as deer should have been found effective enough to be made to answer for the generality of the failures that have supervened, is matter for some surprise when itis known that hosts of coolies, bands of shikaris, guns, tom-toms, fences, lights, pitfalls, snares and traps of sorts, have been and continue to be employed for the express purpose of their destruction. The plea of climate would appear to argue that a distinct change for the worse has come over the physical conditions obtaining in the Mergui Archipelago ; but whether so remarkable a variation occured in the Gums, Resins. 346 [JUNE 1907. meteorology of those islands prior to the cultivation of rubber in Mergui, or whether such phenomena have begun to manifest themselves only subsequent to the estab- lishment of the industry, are questions which are interesting at this juncture. Let us now turn to a brief review of the more hopeful work done on private estates. About the time that the Mergui plantations were started, a retired pilot, residing in Moulmein, obtained from the Government the lease of a patch of land in the Amherst District and partially planted it up with Hevea, This gentleman died recently ; but before his death heexperimentally tapped 300 of the oldest trees on the estate and realised a profit of Rs. 2,000/—(£133'6'8 sterling). It remains to be noted that this plantation is situated on a sub-soil of hard laterite, which is admitted- ly none the best for the perfect development of the species. The results obtained are, therefore, encouraging. Again, a wealthy Chinaman, a merchant in Rangoon, owns 5,000 acres of waste land at Twante. Three years ago he opened out 800 acres with Hevea rubber. The majority of the plants are below 10 feet in height, but the few which have grown better give promise of gpod development in the future. This plantation has been heard of in England whence an offer of £80,000 has been recently made for it; but it is said that the owner wants £100,000, and such is the boom in rubber and rubber land that there seems to be every probability of his obtaining the price he asks. A German firm in the Rangoon export trade owns nearly 5,000 acres on the banks of the Sittang River, in the Shwegyin District. It began work about two years ago and has already opened out a Hevea plantation of something like 2,000 acres. The concern is being managed by a Ceylon planter and is likely to result in a commercial success, as the average height of the majority of the older plants is already 20ft, Besides this large plant- ation, there are two smaller ones in the same district that are owned and worked by private individuals,—the one a Burman and the other a Kurasian. On the Karen Hills that rise tothe east of the railway from Rangoon to Mandalay, the Karens have for many years been cultivating the Ceara rubber tree (Manihot Glaziovii). The species flourishes on the lower hills, but from ignorance in the methods of tapping it, and the present depreciation in the value of its rubber, the industry has of late declined. At the feet of the same range of hills and opposite the little town of Yedashe, near Toungoo, a German gentleman last year opened a Hevea plantation of 20 acres which he intends extending shortly. The plants here are only one year old, but are already 15ft. high. Farther up the railway line, ata distance of about 26 miles from Toungoo, a Hevea plantation of 200 acres was started last year by a party of Earasians. Twenty acres were cleared, and planted in the rains in Juneand July. Many of the plants are already seven feet high. The estate is situated in an alluvial trough, or pocket, occuring near the banks of the Swachoung, which isa tributary of the Sittang River. Besides these plantations others are in course of being opened out near the tin mines at Maliwun and elsewhere on the mainland of Tenasserim as well as on some of the islands lying off that coast. All these Hevea estates have been planted with seed imported from planta- tions of the species in Ceylon. They stand upon land that has been obtained by lease from the Government, who are evidently much in earnest about encouraging the cultivation of rubber in the Province. Under the special notification that has been recently issued to meet the requirements of the industry in Burma, land to the extent of 1,000 acres. iu each case, is leasable for the purpose from the Deputy Com- missioner of the District, Leases of larger areas require the sanction of the local Government and, if very large, that of the Government of india. The land is usually granted on a thirty years’ lease and is exempt from taxation for the first twelve years; and after this, it is to be assessed at no higher rate than that prevailing at the time in the district in which the estate is situated for the better JUNE 1907.) BAT Saps and Exudation. classes of rice land. This itself. ranging as it does between Rs.'1-8'ann Rs. 3 {per acre, cannot be said to be at all excessive. The inter-cultivation of accessory catch crops e.g., bananas, tapioca ete., has to be strictly subordinated to the principal crop. Again, should any portion of the lease land at any future time prove unsuitable for the cultivation of rubber, it could be excluded from thejlimits of such lease land and the taxation upon it remitted. For the rest, every facility is afforded the applicant for the Speedy acquisition of the area to be leased. § For cinstance, ithe surveying fee of eight aunas per acre which is the only charge made by Govegnment has to be paid into into the District Treasury and a copy of the receipt for the money appended to the application tor the lease. A rough sketch map of the area itself, which has to be previously demarcated by the applicant, should also form an enclosure to the application. In the body of the latter has to be stated the situation and limits of the land applied for, whether it has been demarcated by the applicant, the nature and duration of the lease sought for, the purpose for which the land is required, the kind and character of the catch crop to be raised, and such other information as will appear to be necessary under under the various headings of the form of application laid down in the Burma Land Revenue Code. The application is usually made direct to the Deputy Commissioner of the District ; but it may also be submitted to one or other of his Subdivisional Officers{or to the Officers in immediate charge of the Township in which the land is situated. The survey season lasts from November to the following May, at any time during which applications may be made and leases obtained. To their credit be it mentioned, the Officials of the Revenue Department of Burma are among the most accessible, amiable and obliging in the survice, In view of the facts that in the districts of Lower Burma, especially in those of the Teasserim Division, which extends froma little above Toungoo down to the southernmost end of the Province, extensive areas of alluvial deposit are available for the cultivation of the finest rubber, and of the most encouraging attitude of the Government, the prospects of the industry must be regarded as good. In so far asit has already progressed, the remarkable results that have been attained, particularly by private enterprise and endeavour, claim recognition as something more than an indication of the possibilities of rubberin Burma. They will also, it is hoped serve to encourage studied, systematic and sustained effort in the future. The most suitable areas in the Tenasserim Division for the purpose of the cultivation‘of the Hevea brasiliensis are clearly those that lie along the banks of the lower courses of the Sittang and Salween, the Great and Little Tenasserim Rivers, the Lenya, Pakchan and lesser streams. Too these must, of course, be added the diluvial accretions which, like troughs or tablelands, are to be sometimes met with ‘on the larger of the islands of the Mergui Archipelago. Such a trough exists on King Island, which has been apparently abandoned by the Government expert. Inj these areas, again, that land is best which lies under cover of evergreen forest, because; besides the admittedly favourable alluvial or diluvial silt which constitutes the soil and sometimes also the subsoil of the locality, the additional deposits of vegetable mould and animal remains that accrue toit by the presence of forests help to form pabula that are rich in ingredients favourable to the highest develop- ment of the species: -Although the price of rubber has appreciable declined {from what it was at this time last year, there is still the amplest scope for Hevea before its value will have declined low enough or the manufacture of the chemical product made cheap enough to militate against its growth for trade. The present, there- fore, affords a fitting, while it is at the same a fleeting, opportunity for would be cultivators of the plant in Burma.—Indian Agriculturist. 45 , Gums, Resins, 348 [JUNE 1907, INDIA RUBBER MARKET, LonpDon, April 12th.—At to-day’s auction, 557 packages of Ceylon and Malaya plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 240 were sold. The total weight amounted to over 26 tons, Ceylon contributing about 9}, and Malaya nearly 163} tons. In sympathy with the Para market, the auction was characterised by rather slow competition, and prices generally marked a slight decline on last sale rates. Where bidding was under merchants’ ideas, the offerings were generally with- drawn for private treaty, and in these cases, as a rule, more money was forthcoming after the auction. None of the finest quality of Crepe changed hands. Another exceptionally fine lot of Rangbodde Ceara biscuits was well competed for and realised the highest price in the room, viz., 5s. 10}d. per 1b. Scrap was a little irregu- lar during the sale, but afterwards there was a better demand for this grade privately. Plantation fine to-day.—is. 7d to 5s. 10$d., same period last year, 6s. 23d, to 6s. 8id. Plantation scrap,—4s. Id. to 4s. 6?d., same period last year, 4s. 5d, to 5s. 5d. Fine hard Para (South American).—4s. 11d., same period last year, 5s. 5d. Average price of Ceylon and Malaya plantation rubber.—240 packages at 5s. 44d. per lb., against 100 packages at 5s. 11d. per lb. same period last year. Particulars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. Hapugastenne 1 case darkish scrap, 4s 44d. Rangalla 1 do good palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 7d. Culloden 1 do fine palish, 5s 47d; 13 cases good palish, 5s 5d; 1 case fine pale and dark block, 5s 8d. Talagalla 38 do fine dark biscuits, 5s 7d; tods 7td; 2 cases good pressed scrap, 4s 43d. Warriapolla 38 do very fine pale biscuits, 5s 77d; 2 cases darker, 5s 73d; 1 case good dark, 5s 7id. Sunnycroft 1 do good rough biscuits, 5s 7d; 1 case barky scrap, 4s 32d. Rangbodde 1 bag very fine pale Ceara biscuits, 5s 104d. Waharaka lease good rough biscuits, 5s 7d; 2 cases dark scrap, 4s 44d. Ambanpitiya 1 box pood palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 7d; 1 box lump scrap, s 4d. Ayr lease good darkish biscuits and sheet, 5s 7d; 1 case good pressed scrap, 4s 44d. Ambatenne 3 do fine palish biscuits, 5s 74d; 2 cases darker, 5s 7id; 1 2 cases darker, 5s 74d; 1 case fine amber sheet, 5s 74d; 1 case fine scrap, 4s 6d; 3 cases and 1 bag good dark scrap and rejections, part sold 4s 47d to 5s 3d, Densworth 2 do ie palish to darkish biscuits, 5s7d; 1 case fine scrap, 4s 5d. Polatagama 6 do good rough biscuits, 5s 7d; 1 case cuttings, 4s 74d; 1 case scrap and cuttings, 4s 6d. Weoya do scrap and cuttings, 4s 6d. 1 Halwatura 38 do good dull biscuits, 5s 74d. 1 Nilambe do good palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 7d; 1 case good pressed scrap,4 s 53d, MALAYA. Pataling 3 do brownish and black, 4s 11#d. V.R. Co. Ld. Klang ; F.M.S, (intriangle)3 do good palish to darkish, 5s 4d; 8 cases good dark smoked block, 5s 44d ; 16 cases fine pale and palish crepe 5s 73d; 4 cases good palish, 5s 44d; 7 cases fine dark smoked block, S 140. : JUNE 1907.} 349 Saps and Exudations. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. S.R. Co. 24 cases fine washed sheet, 5s 74d; 9 cases fine palish to darkish crepe, 5s3id; 7 cases good darkish, 5s 1d to 5s 14d; 4 cases good dark, 5s 1d. E.B. & Co (in tri- angle) 3 do good sheet, 5s 74d; 1 case rejected sheet, 5s 7d; 1 case good dark sheet, 5s 7d; 1 bag serap and pieces, 4s 1d. R.R. (S. in diamond)4 do fine amber sheet, 5s 74d ; 2 cases good scrap, 4s 4d; 1 case rejections, 4s 33d; 9 cases fine amber sheet, 5s 74d to 5s 74d ; 1 case rejections, 5s 84d; 1 case scrap, 4s 84d; 2 cases lace scrap, 4s 3$d. K. M. (in diamond) 2 do fine amber sheet, 5s 74d ; 1 case rejected sheet, 5s 6d. Yam Seng 11 do fine amber sheet, 5s 74d ; 7 cases dark scrap, 4s 4d; 3 cases rejections, 4s 384d. B.M. & Co. P. 8 do fine amber sheet, 5s 74d to 5s 73d; 4 cases good scrap, 4s 4td ; 3 cases lump scrap, 4s 34d ; 2 cases rejections (part uncured), 4s 5d. S.P. (in circle) 1 bag good biscuits, 5s 7d; 1 bag small rejected biscuits, 5s1d; 1 case good darkish, 4s 24d. G.K.K.B. (in dia- mond) _ 2cases very fine amber sheet, 5s 73d. S.S.B.R. Co. Ld. (in diamond 8 do fine amber sheet, 5s 74d; 1 case fine pale scrap, 4s 6d; 1 case good dark, 4s 5id; 6 cases fine amber sheet, 5s 74d; 1 case very fine scrap, 4s 63d; 1 case good rejections, 4s 6d. Kepong 3 do pressed undried crepe, 4s 4d. Lonpbon, April 26th.—At to day’s auction, 862 packages of Ceylon and Malaya plantation grown rubber were under offer, of which about 379 were sold. The total weight amounted to over 46} tons, Ceylon contributing about 114, and Malaya over 34? tons. The largest quantity of plantation rubber yet offered was brought for- ward at to-day’s auction. Competition was somewhat restricted, buyers’ ideas being frequently below sellers’ limits, resulting in unusually heavy withdrawals. Prices generally marked a decline of over 1d. per lb. on rates current at last sale. A fine parcel of block from the Lanadron Estates brought the highest price, namely, 5s. 10hd. to 5s. 11d. perlb. Plautation fine to-day.—5s, 74d. to 5s. 11d. same period last year, 6s. 23d. to 63.3d. Do. scrap.—3s, 11}d. to 4s. 5d, same period last year, 4s. to 5s. 34d. Fine hard para (South American).—4s, 10$}d, same period last year, 53. 44d. Average price of Ceylon and Malaya plantation rubber.—379 packages at 5s. 44d. per lb., against 227 packages at 5s. I1jd. per 1b, same period last year. Parti- culars and prices as follows :— CEYLON. MARK. QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. Wavena l case good scrap, 4s 3d. Culloden 4 do brownish pressed crepe, 5s 1id; 38 cases darkish pressed crepe, 5s 2d. Ellakande 1 do very fine palish scrap, 4s 5d. Langlands 10 do good dull biscuits, 5s 64d; lease scrap and rejections, 4s 2td ; 1 case fine pale and palish biscuits, 5s 6d. Whitheragama 3 do fine amber sheet, 5s 6d ; 1 bag good dull biscuits, 5s 3; 1 case spun-ball scrap, 3s 84d ; 1 bag rejections, 3s 83d. C.Y.(inestatemark)3 do fine palish to darkish biscuits, 5s 6d. C.L.(indiamond) 4 do good pressed scrap, 4s 3jd; 8 cases good dark pressed scrap, 4s 34d. Kipitigalla 1 do fine palish block, 5s, Yatipawa 7 do good scrap, 4s 3fd, Gums, Resins. MARK. Dangan 1 Sorana 4 Taldua 1 Waharaka 2 Clara 1 Doranakande 83 MARK. Highlands 26 V.R. Co. Ltd. Klang F.M.S. (in tri- 550 QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. case good pressed scrap, 4s 23d ; 1 case rejections, 4s 23d. do do angle) 1 do S. R, Co. 18 do K.P. Co. Ltd. 9 do P.S.E. 8 do Yam Seng 11 do K, (in diamond) 5 do Matang 6 do Cc. R. R. W. C, oF triangle) B.R.R, Co. Ltd. , L. C. Muar Straits (in triangle) 45 B.M. & C. 3 B. & D. 1 Damansara 10 do do do do do do very fine pale and palish biscuits, 5s 64; 2 cases darker, 5s 64d. good dark biscuits, 5s 53d ; 1 case dark scrap, 3s 113d. earthy scrap, 4s 33d. moog thick darkish biscuits, 5s 8d; 1 case pressed scrap, 4s ¢ gdod dull biscuits, 5s 53 ; 1 case rejected biscuits and sheet, 4s 9d; 1 case good pressed scrap, 4s 3}d; 1 case dark, 4s lid; ; 2 cases rejections, 4s 2d. MALAYA QUANTITY, DESCRIPTION AND PRICE PER LB. fine washed sheet, 5s 63d; to 5s 63d ; 4cases good darkish erepe. 5s 33d ; 6 cases darkish and. brownish, 5s 2; 10 cases fine washed sheet, 5s 64d; 5 cases fine palish and darkish crepe, 5s 3id;3 cases good darkish, 5s 2d; 21 cases good darkish washed sheet, 5s 63 od 18’ cases fine palish to darkish crepe, 5s 1{d ; to 5s 34 6 cases good dark, 4s 11d}. very fine pale crepe, 5s 74d ; 5s 383d fine washed sheet, 5s 6jd; 5 cases good darkish crepe, 5s 23d ; 12 cases good dark, 4s 11d; 8 cases dark black, 4s 10d, fine amber sheet, 5s 6{d ; 2 cases good lace, 4s 5d ; 6 cases braky scrap, 4s 2+d 3 cases good dark sheet, 5s 53d; 1 case good lace, 4s 5d ; 2 cases fine scrap, 4s 44d, very fine amber sheet, ds 6dd. fins amber sheet, 5s64d; 7 cases good dark serap, 4s 23d. 3 cases rejections, 4s lsd. 5 fine washed sheet, 5s 6d; 1 cases dark Re 4s lid; 1 bag lace, 4s 5d; 1 case rejections, 3s 93d; 1 bag rejected sheet, 4s 14; 1 bag rough sheet, 4s i1}d. fine amber sheet, 5s 6d ; 2cases dark scrap, 4s 13; 1 bag lace, 4s 5d; 1 case rejections, 3s 93d ; 1 bag rejected sheet, 4s lid ; 1 bag rough sheet, 4s lid, 7 cases fine palish to darkish, bag earthy scrap, 2s 43d. good. palish and darkish, 5s 33d; 7 cases good darkish 5s 2id. very fine block, 5s 10:d; to 5s 11d; 9 cases geod darkish crepe, 5s 2$d ; to 5s 3d fine amber sheet, 5s 6d. bag very fine pale sheet, 5s. 6d ; 1case good biscuits and sheet, 5s. 3d; 1 case blocked scrap, 3s 9¢d; 1 case good palish biscuits, 5s. 6id; 1 case good dull biscuits, 5s osd ; 1 case rejections, 4s aid. good blocked crepe, 5s. 43d ; 2 cases good dark, 4s 3d to 4s 6d. GOW, WILSON & STANTON, LTD. Lonbon, (F UNE 1907. JuNE 1907.] dol OILS AND FATS. THE AFRICAN OIL-PALM. The African Oil-palm isan abundant plant almost all over tropical Africa and has thence been distributed all over the world, and grows and thrives in all parts of the tropics. It is very common in cultivation in Singapore as an ornamental plant, as it grows very readily and well and fruits regularly. Its fruits produce the oil known as Palm-oil, which is exported extensively from Africa, but of which no use is made in Hastern Asia. There is no reason for its not being cultivated for profit as it gives a good return in Africa at little expense, and Dr. Preuss, who knows the plant well in the German African Colonies where it is an important article of trade was surprised on seeing how well and quickly this plant grew in Singapore, that it was not cultivated for profit, as he affirmed it was amore valuable palm than even the coconut. An attempt to introduce the cultivation into Labuan was made by Dr. (now Sir) Joseph Hooker in 1876. Mr. Treacher was then Governor of Labuan, and took much interest in the idea. The island of Daat was selected as a suitable locality and seeds were sent from which 700 plants were raised which throve well and fruited» but ten years later were removed to make room for coconuts. (Kew Bulletin 1889, p. 259.) The plant has long been cultivated in Singapore. It was in the Botanic Gardens in 1895, and is to be seen in almostall private grounds. In Central and Western Africa it is one of the most important economic plants and as Dr. Preuss says itis the only plant in the world which can with the least possible care, and without diminution of crop furnish a rich harvest for many decades. The annual export of Palm-oil and kernels from Atrica is valued at 50 million marks. CULTIVATION. The Oil-palm is raised from seed, which can be sown in beds, and later planted out, when they are about a foot tall. They should be planted not less than twenty feet apart. The soil it prefers is damp semi-marshy soil (S. Freeling in Kew Bulletin 1889, p. 262), where water however, does not stand. Inarid dry soil it becomes stumpy and grows very slowly sometimes bearing at four feet, instead of develop- ing to 10 or 12 feet in height. This account of the plant as it grows in Lagos is quite confirmed by its habits here. In stiff clay it makes hardly any growth. Plants grown in the gardens in this situation have in18 years or more not madea stem more than 2 feet tall while trees planted at the same date ina lower and damper spot are magnificent trees of 20 feet tall, ‘The biggest or rather tallest one in the gardens, forty feet tall, is growing in damp ground with the sago palms. It may be about thirty years of age. One planted by the edge of the lake where it has much water but not stagnant water atits roots, has only attained since 1897, a height of 2 feet, but it fruits heavily. There is some advantagein having the tree not too tall, as it is easier to gather the nuts and to protect them too from squirrels which are very partial, to them. The palm does not seem to possess many enemies, A species,of Rhyn- chophorus attacks it in Africa but according to Dr, Preuss, does not do much harm, TI have never known the common coconut Rhynchophorus nor the larger species attack it. The tree begins to fruit about 5th and 6th year, and is said to last in bearing for 60 years or more, and produces three or four more rarely five or as many as seven, bunches of fruitin the year, There seems tobe some variation in the returns in Oils and Fats. 352 [June 1907. different parts of Africa. Pechuel Loesche states that each bunch weighs 30 kilo- grammes, from which 2°94 kg. oil and 3°84 kg. kernels can be got, Its yearly output is 120 kg. fruit or 11°76 kg. oil, and 15°36 kg. kernels. Warburg says a planter can reckon on 50 kg. fruit a year. In the Kew Bul- letin it is stated that 3,276,000 gallons of palm-oil are the product of 1,638,000 trees which gives 2 gallons of oil to each tree. Molony says each tree gives 40 pounds weight of fruit, and it takes 30 to 35 pounds of fruit to make a gallon of oil. The tree in good ground here (Singapore) certainly fruits well, but no record has been kept of the weight of fruit. produced. Dr. Preuss, when on a visit to the Gardens, expressed surprise at its fertility and was still more surprised that it was not cultivated largely in a country so well suited for it. PREPARATION OF THE OIL. The native method of obtaining the oil is to throw the sprays of fruit which contain as many as 4,000 nuts into a pit till they become somewhat decayed. The fruit is then pounded ina mortar till the husky fibre covering the nut is loosened. Then they are placed in large clay vats filled with water and trampled on till the oil comes to the surface, when itis collected and boiled to get rid of the water Simmons Tropical Agriculture). In Togo the fruit is trodden out in a wooden trough (Tropenpflanzer 1899, p. 125). On the Gold Coast when the nuts are ripe they are cut and thrown into pits till a sufficient quantity is obtained to make oil. During this time they undergo a small amount of fermentation and the produce is known as ‘‘hard” oil, the fresh nuts giving a ‘‘soft” oil which is more highly valued in European markets. The nuts are then boiled to soften the fibre, heaped up in stone troughs and beaten with sticks till the fibre is loose. The heap of nuts is then covered with plantain leaves and left for twelve hours when great heat is developed anda quantity of oil runs off. The nuts are then washed in hot water and the fibre separated and squeezed by hand, The oilis then boiled to separate the water. (W.F. Hutchinson in Kew Bulletin 1891, p. 190). Asis pointed out in the above article, the process is defective in every stage; the nuts should be treated fresh and when just ripe, and should not be allowed to ferment as this darkens the colour of the oil and causes it to harden. The separation of the fibre by beating and hand squeezing is slow and imperfect, and machinery and hydraulic presses should be used. A quantity of the oil, 25 per cent., is lost by the imperfections of the method and the final boiling of the oil darkens it. Owing to the great export of the oilfrom Africa, however, machines have been invented for decorticating the kernels and pressing out the oil; one of which invented by the firm Haake of Berlin, won a prize offered by the Kolonial Wirts- chafticher Committee, of 1,500 marks, which seems to do its work very well (Revue Cult. Coloniales 1904, p. 56). Palm-kernels. The seeds of the oil-palm also produce an oil of value, and it can be obtained from the fruit of which the palm oil of the fleshy covering has been removed and from seeds picked up, fallen beneath the trees. The kernels are hard and woody, and require to be dried thoroughly in the sun, and shipped home as palm-kernels. To make oil from them locally the native pounds and grinds the kernels very ‘fine. They are then put in cold water and stirred by hand, the oil rises in white lumps to the surface, is collected and boiled. It is ofa light straw colour, but exposed to sun and dew becomes white. This gives white kernel oil. Brown or black kernel oil is made by frying the kernels ina pan and pounding them ina wooden mortar and then they are finely ground, then thrown into boiling water when the oil foats on the surface and is skimmed off. The remains of the pounded nuts are removed JUNE 1907.] 353 Oils and Fats. from the fire and spread out in a bowl to cool, ground again and beaten by hand with a little water, till the oil comes out in small pellets ; when this is seen a large quantity of water is added and the oil floats on the top. It is skimmed off and boiled. Of course, however, the oil would be better obtained by machinery and as there are already oil-millsin Singapore, should the plant be cultivated in sufficient quantity, it would pay best to send the oil-seeds direct to the factory, A machine has been invented in Germany which hurls the seeds against a plate with such force as to break them and set free the kernel, and this machine is found to be a very satisfactory working one. The kernel oil is more highly valued than that of the husk and isalways in demand. There seems no doubt that this plant may well be worth planting for the sake of its seeds and oil pulp in the Malay Peninsula, as it requires really hardly any attention except in actual planting and gathering the seed.—Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and Federated Malay States, February, 1907. [The oil-palm grows well in Ceylon, and was experimented with about 1880-86, especially in the Matale district where a good many trees can still be seen. It was not found able to compete with coconut-oil and was gradually given up again.—Ep. “7. A,”] OIL FROM THE SEED OF THE CEARA RUBBER-TREHE. In a previous number of the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (1903, 1. 156) an account was given of the properties of the fixed oils from the seeds of the Para rubber-tree (Hevea brasiliensis) which had been examined in the Scientific and Technical Department. It is interesting to note that a somewhat similar oil is yielded by the seeds of the Ceara rubber-tree (Manihot Glaziovii), and has been examined recently by Fendler and Kuhn (Ber. deut. Pharm. Ges., 1906, 15, 426). This oil is described as of a greenish-yellow colour, with an odour resembling that of olive oil, anda somewhat harsh and bitter taste. The constants of the oil are given below, and for the sake of comparison the corresponding constants of Para rubber seed oil are also quoted :— Ceara rubber Para rubber seed oil. seed oil. Specific gravity Sie ae ey 0°9258 0°9302 Acid value ... Se ies aes 2°18 10°7 Saponification value ... Este ae 188°6 206°1 Reichert-Meisel value... ao Fry: O07 — Iodine value... ate aes ARR 187°0 per cent. 1283 per cent. Unsaponifiable matter ses 09 = The mixed fatty acids of Ceara rubber seed oil consist of 10°97 per cent. ‘solid acids ” (melting-point, 54° C.) and 89°03 per cent. ‘‘ liquid acids.” The oil “‘ dries” in about ten hours when kept at 55 C. in the air, but only after several weeks if exposed to the air at the ordinary temperature.— Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, Vol. IV., No. 4, 1906. {It might be worth the while of those who have many trees to experiment with this oil.—Eb. ‘‘ 7. A.”} eee eee! eels “7 Oils and Fats. 354 _ (JUNE ‘1907. CEYLON COCONUT OIL IN THE AMERICAN MARKET. A prominnent American oil importer describes the situation of the United States market in the ‘‘ Oil Reporter” as follows :—Covering the question of Ceylon coconut oil, and Cochin coconut oil, it became apparent early last summer that there was more or less truth in the reported shortage of copra. In the past these cables coming from the Far Hast have always been taken somewhat sceptically by the importing trade and consumers here, but developments showed that inthis case there was an actual shortage. The position of the market was not the result of manipulation in the Far East, or in London, but was due to the actual short supply of copra. The soap trade of the United States were the last to accept this position. as they have been for many years accustomed to taking the bear side of the argument in the purchase of their soap stocks, in the main winning out. This put most of the large manufacturers, and all of the small consumers in a very awkward position in the late fall, when they were compelled to come into the market and buy coconut oil to fill their contracts for soap. Undoubtedly these contracts caused them considerable loss. It became apparent at the turn of the year that most of the manufacturers had re-adjusted their prices for coconut oil soaps to meet the new conditions, from which we do not see any possible chance of release for the next six months. One question that will have to be very carefully weighed at the present moment is, have the short interest covered their commitments? The prices ruling during September—December, both inclusive, were very tempting to any importer who cared to take liberties with the market, and what business was done on the short side was probably for November—December or December—February shipments from the East. The extent of these operations is of course, hard to determine, and it would be pure guesswork to hazard anestimate. The parties making the sales are undoubtedly in a position to stand the losses they will have to take when the time comes to declare shipments to their buyers. The feeling generally is that these shorts exist and the quicker they are made good and gotten outof the way, the quicker the atmosphere will clear. Cables received have had a very disturbing effect on the market, by advising of the burning of the Kelani Oil Mills in Ceylon. This plant produced fully 20 per cent of the coconut oil shipped from the island of Ceylon. It is quite likely that the owners of this mill lost considerable oil in the fire and that they had contracted to ship oil not yet made, in anticipation of their turning it out from their own mill. Whether or not they will have to go into the open market to fill these contracts depends under the provisions of the contract. They may have sold on the contract providing against contingencies beyond their control, such as strikes, fires etc., in which event they could consider the sales void. This would necessitate the importers here either cancelling their sales for the same reason or going into the open market for the goods. This situation will be a dis- turbing factor in the market for the next ninety days. The most recent quotation received on coconut oils quote the full equivalent of 9} cents. New York for Veylon and 9} cents for Cochin, for January-March bills of lading from the East, and the stock available here is about as low as has been seen in many years. JUNE 1907. | 355 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER AND PAPER PULP IN BURMA. Notwithstanding the fact that indigenous paper mills exist in India enormous quantities of papers of all kinds are imported annually into India and Burma. It has often been pointed out that the extensive forests of the country must and undoubtedly do contain vast quantities of materials suitable for paper-making from wood pulp. The manufacture of paper from this latter article may be said to have been brought toa fine art on the Continent of Europe and in America. It is true that some experts have said that this paper is not suitable for use for permanent records since it is contended that it will crumble to pieces in a few years. We are not aware that this contention has ever yet been proved, in spite of the controversy that has been waged over the point tor some years past. The question that has forced itself to the front is, is it possible to manu- facture from the local forest resources in India a paper that could compete successfully with the imported wood pulp article. To decide this problem the Government of India last year requested Mr. R. W. Sindall to visit Burma and report on the possibility of utilising wood, bamboo and other fibres as raw material for paper-making. Mr. Sindall’s enquiry extended over four months and the results are embodied in the Report before us. As long ago as 1873 the Government of India issued details of the paper trade then carried on principally by natives of India, quoting the names of the plants in use for paper-making and also of others considered to be serviceable. Since that several pamphlets have appeared but no appreciable progress has been made. Mr. Sindall’s first experiments were with bamboos, and he shows that a paper pulp of excellent quality can be prepared from these and can be made ata price which will leave a considerable margin of profit. A ton of unbleached bamboo pulp can be produced for about £5-10-0 including manufacturing cost, interest, and sundry charges. This cost supplemented by freight and other charges to England on pulp manufactured for export would be increased to about £7-10-0 as the price delivered at London or Liverpool. As the pulp is of an excellent quality a higher price than that would be realised since wood pulp is ordinarily valued at from £8 to £9 per ton. Therefore as an article of export there appear to be considerable chances before such a trade. As regards local paper mills the author considers that the erection of such would offer prospects of a lucrative business in Burma in view of the large demand for paper existing in the country. With a view to starting such an industry he suggests that the Government of Burma might very probably arrange to have several tons of picked bamboo sent to Europe for treatment on a large scale for ultimate conversion into paper. Such an experiment would help to determine the value of such paper on the home market. Mr, Sindall next turned his attention to several different kinds of Burman trees with the object of ascertaining whether they would furnish a suitable wood pulp. Twenty-four samples of woods were tried and found wanting. The trees tried were Spondias mangifera, Gmelina arborea. Anthocephalus Cadamba, Bombax malabaricum. Mr. Sindall’s verdict on the woods was that though they might find a local market in Burma for cheap paper the pulp would not be able to compete with the high class wood pulps obtainable in England. The most suitable of the woods appear to be Spondias mangifera, Gmelina arborea, Anthocephalus Cadamba, Bombax malabaricum. In connection with the use of the woods it should be borne in mind, 46 Fibres. 356 [JUNE 1907. Mr. Sindall says, that the cost of sufficient raw material to make one ton of indif- ferent wood pulp is Rs. 21 and the trees are difficult to collect, whereas the cost of preparing one ton of excellent bamboo pulp is only Rs. 22-80 and the bamboos are easily collected. For ourselves we should like to see careful experiments made with the spruce, silver fir and blue pine forests which cover such large tracts in the N.-W. Himalaya with the object of comparing the wood pulp obtained from them with that of Enrope. Ican scarcely be doubted that the day will arrive when paper mills run by water power will be erected in the outer Himalaya and that fortunes will be made in the Indian wood pulp trade. Mr. Sindall also experimented with rice straw, which produced a fairly tough pulp and would make up into good paper and tough-card board and with the Khing grass so common in Burma, which also gave a good pulp. This grass grows rank, but with systematic cutting the author considers that it would give a splendid fibre and asserts that an investigation of this product might amply repay the trouble.—Jndian Forester, February, 1907. > he Re Jung 1907.) 357 EDIBLE PRODUCTS. HOW TO SAVE THE BEST TOBACCO SEED. Where it has been proved that a certain type of tobacco thrives best, and gives the best return to the grower, every effort possible should be made to still further improve that type, or, at least, to preserve its best qualities, This can be done most effectually by the selection, for seed purposes, of those plants in the field showing the truest relation to the type desired, and by securing the strongest and best possible seed from each individual plant. In order to do this, it is necessary to study the different qualifications of each type. Having fixed a standard, the grower must keep to it for several years, otherwise his results will not be satisfactory ; that is to say, if the same standard is not adhered to in the main, uniformity cannot be secured in the crop, and this is one of the most important features in the production of tobacco leaf. The following points should be well considered before finally deciding which plants should be retained for seed :— Purity of type and seed ; The size, shape, and number of leaves on the plant; Uniformity in type, shape, and ripening ; Size of mid-ribs and veins, and their position in the leaf ; Early ripening and curing properties ; Easy working in regard to suckering, &e. ; Suitability to soil and climate ; Healthy, vigorous seed. The best method to follow in order to get the purest seed is to grow the seed plants some distance away from the main crop, say, a mile, if possible, and to confine each plot to only one variety. In this way the danger of cross fertilization is avoided. This system, however, can only be carried out on large holdings. Where it is necessary to save seed from plants close to other tobaccos in the field, special precautions must be taken. The tobacco plant is self-fertile, and the seed saved from plants self-fertilized has been found more vigorous than from those cross fertilized with the same variety. The means to be taken to prevent hybridization are simple. Just before the flower shows the central cluster of buds it should be enclosed with a muslin bag, which is tied round the stem sufficiently tight to prevent insects crawling through, but not so tight as to pinch the stalk. In some cases paper bags are used, but muslin, or some other light cloth covering, is best. All the lower branches on which seed pods form, together with all suckers and the top leaves, should be taken off, and only the main central cluster of buds left on. By so doing, the strength of the plant will not be overtaxed. The smaller quantity of seed produced will be heavier and better, and a larger proportion will germinate. The bag should be removed from time to time on a still day, and suckers taken off, also any pods that are attacked by grubs, and all the small, immature pods. Insects and wind will both be found causes of cross ferti- lization, and due caution should be taken to prevent their doing damage while the flowers are exposed. When the bag is replaced, it should be tied slightly higher up the stem to allow for the development of the pods. The bag is left on until after the plant is cut and the seed dried out. About ten of the lower leaves, should be left on the plant, and these are removed as they ripen. When the seed pods are fully matured, the stalk should be cut low down, leaving the bag still on, and taken to the shed, where it should be hung well above the floor in a place where the air circulates freely, until sufficiently Edible Products. 858 [June 1907. dry to thresh. Every plant saved for seed should be labelled, its special qualities noted down, and the label left on the stalk until the seed is threshed, when it should be tied on to the bottle in which the seed is placed. In studying the number of leaves, shape, texture, ribs, &c., much will depend on the purpose for which the tobacco is to be used, and the class and type to which it belongs. If for filler purposes, the texture, vein, and appearance is not considered to the same extent as for wrapper, neither is the shape of so much importance, but a good filler leaf must have good flavour, aroma, and ash, with the minimum amount of mid-rib and good burning quality. For wrapper, which is the higher priced leaf, the shape should be such as to allow of cigar or plug wrappers being cut to the best advantage from each half-width of leaf. The broader the leaf in proportion to length, the more useful and valuable it will be to the manufacturer, as he will be purchasing less mid-rib as compared with the workable portion, and can, therefore afford to pay more for a wide, than a narrow leaf. The proportion of mid-rib to the blade of the leaf varies from 24 per cent. to 33 per cent., and when it is remembered that the mid-rib is waste tobacco for smoking purposes, the advantage in growing wide leaf is obvious. Miscellaneous. — | 388 (JUNE 1907, lot being about one eighth of an acre. The tools and appliances used are primitive in character, but the Japanese farmer fertilizes and cultivates in thorough-going fashion, thus securing an abundant harvest, besides often raising two or more crops a year on the same field. In the warmer latitudes barley, indigo, beans and rape are grown successively on one plot of ground within the space of one year. The other agricultural products include rice, rye, wheat, mulberries, sweet and other potatoes, millet, buck-wheat, tea, tobacco, cotton and hemp. Stock-raising is in its infancy and poultry-farming is inadequately developed, eggs being imported from China to the value of £100,000 a year. On the other hand, the Japanese farmer generally follows some subsidiary occupation, such as rearing silkworms, reeling silk, or spining. Alternatively he may work for wages in the intervals of his own farm work. Such are the normal conditions of Japanese agriculture on which the organi- sation scheme fostered by the Government is being developed. That scheme would seem to be mainly of. a three-fold character—legislative, educational, and financial. Under the first head are comprised laws respecting irrigation, the protection of forests, the control of rivers in the interests of the farmers, the re-arrangement of farm boundaries, and the formation of Farmers’ Guilds. Under the second head the Government aids the local treasuries to maintain six agricultural schools fo, the instruction of farmers’ sons in the general principles of agriculture, surveying, veterinary science, and kindred subjects. The Government also conducts an ex- perimental tea farm on which is a curing workshop, a laboratory for investigating the diseases of cattle and poultry, a cattle-breeding pasture for improving the — native breeds of cattle for meat and dairy purposes, and two _ horse-breeding pastures for promoting the introduction of better horses. As regards Farmers’ Guilds or Agricultural Associations, we learn that they are formed by the farmers (under the auspices of the Government) ‘“‘for the promotion of their common interest”; but when organised in contormity with the prescribed conditions, they are further permitted to borrow money from the State hypothee Banks under conditions much more favourable than could be secured by farmers acting inde- pendently. The Guilds also undertake works for the common benefit, and especially those that relate to controlling the course or the volume of rivers, irrigation and draining systems, road-building, reclamation of uncultivated land, measures for protection against insect pests, and similar enterprises. So it would seem that Japan, following in the footsteps of other countries, and eager to benefit by their experiences, has readily adopted and put into practice the conviction that, if agriculture is to prosper, it must be by means of effective organisation, conducted along lines suited to local conditions and requirements, and founded primarily on a happy combination of State and active self-help. Now, the question arises, what can India do to put herself to some extent into line with other countries of the world in this respect? There are some critics who declare roundly that Indian ryots, owing to their apathy, ignorance, and conser- vatism, will never combine and organise, and that even if they form Agricultural Associttions the latter will be merely exotics which may flourish feebly for a time but are bound sooner or later to decline and disappear. There is some truth, no doubt, in these premises; but such criticsignore other premises which form strong foundations for a belief that Agricultural Associations are more suited for growth in India than in many other countries. For one thing, agriculture is the industry of India, hugely preponderating over all others. It is regarded as the most honourable of all industries. To possess land is to possess status. It is in land that practically every native of India who has money to spare, prefers to invest that money,—from the prosperous Vakil and pensioned public servant to the returned il Jun 1907.) 389 Miscellaneous. cooly emigrant. Under present out-of-date methods of agriculture the return on the capital invested may be small; but the predilection for land is such jthat),that is cheerfully enough accepted. Now, this consideration is not merely academical; it.has, as I will explain, a direct bearing at the present day on the prospects of organisation and combination in Indian agriculture. If such organisation and combination are to be initiated and developed there must be local leaders—agricultural experimenters, demonstrators, and business-like organisers. Are these to be found? Not, surely, it will be argued, amongst the great mass of those land-holders and ryots, pure and simple, who hitherto have shown no ambition to advance beyond local agricultural practice, no desire to try new methods, new crops. But it happens that we have, within) comparatively recent years, arrived at a period when the first batches of Indian officials, Vakils, Pleaders, etc., educated on Western lines, have reached the time of life when they can retire from active employment and devote their time'and means and talents to other pursuits for the rest of their lives. Imbued with the prevailing spirit of India as regards the holding of land and the honourableness of | agriculture, a large proportion of these men instinctively turn to the land to afford them interest, occupation and livelihood for the remainder of their days. Certainly, then, it is amongst these men that we may hope to find leaders, good and true, of movements having for their object the improvemeut of agriculture and the development of agricultural organisation and co-operation. But, speaking generally, there is now-a-days a much wider diffusion of edu- cation among the land holding and cultivating classes of India than there ever has been before. The fairly substantial ryots now-a-days give their sons an education which was not dreamt of twenty or thirty years ago, very often saving and econo- mising in order that the most promising of their sons may climb to the upper rungs of the educational ladder. And even the less well-to-do ryots are usually willing to give their sons an education of some sort, even if they cannot afford to send them to College. Infact, it is indisputable that the general level of intelligence in the villages is higher now than ever before ; and probably in every village now-a-days there are some few who would be capable of profiting by a comparative study of agricultural practice. Then, again, there are the Zemindars and larger landholders, of whom also it may be said that they are far better educated and more intelligent as a body than they were a decade or two ago. Hitherto they have indolently shared ,the general apathy of their country-men with regard to agricultural improvement ; but already a few of them have started model farms; and there is certainly an, awakening amongst them in this respect. It will not be denied that, asaclass, they might do much for Indian agriculture, just as the great landholders in Great Britain, from His Majesty the King-Emperor downwards, have done and are doing much for British agriculture. Then, again, there seems no reason why the District Boards should not develop an agricultural side of the greatest usefulness. Their revenues are mainly, if not wholly, derived from the land; and it is but fair and just and politic that some small proportion, at any rate, of their revenue, should be returned to the land in the shape of expenditure for the encouragement of agricultural improvement, in the direction either of special agricultural education, experimental demonstration, or medical relief for agricultural live-stock. The agencies upon which most reliance must be placed, however, are indivi- dual and non-official, A landholder or ryot who, fired with a zeal for agricultural improvement, demonstrates on his own bit of land the suitability of a new crop, the merits of deep ploughing, the value of a new manure, an economical method of Miscellaneous. 390 (June 1907. lifting water, the profitableness of catch crops, an improved method of sowing seed, or any one of the multitude of other things that concern the economical cultivation of the land, is likely to dofar more practical and immediate good than any mere talker or writer on such subjects. There was an instance of whata single humble ryot can do to influence local agricultural practice for the better quoted in the Madras Mail, on June 20th. A correspondent of that journal in describing the circumstances remarked :— ‘‘In the village of Varambium, situated two miles from Tiruturaipundi (Tanjore), there lives a humble landholder, named Vadaraja Moodelly, who owns about 10 acres of wet and 13 acres of dry land. Chance placed in his hands a copy of Vivasaya-Vilakam, a Tamil Manual on improved agriculture brought out by Mr. G. Rajagopala Naidu, Government Agricultural Inspector, who has written it in such a clear and lucid style that every ploughman can understand it. It was from a close study of this book that the man derived his main ideas and inspirations on improved | agriculture. The author of the book happening to be in this District, touring through it as an emissary of the local Agricultural Association, the ryot obtained from him further light and knowledge to supplement and amplify what he had learnt from his book ; and thus equipped, he began to practice the improved methods he had learnt, both in theory and in practice, from the Agricultural Inspector, ‘*What seemed to have struck the man as the wisest thing to do was to prac- tise intensive cultivation ; and in the carrying out of this idea, he was greatly encou- raged by the information and guidance he received from the Government Agricul- tural Inspector. He was convinced that the first essential required for the successful practice of intensive cultivation was to provide himself with wells for irrigation of dry crops in summer, when the supplies from the Cauvery system are not available for the purpose. Bold and enterprising as he was, he soon constructed on his land wells fitted with chrome-leather buckets for the requirements for the dry crops he proposed to raise, and thereby assured the prospect of his land, when cultivated in summer with the aid of artificial irrigation, yielding twice as much before, when no summer cultivation was practised. After his paddy harvest, when all his neigh- bours’ lands were lying fallow, he cultivated cholum as an experiment, and was greatly rewarded when, from his one acre devoted to this crop, he obtained 360 Madras measures. He then raised a second dry crop of gingelly which yielded 50 measures ; at the same time, he paid attention to the collection and preparation of manure from the materials available in his own holdings. He collected the dry sheddings of his trees, and added them to his manure accumulations which he kept covered with mud. To this a further supply was added with another layer of mud. In the result he secured about 60 cart-loads of manure where he was getting 20 cart- loads before! The results obtained were an impressive object lesson for his neigh- . bours, some of whom began to follow his example in the utilisation of their leaf sheddings for the preparation of field manure. ** Another way by which he sought to improve the fertility of his land, and in which the other villagers afterwards followed him, was by using the silt of the village tank which he cleared for the purpose. In this way the silt of the tank was removed and its dirty bed cleaned and water purified—a no small hygienic advantage for the people of the village, apart from the rich replenishment it affords to the soil. Thus the practice of collecting the sheddings from the trees for manure, and clearing the silt of the tank for the soil, will, if more largely foll lowed, as it promises to be in the light of the example set, be as much a service in the cause of the agriculture of the village as in the sanitation of it, which, in rural parts, isathing entirely unknown. After cholum and gingelly, hemp was grown, and thus, in a small area of one acre of dry land, a series of dry crops was raised in rota< tion to the utter astonishment of the people in the neighbourhood, to whom the JUNE 1907.} 391 Miscellaneous. example of this enterprising man has been an active encouragement and guidance, The Agricultural Inspector, to whom the above results are mainly owing, prepared a loose-box for the ryot’s cattle, utilising for it the materials which village economy supplied, He has received applications from other villagers, who had seen the ad- vantages of the loose-box system, for similar boxes to be made for their cattle.” Here, then, is an instance of whata single intelligent ryot can do of his own initiative. It must be noted, however, that in this case the stimulus in the first instance came from a publication by an official of the Agricultural Department ; and it is a pleasure to emphasise the fact because great credit must be given to the officials of the Department, from the Director and Deputy Director downwards, for the really practical assistance that they are now affording to the ryots in dozens of different ways, and for the really creditable zeal with which they are pushing the propaganda of the New Agriculture in this part of India. And credit must also be given to those Collectors and District officers, European and Indian, who have given such whole-hearted assistance to the Department in all its recent operations, as well as to the Agricultural!Associations wherever they have been established. That the ‘latter will be assisted and encouraged whole-heartedly and even enthusiastically, by the great body of District officials, both English and Indian, goes without saying, I think. In the Agricultural Associations already organised in the mofussil, amount- ing now to quite a respectable number, Collectors, Sub-Collectors, Tahsildars and Deputy Tahsildars have co-operated in a manner which is beyond all praise, notwithstanding the onerousness—in some cases the overburdening weight—of their official duties. It would be the greatest mistake, everybody must admit, for these mofussil Agricultural Associations to become in any considerable way “ official” in character, for that would stifle individual enthusiasm and diminish effort amongst the very classes upon whose enthusiasm and effort their success must ultimately depend. But, at the same time, the countenance and friendly advice of officials are essential to the success of the movement, especially in its initial stages. In the Central Provinces and in Bengal, where Sir Andrew Fraser has done so much to — stimulate agricultural organisation, the Agricultural Associations appear to have assumed a preponderatingly official character which will certainly be found a great mistake in the long run. The Government’s interests and actions are sufficiently well represented and centralised in the Agricultural Departments, and the uses and functions of Agricultural Associations are distinct from, though supplementary of, the proceedings of Government. Here, in Southern India, the basis of the proposed organisation of agriculture has been made broader and freer from the outset. And in this case those responsible. have followed the recommendations, distinctly given on several occasions, of His Excellency Lord Ampthill and Mr. A. E. Castlestuart Stuart, 1.c.s., the Director of Agriculture, Thus, the Central Agricultural Committee, which has recently been established in the Presidency town, has declared that it intends to work “on non- official lines as much as possible,” and will “supplement, not overlap, the operations of the Agricultural Department.” The constitution and objects of the Central Agricultural Committee have been so often publicly explained that I need hardly dwell upon them here, It has sprung from a movement which really started in the mofussil, and it is the Agricul- tural Association of the mofussil by which the Central Agricultural Committee stifies its own existence and hopes to do some good. In fact, already there is a considerable foundation to work upon, as regards the institution and administra- tion of a Central Agricultural Committee, in the local Agricultural Associations Which have been brought into existence in the mofussil during the last two years, a oe ve ” F . . x, j on Miscellaneous. 392 : (June 1907. The advantages to be derived from such Associations are becomming more and more widely recognised in the mofussil, and there can be no doubt that a central organi- sation in Madras, to bring them into the closest possible touch with each other, as also with every branch of the Agricultural Department, has already become a desi- deratum. At the same time, one of the first duties of the Central Agricultural Committee will be to stimulate the formation of such Association wherever they do not exist at present, and itis hoped that ere many months are past there will not be a District which has not followed the lead already given in Anantapur, Tanjore, Vizagapatam, Guntur, Malabar, Chingleput, North Arcot and Bellary. CO-OPERATIVE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. The following account, taken from Mr Pratt’s book, of the marvellous results achieved by Co-operative Societies in France, Germany and Denmark, will be read with interest :— During the latter part of the past century, most of the countries of Europe suffered from severe agricultural depression which threatened to involve the agricul- tural classes in complete ruin. Various econmic causes brought about this crisis, but it is sufficient for our purpose to consider only the means adopted to overcome | it. Mr. Edwin A. Pratt furnishes us with some interesting information on the point in his excellent work on ‘‘ The Organisation of Agriculture.” Various schemes were tried by different countries, but the remedy that was finally adopted as the most effective was the formation of agricultural co-operative societies by which the agricultural classes were gradually freed from the clutches of the money-lenders and were enabled to reduce the cost of production and sell their produce to advan- tage. The following extracts from Mr. Pratt’s book will show how these societies have been organised in some of the countries of Europe and what benefits have been derived from them :— FRANCE. In France, the movement began some time in the early eighties. The histo- rian of the movement writes: ‘’The French market, which, by reason of the development of the means of transport, was no longer protected by the natural barrier of distance, began to be flooded with foreign commodities produced at a cost that defied all competition. Our lands, exhausted by centuries of cultivation, had no chance against the productions of virgin soils, or of countries more favourably situated in regard to taxation, cost of labour, etc. The wheat of North America, India, and Russia, the wool of Australia and La Plata, the wines of Spain and Italy, and even the cattle of Italy, Germany, the Argentine Republic, etc., took, little by little, on our markets the place of our home supplies, and the simple threat of their being imported was sufficient to effect a lowering of prices. The national market existed no longer, andon a market which had become universal, and was affected by the slightest fluctuations that reverberated among the great centres of the world, the French cultivator offered an easy prey to the speculations of international commerce.” These new economic conditions, which there was every reason to regard as permanent, imposed on the agricultural industry a profound evolution. It was necessary to organise for the struggle, to realise promptly all the possible opportunities for progress, to decrease the cost of production, and to improve the methods alike of production and of sale. For the attainment of these ends the old agricultural associations were butill prepared. It no longer sufficed merely to spread technical knowledge and to give prizes and awards to agriculturists at periodical exhibitions. ee re Sa JUNE 1907.] 393 Miscellaneous. This was the critical position in the period referred to above and it was met in an eminently practical way by ‘‘a certain M. Tauviray, Departmental Professor of Agriculture at Blois.” This gentleman found that there was great difficulty in getting the agriculturists to use for their impoverished lands the fertilizers which agricultural chemistry was offering to them; but he saw, also, that their reluctance was not unnatural. Apart from the ignorance and prejudices of the farmers in respect to the use of artificial manures, the producers thereof, having to send out travellers and push a business then far from active, charged high prices, and, what was still worse, sent out adulterated or inferior qualities. M.Tauviray’s happy jnspiration was to get all the farmers in a certain district to join together in sending in one big order, by.means of which they would be able to purchase the fertilizers ata less price, get lower railway rates, and also be in a better position to secure a guarantee of quality. A combination, with these objects in view, was brought about in 1883, and when, in March, 1884, organisations of this type acquired a legal status in France, many more of such purchase associations tollowed. The use of the fertilizers was found to yield increased crops at a reduced cost, and the operation of the new syndicates obviated all the difficulties previously experienced. So the movement for the establishment of agricultural syndicates spread, in course of time throughout the whole of France, while in proportion as their utility was more and more recognised, the scope of their activity widened. Seeds and feeding-stuffs were purchased in wholesale lots, the same as fertilizers. Sc were tools and agricultural appliances of various kinds, while special syndicates either procured agricultural machinery too costly for individual farmers to get for themselves and let it out on hire, or enabled farmers to purchase on special terms, In these and other ways there was, in the first instance, a direct appeal to the material interests of the agriculturists; and the leaders of the new movement had the good fortune to win the early sympathy of the farming community by the offer of practical advantages which prepared for further considerable developments of the combination principle a class of men who, in France, as in England, might well be regarded as the least likely to co-operate for the achievement of a common purpose, Thus the movement spread rapidly and in less than twenty years, the number of these agricultural associations, whose formation had been officially notified up to 1st January 1903, amounted to 2,433 and the total membership was 599,000. There were also provincial and central syndicates formed for the purpose of influencing public opinion on agricultural questions by means of publications, conferences, etc., and to conduct, in general, campaigns by which the views expressed at the represen- tative gatherings of agriculturists might be carried toa successful issue. From the magnitude of the orders given under this system of combination, the agricultural associations secure a threefold advantage: (1) They get wholesale prices from the manufacturers instead of retail, these prices being made still lower by the fact that the manufacturer, dealing direct with an association or union, incurs less expense for travellers, etc.; (2) the quality has to stand the tests of the association’s experts ; and (8) lower railway rates are obtained because the consignments are sent to central depots in waggon-load lots instead of small quantities. So, the small cultivator who buysa couple of sacks of fertilizers or feeding-stuffs through his association gets just the same advantages in price and railway rates asa large farmer who orders his five or ten tons. These facilities, combined with the skilled advice given free by the associations, have led toa very great increase in the use of fertilizers in France, and many factories have been set up in that country for their production, while a decrease of from 40 to 50 per cent. has been effected in the prices as compared with what they were before the advent of the agricultural associations. Miscellaneous, 394 [JUNE 1907. ey Besides the associations formed to promote the interests of agriculturists in general, there are many which apply to special industries, such as the syndicate formed at Rennes by a group of cider-makers, with others organized by market gardeners, nurserymen, the growers of vines, beet-root, tobacco, and medicinal plants, bee-keepers, etc. Such organisations seek to promote the general interests of the industries concerned by means alike of spreading technical information, grouping purchase of necessaries, facilitating the sale of products, or making joint representation in case of need on the subject of market tolls, railway rates, etc. GERMANY. Turning to Germany, Mr Pratt observes that at the time of the general depression, the agriculturists there had the advantage of a system of protective tariffs which gave them a greater chance of preserving their own considerable home markets for themselves, than was the case with agriculturists in free-trade England. The German agriculturist also enjoyed exceptional advantages under the thorough- going system of agricultural instruction which had been established in the country for several years past, and from the discoveries of agricultural chemistry in regard not only tothe application of artificial manures, but to the use of agricultural products in various industries, such as the use of beet-roos for the manufacture of sugar, of potatoes for the production of a spirit used for driving motors and engines, for lighting, heating, cooking, etc. No fewer than 14,000,000 tons of beet-root, representing a value of £12,000,000 are used in Germany in the course of a year in the manufacture of sugar and the production of these supplies for an industry that is the direct outcome of scientific research is a valuable set-off against possible dep- ression in other branches of agriculture. Still more remarkable is the production of potatoes which amounted to a total of 48,500,000 tons in 1901, of which about one- halt is used for other purposes than human consumption, viz., for distillation purposes, manufacture of starch syrup, starch sugar, feeding of cattle, ete. Not- withstanding these advantages, however, the agriculturists found themselves placed in a difficult position in the time of their depression. Science could tell the farmer what.it would pay him best to produce and how to secure big crops; but it left him to his own resources in the way of raising money and of selling his crops to the best advantage. Falling prices and other adverse circumstances had so far decreased the available funds of the farmer that it was difficult enough for many of them to carry on their ordinary operations in their ordinary way, year by year, without embarking on those wider undertakings or those more costly methods which agri- cultural science was opening out to them. 1n these conditions, it often enough became a matter of urgent importance to the farmer that he should raise a loan which would enable him to carry on until he obtained a return from his crops. Such aloan might make all the difference between comparative success and absolute failure. But while the ordinary banks were ready enough to advance money to a landowner who could give them a mortgage onhis estates, they were reluctant to make advances to individual farmers on nothing but their personal security, and their reluctance increased in exact proportion tothe growing needs of those who wished to borrow. The way out of the difficulty was found by a resort to the co- operative credit bank system under which the joint credit of the whole of the members of an association is used forthe purpose of borrowing money. Once the possibilities of co-operation were fully recognised, these credit banks spread rapidly and they were soon followed by special agricultural societies for the purchase of artificial manures, feeding-stuffs, machinery, tools, coal, etc., which aggregated over 1,000. Of production and selling societies (representing, among other branches, societies for the sale of seed, fruit, vegetables, and produce of all kinds ; silo societies ; the German Spirit Syndicate; and societies for the sale of cattle,) there were 669. Of dairy produce societies there were 1,682. There are also co-operative societies JUNE 1907. | Se Miscellaneous. for drainage and irrigation and especially for the purpose of reclaiming bogs and moorlands. The extent of land so reclaimed between 1878 and 1890 is estimated at over 700,000 acres and much of this land on which nothing but heath had grown before now ranks as among the most productive soil in the Empire. In regard to the use of machinery, it is stated that steam threshing machines are used on no fewer than 35,000 farmis of less than five acres each. Without co-operation, sucha thing would be altogether impossible. In some instances the farmers of a particular district will organise a society for the purchase of a steam-plough letting it out on hire to their neighbours when not using it themselves. It is stated that the number of registered agricultural co-operative societies on Ist July 1903 was no less than 17,162, and some idea of the enormous benefit conferred upon the people by these societies will be formed when it is realised that in 1902, the total amount of the purchases of agricultural necessaries effected by the German credit banks or by the special associations for the purpose was alone valued at 3} million pounds. What, therefore, with her very practical and comprehensive system of agri- cultural education, her elaborate development of an easy and most effective agri- eultural credit, and, finally, her great variety of agricultural co-operative asso- ciations, Germany may well claim to have reorganised the position of the cultivators of her soil in a way that has brought to them a measure of success, to herself a degree of economic advantage, that would have been impossible, if, when they were threatened with agricultural depression, they had clung tenaciously to old ideas and antiquated methods. DENMARK. But it is in the little kingdom of Denmark, a kingdom much smaller in size than the Presidency of Madras, that the farmer will find the most impressive object lessons as to the henefits to be derived from agricultural co-operation. After the Napoleonic wars, and, later on, the disastrous wars with Prussia and Austria when Denmark lost two of the fairest and most fertileot her Provinces, he was reduced to the narrow limits of theIslands and Jutland and even of this area a considerable portion consisted of moor, marsh and dune land, practically unfit for cultivation. On the top of all this came the fall in the price of corn which led to a severe agricultural depression which left the people ina most deplorable condition. Butthe country fought against adversity with the courage of a giant, and, crippled though she was, she not only regained her strength but became a power in the commercial world with which other nations have had seriously to reckon. It was in thedevelopment of the dairy industry that the Danes mainly found the means of recovering from the crisis which had overtaken them. Originally the butter exported from Denmark came from what were little more than blending mills, the supplies produced by the individual farmers and representing a variety of qualities and different degrees of freshness, being bought up and mixed together with results that were not always satisfactory to the purchaser, while the expense to which each farmer was put in producing his own particular lot of butter left, as a rule, a very small margin for profit. Then there was adopted the system of creameries to which the farmers would take their cream only. This represented a distinct advance, as it affected asaving alike of time and of cost to the farmer; but the greatest degree of progress began with the perfection of the centrifugal cream separator which left the farmer to dono more than send his milk to the factory, where the cream was taken from it by the separator, and the skim milk given back to him for the feeding of his pigs. In other ways the researches of the Professors had placed the working of the industry on a more scientific basis, thus facilitating operation, reducing expenses and allowing of far better and much more profitable poe being obtained than had been the case before, Then, also, the 52 Miscellaneous, 396 [JUNE 1907. spread of an extremely practical scheme of national education, and especially agricultural education, had prepared the people to take advantage of the coming transformation; while the system of land tenure in Denmark, which had done so much toj'encourage both the creation of agricultural freeholders and the increase of small holdings, and further strengthened the power of the agricultural com- munity to benefit from the opportunities opening out to them. The immediate and striking outcome of these various conditions was a resort to co-operative dairies, so that the agricultural classes could get a maximum of possible benefits for themselves. The first co-operative dairy in Denmark was opened in West Jutland in 1882. Others followed and to such an extent has the movement spread that at the present time, a co-operative dairy is to be found in almost every parish, and there arenow no fever than 1,050 of such dairies in Denmark, with 148,000 members, owning 750,000 cows out of a total of 1,067,000 milch cows in the country. In 1902, this little State exported, mainly to Great Britain, 168,000,000 lb. of butter, 185,000,000 Ib. of this total representing home produce and the remaining 33,000,000 lb. butter received from Sweden and Russia. The total value of the imports of butter from Denmark into Great Britain in 1902 was £9,302,000. The practice usually adopted is for about 150 farmers in a particular district to raise, say, £1,200 by subscribing £8 each, this sum being sufficient to provide a dairy which will deal with the milk of 850 cows, ~ The establishment of the co-operative dairies has been followed by the founding of societies for the sale of butter together with some 200 central unions which employ capable men to take periodical tests of the milk on the farms of the members, and see which particular cows gave the best results according to the quantity and cost of food consumed. The Indian farmer, even if he does not go in at once for co-operative dairy society, might at least take some useful lessons -from his Danish brethren in sending pure milk and pure butter to the market, by which he is certain to earn a larger profit than he can by adulterating his articles. Next to the co-operative creameries, and now, indeed, rivalling them in importance, come the Danish co-operative bacon-curing factories, the success of which has been, if possible, even more rapid. It is stated that these factories were the outcome of political prejudices, but whatever the cause, the success of the movement was almost phenomenal. The first co-operative factory was started in 1888, whenthe number of pigs killed for curing was 23,407, valued at £57,000. By 1902 the number of these factories had risen to 27 with a total membership of 65,800, while the number of pigs killed for curing amounted to 777,232 and their value to £2,500,000. In the organisation of these co-operative factories, no capital is subscribed by the farmers whose joint guarantees are sufficient to enable them to secure from the banking institutions for thecountry the loan they may require to defray the cost of construction and to provide the working capital as well, the loan being repaid out of the profits of the business. The members also guarantee to supply to the factories all the pigs they raise on their farms, a fine of 10s, 3d. per pig being imposed in case of non-compliance, On sending his pigs, the farmer is paid a certain sum, representing less than the value, but subsequently he receives a share of the profits according to the number of animals he had supplied. Another highly successful branch of co-operative agriculture in Denmark is epresented by the egg industry. Here the chief organisation is that of the Dansk Andels Aeg-export which was founded in 1895 and now constitutes the central body of a large number of local societies in all parts of Denmark. The members of these societies pledge themselves to deliver none but freshly-laid eggs, all that are sent in being so marked that the farmer supplying any single one of them can be readily traced, while a plenty of 5s. 6d. is imposed for every bad egg received after a eet a Jung 1907.) 397 Miscellaneous, warning has been given. The local societies remit the eggs to the central organi- sation which arranges for grading, packing and sale and fixes the price per lb. to be given to the farmer less the cost of collection and other expenses. Membership of the local societies is generally obtained in return for an entrance fee of six-pence. So profitable has the business become that the Danes send their own eggs to Great Britain and import eggs from Russia for home consumption, the difference between the price they get for the former and the amount they pay for the latter repre- senting by the end of the year a fairly substantial sum. Among the many other forms of co-operative organisation in Denmark an important role is filled by the association formed for the supply of agricultural necessaries—seeds, feeding-stuffs, manures, machinery, etc.—at the lowest price and in the best condition. Here again the local societies are formed in turn into large federations. The ramifications of this co-operative purchase system extend to practically every parish in Denmark. Again, the growth of the egg industry has given rise to numerous poultry societies for the improvement of fowls. Some of these societies have a membership of from 2,000 to 3,000 persons. They receive grants from the Government and their operations are greatly facilitated by experts who devote their time to delivering lectures or giving personal advice to the farmers, There are also lozal bee-keepers’ associations for making honey. They number about sixty with a membership of 5,000. Thus, there is hardly any branch of agricultural industry in Denmark which is not represented by its separate co-operative organisation. As a rule, each particular co-operative society works on independent lines, for its own special object, so that one farmer may be a member of many different organisations, according to the particular branches of agriculture in which he is interested. The system has been so successfully established in the country that a few years ago the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction in Ireland thought it necessary to send a deputation of members to enquire and report on co-operative agriculture and rural conditions in Denmark, and the results of the enquiry are published in a report which was issued in the autumn of 1903. The rapid development of this co-operative effort in Denmark has brought about changes in the economic conditions in the country that have been almost revolutionary in their character. Not only has it effectually checked the serious consequences that seemed to be impending as the combined result of agricultural depression and national disaster, but the general position of Denmark to-day is one of greater prosperity than ever, for the Danes are deriving more advantage from the extremely limited amount of soil they now possess than they got from the land before the dimensions of their country were so seriously curtailed. EARTH-EATING AND THE EARTH-EATING HABIT IN INDIA, By D. Hooper anp H. H. MANN. The original paper on this subject, by Messrs D. Hooper and H. H. Mann, is a long one, but as earth-eating is by no means unknown in Ceylon we give here the general summary. Taking all the facts which we have gathered together on the subject of earth-eating and the earth-eating habit in India, it is possible to reach some very definite conclusions, In the first place it seems certain that earth-eating by women is nota racial characteristic, that it is determined by no ethnological boundaries, that, equally outside India as in the country, it is occasionally found among almost every class and race of people. In this country it extends throughout the length and breadth of the Miscellaneous. 398 [JUNE 1007. land ; it is common on the boundary of Baluchistan, and is also found in Assam and Manipur, near the North Kast Frontier ; it is known and practised among the jungle tribes of Chota Nagpur, and also by the high caste Hindus of Bengal, and the Muhammadans of the Panjab; the Kolarin, Dravidian, Indo-Aryan and Mongolian peoples all indulge in the habit of earth-eating. This universal practice points to a deeper-seated cause for the habit than any ethnological or national distinction. The materials used confirm this position. Certain forms of earth are certainly preferreds and these preferred forms are sold in the bazaars all over India. Some are burnt before use (Patkholas, &c.); some are sold and used in the raw condition (Multani mitti). But in the absence of these prepared forms, the people turn to the most diverse material to satisfy the desire. Clays, shales, alluvial muds, even sandy soil, are all used when once the habit is established. Luckily, and perhaps by reason of past experience, the material is usually dug out from well below the surface of the soil, and thus infections otherwise inevitable are usually avoided. What then is the cause of such a widespread habit, and one which, it seems must be satisfied, when once indulgence has commenced ? We are inclined to attribute it primarily to the purely mechanical effect it seems to have in comforting gastric or intestinal irritation. This may or may not be due to disease ;if itis so due, the result is quickly to aggravate the disease it is taken to alleviate; if not it rapidly produces effects which bring on disease. Gastric or similar irritation is inseparable from certain periods in a woman’s life, and these are precisely the periods when the earth-eating habit is contracted. Once indulged in, the wish for similar alleviation becomes a craving, and the habit, asis usually the case with similar ones, strengthens itself, and brings on disease of the digestive canal. In the cases where men indulge, probably the habit has some similar origin. Such is the habit as we have considered it, The use of clay as food in time of famine, or as a medicine is hardly essential to the present subject, but we believe that in the above explanation will be found the cause of a habit which overspreads all countries and breaks ethnological boundaries of every sort. [Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Vol. 1, No. 12).] CONCERNING THE MEDICAL MANAGEMENT OF COOLIES IN MALAYA. By P. N. GERRARD. M.D. Whilst the cry of ‘Rubber! Rubber! and large profits!” resounds through- out Ceylon and the Straits and is wafted abroad from these countries, may I be permitted, in the interest of both the capitalist and the coolie, to draw the attention of employers of labour to a few points which seem to me to affect the future of the industry ; certainly in this country, and probably in every country wherein a Jarge amount of labour is employed. Firstly, then, I would point out that all the wealth in the world will not profit a man broken down in health. Secondly, that adead or broken down cooly is of no practical use on any estate. Thirdly, that unless due precautions be taken, both these lamentable eventualities are at least liable to occur, and indeed, as far as I have seen of the conditions under which the imigrant lives after importation to this country as an agricultural labourer, the failure of the coolie is quite probable. As it is my purpose to deal principally with the conditions of life of the coolie—the pawn upon whom the question of profits must be a large extent depend — it will probably be sufficient advice in dealing with my first point if I say to managers and assistants i— « Se aes ' JUNE 1907.4 399 Miscellaneous. Build your houses on open, elevated, long-cleared land if possible, let them facing the prevailing wind, that you may obtain the full benefit of the evening coolness ; do not lie about in wet clothes; sleep under a mosquito net; eat and drink moderately ; work hard, but don’t overdo it unless absolute necessity demands ; Take every reasonable opportunity of getting away from the Hstate—especially up an hill—and when you get “‘ played out” or really ‘‘ seedy ” look to it at once. Remember that malaria, bowel-complaints, and severe colds, are serious diseases, and if undealt with frequently leave sequelae which neither money nor science can deal with. Lastly wear flannel if you can, There are four fundamental necessities for the establishment of healthy coolie lines :—1. A pure water supply. 2. Adequate ventilation. 3. Some inexpensive but efficient system of Sanitation in and around the lines. 4. Sound drainage. With regard to number I, if the well system be adopted of necessity, then remember that the ‘‘ circle of influence ” is at least 20 yards, and that sewage con- tamination has been traced to upwards of one mile, if the lines are permanent the wells should be bricked inside and surrounded by a raised coping and a cemented and graded circle of say ten feet from the coping all round, the water used for bathing or otherwise spilt should be run off to a distance, the well should be covered and all water drawn by a pump. A simple method of testing whether a well is contaminated by sewage in its vicinity is to pour asolution of fluorescin into the nearest drain or cesspit and observe whether any fluorescince occurs in the well water after 24 hours. All well and river water is the better for a passage through a clean dripstone filter, but these filters when used casually without clean are a danger rather than a method of purification. They should be periodically boiled and scraped, as fungi are able to grow through their interstices and thus to contaminate good water; the water, if any serious doubt exists about its purity, should be boiled, and stored in some clean place where dust cannot fall into it; the tank or jar must be covered. Speaking generally the deeper the well the better, and if any hard stratum exist in hills in the vicinity, artesian water may perhaps be struck at a reasonable depth. Pure streams from the hills are probably the soundest water in this country ; aqueducts of bamboo are cheap, and can be made over long distances satisfactorily Always inspect the catchment area, All the rivers of this country are polluted to some degree, and if river water is the only possible source of supply it must be filtered and boiled. That portion of the river near the lines should be divided -into three parts: (1) An upper reach for the drinking and cooking water; (2) A middle reach for watering cattle; (3) A lower reach for washing. If rain water is the only source of supply it should be stored in large under- ground tanks, as at Gibraltar and other unfortunately situated stations. All tanks and wells should be protected trom the entrance of surface flood water, unless the surface over which the water flows is above reproach, if on the addition of 4 ozs. of permanganate of potash to an ordinary-sized well, the water does not become and remain pink for about an hour, the water must be looked upon as doubtful, and measures should be taken to further purify it or to haveit analysed. The per- manganate should be mixed in a bucket before being poured into the well. 2. Ventilation. The question of ventilation involves little extra expense, as obviously the less we place between ourselvelves and ‘‘God’s good fresh air” the less it will cost usin houses, and yet the better we shall be. The present kuchi is wrong in principle—by the present kuchi, I mean the one which has a straight attaped back, a short roof behind and a longer roof in front, under which is a verandah where cooking, etc. is performed—its chief mistakes are :— (@) The roof is not high enough asa rule, Miscellaneous. 400 [JUNE 1907. (4) There is not sufficient ventilation above nor below, in front nor behind the cubicles or sleeping rooms. (c) The verandahs, being also kitchens, frequently are the receptacle for all sorts of rubbish. After mature consideration and ample proof of its benefits I now believe that there is but one ideal type of lines which is advisable in the best interests of both employer and coolie, namely the lines which consist of simple roof on supports, under which the cubicles are built, none of the line partitions are over nine. feet high, all cubicle floors are 3 ft. 6ins. from the ground and open ‘underneath. Of about 15 estates with which I am familiar, the healthiest is one on which the above type of lines are in occupation, and I believe Iam correct when I state that the only type of disease which has affected that estate of recent years, has been epidemic in character and introduced from without. As, however, on many estates the old-fashoined type of lines have been erected, I would suggest that they be altered as soon as possible, by the removal of the upper two layers of side attaps and the removal of the attaps which extend to the ground (and so close the space under the benches), and that they be replaced as soon as possible by one of those suggested. An excessive height off the ground is almost as obnoxious as excessive proximity to the earth, because if the lines are too high the underneath will be used as a hen-house or store, in all human probability, Of the two forms of ventilation—the overhead and the underneath—the latter is perhaps the more to be insisted upon as we know that animal C O2 gas as exhaled, is most poisonous, and also that its specific gravity is greater than air, therefore, in the absence of draughts by under ventilation, it is obviously only a matter of time and opportunity to become suffocated by it. We now come to the question -of Sanitation at the lines. Everyone who has had anything to do with the Tamil coolie is aware of his roaming habits under certain circumstances, his love of variety and the fields, or preferably the road or pathway, but that Tamil coolies or Chinese coolies or any other coolies cannot be gently but firmly educated I absolutely decline to believe. Now under existing sanitary—perhaps I might indeed say insanitary—arrange- ments on the majority of estates in this country, I submit that the unfortunate coolie who gets ‘‘ a tummyache ” at say I a. m., should not be blamed by the inspecting doctor or agent the next day, in the garish sunlight, for filthy habits ; in other words “until proper sanitary accomodation becomes a feature of every coolie lines in the country and a special coolie be detailed to look after the matter disease must continue to exist amongst the whole class.” The type of latrine to be erected is of the simplest, an attap-roofed shed elevated above the surrounding ground level, with a trench for buckets or to be filled in with a mixture of dry earth and lime daily to a depth of about three inches, the trench protected from storm-water by means of ordinary earth drains around it, and sufficiently removed in its situation from the main water supply to prevent contamination—this will suffice to prevent an enormous amount of illness. Lines are generally, in my opinion, better without any open earth drains whatever, they only serve as receptacles for all sorts of filth and rubbish. The very fact of a convenient hole to throw things into running allround the lines, is quite sufficient inducement to create a bad habit amongst a much higher type of individual than the average coolie. My ideal surroundings for lines would be short-cropped grass, gravel, laterite, or coarse ashes, not very expensive luxuries any of them. I would run French drains at right angles, from the kuchis right JUNE 1907. | 401 Miscellaneous, round, in order to keep the immediate vicinity dry. Pools, if they occurred after rain, should be filled in or levelled. (French drains are made by digging first a graded trench, filling in the whole length of it with coarse rubble, then over this fill in finer gravel, then sand or earth, and cover the whole with earth, gravel, or grass. Some sinking will, of course, occur, which must be dealt with, but the result is an enormous and cheap improvement.) Brick drains round lines are, of course, charming, but they must be carefully graded and capable of dealing with all flood-water, kept clean by frequent sweeping and disinfection, and, where they run deep, deep holes to carry off surface water should be made. Tidal drains, whether of earth or brick, unless properly controlled by water gates are in my opinion inadvisable. If thoroughly under control and regularly ~ opened and the drains swept with the ebbing of the tide they may be made use of. If the watergates are opened at high tide and closed until low water then opened and the drains flushed out at a high velocity, with much sweeping, twice a week, then good results may be expected. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the system of facilitating all sanitari- ness amongst coolies, at present they are blamed as a class—I believe quite wrong- fully—for being dirty in their habits and altogether bestial, they have no oppor- tunity of being otherwise unless the European places every convenience within their reach. Let asanitary mendor be appointed to every 100 coolies, erect a latrine for every seventy-five individuals, punish defaulters, inform your coolies of the arrange- ments, post notices for those who can read, and I shall deem it a personal favour if you will let me know the result at the end of six months. System must be the password, and every drainage and sanitary plan should be capable of extension to meet larger demands. PRINCIPAL DISEASES OF THE COOLIE. For obvious reasons it would beimproper of me to write a full description of the methods of treatment and diagnosis of disease in this paper, and it would be quite impossible to do so within the limits of an ordinary essay, but in the interests of both parties I may perhaps sketch briefly the principal symptoms which lead one to suspect serious disease, and suggesta sound amateur treatment to be adopted in such cases. MALARIAL FEVER.—The principal disease to which the coolie is liable is Malarial Fever, but if the attacks of this disease remain discrete—by which I mean so long as the attacks are separated by a day or days—one may safely deal with him on the estate by the administration of quinine in 5 gr. doses thrice daily ; if, however, the attacks overlap, and the disease becomes continous, then an hospital is the proper place for the case. When it is found that the fever yields to quinine the drug should be continued in 5 gr. doses daily for two (2) months, the neglect of this most important ‘“‘regime of prophylaxis” is the cause of the relapse cases which cause so much invaliding and disturbance of estate work quite unnecessarily. The necessity of sleeping in mosquito curtains must be “rubbed into” coolies; the Chinese have adopted them and there is absolutely no reason why the Tamil should not be educated up to their use. At the meeting of the Malaya Branch of the British Medical Association held at Ipoh on August 28th and 29th, 1906, my friend Dr. Malcolm Watson of Klang, pointed out the advisability of mosquito-proofing all lines, and he laid before that meeting most convincing statistics to show that the saving of life and labour from the ravages of malaria by this means, amply repaid planters for their original outlay on wire gauze. I am strongly in favour of this measure where it is feasible, but curtains must be supplied where serious obstacles to its adoption exist. Lo Miscellaneous. 402 [JUNE 1907. In dealing with the question of fever the’mosquito naturally comes under notice, and before starting upon the means to be adopted to combat the existence of this pest, I must first make my peace with some planters who still believe that this insect is not the only means of propagation of malaria, by stating that the malarial parasite has been constantly found in the stomachs of certain mosquitos, but it has not been found in decomposing granite, nor in any of the other earths and clays, etc , which have been blamed as distributors or propagators of the disease. All experiments with infected Anopheles have been positive, and I am quite willing to guarantee or gamble on the result of the experiment of infecting any new-comer to this country by the means of infected Anopheles, provided the doubting planter will make the necessary arrangements with his newly-arrived assistant. Mosquito houses were the only means adopted by the Commission sent out by the London School of Tropical Medicine to that hotbed of malaria the Roman Campagna, and no cases occured amongst the members of the expedition ; and again, the European who submitted himself to the bites of Anopheles which were infected 48 hours previously in Rome, still occasionally gets fever (Mr.,Warren, assistant in the London Tropical School who had an attack while I was studying there). Of oils and paints to keep off the mosquito there are many, amongst others I can state from personal experiment that citronella oil kills two species of Anopheles at least, within 30 minutes, and if renewed about every three hours upon exposed surfaces, it effectually keeps them away. Anti-mosquito measures generally speaking consist in: I. Closing all ponds ; 2. Draining all swamps; 3. Covering all necessary water ; 4. Kerosining all large stagnant areas of water; 5. Clearing the banks of all slow-flowing streams and drains, and to the above I would add from my own experience the felling of secondry jungle, and the cutting of Lallang in the vicinty of houses. In connection with malaria it must not be supposed that a rigor (shivering fit) a hot stage, and a heavy sweat, comprise the whole of the disease, as it has been definitely proved that malarial dysentry, and diarrhcea occur frequently in the tropics, and that the whole question as to what symptoms malaria shows is depen- dent upon the particular organ or part of the body in which sporulation of the _ parasite occurs, should sporulation take place in the brain, convulsions and coma | will be present, in the lungs a form of pneumonia, in the intestines a form of dy- sentry, etc. Malaria is not the simple kindly disposed disease which planters frequently imagine. DyYSENTRY.—I do not intend to deal exhaustively with this question, but I wish to impress the fact that I believe the vast majority of dysentry cases, as seen amongst coolies, have their origin either in malaria, or are of a bacillary nature and highly infectious, the impossibility of separating the two forms, from a layman’s point of view, render a general rule necessary, that rule is: Segregate all dysentry cases. Bilharziosis, when it affects the rectum produces symptoms similar to dysentry ; it is known, but uncommon here. If the health of an estate is a matter of any importance, each dysentry case should be looked upon as if it were cholera, and isolated immediately on its appearance. As a routine treatment a dose of castor-oil, with say 20 drops of chlorodyne, is the safest medicine to start on, and on arrival in hospital 1 ama believer in enemata of various drugs according to the predominating symptoms. DIARRHOEA.—Diarrhoea causes a large mortality and invaliding rate amongst coolies. I consider it to be chiefly due to one of four causes: I Mica in their drink- ing water; 2. Eating uncooked rice; 3. Malaria; 4, Ptomaine poisoning, by whic we understand the eating of food which has commenced to decompose. (Quite JUNE 1907. | 403 Miscellaneous. recently I met a coolie homeward bound with a species of ray which was quite bad, - and I have no doubt his intention was to share it with his family ; I confiscated the fish and got a conviction against the vendor.) As ptomaine poisoning diarrhoea is difficult of diagnosis, and the protraction of the illness very variable, and as it may be confused with other diseases (which I shall deal with below) I think that these cases ought to be segregated, many of them might be tubercular or typhoidal in nature. The necessity of regular inspect- ions of the food in the estate shop is a fairly obvious duty, and will help to prevent the ptomaine cases if all questionable articles are confiscated and destroyed. ANCHYLOSTOMIASIS.—This disease, of which little is as yet known amorgst laymen, has been of late years so threshed out pathologically, that it is now, to the tropical physician, an open book, writ large, and easy of diagnosis microscopically. This scourge of the West Indian planter at one time, will be one of the most serious diseases to be dealt with in this country, unless prompt precautions are taken with regard to its prevention and cure in such places as it now occurs. The disease in its fully developed stage exhibits the following symptoms: anaemia, swelling, diarrhoea, abdominal pains, muscular pains or pains in the joints, and a lassitude, which may be remarked frequently as the firstsymtom. The disease untreated invariably terminates fatally, but if the treatment be applied in time it is not very difficult to deal with, and the patient usually recovers. Itis due to the action of a minute worm which lives in the upper part of the small intestine and sucks blood from the patient, eventually causing a deep anaemia or wateriness of the blood, which is followed by the symptoms enumerated above. The gravity of the disease is proportional to the number of worms present in the intestine. The parasite can enter the system either by the mouth in drinking water, or by the skin, and it works havoc amongst coolies in infected areas. The worm can live in moist earth for a considerable time, and many authorities believe that it can multiply outside the body. The ova of the worm are voided in large numbers by sufferers from the disease and then undergo development into worms capable of infecting persons through the skin. When the almost total absence of latrine accomodation for coolies is considered, together’ with the habits of the Tamil, and the fact that they work barefooted, the chance of a worm gaining admission into a human being must be regarded as ‘‘rosy.” The treatment, consisting as it does in the administration of a somewhat dangerous drug—namely, thymol—I do not intend to deal with herein, but it may be useful to hospital dressers to remember that the drug is soluble in the following: chloroform, oils, turpentine, alcohol, glycerine and ether (a useful pneumonic for these drugs is cotage), if they be administered to patients when thymol has been exhibited poisoning follows. The prophylaxis of the disease issimple, but extremely difficult—if I may be permitted the bull—simple because it consists in either compelling coolies to wear shoes and gaiters or putties when at work, or in smearing their legs with some stickly substance, before they go to work—in the West Indies the planters, driven to extreme straits, eventually stamped out the disease by insisting upon the coolies stepping into green Stockholm tar before going to work. I believe any oily thick substance will serve the purpose ; the prophylaxis is difficult, because it is obviously a tedious process to prove to the native mind that such simple measures are necessary and effective for the preserva- tion of their health. Latrines and a lines watchman are absolutely necessary to see that sanitary instructions are followed. DEBILITY.—One of the principal headings of disease under which a multitude of diseases are in reality included, it is a serious cause of invaliding and stoppage of work. That there exist cases which are not easily relegated to their proper heading I am, alas, only toready to grant, but that in the majority of instances these 52 vee Miscellaneous. 404 [JONE 1907. cases can be separated Iam equally convinced. Amongst others, the following diseases are, I consider, largely responsible for “ debility” : I. Anchylostomiasis ; 2. Dum-Dum fever (which undoubtedly exists amongst Indian coolies in this country); 3. Worms; 4. Starvation (due to improperly cooked food which cannot be digested): 5. Sprute; 6. Malaria in a vicarious form. Such cases cannot be separated without careful examination and scientific investigation, and the hospital is their proper place. The number of coolies who die annually of ‘‘ debility” is at present much too high in estate hospitals, and to my mind reflects upon the class of dressers employed usually in estate hospitals, and also reflects detrimentally upon the planter, and upon the revenue of the country. ULcEers.—That these cases which cause such an enormous number of hospital birds, and ‘‘slackers” amongst labour forces here, can be dealt with by similar methods to those quoted by me above for Anchylostomiasis, I have no doubt. The cause lies beyond question hidden in a word, wounds ; whether caused by biting flies, the Anchylostoma, sugar-cane leaves, stoney ground, or what not, the original cause of ulcer amongst coolies is, I believe, a wound, and the method of their prevention is quite obvious. The admissions for this disease in Krian district during 1905 amounted to 5,322 in a total labour force of approximately 7,200, and if the average number of days for which each case was in hospital be put at say 10, the total monetary loss to the estates must have been about 14,000. Wuring 1906, 3,617 cases were returned on a labour force of 7,185. DuM-DuM FEVER.—This disease undoubtedly does occur in imported Indians, but that it can arise or ever has arisen de novo in this country, is not certain. As I have already stated it may be confused with Anchylostomiasis, and some other debilitating diseases ; the diagnosis can only be made microscopically, and con- siderable skill is necessary in the prepara tion of the specimen. There isas yet no known cure for the disease. The disease has also been called Kala-Azar. The principal symptoms will be anaemia, swelling, weakness, enlargement of the spleen and liver, and great general debility. The cases must, of course, be sent to hospital, if only to have the diagnosis made, BILHARZIA DISEASE —Endemic in Africa, this disease has happly not invaded this country to any extent. The symptoms affect either the bladder or the rectum, causing in either position a discharge of blood and mucus. It may be confounded with dysentry when affecting the latter. The accurate diagnosis can only be made microscopically and no first aid treatment is likely to be necessary. In the event of severe bladder pain occurring, the general treatment of inflamation of that organ (irrespective of the cause), namely a hot hip bath, and barley water to drink, should be kept in mind. The disease is caused through bad drinking water. WormMs.—Many natives harbour intestinal parasites, the commonest being the round worm, Tape worms occur but rarely in my experience, but of whipworms the same cannot be said. Intestinal worms cause a marked amount of debility and frequently anaemia also. The treatment of the tape worm is frequently a protracted pro- cedure, as the head of the worm is not easy of expulsion, the treatment is ext. of male fern, or thymol, both of which drugs require careful handling. The round worm is expelled by santonin, which drug—althou gh it may cause yellow vision— should occupy in this country a position more akin to that occupied by quinine than it at present holds. Despite the arbitrariness of the statement, I am of opinion that every coolie arrivi“g in poor condition should have an ounce of castor oil on the day of his art j and 6 grains of santonin next morning. The question of the psychological oh) PP i eee J oe 1907.] 405 Miscellaneous. moment for the administration of the drug, I leave to the intelligence of managers or hospital assistants; the ideal method would be to treat the whole batch at once. Whip worms will require injections for their removal, and as they cause no actual invaliding do not cause any material effect upon the work of the estate. Filtration of or boiling of the drinking water is the proper preventive of these diseases. ELEPHANTIASIS, CHYLURIA AND VARICOSE GLANDS.—The cause of all the above diseases which occur, but are not common in this country, is a blood worm. The worm is transmitted by the bite of Culex mosquitoes, so that our anti-malarial measures will help to prevent the diseases. Elephantiasis is diagnosea by the swelling of a part, usually aleg ora foot, the swelling is hard and brawny, the skin usually wrinkled, and very coarse, the disease is usually uni-lateral and the affected part does not pit on pressure. Chyluria, due to the Filaria also, consists in a milkiness of the urine- Varicose glands usually occur in the groin, they are hard and painless. All these diseases can only be diagnosed microscopically in their early stages and have little effect upon health until long established. The majority of cases require the scalpel for their treatment. LEeprRosy.—Unusual amongst coolies who have been medically examined, it is, nevertheless, most important that the symptoms of this disease should receive all possible publicity, in the interest of the public health. Any thickening of the skin, circumscribed, and of acoppery red tinge, should be suspected. Loss of feeling, even tosharp bodies, such as a pin, if it is found in a hardened patch of skin is very suspicious. Thickening of the nerves, for example, an enlarge- ment and hardness of the nerve at the inside of the elbow—‘‘the funny- bone”—should lead one to examine for anaesthetic patches elsewhere. Chronic ulcers of the feet, particularly of the sole of thefoot, are frequently leprous. The physiognomy of a leper is quite distinctive to the trained eye, and when the seared, leonine expression is present, cannot be mistaken. Irregular and usually slight attacks of fever occur early in leprosy, the latter signs, such as the loss of fingers and toes and repulsive ulcerations of the body are, mercifully, seldom seen save in the asylums provided for these unfortunate beings. ABSCESS OF THE LIVER.—-The fever, emaciation and general illness preced- ing the full development of this disease are so variable and progressive, that its diagnosis is hardly a subject for this pamphlet. Early operation is the secret of success, and all that I need mention about it will be a quotation from Sir Patrick Mason’s lectures at the London School of Tropical Medicine : ‘‘ Whenever you find a progressive deterioration of health and vigour occurring, accompanied by some fever and sweats, always suspect liver abscess.” SpruE.—I feel that a précis of sprue is a difficult task. Where tropical diarrhoea ends and sprue begins is not easy of definition, but if I were driven toa descriptive epigram, I would say, ‘‘Sprue is a chronic deterioration of mucous membranes of unknown causation.” The symptoms may be represented by various combinations of or a cons glomeration of the following :—Diarrhoea, sore tongue, ulceration of the mouth, abdominal pains. pain on swallowing, pale stools, gassy stools, loss of weight and energy, shrinkage of the liver. I consider sprue to be common amongst coolies in this country, but the difficulty of accurate diagnosis causes the majority of the cases to be returned as diarrhoea. The treatment, which should be commenced very early, consists in baby- foods and milk. nourishing unseasoned dishes, such as freshly cooked minced chicken, fresh fish, eggs, rusks, and such like. I believe that if this treatment were adopted Miscellaneous. 406 (JUNE on the first appearance of thesymptoms of tropical diarrhoea or sore mouth, that many cases would not progress to the acute disease. I may perhaps be pardoned for having digressed somewhat, and in some instances for having invaded the domain of the manager’s illnesses rather than the coolies—as in the case of the treatment given above—but I submit that on such occasions if I have outlined the proper treatment for the manager, he can easily substitute for what is laid down as his treatment, what should be the treatment for his coolie sick of the same disease. INFECTIOUS DISEASES.—I have already laid down the advisability of isolating cases of dysentry, diarrhoea, anchylostomiasis, and other intestinal diseases, the necessity in infectious cases—strictly such—is absolute, and if it be remembered that in the case of cholera alone, the disease frequently commences as a simple diarrhoea, the expediency is obvious. Of epidemic disease affecting bodies of coolies the principal will, of course, be small-pox, cholera, chicken-pox, influenza, measles, dengue, plague, to a minor extent enteric fever, and amongst the Chinese beri-beri (which is perhaps not directly infectious). The majority of these diseases can be seen coming, and arrangements made for the isolation of the cases direct they occur, the estate should establish quarantine against infected areas in the vicinity, and every endeavour should be made to prevent coolies visiting such infected areas, SMALL-POX.—The incubation of the disease is about 18 days, during this time the patient feels quite well. Fever starts with shivering, and frequently vomiting, children of ten have convulsions, pain in the back is severe. On the third day of fever the eruption appears, in appearance like pimples, and witha shotty, hard feel to the touch. The pimples next suppurate and matter forms. this period marks the com- mencement of the secondary fever, and occurs about the eighth day, the eruption appears on the head and neck first, gradually spreading. The secondary fever is severe, and about the fourteenth day the patient become most offensive, and may be quite unrecognisable. Delay in the appearance of the eruption is a favourable sign. The rash comes out all at once, in contradistinction to chicken-pox which occurs in crops. The infection lasts until all the crusts have fallen. Careful disinfection of the hands, and of all material which has comein contact with the patient is im- perative. Atteudants upon the sick should be chosen from amongst those who have already had the disease, or who have got vaccination marks. Strict qurantine for fourteen days after the death or complete recovery of the last case is necessary. The best form of isolation hospital—and the cheapest—is a shed of ataps, bound to iron supports, the floor should be cemented if possible, and the ‘‘ whole show” burnt when the epidemic is at an end. CHICKEN-POX.—The rash comes out on the first day of the fever, all the symptoms are less severe than small-pox, and the eruption comes out in crops. The feel of the pimples is not so hard as those of small-pox. Suppuration occurs in the pimples just as in small-pox, but the two disease are really unlikely to be contused. PLAGUE.—Perhaps the first remark to be made upon this disease to the lay- man is, that there need not necessarily be any buboes, and indeed the most serious cases show no external sign of the terrible affection; as is now well known the form from which the disease obtained its name was the bubonic form, in which swellings | of the glands in various parts of the body exist (groins, neck, armpits) this form of the disease—given the fact that cases have been occurring in the neighbourhood— is at least easy to suspect, and the extreme depression and very acute fever, lead one to isolate the case promptly, but the case which I wish to put you on your guard against are, the pneumonic and the septiocemic forms. These occur with some JuNE 1907.] 407 Miscellaneous. frequency in all epidemics, and I think that perhaps the safest dictum I can give you as a working and standing order is this, ‘isolate all cases of high fever” which is accompanied by marked depression, or giddiness, or ‘‘constant cough,” and try not to mistake a plague case for a drunken coolie, the symptoms frequently resemble each other, but the severe fever must settle the diagnosis for you. The diagnosis should be confirmed microscopically by Dr. Bell’s method (Hong-Kong). The incubation is laid down at three to eight days, but instances in which infection has occurred from clothing, and after months, have been observed. Initial symptoms are shivering followed by severe fever, headache, vomiting, unsteady gait, depression, enlargement of some of the glands (if of the bubonic type). Little children usually succumb. Plague patients are infectious for about one month after recovery. Rats are known to disseminate plague. Infection may take place through wounds and scratches, and also through the bites of insects, .@.9., rat-fleas, bugs, and perhaps mosquitoes. The excreta and sputum are infective. Attendants upon plague cases should wear shoes. Through disinfection of all clothing (if it be not possible to burn it) is imperative. An anti-rat crusade is advisable early in the epidemic. Quarantine should extend to ten days unless the medical officer relaxes this rule for good reasons. Cyllin is said to be the best disinfectant. Haftkine’s plague serum has been variously reported upon. CHOLERA-—Frequently commences as a simple painless diarrhoea, but may start very suddenly during the night, the diagnosis—in the event of cholera existing in the vicinity—of all cases of diarhoea, must be guarded, and when under such circumstances, such cases occur, isolation, prompt and efficient is strongly to be recommended. The next stage is one of collapse from which many cases never recover, the motions at this period become like rice-water, cramps occur, and no doubt about the diagnosis usually remains, more especially if the disease has been reported from the nearest town or village. The vehicles of infection are water, milk, and contaminated food, and clothing. I found, however, when dealing with the disease in Pahang in the year 1901, that a grave suspicion fell upon the river fish, and whether ‘‘ post hoc” or ‘* propter hoc” the disease certainly abated rapidly when I got the ‘‘kathis” to place the river fish under a “ pantang,” thus preventing their use as food. During the stage of collapse stimulants are administered by the mouth (if retained) and by hypodermic medication, the application of heat, mustard plasters and such like remedies also, Contact with the discharges must be avoided, and disinfection carried out thoroughly if such contact occur. The vomited materials, the urine, and saliva are infective, and of course the motions. The most prompt isolation of all diarrhoea cases in the event of cholera being present in the district is necessary. If possible, change the water supply at once, examine the food supply and milk supply, and destroy all articles of doubtful virtue (except human beings) on the estate or works at once. Vomiting is usually severe in cholera cases and is usually a pale watery fluid. The appearance of a cholera patient is most typical, the hollows round the eyes, the dazed or hunted appearance taken together with loss of voice, coldness of the extremities, a feeble pulse, deep collapse, and the macerated appearance of the hands all lead one rapidly to the correct diagnosis. All wells should be submitted to the permanganate process (see above) which is highly praised, but I personally prefer to rely upon boiling. Corpses should—failing burning—be buried with chloride of lime. Perhaps the best and simplest drugs to administer in the first instance are castor oil, chlorodyne, and brandy (half an ounce of the oil, 25 drops of the chlorodyne, and about one ounce Jung 1907.] 408 Miscetianeous. of brandy). Eucalyptus oil has lately been highly spoken of, I have myself found a strongly carminative mixture containing liq. hydrarg. perchlor, a most useful mixture. Colomel acted well in the Krian epidemic, gr. 1 every hour, but I consider it requires careful watching. MHaffkine’s cholera vaccine should be given a trial, it has been well spoken of. Quarantine infected houses, lines, and towns. The most satisfactory method of dealing with infected houses is of course to burn them ; if impracticable, then disinfect them thoroughly with 1'500 corrosive sublimate. During the Pahang epidemic the D. O. (Mr. Mason) and I burnt every house in which a case occurred which was within two miles of Raub town, and 1 believe that action had much todo with the fact that Raub remained clear. All excreta must be either burnt or buried. Contacts must be also isolated, and they should all be given some acid and mixture thrice daily in order to keep the stomach acid. MEASURES TO BE TAKEN UPON THE OUTBREAK OF CHOLERA, PLAGUE, OR ~ SMALL-pox.—l. Form bearer, burial, and sanitary companies, equip with stretchers, ete., treat all as contacts, their clothes and hands to be carefully rinsed in 1 in 500 corrosive twice daily and after contact. 2. On the discovery of a case, bearer company will remove patient to hospital, medical officer will remain to see the kuchie opened tothe sunlight, and the room either completely limewashed or scrubbed with 1 in 500 corrosive sublimate. 3. When the washing gang are started the names of the contacts should be taken, they should be sent to the contact shed. Frequent roll calls of contacts are essential. 4, During the progress of 2and 3 above, the patient's clothes may be burnt, all his utensils destroyed or boiled. 5. Ifthe disease shows any tendency to spread, tubs of 1 in 500 corrosive, 1 to each 50 coolies must be set up and the clothes of every one in the lines steeped therein for 12 hours. 6. All utensils of all coolies must be boiled. 7. All wells must be closed, anda sound, fresh water supply arranged for (this in the case of cholera only). 8. All coolies must rinse their hands ina solution of 1 in 1,000 corrosive before meals. 9. Change the bathing places if possible. 10. Limewash or corrosive wash all benches in the kuchies. 11. 1n the case of small-pox universal vaccination. 12. In the case of plague, plague vaccination and disinfection us above. DENGUE.—This disease is an exceedingly sudden, and extremely infectious fever, it is marked by severe pain in the bones and joints, a rash usually appears, but in this country is rather fickle in its appearance, in the early stage of the fever it occurs as a simple redness of the general body surface, which is hard to demon- strate on dark skins. The painin the joints and bones is frequently very serious: and the disease has hence acquired the name of “ break-bone” fever. It almost invariably occurs in epidemic form, and rapidly spreads, it may be ‘‘seen coming’ and advances from the neighbouring towns rapidly, when it has once declared itself. | After the primary fever a short interval of calm or freedom from fever occurs, and patients may even feel fit to go to work, but the secondary fever then breaks out, and a rash the true rash of dengue shows up, this commences on the palms and backs of the hands, is best seen on the back of the body to which it quickly spreads. It consists of slightly elevated, circular, reddish brown spots JUNE 1907.} 409 Miscellaneous, about half an inch diameter, which eventually coalesce to form plates of red. Peeling occurs, and may last forsome time (2 to 3 weeks). Isolation of the first cases is advisable, but the disease spreads so rapidly that it were advisable not to expect too much of isolation as a preventive measure in this disease. INFLUENZA.—As the vast majority of us have had personal experience of this disease, I shall merely draw attention to the leading symptoms once more to remind those who have suffered of their miserable time, and toclaim kindness, or at least consideration, for coolies who became affected by it; sneezing, cold in the head with fever, pain in the back, rheumatic pain all over, general miserableness. Quinine and salicylate of soda are useful drugs in the disease, but it must not be trifled with nor neglected, MEASLES.—The rash comes out on the fourth day of fever, it is well defined and the “running at the eyes” usually helps to diagnosis, exposure must be avoided, as pneumonia is a rather frequent complication. Measles, influenza, and dengue are easily confused, but if the planter will look about him he will frequently tind assistance from the fact of certain diseases existing in the vicinity. PHTHISIS.—Consumption is an infectious disease. Consumption is terribly common in this country. The disease is insidious, and occurs in many forms affections of the lungs being perhaps the most common, but the disease when it attacks the intestines is very fatal. The internal organs are susceptible, and I have ample post-mortem proofs of its frequent occurrence herein this situation. Care- ful examination of coolies suffering from chronic cough is most advisable, and the examination should be carried out microscopically in order that no mistake can arise. In the future Government will, I have no doubt, erect consumption sanitaria, but for the present I consider that when a coolie is found to be suffering from this dread disease, that he should be immediately repatriated, as the cheapest and best method of preserving the health of those who must associate with him in his work and on the lines while in this country. HYDROPHOBIA.—A word or two about this shocking disease may not come ‘amiss here. The disease is caused by the contact of the saliva of a rabid animal with a wound on another animal (man included). It usually occurs as the result of the bite of any animal suffering from rabies. The first symptoms of the disease in the dog (which is the commonest domestic animal affected) are: 1. A changein tem- perament; 2. Restlessness. The stages of the disease have been divided as follows :—1, The premonitory or melancholic, 2. Theirritative or maniacal. 3, The paralytic. In the first, as I have stated, the dog’s general behaviour alters, if a lively individual usually, he becomes morose, inclined to snap. and to hide himself, as this stage progresses heis often observed to chew sticks, to eat pieces of stones, etc. He then becomes “mad,” symptoms of choking, spasms, or fits take place, planting, difficulty of breathing, vomiting, and cough occur, he may run away from home, and sometimes they travel great distances ; at this stage the diagnosis is generally easily made. The last stage is paralysis, his jaw drops, he can no longer swallow, his back becomes paralysed, and the unfortunate animal dies, either in a convulsion or quite suddenly. The measures to be taken if one be bitten, -or a wound of the skin come in contact with the saliva of such an animal, are: 1, Apply a tight ligature above the seat of the bite if possible; 2, Burn the bite itself with a hot iron; 3, Apply carbolic acid. The ligation should be retained in position for about three hours. The incubation period from the bite or contact, to the development of hydrophobia is variable, but may be set down at from four ' weeks to sixteen, oY y) a. oe. Miscellaneous. 410 [JUNE 1907. 4 .-, suspected dogs and other animals should be firmly tied up and kept under observation, or they may be killed by shooting them in the head, their spinal cord or a portion of it removed, placed ina bottle containing glycerin, and sent to the nearest laboratory to be examined as to the exact diagnosis. All uncared for animals should be shot for an area of about ten miles round the focus of the disease. In the unfortunate event of one being bitten by an animal doubtfully mad, the patient should be sent to Saigon or one of the Indian Pasteur Institutes, with a piece of the spinal cord of the animal which bit him, for confirmation of the fact of madness, and, if confirmed, for treatment. The reason for taking the cord is that some animals show very rapidly the effect of the poison, and the disease can be with certainty diagnosed by injecting them, and treatment rapidly started. HospiITaLs.—Under the Labour Code which deals practically exclusively with Chinese, sec. 79 lays down ‘‘ That the resident may order an hospital to be built, and a dresser engaged provided not less than fifty labourers be employed.” Under the Indian Immigration Enactment Rules, ‘‘ Hospital accommodation of eight beds for every one hundred is required, they should be under the charge of a resident and qualified apothecary.” The dimensions, floor-space, etc., are all laid down, it will therefore suffice if I express my fixed opinion that the appointment of a qualified resident apothecary is most advisable in every hospital in this country if good work is to be done on estates. I have seen every zlass in charge of the sick I think, and the more I see of the estates which endeavour to economise on their medical department, the more convinced am 1 that itis folly of the most superior brand. I much regret that I have yet to meet the dresser, on $30 to $50 a month, who is dependable for a diag- nosis; returns one can obtain galore, but they wither under the light of day. The differential diagnosis between, say, malarial cachexia and Bright’s disease, and anchylostomiasis (with which you are now I trust familiar) are of the utmost import to: the future of an estate; and again the separation of plague from venereal bubo with fever, small-pox from chicken-pox, typhoid froma simple diarrhoea, and cholera from ptomaine poisoning, and a host of similar cases which may require prompt recognition, must surely prove my point, that the dearerarticle is the cheaper. In my opinion the most important point in dealing with the health of estates and large works is the instant separation of the sick fromthe healthy. No sick coolie should remain one minute in contact with his sound fellows, certainly not one hour, and to leave him one day is criminal. With the able assistance of Mr. Wilkinson—both of us I may mention working under difficulties—I introduced on the Krian Irrigation Works a system of prompt segregation of the sick, with a view to stamping out the infectious dysentery which played havoc amongst the coolies for a time. The method adopted was: At each lines we established a small isolation shed of from four to ten beds, if any coolie complained of dysentery, or diarrhcea he was immediately sent to the shed, the furniture consisted of beds, chamber-pots, blankets, tinned milk, and cups, an attendant had charge, and all motions were kept for inspection by a dresser or the medical officer. The system which was directed against dysentery would work equally well in other cases, and malingerers, diarrhoea, and typhoid cases could be “‘ spotted” with some approach to accuracy. If the system be carried a step farther it becomes applicable to all forms of disease, all that is necessary being a shed with partitions for those who complain of different diseases. Please do not mistake me when I speak of these diagnosis sheds, they are not intended to be expensive hospitals, but rather filters for the hospital, and merely resting places as substitutes Jung 1907. ] 411 Miscellaneous. for the lines in the case of any coolie becoming sick of any disease which is prevalent or dangerous to his fellows, they are very valuable in cases of malingering also. There are, nodoubt, many points which I have missed in this essay, but as I am not yet sufficiently educated in planting to see things from a manager’s point of view, I shall deem it a great favour if any planters who observe the omission of im- portant items from their point of view, will communicate with me direct to Kuala Lumpor, I should be most happy to discuss any matter which concerns the welfare of the coolie in Malaya.—Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits and F. M.S. Correspondence, SUGGESTIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF CEYLON RUBBER. New York, April 12th, 1907. DEAR S1R,—I delivered a lecture on Ceylon a few days ago at the New York Athletic Club before an audience of about eight hundred people, and amongst several gentlemen who came to speak to me afterwards was a Mr. Townsend, President of the Manhattan Rubber Company. This gentleman was very anxious that I should go over his factory with him, which 1 readily agreed to do in caseI might be able to get some information which would be of use to rubber planters in Ceylon. I thought at first of giving youa detailed account of the many interesting things which I saw in this factory, showing the numerous uses to which rubber is put, but it would take up too much space in your valuable paper, and I could not do it justice useless I wrote in extenso, Two things, however, struck me which may either have no bearing at all on the situation in Ceylon or be of great importance. I noticed that the rubber after being cleaned and prepared is kept in a room from which the greater part of the light was carefully excluded, and on making inquiry Mr. Townsend informed me that the light had a deleterious effect on the rubber in that state, something like disintegration or some chemical change of that sort setting in when exposed to the sunlight. Considering the excessive heat from the sun in a tropical climate, it occurred tome thatit might be worth while for Ceylon planters to experiment by keeping the rubber after coagulation and before shipment in a darkened room. (I am speaking without any knowledge atall of how rubber iskept and prepared, as I never had the opportunity while in Ceylon to go over arubber estate in bearing.) Mr. Townsend also informed me that the excessive cleaning of Ceylon _ rubber was, in his opinion, an unnecessary expense, as no matter how clean it might be when it arrived at a factory, it nevertheless had to be cleaned again by machinery, and he told me that such rubber cleaning machines are tound in every rubber factory, and that the rubber from every part of the world went through the process of cleaning betore manufacture. The reason for the above remarks is that Mr. Townsend said that the faults he found with Ceylon rubber were that it contained an excess of resin, and that its textile hardness was not up to that of rubber from other countries. It occurred to me that the exposure of rubber to the strong sunlight of the tropics and the double cleaning which it has to go through (I mean the cleaning in Ceylon and here) might possibly account for the want of textile hardness of which he 53 Correspondence. 412 [JUNE 1907, complains. He thoroughly agreed with meon this point, and considered it worth while for Ceylon planters to make an experimental shipping of rubber which had not been exposed to strong sunlight before being shipped, and had practically no cleaning at all. He would be very glad to receive and report on any sent him, and I should strongly suggest that somebody should take this up. Yours faithfully. WALTER COURTNEY, Ceylon Tea Commissioner, U.S. America. CANKER IN PARA RUBBER TREES. Upcountry, April 27th. DeEaR Sir,—“ A stitch in time saves nine,” and I would sound a note of warning, as recent experience points to the possibility of canker, or bark-disease, being carried from one tree to another by the medium of the tapping-knife, and would suggest that the knife be disinfected after operation on each tree in cankered or suspicious areas. This could be easily done by the tapper carrying a bow-handled can of water in which to cleanse the knife, and within it a smaller can of some disinfecting fluid into which to dip the knife when clean. Happily, bark-disease is not very prevalent yet in our Para rubber trees, and so far it does not seem to have the virulent effect on the vitality of the tree that Cinchona canker had, but it effectually stops tapping operations in the infected bark area for many months, till the under renewal of bark grows thick enough to cut a channelin. And as individual cankered trees may be found on almost any rubber estate, there would seem to be danger of inoculating many healthy trees from these solitary ones. More than that: tapping seems to increase the virulence and spread of the disease over the bark of trees already infected. Some months agoa friend took me to a small isolated group of Para trees which were all more or less suffering from canker. He had been tapping these for some time, and about one inch of excision had been got through on the tapping lines. He had observed that the canker began on one particular tree which had previously been severely bark-damaged by cooly children, and that for some unsuspected reason had spread to the other trees in the group. The tapping had been done in thin parings very carefully with but few cambium injuries, and these only over the warts; but at this time tapping had been stopped a few weeks. In no instance had the canker taken hold at the point of cambium injury. In some cases the canker had spread right up to the tapping line and there stopped short, the bark above it being quite sound and full of latex. In others it had spread down to the renewed bark and there stopped, the bark below the last cut being also quite sound. When we picked off the diseased bark in dry plates or scales it was found that renewal was taking place healthily on the inner or laticiferous bark, through which the disease had not apparently gone. We drew the deduction that the obvious way to treat the cankered area would be to cut a channel right round it and clear of it and down to the laticiferous inner cortex, and treat the enclosed area by excision and disinfectants. I would respectfully invite the Government Mycologist’s criticism of the above and his advice to rubber planters in general on the subject, and ask for information on the following points :— (1) Is the laticiferous or inner bark of the Para tree immune from canker? (It does not seem to be the case with Ceara, for the tapping knife occasionally shows up an infected area, especially near the base of the tree, with the whole of the inner bark down to the cambium brown and disintegrated, under apparently healthy ‘‘ cherry ” or outer bark.) JUNE 1907.) 418 Correspondence. (2) Is it prudent to take off the dried plates or scales and expose the renewal to the air? It seems to proceed faster when they are left on. (83) Are spores generated in the outer bark at this dry stage, or is the period of generation past when the scaling off begins ? (4) The first signs of canker to the lay observer are longitudinal cracks in the bark. Is there any way of detecting its presence before this ? (5) What is the accepted or conjectured cause of bark disease, and what is advised as general treatment for it? Yours faithfully, ALEX CAMERON. CARNAUBA PALM FOR CEYLON. Dear Sir,—The ‘‘Carnauba” tree is very fully described in the Tropical Agriculturist for January, 1906, page 814, and the very many places it grows so well in in South America. I feel sure this plant or !palm would do well in some of the dry and sandy parts of this Island. I shall he much obliged if you can give me any address where I can write to secure the seed of this palm, and any further particulars as to price and how the seed could be brought to Ceylon in a good state of preservation. Iam, dear Sir, Yours faithfully, A. H. THOMAS. Poilakanda, Gampola. [A firm in Colombo is making arrangements for the importation of seed. Otherwise it can only, so far as we know, be obtained in small quantity by exchange between the Botanic Gardens here and those in South America. The palm used to be grown at Hakgala, but did not succeed these.—Ep. ‘7. A.” ] CAMPHOR PROPAGATION FROM SEED. DEAR SiR,—The enclosed letter giving experience in the germinating of Camphor seeds may be interesting to your readers. Yours faithfully, C. DRIEBERG. (Letter referred to.) Colombo, 29th April, 1907. DEAR Mr. DrRIEBERG,—The Camphor seeds you so kindly got me from Japan have done very satisfactorily. Asa start I took about 500 seeds and soaked them for twenty-four hours in water ; when put into water a few seeds sank immediately, but about six hours after nearly all had sunk down. I had a bed made in two sections of sandy loam witha little cowdung mixed. In one section I sowed the seeds loose, as recommended in the Yokohama Nursery Co.’s Catalogue, covering over with earth to a thickness of }” above the plane of the seeds and pressed the surface down with my hands. Inthe other section I made furrows about ?” deep and 6’ apart and place the seeds in threes at a6” pitch. I then covered the furrows and pressed the earth with my hands. A little dry grass was spread over the whole bed. The bed was watered for one week with water mixed with a little cowdung. I watered the bed only once a day. I found that none of the seeds in the first section germinated, i.¢., the one in which I sowed the seedsas directed; but about 380 per Correspondence. 414 (JenE 1907. cent of the seeds in the second section germinated, 7.e. those placed in furrows. And acurious thing I noticed is, that in the majority of cases they have grown in com- pany, %.e., all three seeds, or at least two, placed together have grown. I have an idea that I did not water the seeds sufficiently, February and March having been very hot months. I believe if they are put in little holes like Fig. 1, they would germinate best. My biggest plants are about seven weeks old, and are as in Fig. 3. I have another bed with the bulk of my seeds, but it is not time yet for them to show signs of germinating. Yours sincerely, ERNEST F. VANDORT. Fig. 2. / OY Viry young seedling plant. LEE Devetopment of Camphor plant at Further development of young Camphor plant. 7 weeks, (Drawn from life.) (Drawn from life.) PLANTING OF FRUIT TREES ALONG PUBLIC ROADS. Colombo, 15th April, 1907. Sir,—Mr. Chas. Stouter’s paper read at the last meeting of the Board has — been the means of ventilating a question which has long deserved the serious attention of our local authorities. On my recent visit to India, I was greatly im. pressed by the systematic manner in which the road sides both in the North and South have been planted. In Calcutta City, Polyalthia coffwoides would seem to have been selected as the ideal shade tree. Of straight growth, and perfect symmetry, it forms handsome avenues which, if not as cool as those of the umbra- Correspondence. 415 [Jone 1907. geous Jigasaman, show no traces of the effects of ‘“‘ drip,” resulting from the dense overhanging leaf-canopy of thelatter. Polyalthia is indigenous to Ceylon, and it is surprising that itis not used locally in the same way as in Calcutta; but whether it will prove as suitable here as there remains to be seen, for the way that trees alter their habits of growth uuder different natural conditions is surprising. In the South of India some of the finest avenues are made up of the Tamarind, which xhibit strikingly symmetrical proportions, suggesting artificial trea» ment at the hands of the pruner. Specially good work has been done in some districts in the planting up of fruit and timber trees along country roadsides. In the Mozufferpore district over 200 miles of roadway have been planted at a cost of Re. 1°38 ans. per tree to the Provincial Road Committee, by whom the work was carried out. All the plant were first raised in pots on Resthouse and District Engineers’ premises, and trans- planted when about two years old. The plan adopted is to arrange some four or five hundred pots at the bottom of a trench, about square, and fill in the inter- spaces with earth. By keeping the rims of the pots slightly lower than that of the surrounding land, moisture is easily supplied by means of irrigation from an adjacent well. The chief item of expense is the construction of a gabion, consisting of a plaited bamboo fence 6 feet high, to effectually prevent damage by cattle. Under ordinary circumstances a few preliminary waterings are only necessary to establish the plants, but exceptionally moisture is supplied at later stages by burying earthenware pots, full of water, in close proximity to the plant, to act as reservoirs. Among fruits are to be found the Mango, Bael, and Jak ; among timber trees Mahogany, Dalbergia and ‘Toon. The usual distance apart is 30 feet. It has been found desirable to plant up at least one mile with the same tree. This arrangement is perhaps more conveninent for purposes of leasing. No particulars under this latter head are available, but the returns are said to be substantial. It is to be hoped that the suggested local experiment will be undertaken before long, and that results will warrant the undertaking of preparations similar to those detailed above. The trial might also test the relative advantages of direct expenditure as well as Mr. Stouter’s contract system. Yours truly, C. DRIEBERG, PASPALUM GRASS FOR COCONUT PLANTATIONS. Fiji, March 11. DEAR Sir,—I shall be glad to know if it has ever come to your knowledge that Paspalum dilatatursa isa bad grass to plant in a coconut plantation. One planter here tells me itis bad. ‘‘ Sensitive plant” makes splendid food for cattle, and is very good for the nuts, but the labour cannot work in it without being supplied with boots, and that is a heavy item. I shall be glad of your advice. Yours, H. H. THIELE, [In Ceylon the grass does not succeed below 8,000 feet, which is too high for coconuts. We cannot therefore speak from any experience.—ED., ‘‘ 7. A.”] DURABILITY OF SATIN WOOD. Jaffna, 29th April, 1907. DEAR Str.—The Assistant Archaelogical Commissioner gave me part of a ‘door frame which he found in a cave near Mihintale, and which he estimates to be a least 1,000 years old. The wood is satin wood, and is a splendid example of the a ike i | Jone 1907.] 416 Correspondence. durability of that wood. White ants and other insects have done their utmost to destroy the wood, but with very little success. I think I may well ask, what other. wood in the world would stand the test of centuries and the ravages of white ants ? I enclose Mr. Still’s note as to whece he discovered it. Yours faithfully, G. D. TEMPLER. “Part of the lintel of a door frame found in acave on Rajagirigala near Mihintale in the N.C. P. The brickwork in which it was embedded was of the old type of construction used prior to the Polonnaruwan period. I should estimate the age of the wood at not less than 1,000 years and quite possibly several centuries more.”—J. STILL. A SUGGESTION. Sir,—I should be obliged if you could see your way to a slight topographical alteration which will make your monthly table of Contents more readily accessible (as to the matter concerned) to the Reader. I enclose a page from your number of February, 1907, to show how much more easily index or page figures are read from the accurately columned left than from the skirmishing right. P Original Intermittently dotted space 4? inches. Page. paging. Camphor Kee sie are ane Se etal aOR, Proposed paging. 62 Camphor oil. 104 Importation of Beneficial Insects from one Country to Another 104 Iam, Sir, yours, CAREFUL READER, Upcountry. [I fail to see any special gain by doing this.—Ep. ‘7. A.”] AN ESSAY ON THE BETEL VINE. ITS CULTIVATION AND DISEASE. Mr. M. H. Mirando, Hon. Secretary of the Negombo Branch Agricultural Society, and Muhandiram of Alut Kuru Korale North, has offered a gold medal through the Parent Society for the best essay in English, Sinhalese or Tamil, dealing with the cultivation of the betel vine—soil, planting, manuring pests and diseases—their prevention and cure—with a view to obtaining the experience of cultivators and others conversant with the subject. The Secretary, Ceylon Agricul- tural Society, is prepared to receive essays till the end of June. It is expected that the Government Mycologist will shortly issue a leaflet dealing with the subject of betel disease, and the exhaustive information which it is hoped to get together through this competition will probably prove of value in the preparation of the leaflet. In view of the great risks to which so remunerative an industry as betel cultivation is exposed, and the heavy loss occasioned by the disease or diseases affecting the vine, the offer made by Mr. Mirando is one which the Society is only too glad to accept in the interests of the numerous small cultivators who make a living out of betel growing, and it is to be hoped that with the assistance of the liberal donor of the prize and the technical advice of the Government expert in plant diseases, it will be found possible to carry on the cultivation with less uncertain prospects than at present. Cireular No. 1,756. OFFICE OF THE CEYLON AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, CoLomBo, JUNE 15, 1907. Importation of Vegetable Seeds. STR, I HAVE the honour to inform you that I propose to indent for a consignment of the Vegetable Seeds named overleaf for North-Hast Monsoon planting in October. 2. You are requested to note the number of packets of each you desire to have, on the annexed form, and return it to me before July 15. 3. No order reaching me after July 15 will receive attention. 4. It will be a great convenience if you could see your way to remit value of seeds with order; if not, they will be forwarded by V. P. Post, which will cost an additional 15 cents in postal commission. I am, Sir, Your obedient Servant, C. DRIEBERG, Secretary. To the SECRETARY, Ceylon Agricultural Society. PLEASE order for me the Seeds noted below, for which I enclose a remittance of Ks. Kinp oF SEED Number Kryp or SEED Number Gislueel0 cents paepacket) | pacrod (Value, 10 cents per packet) nee Artichoke ae Endive Asparagus 2 Fennel Beans (Dwarf French) a Kohl Rabi (Knol Kobl) Beet ms Leek Borecole as Lettuce (Cos) oF Broccoli cal Lettuce (Cabbage) | Brussels Sprouts ial Onion eal Cabbage 3 Parsley ; Cabbage (Savoy) ee Parsnip | Capsicum 4 Radish Cardoon a Rhubarb Carrot - Salsity Cauliflower me Spinach Celery sig Tomato Chili Turnip Cucumber (ridge) - Vegetable Marrow Cress Total number of packets .. at 10 cents each = Rs. June, 1907, Signature : <1" ~ i v" * $ y & ) = ' “ *% “ ¥ ’ . . ~ ‘ 7 . 2 2 F : Fi - , * 7 + = ‘ . w ~ * . - - ' Z 7 re : ’ a: . : a ’ : ‘ aug a mn CUP eS Ie te Se Tet eee bet es